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1,200 | Emsworth | Emsworth is a large village in England, situated on the south coast on the Hampshire side of the border between Hampshire and West Sussex. The town lies at the north end of an arm of Chichester Harbour, a large but shallow inlet of the English Channel. Emsworth's name came from Anglo Saxon Æmeles worþ = "a man called Æmele's enclosure". Emsworth has a population of approximately 10,000 people. In the 19th century Emsworth had as many as 30 pubs and beer houses, probably to do with the fact that Emsworth was a fishing village. Today, only nine remain, and this number may have decreased due to the Emsworth fishing and oyster trade dying down, or to the consolidation of the pub trade in the 1990s and 2000s. Emsworth's once famous oyster industry went into decline in the early years of the 20th century. Recently, Emsworth's last remaining oyster boat The Terror was restored and is now sailing again. The Harbour is now used almost exclusively for recreational sailing, there are two predominant clubs in the area, but in the past was the setting for Emsworth's oyster farming industry. In some places the old oyster-beds can still be seen at low tide. The town has a basin for small yachts and a few fishing boats opposite the millpond, an artificial lake which fills at high tide can be emptied through a sluice at low tide. The River Ems, which is named after the town (not, as often believed, the town named after the river) also flows into the Slipper millpond, and although the mill is no longer in use it now houses a number of offices and an art gallery. The town is part of the Havant constituency, which has for many years been a safe Conservative seat. The current Member of Parliament is David Willetts MP. Since 2001, Emsworth has held an annual Emsworth Food Festival in September. Run entirely by unpaid volunteers this is now the largest event of its type in the UK with 55,000 visitors in 2007. The Emsworth Food Festival is a community event involving local schools, businesses and community organisations. It is usually held in the town centre. However; in 2008 the Food Festival was cancelled due to the numerous complaints of disruption for the villagers in the immediate proximity; many villagers believe that the Festival has outgrown the village. Emsworth railway station is on the West Coastway Line. Adjacent to Emsworth is Thorney Island in West Sussex. The Island is first mentioned in the Domesday Book (1086) when it was called Thornei and came under the church at Bosham. Up until 1870 the Island could only be reached by boat by a causeway called the wadeway. In 1870, the foundations of the road were laid and the Island permanently linked to the mainland. The Island became an airfield by accident in 1933 when a Fury aircraft from No 1 squadron crashed on the Island, and the investigation team suggested that this would be a good site for an airfield. The site of the crash is marked by a plaque behind the commanding officer’s house. Construction work began in 1935 and the station opened in 1938, later being visited by the king. The RAF used the station until 1976 when it was closed. The Vietnamese Boat people were the next inhabitants in 1980-1. At the end of 1981 the Army board directed the redeployment of an FH70 Regiment from BAOR to the UK to be effected in August 1984. The station was refurbished at a cost of some £14 million and was finally completed in November 1984 and from 1989 has been home to 47th Regiment Royal Artillery. Gallery External links Emsworth Village Online Emsworth Museum The Emsworth Heritage Project The Emsworth Memorial trail The Brook Meadow Conservation group The Friends of Nore Barn Woods Emsworth Community Association Emsworth Memorial Trail 47th Regiment Royal Artillery | Emsworth |@lemmatized emsworth:20 large:3 village:4 england:1 situate:1 south:1 coast:1 hampshire:2 side:1 border:1 west:3 sussex:2 town:6 lie:1 north:1 end:2 arm:1 chichester:1 harbour:2 shallow:1 inlet:1 english:1 channel:1 name:3 come:2 anglo:1 saxon:1 æmeles:1 worþ:1 man:1 call:3 æmele:1 enclosure:1 population:1 approximately:1 people:2 century:2 many:3 pub:2 beer:1 house:3 probably:1 fact:1 fishing:3 today:1 nine:1 remain:2 number:2 may:1 decrease:1 due:2 oyster:5 trade:2 die:1 consolidation:1 famous:1 industry:2 go:1 decline:1 early:1 year:2 recently:1 last:1 boat:4 terror:1 restore:1 sail:1 use:3 almost:1 exclusively:1 recreational:1 sailing:1 two:1 predominant:1 club:1 area:1 past:1 setting:1 farm:1 place:1 old:1 bed:1 still:1 see:1 low:2 tide:3 basin:1 small:1 yacht:1 opposite:1 millpond:2 artificial:1 lake:1 fill:1 high:1 empty:1 sluice:1 river:2 ems:1 often:1 believe:2 also:1 flow:1 slipper:1 although:1 mill:1 longer:1 office:1 art:1 gallery:2 part:1 havant:1 constituency:1 safe:1 conservative:1 seat:1 current:1 member:1 parliament:1 david:1 willetts:1 mp:1 since:1 hold:2 annual:1 food:3 festival:4 september:1 run:1 entirely:1 unpaid:1 volunteer:1 event:2 type:1 uk:2 visitor:1 community:3 involve:1 local:1 school:1 business:1 organisation:1 usually:1 centre:1 however:1 cancel:1 numerous:1 complaint:1 disruption:1 villager:2 immediate:1 proximity:1 outgrow:1 railway:1 station:4 coastway:1 line:1 adjacent:1 thorney:1 island:6 first:1 mention:1 domesday:1 book:1 thornei:1 church:1 bosham:1 could:1 reach:1 causeway:1 wadeway:1 foundation:1 road:1 lay:1 permanently:1 link:2 mainland:1 become:1 airfield:2 accident:1 fury:1 aircraft:1 squadron:1 crash:2 investigation:1 team:1 suggest:1 would:1 good:1 site:2 mark:1 plaque:1 behind:1 commanding:1 officer:1 construction:1 work:1 begin:1 open:1 later:1 visit:1 king:1 raf:1 close:1 vietnamese:1 next:1 inhabitant:1 army:1 board:1 direct:1 redeployment:1 regiment:3 baor:1 effect:1 august:1 refurbish:1 cost:1 million:1 finally:1 complete:1 november:1 home:1 royal:2 artillery:2 external:1 online:1 museum:1 heritage:1 project:1 memorial:2 trail:2 brook:1 meadow:1 conservation:1 group:1 friend:1 nore:1 barn:1 wood:1 association:1 |@bigram anglo_saxon:1 almost_exclusively:1 domesday_book:1 commanding_officer:1 external_link:1 |
1,201 | Carcinogen | The hazard symbol for carcinogenic chemicals in the Globally Harmonized System. The term carcinogen refers to any substance, radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of cancer or in the increase of its propagation. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is attributed to the radiation, for example gamma rays and alpha particles, which they emit. Common examples of carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, and tobacco smoke. Cancer is a disease where damaged cells of the patient's body do not undergo programmed cell death, but their growth is no longer controlled and their metabolism is altered. Carcinogens may increase the risk of getting cancer by altering cellular metabolism or damaging DNA directly in cells, which interferes with biological processes, and induces the uncontrolled, malignant division, ultimately leading to the formation of tumors. Usually DNA damage, if too severe to repair, leads to programmed cell death, but if the programmed cell death pathway is damaged, then the cell cannot prevent itself from becoming a cancer cell. There are many natural carcinogens. Aflatoxin B1, which is produced by the fungus Aspergillus flavus growing on stored grains, nuts and peanut butter, is an example of a potent, naturally-occurring microbial carcinogen. Certain viruses such as Hepatitis B and human papilloma viruses have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals is Rous sarcoma virus, discovered in 1910 by Peyton Rous. Benzene, kepone, EDB, asbestos, and the waste rock of oil shale mining have all been classified as carcinogenic. As far back as the 1930s, industrial smoke and tobacco smoke were identified as sources of dozens of carcinogens, including benzo[a]pyrene, tobacco-specific nitrosamines such as nitrosonornicotine, and reactive aldehydes such as formaldehyde—which is also a hazard in embalming and making plastics. Vinyl chloride, from which PVC is manufactured, is a carcinogen and thus a hazard in PVC production. Co-carcinogens are chemicals that do not necessarily cause cancer on their own, but promote the activity of other carcinogens in causing cancer. After the carcinogen enters the body, the body makes an attempt to eliminate it through a process called biotransformation. The purpose of these reactions is to make the carcinogen more water-soluble so that it can be removed from the body. But these reactions can also convert a less toxic carcinogen into a more toxic one. DNA is nucleophilic, therefore soluble carbon electrophiles are carcinogenic, because DNA attacks them. For example, some alkenes are toxicated by human enzymes to produce an electrophilic epoxide. DNA attacks the epoxide, and is bound permanently to it. This is the mechanism behind the carcinogenity of benzo[a]pyrene in tobacco smoke, other aromatics, aflatoxin and mustard gas. Radiation CERCLA identifies all radionuclides as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, or neutron and the radioactive strength), its consequent capacity to cause ionization in tissues, and the magnitude of radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard. Carcinogenity of radiation depends of the type of radiation, type of exposure and penetration. For example, alpha radiation has low penetration and is not a hazard outside the body, but are carcinogenic when inhaled or ingested. For example, Thorotrast, a (incidentally-radioactive) suspension previously used as a contrast medium in x-ray diagnostics, is a potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various organs and persistent emission of alpha particles. Marie Curie, one of the pioneers of radioactivity, died of cancer caused by radiation exposure during her experiments. Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are in fact carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on the electromagnetic spectrum are generally not, including radio waves, microwave radiation, infrared radiation and visible light. Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight), x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses. Several published studies suggest a link between exposure to light at night and risk of breast cancer, due to suppression of the normal nocturnal production of melatonin. In 1978 Cohen et al. proposed that reduced production of the hormone melatonin might increase the risk of breast cancer and citing "environmental lighting" as a possible causal factor. Cohen M, Lippman M, Chabner B. Role of pineal gland in aetiology and treatment of breast cancer. Lancet 1978;2:14-16. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute (NCI) and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences have concluded a study that suggests that artificial light during the night can be a factor for breast cancer. The Independent Avoid breast cancer. Sleep in the dark... A good review of current knowledge of the health consequences of exposure to artificial light at night and an explanation of the causal mechanisms has been published in the Journal of Pineal Research in 2007. Navara KJ, Nelson RJ (2007) The dark side of light light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences. J. Pineal Res. 2007; 43:215–224 Substances or foods irradiated with electrons or electromagnetic radiation (such as microwave, X-ray or gamma) are not carcinogenic. No "radiation" remains, just like no light remains in room after you turn out the light. (In contrast, non-electromagnetic neutron radiation produced inside nuclear reactors can produce secondary radiation by making bombarded substances radioactive.) In other words, there is no possibility of getting cancer if the food is consumed. Carcinogens in prepared food Cooking food at high temperatures, for example grilling or barbecuing meats, can lead to the formation of minute quantities of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarette smoke (i.e., benzo[a]pyrene). Wei Zheng, Deborah R Gustafson, Rashmi Sinha, James R Cerhan, et al. "Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer." Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Oxford: Nov 18, 1998.Vol. 90, Iss. 22; pg. 1724, 6 pgs. Charring of food resembles coking and tobacco pyrolysis, and produces similar carcinogens. There are several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, which are converted by human enzymes into epoxides, which attach permanently to DNA. Pre-cooking meats in a microwave oven for 2–3 minutes before grilling shortens the time on the hot pan, and removes heterocyclic amine (HCA) precursors, which can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens. National Cancer Institute, 2004 analysis and recommendations Reports from the Food Standards Agency have found that the known animal carcinogen acrylamide is generated in fried or overheated carbohydrate foods (such as french fries and potato chips). Studies are underway at the FDA and European regulatory agencies to assess its potential risk to humans. The charred residue on barbecued meats has been identified as a carcinogen, along with many other tars. Casein, a milk protein, may also be a carcinogen as it is linked to the promotion of cancer and other diseases which was discovered in the 1980s by nutrition and health researcher, Dr. T. Colin Campbell, author of The China Study. Casein is often listed as sodium caseinate, calcium caseinate or milk protein. These are often found in energy bars, drinks as well as packaged goods. Nevertheless, the fact that the food contains minute quantities does not necessarily mean that there is a significant hazard, although eliminating exposure may decrease ones odds of getting cancer, the gastrointestinal tract sheds its outer layer continuously to protect itself from carcinomas, and has a high activity of detoxifying enzymes. Carcinogens in cigarettes Tobacco smoke contains over 4000 chemical compounds, many of which are carcinogenic or otherwise toxic. http://quitsmoking.about.com/cs/nicotineinhaler/g/carbonmonoxide.htm Circadian disruption "Shiftwork that involves circadian disruption" was listed, in 2007, as a probable carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. (IARC Press release No. 180). Multiple studies have documented a link between night shift work and the increased incidence of breast cancer. Schernhammer E, Schulmeister K. Melatonin and cancer risk: does light at night compromise physiologic cancer protection by lowering serum melatonin levels? Br J Cancer 2004;90:941–943. Hansen J. Increased breast cancer risk among women who work predominantly at night. Epidemiology 2001; 12:74–77. Hansen J. Light at night, shiftwork, and breast cancer risk.J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93:1513–1515. Schernhammer E, Laden F, Speizer FE et al. Rotating night shifts and risk of breast cancer in women participating in the nurses' health study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93:1563–1568. Circadian disruption by exposure to light at night suppresses the production of the hormone melatonin which leads to reduction in cellular immune defense and surveillance necessary for protection from development of cancers. Melatonin also seems to have a direct protective effect against cancer possibly in part because of its strong anti oxidant properties. Navara KJ, Nelson RJ (2007) The dark side of light light at night: physiological, epidemiological, and ecological consequences. J. Pineal Res. 2007; 43:215–224 Mechanisms of carcinogenicity Carcinogens can be classified as genotoxic or nongenotoxic. Genotoxins cause irreversible genetic damage or mutations by binding to DNA. Genotoxins include chemical agents like N-nitroso-N-methylurea (MNU) or non-chemical agents such as ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation. Certain viruses can also act as carcinogens by interacting with DNA. Nongenotoxins do not directly affect DNA but act in other ways to promote growth. These include hormones and some organic compounds. Classification of carcinogens + Approximate equivalencesbetween classification schemes IARC GHS NTP ACGIH EU Group 1 Cat. 1A Known A1 Cat. 1 Group 2A Cat. 1B Reasonablysuspected A2 Cat. 2 Group 2B Cat. 2 A3 Cat. 3 Group 3 A4 Group 4 A5 International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is an intergovernmental agency established in 1965, which forms part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations. It is based in Lyon, France. Since 1971 it has published a series of Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans IARC Monographs that have been highly influential in the classification of possible carcinogens. Group 1: the agent (mixture) is definitely carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans. Group 2A: the agent (mixture) is probably carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans. Group 2B: the agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans. Group 3: the agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. Group 4: the agent (mixture) is probably not carcinogenic to humans. Globally Harmonized System The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is a United Nations initiative to attempt to harmonize the different systems systems of assessing chemical risk which currently exist (as of March 2009) around the world. It classifies carcinogens into two categories, of which the first may be divided again into subcategories if so desired by the competent regulatory authority: Category 1: known or presumed to have carcinogenic potential for humans Category 1A: the assessment is based primarily on human evidence Category 1B: the assessment is based primarily on animal evidence Category 2: suspected human carcinogens U.S. National Toxicology Program The National Toxicology Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services is mandated to produce a biennial Report on Carcinogens. Section 301(b)(4) of the Public Health Service Act, as amended by Section 262, Pub. L. 95–622. As of March 2009, the latest edition was the 11th report (2005). Report on Carcinogens, Eleventh Edition; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program (2005). It classifies carcinogens into two groups: Known to be a human carcinogen Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) is a private organization best known for its publication of threshold limit values (TLVs) for occupational exposure and monographs on workplace chemical hazards. It assesses carcinogenicity as part of wider assessment of the occupational hazards of chemicals. Group A1: Confirmed human carcinogen Group A2: Suspected human carcinogen Group A3: Confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans Group A4: Not classifiable as a human carcinogen Group A5: Not suspected as a human carcinogen European Union The European Union classification of carcinogens is contained in the Dangerous Substances Directive and the Dangerous Preparations Directive. It consists of three categories: Category 1: Substances known to be carcinogenic to man Category 2: Substances which should be regarded as if they are carcinogenic to man Category 3: Substances which cause concern for man owing to possible carcinogenic effects but in respect of which the available information is not adequate for making a satisfactory assessment This assessment scheme is being phased out in favor of the GHS scheme (see above), to which it is very close in category definitions. Procarcinogen A procarcinogen is a precursor to a carcinogen. One example is nitrites when taken in by the diet. They are not carcinogenic themselves, but turn into nitrosamines in the body, which are carcinogenic. Web definitions for Procarcinogen Common carcinogens Occupational carcinogens Occupational carcinogens are agents that pose a risk of cancer in several specific work-locations: Carcinogen Associated cancer sites or types Occupational uses or sources Arsenic and its compounds Lung Skin Hemangiosarcoma Smelting byproduct Component of: Alloys Electrical and semiconductor devices Medications (e.g. melarsoprol) Herbicides Fungicides Animal dips Asbestos Lungs Mesothelioma Gastrointestinal tractNot in use, but still found in: Constructions Roofing papers Floor tiles Fire-resistant textiles Friction linings Benzene Leukemia Hodgkin lymphoma Light fuel oil Former use as solvent and fumigant Printing Lithography Paint Rubber Dry cleaning Adhesives Coatings Detergents Beryllium and its compounds Lung Missile fuel Lightweight alloys Aerospace applications Nuclear reactors Cadmium and its compounds Prostate Yellow pigments Phosphors Solders Batteries Metal paintings and coatings Hexavalent chromium(VI) compounds Lung Paints Pigments Preservatives Ethylene oxide Leukemia Ripening agent for fruits and nuts Rocket propellant Fumigant for foodstuffs and textiles Sterilant for hospital equipment Nickel Nose Lung Nickel plating Ferrous alloys Ceramics Batteries Stainless-steel welding byproduct Radon and its decay products Lung Uranium decay Quarries and mines Cellars and poorly ventilated places Vinyl chloride Hemangiosarcoma Liver Refrigerant Vinyl polymers Adhesive for plastics Former use in pressurized containers Shiftwork that involves circadian disruption Breast Involuntary smoking (Passive smoking) Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking, IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume 83 (2004). Lung Tobacco smoke <font size=1> Unless else specified in boxes, then ref is: Table 6-2 in: 8th edition. Others Gasoline (contains aromatics) Lead and its compounds Alkylating antineoplastic agents (chemotherapy) Ultraviolet radiation from the sun and UV lamps Notes See also Industrial Union Department v. American Petroleum Institute International Agency for Research on Cancer Mutagen Teratogen Warburg hypothesis External links U.S. National Toxicology Program's Report on Carcinogens Recognized Carcinogens American Cancer Society Database of Rodent Carcinogens Comparing Possible Cancer Hazards from Human Exposures to Rodent Carcinogens | Carcinogen |@lemmatized hazard:9 symbol:1 carcinogenic:25 chemical:9 globally:3 harmonized:3 system:5 term:1 carcinogen:47 refers:1 substance:8 radionuclide:1 radiation:21 agent:11 directly:3 involve:3 promotion:2 cancer:40 increase:4 propagation:1 may:5 due:2 ability:1 damage:6 genome:1 disruption:5 cellular:3 metabolic:1 process:3 several:4 radioactive:4 consider:1 activity:3 attribute:1 example:8 gamma:4 ray:4 alpha:4 particle:2 emit:2 common:2 inhale:2 asbestos:3 certain:3 dioxin:1 tobacco:8 smoke:8 disease:2 cell:7 patient:1 body:6 undergo:1 program:6 death:3 growth:2 longer:1 control:1 metabolism:2 alter:2 risk:13 get:3 dna:9 interfere:1 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1,202 | Keno | Keno is a lottery-like or bingo-like gambling game often played at modern casinos, and is also offered as a game in some state lotteries. A traditional live casino keno game uses a circular glass enclosure called a "bubble" containing 80 ping pong-like balls which determine the balldraw result. Each ball is imprinted with a number 1 through 80. During the balldraw, a blower pushes air into the bubble and mixes the balls. A "caller" presses a lever opening a tube, where the balls lift one at a time into a "V" shaped tube called the "rabbit ears". The caller and a "verifier" record each of 20 balls drawn, and the computerized keno system calculates all wagers based on the numbers drawn. Players wager by marking an "X" over the "spot" choices on a blank keno ticket form with 80 numbered selection boxes (1 to 80). After all players successfully place their wagers, the casino draws 20 balls (numbers) at random. Some casinos automatically call the balldraw at preset timed intervals regardless of whether or not players are waiting to place a wager. Each casino sets its own series of pay scale choices called "paytables". The player is paid based on how many numbers drawn match the numbers selected on the ticket and according to the paytable selected with regard to the wager amount. Keno rules . Players will find a wide variation of keno paytables from casino to casino and a large deviation in the house edge set for each of those paytables. Additionally, each casino typically offers many different paytables and specialty keno bets for customers to choose from, each with its own unique house edge. No two casinos' keno paytables are identical. There are several Reno and Las Vegas casinos offering as many as 20 or 30 different paytables from which the player can choose. The house edge ranges from less than 4% Online Keno odds to 66%. Keno payout tables at hundreds of casinos worldwide The typical house edge for non-slot casino games is between 0% and 5% Casino advantages for various games Keno history The word "keno" has French or Latin roots (Fr. quine five winning numbers, L. quini five each), but by all accounts the game originated in China. A spurious legend has it that the invention of the game saved an ancient city in time of war, and its widespread popularity helped raise funds to build the Great Wall. But this is all impossible since the idea of using lotteries to fund a public institution has not become accepted in China before the late 19th century. The Chinese lottery baige piao (白鸽票) is not documented before 1847 when the Portuguese Government of Macao decided to grant a licence to lottery operators. (By the way the Portuguese then called this "white pigeon" lottery simple 'a lotaria chinesa' ("the Chinese lottery"). According to some, results of keno games in great cities were sent to outlying villages and hamlets by carrier pigeon, resulting in its Chinese name baige piao (白鸽票) or "white pigeon tickets", pronounced pak-kop-piu in Cantonese. The Chinese played the game using sheets printed with Chinese characters, often the first 80 characters of the Thousand Character Classic, from which the winning characters were selected. Melanie Yap, Dianne Leong Man. Colour, confusion and concessions, pp.240-241. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?_r=1&res=9D0DE1DC173AE033A25756C0A9649C94699FD7CF Eventually, Chinese immigrants introduced keno to the West when they sailed across the Pacific to help build the American trans-continental railroad in the 19th century Keno History , where the name was Westernized into boc hop bu and puck-apu. Keno odds Keno payouts are based on how many numbers the player choses and how many numbers are "hit", multiplied by the proportion of the player's original wager to the “base rate” of the paytable. Typically, the more numbers a player chooses and the more numbers hit, the greater the payout, although some paytables pay for hitting a lesser number of spots. For example, it is not uncommon to see casinos paying $500 or even $1,000 for a “catch” of 0 out of 20 on a 20 spot ticket with a $5.00 wager. Payouts vary widely from casino to casino. Most casinos allow paytable wagers of between 1 and 20 numbers, but some limit the choice to only 1 through 10, 12 and 15 numbers, or "spots" as keno aficionados call the numbers selected. The probability of a player hitting all 20 numbers on a 20 spot ticket is approximately 1 in 3.5 quintillion (1 in 3,535,316,142,212,180,000 to be exact). Probabilities in keno If every person now alive played one keno game every single second of their lives, there would be about one solid 20 jackpot-winning ticket to date. If all these possible keno tickets were laid end to end, they would span the Milky Way galaxy -- and only one of them would be a winner. Understanding large numbers Even though it is virtually impossible to hit all 20 numbers on a 20 spot ticket, the same player would typically also get paid for hitting “catches” 0, 1, 2, 3, and 7 through 19 out of 20, often with the 17 through 19 catches paying the same as the solid 20 hit. Some of the other paying "catches" on a 20 spot ticket or any other ticket with high "solid catch" odds are in reality very possible to hit: 20 Spots 0 Hits: 1 In 843.380 Or 0.11857057% 20 Spots 1 Hits: 1 In 86.446 Or 1.15678605% 20 Spots 2 Hits: 1 In 20.115 Or 4.97142576% 20 Spots 3 Hits: 1 In 8.009 Or 12.48637168% 20 Spots 4 Hits: 1 In 4.877 Or 20.50318987% 20 Spots 5 Hits: 1 In 4.287 Or 23.32807380% 20 Spots 6 Hits: 1 In 5.258 Or 19.01745147% 20 Spots 7 Hits: 1 In 8.826 Or 11.32954556% 20 Spots 8 Hits: 1 In 20.055 Or 4.98618021% 20 Spots 9 Hits: 1 In 61.420 Or 1.62814048% 20 Spots 10 Hits: 1 In 253.801 Or 0.39401000% 20 Spots 11 Hits: 1 In 1423.822 Or 0.07023351% 20 Spots 12 Hits: 1 In 10968.701 Or 0.00911685% 20 Spots 13 Hits: 1 In 118084.920 Or 0.00084685% 20 Spots 14 Hits: 1 In 1821881.628 Or 0.00005489% 20 Spots 15 Hits: 1 In 41751453.986 Or 0.00000240% 20 Spots 16 Hits: 1 In 1496372110.872 Or 0.00000007% 20 Spots 17 Hits: 1 In 90624035964.712 Or 0.00000000% 20 Spots 18 Hits: 1 In 10512388171906.553 Or 0.00000000% 20 Spots 19 Hits: 1 In 2946096785176811.500 Or 0.00000000% 20 Spots 20 Hits: 1 In 3535316142212173800.000 Or 0.00000000% Modern keno The balldraw occurs at the "keno booth". The balldraw is typically determined by one of four devices: Traditional “Rabbit Ear” blower "AKV": Automated blower in which the balls are encoded, read by a computer, then sent to a computerized keno system for processing Random Number Generator: An electronic number selection device approved by gaming authorities “Hand Cage”: A spinning metal ball cage which rolls the numbers into a slot where they are validated by a person "Keno runners" walk around calling, "keno!" and offer to carry players' wagers to the keno booth for processing. The keno runner is handed the wager payment and the “inside ticket” (keno wager forms filled out by the customer) and takes the wager and ticket to the keno counter for processing. The keno runner returns with an "outside" ticket, which is the official wager receipt. It is incumbent on the player to check the ticket for errors before the game balldraw is drawn. Any errors not corrected before the balldraw begins are not normally rectified and the "outside" ticket receipt governs in any disputes. In modern keno, players are offered the option of playing multi-race keno, which books a keno ticket for a number of sequential keno races up to 1000. The races must always start on the next sequential race to be drawn. When the sequence of wagered games is finished, the player is able to redeem any winnings within the time constraints specified in the casino's rules booklet. After picking wager numbers, recording them at the keno booth and obtaining the “keno ticket” (official wager receipt), the player watches the balldraw in progress as the spot (number) selections light either on an electronic keno board or on a video monitor. Keno displays are typically found throughout the casino and sometimes even appear on a television channel in casino hotel rooms. Nowadays, after playing keno at a participating casino, keno players can even take their multi-race keno tickets out of the casino to watch the live balldraw or check historical draw results at [www.kenousa.com] anywhere there is a computer and an Internet connection. In the past, a winning ticket needed to be taken to the keno booth for collection immediately after the race results were posted, and drawings usually took place approximately every five or six minutes. In days of old, if the player tried to redeem a winning ticket after the next sequential race began, the ticket was declared expired and no money was paid out even if it won. Nowadays most casinos set their "late pay" window to accommodate the player, however there is great variation in the published late pay window from casino to casino. Tickets played for 21 races or more typically offer one year for collection in most major gaming jurisdictions. Tickets played for under 21 races have a great disparity of late pay rules from casino to casino. Keno players are wise to read the rules published in the host casino's keno paybook to determine when a keno pay will expire and become uncollectible. Gaming authorities require that all pay scales and keno rules be posted in a prominent location in keno areas. An embellishment of keno is “way” keno or “combination” keno. When playing a way or combination keno ticket, the player circles groups of numbers within the spots marked and specifies combinations of groups which combine together to make different "ways". For example, if a player marks four numbers, and circles two groups of two spots each, a combination ticket could be made in which the gambler plays one 4 spot and two 2 spots (2-2). If an additional group of two were added and circled, the player could play ways 1/6, 3/4 and 3/2 (2-2-2), which at $1.00 per way would create a $7.00 per race wager. Serious keno players use great imagination on keno tickets to make complex combinations of groups and ways with varying numbers of spots in each group. There is literally no limit to the way players can circle spots of like or a differing number of spots and in the resulting “ways” they can choose to play on a keno ticket. As alternatives to traditional paytables which offer the selection of 1 to 20 spots, a number of special paytables are available and are often offered as a wager choice. For example, with the Top/Bottom paytable the keno player does not select any spots. Rather, the player is betting that the balldraw top 40 and bottom 40 ball distribution will be uneven. Top/Bottom typically begins paying on a 7/13 or 13/7 ball distribution between the top half (1 to 40) and bottom half (41 to 80) of the keno grid and the payouts increase with each higher balldraw distribution disparity. The same principle is applied for the Left/Right or Odd/Even paytables. Other specialty paytables are Top Only, Bottom Only, Left Only, Right Only, Odd Only, Even Only, Parlay, Exacta, Edge, Square, or eXtra Million, which is proprietary to XpertX Keno Systems. However the traditional 1 though 20 spot pick is by far the most popular variety of live keno. Lottery versions of keno are now used in many National Lotteries or state licensed Lotteries around the world. The games have different formulas depending on the wanted price structure and whether the game is slow (daily or weekly), or if it is a fast game with just minutes between the draws. The drawn numbers are typically published on TV for the slow games and on monitors at the point of sale for the fast games. A video keno machine sometimes has a greater customer edge than a traditional keno game. However, because live keno payouts are configurable at will by the host casino, some live keno paytables house hold percentages match or are even lower those for video keno machines, which almost always have fixed paytables that don't change. Detailed mathematical analysis The version of Keno played in Maryland serves as a case study in the precise calculation of win probabilities and expected return—the latter referring to the result to be realized in the long run from each unit invested. In Maryland, anyone may play keno at any of thousands of establishments that are wired with a television screen and a hot pink machine resembling a cash register. The player uses a pencil to complete a small slip; the attendant feeds the slip to the machine, which generates a computer-printed ticket that is protected from tampering via cryptographic checksum. Games—which are played every four minutes or so—can be viewed over the accompanying television monitor. The computer selects twenty numbers between one and eighty. The payout is calculated based upon how many numbers were chosen and how many were matched. Intriguingly, for the nine-spot and ten-spot games, there is a payout if the player fails to match any numbers—it obviously being an unusual event for none of nine or ten selected numbers to match any of the twenty "dealt," so to speak, from the pool of eighty. The probability that k of the n numbers chosen by the player, i.e., occur in the twenty numbers chosen by the computer can straightforwardly be derived: The number of possible outcomes equals the number of combinations of eighty numbers taken twenty at a time. The number of ways in which k of the n numbers selected by the player occur in the twenty numbers selected (putatively at random) by the central Keno computer is equal to the number of ways in which k numbers can be chosen from a set of n numbers. The number of ways in which the remainder of the numbers do not occur in the twenty numbers selected is given by the number of ways in which 20-k numbers can be chosen from a set of 80-n numbers. Combining the foregoing, one finds that: The payouts for each result can be read from the Maryland keno Web site. For the purposes of our discussion, if the player participates in the n-spot game and ends up matching k of the twenty numbers selected, we will refer to that payout as: The expected payout for the n-spot game can be determined by summing, over all values of i from one to n (from zero to n if the game pays out in the case of zero numbers matched), the product of the payout for that result and the probability of occurrence of that result: which could alternatively be represented as the inner product ("dot product") of the vector of probabilities and the vector of payouts. One finds that the best game for the player is the three-spot game, which realizes an expected return of approximately 62 cents for every dollar invested, or approximately a 38% loss. The seven-spot game ranks close behind, returning just over 60 cents per dollar. Perhaps not surprisingly, despite the astonishingly high payoff for strong performance, the ten-spot game is by far the poorest from the player's perspective. References | Keno |@lemmatized keno:69 lottery:10 like:4 bingo:1 gamble:1 game:30 often:4 play:14 modern:3 casino:26 also:2 offer:7 state:2 traditional:5 live:5 use:6 circular:1 glass:1 enclosure:1 call:7 bubble:2 contain:1 ping:1 pong:1 ball:10 determine:4 balldraw:11 result:10 imprint:1 number:52 blower:3 push:1 air:1 mix:1 caller:2 press:1 lever:1 open:1 tube:2 lift:1 one:11 time:5 v:1 shape:1 rabbit:2 ear:2 verifier:1 record:2 draw:8 computerize:2 system:3 calculate:2 wager:17 base:5 player:34 mark:3 x:1 spot:46 choice:4 blank:1 ticket:28 form:2 numbered:1 selection:4 box:1 successfully:1 place:3 random:3 automatically:1 preset:1 interval:1 regardless:1 whether:2 wait:1 set:5 series:1 pay:15 scale:2 paytables:13 many:8 match:7 select:11 accord:2 paytable:4 regard:1 amount:1 rule:5 find:4 wide:1 variation:2 large:2 deviation:1 house:5 edge:6 additionally:1 typically:8 different:4 specialty:2 bet:2 customer:3 choose:9 unique:1 two:5 identical:1 several:1 reno:1 la:1 vegas:1 casinos:3 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1,203 | Lightworks | Lightworks (formerly OLE Limited) was founded at the end of the 1989, by Paul Bamborough, Nick Pollock and Neil Harris. Using a control interface similar to the industry standard Steenbeck controller they produced a film editing, video editing computer based non-linear editing system. It had a number of (for its time) unique features, such as "sync slip," synchronized varispeed playback with audio scrubbing, synchronized multi-channel playback, and an object-oriented user interface with a dedicated hardware console. Some of these features are still unmatched by other competing systems. The system went on to win Scientific and Technical Academy Awards and Emmy Awards. The development team contained former members of the computer games company Magnetic Scrolls and the Computer Film Company, some of whom went on to join the Sohonet media network development team. Sold to Tektronix in 1994, who were not successful at developing the company's products, and then sold on to the newly formed Lightworks inc in 1999, then owned by Fairlight Japan, and then purchased by Gee Broadcast in 2004. Under new ownership, new product releases have resumed with the release of the Lightworks Touch range and more recently the Alacrity and Softworks ranges for SD & HD editing. Softworks is the latest product from Lightworks offering the Lightworks User Interface and toolset in a Software only package for Laptops or Office workstations. Softworks and Alacrity support mixed formats and resolutions in Real Time and allow a project to be output in different resolutions without re-rendering. Alacrity supports dual outputs while the same facility is available for Softworks users as an Option. Lightworks proven support for Film and Networked operations provides great workflow for larger productions. Lightworks remains the best storytelling editing tool. Integration with Geevs Servers from Gee Broadcast provides a Tapeless Production environment with fast edit while record and edit in place. Recent successful features edited on Lightworks include Evan Almighty, 28 Days, The Departed and the Aviator(both the last two won Academy Awards for best Editing). More recently Atonement, The Good Shepherd(Robert De Nero)and Sunshine were all edited on Lightworks. Films currently in Production on Lightworks include Revolutionary Road(Sam Mendes), Nutcracker and Mama Mia. Lightworks has also been used recently in Music video productions(TV and DVD) where the Multicamera operation has simplified production. Episodic Drama(Soaps), Commercials and Sports highlight editing also form core business areas for Lightworks editors. Disambiguation: Not to be confused with LightWork Design Ltd., a UK company that sells a rendering (computer graphics) API called LightWorks. External links Lightworks Gee Broadcast | Lightworks |@lemmatized lightworks:14 formerly:1 ole:1 limited:1 found:1 end:1 paul:1 bamborough:1 nick:1 pollock:1 neil:1 harris:1 use:2 control:1 interface:3 similar:1 industry:1 standard:1 steenbeck:1 controller:1 produce:1 film:4 editing:2 video:2 edit:9 computer:4 base:1 non:1 linear:1 system:3 number:1 time:2 unique:1 feature:3 sync:1 slip:1 synchronize:2 varispeed:1 playback:2 audio:1 scrubbing:1 multi:1 channel:1 object:1 orient:1 user:3 dedicate:1 hardware:1 console:1 still:1 unmatched:1 compete:1 go:2 win:2 scientific:1 technical:1 academy:2 award:3 emmy:1 development:2 team:2 contain:1 former:1 member:1 game:1 company:4 magnetic:1 scroll:1 join:1 sohonet:1 medium:1 network:1 sell:3 tektronix:1 successful:2 develop:1 product:3 newly:1 form:2 inc:1 fairlight:1 japan:1 purchase:1 gee:3 broadcast:3 new:2 ownership:1 release:2 resume:1 touch:1 range:2 recently:3 alacrity:3 softworks:4 sd:1 hd:1 late:1 offer:1 toolset:1 software:1 package:1 laptop:1 office:1 workstation:1 support:3 mixed:1 format:1 resolution:2 real:1 allow:1 project:1 output:2 different:1 without:1 rendering:2 dual:1 facility:1 available:1 option:1 proven:1 networked:1 operation:2 provide:2 great:1 workflow:1 large:1 production:5 remain:1 best:2 storytelling:1 tool:1 integration:1 geevs:1 server:1 tapeless:1 environment:1 fast:1 record:1 place:1 recent:1 include:2 evan:1 almighty:1 day:1 depart:1 aviator:1 last:1 two:1 atonement:1 good:1 shepherd:1 robert:1 de:1 nero:1 sunshine:1 currently:1 revolutionary:1 road:1 sam:1 mendes:1 nutcracker:1 mama:1 mia:1 also:2 music:1 tv:1 dvd:1 multicamera:1 simplify:1 episodic:1 drama:1 soaps:1 commercial:1 sport:1 highlight:1 core:1 business:1 area:1 editor:1 disambiguation:1 confuse:1 lightwork:1 design:1 ltd:1 uk:1 graphic:1 api:1 call:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram user_interface:2 emmy_award:1 sam_mendes:1 external_link:1 |
1,204 | Bison | Bison is a taxonomic group containing six species of large even-toed ungulates within the subfamily Bovinae. Two of these species still exist: the American plains bison (B. bison bison), and the American wood bison (B. bison athabascae) are subspecies found in North America and the European bison, or wisent (B. bonasus), found in Europe and the Caucasus. Description The American bison and the wisent are the largest terrestrial mammals in North America and Europe. Bison are nomadic grazers and travel in herds, except for the non-dominant bulls, which travel alone or in small groups during most of the year. American bison are known for living in the Great Plains. Both species were hunted close to extinction during the 19th and 20th centuries but have since rebounded, although all bison are still on the endangered species list. Although superficially similar, there are a number of physical and behavioural differences between the American and European bison. The American species has 15 ribs, while the European bison has 14. The American bison has four lumbar vertebrae, while the European has five. The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge by Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (Great Britain), published by C. Knight, 1835 Adult American bison are not as rangy in build, and have shorter legs. Trophy Bowhunting: Plan the Hunt of a Lifetime and Bag One for the Record Books, by Rick Sapp, Edition: illustrated, published by Stackpole Books, 2006, ISBN 0811733157, 9780811733151 American bison tend to graze more, and browse less than their European cousins, due to their necks being set differently. Compared to the American bison, the nose of the European species is set further forward than the forehead when the neck is in a neutral position. The body of the American bison is hairier, though its tail has less hair than that of the European bison. The horns of the European bison point through the plane of their faces, making them more adept at fighting through the interlocking of horns in the same manner as domestic cattle, unlike the American bison which favours charging. American Bison: A Natural History, By Dale F. Lott, Harry W. Greene, ebrary, Inc, Contributor Harry W. Greene, Edition: illustrated, Published by University of California Press, 2003 ISBN 0520240626, 9780520240629 American bison are more easily tamed than their European cousins, and breed with domestic cattle more readily. Zoologist: A Monthly Journal of Natural History, By Edward Newman, James Edmund Harting, Published by J. Van Voorst, 1859 Bison are born without their trademark hump and horns and live for approximately twenty years. They grow to maturity at two to three years, although males continue to grow until about their seventh year. Adult bulls express a high degree of dominance competitiveness during mating season. Male bison fight for females and these fights often result in injury or death. After the bison mate, the herd splits up into smaller herds. Calves are born nine months after mating. The mothers take care of and nurse their young for a year. Male bison grow to as much as to 11.5 feet (3.5m) long, and 6.5 feet (2m) tall at the shoulder and can weigh up to 2200lbs (998 kg). Behavior Wallowing A bison wallowing in dust in Yellowstone National Park.Wallowing is a common behavior of bison. A bison wallow is a shallow depression in the soil, either wet or dry. Bison roll in these depressions, covering themselves with mud or dust. Possible explanations suggested for wallowing behavior include grooming behavior associated with moulting, male-male interaction (typically rutting behavior), social behavior for group cohesion, play behavior, relief from skin irritation due to biting insects, reduction of ectoparasite load (ticks and lice), and thermoregulation. In the process of wallowing bison may become infected by the fatal disease anthrax, which may occur naturally in the soil. Diet Bison have a fairly simple diet. The bison's main food is grass. Bison also eat the low lying shrubbery that is available. In the winter, bison forage in the snow looking for grass. If there is little grass available, bison have to resort to eating the twigs of the shrubs and plants. Predators An American Bison standing its ground against a wolf pack. Due to their large size few predators attack bison. Wolf packs, but not single wolves, could take down a bison. Brown bears will also prey on calves, and have been observed driving off wolves to take over their kills. In Yellowstone Park the strongest and most dominant wolf packs have been observed to take elk and deer; they leave the bison, which is much harder to kill, to the weaker wolf packs. See also Wood Bison African Buffalo Gaur Great bison belt Gallery References | Bison |@lemmatized bison:43 taxonomic:1 group:3 contain:1 six:1 specie:6 large:3 even:1 toed:1 ungulate:1 within:1 subfamily:1 bovinae:1 two:2 still:2 exist:1 american:15 plain:2 b:3 wood:2 athabascae:1 subspecies:1 find:2 north:2 america:2 european:9 wisent:2 bonasus:1 europe:2 caucasus:1 description:1 terrestrial:1 mammal:1 nomadic:1 grazers:1 travel:2 herd:3 except:1 non:1 dominant:2 bull:2 alone:1 small:2 year:5 know:1 living:1 great:3 hunt:2 close:1 extinction:1 century:1 since:1 rebound:1 although:3 endanger:1 list:1 superficially:1 similar:1 number:1 physical:1 behavioural:1 difference:1 rib:1 four:1 lumbar:1 vertebra:1 five:1 penny:1 cyclopædia:1 society:2 diffusion:2 useful:2 knowledge:2 britain:1 publish:4 c:1 knight:1 adult:2 rangy:1 build:1 short:1 leg:1 trophy:1 bowhunting:1 plan:1 lifetime:1 bag:1 one:1 record:1 book:2 rick:1 sapp:1 edition:2 illustrate:2 stackpole:1 isbn:2 tend:1 graze:1 browse:1 less:2 cousin:2 due:3 neck:2 set:2 differently:1 compare:1 nose:1 far:1 forward:1 forehead:1 neutral:1 position:1 body:1 hairy:1 though:1 tail:1 hair:1 horn:3 point:1 plane:1 face:1 make:1 adept:1 fight:3 interlocking:1 manner:1 domestic:2 cattle:2 unlike:1 favour:1 charge:1 natural:2 history:2 dale:1 f:1 lott:1 harry:2 w:2 greene:2 ebrary:1 inc:1 contributor:1 university:1 california:1 press:1 easily:1 tame:1 breed:1 readily:1 zoologist:1 monthly:1 journal:1 edward:1 newman:1 james:1 edmund:1 harting:1 j:1 van:1 voorst:1 bear:3 without:1 trademark:1 hump:1 live:1 approximately:1 twenty:1 grow:3 maturity:1 three:1 male:5 continue:1 seventh:1 express:1 high:1 degree:1 dominance:1 competitiveness:1 mat:2 season:1 female:1 often:1 result:1 injury:1 death:1 mate:1 split:1 calf:2 nine:1 month:1 mother:1 take:4 care:1 nurse:1 young:1 much:2 foot:2 long:1 tall:1 shoulder:1 weigh:1 kg:1 behavior:7 wallow:5 dust:2 yellowstone:2 national:1 park:2 wallowing:1 common:1 shallow:1 depression:2 soil:2 either:1 wet:1 dry:1 roll:1 cover:1 mud:1 possible:1 explanation:1 suggest:1 include:1 groom:1 associate:1 moulting:1 interaction:1 typically:1 rut:1 social:1 cohesion:1 play:1 relief:1 skin:1 irritation:1 bite:1 insect:1 reduction:1 ectoparasite:1 load:1 tick:1 louse:1 thermoregulation:1 process:1 may:2 become:1 infect:1 fatal:1 disease:1 anthrax:1 occur:1 naturally:1 diet:2 fairly:1 simple:1 main:1 food:1 grass:3 also:3 eat:2 low:1 lying:1 shrubbery:1 available:2 winter:1 forage:1 snow:1 look:1 little:1 resort:1 twig:1 shrub:1 plant:1 predator:2 stand:1 ground:1 wolf:6 pack:4 size:1 attack:1 single:1 could:1 brown:1 prey:1 observe:2 drive:1 kill:2 strong:1 elk:1 deer:1 leave:1 hard:1 weak:1 see:1 african:1 buffalo:1 gaur:1 belt:1 gallery:1 reference:1 |@bigram toed_ungulate:1 endanger_specie:1 stackpole_book:1 weigh_kg:1 low_lying:1 |
1,205 | Joey_Ramone | Joey Ramone (May 19, 1951 – April 15, 2001), born as Jeffrey Ross Hyman, was a vocalist and songwriter best known for his work in the punk rock group the Ramones. Joey Ramone's image, voice and tenure as frontman of the Ramones made him famous. http://allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:h9fyxqtgldde~T1 Biography Early life Joey grew up in Forest Hills, Queens in a Jewish family. He and his future bandmates attended Forest Hills High School. During his youth, he was by general accounts something of an outcast and had a dysfunctional family life, which inspired the song "We're A Happy Family." His parents divorced in the early 1960s. His mother, Charlotte Lesher (1926-2007), encouraged an interest in music in both him and his brother Mitchell (a.k.a. Mickey Leigh). He was a fan of The Beatles, BBC News | MUSIC | The musical misfits The Who, and The Stooges among other bands (particularly oldies and the Phil Spector-produced "girl groups"). His hero was Pete Townshend of The Who. He took up drums at 13, playing throughout his teen years. Rock & roll gave the teenaged Joey Ramone an escape from his parents' divorce and he began playing in glam-influenced bands in the early '70s. He co-founded the Ramones in 1974 with friends John Cummings and Douglas Colvin, upon which point all three adopted Ramone as their stage surname. Joey Ramone initially served as the group's drummer. Dee Dee Ramone was the original vocalist. However, Dee Dee proved to be unsuited for the lead vocal position as he shredded his vocal cords after the first few songs recorded, so manager Tommy Erdelyi (who adopted the name Tommy Ramone) suggested Joey switch to vocals and Tommy take over on drums. Ramones Joey was said to be the "heart and soul" of the Ramones, and his favorite songs from their repertoire were often the ballads and love songs. C.J. Ramone called him the "hippie of the group." MyRamones The Ramones were an American rock band often regarded as the first punk rock group. Formed in Forest Hills, Queens, New York, in 1974, all of the band members adopted stage names ending with "Ramone", though none of them were actually related. They performed 2,263 concerts, touring virtually nonstop for 22 years. In 1996, after a tour with the Lollapalooza music festival, the band played their final show and then disbanded. A little more than eight years after the breakup, the band's three founding members - Joey, guitarist Johnny Ramone, and bassist Dee Dee Ramone — were dead. The Ramones were a major influence on the punk rock movement both in the United States and Great Britain, though they achieved only minor commercial success. Their only record with enough U.S. sales to be certified gold was the compilation album Ramones Mania. Recognition of the band's importance built over the years, and they are now regularly represented in many assessments of all-time great rock music, such as the Rolling Stone lists of the 50 Greatest Artists of All Time and 25 Greatest Live Albums of All Time, VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock, and Mojo's 100 Greatest Albums. In 2002, the Ramones were voted the second greatest rock and roll band ever in Spin, trailing only The Beatles. Other projects Joey Ramone was honored with the creation of "Joey Ramone Place" outside the address of CBGB in New York City. In 1985, Joey joined Little Steven Van Zandt's music-industry activist group Artists United Against Apartheid which acted against the Sun City resort in South Africa. Joey and forty-nine other top recording artists, including Bruce Springsteen, U2, Bob Dylan and Run DMC, collaborated on the song "Sun City" in which they pledged they would never perform at the resort. In 1994, Joey appeared on the Helen Love album Love and Glitter, Hot Days and Music singing the track "Punk Boy". Helen Love returned the favor, singing on Joey's song "Mr. Punchy". Hyman co-wrote and recorded the song " Meatball Sandwich" with Youth Gone Mad. For a short time before his death, he took the role of manager and producer for the punk rock group The Independents. Independents band bio His last recording as a vocalist was singing backup vocals on the CD One Nation Under by the Dine Navajo rock group Blackfire. He appeared on two tracks, "What Do You See" and "Lying to Myself". The CD, released in 2002, won "Best Pop/Rock Album of the Year" at the 2002 Native American Music Awards. Blackfire.net Joey also produced the Ronnie Spector album She Talks to Rainbows in 1999. It was critically acclaimed, but did not perform too well with the public and went virtually unnoticed. The title track was previously on The Ramones' last studio album, ¡Adios Amigos!. Death Headstone for Joey Ramone with fan tributesJoey Ramone died of lymphoma at New York-Presbyterian Hospital on April 15, 2001, after suffering from the illness for over seven years. http://www.joeyramone.com/news_08.html This contributed to a fall he had in 2000 that ultimately proved to be fatal. Memorials followed from his fans and musicians he had influenced. He was listening to the song "In A Little While" by U2 when he died. VH1 news This was during U2's Elevation Tour, and from that point on during shows Bono would introduce the song as a tune that was originally about a lovestruck hangover but that Joey turned it into a gospel song. His solo album Don't Worry About Me was released posthumously in 2002, and features the single "What a Wonderful World", a cover of the Louis Armstrong standard. MTV News claimed: "With his trademark rose-colored shades, black leather jacket, shoulder-length hair, ripped jeans and alternately snarling and crooning, hiccoughing vocals, Joey was the iconic godfather of punk." MTV News obituary On November 30, 2003, a block of East 2nd Street in New York City was officially renamed Joey Ramone Place. Officialramones.com It is the block where Hyman once lived with bandmate Dee Dee Ramone, and is near the music club CBGB, where the Ramones got their start. Hyman's birthday is celebrated annually by rock 'n' roll nightclubs, hosted in New York City by his brother and, until recently, his mother. Joey was buried in Hillside Cemetery in Lyndhurst, New Jersey. In the year that Joey died (2001) the Ramones were named as inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, prior to the actual ceremony held early the following year (2002). Vocal style Ramone's vocal style was unorthodox in that he had no formal training in an era where vocal proficiency was arguably the norm for most rock bands. His signature cracks, hiccups, snarls, crooning and youthful voice made his one of punk rock's most recognizable voices. Allmusic.com claims that "Joey Ramone's signature bleat was the voice of punk rock in America." Allmusic.com—Joey Ramone As his vocals matured and deepened through his career, so did the Ramones' songwriting, leaving a notable difference from Joey's initial melodic and callow style—two notable tracks serving as examples are "Somebody Put Something in My Drink" and "Mama's Boy". Discography For Ramones albums, see Ramones discography. Solo Don't Worry About Me – (2002) EP In a Family Way – Sibling Rivalry (1994) Ramones: Leathers from New York – The Ramones and Joey Ramone (solo) (1997) Christmas Spirit...In My House – (2002) Singles "I Got You Babe" - (1982) (A duet with Holly Beth Vincent) "What a Wonderful World" - (2002) Notes and references External links The Official Joey Ramone Website Monte A. Melnick Ramones Tour Manager "On The Road With The Ramones" | Joey_Ramone |@lemmatized joey:26 ramone:22 may:1 april:2 bear:1 jeffrey:1 ross:1 hyman:4 vocalist:3 songwriter:1 best:2 know:1 work:1 punk:8 rock:16 group:8 ramones:19 image:1 voice:4 tenure:1 frontman:1 make:2 famous:1 http:2 allmusic:3 com:5 cg:1 amg:2 dll:1 p:1 sql:1 biography:1 early:4 life:2 grow:1 forest:3 hill:3 queen:2 jewish:1 family:4 future:1 bandmates:1 attended:1 high:1 school:1 youth:2 general:1 account:1 something:2 outcast:1 dysfunctional:1 inspire:1 song:10 happy:1 parent:2 divorce:2 mother:2 charlotte:1 lesher:1 encourage:1 interest:1 music:8 brother:2 mitchell:1 k:1 mickey:1 leigh:1 fan:3 beatles:2 bbc:1 news:4 musical:1 misfit:1 stooge:1 among:1 band:10 particularly:1 oldie:1 phil:1 spector:2 produce:2 girl:1 hero:1 pete:1 townshend:1 take:3 drum:2 play:3 throughout:1 teen:1 year:8 roll:5 give:1 teenaged:1 escape:1 begin:1 glam:1 influenced:1 co:2 found:2 friend:1 john:1 cummings:1 douglas:1 colvin:1 upon:1 point:2 three:2 adopt:3 stage:2 surname:1 initially:1 serve:2 drummer:1 dee:8 original:1 however:1 prove:2 unsuited:1 lead:1 vocal:9 position:1 shred:1 cord:1 first:2 record:3 manager:3 tommy:3 erdelyi:1 name:3 suggest:1 switch:1 say:1 heart:1 soul:1 favorite:1 repertoire:1 often:2 ballad:1 love:4 c:1 j:1 call:1 hippie:1 myramones:1 american:2 regard:1 form:1 new:7 york:6 member:2 end:1 though:2 none:1 actually:1 relate:1 perform:3 concert:1 tour:4 virtually:2 nonstop:1 lollapalooza:1 festival:1 final:1 show:2 disband:1 little:3 eight:1 breakup:1 guitarist:1 johnny:1 bassist:1 dead:1 major:1 influence:2 movement:1 united:1 state:1 great:6 britain:1 achieve:1 minor:1 commercial:1 success:1 enough:1 u:1 sale:1 certify:1 gold:1 compilation:1 album:9 mania:1 recognition:1 importance:1 build:1 regularly:1 represent:1 many:1 assessment:1 time:4 stone:1 list:1 artist:3 live:2 hard:1 mojo:1 vote:1 second:1 greatest:1 ever:1 spin:1 trail:1 project:1 honor:1 creation:1 place:2 outside:1 address:1 cbgb:2 city:5 join:1 steven:1 van:1 zandt:1 industry:1 activist:1 artists:1 unite:1 apartheid:1 act:1 sun:2 resort:2 south:1 africa:1 forty:1 nine:1 top:1 recording:2 include:1 bruce:1 springsteen:1 bob:1 dylan:1 run:1 dmc:1 collaborate:1 pledge:1 would:2 never:1 appear:2 helen:2 glitter:1 hot:1 day:1 sing:3 track:4 boy:2 return:1 favor:1 mr:1 punchy:1 write:1 meatball:1 sandwich:1 go:2 mad:1 short:1 death:2 role:1 producer:1 independent:2 bio:1 last:2 backup:1 cd:2 one:2 nation:1 dine:1 navajo:1 blackfire:2 two:2 see:2 lying:1 release:2 win:1 pop:1 native:1 award:1 net:1 also:1 ronnie:1 talk:1 rainbows:1 critically:1 acclaim:1 well:1 public:1 unnoticed:1 title:1 previously:1 studio:1 adios:1 amigos:1 headstone:1 tributesjoey:1 die:3 lymphoma:1 presbyterian:1 hospital:1 suffer:1 illness:1 seven:1 www:1 joeyramone:1 html:1 contribute:1 fall:1 ultimately:1 fatal:1 memorial:1 follow:1 musician:1 listen:1 elevation:1 bono:1 introduce:1 tune:1 originally:1 lovestruck:1 hangover:1 turn:1 gospel:1 solo:3 worry:2 posthumously:1 feature:1 single:2 wonderful:2 world:2 cover:1 louis:1 armstrong:1 standard:1 mtv:2 claim:2 trademark:1 rise:1 colored:1 shade:1 black:1 leather:2 jacket:1 shoulder:1 length:1 hair:1 rip:1 jean:1 alternately:1 snarl:2 croon:2 hiccough:1 iconic:1 godfather:1 obituary:1 november:1 block:2 east:1 street:1 officially:1 rename:1 officialramones:1 bandmate:1 near:1 club:1 get:2 start:1 birthday:1 celebrate:1 annually:1 n:1 nightclub:1 host:1 recently:1 bury:1 hillside:1 cemetery:1 lyndhurst:1 jersey:1 inductee:1 hall:1 fame:1 prior:1 actual:1 ceremony:1 hold:1 following:1 style:3 unorthodox:1 formal:1 training:1 era:1 proficiency:1 arguably:1 norm:1 signature:2 crack:1 hiccup:1 youthful:1 recognizable:1 bleat:1 america:1 mature:1 deepen:1 career:1 songwriting:1 leave:1 notable:2 difference:1 initial:1 melodic:1 callow:1 example:1 somebody:1 put:1 drink:1 mama:1 discography:2 ep:1 way:1 sibling:1 rivalry:1 christmas:1 spirit:1 house:1 babe:1 duet:1 holly:1 beth:1 vincent:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 monte:1 melnick:1 road:1 |@bigram joey_ramone:12 punk_rock:6 cg_amg:1 amg_dll:1 amg_sql:1 bbc_news:1 phil_spector:1 pete_townshend:1 vocal_cord:1 roll_stone:1 van_zandt:1 bruce_springsteen:1 bob_dylan:1 run_dmc:1 critically_acclaim:1 http_www:1 leather_jacket:1 hall_fame:1 external_link:1 |
1,206 | Kingdom_of_Essex | The Kingdom of Essex (Est Seaxna "East Saxons"), was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy) was founded around 500 AD and covered the territory later occupied by the counties of Essex, Hertfordshire and Middlesex. Extent of the kingdom The kingdom was bounded to the north by the River Stour and Kingdom of East Anglia, to the south by the River Thames and Kent, to the east lay the North Sea and to the west Mercia. The territory included the remains of two provincial Roman capitals Colchester and London. The early kingdom included the land of the Middle Saxons Keightley, A., The History of England, (1840) , later Middlesex, most if not all of Hertfordshire Yorke, B., Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England,(1984) pp47-52 and may at times have included Surrey<ref>John Baker, Cultural Transition in the Chilterns and Essex Region (University of Hertfordshire Press, 2005)</ref>. The modern English county of Essex maintains the historic northern and the southern borders, but only covers the territory east of the River Lee, the other parts being lost to neighbouring Mercia during the 8th Century Yorke, B., Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England,(1984) pp47-52 . At times during the history of the kingdom several sub-kings within Essex appear to have been able to rule simultaneously Yorke, B., Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England,(1984) pp47-52 . History of the kingdom The kingdom of Essex produced relatively few Anglo-Saxon Charters and no version of the Anglo-Saxon chronicle. As a result is regarded as comparatively obscure H Hamerow, Excavations at Mucking, Volume 2: The Anglo-Saxon Settlement (English Heritage Archaeological Report 21, 1993) . Saxon occupation of land that was to form the kingdom had begun by the early 5th century at Mucking and other locations. According to British legend (see: Historia Brittonum) the territory known later as Essex was ceded by the Britons to the Saxons following the infamous Brad y Cyllyll Hirion event which occurred c.460AD during the reign of High-King Vortigern. The kingdom of Essex grew by the absorption of smaller sub-kingdoms Andrew Reynolds, Later Anglo-Saxon England (Tempus, 2002, page 67) drawing on S Bassett (ed) The Origin of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms (Leicester, 1989) . Among these sub-kingdoms were the Rodings - the people of Hrotha , the Pago, Vange and Ginges Yorke, B., Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England,(1984) p54 . The first recorded king, according to the East Saxon King List, was Æscwine to which a date of 527AD is given for the start of his reign. The earliest English record of the kingdom dates to Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, which noted the arrival of Bishop (later Saint) Mellitus in London in 604. After the death of Saebert in AD 616, Mellitus was driven out and the kingdom reverted to paganism. The kingdom reconverted to Christianity under Sigeberht II the Good following a mission by St Cedd who established monasteries at Tilaburg (probably East Tilbury, but possibly West Tilbury) and Ithancester (almost certainly Bradwell-on-Sea). A royal tomb at Prittlewell was discovered and excavated in 2003. Finds included gold foil crosses, suggesting the occupant was Christian. If the occupant was a king, it was probably either Saebert or Sigeberht (murdered 653 AD). It is, however, also possible that the occupant was not royal, but simply a wealthy and powerful individual whose identity has gone unrecorded Blair, I. 2007. Prittlewell Prince. Current Archaeology 207: 8-11 . Despite the comparative obscurity of the kingdom, there were strong connections between Essex and the Kentish kingdom across the river Thames which lead to the marriage of king Sledd to Ricula, sister of the king Aethelbert of Kent. For a brief period in the 8th century the kingdom encompassed the Kentish Kingdom to the South. However, by the mid 8th century much of the kingdom, including London, had fallen to Mercia and the rump of Essex, roughly the modern county, was now subordinate to the same. After the defeat of the Mercian king Beornwulf around 825 AD, the kingdom became a possession of the Wessex king Egbert. Subsequent history The Mercians continued to control parts of Essex and may have supported a pretender to the Essex throne since a Sigeric rex Orientalem Saxonum witnessed a Mercian charter after AD 825 Cyril Hart The Danelaw (The Hambledon Press, 1992, chapter 3) . During the ninth century, Essex was part of a sub-kingdom that included Sussex, Surrey and Kent. Sometime between 878 and 886, the territory was formally ceded by Wessex to the Danelaw kingdom of East Anglia, under the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum. After the reconquest by Edward the Elder. the king's representative in Essex was styled an ealdorman and Essex came to be regarded as a shire. List of Kings of the East Saxons (Essex) The dates, names and achievements, like those of most early rulers in the Heptarchy, remain conjectural. The dynasty claimed descent from Woden via Seaxnēat. The list of kings may omit whole generations. Reign Incumbent Notes 527 to 587 Aescwine ÆSCVVINE CENFVSING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGÆSCVVINE REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM 587 to ante 604 Sledda SLEDDA ÆSCVVINING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSLEDDA REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM ante 604 to 616/7 Saebert SÆBRYHT SLEDDING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSÆBRYHT REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM 616/7 to 617 Sexred SEXRED SÆBRYHTING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSEXRED REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Joint king with Saeward; killed in battle against the West Saxons 616/7 to 617 Saeward SÆVVARD SÆBRYHTING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSÆVVARD REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Joint king with Sexred; killed in battle against the West Saxons 617 to ante c.653 Sigeberht the Little SIGEBRYHT SÆVVARDING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSIGEBRYHT PARVVS REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM c.653 to 660 Sigeberht the Good SIGEBRYHT SÆVVARDING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSIGEBRYHT SANCTVS REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Saint Sigeberht; Saint Sebbi (Feast Day 29 August) 660 to 664 Swithelm SVVIÞELM ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSVVIÞELM REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM 664 to 683 Sighere SIGHERE SIGEBRYHTING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSIGHERE REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Joint-king with Sebbi 664 to c.694 Sebbi SEBBI ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSEBBI REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Joint-king with Sighere; abdicated in favour of his son Sigeheard c.694 to c.709 Sigeheard SIGEHEARD SEBBING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSIGEHEARD REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Joint-king with his brother Swaefred Handbook of British Chronology (CUP, 1996) c.695 to ante c.709 Swaefred(Swaebheard) SVVÆFRED SIGEHEARDING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSVVÆFRED REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Joint-king with his brother Sigeheard Handbook of British Chronology (CUP, 1996) 709 Offa OFFA SIGEHERING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGOFFA REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Abdicated c.709 to 746 Saelred(Swebert) SÆLRED SIGEBRYHTING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSÆLRED REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Probably joint-king with Swaefbert c.715 to 738 Swaefbert SVVÆFBRYHT ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSVVÆFBRYHT REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Probably joint-king with Saelred 746 to 758 Svvithred SVVIÞRED SIGEMVNDING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSVVIÞRED REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM 758 to 798 Sigeric SIGERIC ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSIGERIC REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Abdicated 798 to 812Sigered SIGERED SIGERICING ESTSEAXNA CYNINGSIGERED REX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM 812 to 825 SIGERED DVX SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM Rank reduced by Mercian overlords c.825Mercia defeated by Egbert of Wessex, sub-kingdom of Essex subsumed into Wessex Sigered was the last king of Essex, and he ceded the kingdom to Egbert of Wessex. Spelling of King's Names There are a number of variations of the spelling of the names of the Kings listed above. This was a time when spellings varied widely, even within a document. Amongst these variations are the preference between þ and ð (both "th" - voiced or unvoiced depending on adjacent letters). The character '7' was used as the ampersand '&' in contemporary Anglo-Saxon writings. The era pre-dates the emergence of forms of writing accepted today, notably minuscule, and the letters 'W' and 'U'. Where W was followed by U this was generally rendered as 'VV' (which was also used for 'W' alone). Sources Kings, Rulers and Statesmen, Clive Carpenter, Guinness Superlatives Ltd Rulers and Governments of the World, Vol1, Earliest Times to 1491, Martha Ross'' Notes | Kingdom_of_Essex |@lemmatized kingdom:31 essex:18 est:1 seaxna:1 east:8 saxon:19 one:1 seven:1 traditional:1 call:1 anglo:11 heptarchy:2 found:1 around:2 ad:5 cover:2 territory:5 later:5 occupy:1 county:3 hertfordshire:3 middlesex:2 extent:1 bound:1 north:2 river:4 stour:1 anglia:2 south:2 thames:2 kent:3 lay:1 sea:2 west:4 mercia:3 include:6 remains:1 two:1 provincial:1 roman:1 capital:1 colchester:1 london:3 early:9 land:2 middle:1 keightley:1 history:4 england:6 yorke:4 b:4 king:28 may:3 time:4 surrey:2 ref:2 john:1 baker:1 cultural:1 transition:1 chilterns:1 region:1 university:1 press:2 modern:2 english:3 maintain:1 historic:1 northern:1 southern:1 border:1 lee:1 part:3 lose:1 neighbour:1 century:5 several:1 sub:5 within:2 appear:1 able:1 rule:1 simultaneously:1 produce:1 relatively:1 charter:2 version:1 chronicle:1 result:1 regard:2 comparatively:1 obscure:1 h:1 hamerow:1 excavation:1 muck:1 volume:1 settlement:1 heritage:1 archaeological:1 report:1 occupation:1 form:2 begin:1 mucking:1 location:1 accord:2 british:3 legend:1 see:1 historia:2 brittonum:1 know:1 cede:3 briton:1 follow:3 infamous:1 brad:1 cyllyll:1 hirion:1 event:1 occur:1 c:11 reign:3 high:1 vortigern:1 grow:1 absorption:1 small:1 andrew:1 reynolds:1 tempus:1 page:1 draw:1 bassett:1 ed:1 origin:1 leicester:1 among:1 rodings:1 people:1 hrotha:1 pago:1 vange:1 ginges:1 first:1 record:2 list:4 æscwine:1 date:4 give:1 start:1 bede:1 ecclesiastica:1 gentis:1 anglorum:1 note:3 arrival:1 bishop:1 saint:3 mellitus:2 death:1 saebert:3 drive:1 revert:1 paganism:1 reconvert:1 christianity:1 sigeberht:5 ii:1 good:2 mission:1 st:1 cedd:1 establish:1 monastery:1 tilaburg:1 probably:4 tilbury:2 possibly:1 ithancester:1 almost:1 certainly:1 bradwell:1 royal:2 tomb:1 prittlewell:2 discover:1 excavate:1 find:1 gold:1 foil:1 cross:1 suggest:1 occupant:3 christian:1 either:1 murder:1 however:2 also:2 possible:1 simply:1 wealthy:1 powerful:1 individual:1 whose:1 identity:1 go:1 unrecorded:1 blair:1 prince:1 current:1 archaeology:1 despite:1 comparative:1 obscurity:1 strong:1 connection:1 kentish:2 across:1 lead:1 marriage:1 sledd:1 ricula:1 sister:1 aethelbert:1 brief:1 period:1 encompass:1 mid:1 much:1 fall:1 rump:1 roughly:1 subordinate:1 defeat:2 mercian:3 beornwulf:1 become:1 possession:1 wessex:5 egbert:3 subsequent:1 mercians:1 continue:1 control:1 support:1 pretender:1 throne:1 since:1 sigeric:3 rex:19 orientalem:1 saxonum:1 witness:1 cyril:1 hart:1 danelaw:2 hambledon:1 chapter:1 ninth:1 sussex:1 sometime:1 formally:1 treaty:1 alfred:1 guthrum:1 reconquest:1 edward:1 elder:1 representative:1 style:1 ealdorman:1 come:1 shire:1 name:3 achievement:1 like:1 ruler:3 remain:1 conjectural:1 dynasty:1 claim:1 descent:1 woden:1 via:1 seaxnēat:1 omit:1 whole:1 generation:1 incumbent:1 aescwine:1 æscvvine:1 cenfvsing:1 estseaxna:18 cyningæscvvine:1 saxonvm:19 orientalivm:19 ante:4 sledda:2 æscvvining:1 cyningsledda:1 sæbryht:1 sled:1 cyningsæbryht:1 sexred:3 sæbryhting:2 cyningsexred:1 joint:8 saeward:2 kill:2 battle:2 sævvard:1 cyningsævvard:1 little:1 sigebryht:2 sævvarding:2 cyningsigebryht:2 parvvs:1 sanctvs:1 sebbi:4 feast:1 day:1 august:1 swithelm:1 svviþelm:1 cyningsvviþelm:1 sighere:3 sigebryhting:2 cyningsighere:1 cyningsebbi:1 abdicate:3 favour:1 son:1 sigeheard:4 sebbing:1 cyningsigeheard:1 brother:2 swaefred:2 handbook:2 chronology:2 cup:2 swaebheard:1 svvæfred:1 sigehearding:1 cyningsvvæfred:1 offa:2 sigehering:1 cyningoffa:1 saelred:2 swebert:1 sælred:1 cyningsælred:1 swaefbert:2 svvæfbryht:1 cyningsvvæfbryht:1 svvithred:1 svviþred:1 sigemvnding:1 cyningsvviþred:1 cyningsigeric:1 sigered:3 sigericing:1 cyningsigered:1 dvx:1 rank:1 reduce:1 overlord:1 subsume:1 last:1 spelling:3 number:1 variation:2 vary:1 widely:1 even:1 document:1 amongst:1 preference:1 þ:1 ð:1 th:1 voice:1 unvoiced:1 depend:1 adjacent:1 letter:2 character:1 use:2 ampersand:1 contemporary:1 writing:1 era:1 pre:1 emergence:1 write:1 accept:1 today:1 notably:1 minuscule:1 w:3 u:2 generally:1 render:1 vv:1 alone:1 source:1 statesman:1 clive:1 carpenter:1 guinness:1 superlative:1 ltd:1 government:1 world:1 martha:1 ross:1 |@bigram anglo_saxon:11 essex_hertfordshire:1 river_stour:1 east_anglia:2 saxon_chronicle:1 historia_brittonum:1 bede_historia:1 historia_ecclesiastica:1 ecclesiastica_gentis:1 gentis_anglorum:1 rex_saxonvm:18 saxonvm_orientalivm:19 orientalivm_joint:6 abdicate_favour:1 egbert_wessex:2 voice_unvoiced:1 |
1,207 | Gregorian_calendar | The Gregorian calendar is the internationally accepted civil calendar. Introduction to Calendars. United States Naval Observatory. Accessed 15 January 2009. Calendars by L. E. Doggett. Section 2. The international standard for the representation of dates and times ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar. Section 3.2.1. It was first proposed by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius, and decreed by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom it was named, on 24 February 1582 by the papal bull Inter gravissimas. It is a reform of the Julian calendar. Gregory's bull does not order any particular year numbering system, but uses the Anno Domini system which counts years from the traditional Incarnation of Jesus, and which spread throughout Europe during the middle ages. That is the same year numbering system that is the de facto international standard today. This era was created in the year 525 by the Roman monk Dionysius Exiguus. See Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius. Introduction and first argumentum. The Gregorian calendar modifies the Julian calendar's regular four-year cycle of leap years as follows: Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100; the centurial years that are exactly divisible by 400 are still leap years. For example, the year 1900 is not a leap year; the year 2000 is a leap year. Introduction to Calendars. (13 September 2007). United States Naval Observatory. Description The Gregorian solar calendar is an arithmetical calendar. It counts days as the basic unit of time, grouping them into years of 365 or 366 days; and repeats completely every 146,097 days, which fill 400 years, and which also happens to be 20,871 seven-day weeks. Of these 400 years, 303 (the "common years") have 365 days, and 97 (the leap years) have 366 days. This gives an average year length of exactly 365.2425 days, or 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds. A Gregorian year is divided into twelve months of irregular length, that is, with no regular relationship among their lengths: Detail of the tomb of Pope Gregory XIII celebrating the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. No. Name Days 1 January 31 2 February 28 or 29 3 March 31 4 April 30 5 May 31 6 June 30 7 July 31 8 August 31 9 September 30 10 October 31 11 November 30 12 December 31 A calendar date is fully specified by the year (numbered by some scheme beyond the scope of the calendar itself), the month (identified by name or number), and the day of the month (numbered sequentially starting at 1). Leap years add a 29th day to February, which normally has 28 days. Thus, the essential ongoing differentiating feature of the Gregorian calendar, as opposed to the Julian calendar, is that the Gregorian omits 3 leap days every 400 years. This difference would have been more noticeable in modern memory were it not that the year 2000 was a leap year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendar systems. The intercalary day in a leap year is known as a leap day. Since Roman times 24 February (bissextile) was counted as the leap day, "Lastly, in consideration of the quarter of a day, which he regarded as completing the true year, he established the rule that, at the end of every four years, a single day should be intercalated where the month had been hitherto inserted, that is, immediately after the terminalia; which day is now called the bissextum". Censorinus:The Natal Day. "Julius Caesar added ten days to the former number in order to complete the 365 days which the sun takes to pass through the zodiac; and to take account of the quarter of a day, he directed the pontiffs, who were entrusted with the months and days, to intercalate one day every four years in the same month and in the same place the ancients had intercalated, that is, before the last five days of February, hence this day was called bissextile." Macrobius: Saturnalia. but now 29 February is regarded as the leap day in most countries. Although the calendar year runs from 1 January to 31 December, sometimes year numbers were based on a different starting point within the calendar. Confusingly, the term "Anno Domini" is not specific on this point, and actually refers to a family of year numbering systems with different starting points for the years. (See the section below for more on this issue.) Lunar calendar The Catholic Church maintained a tabular lunar calendar, which was primarily to calculate the date of Easter, and the lunar calendar required reform as well. A perpetual lunar calendar was created, in the sense that 30 different arrangements (lines in the expanded table of epacts) for lunar months were created. One of the 30 arrangements applies to a century (for this purpose, the century begins with a year divisible by 100). When the arrangement to be used for a given century is communicated, anyone in possession of the tables can find the age of the moon on any date, and calculate the date of Easter. Coyne et al. (Eds), (1993), pp. 201–224. History Gregorian reform The motivation of the Catholic Church in adjusting the calendar was to celebrate Easter at the time it thought the First Council of Nicaea had agreed upon in 325. Although a canon of the council implies that all churches used the same Easter, they did not. The Church of Alexandria celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the moon (computed using the Metonic cycle) that falls on or after the vernal equinox, which they placed on 21 March. However, the Church of Rome still regarded 25 March as the equinox (until 342) and used a different cycle to compute the day of the moon. O. Pedersen. (1983). "The ecclesiastical calendar and the life of the church." in G. V. Coyne et al., ed. 42–43. In the Alexandrian system, since the 14th day of the Easter moon could fall at earliest on 21 March its first day could fall no earlier than 8 March and no later than 5 April. This meant that Easter varied between 22 March and 25 April. In Rome, Easter was not allowed to fall later than 21 April, that being the day of the Parilia or birthday of Rome and a pagan festival. The first day of the Easter moon could fall no earlier than 5 March and no later than 2 April. Easter was the Sunday after the 15th day of this moon, whose 14th day was allowed to precede the equinox. Where the two systems produced different dates there was generally a compromise so that both churches were able to celebrate on the same day. By the tenth century all churches (except some on the eastern border of the Byzantine Empire) had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March, although Bede had already noted its drift in 725—it had drifted even further by the sixteenth century. Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by a 19 year cycle. However, that approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by the sixteenth century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days. The Council of Trent approved a plan in 1563 for correcting the calendrical errors, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter. The fix was to come in two stages. First, it was necessary to approximate the correct length of a solar year. The value chosen was 365.2425 days in decimal notation. This is 365;14,33 days in sexagesimal notation—the length of the tropical year, rounded to two sexagesimal positions; this was the value used in the major astronomical tables of the day. Although close to the mean tropical year of 365.24219 days, it is even closer to the vernal equinox year of 365.2424 days; this fact made the choice of approximation particularly appropriate as the purpose of creating the calendar was to ensure that the vernal equinox would be near a specific date (21 March). (See Accuracy). The second stage was to devise a model based on the approximation which would provide an accurate yet simple, rule-based calendar. The formula designed by Aloysius Lilius was ultimately successful. It proposed a 10-day correction to revert the drift since Nicaea, and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. To implement the model, it was provided that years divisible by 100 would be leap years only if they were divisible by 400 as well. So, in the last millennium, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. In this millennium, 2100, 2200, 2300 and 2500 will not be leap years, but 2400 will be. This theory was expanded upon by Christopher Clavius in a closely argued, 800 page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors. The 19-year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 et cetera) that are no longer leap years. In fact, a new method for computing the date of Easter was introduced. In 1577 a Compendium was sent to expert mathematicians outside the reform commission for comments. Some of these experts, including Giambattista Benedetti and Giuseppe Moleto, believed Easter should be computed from the true motions of the sun and moon, rather than using a tabular method, but these recommendations were not adopted. Coyne et al. (Eds), 1983, p. 211, 214. Gregory dropped 10 days to bring the calendar back into synchronization with the seasons. Lilius originally proposed that the 10-day correction should be implemented by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences during a period of 40 years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to 21 March. However, Clavius's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move and it was this advice which prevailed with Gregory. Accordingly, when the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of ten days. The last day of the Julian calendar was Thursday, 4 October 1582 and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected). Adoption William Hogarth painting (c. 1755) which is the main source for "Give us our Eleven Days" Though Gregory's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, in fact the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church and the Papal States. The changes which he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar over which he had no authority. The changes required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect. The Nicene Council of 325 sought to devise rules whereby all Christians would celebrate Easter on the same day. In fact it took a very long time before Christians achieved that objective (see Easter for the issues which arose). However, the bull Inter gravissimas became the law of the Catholic Church. It was not recognised, however, by Protestant Churches nor by Orthodox Churches and others. Consequently, the days on which Easter and related holidays were celebrated by different Christian Churches again diverged. Adoption in Europe Only four Catholic countries adopted the new calendar on the date specified by the bull. Other Catholic countries experienced some delay before adopting the reform; and non-Catholic countries, not being subject to the decrees of the Pope, initially rejected or simply ignored the reform altogether, although they all eventually adopted it. Hence, the dates 5 October 1582 to 14 October 1582 (inclusive) are valid dates in many countries. Spain, Portugal, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and most of Italy implemented the new calendar on Friday, 15 October 1582, following Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582. The Spanish and Portuguese colonies adopted the calendar later due to the slowness of communication. France adopted the new calendar on Monday, 20 December 1582, following Sunday, 9 December 1582. Toke Nørby. The Perpetual Calendar: What about France? The Dutch provinces of Brabant, Zeeland and the Staten-Generaal also adopted it on 25 December of that year, the provinces forming the Southern Netherlands (modern Belgium) on 1 January 1583, and the province of Holland followed suit on 12 January 1583. Many non-Catholic countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic invention, despite the efforts of the Counter-Reformation (of which Gregory was a leading proponent); some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. In the Czech lands, Protestants resisted the calendar imposed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In parts of Ireland, Catholic rebels until their defeat in the Nine Years' War kept the "new" Easter in defiance of the English-loyal authorities; later, Catholics practising in secret petitioned the Propaganda Fide for dispensation from observing the new calendar, as it signalled their disloyalty. Denmark, which then included Norway and some Protestant states of Germany, adopted the solar portion of the new calendar on Monday, 1 March 1700, Nørby, Toke. The Perpetual Calendar following Sunday, 18 February 1700, due to the influence of Ole Rømer, but did not adopt the lunar portion. Instead, they decided to calculate the date of Easter astronomically using the instant of the vernal equinox and the full moon according to Kepler's Rudolphine Tables of 1627. They finally adopted the lunar portion of the Gregorian calendar in 1776. The remaining provinces of the Dutch Republic also adopted the Gregorian calendar in July 1700 (Gelderland), December 1700 (Utrecht and Overijssel) and January 1701 (Friesland and Groningen). Sweden's relationship with the Gregorian Calendar was a difficult one. Sweden started to make the change from the Julian calendar and towards the Gregorian calendar in 1700, but it was decided to make the (then 11-day) adjustment gradually, by excluding the leap days (29 February) from each of 11 successive leap years, 1700 to 1740. In the meantime, the Swedish calendar would be out of step with both the Julian calendar and the Gregorian calendar for 40 years; also, the difference would not be constant but would change every 4 years. This strange system clearly had great potential for endless confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40-year period. To make matters worse, the system was poorly administered and the leap days that should have been excluded from 1704 and 1708 were not excluded. The Swedish calendar (according to the transition plan) should now have been 8 days behind the Gregorian, but was still in fact 10 days behind. King Charles XII recognised that the gradual change to the new system was not working, and he abandoned it. However, rather than proceeding directly to the Gregorian calendar, it was decided to revert to the Julian calendar. This was achieved by introducing the unique date 30 February in the year 1712, adjusting the discrepancy in the calendars from 10 back to 11 days. Sweden finally adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, when Wednesday, 17 February was followed by Thursday, 1 March. Since Finland was under Swedish rule at that time, it did the same. Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style Dates and the change to the Gregorian Calendar: A summary for genealogists Britain and the British Empire (including the eastern part of what is now the United States) adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752 by which time it was necessary to correct by 11 days. Wednesday, 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday, 14 September 1752 to account for 29 February 1700 (Julian). Claims that rioters demanded "Give us our eleven days" grew out of a misinterpretation of a painting by William Hogarth. After 1753, the British tax year in Britain continued to operate on the Julian calendar and began on 5 April, which was the "Old Style" new tax year of 25 March. A 12th skipped Julian leap day in 1800 changed its start to 6 April. It was not changed when a 13th Julian leap day was skipped in 1900, so the tax year in the United Kingdom still begins on 6 April. In Alaska, the change took place when Friday, 6 October 1867 was followed again by Friday, 18 October after the US purchase of Alaska from Russia, which was still on the Julian calendar. Instead of 12 days, only 11 were skipped, and the day of the week was repeated on successive days, because the International Date Line was shifted from Alaska's eastern to western boundary along with the change to the Gregorian calendar. In Russia the Gregorian calendar was accepted after the October Revolution (so named because it took place in October 1917 in the Julian calendar). On 24 January 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a Decree that Wednesday, 31 January 1918 was to be followed by Thursday, 14 February 1918. The last country of Eastern Orthodox Europe to adopt the Gregorian calendar was Greece on Thursday, 1 March 1923, following Wednesday, 15 February 1923. Adoption in Eastern Asia Japan, the first eastern Asia country adopting the western calendar, replaced its traditional lunisolar calendar with the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1873, and changed its traditional month names into numbered months, but continued to use Gengo, reign names, instead of the Common Era or Anno Domini system: Meiji 1=1868, Taisho 1=1912, Showa 1=1926, Heisei 1=1989, and so on. The "Western calendar" (西暦, seireki) using western year numbers, is also widely accepted by civilians and to a lesser extent by government agencies. The Republic of China (ROC) formally adopted the Gregorian calendar at its founding on 1 January 1912, but China soon descended into a period of warlordism with different warlords using different calendars. With the unification of China under the Kuomintang in October 1928, the Nationalist Government decreed that effective 1 January 1929 the Gregorian calendar would be used. However, China retained the Chinese traditions of numbering the months and a modified Era System, backdating the first year of the ROC to 1912; this system is still in use in Taiwan where this ROC government retains control. Upon its foundation in 1949, the People's Republic of China continued to use the Gregorian calendar with numbered months, but abolished the ROC Era System and adopted Western numbered years. Korea started using the Gregorian calendar on 1 January 1896 owing to Japanese influence. The lunisolar Korean calendar used immediately before that day was based on the lunisolar Chinese calendar. The Korea Times: [The Dawn of Modern Korea] (266) Lunar Calendar Adoption by Orthodox Churches Despite all the civil adoptions, none of the national Orthodox Churches have recognized it for church or religious purposes. Instead, a Revised Julian calendar was proposed in May 1923 which dropped 13 days in 1923 and adopted a different leap year rule. There will be no difference between the two calendars until 2800. The Orthodox churches of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Greece, Cyprus, Romania, and Bulgaria adopted the Revised Julian calendar, so until 2800 these New calendarists would celebrate Christmas on 25 December in the Gregorian calendar, the same day as the Western churches. The Orthodox churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia, Georgia, Poland and the Greek Old Calendarists did not accept the Revised Julian calendar, and continue to celebrate Christmas on 25 December in the Julian calendar, which is 7 January in the Gregorian calendar until 2100. The refusal to accept the Gregorian reforms also has an impact on the date of Easter. This is because the date of Easter is determined with reference to 21 March as the functional equinox, which continues to apply in the Julian calendar, even though the civil calendar in the native countries now use the Gregorian calendar. All of the other Eastern churches, the Oriental Orthodox churches (Coptic, Ethiopian, Eritrean, Syrian, Armenian) and the Assyrian Church, continue to use their own calendars, which usually result in fixed dates being celebrated in accordance with the Julian calendar. All Eastern churches continue to use the Julian Easter with the sole exception of the Finnish Orthodox Church, which has adopted the Gregorian Easter. Timeline Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates has increased by three days every four centuries: Gregorian range Julian range DifferenceFrom 15 October 1582to 28 February 1700From 5 October 1582to 18 February 170010 daysFrom 1 March 1700to 28 February 1800From 19 February 1700to 17 February 180011 daysFrom 1 March 1800to 28 February 1900From 18 February 1800to 16 February 190012 daysFrom 1 March 1900to 28 February 2100From 17 February 1900to 15 February 210013 daysFrom 1 March 2100to 28 February 2200From 16 February 2100to 14 February 220014 days Beginning of the year The ancient Roman calendar started its year on 1 March. This is still reflected in the names of some months which derive from Latin: September (seven), October (eight), November (nine), December (ten). The year used in dates during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was the consular year, which began on the day when consuls first entered office — probably 1 May before 222 BC, 15 March from 222 BC and 1 January from 153 BC. Roman Dates: Eponymous Years In 45 BC, Julius Caesar introduced the Julian calendar, which continued to use 1 January as the first day of the new year. Even though the year used for dates changed, the civil year always displayed its months in the order January through December from the Roman Republican period until the present. During the Middle Ages, under the influence of the Christian Church, many Western European countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals — 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (Annunciation), or Easter (France), while the Byzantine Empire began its year on 1 September and Russia did so on 1 March until 1492 when the year was moved to 1 September. S.I. Seleschnikow: Wieviel Monde hat ein Jahr? (Aulis-Verlag, Leipzig/Jena/Berlin 1981, p. 149), which is a German translation of С.И. Селешников: История календаря и хронология (Издательство «Наука», Moscow 1977). The relevant chapter is available online here: История календаря в России и в СССР (Calendar history in Russia and the USSR). Anno Mundi 7000 lasted from to . In common usage, 1 January was regarded as New Year's Day and celebrated as such, Tuesday 31 December 1661, Pepys Diary "I sat down to end my journell for this year, ..." but from the 12th century until 1751 the legal year in England began on 25 March (Lady Day). Nørby, Toke. The Perpetual Calendar: What about England Version 29 February 2000 So, for example, the Parliamentary record records the execution of Charles I occurring in 1648 (as the year did not end until 24 March), although modern histories adjust the start of the year to 1 January and record the execution as occurring in 1649. Most Western European countries changed the start of the year to 1 January before they adopted the Gregorian calendar. For example, Scotland changed the start of the Scottish New Year to 1 January in 1600 (this means that 1599 was a short year). England, Ireland and the British colonies changed the start of the year to 1 January in 1752 (so 1751 was a short year with only 282 days). Later that year in September the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies (see the section Adoption). These two reforms were implemented by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750. In some countries, an official decree or law specified that the start of the year should be 1 January. For such countries we can identify a specific year when a 1 January-year became the norm. But in other countries the customs varied, and the start of the year moved back and forth as fashion and influence from other countries dictated various customs. Country Start numbered yearon 1 January Adoption ofGregorian Calendar Denmark Gradual change from13th to 16th centuries Herluf Nielsen: Kronologi (2nd ed., Dansk Historisk Fællesforening, Copenhagen 1967), pp.48-50. 1700 Venice 1522 1582 Holy Roman Empire 1544 from 1583 Spain 1556 1582 Portugal 1556 1582 Prussia 1559 1700 Sweden 1559 1753 France 1564 Le calendrier grégorien en France 1582 Southern Netherlands 1576 Per decree of 16 June 1575. Hermann Grotefend, "Osteranfang" (Easter beginning), Zeitrechnung de Deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Chronology of the German Middle Ages and modern times) (1891-1898) 1582 Lorraine 1579 1682 Dutch Republic 1583 from 1582 Scotland 1600 Blackburn & Holford-Strevens (1999), p. 784. John J. Bond, Handy-book of rules and tables for verifying dates with the Christian era Scottish decree on pp. xvii–xviii. 1752 Russia 1700 Roscoe Lamont, The reform of the Julian calendar, Popular Astronomy 28 (1920) 18–32. Decree of Peter the Great is on pp.23–24. 1918 Tuscany 1721 1750 Britain andBritish Empireexcept Scotland 1752 1752 Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly fix such a date, though it is implied by two tables of saint's days, one labeled 1582 which ends on 31 December, and another for any full year that begins on 1 January. It also specifies its epact relative to 1 January, in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to 22 March. These would have been the inevitable result of the above shift in the beginning of the Julian year. Dual dating During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, "10/21 February 1750/51", where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on 1 January while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries. Woolley, writing in his biography of John Dee (1527–1608/9), notes that immediately after 1582 English letter writers "customarily" used "two dates" on their letters, one OS and one NS. Benjamin Woolley, The Queen's Conjurer: The science and magic of Dr. John Dee, adviser to Queen Elizabeth I (New York: Henry Holt, 2001) p.173 Old Style and New Style dates "Old Style" (OS) and "New Style" (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which system is used in the British Empire and other countries that did not immediately change. Because the Calendar Act of 1750 altered the start of the year, In Scotland the legal start of year had been moved to 1 January in 1600 (Mike Spathaky. Old Style New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar); and as Ireland was not part of the union of Great Britain so separate legislation was needed for Ireland. and also aligned the British calendar with the Gregorian calendar, there is some confusion as to what these terms mean. They can indicate that the start of the Julian year has been adjusted to start on 1 January (NS) even though contemporary documents use a different start of year (OS); or to indicate that a date conforms to the Julian calendar (OS), formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar (NS). Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar. "increasingly parish registers, in addition to a new year heading after 24th March showing, for example '1733', had another heading at the end of the following December indicating '1733/4'. This showed where the New Style 1734 started even though the Old Style 1733 continued until 24th March. ... We as historians have no excuse for creating ambiguity and must keep to the notation described above in one of its forms. It is no good writing simply 20th January 1745, for a reader is left wondering whether we have used the Old or the New Style reckoning. The date should either be written 20th January 1745 OS (if indeed it was Old Style) or as 20th January 1745/6. The hyphen (1745-6) is best avoided as it can be interpreted as indicating a period of time." Death warrant of Charles I web page of the UK National Archives. A demonstration of New Style meaning Julian calendar with a start of year adjustment. The October (November) Revolution Britannica encyclopaedia, A demonstration of New Style meaning the Gregorian calendar. Stockton, J.R. Date Miscellany I: The Old and New Styles "The terms 'Old Style' and 'New Style' are now commonly used for both the 'Start of Year' and 'Leap Year' [(Gregorian calendar)] changes (England & Wales: both in 1752; Scotland: 1600, 1752). I believe that, properly and historically, the 'Styles' really refer only to the 'Start of Year' change (from March 25th to January 1st); and that the 'Leap Year' change should be described as the change from Julian to Gregorian." Use of dates from historical documents There was a great deal of confusion when the calendar changed, and the confusion continues today. In some cases, historians did not differentiate between the years, forcing some researchers to guess between two years when interpreting the information. When "translating" dates from historical documents to current documents for dates that have been incorrectly double dated by historians, both years should be entered into present-day documents until a copy of the original primary source verifies which year was written in the official record. Often errors have been perpetuated from the early 19th century and still exist today. When translating dates from historical documents to current documents for dates that have been correctly double dated by historians, the standard practice is to enter the earlier year first, and the later year second. Proleptic Gregorian calendar The Gregorian calendar can, for certain purposes, be extended backwards to dates preceding its official introduction, producing the proleptic Gregorian calendar. However, this proleptic calendar should be used with great caution. For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, with the year starting on 1 January, and no conversion to their Gregorian equivalents. The Battle of Agincourt is universally known to have been fought on 25 October 1415 which is Saint Crispin's Day. Usually, the mapping of new dates onto old dates with a start of year adjustment works well with little confusion for events which happened before the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar. But for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in continental western Europe and in British domains in English language histories. Events in continental western Europe are usually reported in English language histories as happening under the Gregorian calendar. For example the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However confusion occurs when an event affects both. For example William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after setting sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar). Shakespeare and Cervantes apparently died on exactly the same date (23 April 1616), but in fact Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by ten days in real time (for dating these events, Spain used the Gregorian calendar, but Britain used the Julian calendar). This coincidence however has allowed UNESCO to make 23 April the World Book and Copyright Day. Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the Julian day number. For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2, … both for years AD and BC. Thus the traditional timeline is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 timeline is -0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002. Months of the year English speakers sometimes remember the number of days in each month by the use of the traditional mnemonic verse: Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November. All the rest have thirty-one, excepting February alone, which hath twenty-eight. Leap year cometh one year in four, in which February hath one day more. For variations and alternate endings, see Thirty days hath September. A language-independent alternative used in many countries is to hold up your two fists with the index knuckle of your left hand against the index knuckle of your right hand. Then, starting with January from the little knuckle of your left hand, count knuckle, space, knuckle, space through the months. A knuckle represents a month of 31 days, and a space represents a short month (a 28- or 29-day February or any 30-day month). The junction between the hands is not counted, so the two index knuckles represent July and August. This method also works by starting the sequence on the right hand's little knuckle, and continue toward to the left. You can also use just one hand; after counting the fourth knuckle as July, start again counting the first knuckle as August. A similar mnemonic can be found on a piano keyboard: starting on the key F for January, moving up the keyboard in semitones, the black notes give the short months, the white notes the long ones. The Origins of English naming used by the Gregorian calendar: January: Janus (Roman god of gates, doorways, beginnings and endings) February: Februus (Etruscan god of death) Februarius (mensis) (Latin for "month of purification (rituals)" it is said to be a Sabine word, the last month of ancient pre-450 BC Roman calendar). It is related to fever. Adriana Rosado-Bonewitz, "Whats in a word?" (pdf, 1.3MB), Intercambios: Quarterly Newsletter of the Spanish Language Division of the American Translators, 9(1) (March 2005) 14-15, ISSN 1550-2945 (in Spanish) Anatoly Liberman, "On A Self-Congratulatory Note, Or, All The Year Round: The Names of The Months" (filed in Oxford Etymologist, 7 March 2007) L.L. Neuru, "St. Valentine's Holiday" Labyrinth 64 (1996), Department of Classical Studies, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada March: Mars (Roman god of war) April: "Modern scholars associate the name with an ancient root meaning 'other', i.e the second month of a year beginning in March."<ref>B. Blackburn & L. Holford-Strevens, (2003), The Oxford Companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning, Oxford University Press, p. 140.</ref> May: Maia Maiestas (Roman goddess) June: Juno (Roman goddess, wife of Jupiter) July: Julius Caesar (Roman dictator) (month was formerly named Quintilis, the fifth month of the calendar of Romulus) August: Augustus (first Roman emperor) (month was formerly named Sextilis, the sixth month of Romulus) September: septem (Latin for seven, the seventh month of Romulus) October: octo (Latin for eight, the eighth month of Romulus) November: novem (Latin for nine, the ninth month of Romulus) December: decem (Latin for ten, the tenth month of Romulus) Week In conjunction with the system of months there is a system of weeks. A physical or electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday, and shows multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system. When the Gregorian calendar was adopted by each country, the weekly cycle continued uninterrupted. So, using the original proposed adoption date, Thursday, 4 October 1582 would be followed by Friday 15 October. Distribution of dates by day of the week Since the 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar consists of a whole number of weeks, each cycle has a fixed distribution of weekdays among calendar dates. It then becomes possible that this distribution is not even. Indeed, because there are 97 leap years in every 400 years in the Gregorian Calendar, there are on average 13 for each starting weekday in each cycle. This already shows that the frequency is not the same for each weekday, which is due to the effects of the "common" centennial years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 etc.). The absence of an extra day in such years causes the following leap year (1704, 1804, 1904, 2104 etc.) to start on the same day of the week as the leap year twelve years before (1692, 1792, 1892, 2092 etc.). Similarly, the leap year eight years after a "common" centennial year (1708, 1808, 1908, 2108 etc.) starts on the same day of the week as the leap year immediately prior to the "common" centennial year (1696, 1796, 1896, 2096 etc.). Thus, those days of the week on which such leap years begin gain an extra year or two in each cycle. In each cycle there are: 15 leap years starting on Sunday 13 leap years starting on Monday 14 leap years starting on Tuesday 14 leap years starting on Wednesday 13 leap years starting on Thursday 15 leap years starting on Friday 13 leap years starting on Saturday Note that as a cycle, this pattern is symmetric with respect to the low Saturday value. A leap year starting on Sunday means the next year does not start on Monday, so more leap years starting on Sunday means fewer years starting on Monday, etc. Thus the pattern of number of years starting on each day is inverted and shifted by one weekday: 58, 56, 58, 57, 57, 58, 56 (symmetric with respect to the high Sunday value). The number of common years starting on each day is found by subtraction: 43, 43, 44, 43, 44, 43, 43. The frequency of a particular date being on a particular weekday can easily be derived from the above (for dates in March and later, relate them to the next New Year). See also the cycle of Doomsdays. Accuracy The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 mean solar days long, Seidelmann, 1992, pp. 580–581. which has an error of about one day per 3300 years with respect to the mean tropical year (which translates to a calendar year that averages about 26 seconds longer than the true length of the tropical year) , which in 2000 had a length of 365.24219 days (each day consisting of 86,400 seconds) Seidelman, 1992, p. 576, 698. but less than half this error with respect to the vernal equinox year of 365.24237 days, and with respect to both solstices the Gregorian Calendar gives an average year length that is actually shorter than the true length. By any criterion, the Gregorian calendar is substantially more accurate than the one day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days). In the 19th century, Sir John Herschel proposed a modification to the Gregorian calendar with 969 leap days every 4000 years, instead of 970 leap days that the Gregorian calendar would insert over the same period. John Herschel, Outlines of Astronomy, 1849, p. 629. This would reduce the average year to 365.24225 days. Herschel's proposal would make the year 4000, and multiples thereof, common instead of leap. While this modification has often been proposed since, it has never been officially adopted. On timescales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the seasons because the slowing down of the Earth's rotation makes each day slightly longer over time (see tidal acceleration and leap second) while the year maintains a more uniform duration. Borkowski reviewed mathematical models in the literature, and found the results generally fall between a model by McCarthy and Babcock, and another by Stephenson and Morrison. If so, in the year 4000, the calendar will fall behind by at least 0.8, but less than 1.1 days. In the year 12,000 the calendar would fall behind at least 8, but less than 12 days. Borkowski, K.M., (1991) "The tropical calendar and solar year", J. Royal Astronomical Soc. of Canada 85(3) 121-130, pp. 121-130. Calendar seasonal error nome|Gregorian calendar seasons difference This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the seasons. The y-axis is "days error" and the x-axis is Gregorian calendar years. Each point represents a single date on a given year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Centurial years are ordinary years, unless they are divisible by 400, in which case they are leap years. This causes a correction on years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300. For instance, these corrections cause 23 December 1903 to be the latest December solstice, and 20 December 2096 to be the earliest solstice—2.25 days of variation compared with the seasonal event. Leap seconds and other aspects Since 1972, some years may also contain one or more leap seconds, to account for cumulative irregularities in the Earth's rotation. So far, these have always been positive and have occurred on average once every 18 months. The day of the year is somewhat inconvenient to compute, partly because the leap day does not fall at the end of the year. But the calendar exhibits a repeating pattern for the number of days in the months March through July and August through December: 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, for a total of 153 days each. In fact, any five consecutive months not containing February contain exactly 153 days. See also common year starting on Sunday and dominical letter. The 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar has 146,097 days and hence exactly 20,871 weeks. So, for example, the days of the week in Gregorian 1603 were exactly the same as for 2003. The years that are divisible by 400 begin on a Saturday. In the 400-year cycle, more months begin on a Sunday (and hence have Friday the 13th) than any other day of the week (see above under Week for a more detailed explanation of how this happens). 688 out of every 4800 months (or 172/1200) begin on a Sunday, while only 684 out of every 4800 months (171/1200) begin on each of Saturday and Monday, the least common cases. A smaller cycle is 28 years (1,461 weeks), provided that there is no dropped leap year in between. Days of the week in years may also repeat after 6, 11, 12, 28 or 40 years. Intervals of 6 and 11 are only possible with common years, while intervals of 28 and 40 are only possible with leap years. An interval of 12 years only occurs with common years when there is a dropped leap year in between. The Doomsday algorithm is a method by which you can discern which of the 14 calendar variations should be used in any given year (after the Gregorian reformation). It is based on the last day in February, referred to as the Doomsday. The Rata Die is the number of days from 1 January AD 1 (counting that day as day 1) in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. For , , it is . It is 678,576 more than the Modified Julian date, and 1,721,425 less than the Julian date . Day of week Common years always begin and end on the same day of the week, since 365 is one more than a multiple of 7 (52 [number of weeks in a year] × 7 [number of days in a week] = 364). For example, 2003 began on a Wednesday and ended on a Wednesday. Leap years end on the next day of the week from which they begin. For example, 2004 began on a Thursday and ended on a Friday. Not counting leap years, any calendar date will move to the next day of the week the following year. For example, if your birthday fell on a Tuesday in 2002, it fell on a Wednesday in 2003. Leap years make things a little more complicated. 2004 was a leap year, so calendar days of 1 March or later in the year, moved two days of the week from 2003. However, calendar days occurring before 1 March do not make the extra day of the week jump until the year following a leap year. So, if your birthday is 15 June, then it must have fallen on a Sunday in 2003 and a Tuesday in 2004. If, however, your birthday is 15 February, then it must have fallen on a Saturday in 2003, a Sunday in 2004 and a Tuesday in 2005. In any year (even a leap year), July always begins on the same day of the week that April does. Therefore, the only difference between a July calendar page and an April calendar page in the same year is the extra day July has. The same relationship exists between September and December as well as between March and November. Add an extra day to the September page and you've got December. Take a day away from the March page and you've got November. In common years only, there are additional matches: October duplicates January, and March and November duplicate February in their first 28 days. In leap years only, there is a different set of additional matches: July is a duplicate of January while February is duplicated in the first 29 days of August. English names for year numbering system The Anno Domini (Latin for "in the year of the/our Lord") system of numbering years, in which the leap year rules are written, and which is generally used together with the Gregorian calendar, is also known in English as the Common Era or Christian Era. Years before the beginning of the era are known in English as Before Christ, Before the Common Era, or Before the Christian Era. The corresponding abbreviations AD, CE, BC, and BCE are used. There is no year 0; AD 1 immediately follows 1 BC. Naturally, since Inter gravissimas was written in Latin, it does not mandate any English language nomenclature. Two era names occur within the bull, "anno Incarnationis dominicæ" ("in the year of the Incarnation of the Lord") for the year it was signed, and "anno à Nativitate Domini nostri Jesu Christi" ("in the year from the Nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ") for the year it was printed. Nevertheless, "anno Domini" and its inflections "anni Domini" and "annus Domini" are used many times in the canons attached to the bull. Les canons of Les textes fondateurs du calendrier grégorien See also Calculation of Julian day Calendar reform Computus — Gregorian lunar calendar Dual dating Greek Old Calendarists List of calendars Mixed-style date World Calendar Doomsday rule References Blackburn, B. & Holford-Strevens, L. (1999). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-214231-3. Pages 98–99. Coyne, G. V., Hoskin, M. A., and Pedersen, O.(Eds.) (1983). Gregorian reform of the calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary, 1582-1982. Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Specolo Vaticano. Duncan, D. E. (1999). Calendar: Humanity's Epic Struggle To Determine A True And Accurate Year. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-380-79324-5. Gregory XIII. (2002). Inter Gravissimas (W. Spenser & R. T. Crowley, Trans.). International Organization for Standardization. (Original work published 1582) Online Etymology Dictionary retrieved 23 August 2006 Seidelmann, P. K. (Ed.). (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac.'' Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. Footnotes External links Calendar Converter Inter Gravissimas (Latin and French plus English) History of Gregorian Calendar Synoptical Julian - Gregorian calendar Compare Old and New Style dates 1582–2100. The Perpetual Calendar Gregorian Calendar adoption dates for many countries. 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1,208 | Undernet | The Undernet is the second-largest publicly-monitored Internet Relay Chat (IRC) network circa 2007, with about 20 client servers serving 120,000 users at any given time. Undernet - IRC Network - irc.netsplit.de Undernet IRC Network IRC clients can connect to Undernet via the global round robin irc.undernet.org, the region-specific round robins us.undernet.org and eu.undernet.org, or a specific server from the Undernet server list. History Undernet was established in October 1992 by Danny "WildThang" Mitchell, Donald "WHIZZARD" Lambert, and Laurent "_dl" Demally as an experimental network running a modified version of the EFnet irc2.7 IRCd software, created in an attempt to make it less bandwidth consumptive and less chaotic, as netsplits and takeovers were starting to plague EFnet. The Undernet IRC daemon became known as "ircu". Undernet was formed at a time when many small IRC networks were being started and subsequently disappearing; however, it managed to grow into one of the largest and oldest IRC networks despite some initial in-fighting and setbacks. For a period in 1994, Undernet was wracked by an ongoing series of flame wars. Again in 2001, it was threatened by automated heavy spamming of its users for potential commercial gain. Undernet survived these periods relatively intact and its popularity continues to the present day. It is notable as being the first network to utilize timestamping, originally made by Carlo "Run" Wood, in the IRC server protocol as a means to curb abuse. Services Undernet uses GNUworld to provide X, its channel service bot. X operates on a username basis; a username is independent from a nickname, which cannot be registered on Undernet. Undernet's Channel Services As Undernet limits channel registration to "established channels," or channels with an active userbase, Undernet introduced a version of ChanFix (under nickname C) designed to work like EFNet's ChanFix, its use is to protect unregistered channels. ChanFix tracks channel op usage by username basis and restores ops if channels become opless or are taken over. Chanfix Undernet also runs an open proxy scanner. This proxyscanner scans users currently connecting to the network for open WinGate, SOCKS version 4/5, and HTTP proxy servers. IP addresses hosting open proxy servers are automatically G-lined from the network. These changes were put in place after the 2001 Denial-of-service attacks almost destroyed the network and left Undernet without the registered channel service bot for months. References External links Washington Post coverage | Undernet |@lemmatized undernet:20 second:1 large:2 publicly:1 monitor:1 internet:1 relay:1 chat:1 irc:10 network:10 circa:1 client:2 server:6 serve:1 user:3 give:1 time:2 netsplit:1 de:1 connect:2 via:1 global:1 round:2 robin:1 org:3 region:1 specific:2 robins:1 u:1 eu:1 list:1 history:1 establish:2 october:1 danny:1 wildthang:1 mitchell:1 donald:1 whizzard:1 lambert:1 laurent:1 demally:1 experimental:1 run:3 modified:1 version:3 efnet:3 ircd:1 software:1 create:1 attempt:1 make:2 less:2 bandwidth:1 consumptive:1 chaotic:1 netsplits:1 takeover:1 start:2 plague:1 daemon:1 become:2 know:1 ircu:1 form:1 many:1 small:1 subsequently:1 disappear:1 however:1 manage:1 grow:1 one:1 old:1 despite:1 initial:1 fighting:1 setback:1 period:2 wrack:1 ongoing:1 series:1 flame:1 war:1 threaten:1 automated:1 heavy:1 spamming:1 potential:1 commercial:1 gain:1 survive:1 relatively:1 intact:1 popularity:1 continue:1 present:1 day:1 notable:1 first:1 utilize:1 timestamping:1 originally:1 carlo:1 wood:1 protocol:1 mean:1 curb:1 abuse:1 service:5 us:1 gnuworld:1 provide:1 x:2 channel:9 bot:2 operate:1 username:3 basis:2 independent:1 nickname:2 cannot:1 register:1 limit:1 registration:1 active:1 userbase:1 introduce:1 chanfix:4 c:1 design:1 work:1 like:1 use:1 protect:1 unregistered:1 track:1 op:1 usage:1 restore:1 ops:1 opless:1 take:1 also:1 open:3 proxy:3 scanner:1 proxyscanner:1 scan:1 currently:1 wingate:1 sock:1 http:1 ip:1 address:1 host:1 automatically:1 g:1 line:1 change:1 put:1 place:1 denial:1 attack:1 almost:1 destroy:1 leave:1 without:1 registered:1 month:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 washington:1 post:1 coverage:1 |@bigram relay_chat:1 chat_irc:1 client_server:1 irc_client:1 irc_server:1 proxy_server:2 ip_address:1 external_link:1 |
1,209 | Society_of_Jesus | Seal of the Society of Jesus. The "IHS" trigram comprises the first three Greek letters of "IHΣOYΣ" (Jesus), later interpreted as "Iesus Hominum Salvator", Jesus, Saviour of Mankind, "Iesum Habemus Socium", We have Jesus as Companion or as "Iesu Humilis Societas", Humble Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus () is a Roman Catholic religious order of clerks regular whose members are called Jesuits, Soldiers of Christ, and Foot soldiers of the Pope, because the founder, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, was a knight before becoming a priest. Jesuits are the largest male religious order in the Catholic Church, with 18,815 members—13,305 priests, 2,295 scholastic students, 1,758 brothers and 827 novices—as of January 2008, although the Franciscan family of first orders OFMs, Capuchins, and Conventuals has more total members. The average age of the Jesuits in 2008 was 63.01 for priests, 30.01 for scholastics, 65.06 for Brothers, and an overall average of 57.53 years. May edition of Jesuits in Europe, including statistics Jesuit priests and brothers are engaged in ministries in 112 nations on six continents. They are best known in the fields of education (schools, colleges, universities, seminaries, theological faculties), intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. They are also known in missionary work, social justice and human rights activities, interreligious dialogue, and other 'frontier' ministry. The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General, currently Adolfo Nicolás. News on the elections of the new Superior General africa.reuters.com, Spaniard becomes Jesuits' new "black pope" The headquarters of the Society, its General Curia, is in Rome. The historic curia of St Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. History Foundation Ignatius Loyola The Chapel of St. Denis, Rue Yvonne le Tac, Paris. On August 15, 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard of Basque origin, and six other students at the University of Paris (Francisco Xavier from Navarre, Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, and Nicolás Bobadilla from Spain, Peter Faber from Savoy in France, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal) met in Montmartre outside Paris, in the crypt of the Chapel of St Denis, Rue Yvonne le Tac. This group bound themselves by a vow of poverty and chastity, to "enter upon hospital and missionary work in Jerusalem, or to go without questioning wherever the pope might direct". They called themselves the Company of Jesus, and also "Amigos En El Señor" or "Friends in the Lord," because they felt they were placed together by Christ. The name had echoes of the military (as in an infantry "company"), as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The word "company" comes ultimately from Latin, cum + pane = "with bread," or a group that shares meals. These initial steps led to the founding of what would be called the Society of Jesus later in 1540. The term societas in Latin is derived from socius, a partner or comrade. In 1537, they traveled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. They were ordained at Venice by the bishop of Arbe (June 24). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy, as the renewed Italian War of 1535-1538 between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the pope and the Ottoman Empire rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible. They presented the project to the Pope. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favorably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on September 27, 1540, but limited the number of its members to sixty. This is the founding document of the Jesuits as an official Catholic religious order. This limitation was removed through the bull Injunctum nobis (March 14, 1543). Ignatius was chosen as the first superior-general. He sent his companions as missionaries around Europe to create schools, colleges, and seminaries. Ignatius lays out his original vision for the company in "The Formula of the Institute", which is, in the words of Jesuit historian John O'Malley, "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform." (O'Malley, John, The First Jesuits. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1993. p5) In the Formula's opening statement, one detects the echo of Ignatius' military background within his spirituality: "Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church his Spouse, under the Roman pontiff, the vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a vow of perpetual chastity, poverty, and obedience, keep the following in mind." When developed, Jesuits concentrated on three activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were rigorously trained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism, so they developed and sent out missionaries. Their third goal was to stop Protestantism from spreading. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland-Lithuania and southern Germany. Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1554, which created a tightly centralized organization and stressed absolute abnegation and obedience to Pope and superiors (perinde ac cadaver, "[well-disciplined] like a corps" as Ignatius put it). His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things considered normally indifferent. The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support. The term "Jesuit" (of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the Society in reproach (1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members and friends of the Society in time appropriated the name in its positive meaning. Early works Ratio Studiorum, 1598 The Jesuits were founded just before the Counter-Reformation (or at least before the date those historians with a classical view of the counter reformation hold to be the beginning of the Counter-Reformation), a movement whose purpose was to reform the Catholic Church from within and to counter the Protestant Reformers, whose teachings were spreading throughout Catholic Europe. As part of their service to the Roman Church, the Jesuits encouraged people to continue their obedience to scripture as interpreted by Catholic doctrine. Ignatius is known to have written: "...: I will believe that the white that I see is black if the hierarchical Church so defines it." Ignatius Loyola, "The spiritual exercises", trans. Anthony Mottola. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964, pp. 140-141. Reference from William B. Ashworth Jr, "Catholicism and Early Modern Science" in David C. Lindberg, Ronald L. Numbers, "God and Nature". p. 159, n. 91 (p.166) Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical Church was in dire need of reform, and some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Roman Catholic Church. Ignatius's insistence on an extremely high level of academic preparation for ministry, for instance, was a deliberate response to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time, and the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" was a deliberate effort to prevent greed for money or power invading Jesuit circles. As a result, in spite of their loyalty, Ignatius and his successors often tangled with the pope and the Roman Curia. Over the 450 years since its founding, the Society has both been called the papal "elite troops" and been forced into suppression. St. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the Church had to begin with the conversion of an individual’s heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion has been the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the life of Christ. During this period, they meet regularly with a spiritual director, who helps them understand whatever call or message God has offered in their meditations. The retreat follows a Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive pattern in the tradition of the mysticism of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life, and to use it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the Church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits themselves and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as retreats. The Jesuits’ contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought. In addition to teaching faith, the Ratio Studiorum emphasized the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centers for the training of lawyers and public officials. The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The Jesuits were able to obtain significant influence in the Early Modern Period because Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to the Kings of the time. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living in community, saying the divine office together, etc.) allowed them to be flexible to meet the needs of the people at the time. Expansion Jesuit missionary, painting from 1779. Early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. However, this was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence. Francis Xavier arrived in Goa, in Western India, in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. The ruins of La Santisima Trinidad de Parana in Paraguay, one of the many Jesuit missions established in South America during the 17th and 18th centuries Jesuit missions in Latin America were very controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "reductions" (Spanish Reducciones, Portuguese Reduções). These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. It is partly because the Jesuits, such as Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, protected the natives (whom certain Spanish and Portuguese colonizers wanted to enslave) that the Society of Jesus was suppressed. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion and education of Indian nations. Jesuit scholars working in these foreign missions were very important in understanding their unknown languages and strived to produce Latinicized grammars and dictionaries. This was done, for instance, for Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam,(Vocabulary of the Japanese Language) a Japanese-Portuguese dictionary written 1603) and Tupi-Guarani (a language group of South American aborigines). Jean François Pons in the 1740s pioneered the study of Sanskrit in the West. Under Portuguese royal patronage, the order thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded its activities to education and healthcare. On 17 December 1759, the Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal, expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and Portuguese possessions overseas. Jesuit activity in China Jesuits in China. The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible." Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China: "Life and works of Confucius, by Prospero Intorcetta, 1687. Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe. Confucius's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China. Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into Latin in 1687. It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into Christianity. Two well known examples are: The French physiocrat François Quesnay, founder of modern economics, and a forerunner of Adam Smith was in his lifetime known as "the European Confucius". The doctrine and even the name of "Laissez-faire" may have been inspired by the Chinese concept of Wu wei. Goethe was known as "the Confucius of Weimar". Suppression and restoration The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the Society's defender, Pope Clement XIII. A decree signed under secular pressure by Pope Clement XIV in July 1773 suppressed the Order. The suppression was carried out in all countries except Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden the papal decree to be executed. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish western provinces of the Russian Empire, the Society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the Society in Russia and Poland. Based on that permission, Stanislaus Czerniewicz was elected superior of the Society in 1782. Pius VII during his captivity in France, had resolved to restore the Jesuits universally; and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay: on 7 August 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the Order and therewith, the then Superior in Russia, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction. Boston College is the home to one of the world's largest Jesuit communities The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the Society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. Some claim that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of Papal authority within the Church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870. In Switzerland, following the defeat of the Ultramontanist Sonderbund by the other cantons, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9% of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution. The 20th century witnessed both aspects of growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a late 20th century focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in lay association with the order. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray, SJ, was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the council's endorsement of religious freedom, Dignitatis Humanae Personae. Jesuits today The Jesuits today form the largest religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church, with 19,216 serving in 112 nations on six continents, the largest number being in India followed by those in the United States. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Spanish Adolfo Nicolás. The Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States alone, it maintains over 50 colleges, universities and high schools. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning and life-long spiritual and intellectual growth. St. Aloysius College mission statement. In Latin America, Liberal Jesuits have had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement which has been highly controversial in the Catholic theological community and condemned by Pope John Paul II on several fundamental aspects. Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. On November 16, 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuria, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martin-Baro, Joaquin López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado López); their housekeeper, Elba Ramos; and her daughter, Celia Marisela Ramos, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. Global Capitalism, Liberation Theology, and the Social Sciences: An Analysis of the Contradictions of Modernity at the Turn of the Millennium (Paperback)by Andreas Muller (Editor), Arno Tausch (Editor), Paul M. Zulehner (Editor), Henry Wickens (Editor), Haupauge/Huntington, New York: Nova Science Publishers, ISBN 1560726792 The assassinations galvanized the Society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, where the assassins were trained under US government sponsorship." In 2002, Boston College president William P. Leahy, SJ, initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the Church "from crisis to renewal." The initiative has provided the Society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Roman Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the laity. On January 6, 2005, Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach, on the occasion of the Jubilee Year, wrote that the Jesuits "should truly profit from the jubilee year to examine our way of life and taking the means to live more profoundly the charisms received from our Founders." Letter to major superiors, 6 January 2005. In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, SJ, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the request of the Society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality and the right of life for the unborn. Reese is currently on a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University. Visit of Benedict XVI to the Pontifical Gregorian University, "one of the greatest services the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church." On February 2, 2006, Fr. Peter Hans Kolvenbach, informed members of the Society of Jesus, that with the consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he will turn 80. The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus convened on 5 January 2008 and elected Fr. Adolfo Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008. The deliberations of the General Congregation on other important policies for the Jesuit order continued until 8 March 2008. On that date, the General Congregation concluded its deliberations with a Mass of Thanksgiving at the Church of the Gesù. While the Jesuit superior general is elected for life, the order's constitutions allow him to step down. On April 22, 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier and Bl Peter Faber." He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration." In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical Haurietis aquas, on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion". In his November 3, 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church". On January 19, 2008, Adolfo Nicolas was elected by General Congregation (GC XXXV) as the Order’s thirtieth Superior General and was promptly confirmed by Benedict XVI. A month after, the Pope received members of the General Congregation and urged them to "to continue on the path of this mission in full fidelity to your original charism" and asked them to reflect so as "to rediscover the fullest meaning of your characteristic 'fourth vow' of obedience to the Successor of Peter." For this, he told them to "adhere totally to the Word of God and to the Magisterium's task of preserving the integral truth and unity of Catholic doctrine." This clear identity, according to the Pope, is important so that "many others may share in your ideals and join you effectively and enthusiastically." The Congregation responded with a formal declaration titled "With New Fervor and Dynamism, the Society of Jesus Responds to the Call of Benedict XVI," whereby they confirmed the Society's fidelity to the Pope. Jesuits end meeting by approving decrees, confirming fidelity to pope, CNS March 7, 2008 + Jesuits in the World (2007): 91 Provinces and 12 Dependent Regions: 3 in Africa, 4 in the Americas and 5 in Asia-Oceania. RegionJesuits Percentage South Asia Assistancy4,01820.9% United States of America2,95215.4% South Europe 2,44812.7% West Europe1,95810.2% East Asia-Oceania1,672 8.7% South Latin America1,5137.9% Africa 1,4307.4% North Latin America1,3747.2% East Europe1,1195.8% Central Europe7323.8% Ignatian spirituality Like all Catholic spirituality, the spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, is based on the Catholic faith and the gospels. Aside from the "Constitutions," "The Letters," and "Autobiography," Ignatian spirituality draws most specially from St. Ignatius' "Spiritual Exercises," whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment." In other words, the Exercises are intended, in Ignatius' view, to give the exercitant (the person undertaking them) a greater degree of freedom from his or her own likes, dislikes, comforts, wants, needs, drives, appetites and passions that they may choose based solely on what they discern God's will is for them. In the words of former Jesuit Superior General, Peter Hans Kolvenbach, the Exercises try to "unite two apparently incompatible realities: exercises and spiritual." It invites to "unlimited generosity" in contemplating God, yet going down to the level of many details. Discourse given to the Rome Consultation, 16 February 2003. Ignatian spirituality can be described as an active attentiveness united with a prompt responsiveness to God, who is ever active in people's lives. Though it includes many forms of prayer, discernment, and apostolic service, it is the interior dispositions of attentiveness and responsiveness that are ultimately crucial. The result is that Ignatian spirituality has a remarkable 'nowness,' both in its attentiveness to God and in its desire to respond to what God is asking of the person now. Charles J. Jackson, Ignatian Spirituality. The Ignatian ideal has the following characteristics: Pinard De La Boullaye, Ignatian Spirituality. God's greater glory St Ignatius of Loyola—"a man who gave the first place of his life to God" says Benedict XVI—stressed that "Man is created to praise, reverence, and serve God Our Lord and by this means to save his soul." This is the "First Principle and Foundation" of the Exercises. Ignatius declares: "The goal of our life is to live with God forever. God who loves us, gave us life. Our own response of love allows God's life to flow into us without limit... Our only desire and our one choice should be this: I want and I choose what better leads to the deepening of God's life in me." Union with Jesus Ignatius emphasized an ardent love for the Saviour. In his Exercises, he devoted the last weeks to the contemplation of Jesus: from infancy and public ministry, to his passion and lastly his risen life. The Spiritual Exercises, in 104, sum this up in a prayer: "Lord, grant that I may see thee more clearly, love thee more dearly, follow thee more nearly." There is a great emphasis on the emotions in Ignatius' methods, and a call for the person to be very sensitive to the emotional movements that shape them. Self-awareness Ignatius recommends the twice-daily examen (examination). This is a guided method of prayerfully reviewing the events of the day, to awaken one's inner sensitivity to one's own actions, desires, and spiritual state, through each moment reviewed. The goals are to see where God is challenging the person to change and to growth, where God is calling the person to deeper reflection (especially apt when discerning if one has a Jesuit vocation in life), to where sinful or imperfect attitudes or blind spots are found. The general examen, often at the end of the day, is, as the name implies, a general review. The particular examen, often in the middle of the day, focuses on a particular fault—identified by the person—to be worked upon in the course of some days or weeks. Spiritual direction Meditation and contemplation, and for instance the aforementioned examen, are best guided, Ignatius says, by an experienced person. Jesuits, and those following Ignatian spirituality, meet with their spiritual director (traditionally a priest, though in recent years many laypersons have undertaken this role) on a regular basis (weekly or monthly) to discuss the fruits of their prayer life and be offered guidance. Ignatius sees the director as someone who can rein in impulsiveness or excesses, goad the complacent, and keep people honest with themselves. If the director is a priest, spiritual direction may or may not be connected with the Sacrament of Penance. Ignatius counseled frequent use of sacrament and while some directors see them as integrally linked, others hold them to be two separate relationships. Effective love The founder of the Society of Jesus put effective love (love shown in deeds) above affective love (love based on nice feelings). He usually ended his most important letters with "I implore God to grant us all the grace to know His holy will and to accomplish it perfectly." True and perfect love demands sacrifice, the abandonment of tastes and personal preferences, and the perfect renunciation of self. This can be taken together with the prayer for generosity, which asks for teaching to be generous, to serve God as God deserves without counting any cost or seeking any reward except knowing that one is doing God's will. Detachment Where Francis of Assisi's concept of poverty emphasized the spiritual benefits of simplicity and dependency, Ignatius emphasized detachment, or "indifference." For Ignatius, whether one was rich or poor, healthy or sick, in an assignment one enjoyed or one didn't, was comfortable in a culture or not, etc., should be a matter of spiritual indifference—a modern phrasing might put it as serene acceptance. Hence, a Jesuit (or one following Ignatian spirituality), placed in a comfortable, wealthy neighborhood should continue to live the Gospel life without anxiety or possessiveness, and if plucked instantly from that situation to be placed in a poor area and subjected to hardships should simply cheerfully accept that as well, without a sense of loss or being deprived. Prayers, efforts at self-conquest, and reflection Ignatius's little book, the Spiritual Exercises is a fruit of months of prayer, and it is through prayer that one gets to understand Ignatian Spirituality. Jesuits stress the need to take time to reflect and to pray because prayer is at the foundation of Jesus's life. Prayer, in Ignatian spirituality, does not dispense from "helping oneself," a phrase frequently used by Ignatius. Thus, he also speaks of mortification and of amendment. Upon his recovery from battle wounds, St. Ignatius of Loyola hung his military accoutrements before the image of the Virgin of Montserrat. Then he led a period of asceticism to found the Society of Jesus. Devotion to the Sacred Heart, the Eucharist, and Our Lady The Society of Jesus has a relationship with the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary in a commitment to spread the devotion to the Sacred Heart (though the concept of devotion to Christ's mercy, as symbolized in the image of the Sacred Heart, is more ancient, its modern origins can be traced to St. Marie Alacoque, a Visitation nun, whose spiritual director was St. Claude de la Colombière). The Jesuits particularly promoted this devotion to emphasize the compassion and overwhelming love of Christ for people, and to counteract the rigorism and spiritual pessimism of the Jansenists. St. Ignatius counselled people to receive the Eucharist more often, and from the order's earliest days the Jesuits were promoters of "frequent communion". It should be noted that it was the custom for many Catholics at this time to receive Holy Communion perhaps once or twice a year, out of what Catholic theologians considered an exaggerated respect for the sacrament; Ignatius and others advocated receiving the sacrament at least monthly, emphasizing Holy Communion not as reward but as spiritual food; by the time of Pope St. Pius X (1903-1914), "frequent communion" had come to mean weekly, and even daily reception, of the Eucharist. Ignatius made his initial commitment to a new way of life by leaving his soldier's weapons (and symbolically, his old values) on an altar before an image of the Christ child seated on the lap of Our Lady of Montserrat. The Jesuits were long promoters of the Sodality of Our Lady, their primary organization for their students until the 1960s, which they used to encourage frequent attendance at Mass, reception of communion, daily recitation of the Rosary, and attendance at retreats in the Ignatian tradition of the Spiritual Exercises. Zeal for souls The purpose of the Order, says the Summary of the Constitutions, is "not only to apply one's self to one's own salvation and to perfection with the help of divine grace but to employ all one's strength, for the salvation and perfection of one's neighbor." Finding God in All Things The vision that Ignatius places at the beginning of the Exercises keeps sight of both the Creator and the creature, the One and the other swept along in the same movement of love. In it, God offers himself to humankind in an absolute way through the Son, and humankind responds in an absolute way by a total self-donation. There is no longer sacred or profane, natural or supernatural, mortification or prayer—because it is one and the same Spirit who brings it about that the Christian will "love God in all things—and all things in God." Hence, Jesuits have always been active in the graphic and dramatic arts, literature and the sciences. Examen of Consciousness The Examen of Consciousness is a simple prayer directed toward developing a spiritual sensitivity to the special ways God approaches, invites, and calls. Ignatius recommends that the examen be done at least twice, and suggests five points of prayer: Recalling that one is in the holy presence of God Thanking God for all the blessings one has received Examining how one has lived his day Asking God for forgiveness Resolution and offering a prayer of hopeful recommitment It is important, however, that the person feels free to structure the Examen in a way that is most helpful to him. There is no right way to do it; nor is there a need to go through all of the five points each time. A person might, for instance, find himself spending the entire time on only one or two points. The basic rule is: Go wherever God draws you. And this touches upon an important point: the Examen of Consciousness is primarily a time of prayer; it is a "being with God." It focuses on one's consciousness of God, not necessarily one's conscience regarding sins and mistakes. Discernment Discernment is rooted in the understanding that God is ever at work in one's life, "inviting, directing, guiding and drawing" one "into the fullness of life." Its central action is reflection on the ordinary events of one's life. It presupposes an ability to reflect on the ordinary events of one's life, a habit of personal prayer, self-knowledge, knowledge of one's deepest desires and openness to God's direction and guidance. Discernment is a prayerful 'pondering' or 'mulling over' the choices a person wishes to consider. In his discernment, the person's focus should be on a quiet attentiveness to God and sensing rather than thinking. His goal is to understand the choices in his heart: to see them, as it were, as God might see them. In one sense, there is no limit to how long he might wish to continue in this. Discernment is a repetitive process, yet as the person continues, some choices should of their own accord fall by the wayside while others should gain clarity and focus. It is a process that should move inexorably toward a decision. Service and humility Ignatius emphasized the active expression of God's love in life and the need to be self-forgetful in humility. Part of Jesuit formation is the undertaking of service specifically to the poor and sick in the most humble ways: Ignatius wanted Jesuits in training to serve part of their time as novices and in tertianship (see Formation below) as the equivalent of orderlies in hospitals, for instance, emptying bed pans and washing patients, to learn humility and loving service. Jesuit educational institutions often adopt mottoes and mission statements that include the idea of making students "men for others," and the like. Jesuit missions have generally included medical clinics, schools and agricultural development projects as ways to serve the poor or needy while preaching the Gospel. Jesuit training The training of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the Church and world. St. Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance and wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment, and especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the Pope. Formation for Priesthood normally takes between 8 and 14 years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit training among the longest of any of the religious orders. Candidacy is an informal precursor to becoming a Jesuit, wherein a man interested in joining the Jesuits explores his calling with a spiritual director. This varies from country to country. The candidate attends Jesuit vocation events, including retreats and discussions with other candidates and Jesuits. Candidacy can last any length of time, with the norm being about a year. During this time, the candidate may or may not live in a Jesuit community. Novitiate is the first stage of formation. The Novice begins to live the three vows of poverty, chastity, obedience (though he has not yet vowed himself publicly), completes the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, learns about the history and practice of the order and enters into a series of “experiments.” These experiments are usually short ministerial assignments where the novice tests his aptitude for various ministries, such as, teaching, working with the marginalized or giving retreats. The novitiate lasts two years. Jesuit novices may place the letters "n. S.J." after their names. At this point, the novice pronounces his First Vows (perpetual Simple vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and a vow to persevere to final profession and ordination) and becomes either a Scholastic (entering onto the path of priesthood) or a Jesuit brother (technically known as a "temporal coadjutor", but officially styled "brother" today). The scholastics (who may be addressed by the secular title "Mister") and the Brothers (addressed by the title "Brother") of the Society of Jesus have different courses of study, although they often overlap. For scholastics, the usual course of studies is as follows: First Studies is the period when the scholastic begins his academic training. Depending on his prior education it will last 2–4 years, guaranteeing a grounding in philosophy and the attainment of at least a first university level degree thus, in the United States, a four-year bachelor's degree (unless this has already been earned). It may also introduce the study of theology or some other specialized area. As Jesuits, particularly in the United States, serve on the faculties of high schools and universities, and in a wide variety of other positions, the Jesuit scholastic or Jesuit priest often earns a master or doctoral degree on some area—it may be, for instance, Theology or it may be History, English, Chemistry, Educational Administration, Law or any other subject. Hence, a Jesuit may spend another few years earning a graduate degree beyond the bachelor's. Regency is the next stage, wherein the scholastic lives and works in a typical Jesuit community (as opposed to the “formation communities” he has lived insofar). He is engaged full-time in ministry (an Apostolate), which is traditionally teaching in a secondary school, but it may be any ministry Jesuits are engaged in. Regency lasts for 2–3 years. Theology is the stage immediately preceding ordination. By universal canon law, every candidate for priestly ordination must complete four years of theology studies, though part of this requirement may have been met in first studies. This will include the attainment of a first degree in theology (such as the Bachelor of Sacred Theology), and usually a second (masters level) degree in a specialized area related to theology. (As such, it is not uncommon for a Jesuit to hold a master's level degree in Theology, and, as mentioned above, a second master's or a doctorate in a completely different field.) Ordination follows, and the new priest may receive a ministerial assignment or be sent back for further studies in any academic field. The ordained Jesuit priest will either be chosen for profession as a "spiritual coadjutor", taking the usual perpetual vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, or for profession as a "professed of the four vows." A few years after ordination to priesthood, or for brothers after a number of years work, a Jesuit will undertake Tertianship, so named because it is something like a third year of novitiate. After his first fews years of experience of ministry as a priest or brother, the Jesuit completes the final stage of formal formation by revisiting the essentials of Jesuit life which he learned as a novice: once again, he studies the history and Constitutions of the Jesuits, he makes the Spiritual Exercises and participates in experimentism, most often by serving in ministries to the sick, terminally ill or poor. Final Vows for the fully professed follow upon tertianship, wherein the Jesuit pronounces perpetual solemn vows of poverty, chastity, obedience, and the Fourth Vow, unique to Jesuits, of special obedience to the pope in matters regarding mission, promising to undertake any mission laid out in the Formula of the Institute the pope may choose. Only the professed of the Four Vows are eligible for posts like novice master, provincial superior or assistant to the general of the society. The professed of the Four Vows take, in addition to these solemn perpetual vows five additional Simple Vows: not to consent to any mitigation of the Society's observance of poverty; not to "ambition" or seek any prelacies (ecclesiastical offices) outside the Society; not to ambition any offices within the Society; a commitment to report any Jesuit who does so ambition; and, if a Jesuit does become a bishop, to permit the general to continue to provide advice to that bishop, though the vow of obedience to Jesuit superiors is not operative over matters the man undertakes as bishop. Under these vows, no Jesuit may "campaign" or even offer his name for appointment or election to any office, and if chosen for one must remind the appointing authority (even the Pope) of these Vows—if the Pope commands that the Jesuit accept ordination as a bishop anyway, the Jesuit must keep an open ear to the Jesuit general as an influence. The formation of Jesuit brothers has a much less structured form. Prior to the Second Vatican Council, Jesuit brothers worked almost exclusively within Jesuit communities as cooks, tailors, farmers, secretaries, accountants, librarians and maintenance support—they were thus technically known as "temporal coadjutors", as they assisted the professed priests by undertaking the more "worldly" jobs, freeing the professed of the four vows and the "spiritual coadjutors" to undertake the sacramental and spiritual missions of the Society. Following the Second Vatican Council, which recognized the mission of all the Christian faithful, not just those who are ordained, to share in the ministries of the Church, Jesuit brothers began to engage in ministries outside of their communities. Today, the formation of a Jesuit brother may take many forms, depending on his aptitude for ministry. He may pursue a highly academic formation which mirrors that of the scholastics (there are, for instance, some Jesuit brothers who serve as university professors), or he may pursue more practical training in areas such as pastoral counseling or spiritual direction (some assist in giving retreats, for instance), or he may continue in the traditional “supporting” roles in which so many Jesuit brothers have attained notable levels of holiness (as administrative aides, for example). Since Vatican II the Society has officially adopted the term "brother," which was always the unofficial form of address for the temporal coadjutors. Regardless of the practical details, Jesuit formation is meant to form men who are open and ready to serve whatever is the Church’s current need. Today, all Jesuits are expected to learn English, and those who speak English as a first language are expected to learn Spanish. Government of the Society The Society is headed by a Superior General. In the Jesuit Order, the formal title of the Superior General is "Praepositus Generalis," Latin for General President, more commonly called Father General or General, who is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns, is confirmed by the Pope, and has absolute authority in running the Society. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Spanish Jesuit, Fr. Adolfo Nicolás Pachón who was elected on January 19, 2008. He is assisted by "assistants," four of whom are "assistants for provident care" and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council to the superior general, and several other regional assistants each of whom heads an "assistancy," which is either a geographic area (for instance, the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance, higher education). The assistants normally reside with the General Superior in Rome. The assistants, together with a number of other advisors, form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the Society run day-to-day administration. The General is also required to have an "admonitor," a confidential advisor whose specific job is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he is acting imprudently or is straying toward disobedience to the Pope or heresy. The central staff of the General is known as the Curia. The order is divided into geographic provinces, each of which is headed by a Provincial Superior, generally called Father Provincial, chosen by the General. He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a socius, who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff. With the approval of the General, the father provincial appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local houses of Jesuits. Each individual Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a "minister," from the Latin for "servant," a priest who helps oversee the community's day-to-day needs. The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assistants, provincials and additional representatives who are elected by the professed Jesuits of each province. It meets irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior general and/or to take up some major policy issues for the order. The General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials. Habit and dress Jesuits do not have an official habit. St. Ignatius' intent was the adoption of diocesan clergy dress in whatever country or region Jesuits found themselves. In time, a "Jesuit-style cassock" became standard issue: it wrapped around the body and was tied with a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front, a tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts), and a simple cape (ferraiuolo) completed the full, formal Jesuit garb, but this too was part of diocesan priestly dress. As such, though Jesuit garb appeared distinctive, and became identifiable over time, it was the common priestly dress of Ignatius' day. Missionaries of all religious orders, at their commissioning ceremony, received a large crucifix worn on a cord around the neck and often tucked, for convenience, to the cassock's cincture: historical depictions of Jesuit saints show the buttonless cassock, cape, biretta, and cervical crucifix. During the missionary periods of the Continental Americas, the various Amerindian tribes referred to the Jesuits as the "Blackrobes" because of the black cassocks they wore. Today, most Jesuits wear the simple Roman collar tab shirts in non-liturgical, ministerial settings. Since the 1960s some have opted for secular garb. Controversies The Jesuits, like Freemasons, Jews, and other groups, have frequently been described as engaged in various conspiracies: the Gunpowder Plot assassination attempt (See: Father Henry Garnet, Oswald Tesimond, Edward Oldcorne, et al.), the Lincoln Assassination, the JFK Assassination, and numerous earlier or lesser-known assassinations, assassination attempts, or crimes. They have often been the target of dozens of expulsions and have also been, at times, excommunicated by the Pope. The Monita Secreta, also known as the "Secret Instructions of the Jesuits" was published (1612) and (1614) in Kraków, and is alternately alleged to have been written by either Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, or by Jerome Zahorowski. The document appears to lay down the methods to be adopted for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the order and for the Roman Catholic Church. Sympathizers for the Society of Jesus argue that the Secreta were merely fabricated to give the Jesuits a sinister reputation; Catholic Encyclopedia online: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10487a.htm it has become widely considered a forgery by Zahorowski. Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Jesuits, was hanged for misprision of treason because of his involvement in the Gunpowder Plot. The plan had been an attempt to kill King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack by blowing up the Houses of Parliament in 1605; another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed to escape arrest for involvement in the same plot. Jesuit Robert Southwell was arrested while visiting the house of Richard Bellamy, who lived near Harrow and was under suspicion on account of his connection with Jerome Bellamy, who had been executed for sharing in Anthony Babington's plot. He was hanged for treason. John Ballard (also Jesuit) was executed for being involved in an attempt to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I of England. The same fate struck Edmund Campion, a Jesuit priest unjustly sentenced to death as a traitor. They have also been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for the unjustifiable (See: formulary controversy; Blaise Pascals' Lettres Provinciales). "Pascal: Adversary and Advocate" Robert J. Nelson, Harvard University Press, 1981. p. 190 In English, according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary, "Jesuitical" has acquired a secondary meaning of "equivocating". The Jesuits have also been targeted by many anti-Catholics like Jack Chick, Avro Manhattan, Alberto Rivera (who claimed to be a former Jesuit himself), and the late former Jesuit priest, Fr. Malachi Martin. see Malachi Martin (1987) The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church, Simon & Schuster, Linden Press, New York, 1987, ISBN 0671545051 Within the Catholic Church, some Jesuits are criticized by some parties for allegedly being overly liberal and allegedly deviating substantially from official Church teaching and papal directives, especially on such issues as abortion, priestly celibacy, homosexuality, and liberation theology. See: John Paul II appointed Jesuit priest Roberto Cardinal Tucci, S.J., to the College of Cardinals after serving for many years as the chief organizer of papal trips and public events. In total, John Paul II and Benedict XVI have appointed 10 Jesuit cardinals. Jesuits rescue efforts during the Holocaust Nine Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II. Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period. Hiatt Holocaust Collection A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave of their lives during the Holocaust was installed at Rockhurst University, a Jesuit university, in Kansas City, Missouri, United States, in April 2007, the first such plaque in the world. Famous Jesuits Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scientists, artists and philosophers. Among many distinguished early Jesuits was St. Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were also Jesuit priests. Another famous Jesuit was St. Jean de Brebeuf, a French missionary who was martyred in North America during the 1600s. Jesuit Educational institutions Though there is almost no occupation in civil life, and no ministry within the Church, which a Jesuit has not held at one time or another, and though the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates and ministries, they are probably most well known for their educational work. Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers. Today, there are Jesuit-run universities, colleges, high schools and middle or elementary schools in dozens of countries. Jesuits also serve on the faculties of both Catholic and secular schools as well. One of the most prominent of these universities is the Gregorian University in Rome, one of the Church's key seats of learning, associated in a consortium with the Pontifical Biblical Institute and Pontifical Oriental Institute. In the United States, 28 Jesuit tertiary education institutions are organized as the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities, the oldest one being Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., founded by Bishop John Carroll in 1789. One of its presidents, Father Patrick Francis Healy, was the first African American to head a major university. The largest institution is Fordham University in New York City. The 46 Jesuit high schools of America are organized under the Jesuit Secondary Education Association. The Jesuits have recently opened a number of middle schools in poor neighborhoods in New York, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, DC, Chicago and Omaha. There are also Jesuits serving on the faculties of other Catholic colleges and universities; additionally they serve on many secular faculties. In Latin America Jesuit institutions are organized into the Asociación de Universidades Confiadas a la Compañía de Jesús en América Latina (Association of Universities Entrusted to the Jesuits in Latin America). In the Philippines, the Jesuit universities are all independent, although they maintain institutional ties. The Ateneo de Manila University, Sacred Heart School-Jesuit Cebu, Ateneo de Naga University, Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan, Ateneo de Zamboanga University, Marian College of Ipil, and Ateneo de Davao University are all loosely federated. An affiliated association, Mindanao Consortium of Ateneo Universities, groups all of the Jesuit universities located in Mindanao island with the purpose of promoting Muslim-Christian unity and dialogue as well as to exchange knowledge and expertise in various academic fields. In Australia, the Jesuits run a number of high schools including Xavier College, St Ignatius' College, Riverview, Loyola Senior High School, Mt Druitt, Saint Ignatius' College, Athelstone and St Aloysius' College. In Ireland, the Jesuits run five secondary schools: Belvedere College, Gonzaga College (both in Dublin), Clongowes Wood College in Clane, Co. Kildare, St Ignatius College, in Galway city, and Crescent College, which is in Limerick. In the United Kingdom the Jesuit educational institutions are: Wimbledon College, London, St. Aloysius' College, Glasgow, Campion Hall, Oxford, Heythrop College (London), Mount St Mary's College (Sheffield) St Ignatius Enfield and Stonyhurst College (Clitheroe). In Egypt, the Jesuits run College de la Sainte Famille, a private boys school in Fagalla, Cairo. They are also involved in charitable organisations in the South of the country. In Belgium, the Jesuits run various secondary schools (high schools) such as "Sint-Jozefscollege" in Aalst (Dutch-speaking) and "Onze-Lieve-Vrouwecollege", "Xaverius College" and "Sint-Jan Berchmans College", all three in Antwerp (Dutch-speaking). "Universitair Centrum Sint-Ignatius" in Antwerp (Dutch-speaking; now part of "Universiteit Antwerpen") and the 'Facultés Notre-Dame de la Paix' of Namur (French-speaking) are both Jesuit universities. In India, the Jesuits run top colleges and schools in the country including Loyola College, Chennai, St. Joseph's College,Tiruchirapalli, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai, St. Xavier's College, Calcutta, Xavier Labour Relations Institute, Jamshedpur, [Loyola School, Jamshedpur], Loyola School, Thiruvananthapuram, St Xavier's College, Thiruananthapuram, St Xavier's College, Palayamkottai, Loyola College, Kunkuri, St Xavier's College, Balipara, Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneshwar, St Joseph's College, Tiruchirapalli, St Xavier's College, Goa, Andhra Loyola College, Vijaywada, Loyola Academy, Secunderabad, Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar (XIMB), Xavier Institute of Social Service (XISS) and Xavier Institute of Development and Service (XIDAS), St Vincent's High School, Pune and St Xavier's College, Ranchi, St Xavier's College, Ahmedabad. They also run some of the top theological colleges in India the famous ones being Jnana Deepa Vidyapeeth, Pune (De Nobili College) and Vidyajyoti College of Theology, Delhi. They also run 9 Regional Theology Centers (RTC) for contextual theologies in diverse regions of the country. Their educational institutions also have some of the country's best sportspersons producing centers, prominent among them being St Ignatius High School, Gumla, St Mary's High School, Samtoli, Loyola School Jakhama (Kohima). Some of the top bureaucrats and politicians (including those opposing Christianity) are Jesuit school alumni. In Indonesia, the Jesuits run seven junior and/or high schools, including Canisius College (Kolese Kanisius), St.Mikael College, De Britto College, Loyola College (Kolese Loyola), Junior High School of Wood Technology (PIKA), Gonzaga College, and Le Coq d'Armanville College. In Hong Kong S.A.R., the Jesuits run two secondary schools including Wah Yan College, Kowloon and Wah Yan College, Hong Kong. In Japan, the Jesuits founded Sophia University. It is considered to be one of the best private universities in the country, and is one of Tokyo's top ranked private universities. In Korea, the Jesuits are running Sogang University. It is established in February, 1960. It is founded by Art Dethlefs, Basil Price, Jin Song Man(진성만), Theodor Geppert, Ken Killoren and Clancy Herbst. Nowadays Sogang University is considered to be one of the best private universities in Korea. In Taiwan, Jesuits founded the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Management of the Catholic Fu-Jen University during the 1950s. In 2003 another new Faculty of Social Sciences was derived from the Faculty of Law. Thus until today, the Fu Jen Catholic University is still considered to be one of the best private universities in Taiwan. Jesuits also operate retreat houses, for the purpose of offering the Spiritual Exercises (above) and other types of days of prayer or spiritual programs extended over weekends or weeks. The oldest Jesuit retreat house in the United States is Mount Manresa in Staten Island, New York, and today there are 34 retreat houses or spirituality centers run by the order in the U.S. Jesuits also serve on the staffs of other retreat centers. Jesuits are also known for their involvement in publications. La Civiltà Cattolica, a periodical produced in Rome by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official platform for popes and Vatican officials to float ideas for discussion or hint at future statements or positions. In the United States, America magazine has long had a prominent place in intellectual Catholic circles, and the Jesuits produce Company, a periodical specifically about Jesuit activities. Most Jesuit colleges and universities have their own presses which produce a variety of books, book series, textbooks and academic publications as well. Ignatius Press, staffed by Jesuits, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most of which are of the popular academic or lay-intellectual variety. In Australia, the Jesuits run a winery at Sevenhill, the Jesuit Mission Australia, and they produce a number of magazines, including Eureka Street, Madonna, Australian Catholics, and Province Express. Jesuit buildings Ruins of Saint Paul's Church, Macau, one of many churches built by the Jesuits in Asia during the 16th and 17th centuries Church of the Gesu, mother church of the Society of Jesus in Rome Many buildings and ruins give witness to the order's construction activity worldwide. Among these are: Sant'Ignazio di Loyola in Rome, Italy Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis Church in Paris Ruins of Saint Paul's Church in Macau Ruins of San Ignacio Church in the Philippines Basilica of Bom Jesus near Panaji, Goa, in India Church of the Gesù in Rome, Italy Iglesia de San Ildefonso/Iglesia de los Jesuitas (The Jesuit church)in Toledo, Spain São Roque Church in Lisbon, Portugal Ateneo de Manila University Church of the Gesu in the Philippines La Santisima Trinidad de Parana in Paraguay Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola in San Juan de Puerto Rico Belen School in Havana, Cuba Belen Church in Havana, Cuba St. Ignatius Cathedral in Xujiahui, Shanghai, China Stonyhurst College in Lancashire, United Kingdom St Beuno's College a Jesuit Spirituality and Retreat Centre in Wales, UK St Aloysius' College in Sydney, Australia St Ignatius College (Riverview), in Australia St. Ignatius College Preparatory School in Chicago, Illinois, United States of America St Ignatius Church in San Francisco, California, United States of America St. Ignatius Chapel in Kowloon, Hong Kong S.A.R. (inside the campus of Wah Yan College, Kowloon) The Church of the Society of Jesus in Cuzco - Peru St. Peter of Lima - Peru Cathedral of Salvador in Brazil New Cathedral of Coimbra, in Portugal St. Ignatius College in Galway, Ireland (Gaeilge Coláiste Iognáid) St Ignatius Primary School, church and college in North London Regis High School, a tuition-free private college preparatory in New York City, New York Loyola College, one of India's top colleges, located at Chennai, India St. Xavier High School, Cincinnati a private, all-male, college-preparatory high school in Cincinnati, Ohio St. Francis Xavier High School, New York a private, all-male, college preparatory high school in New York, New York Xavier College a private school in Melbourne, Australia for boys from kindergarten to year 12. Well known for its chapel. Universidad Católica Andrés Bello campus buildings, in Caracas, Venezuela Pontificia Universidad Javeriana campus buildings, in Bogotá, Colombia Colegio del Salvador a private, all male college and school with Church in Buenos Aires, Argentina St. Ignatius High School in Cleveland, Ohio, an all-male college preparatory school University of Detroit Jesuit High School and Academy in Detroit, MI, an all-male college preparatory school Walsh Jesuit High School in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, a co-ed college preparatory school. Well known for athletics. Also, 100% of the students enroll in 4-year colleges. Church of Carolus Borromeus (Carolus Borromeuskerk, Dutch wiki) in Antwerp, with several magnificent works of Rubens. First dedicated to Ignatius de Loyola, then in 1773 renamed to the church of Charles Borromeo. More Jesuit churches on the Dutch wiki. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) 1712-1872 in Heidelberg, Germany. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Koblenz, Germany. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Mannheim, Germany. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche/St. Michael) in Munich, Germany. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Hall in Tirol, Austria. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Innsbruck, Austria. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Vienna, Austria. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Lucern, Switzerland. Church of the Jesuits (jesuitenkirche) in Soluthurn, Switzerland. Popular culture The Mission 1986 award winning film in which 18th century Spanish Jesuits try to protect a remote South American Indian tribe in danger of falling under the rule of pro-slavery Portugal. Black Robe 1991 film about a Jesuit in 17th century Quebec and his struggles with the Algonquin tribe. The Exorcist Novel and film set at Georgetown University, a Jesuit school, with two Jesuit priests as exorcists. The novel and screenplay were written by William Peter Blatty, a 1950 graduate of the school. Possessed (2000 film) a film based on a book by Thomas B. Allen (author) concerning the same events that inspired The Exorcist. The Sparrow 1996 science fiction novel about a Jesuit mission to an alien world. (See also its 1998 sequel, Children of God.) A Case of Conscience 1958 science fiction novel about a Jesuit mission to an alien world. Donald Strachey movies, Timothy was formerly a Jesuit student. The Vicomte de Bragelonne Novel, by Alexandre Dumas, in which Aramis; once musketeer now turned Jesuit plays a key role. Jack Ryan Series of Novels, by Tom Clancey, which the main character Jack Ryan is noted as having been educated by the Jesuits at Boston College and Georgetown. See also Acta Sanctorum Apostleship of Prayer Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities Bollandist Catholicism in China Catholicism in Japan Jesuit Ivy Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos Jesuit pre-modern China missions Laying on of hands List of Jesuits Misiones Province, Argentina Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu Ratio Studiorum Residential Schools Notes and references External links Finding God In All Things Catholic Church documents Benedict XVI's Address to the Members of the Society of Jesus, 22 April 2006 Benedict XVI's Visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, 3 November 2006 Jesuit documents The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599 The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591-1610 Jesuit websites in various regions The Jesuit Portal - Jesuit Worldwide Homepage Directory of Jesuit Websites Ignatian wiki Jesuit Refugee Service Sacred Space: long-running Jesuit daily prayer site Sacred Space, in 20 languages, coordinated by the Jesuits of the Irish Province by Albert J. Fritsch, SJ, PhD Africa Jesuits in East Africa Jesuits in West Africa Jesuits in South Africa Jesuits in Zimbabwe Asia-Oceania Jesuits in Australia Jesuits in Goa, India Jesuits in Indonesia Finding God in All Things Blogsite on Ignatian Spirituality and Jesuits (in Indonesian) Jesuits in the Philippines Jesuit universities in the Philippines Jesuits in Malaysia and Singapore Europe Jesuits in Britain Jesuit Volunteer Community, UK Jesuits in Croatia Jesuits in Ireland Jesuits in France Jesuits in Germany Jesuits in Hungary Jesuits in Italy Jesuits in Poland North America Jesuits in Canada Canadian Jesuits International United States Jesuit Conference Jesuit Volunteer Corps Ignatian Volunteer Corps Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities Old Catholic (not Roman) Jesuits in the United States South America Jesuits in Chile Media The BBC Radio 4 In Our Time programme on 18 January 2007 was devoted to the early history and educational role of the Jesuits; the programme's website offers a free podcast and 'listen again' service In Our Time website Pray-as-you-go: latest initiative by the British Jesuits, providing daily prayer in MP3 format for use "on the go" Documentary by the Society of Jesus Province of Chicago (Windows Media Player) Contemporary Jesuits speak about their Jesuit vocation, the vows, and the mission of the Society of Jesus (Real Player) Jesuits Saints and Blessed be-x-old:Езуіты | Society_of_Jesus |@lemmatized seal:1 society:52 jesus:36 ihs:1 trigram:1 comprise:1 first:21 three:5 greek:2 letter:6 ihσoyς:1 later:2 interpret:2 iesus:1 hominum:1 salvator:1 saviour:2 mankind:1 iesum:1 habemus:1 socium:1 companion:3 iesu:2 humilis:1 societas:2 humble:2 roman:11 catholic:34 religious:11 order:32 clerk:2 regular:3 whose:6 member:9 call:17 jesuit:284 soldier:4 christ:8 foot:1 pope:29 founder:6 saint:8 ignatius:61 loyola:24 knight:1 become:13 priest:25 large:9 male:6 church:57 scholastic:10 student:6 brother:17 novice:9 january:8 although:3 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1,210 | Jarvis_Island | NASA picture of Jarvis Island; note the submerged reef beyond the eastern end. Jarvis Island (; formerly known as Bunker Island) is an uninhabited 4.5 square kilometer (1.75 sq. mile) coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean at , about halfway between Hawaii and the Cook Islands. It is an unincorporated territory of the United States, administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system. Unlike most coral atolls, the lagoon on Jarvis is wholly dry. Jarvis is one of the southern Line Islands and for statistical purposes is also grouped as one of the United States Minor Outlying Islands. Geography and ecology Map of Jarvis Island Orthographic projection over Jarvis Island There are no ports or harbors but a few offshore anchorage spots have been noted. Swift currents are a hazard. There is a boat landing area in the middle of the western shoreline near a crumbling day beacon and another near the southwest corner of the island. The center of Jarvis island is a dried lagoon where deep guano deposits accumulated. These deposits were mined for about 20 years during the 19th century. The island has a tropical desert climate with high daytime temperatures, constant wind and strong sun. Nights, however, are quite cool. The ground is mostly sandy and reaches seven meters (23 feet) at its highest point. The low-lying coral island has long been noted as hard to sight from small ships and is surrounded by a narrow fringing reef. Located only 25 miles south of the equator, Jarvis has no natural fresh water lens and scant rainfall. This creates a very bleak, flat landscape without any plants larger than shrubs. There is no evidence that the island has ever supported a self-sustaining human population. Its sparse bunch grass, prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs are primarily a nesting, roosting and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds and marine wildlife. History Western shore of Jarvis Island with the lighthouse at the site of Millersville in October 2003 Discovery The island's first known sighting by Europeans was on 21 August 1821 by the British ship Eliza Francis (or Eliza Frances) owned by Edward, Thomas and William Jarvis and commanded by Captain Brown. In March 1857 the uninhabited island was claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act and formally annexed on 27 February 1858. 19th century guano mining Remains of a guano tramway on Jarvis Island, looking west with 125-year-old heaps of mined but never-shipped guano in the background near the lighthouse Beginning in 1858, several support structures were built, along with a two-story, eight-room "superintendent's house" featuring an observation cupola and wide verandas. Tram tracks were laid down for bringing mined guano to the western shore. For the following twenty-one years, Jarvis was commercially mined for guano, sent to the United States as fertilizer, but the island was abruptly abandoned in 1879. New Zealand entrepreneurs then made unsuccessful attempts to continue guano extraction on Jarvis, and the two-story house was sporadically inhabited during the early 1880s. Squire Flockton was left alone on the island as caretaker for several months and committed suicide there in 1883, apparently from gin-fueled despair. His wooden grave marker was a carved plank which could be seen in the island's tiny three-grave cemetery for decades. The United Kingdom annexed the island on 3 June 1889. Phosphate and copra entrepreneur John T. Arundel visited the island in 1909 and near the beach landing on the western shore a tumbled, pyramidal day beacon made from slats of wood was repaired, painted white and stood at least until 1942. On 30 August 1913 the barquentine Amaranth (C.W. Nielson, captain) was carrying a cargo of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales to San Francisco when it wrecked on Jarvis' southern shore. Ruins of the wooden guano-mining buildings and two-story house could still be seen by the Amaranth crew, who left Jarvis aboard two lifeboats. One reached Pago Pago, American Samoa and the other made Apia in Western Samoa. The ship's scattered remains were noted and scavenged for many years, and rounded fragments of coal from the Amaranths hold were still being found on the south beach in the late 1930s. Bryan, E.H. "Jarvis Island" Retrieved: 7 July 2008. Millersville (1935-1942) In 1935, Jarvis Island was reclaimed by the United States government and colonized from 26 March onwards under the Baker, Howland and Jarvis Colonization Scheme (see also Howland Island and Baker Island). President Franklin D. Roosevelt assigned administration of the island to the U.S. Department of the Interior on 13 May 1936. Starting out as a cluster of large, open tents pitched next to the still-standing white wooden day beacon, the Millersville settlement on the island's western shore was named after a bureaucrat with the United States Department of Air Commerce. The settlement grew into a group of shacks built mostly with wreckage from the Amaranth (lumber from which was also used by the young Hawaiian colonists to build surfboards), but later, stone and wood dwellings were built and equipped with refrigeration, radio equipment and a weather station. Bryan, Edwin H., Jr. Panalaau Memoirs. Retrieved: 7 July 2008. Contains several photos of the Millersville settlement, together with a diary of events in the colony. A crude aircraft landing area was cleared on the northeast side of the island and a T-shaped marker was made from gathered stones, intended to be seen from the air, but no airplane is known to have ever landed there. At the beginning of World War II, a Japanese submarine surfaced off the west coast of the Island. Thinking this was a U.S. Navy submarine that had come to fetch them, the four young colonists rushed down the steep western beach in front of tiny Millersville to shore. The submarine answered with fire from its deck gun, but no one was hurt in the attack. On 7 February 1942, the USCGC Taney evacuated the colonists, then shelled and burned the dwellings of tiny Millersville. Shell holes were later noted in the aircraft landing area. IGY, bird sanctuary Guano-stained US Fish and Wildlife sign on Jarvis Island Jarvis was visited by scientists during the International Geophysical Year from July 1957 to November 1958. The island was then abandoned again. The IGY station chief is noted as Otto H Homung (d. 1958) All scattered building ruins remaining from both the 19th century guano diggings and the 1935-1942 colonization attempt were swept away without a trace by a severe storm, witnessed by the scientists, and lasting several days in January 1958. By the early 1960s a few sheds, a century of accumulated trash, the scientists' house from the late 1950s, and a solid, short, lighthouse-like day beacon built two decades before were the only signs of human habitation on Jarvis. Since 27 June 1974 Jarvis Island has been administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as the Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge' (one of the United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges). A feral cat population (descendants of cats brought by early guano miners) which had been noted on the island for at least a century, causing much disruption to the local ecology, was at last removed by the early 1980s (efforts to do this had begun in the mid-1960s). 19th century tram track remains can reportedly still be seen in the dried lagoon bed at the island's middle and the late 1930s-era lighthouse still stands on the western shore at the site of Millersville. Public entry to Jarvis Island requires a special-use permit and is generally restricted to scientists and educators. The island is visited from time to time by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the United States Coast Guard. References External links Jarvis Island Home Page Website with photos, weather, and more. Jarvis Island information website Has several photos of the old Millersville settlement, together with more modern photos of the island. WorldStatesmen Offers brief data on Jarvis island. be-x-old:Джарвіс | Jarvis_Island |@lemmatized nasa:1 picture:1 jarvis:27 island:43 note:7 submerged:1 reef:2 beyond:1 eastern:1 end:1 formerly:1 know:3 bunker:1 uninhabited:2 square:1 kilometer:1 sq:1 mile:2 coral:3 locate:2 south:4 pacific:2 ocean:1 halfway:1 hawaii:1 cook:1 islands:2 unincorporated:1 territory:1 united:11 state:10 administer:2 fish:4 wildlife:8 service:3 department:3 interior:2 part:1 national:2 refuge:3 system:1 unlike:1 atoll:1 lagoon:3 wholly:1 dry:1 one:6 southern:2 line:1 statistical:1 purpose:1 also:3 group:2 minor:1 outlying:1 geography:1 ecology:2 map:1 orthographic:1 projection:1 port:1 harbor:1 offshore:1 anchorage:1 spot:1 swift:1 current:1 hazard:1 boat:1 land:5 area:3 middle:2 western:8 shoreline:1 near:4 crumble:1 day:5 beacon:4 another:1 southwest:1 corner:1 center:1 dried:2 deep:1 guano:12 deposit:2 accumulate:1 mine:3 year:5 century:6 tropical:1 desert:1 climate:1 high:2 daytime:1 temperature:1 constant:1 wind:1 strong:1 sun:1 night:1 however:1 quite:1 cool:1 ground:1 mostly:2 sandy:1 reach:2 seven:1 meter:1 foot:1 point:1 low:2 lie:1 long:1 hard:1 sight:1 small:1 ship:4 surround:1 narrow:1 fringing:1 equator:1 natural:1 fresh:1 water:1 lens:1 scant:1 rainfall:1 create:1 bleak:1 flat:1 landscape:1 without:2 plant:1 large:2 shrub:2 evidence:1 ever:2 support:2 self:1 sustain:1 human:2 population:2 sparse:1 bunch:1 grass:1 prostrate:1 vine:1 grow:2 primarily:1 nesting:1 roost:1 forage:1 habitat:1 seabird:1 shorebird:1 marine:1 history:1 shore:7 lighthouse:4 site:2 millersville:8 october:1 discovery:1 first:1 sighting:1 european:1 august:2 british:1 eliza:2 francis:1 france:1 edward:1 thomas:1 william:1 command:1 captain:2 brown:1 march:2 claim:1 act:1 formally:1 annex:2 february:2 mining:2 remain:3 tramway:1 look:1 west:2 old:3 heap:1 never:1 background:1 beginning:2 several:5 structure:1 build:5 along:1 two:5 story:3 eight:1 room:1 superintendent:1 house:4 feature:1 observation:1 cupola:1 wide:1 veranda:1 tram:2 track:2 lay:1 bring:2 mined:1 following:1 twenty:1 commercially:1 send:1 fertilizer:1 abruptly:1 abandon:2 new:2 zealand:1 entrepreneur:2 make:4 unsuccessful:1 attempt:2 continue:1 extraction:1 sporadically:1 inhabit:1 early:4 squire:1 flockton:1 leave:2 alone:1 caretaker:1 month:1 committed:1 suicide:1 apparently:1 gin:1 fuel:1 despair:1 wooden:3 grave:2 marker:2 carved:1 plank:1 could:2 see:5 tiny:3 three:1 cemetery:1 decade:2 kingdom:1 june:2 phosphate:1 copra:1 john:1 arundel:1 visit:3 beach:3 tumbled:1 pyramidal:1 slat:1 wood:2 repair:1 paint:1 white:2 stand:3 least:2 barquentine:1 amaranth:4 c:1 w:1 nielson:1 carry:1 cargo:1 coal:2 newcastle:1 wale:1 san:1 francisco:1 wreck:1 ruin:2 building:2 still:5 crew:1 aboard:1 lifeboat:1 pago:2 american:1 samoa:2 apia:1 scatter:2 remains:1 scavenge:1 many:1 round:1 fragment:1 hold:1 find:1 late:3 bryan:2 e:1 h:3 retrieve:2 july:3 reclaim:1 government:1 colonize:1 onwards:1 baker:2 howland:2 colonization:2 scheme:1 president:1 franklin:1 roosevelt:1 assigned:1 administration:1 u:5 may:1 start:1 cluster:1 open:1 tent:1 pitch:1 next:1 settlement:4 name:1 bureaucrat:1 air:2 commerce:1 shack:1 wreckage:1 lumber:1 use:2 young:2 hawaiian:1 colonist:3 surfboard:1 later:2 stone:2 dwelling:2 equip:1 refrigeration:1 radio:1 equipment:1 weather:2 station:2 edwin:1 jr:1 panalaau:1 memoir:1 contain:1 photo:4 together:2 diary:1 event:1 colony:1 crude:1 aircraft:2 clear:1 northeast:1 side:1 shape:1 gathered:1 intend:1 airplane:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 japanese:1 submarine:3 surface:1 coast:2 think:1 navy:1 come:1 fetch:1 four:1 rush:1 steep:1 front:1 answer:1 fire:1 deck:1 gun:1 hurt:1 attack:1 uscgc:1 taney:1 evacuate:1 shell:2 burn:1 hole:1 igy:2 bird:1 sanctuary:1 stain:1 sign:2 scientist:4 international:1 geophysical:1 november:1 chief:1 otto:1 homung:1 digging:1 sweep:1 away:1 trace:1 severe:1 storm:1 witness:1 lasting:1 january:1 shed:1 accumulated:1 trash:1 solid:1 short:1 like:1 habitation:1 since:1 feral:1 cat:2 descendant:1 miner:1 cause:1 much:1 disruption:1 local:1 last:1 remove:1 effort:1 begin:1 mid:1 reportedly:1 bed:1 era:1 public:1 entry:1 require:1 special:1 permit:1 generally:1 restrict:1 educator:1 time:2 guard:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 website:2 information:1 modern:1 worldstatesmen:1 offer:1 brief:1 data:1 x:1 джарвіс:1 |@bigram jarvis_island:16 square_kilometer:1 kilometer_sq:1 pacific_ocean:1 cook_islands:1 unincorporated_territory:1 fish_wildlife:4 wildlife_refuge:3 coral_atoll:1 minor_outlying:1 orthographic_projection:1 offshore_anchorage:1 guano_deposit:1 daytime_temperature:1 fringing_reef:1 guano_islands:1 guano_mining:2 committed_suicide:1 grave_marker:1 san_francisco:1 howland_island:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 feral_cat:1 external_link:1 |
1,211 | James_Whale | James Whale (22 July 1889 – 29 May 1957) was a British film director, theatre director and actor. He is best remembered for his work in the horror film genre, having directed Frankenstein (1931), The Old Dark House (1932), The Invisible Man (1933) and Bride of Frankenstein (1935), all recognized as classics of the genre. Whale directed over a dozen films in other genres, including what is considered the definitive film version of the musical Show Boat (1936). He became increasingly disenchanted with his association with horror, but many of his non-horror films have fallen into obscurity. Born into a large family in Dudley, England, Whale early discovered his artistic talent and studied art. With the outbreak of World War I, Whale enlisted in the British Army and became an officer. He was captured by the Germans and during his time as a prisoner of war he realized he was interested in drama. Following his release at the end of the war he became an actor, set designer and director. His success directing the 1928 play Journey's End led to his move to the United States, first to direct the play on Broadway and then to Hollywood to direct motion pictures. Whale lived in Hollywood for the rest of his life, most of that time with his longtime companion, producer David Lewis. Including Journey's End (1930), Whale directed a dozen films for Universal Studios between 1930 and 1936, developing a style characterized by the influence of German Expressionism and a highly mobile camera. At the height of his popularity as a director, Whale directed The Road Back, a sequel to All Quiet on the Western Front, in 1937. Studio interference, possibly spurred by political pressure from Nazi Germany, led to the film's being altered from Whale's vision and The Road Back was a critical and commercial failure. A string of commercial failures followed and, while Whale would make one final short film in 1950, by 1941 his film directing career was over. Whale continued to direct for the stage and also rediscovered his love for painting and travel. His investments made him wealthy and he lived a comfortable retirement until suffering strokes in 1956 that robbed him of his vigor and left him in pain. Whale committed suicide on 29 May 1957 by drowning himself in his backyard swimming pool. Whale was openly gay throughout his career, something that was very unusual in the 1920s and 1930s. As knowledge of his sexual orientation has become more common knowledge, some of his films, Bride of Frankenstein in particular, have been interpreted as having a gay subtext and it has been claimed that Whale's refusal to remain in the closet led to the end of his career. However, Whale's associates dismiss the notions that Whale's sexuality informed his work or that it cost him his career. Biography Early years Whale was born in Dudley, England, the sixth of the seven children of William, a blast furnaceman, Curtis, p. 8 and Sarah, a nurse. Ellis, p. 20 He attended Kates Hill Board School, followed by Bayliss Charity School and finally Dudley Blue Coat School. His attendance stopped in his teenage years because the cost would have been prohibitive and his labor was needed to help support the family. Thought not physically strong enough to follow his brothers into the local heavy industries, Whale started work as a cobbler, reclaiming the nails he recovered from replaced soles and selling them for scrap for extra money. He discovered he had some artistic ability and earned additional money lettering signs and price tags for his neighbors. Curtis, p. 11 Whale used his additional income to pay for evening classes at the Dudley School of Arts and Crafts. World War I broke out in 1914. Although Whale had little interest in the politics behind the war, he realized that conscription was inevitable so he enlisted in the Army. Considered because of his age a good candidate for officer training, Whale joined the "Inns of Court" cadet corps in October 1915 and was stationed in Bristol. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Worcestershire Regiment in July 1916. Curtis, p. 17 He was taken a prisoner of war during the course of the Flanders Campaign in August 1917 and was housed at the Holzminden prison camp. Curtis, p. 20 Whale was held for two years. While imprisoned, he discovered a talent for staging theatrical productions as he produced shows for the guards and fellow prisoners. Early, pp. 140–41 Whale also developed a talent for poker and after the war he cashed in the chits and IOUs from his fellow prisoners to serve as a nest egg. Curtis, p. 25 During his imprisonment, Whale conceived an abiding hatred of Germany. Career Theatre After the armistice he returned to Birmingham and tried to find work as a cartoonist. He sold two cartoons to the Bystander in 1919 but was unable to secure a permanent position. Later in 1919 Whale embarked on a professional stage career. Under the tutelage of actor-manager Nigel Playfair, Whale worked as an actor, set designer and builder, "stage director" (akin to a stage manager) and director. Skal, et al., p. 50 In 1922, while with Playfair, Whale met Doris Zinkeisen. The two were considered a couple for some two years, despite Whale's living as an openly gay man. The couple was reportedly engaged in 1924 but by 1925 the engagement was off. Curtis, p. 32 In 1928 Whale was offered the opportunity to direct two private performances of R. C. Sherriff's then-unknown play Journey's End for the Incorporated Stage Society, a theatre society that mounted private Sunday performances of plays. Set over a four-day period in March 1918 in the trenches at Saint-Quentin, France, Journey's End gives a glimpse into the experiences of the officers of a British Army infantry company in World War I. The key conflict is between Captain Stanhope, the company commander, and Lieutenant Raleigh, the brother of Stanhope's fiancée. Green, et al., p. 272 Whale offered the part of Stanhope to the then-barely known Laurence Olivier. Olivier initially declined the role, Cottrell, p. 53 but after meeting with the playwright agreed to take it on. Maurice Evans was cast as Raleigh. The play was well-received and transferred to the Savoy Theatre in London's West End, opening on 21 January 1929. A young Colin Clive was now in the lead role, Williamson, p. 29 Olivier having accepted an offer to take the lead in a production of Beau Geste. Coleman, p. 31 The play was a tremendous success, with critics uniform and effusive in their praise and with audiences sometimes sitting in stunned silence following its conclusion only to burst into thunderous ovations. Curtis, p. 70 As Whale biographer James Curtis wrote, the play "managed to coalesce, at the right time and in the right manner, the impressions of a whole generation of men who were in the war and who had found it impossible, through words or deeds, to adequately express to their friends and families what the trenches had been like". Curtis, p. 71 After three weeks at the Savoy, Journey's End transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre, where it ran for the next two years. Coleman, p. 32 With the success of Journey's End at home, Broadway producer Gilbert Miller acquired the rights to mount a New York production with an all-British cast headed by Colin Keith-Johnston as Stanhope and Derek Williams as Raleigh. Whale also directed this version, which premiered at Henry Miller's Theatre on 22 March 1929. The play ran for over a year and cemented its reputation as the greatest play about World War I. Bordman, p. 381 Hollywood The success of the various productions of Journey's End brought Whale to the attention of film producers. Coming at a time when motion pictures were making the transition from silent to talking, producers were interested in hiring actors and directors with experience with dialogue. Whale traveled to Hollywood in 1929 and signed a contract with Paramount Pictures. He was assigned as "dialogue director" for a film called The Love Doctor (1929). Curtis, p. 79 Whale completed work on the film in 15 days and his contract was allowed to expire. It was at around this time that Whale met David Lewis. Curtis, p. 81 Whale next went to work for independent film producer and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes, who planned to turn the previously-silent Hughes production Hell's Angels (1930) into a talkie. Hughes hired Whale to direct the dialogue sequences. With work completed, Whale headed to Chicago to direct another company of Journey's End. Curtis, p. 83 Having purchased the film rights to Journey's End, British producers Michael Balcon and Thomas Welsh agreed that Whale's experience directing the London and Broadway productions of the play made him the best choice to direct the film. The two partnered with a small American studio, Tiffany-Stahl, to shoot the film in New York. Low, et al. p. 171 Colin Clive reprised his role as Stanhope, and David Manners was cast as Raleigh. Kelly (1997), p. 65 Filming got underway on 6 December 1929 Curtis, p. 98 and wrapped on 22 January 1930. Curtis, p. 102 Journey's End was released in Great Britain on 14 April and in the United States on 15 April. Curtis, p. 104 On both sides of the Atlantic the film was a tremendous critical and commercial success and placed Whale at the top of the British film industry. Curtis, pp 104–105 Universal Studios signed Whale to a five-year contract in 1931 and his first project was Waterloo Bridge. Based on the Broadway play by Robert E. Sherwood, the film stars Mae Clarke as Myra, a chorus girl in World War I London who becomes a prostitute. It too was a critical and popular success. At around this time, Whale and Lewis began living together. Anger, p. 210 In 1931, Universal chief Carl Laemmle, Jr. offered Whale his choice of any property the studio owned. Whale chose Frankenstein, mostly because none of Universal's other properties particularly interested him and he wanted to make something other than a war picture. Skal, p. 129 Casting the familiar Colin Clive as Henry Frankenstein and Mae Clarke as his fiancée Elizabeth, Whale turned to an unknown actor named Boris Karloff to play the Monster. Shooting began on 24 August 1931 and wrapped on 3 October. Buehrer, p. 89 Previews were held 29 October, Curtis, p. 151 with wide release on 21 November. Curtis, p. 153 Frankenstein was an instant hit with critics and the public. The film received glowing reviews and shattered box office records across the country, Curtis, p. 157 earning Universal $12 million on first release. It is one of only a few of Whale's films that has remained in the public eye and is regarded as a classic of the horror genre. Next from Whale were Impatient Maiden and The Old Dark House, both in 1932. Impatient Maiden made little impression but The Old Dark House is credited with reinventing the "dark house" subgenre of horror films. Bansak, et al., p. 95 Thought lost for decades, a print was found by filmmaker Curtis Harrington in the Universal vaults in the late 1960s and restored by George Eastman House. Whale's next film was The Kiss Before the Mirror (1933), a critical success but a box office failure. Whale next turned his attention to The Invisible Man (1933). Shot from a script approved by H. G. Wells, Skal, et al., p. 71 the film was a blend of horror, humor and confounding visual effects. The film was critically acclaimed, with The New York Times listing it as one of the ten best films of the year, and broke box office records in cities across the country. So highly regarded was the film that France, which restricted the number of theatres in which undubbed American films could play, granted it a special waiver because of its "extraordinary artistic merit". Curtis, p. 221 Also in 1933 Whale directed the romantic comedy By Candlelight which got good reviews and was a modest box office hit. Curtis, p. 219 In 1934 he directed One More River, an adaptation of the novel of the same name by John Galsworthy. The film tells the story of a woman desperate to escape her abusive marriage to a member of the British aristocracy. This was the first of Whale's films for which Production Code Administration approval was required and Universal had a difficult time securing that approval because of the elements of sexual sadism implicit in the husband's abusive behavior. Curtis, p.p. 224–25 Bride of Frankenstein was Whale's next project. Whale had long resisted doing a sequel to Frankenstein as he feared being pigeonholed as a horror director. Bride hearkened back to an episode from Mary Shelley's original novel in which the Monster promises to leave Frankenstein and humanity alone if Frankenstein makes him a mate. He does, but then destroys the female without bringing it to life. The film was a critical success and a box office sensation, having earned some $2 million for Universal by 1943. Curtis, p. 251 Lauded as "the finest of all gothic horror movies", Bride is frequently hailed as Whale's masterpiece. Gifford, p. 55 With the success of Bride Laemmle was eager to put Whale to work on Dracula's Daughter, the sequel to Universal's first big horror hit. Whale, wary of doing two horror films in a row and concerned that directing Dracula's Daughter could interfere with his plans for the remake of Show Boat, instead convinced Laemmle to buy the rights to a novel called The Hangover Murders. The novel is a comedy-mystery in the style of The Thin Man, about a group of friends who were so drunk the night one of them was murdered that none can remember anything. Curtis, pp. 254–55 Retitled Remember Last Night?, the film was one of Whale's personal favorites, but met with sharply divided reviews and commercial disinterest. Curtis, p. 259 With the completion of Remember Last Night? Whale immediately went to work on Show Boat (1936). Whale gathered as many of those as he could who had been involved in one production or another of the musical, including Helen Morgan, Paul Robeson and a reluctant Irene Dunne, who believed that Whale was the wrong director for the piece. The 1936 Show Boat is considered the definitive film version of the musical, Anger, p. 209. "Whale's is by far the best of the three screen versions of Jerome Kern's musical." but was unavailable for many years following the 1951 remake. This was the last of Whale's films to be produced under the Laemmle family; the Laemmles lost control of the studio to J. Cheever Cowdin, head of the Standard Capital Corporation, and Charles R. Rogers, who was installed in Junior Laemmle's old job. Career in decline Whale's career went into sharp decline following the release of his next film, The Road Back (1937). The sequel to Erich Maria Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front, which Universal had filmed in 1930, the novel and film follow the lives of several young German men who have returned from the trenches of World War I and their struggles to re-integrate into society. The Los Angeles consul for Nazi Germany, George Gyssling, learned that the film was in production. He protested to PCA enforcer Joseph I. Breen, arguing that the film gave an "untrue and distorted picture of the German people". Glancy, p. 45 Gyssling eventually met with Whale but nothing came of it. Curtis, p. 296 Gyssling then sent letters to members of the cast, threatening that their participation in the film might lead to difficulties in obtaining German filming permits for them and for anyone associated in a film with them. Glancy, p. 46 While the low volume of business conducted by Universal in Germany made such threats largely hollow, the State Department, under pressure from the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League and the Screen Actors Guild, Kelly (1997), p. 141 stepped in and the German government backed down. Curtis, p. 299 Whale's original cut of the film was given generally positive reviews but sometime between preview screenings and the film's general release Rogers capitulated to the Germans, ordering that cuts be made and additional scenes be shot and inserted. Whale was furious, Curtis, p. 306 and the altered film was banned in Germany anyway. Kelly (2001), p. 144 The Germans were successful in persuading China, Greece, Italy and Switzerland to ban the film as well. Following the debacle with The Road Back, Charles Rogers tried to get out of his contract with Whale; Whale refused. Rogers then assigned him to a string of B movies to run out his contractual obligation. Whale only made one additional successful feature film, The Man in the Iron Mask (1939), before retiring from the film industry in 1941. Post-film life With his film career behind him, Whale found himself at loose ends. He was offered the occasional job, including the opportunity to direct Since You Went Away for David O. Selznick, Hofler, p. 97 but turned them down. Lewis, meanwhile, was busier than ever with his production duties and often worked late hours, leaving Whale lonely and bored. Lewis bought him a supply of paint and canvasses and Whale re-discovered his love of painting. Eventually he built a large studio for himself. Curtis, p. 347 With the outbreak of World War II, Whale volunteered his services to make a training film for the United States Army. Whale shot the film, called Personnel Placement in the Army, in February 1942. Later that year, in association with actress Claire DuBrey, Whale created the Brentwood Service Players. Curtis, p. 350 The Players took over a 100–seat theatre. Sixty seats were provided free of charge to service personnel; the remaining were sold to the public, with the box office proceeds donated to wartime charities. The group expanded to the Playtime Theatre during the summer, where a series of shows ran through October. Curtis, p. 351 Whale returned to Broadway in 1944 to direct the psychological thriller Hand in Glove. It was his first return to Broadway since his failed One, Two, Three! in 1930. Curtis, p. 353 Hand in Glove would fare no better than his earlier play, running the same number of performances, 40. Curtis, p. 421 Whale directed his final film in 1950, a short subject based on the William Saroyan one-act play Hello Out There. The film, financed by supermarket heir Huntington Hartford, was the story of a man in a Texas jail falsely accused of rape and the woman who cleans the jail. Hartford intended for the short to be part of an anthology film along the lines of Quartet. However, attempts to find appropriate short fiction companion pieces to adapt were unsuccessful and Hello Out There was never commercially released. Curtis, p. 367 Whale's last professional engagement was directing Pagan in the Parlour, a farce about two New England spinster sisters who are visited by a Polynesian whom their father, when shipwrecked years earlier, had married. The production was mounted in Pasadena for two weeks in 1951. Plans were made to take it to New York, but Whale suggested taking the play to London first. Curtis, pp. 369–71 Before opening the play in England, Whale decided to tour the art museums of Europe. In France he renewed his acquaintanceship with Curtis Harrington, whom Whale had met in 1947. While visiting Harrington in Paris, Whale went to some gay bars. At one he met a 25-year-old bartender named Pierre Foegel, who Harrington believed was nothing but "a hustler out for what he could get". The 65-year-old Whale was smitten with the younger man and hired him as his chauffeur. Curtis, p. 374 A provincial tour of Pagan in the Parlour began in September 1952 and it appeared that the play would be a hit. However, Hermione Baddeley, starring in the play as the cannibal "Noo-ga," was drinking heavily and began engaging in bizarre antics and disrupting performances. Because she had a run of the play contract she could not be replaced and so producers were forced to close the show. Curtis, p. 375–76 Whale returned to California in November 1952 and advised David Lewis that he planned to bring Foegel over early the following year. Appalled, Lewis moved out of their home. Curtis, pp. 376–77 While this ended their 23-year romantic relationship, the two men remained friends. Lewis bought a small house and dug a swimming pool, prompting Whale to have his own pool dug, although he did not himself swim in it. Whale began throwing all-male swim parties and would watch the young men cavort in and around the pool. Curtis, p. 377–8 Foegel moved in with Whale in early 1953 and remained there for several months before returning to France. He returned in 1954 permanently, and Whale installed him as manager of a gas station that he owned. Curtis, p. 380 Whale and Foegel settled into a quiet routine until the spring of 1956, when Whale suffered a small stroke. A few months later he suffered a larger stroke and was hospitalized. While in the hospital he was treated for depression with shock treatments. Anger, p. 211 Upon his release, Whale hired one of the male nurses from the hospital to be his personal live-in nurse. Curtis, p. 381 A jealous Foegel maneuvered the nurse out of the house and hired a female nurse as a non live-in replacement. Curtis, p. 383–84 Whale suffered from mood swings and grew increasingly and frustratingly more dependent on others and his mental faculties were diminishing. Curtis, p. 383 Whale committed suicide by drowning himself in his swimming pool on 29 May 1957 at the age of 67. He left a suicide note, which Lewis withheld until shortly before his own death decades later. Because the note was suppressed, the death was initially ruled accidental. The note read in part: "To ALL I LOVE, "Do not grieve for me. My nerves are all shot and for the last year I have been in agony day and night—except when I sleep with sleeping pills—and any peace I have by day is when I am drugged by pills. "I have had a wonderful life but it is over and my nerves get worse and I am afraid they will have to take me away. So please forgive me, all those I love and may God forgive me too, but I cannot bear the agony and it [is] best for everyone this way. "The future is just old age and illness and pain. Goodbye and thank you for all your love. I must have peace and this is the only way. "Jimmy" Whale was cremated per his request and his ashes were interred in the Columbarium of Memory at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale. Because of Whale's habit of periodically revising his date of birth, his niche lists the incorrect date of 1893. Curtis, p. 387 When his longtime companion David Lewis died in 1987, his executor and Whale biographer James Curtis had his ashes interred in a niche across from Whale's. Curtis, p. 389 Sexuality James Whale lived as an openly gay man throughout his career in the British theatre and in Hollywood, something that was virtually unheard of in the 1920s and 1930s. He and David Lewis lived together as a couple from around 1930 to 1952. While he did not go out of his way to publicize his homosexuality, he did not do anything to conceal it either. As filmmaker Curtis Harrington, a friend and confidant of Whale's, put it, "Not in the sense of screaming it from the rooftops or coming out. But yes, he was openly homosexual. Any sophisticated person who knew him knew he was gay." While there have been suggestions that Whale's career was terminated because of homophobia, Bryant, p. 46 Russo, p. 50–51 and Whale was supposedly dubbed "The Queen of Hollywood", Benshoff, p. 41 Harrington states that "nobody made a thing out of it as far as I could perceive". With knowledge of his sexuality becoming more common beginning in the 1970s, some film historians and gay studies scholars have detected homosexual themes in Whale's work, particularly in Bride of Frankenstein in which a number of the creative people associated with the cast, including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive, were alleged to be gay or bisexual. Scholars have identified a gay sensibility suffused through the film, especially a camp sensibility, Skal, p. 184 particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius (Thesiger) and his relationship with Henry Frankenstein (Clive). Gay film historian Vito Russo, in considering Pretorius, stops short of identifying the character as gay, instead referring to him as "sissified" Russo, p. 50 ("sissy" itself being Hollywood code for "homosexual"). Pretorius serves as a "gay Mephistopheles", Skal, p. 185 a figure of seduction and temptation, going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of non-procreative life. A novelisation of the film published in England made the implication clear, having Pretorius say to Frankenstein "'Be fruitful and multiply.' Let us obey the Biblical injunction: you of course, have the choice of natural means; but as for me, I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way." Egremont, Michael, quoted in Skal, p. 189 Russo goes so far as to suggest that Whale's homosexuality is expressed in both Frankenstein and Bride as "a vision both films had of the monster as an antisocial figure in the same way that gay people were 'things' that should not have happened". Russo, p. 49 The Monster, whose affections for the male hermit and the female Bride he discusses with identical language ("friend"), has been read as sexually "unsettled" and bisexual. Writes gender studies author Elizabeth Young: "He has no innate understanding that the male-female bond he is to forge with the bride is assumed to be the primary one or that it carries a different sexual valence from his relationships with [Pretorius and the hermit]: all affective relationships are as easily 'friendships' as 'marriages'." Young, p. 134 Indeed, his relationship with the hermit has been interpreted as a same-sex marriage that heterosexual society will not tolerate: "No mistake—this is a marriage, and a viable one", writes cultural critic Gary Morris for Bright Lights Film Journal. "But Whale reminds us quickly that society does not approve. The monster—the outsider—is driven from his scene of domestic pleasure by two gun-toting rubes who happen upon this startling alliance and quickly, instinctively, proceed to destroy it." The creation of the Bride scene has been called "Whale's reminder to the audience—his Hollywood bosses, peers, and everyone watching—of the majesty and power of the homosexual creator". However, Harrington dismisses this as "a younger critic’s evaluation. All artists do work that comes out of the unconscious mind and later on you can analyze it and say the symbolism may mean something, but artists don’t think that way and I would bet my life that James Whale would never have had such concepts in mind." Specifically in response to the "majesty and power" reading, Harrington states "My opinion is that’s just pure bullshit. That’s a critical interpretation that has nothing to do with the original inspiration." He concludes, "I think the closest you can come to a homosexual metaphor in his films is to identify that certain sort of camp humor." Whale's companion David Lewis stated flatly that Whale's sexual orientation was "not germane" to his filmmaking. "Jimmy was first and foremost an artist, and his films represent the work of an artist—not a gay artist, but an artist." Quoted in Curtis, p. 144 Whale's biographer Curtis rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective, Curtis, p. 144 stating that if the highly class-conscious Whale felt himself to be an antisocial figure, it would have been based not in his sexuality but in his origin in the lower classes. Curtis, p. 143 Film style Whale was heavily influenced by German Expressionism. He was a particular admirer of the films of Paul Leni, combining as they did elements of gothic horror and comedy. This influence was most evident in Bride of Frankenstein. Worland, p. 66 Expressionist influence is also in evidence in Frankenstein, drawn in part from the work of Paul Wegener and his films The Golem (1915) and The Golem: How He Came into the World (1920) Young, et al., p. 188 along with The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) from Robert Wiene, which Whale reportedly screened repeatedly while preparing to shoot Frankenstein. Curtis, p. 149 Frankenstein roughly alternates between distorted expressionistic shots and more conventional styles, with the character of Dr. Waldman serving as "a bridge between everyday and expressionist spaces". Worland, p. 163 Expressionist influence is also evident in the acting, costuming and the design of the Monster. Worland, p. 168 Whale and makeup artist Jack Pierce may also have been influenced by the Bauhaus school of design. Skal, p. 130 The expressionist influence lasted throughout Whale's career, with Whale's final film, Hello Out There, praised by Sight & Sound as "a virtuoso pattern of light and shade, a piece of fully blown expressionist filmmaking plonked down unceremoniously in the midst of neo-realism's heyday". Quoted in Curtis, p. 364 Whale was known for his use of camera movement. He is credited with being the first director to use a 360-degree panning shot in a feature film, included in Frankenstein. Robertson, p. 126 Often singled out for praise in that film is the series of shots used to introduce the Monster: "Nothing can ever quite efface the thrill of watching the successive views Whale's mobile camera allows us of the lumbering figure". Prawer, p. 28 These shots, starting with a medium shot and culminating in two close-ups of the Monster's face, were repeated by Whale to introduce Griffin in The Invisible Man and the abusive husband in One More River. Modified to a single cut rather than two, Whale uses the same technique in The Road Back to signal the instability of a returning World War I veteran. Legacy James Whale memorial statue in Dudley, England. Influential film critic Andrew Sarris, in his 1968 ranking of directors, lists Whale as "lightly likable". Noting that Whale's reputation has been subsumed by the "Karloff cult", Sarris cites Bride of Frankenstein as the "true gem" of the Frankenstein series and concludes that Whale's career "reflects the stylistic ambitions and dramatic disappointments of an expressionist in the studio-controlled Hollywood of the thirties". Sarris, p. 187 Whale's final months are the subject of the 1995 novel Father of Frankenstein by Christopher Bram. The novel focuses on the relationship between Whale and a fictional gardener named Clayton Boone. Father of Frankenstein served as the basis of the 1998 film Gods and Monsters with Ian McKellen as Whale and Brendan Fraser as Boone. McKellen was nominated for an Academy Award for his portrayal of Whale. A memorial statue was erected for Whale in 2002 on the grounds of a new multiplex cinema in his home town of Dudley. The statue, by Charles Hadcock, depicts a roll of film with the face of Frankenstein's monster engraved into the frames and the names of his most famous films etched into a cast concrete base in the shape of film canisters. Noszlopy, et al., p. 51 Filmography Journey's End (1930) Waterloo Bridge (1931) Frankenstein (1931) Impatient Maiden (1932) The Old Dark House (1932) The Kiss Before the Mirror (1933) The Invisible Man (1933) By Candlelight (1933) One More River (1934) Bride of Frankenstein (1935) Remember Last Night? (1935) Show Boat (1936) The Road Back (1937) The Great Garrick (1937) Port of Seven Seas (1938) Sinners in Paradise (1938) Wives Under Suspicion (1938) The Man in the Iron Mask (1939) Green Hell (1940) They Dare Not Love (1941) Personnel Placement in the Army (1942) Hello Out There (1950) Notes References Anger, Kenneth (1984). Hollywood Babylon II. Dutton. Bansak, Edmund G. and Robert Wise (2003). Fearing the Dark: The Val Lewton Career. McFarland. ISBN 0786417099. Benshoff, Harry M. (1997). Monsters in the Closet: Homosexuality and the Horror Film. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719044723. Bordman, Gerald Martin (1995). American Theatre: A Chronicle of Comedy and Drama, 1914-1930. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195090780. Bryant, Wayne (1997). Bisexual Characters in Film: From Anaïs to Zee. Haworth Press. ISBN 078900142X. Buehrer, Beverly Bare (1993). Boris Karloff: A Bio-bibliography. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 031327715X. Coleman, Terry (2005). Olivier. Macmillan. ISBN 0805075364. Curtis, James (1998). James Whale: A New World of Gods and Monsters. Boston, Faber and Faber. ISBN 0571192858. Early, Emmett (2003). The War Veteran in Film. McFarland. ISBN 0786414715. Ellis, Reed (1979). A Journey Into Darkness: The Art of James Whale's Horror Films. University of Florida. Gifford, Denis (1973) Karloff: The Man, The Monster, The Movies. Film Fan Monthly. Glancy, Mark (1999). When Hollywood Loved Britain: The Hollywood "British" Film 1939-1945 Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719048532. Green, S. J. D. and R. C. Whiting (2002). The Boundaries of the State in Modern Britain. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521522226. Hofler, Robert (2006). The Man Who Invented Rock Hudson: The Pretty Boys and Dirty Deals of Henry Willson. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0786718021. Kelly, Andrew (1997) Cinema and the Great War. Routledge. ISBN 0415052033. Kelly, Andrew (2001) 'All Quiet on the Western Front': The Story of a Film. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1860646565. Low, Rachael, Roger Manvell and Jeffrey Richards (2005). History of British Film. Routledge. ISBN 0415156491. Noszlopy, George Thomas and Fiona Waterhouse (2005). Public Sculpture of Staffordshire and the Black Country. Liverpool, Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0853239894. Prawer, Siegbert Salomon (1989). Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror. Da Capo Press. ISBN 030680347X. Robertson, Patrick (2001). Film Facts. Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0823079430. Russo, Vito (1987). The Celluloid Closet: Homosexuality in the Movies (revised edition). New York, HarperCollins. ISBN 0060961325. Sarris, Andrew (1996). The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929-1968. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306807289. Skal, David J. (1993). The Monster Show: A Cultural History of Horror. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140240020. Skal, David J. and Jessica Rains (2008). Claude Rains: An Actor's Voice. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813124328. Williamson, Audrey (1951). Theatre of two decades. Rockliff. Worland, Rick (2007). The Horror Film: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405139013. Young, Elizabeth. "Here Comes The Bride". Collected in Gelder, Ken (ed.) (2000). The Horror Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0415213568. Young, William H. and Nancy K. Young (2007). The Great Depression in America: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313335214. 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1,212 | New_York_Mets | The New York Mets are a professional baseball team based in the borough of Queens in New York City, New York. The Mets are a member of the East Division of Major League Baseball's National League. The Mets were founded as an expansion franchise in 1960 and began play in . The club came into existence as a replacement for New York's two previous National League teams, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants, who relocated to California following the season. As an interesting historical note, there was an earlier baseball club called the New York Metropolitans which played in the short-lived American Association during the 1880s. While the defunct 19th century team is not related to the current incarnation of the Mets, its moniker did serve as the inspiration for the modern day National League franchise. For the first two years of its existence, the team played its home games at the historic Polo Grounds in Upper Manhattan, which it shared with the New York Jets. In , both teams moved into newly constructed Shea Stadium, where the Mets stayed through the season. In 2009, the club moved into Citi Field, located adjacent to the former site of Shea Stadium. During their history, the Mets have won two World Series titles (1969 and 1986), four National League pennants (1969, 1973, 1986, 2000), and five National League East titles (1969, 1973, 1986, 1988, 2006). The Mets also qualified for the postseason as the National League Wild Card team in 1999 and 2000. The Mets have appeared in more World Series - four - than any other expansion team in Major League Baseball history. Their two championships equal the tally of the Toronto Blue Jays and Florida Marlins for the most titles among expansion teams. The Mets held the New York baseball attendance record for 29 years. They broke the Yankees' 1948 record by drawing nearly 2.7 million in 1970. The Mets broke their own record five times before the Yankees took it back in 1999. No Met pitcher has ever thrown a no-hitter, and the franchise's hurlers have gone more than 7,500 games without pitching one - longer than any other Major League franchise. On several occasions, potential no-hitters by Met pitchers have been broken up in the late innings. Tom Seaver twice pitched 8 1/3 innings without allowing a hit for the Mets - in one of those games, against Chicago in 1969, Seaver only needed two more outs for a perfect game before Jimmy Qualls singled Politi, Steve. "Forty years later, Jim Qualls still looms as biggest figure in New York Mets' no-hit futility." (New Jersey) Star-Ledger. May 28, 2009 - while in recent years Tom Glavine, Pedro Martínez, Mike Pelfrey, and John Maine all lost their no-hit bids in the 7th or 8th inning. In 1998, the Independent Budget Office of the city of New York published a study on the economic impact of the city's two Major League Baseball teams. The study included an analysis of where fans of both the Mets and the Yankees resided. The study found that 39% of Mets fans lived in one of the five boroughs of New York, 49% in the tri-state area outside the city and 12% elsewhere. Mets fans were more likely to be found in Queens, Brooklyn, Staten Island, and the Long Island counties of Nassau and Suffolk, whereas Manhattan, the Bronx, New Jersey, Connecticut, and the counties of Westchester and Rockland, as well as the upper Hudson Valley and the upstate New York region, leaned more towards the Yankees - this despite Manhattan's one-time association with the Giants, one of the Mets' predecessors. Franchise history of The New York Mets In 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants abandoned New York for California, leaving the largest city in the United States without a National League franchise. Two years later, on July 27, 1959, attorney William Shea announced the formation of a third major baseball league, the Continental League. He tried to get several existing clubs to move, including the Philadelphia Phillies, the Pittsburgh Pirates, and the Cincinnati Reds, but no National League club was interested. One of the Continental League's five charter members was a team in New York City. Majority interest was held by Joan Whitney Payson and her husband, Charles Shipman Payson, former minority owners of the Giants. The second largest stake was held by George Herbert Walker, Jr. (uncle of future President George H. W. Bush), who served as vice president and treasurer until 1977. Former Giants director M. Donald Grant became chairman of the board. Grant and Joan Payson had been the only members of the Giants' board to oppose the team's move west. The existing leagues, which had considerably more autonomy at the time, responded with plans to add four new teams, two in each league. One of the new National League teams was to be in New York. The NL offered this new franchise to the CL's New York group, provided that they commit to building a new park. Shea told New York Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. that he had to personally cable every National League owner and guarantee that the city would build a new facility. The new team required a new name and many were suggested. Among the finalists were "Bees", "Burros", "Continentals", "Skyscrapers", and "Jets", as well as the eventual runner-up, the "Skyliners." Although Payson had admitted a preference for "Meadowlarks", the owners ultimately selected "Mets", because it was closely related to the club's already-existing corporate name, "New York Metropolitan Baseball Club, Inc.," it hearkened back to "Metropolitans", a name used by an earlier New York team in the American Association from 1880 to 1887, and because its brevity would naturally fit in newspaper headlines. The name was received with broad approval among fans and the press. From the beginning, the Mets sought to appeal to the large contingent of former Giants and Dodgers fans. The Mets' team colors reflect this: orange from the Giants, blue from the Dodgers (and even a reference to the Yankees via home pinstripes). Ironically, orange and blue are also New York City's official colors. Thus two rival fan-bases with 19th Century origins were largely united in support of the new club. 1962–1969: Lovable Losers, Shea Stadium and the Miracle Mets Shea Stadium was the Mets' home from 1964 to 2008. In October, 1961, the National League held an expansion draft to stock the rosters of the Mets and the Houston Colt .45s with players from other clubs. 22 players were selected by the Mets, including some with notable previous success such as Roger Craig, Al Jackson, Frank Thomas, and Richie Ashburn. But rather than select talented young players with future potential, Mets management preferred to sign faded stars of the Dodgers and Giants to appeal to fans' nostalgia. Legendary Yankees manager Casey Stengel was hired out of retirement to lead the team, but his managerial acumen wasn't enough to overcome the severe deficiency of talent among the players. Harry Chiti was acquired from the Cleveland Indians on April 25, 1962 for a player to be named later. The player to be named later was Chiti. He was traded for himself. http://www.historicbaseball.com/players/c/chiti_harry.html The Mets took the field for the first time on April 11, 1962 against the St. Louis Cardinals (the first game schedule for April 10 was delayed due to rain). In an apparent harbinger of things to come, pitcher Roger Craig went into his windup with the Cardinals' Bill White on third--and dropped the ball. Craig was charged with a balk, and the umpire waved White home for the first run scored against the Mets in their history. Despite Gil Hodges hitting the first home run in New York Mets history that day, the Mets went on to lose that game. It would be the first of nine straight losses to start the season en route to a 40-120 record. Their .250 winning percentage was the fourth worst in major-league history, and the third-worst of the modern era (since 1901). Throughout major league history only the 1899 Cleveland Spiders (20-134) lost more games in a single season than the 1962 Mets. It wasn't until 2003 that the record would be threatened by the Detroit Tigers, who finished the season at 43–119. The ineptitude of the Mets during their first year is chronicled in colorful fashion in the 1963 book Can't Anybody Here Play This Game?, written by New York columnist Jimmy Breslin. Beloved by New York fans despite their losing ways — or perhaps because of them — the Mets of the early 1960s became famous for their ineptitude. Journeyman players like the ironically nicknamed "Marvelous Marv" Throneberry became icons of athletic incompetence. Ex-Dodger and Giant pitcher Billy Loes, who was selected by the Mets in the 1961 expansion draft, was credited with this ungrammatical quotation: "The Mets is a good thing. They give everybody jobs. Just like the WPA." Even the Mets proved to have standards, however. In 1962, Cleveland Indians catcher Harry Chiti was purchased by the Mets for a player to be named later in the season. After only 15 games and a .195 batting average, the Mets sent him back to the Indians; he never played another major league game. Chiti was the first player ever to be sent back to his original team in a trade in Major League history. The 1963 Mets featured a pitcher, Carlton Willey, who was having a great year, pitching four shut-outs, when he incurred an injury and finished with a 9–14 won-loss record. How bad were the Mets those first several seasons? Absolutely terrible. On May 26, 1964, in Chicago, they played like champions (at least for one game) and pummeled the Chicago Cubs, 19-1. According to legend, later that day a fan called a New York newspaper to get the score. He was told: "They scored 19 runs." There was a long silence, then the fan asked: "Did they win?" Loughlin, Matt. "One small step for a kid from Queens." MSG Network.com. September 3, 2005 Also in 1964, the Mets, who played their first two seasons in the old Polo Grounds, the former home of the Giants, moved to the newly constructed Shea Stadium, a 55,300-seat multipurpose facility built in the Flushing neighborhood of the Borough of Queens, adjacent to the site of the 1939 and 1964 New York World's Fairs. The home run apple in Shea Stadium Begining in the 1970's when a Mets player would hit a home run at Shea Stadium (pictured), a big red apple emerged from a giant top hat behind center right field, sometimes accompanied by a small fireworks display. The Home Run Apple was preserved outside the Mets' new home, Citi Field, but a new apple is used inside the ballpark during games. One high point of Shea Stadium's first season came on Father's Day, when Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Jim Bunning threw a perfect game against the Mets, the first in the National League since 1880. For perhaps the only time in the stadium's history, the Shea faithful found themselves rooting for the visitors, caught up in the rare achievement, and roaring for Bunning on every pitch in the ninth inning. His strikeout of John Stephenson capped the performance. Another high point was Shea Stadium's hosting of the 1964 All-Star Game. Unexpectedly thrust into the spotlight in the final hectic weekend of the 1964 season, the Mets relished the role of spoiler, beating the Cardinals in St. Louis on Friday and Saturday (keeping alive the hopes of the Phillies, Giants, and Reds) before succumbing to the eventual National League champions on Sunday. In 1965 former Yankee great Yogi Berra came out of retirement and signed with the Mets as player–coach. He would only play 4 games and on May 9, 1965 he played his final game as a player. It was 3 days shy of his 40th birthday. He would serve as coach the rest of the way and proved to be a valuable asset to the team, especially with young talent like Jerry Grote coming up. The Mets' image as lovable losers was wearing a little thin as the decade progressed, but things began to change slowly in the late '60s. In 1966, the Mets chose catcher Steve Chilcott as the first overall selection in the amateur draft. He became the first number one draft pick to retire without reaching the major leagues. The second pick that year was Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson. The Mets acquired top pitching prospect Tom Seaver in a lottery and he became the league's Rookie of the Year in 1967. Even though the Mets remained in last place, Tom Seaver was a sign of good fortune to come. He was originally signed by the Atlanta Braves in February 1966 out of the University of Southern California, but his contract was voided by Commissioner William Eckert on the basis that the USC season had already started when Seaver signed. In order to resolve this issue, the Mets, Indians, and Phillies were all placed in a hat since they were the only teams willing to match the Braves offer, and the Mets were fortunate enough to win the drawing. In addition to Seaver, two other young players were catcher Jerry Grote and shortstop Bud Harrelson. This trio of youth formed a new, determined clubhouse nucleus that had no interest in losing, lovably or otherwise. By the 1968 season, Wes Westrum would be replaced as manager by Gil Hodges. Pitcher Jerry Koosman joined the staff and had a spectacular rookie season in 1968, winning 19 games. Left fielder Cleon Jones developed as a batter and exciting center fielder Tommie Agee came over in a trade. But although much improved, the 1968 team still finished the season in 9th place. The Mets began the 1969 season in a mediocre way: an opening day loss of 11–10 to the expansion Montreal Expos was followed by a record of 21–23 through the end of May. On April 10, 1969 Tommie Agee became the only player ever to hit a home run to the small area of fair territory in the upper level of Shea Stadium. A painted sign on the stands nearby commemorated the spot at Shea. By mid-August, the favored Chicago Cubs seemed safely on their way to winning the first ever National League East Division title (and their first postseason appearance of any kind since 1945). The Mets sat in third place, ten games behind; but Chicago went 8–17 in September, while the Mets, with outstanding pitching from their young staff, piled up victory after victory, winning 38 of their last 49 games. They took first place for good on September 9, and finished in first place with a 100–62 record for the season, their first winning year ever, a full eight games over the Cubs. The Mets finished with a team ERA of 2.99, and a league leading 28 shutouts thrown. Tom Seaver led the way with a 25–7 record, with lefty Jerry Koosman behind him at 17–9 record, while Cleon Jones finished with a .340 batting average. Seaver's best game occurred on July 9, at Shea Stadium, where he came within two outs of a perfect game, but gave up a one-out, ninth-inning single to the Cubs' Jimmy Qualls for the only hit in the Mets' 4–0 victory. The "Miracle Mets" or "Amazin Mets," as they became known by the press, went on to win a three-game sweep of the strong Atlanta Braves, led by legend Henry "Hank" Aaron, in the very first National League Championship Series. The Mets were still considered underdogs in this series despite the fact that they had a better record than the Braves, the first place team in the National League West. The Mets were given very little chance in the 1969 World Series, facing a powerful Baltimore Orioles team that had gone 109–53 in the regular season and included Frank Robinson, Brooks Robinson, and Jim Palmer as well as future Mets manager Davey Johnson, who would make the final out of the Series. Before the series began, pundits predicted Tom Seaver might win the opening game, but that the Mets would have trouble winning again in the World Series. As it turned out, just the opposite occurred; Seaver was roughed up, allowing four runs in the opener, which he lost - but the Mets' pitching shut down the Orioles after that, holding them to just five runs over the next four games, to win the World Series 4 games to 1. Seaver got his revenge in game four, pitching all 10 innings of a 2–1 victory. For longtime Mets announcer Ralph Kiner and many fans, the turning point in the team's season, came in the third inning of the second game of a July 30 doubleheader against the Houston Astros. When left fielder Cleon Jones failed to hustle after a ball hit to the outfield, Mets manager Gil Hodges removed him from the game - but rather than simply signal from the dugout for Jones to come out, or delegate the job to one of his coaches, Hodges left the dugout and slowly, deliberately, walked all the way out to left field to Jones, and walked him back to the bench. For the rest of that season, Jones never failed to hustle. 1970–1979: "Ya Gotta Believe!" and the Midnight Massacre The Miracle Mets magic wore off as the 1970s began. In subsequent years, Mets pitchers generally excelled but received lackluster support from the hitters with mediocre finishes the result. Efforts to improve the offense backfired with blunders such as trading Amos Otis for troubled infielder Joe Foy after the 1969 season as well as young pitcher Nolan Ryan for infielder Jim Fregosi after the 1971 season. Once out of the glaring New York spotlight, Ryan became one of the best pitchers in history, spending 22 more years in the majors and entering the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1999 as a Texas Ranger. Fregosi battled injuries and played just 146 games for the Mets over a season and a half. Meanwhile Otis became a star with the Kansas City Royals while Foy lasted only one season in New York. The team was thrown into confusion and shock prior to the 1972 season, when Manager Gil Hodges, who had led the team to the World Series victory in 1969, suffered a sudden heart attack at the end of spring training and died. Coach Yogi Berra succeeded Hodges. Berra's Mets found themselves in last place with a 61–71 record at the end of August, 1973 but they recovered behind relief pitcher Tug McGraw and his "Ya gotta believe!" rallying cry (the team has since trademarked the phrase), winning 21 of their last 29 games. Berra also coined his most famous Yogiism that year: "It ain't over till it's over!" In a peculiar circumstance, their final record of only 82–79 was good enough to win the division while five better teams in the Majors missed the postseason. Despite the second-worst winning percentage ever by a division winner (until the 2005 San Diego Padres), the Mets then shocked the heavily-favored Cincinnati Reds "Big Red Machine" in the NLCS. Their record remains the worst of any pennant-winning team but they managed to push the defending World Series Champion Oakland Athletics to a seventh game. Their near-miracle season ended with a loss to Ken Holtzman in the final contest. As the 1975 season ended, owner Joan Payson died, leaving the team to her husband Charles. While Joan Payson had been the driving force behind the Mets, her survivors did not share her enthusiasm. Charles delegated his authority to his three daughters, who left control over baseball matters to club chairman Grant. Contract disputes with star pitcher Tom Seaver and slugger Dave Kingman erupted in 1977. Both players were traded on June 15, the trading deadline, in what New York tabloids dubbed "The Midnight Massacre". The Mets received six players in the two deals, but none had any lasting impact. Attendance fell, to the point where Shea Stadium was nicknamed "Grant's Tomb." Coincidentally, the Yankees began their resurgence at roughly the same time, further eroding the Mets' fan base. The team finished in last place yet again in . By this time, it was obvious that Grant had mismanaged the team and failed to invest in its future. Charles Payson himself fired Grant at the end of the season. The Mets continued to struggle, and did not become a competitive team again until the mid-1980s, marking the first time that both New York teams were competitive at the same time, both on the field and at the box office. 1980–1990: Cashen rebuilds, World Series Champions and what could have been In January 1980, the Payson heirs sold the Mets franchise to the Doubleday publishing company for $21.1 million. Nelson Doubleday, Jr. was named chairman of the board while minority shareholder Fred Wilpon took the role of club president. Wilpon quickly hired longtime Baltimore Orioles executive Frank Cashen as general manager to begin the process of rebuilding the Mets. Cashen's positive impact on the organization took some time to be felt at the major league level. He began by selecting slugging high school phenomenon Darryl Strawberry as the number one overall pick in the 1980 amateur draft. Two years later, hard-throwing hurler Dwight Gooden was taken as the fifth overall selection in the 1982 draft. The pair rose quickly through the minors, winning successive Rookie of the Year awards (Strawberry in 1983, Gooden in 1984). Cashen's mid-season 1983 trade for former MVP Keith Hernandez helped spark the Mets' return to competitive contention. In 1984, new manager Davey Johnson was promoted from the helm of the AAA Tidewater Tides and led the Mets to a 90-72 record, their first winning season since 1976. In 1985 the Mets acquired catcher Gary Carter from the Montreal Expos and won 98 games, but lost the division title to the St. Louis Cardinals in the final days of the season in a memorable series. The Mets began the series three games behind St. Louis and won the first two, but faltered in the third game, allowing St. Louis to remain in first place. Unlike the league champion Mets of 1969 or 1973, the 1986 Mets broke away from the rest of the division early and dominated throughout the year. They won 20 of their first 24 games, clinched the East Division title on September 17, and finished the year 108–54, which tied with the 1975 Cincinnati Reds for the third highest win total in National League history, behind the 1906 Chicago Cubs (116) and the 1909 Pittsburgh Pirates (110). The relative lack of excitement during the regular season was more than compensated for by the spectacularly suspenseful and dramatic post-season series. In the National League Championship Series, the Mets faced their fellow 1962 expansion team, the Houston Astros. Unlike the Mets, the Astros had yet to win a pennant, but had former Mets pitchers Mike Scott, the league's Cy Young Award winner, and fireballer Nolan Ryan leading their pitching staff. The Mets took a two-games-to-one lead with a come-from-behind walk-off home run by Lenny Dykstra. In Game 6, the Mets turned a 3–0 ninth-inning deficit into a sixteen-inning marathon victory to clinch the National League pennant and earn their third World Series appearance. The Astros would have to wait until 2005 to finally win their first pennant. In the World Series against the Boston Red Sox, the Mets faced elimination leading into Game 6. The Red Sox scored two runs in the tenth inning and twice came within one strike of winning their first World Series since 1918. However, the Mets rallied and would come back in typical Amazin' Mets fashion, as the game became one of the most famous games in baseball history. With two outs and down two runs, three consecutive singles brought the Mets within of knotting the score. Hitter Mookie Wilson ran the count to 2-1, then fouled off 3 consecutive pitches. With the count 2-2, pitcher Bob Stanley threw a wild pitch that Wilson had to leap out of the way of. Boston catcher Rich Gedman made a wild stab for the ball but it went to the backstop. Pinch hitter Kevin Mitchell scored from third base, tying the game. Game 6: Ray Knight (not pictured) scores the winning run as Bill Buckner and Bob Stanley watch Mookie Wilson's slow roller. Now facing a full count, Wilson fouled off two more pitches. On NBC, Vin Scully then called a play that would quickly become an iconic one to baseball fans, with the normally calm Scully growing increasingly excited: Scully then remained silent for more than three minutes, letting the pictures and the crowd noise tell the story. Scully resumed with: The Mets went on to win their second World Series title by taking Game 7, also in dramatic fashion, overcoming a 3 run deficit while scoring a total of 8 runs during the final 3 innings. They remain the only team to come within one strike of losing a World Series before recovering to become World Champions. While the team around the 1986 championship was strong, they also became infamous for off-the-field controversy. Both Strawberry and Gooden were youngsters who wound up burning out long before their time because of various substance abuse and personal problems. Hernandez's cocaine abuse was the subject of persistent rumors even before he joined the Mets, but he publicly acknowledged his addiction in 1985 and made a successful recovery. Lenny Dykstra's reputation was recently tainted by allegations of steroid use and gambling problems. Instead of putting together a winning dynasty, the problems caused the Mets to soon fall apart. Despite Darryl Strawberry's numerous off-the-field mishaps, he remains the Mets' all-time leader in home runs and runs batted in. After winning the World Series in 1986 the Mets declined to re-sign World Series MVP Ray Knight, who then signed with the Orioles. Also, they traded the flexible Kevin Mitchell to the Padres for long-ball threat Kevin McReynolds. But the biggest shock since the Midnight Massacre of 1977 was when Mets' ace Dwight Gooden was admitted to a drug clinic after testing positive for cocaine. But after struggling in the first few months of the 1987 season, "Dr. K" would come back, and so would the Mets. They would surge to battle St. Louis for the division title. But on September 11 in a game against St. Louis, 3rd baseman Terry Pendleton hit a homer to give the Cardinals a lead, and eventually the NL East title. One highlight of the year was Darryl Strawberry and Howard Johnson becoming the first teammates ever to hit 30 homers and steal 30 bases in the same season. After missing the playoffs in 1987, the 1988 Mets again won the division. Thanks to some stellar pitching from Gooden, Ron Darling, and David Cone as well as offense from McReynolds, Strawberry, and Howard Johnson, the Mets won 100 games for the 2nd time in 3 campaigns. However, the clubhouse was distracted by the presence of a young Gregg Jefferies who was just called up. The veteran players took a dislike to Jefferies, who had a habit of excessive bragging, prompting his teammates to saw his bats in half as a form of hazing. The Mets played the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 1988 National League Championship Series in a season where they beat them 10 out of 11 times but, led by Orel Hershiser, the Dodgers continued their Cinderella story season by beating the Mets in seven games. The Mets (as well as the Montreal Expos) would battle the Cubs for the division title in 1989, but Chicago would prevail, despite a career year by Howard Johnson and a deadline trade with Minnesota for 1988 AL Cy Young winner Frank Viola. Those high points were tempered by injuries to Gooden, Hernandez and Carter as well as an ill-fated trade that sent Dykstra and Roger McDowell to Philadelphia in exchange for Juan Samuel. After the season, Samuel, who hit .235 that season, would be traded to the Dodgers for Mike Marshall, who would hit .239 in 53 games for the Mets before being traded to Boston. Dykstra, however, would become an All-Star in Philadelphia and help lead his team to a pennant in 1993. That offseason, the Mets had a mix of triumph and tragedy. They would receive All-Star closer and native New Yorker John Franco in a trade with the Cincinnati Reds, and Strawberry, in legal trouble as well, would check into an alcohol rehabilitation center and miss the start of the season. The next season, the Mets would surge again to battle the Pittsburgh Pirates, but Pittsburgh's "B-B Guns" (which included Barry Bonds, Bobby Bonilla, Jay Bell and Wally Backman) led the Pirates to their first NLCS since 1979. In that campaign, general manager Frank Cashen fired Johnson from his managerial job and replaced him with former shortstop Bud Harrelson. Although he led them to a good finish in 1990 (Strawberry's last with the Mets, as he went on to sign with the Dodgers in the offseason), the Mets fell to 5th place in 1991. Before the 1991 season the Mets signed Vince Coleman to a $2 million contract after failing to sign defending batting champion Willie McGee. This was the first of what would lead to many bad free agent signings and trades that would doom the Mets during the mid 1990s. 1991–1997: "Hardball Is Back", The Worst Team Money Could Buy and Generation K During the 1991 season, the Mets were actually in contention for most of the first half of the season, closing to within 2.5 games of the front-running Pirates at one point. However, during the second half, the bottom completely fell out and Harrelson was fired with a week left to go in the season, replaced by third base coach Mike Cubbage for the final games. Jefferies was once again a distraction as he released a controversial statement to be read on WFAN radio: "When a pitcher is having trouble getting players out, when a hitter is having trouble hitting, or when a player makes an error, I try to support them in whatever way I can. I don't run to the media to belittle them or to draw more attention to their difficult times. I can only hope that one day those teammates who have found it convenient to criticize me will realize that we are all in this together. If only we can concentrate more on the games than complaining and bickering and pointing fingers, we would all be better off." This was seen as the end for Jefferies in New York as he would be traded to the Kansas City Royals in the offseason. The season ended on a high note, however, as David Cone pitched a one-hit shutout against the Phillies at Veterans Stadium, in which he struck out 19 batters, tying the National League regulation game record (first set by former Met Tom Seaver) With all of the personal problems swirling around the Mets after the 1986 championship, the Mets tried to rebuild using experienced superstars. They picked up Eddie Murray for over $3 million, Bobby Bonilla for over $6 million. They also traded McReynolds and Jeffries for one-time World Series hero Bret Saberhagen and his $3 million contract, along with signing veteran free agent pitcher Frank Tanana for $1.5 million. The rebuilding was supported by the slogan, "Hardball Is Back". THE MEDIA BUSINESS: ADVERTISING -- ADDENDA; A New Approach For the Mets, The New York Times, March 26, 1993 The experiment of building a team via free agency quickly flopped as Saberhagen and Coleman were soon injured and spent more time on the disabled list than on the field, and Bonilla exhibited unprofessional behavior towards members of the press, once threatening a reporter by saying, "I'll show you The Bronx" . At the beginning of the 1991 season, Coleman, Gooden and outfielder Daryl Boston were named in an alleged sexual abuse incident against a woman near the Mets' spring training facility; charges were later dropped. Meanwhile, popular pitcher David Cone was dealt to the Toronto Blue Jays during the 1992 season for Ryan Thompson and Jeff Kent. While the move was widely criticized by fans of both teams, the Jays went on to win the 1992 World Series. The lowest point of the experiment was the 1993 season when the Mets lost 103 games. In April of that year, Coleman accidentally hit Gooden's shoulder with a golf club while practicing his swing. In July, Saberhagen threw a firecracker under a table near reporters. Their young pitching prospect Anthony Young started the '93 season at 0–13 and his overall streak of 27 straight losses over two years set a new record. After Young's record-setting loss, Coleman threw a firecracker out of the team bus window and injured three people resulting in felony charges that effectively ended his Mets career. Only a few days later, Saberhagen was in trouble again, this time for spraying bleach at three reporters. The meltdown season resulted in the worst record for a Mets team since 1965. Their descent was chronicled by the book The Worst Team Money Could Buy: The Collapse Of The New York Mets (ISBN 0-8032-7822-5) by Mets beat writers Bob Klapisch and John Harper. In addition, two of the three remaining links to the '86 team, Howard Johnson and Sid Fernandez, departed after the season via free agency. The following season was filled with some bright spots, but there was still trouble for the franchise, and for the team's franchise player. Gooden, who had a 3-4 record with a 6.31 ERA in the final year of his contract with the team, shocked not only New York sports fans, but baseball fans around the country by testing positive for cocaine and was suspended by Major League Baseball for 60 days. Shortly after he began serving his suspension for the positive drug test, it was announced that he had again tested positive for cocaine and was now being suspended by Major League Baseball for one year, thus ending his Mets career and nearly his life. The day after receiving the second suspension, Gooden's then-wife, Monica, found him in his bedroom with a loaded gun to his head. 1994 season Still, the 1994 season saw some promise for the troubled Mets, as first baseman Rico Brogna and second baseman Jeff Kent became fan favorites with their solid glove work and potential 20-25 home run power, Bonilla started to become the player the Mets expected, and a healthy Saberhagen, along with promising young starter Bobby Jones and John Franco, helped the Mets pitching staff along. In the strike-shortened 1994 season the Mets were in 3rd place behind first-place Montreal and Atlanta when the season ended on August 12. When the strike finally ended in 1995, the Mets finally showed some promise again, finishing in 2nd place (but still 6 games under .500) behind eventual World Series champion Atlanta. 1995 season The 1995 season marked the emergence of pitchers Bill Pulsipher, Jason Isringhausen, and Paul Wilson. The trio were dubbed Generation K, a group of talented young hurlers who were destined to bring the Mets into greatness, much like Tom Seaver, Jerry Koosman and Nolan Ryan did in the 60s. However, all three players succumbed to injury, preventing them from reaching their full potential. 1996 season The Mets dismal 1996 season was highlighted by the play of switch hitting catcher Todd Hundley breaking the Major League Baseball single season record for home runs hit by catcher with 41. Center fielder Lance Johnson set single-season franchise records in hits (227), triples (21), at bats (682), runs scored (117), and total bases (327). In 1997, as they missed the playoffs by only four games, and improved by 17 wins from 1996. On June 16, when the Mets beat the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium in the first ever regular-season game played between the crosstown rivals 6–0. Mets starter Dave Mlicki pitched a complete game/shutout to pick up the win. In 1997 Hundley's great season was derailed by a devastating elbow injury and requiring Tommy John surgery. 1998–2004: Piazza, the Subway Series and 9/11 In 1998 the Mets acquired Mike Piazza in a blockbuster trade that immediately brought star power and credibility to the Mets that had been lacking in recent years. After the Piazza trade, the Mets played well, but missed the 1998 postseason by only one game. With five games left in the 1998 season, the Mets could not win a single game against both the Montreal Expos at home and the Atlanta Braves on the road. Following the 1998 season the Mets re-signed Mike Piazza to a seven-year, $91 million contract, the Mets traded Todd Hundley to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Trades netted the Mets Roger Cedeno, Armando Benitez, and John Olerud and the Mets signed free agents Robin Ventura, Rickey Henderson, and Bobby Bonilla. The Mets started the 1999 season well, going 17–9, but after an eight-game losing streak, including the last two to the New York Yankees, the Mets fired their entire coaching staff except for manager Bobby Valentine. The Mets, in front of a national audience on ESPN Sunday Night Baseball, beat the New York Yankees 7–2 in the turning point of the 1999 season. Both Mike Piazza and Robin Ventura had MVP-type seasons and Benny Agbayani emerged as an important role player. It was a breakout year for Mets second baseman Edgardo Alfonzo and Roger Cedeño, who broke the single season steals record for the Mets. After the regular season ended, the Mets played a one game playoff against the Cincinnati Reds, Al Leiter pitched the best game of his Met career as he hurled a two-hit complete-game shutout to advance the Mets to the playoffs. In the NLDS, the Mets defeated the Arizona Diamondbacks 3 games to 1. The series-clinching victory included a walk-off home run by backup catcher Todd Pratt. The Mets would lose however in the 1999 National League Championship Series to the Atlanta Braves, in six exciting games which included the famous Grand Slam Single by Robin Ventura to win game 5 for the Mets. The Mets were at one point down 3–0 in the series. In the 1999 offseason, the Mets traded Roger Cedeño and Octavio Dotel to the Houston Astros for Derek Bell and Mike Hampton. Todd Zeile was signed to play first base, replacing departing free agent Olerud. The 2000 season began well for the Mets as Derek Bell became the best hitter on the team for the first month. The highlight of the season came on June 30 when the Mets beat the rival Atlanta Braves in a memorable game at Shea Stadium on Fireworks Night. With the Mets losing 8–1 to begin the bottom of the eighth, they rallied back with two outs to tie the game, capping the 10-run inning with Mike Piazza's three run home run to put the Mets up 11-8, giving them the lead and eventually the win. The Mets easily made the playoffs winning the National League wild card. In the playoffs, the Mets beat the San Francisco Giants in the first round and the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2000 National League Championship Series to win their fourth NL pennant. Mike Hampton was named the NLCS MVP for his two scoreless starts in the series as the Mets headed to the 2000 World Series to face their crosstown rivals, the New York Yankees. The Mets were defeated in the much-hyped "Subway Series." This marked the first all-New York World Series since 1956, when the Yankees defeated the Brooklyn Dodgers. The most memorable moment of the 2000 World Series occurred during the first inning of Game 2 at Yankee Stadium. Piazza fouled off a pitch which shattered his bat, sending a piece of the barrel toward the pitcher's mound. Pitcher Roger Clemens seized the piece and hurled it in the direction of Piazza as the catcher trotted to first base, benches briefly cleared before the game was resumed with no ejections. In July 2000, Clemens had knocked Piazza unconscious with a fastball to the helmet, Piazza had previously enjoyed great success against Clemens, with 3 crucial home runs in previous encounters. In 2001 the Mets finished with a record of 82–80. After the September 11th terrorist attacks Shea Stadium was used as a relief center and then saw the first sporting event in New York City since the attacks, in a game vs. the Atlanta Braves on September 21. Before the game the FDNY, EMT, NYPD, and all rescue workers were honored, Diana Ross sang God Bless America, the two teams shook hands to show that they were united in the face of tragedy, and Liza Minnelli sang "New York, New York" during the 7th inning stretch. In the bottom of the 8th inning the Mets were trailing 2–1 when Mike Piazza came to bat with a runner on first. Piazza dramatically sent Shea into a frenzy by crushing a home run to give the Mets a 3–2 lead and the eventual win. The game is considered to be one of the greatest moments in the history of the franchise. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Mets, as well as other teams in the league, wore Red Cross, FDNY, and NYPD hats. Unlike the other teams, the Mets wore these for the rest of the year, despite threats of fines by Major League Baseball. In the following seasons, the Mets struggled mightily as the result of several poor player acquisitions, including Mo Vaughn, Roberto Alomar, and re-acquiring former Mets Roger Cedeño and Jeromy Burnitz. These acquisitions were made by then-general manager Steve Phillips, who was fired during the 2003 season. Phillips was credited with building the 2000 World Series team, but also blamed for the demise of the Mets' farm system and the poor play of the acquired players. The Mets did have a few bright spots in 2002. Al Leiter became the first major league pitcher to defeat all thirty major league teams with a victory over the Arizona Diamondbacks. However, the Mets posted a 75–86 record, last in the NL East. 2002 season The team's 2002 difficulties reached off the field as co-owners Wilpon and Doubleday became embroiled in a bitter legal dispute over Wilpon's attempt to buy Doubleday's half of the team. Doubleday alleged that Major League Baseball attached an unrealistically low value to the team, thereby lowering the amount of money he would receive from Wilpon in the buyout. Wilpon sued Doubleday in federal court to force the sale. The purchase was finally settled and Wilpon became sole owner of the Mets on August 23, 2002. Wilpon, the founder of Sterling Equities, Inc., manages the Mets through his limited partnership firm, Sterling Mets. 2003 season The Mets' record in 2003 (66–95) was the fourth worst in baseball, and Piazza had missed two-thirds of the season with a torn groin muscle. His steady decline around that time mirrored the Mets' fortunes for the first half of the decade. José Reyes also made his debut on June 10, 2003. 2004 season In 2004, the Mets made more poor player acquisitions including signing Japanese shortstop Kazuo Matsui, who never lived up to his potential in two-and-a-half years with the Mets. General manager Jim Duquette acquired pitcher Kris Benson for third baseman Ty Wigginton at the trade deadline just before one of the worst trades in franchise history, sending highly-touted pitching prospect Scott Kazmir to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for the disappointing Victor Zambrano. On July 21, 2004, the Mets brought up third baseman David Wright. Since then, Wright and Jose Reyes have become the most outstanding products of the Mets' farm system since Darryl Strawberry and Dwight Gooden. Nonetheless, The Mets finished 71–91 in 2004. 2005–present:Minaya, The Collapse and Citi Field After the 2004 season, Mets ownership made significant changes to their management strategy. With their television contract with the Cablevision expiring at the end of 2005, they announced plans to establish their own cable network to broadcast Mets games. This investment in what became known as SportsNet New York was coupled with an aggressive plan to upgrade the performance of the team on the field. Jim Duquette was replaced as general manager by former Expos GM Omar Minaya. Minaya, an ex-Mets assistant GM, had achieved notable success in Montreal by making bold player moves on a limited budget. With the Mets, Minaya was given substantial financial resources to develop a winning team. Minaya began by hiring Yankee bench coach Willie Randolph as manager, then signed two of that year's most sought-after free agents — Pedro Martínez and Carlos Beltrán — to large multi-year deals. Despite an 0–5 start to the season, the team finished 83–79, finishing above the .500 mark for the first time since 2001. The 2005 season was also the last by Mike Piazza in a Mets uniform. During the 2005 offseason star first baseman Carlos Delgado and catcher Paul Lo Duca were acquired via trade and the Mets signed free agent closer Billy Wagner. 2006 season In 2006, led by a franchise record six All-Stars (Beltran, Lo Duca, Reyes, Wright, Tom Glavine, and Martínez), won the division title, their first in 18 years. In a runaway similar to 1986, the Mets led the division from April 6 on, and only spent one day out of first the whole season. The Mets finished the season 12 games ahead of the Phillies, and with the best record in the National League. The turning point for the season was a 9–1 June road trip. The 2006 season was also the first time that the Mets and Yankees each won their respective divisions in the same year and both teams tied for the best record in baseball. The Mets swept the Los Angeles Dodgers in the 2006 National League Division Series. In the 2006 National League Championship Series, the Mets lost in seven games to the St. Louis Cardinals, the eventual 2006 World Series champions. Game 7 featured one of the most spectacular plays in postseason history when left fielder Endy Chávez leaped over the 8-foot (2.4 m)-high left field wall in the top of the sixth inning and caught the ball with the tip of his glove to rob Cardinals third baseman Scott Rolen of a two-run home run. Chávez then threw to the cutoff man second baseman Jose Valentin, who threw to Carlos Delgado at first base, doubling off center fielder Jim Edmonds for an inning-ending double play. Unfortunately, Chávez's effort was in vain, as Carlos Beltran took a curve ball from Cardinals closer Adam Wainwright for a called third strike in the bottom of the ninth to end the Mets season. 2007 season After their success in 2006, there were high expectations for the Mets in 2007, and they started the season strong. The Mets, however, would lose 12 of their final 17 games allowing the Philadelphia Phillies to win the NL East by one game. The Mets were eliminated on the final day of the season as Tom Glavine allowed 7 runs to the Florida Marlins in the first inning. The Mets became first team in baseball history to blow a lead of seven or more games with only 17 games to play. 2007-08 offseason In the 2007 offseason the team acquired two-time Cy Young Award-winning pitcher Johan Santana from the Minnesota Twins for outfielder Carlos Gomez and minor-league pitchers Philip Humber, Deolis Guerra and Kevin Mulvey. 2008 season The 2008 season marked the final season at Shea Stadium, the team's home for 45 years. Throughout the first half of the season, the Mets struggled, playing .500. On June 16, Omar Minaya fired Willie Randolph, Rick Peterson, and Tom Nieto. Jerry Manuel was named interim manager. The Mets improved under Manuel, highlighted by a 10-game winning streak in July. In September the Mets had 3.5 game divisional lead over the Philadelphia Phillies with 17 games left to play. However, the Mets lost 10 of their final 17 games including 3 to the Phillies. The Phillies went 13–4 during the same stretch and won the division. The Mets still remained in the NL Wild Card with the Milwaukee Brewers but on September 28, the final game played at Shea Stadium, the Mets were eliminated from playoff contention by losing to the Florida Marlins on the season's final day for the second straight season. 2008-09 offseason To improve the bullpen for the 2009 season, which was arguably the reason the Mets missed the playoffs in 2007 and 2008, the Mets signed free agent closer Francisco Rodriguez, who established a single-season major league record for saves (62) as a member of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in 2008. They also acquired setup man J.J. Putz of the Seattle Mariners in exchange for several players. 2009 season The 2009 season is the Mets' first season at Citi Field, a retropark following current architectural trends in stadium design. It follows the brick and steel-truss trend begun by the Orioles at Oriole Park at Camden Yards in 1992. The exterior facade resembles Ebbets Field, former home of the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Mets' first exhibition game at Citi Field was played on April 3, 2009 against the Boston Red Sox. The first home game was on April 13, 2009 against the San Diego Padres, who spoiled the opener with a 6–5 win against the Mets. On April 17, Gary Sheffield, who just days earlier was signed by the Mets as a free agent, hit his 500th home run against the Milwaukee Brewers. Sheffield became the first pinch hitter to reach this milestone, as well as the first to do it in a Mets uniform. Quick facts Team Photographer: George Kalinsky Uniform and logo symbolism Uniform color and design The Mets' colors are blue, orange, black and white, symbolic of the return of National League baseball to New York after the Brooklyn Dodgers (blue/white) and New York Giants (orange/black) moved to California. Blue, orange, and white are, coincidentally, also the colors of the New York City flag. Currently, the Mets wear an assortment of uniforms. One variation includes solid gray road jerseys with blue trim on the sleeves, the jersey front, and down the side of the pant legs. "NEW YORK" is printed across the front of road jerseys in old English style font. Another uniform combination includes a white home jersey with blue pinstripes and "Mets" written across the front in script. Prior to the 1997 season the Mets introduced "snow white" home jerseys as an alternate home jersey. Like the road uniforms, they feature blue piping but are completely white, devoid of pinstripes, and features the cursive "Mets" written across the front. The standard cap is blue with an orange "NY" logo, which is usually worn with the two white home jerseys. Before the 1998 season black was added as an official Mets color. Black drop-shadows were added to the blue and orange lettering on the white and gray jerseys. A solid black alternate jersey with blue piping and "Mets" written in blue lettering trimmed in orange and white was introduced. Two alternate caps were also introduced - a black cap with a blue brim and a blue "NY" logo trimmed in orange (worn with the white and gray jerseys) and an all black cap with a blue "NY" logo trimmed in orange and white (worn with the black jersey). The Mets wear three styles of Coolflo batting helmets, depending what cap they are wearing that day. If they are wearing their black cap with blue brim, the batting helmets have a blue brim and fade to black in the back with a black "NY" outlined in white. If they are wearing their all-black caps, the batting helmets are all black with a blue "NY" outlined in white then orange, and if they are wearing their all-blue caps, the batting helmets are all-blue with an orange "NY" with no outlines. There are also additional home games where the Mets wear pinstripe jerseys with the addition of a small "Los" above the script Mets across the jersey. Logo Right|Logo patch with the orange "NY" before the name "Mets" as it appeared on the team's logo through the season The cap logo is identical to the logo used by the New York Giants in their final years, and is on a blue cap reminiscent of the caps worn by the Brooklyn Dodgers. In the primary logo, designed by sports cartoonist Ray Gatto, each part of the skyline has special meaning — at the left is a church spire, symbolic of Brooklyn, the borough of churches; the second building from the left is the Williamsburg Savings Bank, the tallest building in Brooklyn; next is the Woolworth Building; after a general skyline view of midtown comes the Empire State Building; at the far right is the United Nations Building. The bridge in the center symbolizes that the Mets, by bringing National League baseball back to New York, represent all five boroughs. With the introduction of black as an official color, an alternate team logo was created. It is identical to the original logo, but the skyline is black instead of blue and the "Mets" script is blue trimmed in orange and white instead of orange trimmed in white. Baseball Hall of Famers Richie Ashburn Yogi Berra Gary Carter* Rickey Henderson Willie Mays Eddie MurrayNolan Ryan Tom Seaver Duke Snider Warren Spahn Casey Stengel Affiliation according to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum Names in Bold - Inducted as Met * Carter asked that the cap on his Hall of Fame plaque either be depicted as split between the Mets and Montreal Expos, or just as a Met. The Hall chose instead to depict him as an Expo, determining that his time with that team formed the most significant portion of his career. Retired numbers The numbers honored are as follows: <b>CaseyStengelM: 1962-1965Retired 1965<b>GilHodges1B: 1962-63M: 1968-71Retired 1973<b>TomSeaverP: 1966-77, 83Retired 1988<b>JackieRobinsonRetired byall of MLBRetired 1997<b>William A.SheaProponentHonored 2008 In addition, Tom Seaver is the only Met ever to win the Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year Award in 1969 and was voted the Mets "Hometown Hero" in a 2006 poll sponsored by DHL. Major League Baseball retired Jackie Robinson's number 42 on April 15, 1997, when the Mets played the Dodgers at Shea Stadium, although Butch Huskey wore the number throughout the rest of his Mets career (due to a grandfather clause placed on the retired number by MLB). Mo Vaughn also wore number 42 during his stint with the Mets, due to the same clause. On April 8, 2008, the final Opening Day at Shea Stadium, the Mets unveiled a sign bearing the name "Shea" next to the team's retired numbers listed above. Numbers out of circulation but not retired The Mets have not issued number 8 since Gary Carter was elected to the Hall of Fame. Retired numbers by the Mets at Citi Field When the Mets honored Carter, they did not retire number 8 at that time, but instead gave him a replica of his Hall of Fame plaque depicting him as a Met instead of an Expo. John Franco wore number 31 for the Mets until 1998, when he switched to number 45 to accommodate Mike Piazza, who wore it until leaving the Mets after the 2005 season. The Mets have not issued number 31 since Piazza's departure. There is also a growing debate that number 45 be retired in honor of the late Tug McGraw. When Willie Mays retired after the 1973 season, owner Joan Whitney Payson (who had great admiration for Mays) promised Mays his number would not be issued to another player. Since then, number 24 has been issued only twice: to 1B-OF Kelvin Torve (by mistake in 1990) and to OF Rickey Henderson, as a player (1999–2000) and as a coach (2007). After dwight gooden his number has not been issued Team captains Keith Hernandez - 1987–1989 Gary Carter - 1988–1989 (co-captain) Mookie Wilson - 1989 (co-captain) John Franco - 2001–2004 Current roster Minor league affiliations AAA: Buffalo Bisons. International League Bisons and Mets Agree to Partnership AA: Binghamton Mets, Eastern League Advanced A: St. Lucie Mets, Florida State League A: Savannah Sand Gnats, South Atlantic League Short A: Brooklyn Cyclones, New York-Penn League Rookie: Kingsport Mets, Appalachian League Rookie: GCL Mets, Gulf Coast League Rookie: DSL Mets, Dominican Summer League Rookie: VSL Mets Tronconero (B), Venezuelan Summer League See also New York Mets seasons New York Mets all-time roster New York Mets Hall of Fame Mets award winners and league leaders Mets statistical records and milestone achievements Mets broadcasters and media Mets managers and ownership Mets–Phillies rivalry Braves–Mets rivalry Yankees–Mets rivalry References External links New York Mets official web site New York Mets Team Index - Baseball-Reference.com Sports E-Cyclopedia Ultimate Mets Database Mets by the Numbers All-time listing of Mets uniform numbers Metsblog Most up to date Mets info out there | New_York_Mets |@lemmatized 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1,213 | Transport_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo | Diagrammatic Map of ground and water transport in the DR Congo in 2000 (roads) and 2006 (waterways and railways) Ground transport in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has always been difficult. The terrain and climate of the Congo Basin present serious barriers to road and rail construction, and the distances are enormous across this vast country. Furthermore, chronic economic mismanagement and internal conflict has led to serious under-investment over many years. On the other hand, the DRC has thousands of kilometres of navigable waterways, and traditionally water transport has been the dominant means of moving around approximately two-thirds of the country. Transport problems As an illustration of transport difficulties in the DRC, even before wars damaged the infrastructure, the so-called "national" route, used to get supplies to Bukavu from the seaport of Matadi, consisted of the following: Matadi to Kinshasa - rail Kinshasa to Kisangani - river boat Kisangani to Ubundu - rail Ubundu to Kindu - river boat Kindu to Kalemie - rail Kalemie to Kalundu (the lake port at Uvira) - boat on Lake Tanganyika Kalundu to Bukavu - road In other words, goods had to be loaded and unloaded eight times and the total journey would take many months. Many of the routes listed below are in poor condition and may be operating at only a fraction of their original capacity (if at all), despite recent attempts to make improvements. Up to 2006 the United Nations Joint Logistics Centre (UNJLC) had an operation in Congo to support humanitarian relief agencies working there, and its bulletins and maps about the transport situation are archived on the UNJLC web site. The First and Second Congo Wars saw great destruction of transport infrastructure from which the country has not yet recovered. Many vehicles were destroyed or commandeered by militias, especially in the north and east of the country, and the fuel supply system was also badly affected. Consequently, outside of Kinshasa, Matadi and Lubumbashi, private and commercial road transport is almost non-existent and traffic is scarce even where roads are in good condition. The few vehicles in use outside these cities are run by the United Nations, aid agencies, the DRC government, and a few larger companies such as those in the mining and energy sectors. It is notable that high-resolution satellite photos on the Internet show large cities such as Bukavu, Butembo and Kikwit virtually devoid of traffic, compared to similar photos of towns in neighbouring countries. Google Earth retrieved 24 September 2007. Air transport is the only effective means of moving between many places within the country. The Congolese government, the United Nations, aid organisations and large companies use air rather than ground transport to move personnel and freight. The UN operates a large fleet of aircraft and helicopters, and compared to other African countries the DRC has a large number of small domestic airlines and air charter companies. The transport (and smuggling) of minerals with a high value for weight is also carried out by air, and in the east, some stretches of paved road isolated by destroyed bridges or impassable sections have been turned into airstrips. For the ordinary citizen though, especially in rural areas, often the only options are to cycle, walk or go by dugout canoe. Some parts of the DRC are more accessible from neighbouring countries than from Kinshasa. For example Bukavu itself and Goma and other north-eastern towns are linked by paved road from the DRC border to the Kenyan port of Mombasa, and most goods for these cities have been brought via this route in recent years. Similarly, Lubumbashi and the rest of Katanga Province is linked to Zambia, through which the paved highway and rail networks of Southern Africa can be accessed. Such links through neighbouring countries are generally more important for the east and south-east of the country, and are more heavily used, than surface links to the capital. Major infrastructure programs In 2007 China agreed to lend the DRC US$5bn for two major transport infrastructure projects to link mineral-rich Katanga, specifically Lubumbashi, by rail to an ocean port (Matadi) and by road to the Kisangani river port, and to improve its links to the transport network of Southern Africa in Zambia. The two projects would also link the major parts of the country not served by water transport, and the main centres of the economy. Loan repayments will be from concessions for raw materials which China desperately needs: copper, cobalt, gold and nickel, as well as by toll revenues from the road and railway. In the face of reluctance by the international business community to invest in DRC, this represents a revitalisation of DRC's infrastructure much needed by its government. Felicity Duncan: "Turning Chinese?" Moneyweb Undictated website (South Africa), 12 Nov 2007. The China Railway Seventh Group Co. Ltd will be in charge of the contract, under signed by the China Railway Engineering Corporation, with construction to be started from June 2008. Railways Train from Lubumbashi arriving in Kindu on newly refurbished line The national system is mostly operated by the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer du Congo (SNCC). Not all rail lines link up, but are generally connected by river transport. The rail systems are listed below. Railways in Southern Africa. This source does not distinguish between operational and non-functioning lines. UNJLC Map number: UNJLC DRC 001 (7 MB). This source distinguishes between 'operational' and 'very degraded' lines, but detail on some sections is obscured by roads. Rail Network Description at UNJLC. Retrieved 2 June 2007. Matadi-Kinshasa Railway: From Matadi Harbour to Kinshasa via Songolo, Kimpese, Mbanza-Ngungu and Kasangulu, operated by ONATRA, gauge, originally constructed as gauge; The Terminal three trains a week. www.fahrplancenter.com This line is a bypass of the Livingstone Falls on the Congo River, known as a portage railway. Upstream from the Kinshasa river port, water transport reaches about two-thirds of the country. The line lost traffic to road transport when the Matadi-Kinshasa road was re-established in 2000, and it is now planned to revitalise it with Chinese help. Le Potentiel, 16 August 2006. An agreement was signed in July 2006 between ONATRA and a Chinese company (CMIC) which will renovate the track, trains, telecommunications, signal system and electric supply. Vicicongo line: Bumba (Congo river port) - Aketi - Buta - Likati - Isiro - Mungbere, with branch lines to Bondo and Titule; narrow gauge. This system is not operational, and was described by UNJLC in 2006 as 'very degraded'. A few trains ran in 2002/3. www.fahrplancenter.com The line is not mentioned in the UNJLC description of the network. That and its very narrow gauge suggest it may be abandoned. Great lakes line first section: Kisangani (Congo River port) to Ubundu (upper Congo River port), . www.bck-kdl.be/Ligne Stanleyville-Ponthierville This line is a bypass (portage railway) of the Stanley Falls on the Congo River. A train runs after arrival at Kisangani of a ship from Kinshasa or before departure of a ship to Kinshasa, which may happen about every 2 to 3 month, no fixed schedule. There is no connecting boat service between Ubundu and Kindu on the Lualaba River (the upper Congo). www.fahrplancenter.com Great lakes line second section: Kindu (Lualaba River port) - Kibombo – Kongolo – Kabalo (Lualaba River port and junction with Katanga line) - Nyunzu – Niemba – Kalemie (the port on Lake Tanganika), . This line was gauge like the first section until 1955, when the gauge was changed for the connection with the Katanga line in 1956. Just north of Kongolo, the Lualaba is unnavigable due to the rapids named Portes D'Enfer ('Gates of Hell'). The track between Kalemie and Niemba is described by UNJLC in 2006 as 'very degraded' and may not be operational, although it has been travelled by tourists as recently as 2007. http://www.bryanmealer.com/col.php Boats to Moba and Kalundu-Uvira on Lake Tanganyika used to connect with trains at Kalemie. In 1917 a train ferry was introduced on the lake operating from Kalemie, but is long gone. Katanga line: Kabalo (Lualaba River port and junction with Great Lakes line) – Kamungu - Katumba – Kabongo (or a town 8 km south-east) – Kamina (junction with Kasia line) - Bukama (Lualaba River port) – Tenke (junction with Benguela Railway)- Likasi – Lubumbashi - Sakania - Zambia, . There are a number of short branch lines in the mining areas between Tenke and Kolwezi. The section from near Kabongo to Kamina was described by UNJLC in 2006 as 'very degraded'. Kasai line: Ilebo (Kasai River port) – Kananga – Mwene Ditu – Kaniama - Kamina (junction with Katanga line), . This connects the Katanga line to the river port at Ilebo from where boats can reach Kinshasa. Freight is transferred to river barges, but in 2006 UNJLC reports the river service operates sporadically. On 1 August 2007 a passenger train rain out of control on the line 170 km north-west of Kananga and 7 coaches overturned, killing about 100 people. Katanga-Benguela line: A branch of the Katanga Railway was built from Tenke junction just north-west of Likasi via Kolwezi to Dilolo at the Angolan border to connect with the Benguela Railway from Luau to the Atlantic port of Lobito. This allowed through passenger trains to run between Lubumbashi and Lobito, and freight trains to carry copper from the Zambian and Katangan Copperbelts to a seaport for the export of copper. It was this purpose which provided the investment for the Benguela Railway. Unfortunately it has not operated through Angola since the 1970s, due to the civil war there. Currently the line between Kolwezi and Dilolo is described by UNJLC in 2006 as 'very degraded'. The following lines have been completely removed and are not listed for future rehabilitation: Mayumbe line: Boma to Tshela, 1889–1984, gauge, The Terminal removed in 1984. Closed "owing to its lack of profitability" (Inter Rail No. 2/1997); Mobutu also closed also the bank branches and industry in this region (Le Potentiel No. 3700/2006). Kivu Railway: Kalundu-Uvira-Kamaniola (- Bukavu), 1931–1958, gauge. Blanchart, Charles: Le Rail au Congo Belge 1920–1945. Bruxelles: Blanchart, 1999 Track totals 4772 km (2002), 5138 km (1995); narrow gauge: 3621 km gauge (858 km electrified); (2002) 125 km gauge; (2002) ev. transformed to gauge in 1955 www.bck-kdl.be 1026 km gauge (2002); 3987 km gauge (858 km electrified); (1996) Railway links to adjacent countries There is only one currently functioning international link: Zambia - yes - same gauge - , connects with railways of Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. This link is not operating: Angola - yes - same gauge - , but link to the port of Benguela has been unusable since the 1970s. There are boat links to rail lines in these neighbouring countries: Republic of Congo - no direct link, but ordinary ferries across the Congo River from Kinshasa to Brazzaville can take passengers and freight to the Congo-Ocean Railway (same gauge ) which runs from Brazzaville to the Atlantic port of Pointe Noire. Tanzania - no direct link but boats take freight between Kalemie and Kigoma, from where Tanzania's Central Line runs to the seaport of Dar es Salaam; there once was a train ferry from Kalemie built in 1917; break of gauge /. These neighbouring countries have rail systems, but there are no links from the Congo: Sudan - no - same gauge Uganda - no - break of gauge /. These neighbouring countries have no rail systems: Central African Republic, Rwanda and Burundi. Proposed rail projects In September 2007 it was reported that China would provide US$5 billion for new infrastructure projects including rehabilitation and construction of new sections to link Sakania and Lubumbashi to Matadi (3200 km), to be completed in 3 years. "China Invests In DRC Transport Infrastructure." OT Africa Line website, dated 17/9/07, source AFP. A line from Uganda to Kasese was proposed in 2005. "African projects deserve support". Railway Gazette International September 2005 Maps UN Map West UN Map East Stations served by rail Highways The Democratic Republic of the Congo has fewer all-weather paved highways than any country of its population and size in Africa — a total of 2250 km, of which only 1226 km is in good condition (see below). To put this in perspective, the road distance across the country in any direction is more than 2500 km (eg Matadi to Lubumbushi, 2700 km by road). The figure of 2250 km converts to 35 km of paved road per 1,000,000 of population. Comparative figures for Zambia (one of the poorest African countries) and Botswana (one of the richest) are 580 km and 3427 km respectively. The figures are obtained by dividing the population figures in the Wikipedia country articles by the paved roads figure in the 'Transport in [country]' articles. The total road network in 2005, according to UNJLC: UNJLC (2006): DRC Snapshot – Roads in DRC. - total: 171,250 km paved: 2,250 km unpaved: 15,000 km tracks 43,000 km country roads 21,000 km local roads or footpaths 90,000 km However, a DRC government document UNJLC: DRC Ministry of Public Works: Land rehabilitation program shows that, also in 2005, the network of main highways in good condition was as follows: paved: 1,226 km unpaved: 607 km UNJLC also points out that the pre-Second Congo War network no longer exists, and is dependent upon 20,000 bridges and 325 ferries, most of which are in need of repair or replacement. The 2000 Michelin Motoring and Tourist Map 955 of Southern and Central Africa, which categorises roads as surfaced, 'improved' (generally unsurfaced but with gravel added and graded), 'partially improved' and 'earth roads' and 'tracks' shows there were 2694 km of paved highway in 2000, indicating that, compared to the more recent figures above, rather than improving there has been a deterioration this decade. UNJLC reports that, although the road network is theoretically divided into four categories (national roads, priority regional roads, secondary regional roads and local roads), this classification is of little practical use because some roads simply do not exist. For example, National Road 9 is not operational and cannot be detected by remote sensing methods. The two principal highways are: National Road No. 1 connecting the Atlantic seaports with Kinshasa and southeast Katanga, the most important economic area of the country due to its copper and other mines. National Road No. 2, Kisangani-Bukavu–Goma, connecting the principal waterway systems of the country, namely Kinshasa-Kisangani on the Congo River and the Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika systems on the eastern edge of the country. This road was cut during the war and as of July 2007 was not in use south of Walikale. Note that the so-called Kinshasa Highway is not a physical road but a metaphor applied to the route by which AIDS is believed to have been spread east through Uganda and Kenya and neighbouring countries by truck drivers from the Congo. In the DR Congo the only highway which physically matches the route is National Road No. 2, and most passengers and freight moving between Kinshasa and that road goes by boat along the Congo River. International highways Three routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass through DR Congo: Tripoli-Cape Town Highway: this route crosses the western extremity of the country on National Road No. 1 between Kinshasa and Matadi, a distance of 285 km on one of the only paved sections in fair condition. Lagos-Mombasa Highway: the DR Congo is the main missing link in this east-west highway and requires a new road to be constructed before it can function. Beira-Lobito Highway: this east-west highway crosses Katanga and requires re-construction over most of its length, being an earth track between the Angolan border and Kolwezi, a paved road in very poor condition between Kolwezi and Lubumbashi, and a paved road in fair condition over the short distance to the Zambian border. Waterways The DRC has more navigable rivers and moves more passengers and goods by boat and ferry than any other country in Africa. Kinshasa, with 7 km of river frontage occupied by wharfs and jetties, Measured on Google Earth which has high-resolution aerial photos of Kinshasa at coordinates -4.2978 15.3171, showing hundreds of barges and vessels, many apparently derelict ones choking some wharfs. is the largest inland waterways port on the continent. However, much of the infrastructure — vessels and port handling facilities — has, like the railways, suffered from poor maintenance and internal conflict. The total length of waterways is estimated at 15,000 km including the Congo River, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes. The 1000-kilometre Kinshasa-Kisangani route on the Congo River is the longest and best-known. It is operated by river tugs pushing several barges lashed together, and for the hundreds of passengers and traders these function like small floating towns. Rather than mooring at riverside communities along the route, traders come out by canoe and small boat alongside the river barges and transfer goods on the move. Most waterway routes do not operate to regular schedules. It is common for an operator to moor a barge at a riverside town and collect freight and passengers over a period of weeks before hiring a river tug to tow or push the barge to its destination. Description of Inland Waterways in the Congo from the UN Joint Logistics Centre International links via inland waterways Kinshasa is linked to Brazzaville (Republic of the Congo) by regular boat and ferry services 3.5 km across the Congo River. Kinshasa and other river ports via the Ubangui River to Bangui (Central African Republic). Goma and Bukavu on Lake Kivu to Gisenyi, Kibuye and Cyangugu in Rwanda. Kalemie, Kulundu-Uvira and Moba on Lake Tanganyika to Kigoma (Tanzania), Bujumbura (Burundi) and Mpulungu (Zambia). Kasenga and Pweto on the Luapula River-Lake Mweru system to Nchelenge, Kashikishi and Kashiba in Zambia. Lake Albert: two small ports on the DRC side, Kisenye near Bunia and Mahadi-Port in the north can link to Ugandan ports at Butiabo and Pakwach (served by Uganda Railways) on the Albert Nile, which is navigable as far as Nimule in southern Sudan. Water transport is conducted principally in small craft, and commercial water transport is relatively absent. Lake Edward: located within national parks, settlements are small, water transport is conducted principally in small craft, commercial water transport is absent. Domestic links via inland waterways The middle Congo River and its tributaries from the east are the principal domestic waterways in the DRC. The two principal river routes are: Kinshasa to Mbandaka and Kisangani on the River Congo Kinshasa to Ilebo on the Kasai River See the diagrammatic transport map above for other river waterways. The most-used domestic lake waterways are: Kalemie to Kalundu-Uvira on Lake Tanganyika Bukavu to Goma on Lake Kivu Fimi River to Inongo on Lake Mai-Ndombe Irebu on the Congo to Bikoro on Lake Tumba Kasenga to Pweto on the Luapula-Mweru system Kisenye to Mahadi-Port on Lake Albert. Ports and harbors Atlantic Ocean Matadi - railhead for portage railway to Kinshasa - draft: 6.4 m Banana - oil terminal for pipeline to Kinshasa Boma Inland river ports Bumba Ilebo - railhead Kindu - railhead Kinshasa - railhead Kisangani - railhead Mbandaka N'dangi - former military harbor Lake Tanganyika Kalemie - railhead Kalundu-Uvira Moba Lake Kivu Bukavu Idjwi Goma Pipelines petroleum products 390 km Merchant marine 1 petroleum tanker The World Factbook: "Democratic Republic of the Congo". CIA. Retrieved 22 May 2007. Airports Kemal Saiki, a United Nations spokesman, said that the Democratic Republic of the Congo does not "even have 2,000 miles of roads" and that many people traveling around the country fly on aircraft. "African air crash kills 18." CNN. The main airlines of the country are Hewa Bora Airways, Bravo Air Congo, and Wimbi Dira Airways. All of their hubs are at Kinshasa's N'djili Airport The country had 229 airports in 2002 and 232 around 1999. Airports - with paved runways total: 24 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 16 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2002 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 205 1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 914 to 1,523 m: 95 under 914 m: 91 (2002 est.) Safety and Accidents All air carriers certified by the Democratic Republic of the Congo have been banned from operating at airports in the European Community by the European Commission, because of inadequate safety standards. List of airlines banned in the EU (24 July 2008) 2008 2008 Hewa Bora Airways crash - April 15 plane crash killed at least 18 people, after taking off from the Goma International Airport, tearing the roofs off houses as it plowed through a densely populated marketplace near the runway. Plane crashes into African marketplace 2007 August 1 derailment kills 100, many riding on roof. Congo news - Railpage Australia Forums (Africa) See also Tim Butcher: Blood River - A Journey To Africa's Broken Heart, 2007. ISBN 0-701-17981-3 Democratic Republic of the Congo Congo River References | Transport_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo |@lemmatized diagrammatic:2 map:8 ground:3 water:8 transport:24 dr:4 congo:40 road:39 waterway:10 railway:21 democratic:6 republic:10 drc:19 always:1 difficult:1 terrain:1 climate:1 basin:1 present:1 serious:2 barrier:1 rail:16 construction:4 distance:4 enormous:1 across:4 vast:1 country:31 furthermore:1 chronic:1 economic:2 mismanagement:1 internal:2 conflict:2 lead:1 investment:2 many:8 year:3 hand:1 thousand:1 kilometre:2 navigable:3 traditionally:1 dominant:1 mean:2 move:6 around:3 approximately:1 two:7 third:2 problem:1 illustration:1 difficulty:1 even:3 war:5 damage:1 infrastructure:8 call:2 national:9 route:11 use:8 get:1 supply:3 bukavu:9 seaport:4 matadi:11 consist:1 following:2 kinshasa:28 kisangani:10 river:42 boat:12 ubundu:4 kindu:6 kalemie:11 kalundu:6 lake:23 port:28 uvira:6 tanganyika:6 word:1 good:7 load:1 unloaded:1 eight:1 time:1 total:8 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1,214 | Actinium | Actinium () is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Ac and atomic number 89, which was discovered in 1899. It was the first non-primordial radioactive element to be isolated, although polonium, radium and radon were observed before, but not isolated until 1902. It gave the name to the actinoid series, a group of 15 similar elements between actinium and lawrencium in the periodic table. History Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, who separated it from pitchblende as a substance being similar to titanium (1899) or similar to thorium (1890). Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902 as a substance being similar to lanthanum and called it "emanium" in 1904. After a comparison of substances in 1904, Debierne's name was retained because it had seniority. The history of the discovery stayed questionable and in publications from 1971 and later in 2000 showed that the claims of André-Louis Debierne in 1904 conflict with the publications in 1899 and 1890. The word actinium comes from the Greek aktis, aktinos, meaning beam or ray. Characteristics Actinium is a silvery, radioactive, metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity, actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth element lanthanum. Chemistry Actinium shows similar chemical behavior to lanthanum. Due to this similarity the separation of actinium from lanthanum and the other rare earth elements, which are also present in uranium ores was difficult. Solvent extraction and ion exchange chromatography was used for the separation. Only a limited amount of actinium compounds is known, for example AcF3, AcCl3, AcBr3, AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr, Ac2S3, Ac2O3 and AcPO4. All the mentioned compounds are similar to the corresponding lanthanum compounds and shows that actinium compounds are generally in the oxidation state of +3. Relationship with actinoids Actinium is the first element of the actinoids and gave the group its name, similar to lanthanum for the lanthanoids. The group of elements is more diverse than the lanthanoids and therefore it took until 1945 when Glenn T. Seaborg proposed the most significant change to Mendeleev's periodic table, by introducing the actinoids. Isotopes Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive isotope; 227Ac. 36 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 227Ac with a half-life of 21.772 y, 225Ac with a half-life of 10.0 days, and 226Ac with a half-life of 29.37 h. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 1 minute. The shortest-lived isotope of actinium is 217Ac which decays through alpha decay and electron capture. It has a half-life of 69 ns. Actinium also has 2 meta states. Purified 227Ac comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life. The isotopes of actinium range in atomic weight from 206 u (206Ac) to 236 u (236Ac). Occurrence Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore, but more commonly is made in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226 in a nuclear reactor. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to 1300°C. Actinium is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227Ac, an α and β emitter with a half-life of 21.773 years. One ton of uranium ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium. The actinium isotope 227Ac is a transient member of the actinium series decay chain, which begins with the parent isotope 235U (or 239Pu) and ends with the stable lead isotope 207Pb. Another actinium isotope (225Ac) is transiently present in the neptunium series decay chain, beginning with 237Np (or 233U) and ending with near-stable bismuth (209Bi). Applications It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a neutron source for energy. Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications. 225Ac is used in medicine to produce 213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radio-immunotherapy for Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT). 225Ac was first produced artificially by the Institute for Transuranium Elements (ITU) in Germany using a cyclotron and by Dr Graeme Melville at St George Hospital in Sydney using a linac in 2000. Precautions 227Ac is extremely radioactive, and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health effects 227Ac is even more dangerous than plutonium. Ingesting even small amounts of 227Ac would be fatal. See also Actinium series References Los Alamos National Laboratory - Actinium External links WebElements.com - Actinium NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Actinium, Radioactive | Actinium |@lemmatized actinium:29 radioactive:8 chemical:3 element:9 symbol:1 ac:1 atomic:2 number:1 discover:3 first:3 non:1 primordial:1 isolate:2 although:1 polonium:1 radium:2 radon:1 observe:1 give:2 name:3 actinoid:4 series:4 group:3 similar:8 lawrencium:1 periodic:2 table:2 history:2 andré:2 louis:2 debierne:3 french:1 chemist:1 separate:1 pitchblende:1 substance:4 titanium:1 thorium:1 friedrich:1 oskar:1 giesel:1 independently:1 lanthanum:6 call:1 emanium:1 comparison:1 retain:1 seniority:1 discovery:1 stay:1 questionable:1 publication:2 later:1 show:3 claim:1 conflict:1 word:1 come:2 greek:1 aktis:1 aktinos:1 mean:1 beam:1 ray:1 characteristic:1 silvery:1 metallic:1 due:2 intense:1 radioactivity:1 glow:1 dark:1 pale:1 blue:1 light:1 behavior:2 rare:2 earth:2 chemistry:1 similarity:1 separation:2 also:3 present:2 uranium:4 ore:4 difficult:1 solvent:1 extraction:1 ion:1 exchange:1 chromatography:1 use:5 limited:1 amount:4 compound:4 know:1 example:1 acof:1 acocl:1 acobr:1 mention:1 corresponding:1 generally:1 oxidation:1 state:2 relationship:1 lanthanoid:2 diverse:1 therefore:1 take:1 glenn:1 seaborg:1 propose:1 significant:2 change:1 mendeleev:1 introduce:1 isotope:9 naturally:1 occur:1 compose:1 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 stable:3 half:8 life:7 day:2 h:1 remain:1 less:2 hour:1 majority:1 live:2 minute:1 short:1 decay:6 alpha:2 electron:1 capture:1 n:1 meta:1 purify:1 equilibrium:1 product:1 end:3 accord:1 year:2 range:1 weight:1 u:2 occurrence:1 find:2 trace:2 commonly:1 make:2 milligram:1 neutron:2 irradiation:1 nuclear:1 reactor:1 metal:1 prepare:1 reduction:1 fluoride:1 lithium:1 vapor:1 c:1 α:1 β:1 emitter:1 one:1 ton:1 contain:1 tenth:1 gram:1 transient:1 member:1 chain:2 begin:2 parent:1 lead:1 another:1 transiently:1 neptunium:1 near:1 bismuth:1 application:2 time:1 valuable:1 source:1 energy:1 otherwise:1 industrial:1 medicine:1 produce:2 reusable:1 generator:1 alone:1 agent:1 radio:1 immunotherapy:1 targeted:1 therapy:1 tat:1 artificially:1 institute:1 transuranium:1 itu:1 germany:1 cyclotron:1 dr:1 graeme:1 melville:1 st:1 george:1 hospital:1 sydney:1 linac:1 precaution:1 extremely:1 term:1 potential:1 radiation:1 induce:1 health:1 effect:1 even:2 dangerous:1 plutonium:1 ingest:1 small:1 would:1 fatal:1 see:1 reference:1 los:1 alamos:1 national:1 laboratory:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 nlm:1 hazardous:1 databank:1 |@bigram periodic_table:2 uranium_ore:4 solvent_extraction:1 glenn_seaborg:1 radioactive_isotope:2 isotope_radioisotope:1 radioisotope_characterize:1 isotope_actinium:2 alpha_decay:1 neutron_irradiation:1 nuclear_reactor:1 α_β:1 transuranium_element:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
1,215 | Demographics_of_Burma | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Burma, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The following is an overview of the demographics of Burma (or Myanmar), including statistics such as population and religious affiliation. At the time of the last official census in Burma, 31 March 1983, the population was 35,442,972. , this was estimated by the CIA World Factbook to have increased to 47,758,180; however, many other estimates put this much higher, at around 50-60 million. Britain based human rights agencies place the population as high as 70 million. Estimates for the country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. No trustworthy census has occurred since the 1930s. In the 1940s, the detailed census results were destroyed during the Japanese invasion of 1942. Census results after that time have been flawed by civil wars and a series of military governments. The last official census in 1983 occurred at a time when parts of the country were controlled by insurgent groups and inaccessible to the government. Ethnic groups The Burmese government identifies eight major national ethnic races (which comprise 135 "distinct" ethnic groups), which include the Bamar (68%), Shan (9%), Kayin (7%), Rakhine (4%), Mon (2%), Kayah, and Kachin. However, the government classification system is flawed, because it groups ethnic groups under ethnic races by geography, rather than by linguistic or genetic similarity (e.g. the Kokang are under the Shan ethnic race, although they are ethnic Chinese). Unrecognised ethnic groups include Burmese Indians and Burmese Chinese, who form 2% and 3% of the population respectively. The remaining 5% of the population belong to small ethnic groups such as the remnants of the Anglo-Burmese and Anglo-Indian communities, as well as the Padaung and Moken. Language The official language and primary medium of instruction of Burma is Burmese (65%). However, a diversity of languages is spoken in Burma, and includes Shan (6.4%), Karen (5.2%), Kachin (1.8%), Chin (1.6%), Mon (1.5%), and Rakhine (1.5%). English is also spoken, particularly by the educated urban elite, and is the secondary language learnt in government schools. Religious affiliation +Religion in Burma Faith %(2008 est.)Total Buddhism 89% Theravada Buddhism 89% Mahayana Buddhism <1%Total Christianity 4% Baptist 3% Roman Catholicism 1% Total Islam 4% Sunni Islam 2.65% Shi'a Islam 1.35% Total other religions <1% Animism 1% Other (inc. Hinduism)</small> 2% See also: Buddhism in Burma, Myanmar Baptist Convention CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Burma, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Age structure (2003 est.) Population pyramid 0-14 years: 28.1% (male 6,091,220; female 5,840,968) 15-64 years: 67% (male 14,162,190; female 14,347,751) 65 years and over: 4.9% (male 916,702; female 1,151,706) Population growth rate 0.52% (2003 est.) Birth rate 19.15 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) Death rate 12.17 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) Net migration rate -1.81 migrants/1,000 population (2003 est.) Human sex ratios (2003 est.) at birth: 1.06 males/female under 15 years: 1.04 males/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male/female 65 years and over: 0.8 male/female total population: 0.99 male/female Infant mortality rate 70.35 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) Life expectancy (2003 est.) total population: 55.79 years male: 54.12 years female: 57.56 years Total fertility rate 2.15 children born/woman (2003 est.) Literacy (age 15 and over can read and write, official statistics) total population: 89.9% male: 93.9% female: 86.4% (2008 est.) References Population Projections for Myanmar, 1983-2013 - Asia Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2 (PDF document) | Demographics_of_Burma |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:20 burma:8 include:5 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:3 aspect:1 following:2 overview:1 myanmar:3 statistic:4 time:3 last:2 official:4 census:5 march:1 estimate:3 cia:3 world:3 factbook:3 increase:1 however:3 many:1 put:1 much:1 high:3 around:1 million:2 britain:1 base:1 human:2 right:1 agency:1 place:1 country:2 explicitly:1 take:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:1 aid:1 result:3 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 infant:2 death:4 rate:8 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 age:3 sex:2 would:1 otherwise:2 expect:1 trustworthy:1 occur:2 since:1 detailed:1 destroy:1 japanese:1 invasion:1 flaw:2 civil:1 war:1 series:1 military:1 government:5 part:1 control:1 insurgent:1 group:7 inaccessible:1 ethnic:9 burmese:5 identifies:1 eight:1 major:1 national:1 race:3 comprise:1 distinct:1 bamar:1 kayin:1 rakhine:2 mon:2 kayah:1 kachin:2 classification:1 system:1 geography:1 rather:1 linguistic:1 genetic:1 similarity:1 e:1 g:1 kokang:1 although:1 chinese:2 unrecognised:1 indian:2 form:1 respectively:1 remain:1 belong:1 small:2 remnant:1 anglo:2 community:1 well:1 padaung:1 moken:1 language:4 primary:1 medium:1 instruction:1 diversity:1 speak:1 karen:1 chin:1 english:1 also:2 spoken:1 particularly:1 educated:1 urban:1 elite:1 secondary:1 learnt:1 school:1 religion:2 faith:1 est:11 total:8 buddhism:4 theravada:1 mahayana:1 christianity:1 baptist:2 roman:1 catholicism:1 islam:3 sunni:1 shi:1 animism:1 inc:1 hinduism:1 see:1 convention:1 data:1 fao:1 year:10 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 unless:1 indicate:1 structure:1 pyramid:1 male:10 female:10 birth:4 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 ratio:1 live:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 literacy:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 projection:1 asia:1 pacific:1 journal:1 vol:1 pdf:1 document:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:3 affiliation_aspect:1 burma_myanmar:2 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 anglo_burmese:1 burma_burmese:1 theravada_buddhism:1 mahayana_buddhism:1 roman_catholicism:1 sunni_islam:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 mortality_rate:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 |
1,216 | Ghana_Armed_Forces | <tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>Military of Ghana <tr><td colspan=2 align=center>Military manpower <tr><td>Military age<td>18 years of age(2002) <tr><td>Availability<td>males age 15-49: 5,045,355 (2002 est.)<tr><td>Fit for military service<td>males age 15-49: 5,045,355 (2002 est.) <tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td>males: 213,237 (2002 est.) <tr><td colspan=2 align=center>Military expenditures <tr><td>Dollar figure<td> $90.5 million (FY01) <tr><td>Percent of GDP<td>.001% (FY01) Ghanaian troops being instructed by an U.S. Army soldier The Military of Ghana consists of the Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police Force, Palace Guard, and Civil Defence, with the lowest ratio of active troops per thousand citizens in the world standing at 0.33. Ghana's modern military was formed after independence in 1957. The Ghanaian military is primarily composed of the army, which forms the pre-eminent service, more important that the air force or navy. From 1966 the military was extensively involved in politics, mounting several coups; see History of Ghana (1966-1979). The Ghanaian military today is considered the most professional armed force in West Africa. Ghana's nominal chief military commander is the President of The Republic, with various generals and other commanders leading troops in the field. The Ministry of Defence and Central Defence Headquarters are both located in Accra. Accra, in the British colony of the Gold Coast, was also the location of the British Army’s Headquarters West Africa Command which remained there until its disbandment in 1956. The Ghanaian military often has to make do with poorly-serviced weaponry and equipment due to lack of maintenance training and capability. As a result, maintenance tasks are often contracted to U.N. and other foreign military advisors and technicians. Army The Ghana army numbers some 5,000 personnel and is structured as follows: The Northern Command with headquarters in Kumasi and the Southern Command with headquarters in Accra. In March 2000 these two commands were formed after a military reorganisation. Africa South of the Sahara 2003, 32nd Edition Two brigades are also sometimes reported. 6 Infantry Battalions of the Ghana Regiment 2 Airborne companies attached to Northern Command 1 Battalion of the President's Own Guard Regiment 1 Training Battalion 1 Staff College 2 Armoured reconnaissance squadrons of the Reconnaissance Regiment 1 Signals Regiment 2 Engineer Regiments 1 artillery regiment 1 Logistics Group. The Ghanaian Army relies on a mix of modern military technology and older varieties. While modern M16s and equipment are standard issue, much of the secondary equipment used by the Ghanaian military is generally older than that used in Western military forces, and Ghanaian troops frequently rely on older British, Brazilian, Swiss, Swedish, Israeli, and Finnish weaponry. Air Force Ensign of the Ghana Air Force Consisting of roughly 1,000 trained personnel, the Ghana Air Force is headquartered in Burma camp Accra, and operates from bases in Accra (main transport base) Tamale (combat and training base), Takoradi (training base), and Kumasi (support base). The Air Force's stated mission is to perform counterinsurgency operations within Ghana and to provide logistical support to the army. Like the army, the air force suffers from frequent shortages of spare parts and poor maintenance of equipment. Navy Ensign of the Ghana Navy Ghana Navy provides coastal defence, fishery protection, and internal security on Lake Volta. In 1994 the navy was re-organized into an Eastern command, with headquarters at Tema, and a Western command, with headquarters at Sekondi. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, due to financial constraints and a lack of serviceable equipment, the navy to shrank from about 1,200 personnel to around 850. The navy currently numbers about 1,000 personnel, as of 2003. Other Paramilitary forces deal with preventing and controlling civil disturbances and insurrection. A small elite Presidential guard provides security for the president. Peacekeeping The Ghanaian military is recognised as one of the most professional and up-to-date armed forces in West Africa, and as Ghana itself is a peaceful nation, enjoying stable relations with its neighbours in West Africa, Ghana is free to commit a large proportion of its armed forces to international peacekeeping operations. Such operations are mainly conducted in Africa, while large Ghanaian forces are frequently posted across the world as elements of United Nations peacekeeping forces. The United Nations has often relied on Ghanaian forces to conduct peacekeeping operations, in countries as diverse as Rwanda, Kosovo, and Lebanon. Currently, Ghanaian forces are posted to United Nations peacekeeping missions as follows: MONUC (Democratic Republic of Congo) - 464 UNMIL (Liberia) - 852 UNAMSIL (Sierra Leone) - 782 UNIFIL (Lebanon) - 651 Miscellaneous Ghanaian statutory law officially prohibits civilians and foreign nationals from wearing military apparel such as camouflage clothing, or clothing which resembles military dress. Officially, fines and/or short prison sentences can be passed against civilians seen in military dress in public. However, this regulation is not enforced, and Ghanaian civilians are able to wear military-style apparel (such as civilian clothes in a camouflage finish) without any difficulties from law enforcement. In addition, Ghanaian law prohibits the photographing of police or military personnel and vehicles while on duty, strategic sites such as Kotoka International Airport when in use, and the seat of the Ghanaian government, Osu Castle. External links Ghana Country Study, Library of Congress Ghana armed forces official website (GAF) West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of the African continent. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Western Africa includes the following 16 countries distributed over an area of approximately 5 million square km:[1] Benin Burkina Faso Côte d'Ivoire Cape Verde The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Togo With the exception of Mauritania, all of these countries are members of the ECOWAS or Economic Community of West African States. The UN region also includes the island of Saint Helena, a British overseas territory in the South Atlantic Ocean. | Ghana_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized tr:9 th:1 colspan:3 align:3 center:3 bgcolor:1 military:24 ghana:17 td:14 manpower:1 age:5 year:1 availability:1 male:3 est:3 fit:1 service:3 reach:1 annually:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:2 percent:1 gdp:1 ghanaian:15 troop:4 instruct:1 u:2 army:9 soldier:1 consists:1 navy:8 air:7 force:18 national:2 police:2 palace:1 guard:3 civil:2 defence:4 low:1 ratio:1 active:1 per:1 thousand:1 citizen:1 world:2 stand:1 modern:3 form:3 independence:1 primarily:1 compose:1 pre:1 eminent:1 important:1 extensively:1 involve:1 politics:1 mount:1 several:1 coup:1 see:2 history:1 today:1 consider:1 professional:2 arm:3 west:6 africa:9 nominal:1 chief:1 commander:2 president:3 republic:2 various:1 general:1 lead:1 field:1 ministry:1 central:1 headquarters:6 locate:1 accra:5 british:4 colony:1 gold:1 coast:1 also:3 location:1 command:7 remain:1 disbandment:1 often:3 make:1 poorly:1 weaponry:2 equipment:5 due:2 lack:2 maintenance:3 training:3 capability:1 result:1 task:1 contract:1 n:1 foreign:2 advisor:1 technician:1 number:2 personnel:5 structure:1 follow:3 northern:2 kumasi:2 southern:1 march:1 two:2 reorganisation:1 south:2 sahara:1 edition:1 brigade:1 sometimes:1 report:1 infantry:1 battalion:3 regiment:6 airborne:1 company:1 attach:1 staff:1 college:1 armoured:1 reconnaissance:2 squadron:1 signal:1 engineer:1 artillery:1 logistics:1 group:1 relies:1 mix:1 technology:1 old:3 variety:1 standard:1 issue:1 much:1 secondary:1 use:3 generally:1 western:4 frequently:2 rely:2 brazilian:1 swiss:1 swedish:1 israeli:1 finnish:1 ensign:2 consisting:1 roughly:1 trained:1 headquarter:1 burma:1 camp:1 operate:1 base:5 main:1 transport:1 tamale:1 combat:1 takoradi:1 train:1 support:2 state:2 mission:2 perform:1 counterinsurgency:1 operation:4 within:1 provide:3 logistical:1 like:1 suffers:1 frequent:1 shortage:1 spare:1 part:1 poor:1 coastal:1 fishery:1 protection:1 internal:1 security:2 lake:1 volta:1 organize:1 eastern:1 tema:1 sekondi:1 late:1 early:1 financial:1 constraint:1 serviceable:1 shrink:1 around:1 currently:2 paramilitary:1 deal:1 preventing:1 control:1 disturbance:1 insurrection:1 small:1 elite:1 presidential:1 peacekeeping:5 recognise:1 one:1 date:1 peaceful:1 nation:4 enjoy:1 stable:1 relation:1 neighbour:1 free:1 commit:1 large:2 proportion:1 armed:1 international:2 mainly:1 conduct:2 post:2 across:1 element:1 united:3 country:4 diverse:1 rwanda:1 kosovo:1 lebanon:2 monuc:1 democratic:1 congo:1 unmil:1 liberia:2 unamsil:1 sierra:2 leone:2 unifil:1 miscellaneous:1 statutory:1 law:3 officially:2 prohibit:2 civilian:4 wear:2 apparel:2 camouflage:2 clothing:2 resemble:1 dress:2 fine:1 short:1 prison:1 sentence:1 pass:1 public:1 however:1 regulation:1 enforce:1 able:1 style:1 clothes:1 finish:1 without:1 difficulty:1 enforcement:1 addition:1 photographing:1 vehicle:1 duty:1 strategic:1 site:1 kotoka:1 airport:1 seat:1 government:1 osu:1 castle:1 external:1 link:1 study:1 library:1 congress:1 official:1 website:1 gaf:1 westernmost:1 region:2 african:2 continent:1 geopolitically:1 un:2 definition:1 include:2 distribute:1 area:1 approximately:1 square:1 km:1 benin:1 burkina:1 faso:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 cape:1 verde:1 gambia:1 guinea:2 bissau:1 mali:1 mauritania:2 niger:1 nigeria:1 senegal:1 togo:1 exception:1 member:1 ecowas:1 economic:1 community:1 island:1 saint:1 helena:1 overseas:1 territory:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 |@bigram align_center:3 center_bgcolor:1 tr_td:8 td_colspan:2 pre_eminent:1 infantry_battalion:1 peacekeeping_mission:1 republic_congo:1 sierra_leone:2 external_link:1 benin_burkina:1 burkina_faso:1 faso_côte:1 côte_ivoire:1 cape_verde:1 gambia_ghana:1 guinea_bissau:1 atlantic_ocean:1 |
1,217 | Ellis_Island | Ellis Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River in New York Harbor, is the location of what was from January 1, 1892, until November 12, 1954 the main entry facility for immigrants entering the United States; the facility replaced the state-run Castle Garden Immigration Depot (1855-1890) in Manhattan. It is owned by the Federal government and is now part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, under the jurisdiction of the US National Park Service. It is situated predominantly in Jersey City, New Jersey, although a small portion of its territory falls within neighboring New York City. Ellis Island was the subject of a border dispute between the states of New York and New Jersey (see below). History Originally called Little Oyster Island New York Times, March 1, 2006, accessed March 16, 2008 , Ellis Island acquired its name from Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker, possibly from Wales. The Ellis Island Immigrant Station was designed by architects Edward Lippincott Tilton and William Alciphron Boring. They received a gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition for the building's design. The architecture competition was the second under the Tarsney Act which had permitted private architects rather than government architects in the Office of the Supervising Architect to design federal buildings. Lee, Antoinette J., Architects to the Nation: The Rise and Decline of the Supervising Architect's Office, Oxford University Press, USA. 2000-04-20. ISBN 0195128222 The federal immigration station opened on January 1, 1892 and was closed on November 12, 1954, but not before 12 million immigrants were inspected there by the US Bureau of Immigration (Immigration and Naturalization Service). In the 35 years before Ellis Island opened, over 8 million immigrants had been processed locally by New York State officials at Castle Garden Immigration Depot in Manhattan. 1907 was the peak year for immigration at Ellis Island with 1,004,756 immigrants processed. The all-time daily high also occurred this year on April 17 which saw a total of 11,747 immigrants arrive. Ellis Island Timeline, Ellis Island Foundation, 2000. Ellis Island in 1905 Those with visible health problems or diseases were sent home or held in the island's hospital facilities for long periods of time. Then they were asked 29 questions including name, occupation, and the amount of money they carried with them. Generally those immigrants who were approved spent from two to five hours at Ellis Island. However more than three thousand would-be immigrants died on Ellis Island while being held in the hospital facilities. Some unskilled workers and immigrants were rejected outright because they were considered "likely to become a public charge." About 2 percent were denied admission to the U.S. and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such as chronic contagious disease, criminal background, or insanity. National Park Service: Ellis Island, retrieved January 12, 2006. Ellis Island was sometimes known as "The Island of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island" Davis, Kenneth (2003), Don't Know Much About American History, HarperTrophy, ISBN 0064408361 ("Isle of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island," p. 123) because of those 2% who were not admitted after the long transatlantic voyage. Writer Louis Adamic came to America from Slovenia in southeastern Europe in 1913. Adamic described the night he spent on Ellis Island. He and many other immigrants slept on bunk beds in a huge hall. Lacking a warm blanket, the young man "shivered, sleepless, all night, listening to snores" and dreams "in perhaps a dozen different languages". The facility was so large that the dining room could seat 1,000 people. During World War I, the German sabotage of the Black Tom Wharf ammunition depot damaged buildings on Ellis Island. The repairs included the current barrel-vaulted ceiling of the Main Hall. During the war, Ellis Island was used to intern German merchant mariners and enemy aliens as well as a processing center for returning sick and wounded U.S. soldiers. Ellis Island still managed to process ten of thousands of immigrants a year during this time, but much fewer than the hundreds of thousands a year who arrived before the war. After the war immigration rapidly returned to earlier levels. Radicals awaiting deportation, 1920 Mass processing of immigrants at Ellis Island ended in 1924 after the Immigration Act of 1924 greatly restricted immigration and allowed processing at overseas embassies. After this time Ellis Island became primarily a detention and deportation processing center. During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Island served as Coast Guard training base and as an internment camp for enemy aliens - American civilians or immigrants detained for fear of spying, sabotage, etc. Some 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese would be detained at Ellis Island. The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of Communist or Fascist organizations from immigrating to the U.S. Ellis Island saw detention peak at 1,500 but by 1952, after changes to immigration law and policies, only 30 detainees were present. In November 1954, Ellis Island was closed and unsuccessful attempts to redevelop the site began until its landmark status was established. As with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, Ellis Island, along with Statue of Liberty, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Today Ellis Island houses a museum reachable by ferry from Liberty State Park in Jersey City, New Jersey and from the southern tip of Manhattan in New York City. The Statue of Liberty, sometimes thought to be on Ellis Island because of its symbolism as a welcome to immigrants, is actually on nearby Liberty Island, which is about 1/2 mile to the south. There is also ferry service between the two islands. Staff Immigrants being processed, 1904 The following is a list of the station's commissioners: 1890-1893 Colonel John B. Weber (Republican) 1893-1897 Dr. Joseph H. Senner (Democrat) 1897-1902 Thomas Fitchie (Republican) 1902-1905 William C. Williams (Republican) 1905-1909 Robert Watchorn (Republican) 1909-1913 William C. Williams (Republican) 1914-1919 Dr. Frederic C. Howe (Democrat) 1920-1921 Frederick A. Wallis (Democrat) 1921-1923 Robert E. Tod (Republican) 1923-1926 Henry C. Curran (Republican) 1926-1931 Benjamin M. Day (Republican) 1931-1934 Edward Corsi (Republican) 1934-1940 Rudolph Reimer (Democrat) 1940-1942 Byron H. Uhl 1942-1949 W. Frank Watkins 1949-1954 Edward J. Shaughnessy Other notable officials at Ellis Island included Edward F. McSweeney (assistant commissioner), Joseph E. Murray (assistant commissioner), Dr. George W. Stoner (chief surgeon), Augustus Frederick Sherman (chief clerk), Dr. Victor Heiser (surgeon), Thomas W. Salmon (surgeon), Howard Knox (surgeon), Antonio Frabasilis (interpreter), Peter Mikolainis (interpreter), Maud Mosher (matron), Fiorello H. La Guardia (interpreter), and Philip Cowen (immigrant inspector). Prominent amongst the missionaries and immigrant aid workers were Rev. Michael J. Henry and Rev. Anthony J. Grogan (Irish Catholics), Rev. Gaspare Moretto (Italian Catholic), Alma E. Mathews (Methodist), Rev. Georg Doring (German Lutheran), Rev. Reuben Breed (Episcopalian), Michael Lodsin (Baptist), Brigadier Thomas Johnson (Salvation Army), Ludmila K. Foxlee (YWCA), Athena Marmaroff (Women's Christian Temperance Union), Alexander Harkavy (HIAS), Cecilia Greenstone and Cecilia Razovsky (National Council of Jewish Women). Noted entertainers that performed for detained aliens and US and allied servicemen at the island included Ernestine Schumann-Heink, Enrico Caruso, Rudy Vallee, Jimmy Durante, Bob Hope, and Lionel Hampton and his orchestra. Immigration Scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island More than 12 million immigrants passed through Ellis Island between 1892 and 1954. The first immigrant to pass through Ellis Island was Annie Moore, a 15-year-old girl from Cork, Ireland, on January 1, 1892. She and her two brothers were coming to America to meet their parents, who had moved to New York two years prior. She received a greeting from officials and a $10.00 gold piece. Ellis Island Timeline. Retrieved April 21, 2007. The last person to pass through Ellis Island was a Norwegian merchant seaman by the name of Arne Peterssen in 1954. After 1924 when the National Origins Act was passed, the only immigrants to pass through there were displaced persons or war refugees. The Brown Quarterly, Volume 4, No. 1 (Fall 2000): Ellis Island/Immigration Issue Today, over 100 million Americans can trace their ancestry to the immigrants who first arrived in America through the island before dispersing to points all over the country. Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1902 An inaccurate myth persists that government officials on Ellis Island compelled immigrants to take new names against their wishes. In fact, no historical records bear this out. Federal immigration inspectors were under strict bureaucratic supervision and were more interested in preventing inadmissible aliens from entering the country (which they were held accountable for) rather than assisting them in trivial personal matters such as altering their names. In addition, the inspectors used the passenger lists given to them by the steamship companies to process each foreigner. These were the sole immigration records for entering the country and were prepared not by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration but by steamship companies such as the Cunard Line, the White Star Line (which owned the Titanic), the North German Lloyd Line, the Hamburg-Amerika Line, the Italian Steam Navigation Company, the Red Star Line, the Holland America Line, the Austro-American Line, and so forth. US Dept of Justice American Names / Declaring Independence, Marian L. Smith, INS Historian, US Citizenship and Immigration Services, last updated January 20, 2006, accessed May 22, 2007 The Americanization of many immigrant families' surnames was for the most part adopted by the family after the immigration process, or by the second or third generation of the family after some assimilation into American culture. However many last names were altered slightly due to the disparity between English and other languages in the pronunciation of certain letters of the alphabet. "The Effect of Immigration on Surnames", FamilyEduction.com. Retrieved 20-02-2009. Excerpted from "The Complete Idiot's Guide to Genealogy" by Christine Rose and Kay Germain Ingalls, 2005. Medical inspections The symbols below were chalked on the clothing of potentially sick immigrants following the six-second medical examination. The doctors would look at them as they climbed the stairs from the baggage area up to the Great Hall. Immigrants' behavior would be studied for difficulties in getting up the staircase. Some only entered the country by surreptitiously wiping the chalk marks off or by turning their clothes inside out. Ellis Island Chalk Marks. Retrieved April 21, 2007. Dormitory room for detained immigrants B - Back C - Conjunctivitis CT - Trachoma E - Eyes F - Face FT - Feet G - Goiter H - Heart K - Hernia L - Lameness N - Neck P - Physical and Lungs PG - Pregnancy S - Senility SC - Scalp (Favus) SI - Special Inquiry X - Suspected Mental defect X (circled) - Definite signs of Mental defect Name Changes Among those families that entered the United States of America via Ellis Island http://rolandhulme.blogspot.com/2008/04/ellis-island.html , there are stories that the spellings of last names They changed our name at Ellis Island, http://www.genealogy.com/88_donna.html , were at times http://www.sochaczewski.com/ARTnamechange.html , though not often, The myth of Ellis Island name changes, http://www.ancestry.com/library/view/columns/eastman/3893.asp http://genealogy.about.com/od/ellis_island/a/name_change.htm changed. Even where names were not officially http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~rydzkowski/namechange.htm http://edhelper.com/ReadingComprehension_54_292.html changed at Ellis Island, but shortly thereafter A Mr. Telalay allegedly changing "Tell-a-Lie" to Tollin http://tracingthetribe.blogspot.com/2008/03/ellis-island-myth-and-fact.html , perhaps in school http://www.sochaczewski.com/ARTnamechange.html , "Ellis" is the one word answer by some where multiple spellings exist for a given family's last name. Notable immigrants Ellis Island immigrants attaining success in America include: writer and activist Mary Antin (Belarus) novelist Isaac Asimov (Russia) bodybuilder Charles Atlas (Italy) former New York City mayor Abraham Beame (England) author and illustrator Ludwig Bemelmans (Austria) composer Irving Berlin (Belarus) chef Ettore Boiardi (Chef Boyardee) (Italy) singer and actress Irène Bordoni (Italy) film director Frank Capra (Italy) actress Claudette Colbert (France) musician and bandleader Xavier Cugat (Spain) former San Francisco mayor George Christopher (Greece) actor Karl Dane (Denmark) cosmetologist Max Factor (Poland) priest Father Flanagan (Ireland) jurist Felix Frankfurter (Austria) comedian Bob Hope (England) painter Arshile Gorky (Armenia) actor Cary Grant (England) nutrition and diet guru Gayelord Hauser (Germany) aviator Hubert Julian (Trinidad and Tobago) billionaire John Kluge (Germany) wrestler Dan Kolov (Bulgaria) gangster Lucky Luciano (Italy) actor Béla Lugosi (Hungary) tenor and opera singer John McCormack (Ireland) first immigrant processed at Ellis Island Annie Moore (Ireland) actor Antonio Moreno (Spain) dancing studio legend Arthur Murray (Austria-Hungary) actress Pola Negri (Poland) actress Anna Q. Nilsson (Sweden) actress Rafaela Ottiano (Italy) opera singer Ezio Pinza (Italy) football coach Knute Rockne (Norway) imposter and restaurateur Michael Romanoff (Lithuania) comedian Sig Ruman (Germany) painter Ben Shahn (Lithuania) film executive Spyros Skouras (Greece) painter Joseph Stella (Italy) World War II sergeant Michael Strank (Slovakia) director and actor Erich von Stroheim (Austria) composer Jule Styne (England) the Trapp Family Singers (Austria) actor Rudolph Valentino (Italy) Olympic swimming medalist and actor Johnny Weissmuller (Austria-Hungary) novelist Anzia Yezierska (Poland) comedian and violinist Henny Youngman (England) Museum Front entrance. A bridge connects Ellis Island with Liberty State Park in Jersey City. It was built during the restoration of the island and heavy trucks went across it. In 1995 proposals were made either to open it to pedestrians or to build a new bridge for pedestrians. They were defeated by two vested interests: the City of New York and the private operator of the only boat service to the island, the Circle Line. The supposedly inadequate bridge is still in use but closed to the public. Setha Low, Dana Taplin, Suzanne Sheld (2005), Rethinking Urban Parks, University of Texas Press; chapter 4. The interior of the hall at Ellis Island's museum. There is a "Wall of Honor" outside of the main building. A myth that it lists all of the immigrants processed there. It is actually a wall giving people the opportunity to make a donation to honor any immigrant into the United States. Boston based architecture firm Finegold Alexander + Associates Inc, together with the New York architectural firm Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the restoration and adaptive use of the Beaux Arts Main Building, one of the most symbolically important structures in American history. A construction budget of US$150 million was required for this significant restoration. The building was opened to the public on September 10, 1990. As part of the National Park Service's Centennial Initiative, the south side of the island will be the target of a project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been rehabilitated. In film Ellis Island attracted the imagination of filmmakers as long ago as the silent era. Early films featuring the station include Traffic in Souls (1913); The Yellow Passport (1916), starring Clara Kimbell Young; My Boy (1921), starring Jackie Coogan; Frank Capra's The Strong Man (1926), starring Harry Langdon; We Americans (1928), starring John Boles; Ellis Island (1936), starring Donald Cook; Gateway (1938), starring Don Ameche; and Exile Express (1939), which starred Anna Sten. More recently, the island was a scene used in Hitch, a motion picture starring Will Smith. He and Eva Mendes take a jet ski to the island and explore the building. The 2006 movie Golden Door culminates with scenes on the island. The IMAX 3D movie, Across the Sea of Time, about the New York immigrant experience, incorporates both modern footage and historical photographs of Ellis Island. Ellis Island as a port of entry to the United States of America is described in detail in Mottel the Cantor's Son by Sholom Aleichem. It is also the place where Don Corleone was held as an immigrant boy in The Godfather Part II, where he was marked with an encircled X. In the film X-Men, a UN summit held on the island is targeted by Magneto, a former immigrant who attempts to artificially change all the delegates present. The opening scene of Brother From Another Planet takes place on Ellis Island. The 2006 Italian movie, The Golden Door, (directed by Emanuele Crialese) takes place largely at Ellis Island. A documentary on the hospital at Ellis Island was created by Lorie Conway. Federal jurisdiction and state sovereignty dispute According to the United States Census Bureau, the island, which was largely artificially created through landfill, has an official land area of 129,619 square meters, or 32 acres, more than 83 percent of which lies in the city of Jersey City. The natural portion of the island, lying in New York City, is 21,458 square meters (5.3 acres), and is completely surrounded by the artificially created portion. For New York State tax purposes it is assessed as Manhattan Block 1, Lot 201. Since 1998, it also has a tax number assigned by the state of New Jersey. Overview before restoration; the now-restored side is the right set of buildings. Piers of Jersey City are in the background. On October 15, 1965, Ellis Island was proclaimed a part of Statue of Liberty National Monument, which is managed by the National Park Service. The island is entirely on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River. During the colonial period, however, New York had taken possession, and New Jersey had acquiesced in that action. In a compact between the two states, approved by U.S. Congress in 1834, New Jersey therefore agreed that New York would continue to have exclusive jurisdiction over what was the territory of the island at that time. Thereafter, however, the federal government expanded the island by landfill, so that it could accommodate the immigration station that opened in 1892 (and closed in November 1954). Landfilling continued until 1934. Nine-tenths of the current area is artificial island that did not exist at the time of the interstate compact. New Jersey contended that the new extensions were part of New Jersey, since they were not part of the previous cession. New Jersey eventually filed suit to establish its jurisdiction, leading New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani dramatically to remark that his father, an Italian who immigrated through Ellis Island, never intended to go to New Jersey. Sheahan, Matthew. "My Grandmother Is the Greatest", Knot Magazine, May 4, 2004. The dispute eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in 1998 that New Jersey had jurisdiction over all portions of the island created after the original compact was approved (effectively, more than 80% of the island's present land). This caused several immediate confusions: some buildings, for instance, fell into the territory of both states. New Jersey and New York soon agreed to share claims to the island. It remains wholly a Federal property, however, and these legal decisions do not result in either state taking any fiscal or physical responsibility for the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of the historic properties. See also Angel Island, California Annie Moore Geography and environment of New York City Hoffman Island Liberty Island List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City Save Ellis Island Statue of Liberty Kissing Post Notes References Ellis Island: Blocks 9019 thru 9023, Block Group 9, Census Tract 47, Hudson County, NJ; and Block 1000, Block Group 1, Census Tract 1, New York County, NY; United States Census Bureau. Report of the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization under joint resolution of Senate and House of January 29, 1892, submitted by Mr. Stump. Ordered to be printed July 28, 1892. By United States Congress, House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization. Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied, 1982 report; Further reading Coan, Peter Morton. "Ellis Island Interviews: In Their Own Words", 1998. Conway, L. Forgotten Ellis Island, 2007. Corsi, E. In the Shadow of Liberty, 1935. Fairchild, A. Science at the Borders, 2004. Moreno, B., Images of America:Children of Ellis Island, 2005. Moreno, B., Images of America:Ellis Island, 2003. Moreno, B., Images of America:Ellis Island's Famous Immigrants, 2008. Moreno, B. Encyclopedia of Ellis Island, 2004. Novotny, A. Strangers at the Door, 1971. Pitkin, T.M. Keepers of the Gate, 1975. External links Ellis Island home page Ellis Island Visitor information Ellis Island Historical Timeline Ellis Island Immigration Museum Ellis Island timeline Ellis Island web site Free Search of Ellis Island Database - Port of New York Arrivals 1892-1924 Supreme Court opinion in New Jersey v. 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1,218 | Claudius | Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54 AD ) (Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to AD 4, then Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus from then until his accession) was the fourth Roman Emperor, a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 24 January AD 41 to his death in AD 54. Born in Lugdunum in Gaul (modern-day Lyon, France), to Drusus and Antonia Minor, he was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italia. He was reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and his family had virtually excluded him from public office until his consulship with his nephew Caligula in AD 37. This infirmity may have saved him from the fate of many other Roman nobles during the purges of Tiberius' and Caligula's reigns; potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat to them. His very survival led to his being declared emperor (reportedly because the Praetorian Guard insisted) after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the conquest of Britain. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to 20 edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position. This resulted in the deaths of many senators. Claudius also suffered setbacks in his personal life, one of which may have led to his murder. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers. More recent historians have revised this opinion. Family and early life Tiberius Claudius Drusus, better known as Claudius, was born on August 1, 10 BC, in Lugdunum, Gaul, on the day of the dedication of an altar to Augustus. His parents were Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia, and he had two older siblings named Germanicus and Livilla. Antonia may have had two other children who died young, as well. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Caesar Augustus' sister. His paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus' third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the false appearance that Augustus was Claudius' paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, Drusus unexpectedly died, possibly from an injury. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Dio Hist. LX 2 Livia was little kinder, and often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a "former mule-driver" Suet. Claud. 2. Suet Claud. 4 indicates the reasons for choosing this tutor, as outlined in Leon (1948). to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory. Suet. Claud. 4. Expectations about his future began to increase. Ironically, it was his work as a budding historian that destroyed his early career. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, Claudius began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian. Scramuzza (1940) p. 39. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have proved to them that Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe the existing party line. When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over the wars of the second triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done, and his family pushed him to the background. When the Arch of Pavia was erected to honor the imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius' name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to paterfamilias of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge—past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius, and Germanicus' children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all. Stuart (1936). Gratus proclaims Claudius emperor. Detail from A Roman Emperor 41AD, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema. Oil on canvas, c. 1871. When Augustus died in AD 14, Claudius — then 23 — appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the cursus honorum. Tiberius, the new emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new emperor was not any more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the equites, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son, Drusus, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the Praetorian Sejanus was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius the new emperor Caligula (the son of Claudius' brother Germanicus) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in AD 37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to Cassius Dio, as well a possible surviving portrait, Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2. Suhr (1955) suggests that this must refer to before Claudius came to power. Reign Accession as emperor On January 24, AD 41, Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based conspiracy (including Praetorian commander Cassius Chaerea and several Senators). There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot — particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. Major (1992) However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him princeps. Josephus Antiquitates Iudiacae XIX. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 1. A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection. The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new Princeps. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly Josephus, Josephus Ant. Iud. XIX. claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judean King Herod Agrippa. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role Josephus Bellum Iudiacum II, 204–233. — so it is not known how large a hand he had in things. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins. Claudius issued this denarius type to emphasize his clemency after Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddess Pax-Nemesis, representing subdued vengeance, would be used on the coins of many later emperors. Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen — the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero" which he had adopted as paterfamilias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. While he had never been adopted by Augustus or his successors, he was the grandson of Octavia, and so felt he had the right. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" in order to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia in order to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation. Because he was proclaimed emperor on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate — the first emperor thus proclaimed — Claudius' repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as Seneca). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills, and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the praetorians in the early part of his reign. Expansion of the empire Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace, Noricum, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Judea were annexed under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of Mauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and the official division of the former client kingdom into two imperial provinces. Pliny 5.1-5.2, Cassius Dio, 60.8, 60.9 The most important new conquest was that of Britannia. Scramuzza, Chap. 9 In AD 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain (Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth — particularly mines and slaves. It was also a haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter must have made an impression on the Britons when they were used in the capture of Camulodunum. He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph for his efforts, as only members of the imperial family were allowed such honors. Claudius later lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general Caractacus was captured in AD 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander. Claudius conducted a census in AD 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens, Scramuzza, Chap. 7, p. 142 an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the empire in order to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible. Judicial and legislative affairs Roman sestertius struck under Claudius. The reverse depicts Spes Augusta (Hope). Coins of this type were first issued to commemorate the birth of Claudius' son Britannicus in AD 41. Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. Suet. Claud. 15. Dio Rom. Hist. LXI 33. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to ensure a more experienced jury pool. Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 6 Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Troy from taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of Alexandria sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to Josephus, he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the empire. Josephus Ant. Iud. XIX, 287. An investigator of Claudius' discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the modern city of Trento were not in fact citizens. Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 7, p.129 The emperor issued a declaration that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be impersonating equestrians were sold back into slavery. Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 7 Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. Two famous medical examples are one promoting Yew juice as a cure for snakebite, Suetonius, Claud. 16 and another promoting public flatulence for good health. Suetonius, Claud. 32 One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of Aesculapius to die, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take the risk were liable to be charged with murder. Suetonius, Claud. 51 Public works The Porta Maggiore in Rome Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and the Anio Novus. These entered the city in AD 52 and met at the famous Porta Maggiore. He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo. He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany — both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the Tiber, leading to Portus, his new port just north of Ostia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two moles and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk traveling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the Lex Papia-Poppaea, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or famine. The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the Fucine lake, which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round. Tacitus Ann. XII 57 A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake was revisited many times in history, including by emperors Trajan and Hadrian, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince Torlonia in the 19th century, producing over of new arable land. Scramuzza (1940), Chap. 9, pp. 173-4 He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size. Claudius and the Senate Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as Holder of the Power of Tribune (The emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was a Patrician, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech: Roman sestertius issued during Claudius' reign. The reverse reads "EX SC PP OB CIVES SERVATOS", meaning "Senatus Consulto" (approved by the Senate), "Pater Patriae" (to the father of his country), "Ob Cives Servatos" (For having saved the citizens). In AD 47 he assumed the office of Censor with Lucius Vitellius, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The Lyons Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He also increased the number of Patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Caesar. Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius was forced to reduce the Senate's power for efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an imperial Procurator after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the emperor. Several coup attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus, the governor of Dalmatia and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, and the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius' son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In AD 46, Asinius Gallus, the grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Statilius Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Statilius Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius' term as Censor, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the year after his Censorship, AD 48, is detailed in the section discussing Claudius' third wife, Messalina. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius' reign. Suet. Claud. 29. Needless to say, the necessary responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate-emperor relations. The Secretariat and centralization of powers Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the Princeps became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the conquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius. Tac. Ann. XII 65. Seneca Ad Polybium. He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas' brother, Felix. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout. Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes that several of them were richer than Crassus, the richest man of the Republican era. Pliny Natural History 134. Religious reforms Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He reinstituted old observances and archaic language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the Eleusinian mysteries which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as haruspices) as a replacement. He was especially hard on Druidism, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its proselytizing activities. It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the appearance of Christianity had caused unrest within the Jewish community. There is some debate about what actually happened. It is reported by Suetonius and in Acts (18:2), Cassius Dio minimizes the event and Josephus—who was reporting on Jewish events—does not mention it at all. Some scholars hold that it didn't happen, while others have only a few missionaries expelled for the short term. Claudius opposed proselytizing in any religion, even in those regions where he allowed natives to worship freely. The results of all these efforts were recognized even by Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in his satire. Seneca Apocolo. 9. Public games and entertainments According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters Suet. Claud. 12 . Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday. Suet. Claud. 11 . Annual games were also held in honor of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed emperor. Suet. Claud. 21 . Claudius performed the Secular games, marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the Fucine lake, as well as many other public games and shows. At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought a killer whale which was trapped in the harbor. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder: Claudius also restored and adorned many of the venues around Rome. The old wooden barriers of the Circus Maximus were replaced with ones made of gold-ornamented marble. A new section of the Circus was designated for seating the senators, who previously had sat among the general public. Claudius rebuilt Pompey's Theater after it had been destroyed by fire, throwing special fights at the rededication which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box. Death, deification, and reputation The general consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison — possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather — and died in the early hours of October 13, AD 54. Accounts vary greatly. Some claim Claudius was in Rome Suet. Claud. 44 while others claim he was in Sinuessa. Tac. Ann. XII 66 Some implicate either Halotus, his taster, Xenophon, his doctor, or the infamous poisoner Locusta as the administrator of the fatal substance. Accounts of his death: Suet. Claud. 43, 44. Tac. Ann. XII 64, 66–67. Josephus Ant. Iud. XX 148, 151. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 34. Pliny Natural History II 92, XI 189, XXII 92. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. Nearly all implicate his final wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment on Britannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Suet. Claud. 43 Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power. In modern times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age. Scramuzza (1940) pp. 92–93 says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was truly murdered. Levick (1990) pp. 76–77. raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause. Some modern scholars claim the universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime. Levick (1990); also as opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an inveterate gossip, doesn't mention it at all. History in those days could not be objectively collected or written, so sometimes amounted to committing whispered gossip to parchment, often years after the events, when the writer was no longer in danger of arrest. Claudius' ashes were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus on October 24, after a funeral in the manner of Augustus. Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately. Suet. Nero 9 Those who regard this homage as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been "hated", as some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him. Many of Claudius' less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men. Claudius' will had been changed shortly before his death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just Britannicus, who would have been considered an adult man according to Roman law only in a few months. Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence—most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius has criticized his predecessors in official edicts (see below), Nero often criticized the deceased emperor and many of Claudius' laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them. Suet. Nero 33 This opinion of Claudius, that he was indeed an old idiot, remained the official one for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family. Claudius' temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero's Golden House. Levick (1990) The Flavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his son Britannicus—who had been a friend of the emperor Titus. When Nero's Golden House was burned, the Temple of Claudius was finally completed on Caelian Hill. However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was put down with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. The main ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters which had been gathered earlier) and does not quote the emperor. Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue. Scramuzza, p. 29 Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing. Vessey (1971) He wrote Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot—going so far as to hide his use of Claudius as a source and omit Claudius' character from his works. Griffin (1990). Ann. XI 14 is a good example. The digression on the history of writing is certainly Claudius' own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no attribution. Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians' accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the second century, Pertinax, who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius. Levick. Claudius p. 194 Marriages and personal life Claudius' love life was unusual for an upper-class Roman of his day. As Edward Gibbon mentions, of the first fifteen emperors, "Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct"—the implication being that he was the only one not to take men or boys as lovers. Gibbon based this on Suetonius' factual statement that "He had a great passion for women, but had no interest in men." Suet. Claud. 33. Suetonius and the other ancient authors used this against Claudius. They accused him of being dominated by these same women and wives, of being uxorious, and of being a womanizer. Claudius married four times. His first marriage, to Plautia Urgulanilla, occurred after two failed betrothals (The first was to his distant cousin Aemilia Lepida, but was broken for political reasons. The second was to Livia Medullina, which ended with the bride's sudden death on their wedding day). Urgulanilla was a relation of Livia's confidant Urgulania. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately, Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to the daughter of Sejanus. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was one of his own freedmen. Soon after (possibly in AD 28), Claudius married Aelia Paetina, a relation of Sejanus. They had a daughter, Claudia Antonia. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability (although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Aelia). In AD 38 or early 39, Claudius married Valeria Messalina, who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter Claudia Octavia. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as Britannicus, was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina was a nymphomaniac who was regularly unfaithful to Claudius — Tacitus states she went so far as to compete with a prostitute to see who could have the most sexual partners in a night Tac. Ann. XI 10. Also Dio Rom. Hist. LXI 31, and Pliny Nat. Hist. X 172. — and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In AD 48, Messalina married her lover Gaius Silius in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia. Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children. Scramuzza (1940) p. 90. Momigliano (1934) pp. 6–7. Levick (1990) p. 19. The historian Tacitus suggests that Claudius's ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point. Tac. Ann. XI. 25, 8. Whatever the case, the result was the execution of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.212. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. Claudius made the Praetorians promise to kill him if he ever married again. Despite this declaration, Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen pushed three candidates, Caligula's former wife Lollia Paulina, Claudius's divorced second wife Aelia, and Claudius's niece Agrippina the younger. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles. Suet. Claud. 26. The truth is likely more political. The coup attempt by Silius probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compounded by the fact that he did not have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (later known as Nero) was one of the last males of the imperial family. Future coup attempts could rally around the pair, and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested in recent times that the Senate may have pushed for the marriage to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches. Scramuzza (1940) pp. 91–92. See also Tac. Ann. XII 6, 7; Suet. Claud. 26. This feud dated back to Agrippina's mother's actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband Germanicus, actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina, and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son. Nero was made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, married to Octavia and heavily promoted. This was not as unusual as it seems to people acquainted with modern hereditary monarchies. Barbara Levick notes that Augustus had named his grandson Postumus Agrippa and his stepson Tiberius joint heirs. Levick (1990) p. 70. See also Scramuzza (1940) p. 92. Tiberius named his great-nephew Caligula joint heir with his grandson Tiberius Gemellus. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable. This was the case during Britannicus' minority. S.V. Oost suggests that Claudius had previously looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign. Oost (1958). Faustus Sulla, married to his daughter Antonia, was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side — not close enough to the imperial family to prevent doubts (that didn't stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). Besides which, he was the half brother of Messalina, and at this time those wounds were still fresh. Nero was more popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus. Claudius' affliction and personality The historian Suetonius describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in relatively good detail. Suet. Claud. 30. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when he was excited. The Stoic Seneca states in his Apocolocyntosis that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well; Seneca Apocolo. 5, 6. however, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of dignitas. When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this condition improved upon his accession to the throne. Suet. Claud. 31. Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his own life. Suet. Claud. 38. The modern diagnosis has changed several times in the past century. Prior to World War II, infantile paralysis (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in Robert Graves' Claudius novels, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates cerebral palsy as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon. Leon (1948). Tourette syndrome is also a likely candidate for Claudius' symptoms. Burden, George. The Imperial Gene, The Medical Post, July 16, 1996. Retrieved 24 June 2007. As a person, ancient historians described Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who sometimes lunched with the plebeians. Suet. Claud. 5, 21, 40; Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 5, 12, 31. They also paint him as bloodthirsty and cruel, overly fond of both gladiatorial combat and executions, and very quick to anger (though Claudius himself acknowledged this last trait, and apologized publicly for his temper). Suet. Claud. 34, 38. Tacitus Ann. XII 20. To them he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen. Suet. Claud. 29. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 8. But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused. Suet. Claud. 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 3. The extant works of Claudius present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent, scholarly, well-read, and conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his "Letter to the Alexandrians" in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies. Scholarly works and their impact Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. Arnaldo Momigliano Momigliano (1934) pp. 4–6. states that during the reign of Tiberius — which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career — it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included an Etruscan history and eight volumes on Carthaginian history, as well as an Etruscan Dictionary and a book on dice playing. Despite the general avoidance of the imperatorial era, he penned a defense of Cicero against the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine both the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history. He proposed a reform of the Latin alphabet by the addition of three new letters, two of which served the function of the modern letters W and Y. He officially instituted the change during his censorship, but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between different words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste. Suet. Claud. 41. Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) heavily criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches, See Claudius' letter to the people of Trent (linked below), in which he refers to the "obstinate retirement" of Tiberius. See also Josephus Ant Iud. XIX, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's "madness and lack of understanding." it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge. The Claudian letters Unfortunately, none of the actual works survive. They do live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once, and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' own arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above, and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of Pliny's Natural History. See Momigliano (1934) Chap. 1, note 20 (p. 83). Pliny credits him by name in Book VII 35. The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy, his tutor in adolescence. The detail of his speech borders on the pedantic, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into long digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not help but share. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by Julius Caesar. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies. Levick (1978). His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly Appius Claudius Caecus, and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect and his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he believed (as most Romans) that his ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus had used the censorship to introduce the letter "R" Ryan (1993) refers to the historian Varro's account of the introduction and so used his own term to introduce his new letters. In literature and film Bookcover of I, Claudius Probably the most famous fictional representation of the Emperor Claudius were the books I, Claudius and Claudius the God (released in 1934 and 1935) by Robert Graves, both written in the first-person to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius' autobiography. Graves employed a fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings. Claudius' extant letters, speeches, and sayings were incorporated into the text (mostly in the second book, Claudius the God) in order to add authenticity. In 1937 director Josef von Sternberg made an unsuccessful attempt to film I, Claudius, with Charles Laughton as Claudius. Unfortunately, the lead actress Merle Oberon suffered a near-fatal accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were finally shown in the documentary The Epic That Never Was in 1965, revealing some of Laughton's most accomplished acting. The motion picture rights have been obtained by Scott Rudin, with a theatrical release planned for 2010. Graves's two books were also the basis for a twelve-part British television adaptation produced by the BBC. The series starred Derek Jacobi as Claudius, and was broadcast in 1976 on BBC2. It was a substantial critical success, and won several BAFTA awards. The series was later broadcast in the United States on Masterpiece Theatre in 1977. The DVD release of the television series contains the "The Epic that Never Was" documentary. Claudius has appeared on film on several other occasions, including in the 1979 motion picture Caligula, the role being performed by Giancarlo Badessi in which the character was depicted as an idiot, in complete contrast to Robert Graves' portrait of Claudius as a cunning and deeply intelligent man. In the parody Gore Vidal's Caligula, which advertises itself as a remake of the original film, Claudius is portrayed by Glenn Shadix. On television, the actor Freddie Jones became famous for his role as Claudius in the 1968 British television series The Caesars while the 1985 made-for-television miniseries A.D. features actor Richard Kiley as Claudius. There is also a reference to Claudius' suppression of one of the coups against him in the movie Gladiator, though the incident is entirely fictional. In literature, Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel The Roman by Mika Waltari. Canadian-born science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt reimagined Robert Graves' Claudius story in his two novels Empire of the Atom and The Wizard of Linn. Ancestry See also Julio-Claudian Family Tree Footnotes References Baldwin, B. "Executions under Claudius: Seneca’s Ludus de Morte Claudii". Phoenix 18 (1964). Griffin, M. "Claudius in Tacitus". Classical Quarterly, 40 (1990), 482–501. Levick, B.M., "Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary?" American Journal of Philology, 99 (1978), 79–105. Levick, Barbara. Claudius. Yale University Press. New Haven, 1990. Leon, E.F., "The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 79 (1948), 79–86. McAlindon, D., "Claudius and the Senators", American Journal of Philology, 78 (1957), 279–286. Major, A., "Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power", Ancient History, 22 (1992), 25–31. Momigliano, Arnaldo. Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement Trans. W.D. Hogarth. W. Heffer and Sons. Cambridge, 1934. Oost, S.V., "The Career of M. Antonius Pallas", American Journal of Philology, 79 (1958). 113–139. Ruth, Thomas De Coursey. The Problem of Claudius. (Johns Hopkins Diss., 1916). Ryan, F.X. "Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47–48", American Journal of Philology, 114 (1993), 611–618. Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. Cambridge, 1940. Stuart, M. "The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum" Am. J. Arch. 40 (1936). 314–322. Suhr, E.G., "A Portrait of Claudius" Am. J. Arch. 59 (1955). 319–322. Vessey, D.W.T.C. "Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius" American Journal of Philology, 92 (1971), 385–409. External links Ancient Sources Suetonius Life of Claudius Tacitus Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11 Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12 Dio Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I Cassius Dio's account, part II Josephus The works of Josephus Seneca The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius Claudius Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians Lyons tablet Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet Second half of the Lyons Tablet Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent Modern Biographies Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis Claudius Page Claudius I at BBC History | Claudius |@lemmatized tiberius:21 claudius:225 caesar:7 augustus:28 germanicus:12 august:2 bc:3 october:3 ad:24 drusus:11 birth:6 nero:22 accession:7 fourth:2 roman:22 emperor:40 member:4 julio:5 claudian:8 dynasty:4 rule:7 january:2 death:17 bear:6 lugdunum:2 gaul:3 modern:10 day:11 lyon:7 france:1 antonia:6 minor:2 first:19 outside:2 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1,219 | The_Bush_(Alaska) | The Bush is a term for the portion of Alaska that are not connected by North America's interconnected system of roadways. The vast majority of Alaska's geography is located in the Bush, but the majority of the population lives in or near the two main urban areas of Anchorage and Fairbanks. Most Alaskans refer to any place besides Anchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, and the towns of the Kenai Peninsula and Mat-Su boroughs as falling within the Bush. Although the Bush in Alaska is generally described as any community not "on the road system," there are distinctions within how different parts of the state define this term. Residents of remote Eskimo villages, for instance, do not consider communities connected by the Alaska State Marine Highway ferries as properly part of the Bush. Most parts of Alaska that are off the road system can only be reached by small airplane, and travel from place to place is typically accomplished through alternative means of transportation such as snowmobile or snowmachine, boat, or dog sled. In addition, Alaska has a further distinction that divides Bush communities into two further subcategories of "hub communities", and "villages". Bush hub communities Bush hub communities are isolated small or mid-sized towns that serve as a transportation and shipping hubs for surrounding smaller rural communities. Bush hubs are used by many village residents as a both a transfer point on their way to and from the more developed towns such as Anchorage and Fairbanks. Residents of Bush hub communities typically enjoy better access to health care, grocery shopping and other services than do those who live in smaller Bush villages. Bush hubs tend to share a number of characteristics that may include: Regional road systems of crushed gravel Small clinic or hospital Grocery store Relatively busy small airports — some with daily jet or turboprop service to Anchorage or Fairbanks Higher likelihood than villages to be classified as "damp", rather than "dry" in terms of alcohol consumption Populations typically greater than 500 Some Bush hub communities of Alaska: Aniak, Barrow, Nome, Kotzebue, Unalakleet, St. Mary's, Bethel, Dillingham, Dutch Harbor, and Cordova. Bush villages Alaska Bush villages vary greatly in terms of running water, flush-haul sewage treatment, and alcohol consumption restrictions. Bush villages are frequently subsistence-based communities, with few cash economy jobs. This means that hunting and gathering are still active lifestyles. The degree of traditional participation in these activities also varies greatly by location. Most villages are predominantly Alaska Natives communities. In many cases, the only non-Native residents are employees of the local school district, or state and federal agencies with personnel based in the village. Bush villages may have some or all of the following notable characteristics: No roads or cars, but boardwalks for foot and four-wheeler traffic Trails or paths around town for snow machines Lack of sewage treatment or water piped into homes. The use of a honey bucket and the collection of rainwater for drinking is standard. Steam baths which are used for bathing and social gatherings Lack of restaurants, or prepared foods available for sale, except for a few tiny village stores Reliance on traditional foods to varying degrees. Some are very interesting to outsiders, such as fermented fish and "stinkheads". Reliance on diesel generator power, which can experience frequent outages A small US Post Office (although mail can take significantly longer than in hub communities) Alcohol consumption restrictions Dry — Possession and sale of alcohol banned Damp — Alcohol can be possessed, but import controls are in place. Sales of alcohol are banned. Wet — Alcohol consumption and sale only subject to state regulation, not "local option". Traditional Alaska Native language use varies from the primary language used daily by the majority of villagers, to only elders knowing any of the dialect. Small, gravel airstrips which restrict air travel to certain weather conditions Other features Native ANSCA corporations, airstrips. References Effects of rising utility costs on household budgets, 2000-2006 / by Ben Saylor and Sharman Haley. Hosted by the Alaska State Publications Program. Village wind diesel hydrogen report / prepared by Steve Gilbert and Steve Colt. ISER (2006) Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program. | The_Bush_(Alaska) |@lemmatized bush:17 term:4 portion:1 alaska:12 connect:2 north:1 america:1 interconnect:1 system:4 roadway:1 vast:1 majority:3 geography:1 locate:1 population:2 live:2 near:1 two:2 main:1 urban:1 area:1 anchorage:4 fairbanks:4 alaskan:1 refer:1 place:4 besides:1 juneau:1 town:4 kenai:1 peninsula:1 mat:1 su:1 borough:1 fall:1 within:2 although:2 generally:1 describe:1 community:12 road:4 distinction:2 different:1 part:3 state:6 define:1 resident:4 remote:1 eskimo:1 village:13 instance:1 consider:1 marine:1 highway:1 ferry:1 properly:1 reach:1 small:8 airplane:1 travel:2 typically:3 accomplish:1 alternative:1 mean:2 transportation:2 snowmobile:1 snowmachine:1 boat:1 dog:1 sled:1 addition:1 divide:1 subcategories:1 hub:9 isolate:1 mid:1 sized:1 serve:1 shipping:1 surround:1 rural:1 use:5 many:2 transfer:1 point:1 way:1 developed:1 enjoy:1 good:1 access:1 health:1 care:1 grocery:2 shopping:1 service:2 tend:1 share:1 number:1 characteristic:2 may:2 include:1 regional:1 crushed:1 gravel:2 clinic:1 hospital:1 store:2 relatively:1 busy:1 airport:1 daily:2 jet:1 turboprop:1 high:1 likelihood:1 classify:1 damp:2 rather:1 dry:2 alcohol:7 consumption:4 great:1 aniak:1 barrow:1 nome:1 kotzebue:1 unalakleet:1 st:1 mary:1 bethel:1 dillingham:1 dutch:1 harbor:1 cordova:1 vary:2 greatly:2 run:1 water:2 flush:1 haul:1 sewage:2 treatment:2 restriction:2 frequently:1 subsistence:1 base:2 cash:1 economy:1 job:1 hunt:1 gathering:2 still:1 active:1 lifestyle:1 degree:2 traditional:3 participation:1 activity:1 also:1 varies:2 location:1 predominantly:1 native:4 case:1 non:1 employee:1 local:2 school:1 district:1 federal:1 agency:1 personnel:1 follow:1 notable:1 car:1 boardwalk:1 foot:1 four:1 wheeler:1 traffic:1 trail:1 path:1 around:1 snow:1 machine:1 lack:2 pip:1 home:1 honey:1 bucket:1 collection:1 rainwater:1 drinking:1 standard:1 steam:1 bath:2 social:1 restaurant:1 prepared:1 food:2 available:1 sale:4 except:1 tiny:1 reliance:2 interesting:1 outsider:1 fermented:1 fish:1 stinkheads:1 diesel:2 generator:1 power:1 experience:1 frequent:1 outage:1 u:1 post:1 office:1 mail:1 take:1 significantly:1 long:1 possession:1 ban:2 possess:1 import:1 control:1 wet:1 subject:1 regulation:1 option:1 language:2 primary:1 villager:1 elder:1 know:1 dialect:1 airstrip:2 restrict:1 air:1 certain:1 weather:1 condition:1 feature:1 ansca:1 corporation:1 reference:1 effect:1 rise:1 utility:1 cost:1 household:1 budget:1 ben:1 saylor:1 sharman:1 haley:1 host:2 publication:2 program:2 wind:1 hydrogen:1 report:1 prepare:1 steve:2 gilbert:1 colt:1 iser:1 |@bigram vast_majority:1 anchorage_fairbanks:4 dog_sled:1 health_care:1 grocery_store:1 sewage_treatment:2 varies_greatly:1 |
1,220 | Unification_Church | The Unification Church is a new religious movement founded by Korean religious leader Sun Myung Moon. In addition to providing and sustaining spiritual, scriptural, and liturgical functions and structures for its worldwide community of believers, the Unification Church, like many religious organizations, owns, operates, and subsidizes organizations and projects involved in political, cultural, commercial, media, educational, and other activities. The church, its members and supporters as well as other related organizations are sometimes referred to as the "Unification Movement." Unification Church beliefs are summarized in the textbook Divine Principle and include belief in a universal God; in striving toward the creation of a literal Kingdom of Heaven on earth; in the universal salvation of all people, good and evil, living and dead; and that a man born in Korea in the early 20th century received from Jesus the mission to be realized as the second coming of Christ. Exposition of the Divine Principle, HSA-UWC, 1996 (ISBN 0-910621-80-2). Members of the Unification Church believe this Messiah is Sun Myung Moon. Moon has said he is the Second Coming of Christ, the "Savior", "returning Lord", and "True Parent". He teaches that all people should become perfected like Jesus and like himself, and that as such he "appears in the world as the substantial body of God Himself." Let Us Perfect the Peace Kingdom Through the Peace United Nations, Keynote Address, Rev. Sun Myung Moon, Inaugural Assembly of the Headquarters of the Interreligious and International Peace Council (IIPC), October 15, 2003, Seoul, Korea. In 1954, the Unification Church was formally and legally established in Seoul, South Korea as The Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity (HSA-UWC). In 1994, Moon changed the official name of the church to the Family Federation for World Peace and Unification. Introvigne, Massimo, 2000, The Unification Church Studies in Contemporary Religion, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, ISBN 1-56085-145-7, excerpt Members are found throughout the world, with the largest number living in South Korea or Japan. Unification Church International Directory lists contact information for 56 countries. Sun Myung Moon "They now have a presence in over 150 countries, with concentrations in Korea, Japan and the United States." Church membership is estimated to be several hundred thousand to a few million. Membership estimates from the Unification Church (i.e., UC fact sheet) have been variously 1-3 million followers worldwide, but some sociologists of religion who have studied the church believe this number is greatly inflated. The Adherents.com site specializes in religious demographics; it gives direct and indirect reports of estimates of members in the 1-3 million range as well as one source estimating 250,000, and another estimating "hundreds of thousands." excerpt The Unification Church Studies in Contemporary Religion, Massimo Introvigne, 2000, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, ISBN 1-56085-145-7 This book mentions 250,000 as the best guess of scholars. In the English speaking world church members are sometimes referred to by the derogatory label "Moonies." Oxford English Dictionary WordNet 3.0, © 2006 by Princeton University History Church members believe that Jesus appeared to Mun Yong-myong (his birth name) on April 17, 1935, when Moon was 15 years old (in his 16th year in Korean age reckoning), and asked him to accomplish the work left unfinished after his crucifixion. After a period of prayer and consideration, Moon accepted the mission, later changing his name to Mun Son-myong (Sun Myung Moon). excerpt The Unification Church Studies in Contemporary Religion, Massimo Introvigne, 2000, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, ISBN 1-56085-145-7 The beginnings of the Church's official teachings, the Divine Principle, first saw written form as Wolli Wonbon in 1946. (The second, expanded version, Wolli Hesol, or Explanation of the Divine Principle, was not published until 1957; for a more complete account, see Divine Principle.) Sun Myung Moon preached in northern Korea after the end of World War II and was imprisoned by the communist regime in North Korea in 1946. He was released from prison, along with many other North Koreans, with the advance of American and United Nations forces during the Korean War and built his first church from mud and cardboard boxes as a refugee in Pusan. Introvigne, 2000 Moon formally founded his organization in Seoul on May 1, 1954, calling it "The Holy Spirit(ual) Association for the Unification of World Christianity." The name alludes to Moon's stated intention for his organization to be a unifying force for all Christian denominations. The phrase "Holy Spirit Association" has the sense in the original Korean of "Heavenly Spirits" and not the "Holy Spirit" of Christianity. "Unification" has political as well as religious connotations, in keeping with the church's teaching that restoration must be complete, both spiritual and physical. The church expanded rapidly in South Korea and by the end of 1955 had 30 church centers throughout the nation. In 1958, Moon sent missionaries to Japan, and in 1959, to America. Moon himself moved to the United States in 1971, (although he remained a citizen of the Republic of Korea). Missionary work took place in Washington D.C., New York, and California. UC missionaries found success in the San Francisco Bay Area, where the church expanded in Oakland, Berkeley, and San Francisco as the Creative Community Project. By 1971 the Unification Church of the United States had about 500 members. By 1973 the church had some presence in all 50 states and had a few thousand members. Irving Louis Horowitz compared the attraction of Unification teachings to American young people at this time to the hippie and radical movements of the 1960s and 1970s, saying: "[Moon] has a belief system that admits of no boundaries or limits, an all-embracing truth. His writings exhibit a holistic concern for the person, society, nature, and all things embraced by the human vision. In this sense the concept underwriting the Unification church is apt, for its primary drive and appeal is unity, urging a paradigm of essence in an overly complicated world of existence. It is a ready-made doctrine for impatient young people and all those for whom the pursuit of the complex has become a tiresome and fruitless venture." Irving Louis Horowitz, Science, Sin, and Society: The Politics or Reverend Moon and the Unification Church, 1980, MIT Press In 1974, Moon took full-page ads in major newspapers defending President Richard M. Nixon at the height of the Watergate controversy. In 1975, Moon sent out missionaries to 120 countries to spread the Unification Church around the world and also in part, he said, to act as "lightning rods" to receive "persecution." In the 1970s Moon gave a series of public speeches in the United states including one in Madison Square Garden in New York City in 1974 and two in 1976: In Yankee Stadium in New York City, and on the grounds of the Washington Monument in Washington D.C., where Moon spoke on "God's Hope for America." Starting in the 1960s the Unification Church was the subject of a number of books published in the United States and the United Kingdom, both scholarly and popular. Among the better-known are: The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? (1984) by British sociologist Eileen Barker, Inquisition : The Persecution and Prosecution of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon (1991) by American journalist Carlton Sherwood, and In the Shadow of the Moons: My Life in the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Family (1998) by Nansook Hong, Moon's former daughter-in-law. In 1978, the Fraser Committee a subcommittee of the United States Congress which was investigating the political influence of the South Korean government in the United States issued a report that included the results of its investigation into the Unification Church and other organizations associated with Moon and their relationship with the South Korean government. Among its other conclusions, the subcommittee's report stated that "Among the goals of the Moon Organization is the establishment of a worldwide government in which the separation of church and state would be abolished and which would be governed by Moon and his followers." Investigation of Korean-American Relations; Report of the Subcommittee on International Organizations of the Committee on International Relations, U.S. House of Representatives In 1982 Moon was convicted of tax fraud and conspiracy in United States federal court and was sentenced 18 months in federal prison. (see: Sun Myung Moon tax fraud and conspiracy case) In 1991 Moon announced that church members should return to their hometowns in order to undertake apostolic work there. Massimo Introvigne, who has studied the Unification Church and other new religious movements, has said that this confirms that full-time membership is no longer considered crucial to church members. [Introvigne, 2000 In 1995 the church had about 700 members in the United Kingdom. Beyond the dark side of the Moonies, The Independent, November 2, 1995 Starting in the 1990s the Unification Church expanded its operations into Russia and other formerly communist nations. Moon's wife, Hak Ja Han, made a radio broadcast to the nation from the Kremlin Palace of Congresses. The Moonies in Moscow: a second coming?, Green Left Weekly, May 28, 1997. "With the dismantling of the Soviet Union in 1991, Moon's anticommunism lost much of its camouflage value. There was, however, the compensating possibility of being able to expand his operations into Russia -- both with the bible, and with business. One of Moon's schemes in Russia during the early 1990s was reportedly to rent Red Square for a mass wedding ceremony of the type practised by his sect in many cities around the world, in which scores and perhaps hundreds of couples -- selected for one another by church leaders, and introduced only a few days previously --are married simultaneously. This plan came to nothing. The most that was achieved was that Moon's wife was allowed to broadcast from the stage of the Kremlin Palace of Congresses." In 1994 the church had about 5,000 members in Russia and came under criticism from the Russian Orthodox Church. A Less Secular Approach, The Saint Petersburg Times, June 7, 2002 In 1997, the Russian government passed a law requiring the Unification Church and other non-Russian religions to register their congregations and submit to tight controls. Russian unorthodox The Globe and Mail February 8, 2008. Starting in 1992 the church established business ties with still communist North Korea and owns a automobile factory, a hotel, and other properties there. In 2007 it founded a "World Peace Center" in Pyongyang, North Korea's capital city. Dubai Tycoon Scouts Pyongyang Forbes, September 9, 2006 In 2000, the Unification Church was one of the co-sponsors of the Million Family March in Washington, D.C., along with Louis Farrakhan the leader of The Nation of Islam. Million Family March reaches out to all Starting in 2007 the church sponsored a series of public events in various nations under the title Global Peace Festival. "Moonies" stage festival in Mongolia Mongolia Web August 23, 2008 Kenya asked to back world peace forum Daily Nation, August 31, 2008 Moonie peace group to hold biggest UK event The Guardian November 21, 2008 Global Peace Festival This Saturday Solomon Times, November 25, 2008 In April 2008, Sun Myung Moon, then 88 years old, appointed his youngest son, Hyung Jin Moon, to be the new leader of the Unification Church and the worldwide Unification Movement, saying, "I hope everyone helps him so that he may fulfil his duty as the successor of the True Parents." Son of Moonies founder takes over as church leader The Guardian, 2008-04-28 In January 2009, Unification Church missionary Elizaveta Drenicheva was sentenced to two years in jail in Kazakhstan for "propagating harmful religious teachings." She was freed and allowed to leave the country after international human rights organizations expressed their concern over her case. http://www.rferl.org/content/Right_Defenders_Demand_Release_Of_Missionary_In_Kazakhstan/1370910.html Right Defenders Demand Release Of Missionary In Kazakhstan], Radio Free Europe, January 16, 2009 Liza Drenicheva Freed In April 2009 the British school system was criticized for including study of the Unification Church in proposed religious studies guidelines for British students. Pupils to learn about Druids, Moonies and Rastafarians for new religious studies GCSE, The Daily Mail, April 3, 2009 In the same year a church supported high school in Hawaii closed due to lack of funding. Tiny Big Island high school expected to close, Charleston Daily Mail, May 8, 2009 Beliefs The beliefs of the Unification Church are outlined in its textbook, Divine Principle. God is viewed as the creator, whose nature combines both masculinity and femininity, and is the source of all truth, beauty, and goodness. Human beings and the universe reflect God's personality, nature, and purpose. "Give-and-take action" (reciprocal interaction) and "subject and object position" (initiator and responder) are "key interpretive concepts", and the self is designed to be God's object. The purpose of human existence is to return joy to God. The "four-position foundation" is "another important and interpretive concept", and explains in part the emphasis on the family. The Principle of Indemnity Indemnity, as explained in the Divine Principle, is a part of the process by which human beings and the world are restored back to God's ideal. Daske, D. and Ashcraft, W. 2005, New Religious Movements, New York: New York University Press, ISBN 0814707025 "To restart the process toward perfection, God has sent messiahs to earth who could restore the true state of humanity's relationship with God. Before that can happen, however, humans must perform good deeds that cancel the bad effects of sin. Unificationists call this "indemnity". Showing love and devotion to one's fellow humans, especially within families, helps pay this indemnity." p142 Yamamoto, J. 1995, Unification Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Press, ISBN 0310703816 "The doctrine of indemnity. Indemnity is that which people do to restore themselves to God's kingdom. Young Oon Kim describes it this way: 'We atone for our sins through specific acts of penance.' Kwang-Yol Yoo, a Unification teacher, even goes so far as to say that by following the Divine Principle, 'man's perfection must be accomplished by his own effort without God's help.' God does most of the work, but people must still do their part in order to achieve God's plan of salvation: 'Five percent is only to say that man's responsibility is extremely small compared to God's.' "p35 "The doctrine of indemnity is not biblical. 'In simple language.' states Ruth Tucker, 'indemnity is salvation by works.' Bob Larson makes a distinction between Moon's doctrine and biblical theology, saying, 'Moon's doctrine of sinless perfection by "indemnity [forgiveness of sin by works on Moon's behalf], which can apply even to deceased ancestors, is a denial of the salvation by grace offering through Jesus Christ.' 'Farewell,' said John Calvin. 'to the dream of those who think up a righteousness flowing together out of faith and works.'" p40 Tingle, D. and Fordyce, R. 1979, The Phases and Faces of the Moon: A Critical Examination of the Unification Church and Its Principles, Hicksville, New York: Exposition Press p53-55 "In short, indemnity is anything you want to make it, since you establish the conditions. The zeal and enthusiasm of the Unification Church members is not so much based on love for God as it is compulsion to indemnify one's own sins." The Power of the Principle: Whence it Came; Where it Went, Richard Quebedeaux Exposition of the Divine Principle, The Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity, 1996 Translation, p. 176. ISBN 0-910621-80-2 Spiritualism The Unification Church upholds a belief in spiritualism, that is communication with the spirits of deceased persons. Moon and early church members associated with spiritualists, including the famous Arthur Ford. Unifying or Dividing? Sun Myung Moon and the Origins of the Unification Church George D. Chryssides, University of Wolverhampton, U.K. 2003 Unification Church of America History by Lloyd Pumphrey The Divine Principle says about Moon: "For several decades he wandered through the spirit world so vast as to be beyond imagining. He trod a bloody path of suffering in search of the truth, passing through tribulations that God alone remembers. Since he understood that no one can find the ultimate truth to save humanity without first passing through the bitterest of trials, he fought alone against millions of devils, both in the spiritual and physical worlds, and triumphed over them all. Through intimate spiritual communion with God and by meeting with Jesus and many saints in Paradise, he brought to light all the secrets of Heaven." Introduction Exposition of the Divine Principle, 1996 Translation The ancestor liberation ceremony is a ceremony of the Unification Church intended to allow the spirits of deceased ancestors of participants to improve their situations in the spirit world through liberation, education, and blessing. The ceremonies are conducted by Mrs. Hyo Nam Kim, whom church members believe is channeling the spirit of Dae Mo Nim, the mother of Hak Ja Han (church founder Sun Myung Moon's wife). They have taken place mainly in Cheongpyeong, South Korea, but also in various places around the world. The Unification Church (Studies in Contemporary Religion), Massimo Introvigne, 2000, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, ISBN 1-56085-145-7 p29-30 lengthy description of UC ancestor liberation ceremony still photos of ancestor liberation ceremony - low quality JPGS, mostly In the 1990s and 2000s the Unification Church has made public statements claiming communications with the spirits of religious leaders such as Confucius, the Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad and Augustine, as well as political leaders such as Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky, Mao Zedong, and many more. This has distanced the church further from mainstream Christianity as well as from Islam. Sex and marriage The Unification Church is well-known for its marriage or marriage rededication ceremony, which is sometimes referred to by the news media and others as a "mass wedding." The Blessing ceremony was first held 1961 for 36 couples in Seoul, South Korea by Reverend and Mrs. Moon shortly after their own marriage in 1960. All the couples were members of the Unification Church. Rev. Moon matched all of the couples except 12 who were already married to each other from before joining the church. <ref>[http://www.dci.dk/?artikel=388 Duddy, Neil Interview: Dr. Mose Durst]</ref> Later Blessing ceremonies were larger in scale but followed the same pattern with all participants Unification Church members and Rev. Moon matching most of the couples. In 1982 the first large scale Blessing held outside of Korea took place in Madison Square Garden in New York City. In 1988, Moon matched 2,500 Korean members with Japanese members for a Blessing ceremony held in Korea, partly in order to promote unity between the two nations. MARRIAGE BY THE NUMBERS; MOON PRESIDES AS 6,500 COUPLES WED IN S. KOREA Peter Maass Washington Post October 31, 1988 The Blessing ceremonies have attracted a lot of attention in the press and in the public imagination, often being labeled "mass weddings". Despite controversy, Moon and his church moving into mainstream Chicago Tribune, April 11, 2006. 'The church's most spectacular rite remains mass weddings, which the church calls the way "fallen men and women can be engrafted into the true lineage of God."' However, in most cases the Blessing ceremony is not a legal wedding ceremony. Some couples are already married and those that are engaged are later legally married according to the laws of their own countries. At RFK, Moon Presides Over Mass Wedding, Washington Post, November 3, 1997, "Church and stadium officials estimated that more than 40,000 people, mostly couples, attended the event, including the Moon-matched couples who took their marriage vows on the football field and exchanged gold rings displaying the church symbol. Those couples, however, must still fulfill whatever requirements exist where they live to be considered legally married." Several church-related groups are working to promote sexual abstinence until marriage and fidelity in marriage, both among church members and the general public. Moon has spoken vehemently against "free sex" and homosexual activity. In talks to church members, he has compared people involved in free sex, including homosexuals, to "dirty dung-eating dogs" The Family Federation for Cosmic Peace and Unification and the Cosmic Era of Blessed Family. Retrieved on 04-11-2007. and prophesied that "gays will be eliminated" in a "purge on God's orders." These statements were criticized by gay rights groups. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_uni.htm THE UNIFICATION CHURCH AND HOMOSEXUALITY] B.A. Robinson, Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance 2005 South America In the 1990s Moon directed church members to buy land in the Mato Grosso do Sul region of Brazil, which he compared to the Garden of Eden. 200,000 acres of farmland was purchased and building projects started. Moonies build a new Garden of Eden in Brazil's fertile cowboy country , The Independent, November 28, 1999 In 2000 the church purchased 300,000 hectares of land in Paraguay for the purpose of logging and timber exportation to Asia. Uproar after Moonies buy town, BBC, October 14, 2000 In May 2002, federal police in Brazil conducted a number of raids on organizations linked to Sun Myung Moon. In a statement, the police stated that the raids were part of a broad investigation into allegations of tax evasion and immigration violations by church members. Moon's support of the government of Argentina during the Falklands War was also mentioned by commentators as a possible issue. The Unification Church in South America Australian Broadcasting Corporation May 15, 2002 Campaign to replace the Cross with a Crown In 2003 Moon began his "tear down" "Tear down the Cross" Ceremony - Bronx, New York , or "take down the cross" Quotes from Sun Myung Moon relevant to the May 2003 Pilgrimage to Israel (Take Down the Cross) campaign. The campaign was begun in the belief that the cross is a reminder of Jesus' pain and has been a source of division between people of different faiths. The campaign included a burial ceremony for the cross and a crown to be put in its place. The American Clergy Leadership Conference (ACLC), an interfaith group founded by Moon, spearheaded the effort, calling the cross a symbol of oppression and superiority. Rome and Israel Pilgrim Tour - Burying of the Cross. Unification Church member and theologian Andrew Wilson said, "The crucifixion was not something that God loves, but something that God hates. It hurts every time he sees people glorifying the cross, which was the instrument of execution used to kill his beloved son." Reflections on the Breakthrough in Jerusalem, Dr. Andrew Wilson, July 20, 2003. Michael Schwartz, a spokesperson for the Christian advocacy organization Concerned Women for America, responded: "Just imagine if some misguided Christian were to suggest that the Jews have to take away their symbol and the Muslims would have to take away their symbol, not display it in public any longer. That would be identified instantly as a statement of intolerance. Reconciliation and peace do not grow out of intolerance." Christian Churches Should Stop Using the Cross, Group Says, by Jeff Johnson, CNSNews.com Congressional Bureau Chief, August 22, 2003. Related organizations There are a number of organizations founded, run, or backed by Sun Myung Moon which are affiliated with the Unification Church. Among them are interfaith, educational, arts, sports, and political organizations as well as profit-making businesses. For a partial list, see Projects and Activities Founded by Unificationists. Nearly all of these were founded by Sun Myung Moon. Commentators have mentioned Moon's belief in a literal Kingdom of Heaven on earth to be brought about by human effort as a motivation for his establishment of groups that are not strictly religious in their purposes. Tingle, D. and Fordyce, R. 1979, Phases and Faces of the Moon: A Critical Examination of the Unification Church and its Principles, Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press ISBN 0682492647 p86-87 Biermans, J. 1986, The Odyssey of New Religious Movements, Persecution, Struggle, Legitimation: A Case Study of the Unification Church Lewiston, New York and Queenston, Ontario: The Edwin Melton Press ISBN 0889467102 p173 Others have said that one purpose of these groups is to pursue social respectability for the church. Helm, S. Divine Principle and the Second Advent Christian Century May 11, 1977 "In fact Moon’s adherents differ from previous fringe groups in their quite early and expensive pursuit of respectability, as evidenced by the scientific conventions they have sponsored in England and the U.S. and the seminary they have established in Barrytown, New York, whose faculty is composed not of their own group members but rather of respected Christian scholars." Controversy Cult status The Unification Church is among the most controversial religious organizations in the world today. Some doubt the organization's religious origins. But after an 11-month study of the worldwide Unification Church, Frederick Sontag, a professor of philosophy, concluded that "one thing is sure: the church has a genuine spiritual basis." Frederick Sontag. (1977). Sun Myung Moon and the Unification Church. Abingdon Press. A German court made a similar finding. Moon, who was born and grew up in a Japan-occupied Korea, started to preach his religious teachings back in 1945 or 1946 before he personally encountered difficulties with communism. Following Moon's torture and imprisonment by the North Korean communists from 1947 to 1950 he was not reported to have engaged primarily in political agitation, but rather in daily worship. Furthermore, he was barred from the Presbyterian Church as early as 1948 owing to his different religious teachings. B. A. Robinson, in an essay published by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance wrote: "However, there is a potential negative side to membership in the Unification Church. Their core, dedicated members accept strong discipline and can develop a deep commitment to the church. They must remain celibate before marriage, abstain from tobacco and alcohol and work long hours. The group can become their whole life, the source of their religious, cultural, social, and other support systems. If they become disillusioned by some aspect of the church, this minority of unusually dedicated members can find it very difficult to leave the organization and abandon these support networks. When they do leave, they are often angry with themselves and the church, believing that they have wasted perhaps years of their life within the group. This problem is common to all high intensity denominations which require major commitment to the group. e.g. Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and (for priests and nuns) the Roman Catholic Church." The Unification Church founded by Rev. Sun Myung Moon Abuse of money Critics also allege irregularities in the use of money and highlight the church's role in enriching Moon personally. These criticisms have been repeated hundreds of times in media reports. One such example is "Cults, Deprogrammers, and the Necessity Defense," Michigan Law Review, Vol. 80, No. 2 (Dec., 1981), pp. 271–311 The Moon family situation is described as one of "luxury and privilege" "Money, Guns, and God" by Christopher S. Stewart, Conde Nast Portfolio, October 2007 and has been referred to as "lavish." Hong, Nansook. (1998). In the Shadow of the Moons: My Life in the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Family. Little, Brown. (ISBN 0-316-34816-3). Nansook Hong, who lived with the Moon family for 14 years, describes the Unification Church as "a cash operation" and reports on a number of incidents of questionable movement of money, citing this instance as one example: "The Japanese had no trouble bringing the cash into the United States; they would tell customs agents that they were in America to gamble at Atlantic City. In addition, many businesses run by the church were cash operations, including several Japanese restaurants in New York City. I saw deliveries of cash from church headquarters that went directly into the wall safe in Mrs. Moon's closet." Allegations of fraud In the 1990s, thousands of Japanese elderly people claimed to have been defrauded of their life savings by church members. http://www1k.mesh.ne.jp/reikan/english/active/active.htm The Unification Church was the subject of the largest consumer fraud investigation in Japan's history in 1997 and number of subsequent court decisions awarded hundreds of millions of yen in judgments, including 37.6 million yen ($300,000) to two women coerced into donating their assets to the Unification Church. The Activities of Unification Church in Japan, National Network of Lawyers Against the Spiritual Sales, Tokyo, Japan. Recruitment and allegations of brainwashing In the United States in the 1970s, the media reported on the high-pressure recruitment methods of Unificationists and said that the church separated vulnerable young people from their families through the use of brainwashing or mind control. See Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature, 1900- . New York: Wilson, 1905- . v.1- . In 1979, Dr. Byron Lambert, in a forward to a book highly critical of Unification Church beliefs, wrote that accusations of brainwashing were extremely dangerous to the religious freedom of other religious groups, which used some of the same recruitment techniques as the Unification Church. Lambert, B. in Tingle, D. and Fordyce, R. 1979, Phases and Faces of the Moon: A Critical Examination of the Unification Church and its Principles, Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press ISBN 0682492647 "The point is this: almost all of the attacks in the media are directed against their so-called brain-washing techniques and the horror of life going on in the inner sanctum of Moon's church. The furor and pressure created by the media are extremely dangerous, not just to the partisan of the Divine Principle, but to any group zealous to promote a religious cause. The accusations cast a kind of slander on a young person's right to change his religious faith or to work in an unpopular or not quite traditional religious body, or to call door to door and distribute tracts, or to hold camps and religious retreats and congregate with others in any "exclusive" way. The Moon followers, in my estimation, are guilty of no more than Jehovah's Witnesses, or Mormons, or (do I need to say it) people of the Christian churches, when they seek to convert others to their way." Eileen Barker, a sociologist specializing in religious topics, studied church members in England and in 1984 published her findings in her book The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? Observing Unificationists' approach to prospective new members, Barker came to reject a strict interpretation of the "brainwashing" theory as an explanation for conversion to the Unification Church. Nor did she find the Unification Church's methods of recruiting members to be very effective. Barker, Eileen, The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? (1984) Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-631-13246-5. Political activities See: Unification Church political activitiesThe Unification Church has been criticized for its political activities, especially its support for United States president Richard Nixon during the Watergate scandal Introvigne, Massimo, 2000, The Unification Church Studies in Contemporary Religion, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, ISBN 1-56085-145-7, exerpt page 16 , its support for anti-communism during the Cold War San Francisco Chronicle September 3, 1983 How to Read the Reagan Administration: The Miskito Case , and its ownership of various news media outlets, especially the Washington Times, which tend to support conservatism. Washington 2002: The Other Paper Washington Times Moves to Reinvent Itself, Alex S. Jones, New York Times, January 27, 1992. New business models for news are not that new,Nikki Usher, Knight Digital Media Center, 2008-12-17, "And the Washington Times' conservative stance pursues its agenda from the Rev. Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church." The Moonies in Moscow: a second coming?, Green Left Weekly, May 28, 1977. Reports of children conceived out of wedlock In her 1998 book In the Shadow of the Moons: My Life in the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Family, Nansook Hong-- ex-wife of Sun Myung Moon and Hak Ja Han's eldest son, Hyo Jin Moon-- said that both Sun Myung Moon and Hak Ja Han told her about Sun Myung Moon's extramarital affairs (which she said he called "providential affairs"), including one which resulted in the birth of a boy raised by a church leader, named by Sun Myung Moon's daughter Un Jin Moon on the news show 60 Minutes. In 1993, Chung Hwa Pak released the book Roku Maria no Higeki (Tragedy of the Six Marys) through the Koyu Publishing Co. of Japan. The book contained allegations that Moon conducted sex rituals amongst six married female disciples ("The Six Marys") who were to have prepared the way for the virgin who would marry Moon and become the True Mother. Chung Hwa Pak had left the movement when the book was published and later withdrew the book from print when he rejoined the Unification Church. Before his death Chung Hwa Pak published a second book, The Apostate, and recanted all allegations made in Roku Maria no Higeki. A speech made by Pak titled "Retraction of The Tragedy of the Six Marys" can be found at www.tparents.org. Accusations of antisemitism The Unification Church has been accused of antisemitism. See Unification Church and antisemitism. Future church leadership Observers of the Unification Church, some church members, and Moon himself have speculated about the issue of Unification Church leadership after Moon's death. Among those sometimes mentioned are his wife Hak Ja Han Moon, and their sons Hyun Jin Moon "The mantle is passing to Hyun Jin Nim." and Hyung Jin Moon. Unification Church pres sees smaller mass weddings, Daily Monitor, 2008-12-30 Massimo Introvigne, From the Unification Church to the Unification Movement, 1994–1999: Five Years of Dramatic Changes, 1999, Center for Studies on New Religions, "The issue of succession is now of fundamental importance. The Reverend Moon will be eighty years old (by Korean age calculations, he turned eighty in 1999) in 2000. Mrs. Moon is fifty-seven years old. Since 1992 she has taken a more visible role, particularly in three world speaking tours in 1992, 1993, and 1999. Mrs. Moon has also spoken on Capitol Hill, at the United Nations, and in other parliaments around the world. Her relative youth and the respect with which she is held by the membership may be a point of stability for the Unification movement. The ceremony to inaugurate the Reverend and Mrs. Moon's third son, Hyun Jin Moon, as vice president of the Family Federation for World Peace and Unification International (FFWPUI) on July 19, 1998, as well as his responsibility to educate the "second generation," denotes him as the successor. Hyun Jin Moon had represented the Republic of Korea in the Olympic equestrian event in 1988 and 1992. He graduated from the Harvard Business School with an M.B.A. in 1998. The Reverend Moon joked during his address that he is criticized for having "failed in business ventures, but now I have a son with an M.B.A. who will be successful in business." Hyun Jin Moon's blessing to Rev. Chung Hwan Kwak's (the Reverend Moon's assistant and former president of the FFWPUI) daughter, Jun Sook Kwak, is also a significant point of continuity" In 2001, Moon said: "I have to set up a representative or successor before I can complete this mission. Is there anyone? Rev. Kwak? Dr. Bo Hi Pak? Is there? No, not one is qualified." Talk by Sun Myung Moon Notes See also List of Unificationists Unification Church views of sexuality Unification Church of the United States Annotated bibliography Durst, Mose. 1984. To bigotry, no sanction: Reverend Sun Myung Moon and the Unification Church. Chicago: Regnery Gateway. ISBN 9780895266095 Sontag, Frederick. 1977. Sun Myung Moon and the Unification Church. Nashville, Tenn: Abingdon Press. ISBN 9780687406227 Fichter, Joseph Henry. 1985. The holy family of father Moon. Kansas City, Mo: Leaven Press. ISBN 9780934134132 Gullery, Jonathan. 1986. The Path of a pioneer: the early days of Reverend Sun Myung Moon and the Unification Church. New York: HSA Publications. ISBN 9780910621502 Sherwood, Carlton. 1991. Inquisition : The Persecution and Prosecution of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway. ISBN 9780895265326 Biermans, J. 1986, The Odyssey of New Religious Movements, Persecution, Struggle, Legitimation: A Case Study of the Unification Church Lewiston, New York and Queenston, Ontario: The Edwin Melton Press ISBN 0889467102 Bryant, M. Darrol, and Herbert Warren Richardson. 1978. A Time for consideration: a scholarly appraisal of the Unification Church. New York: E. Mellen Press. ISBN 9780889469549 Ward, Thomas J. 2006. March to Moscow: the role of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon in the collapse of communism. St. Paul, Minn: Paragon House. ISBN 9781885118165 Barker, Eileen, The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? (1984) Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-631-13246-5. Chryssides, George D., The Advent of Sun Myung Moon: The Origins, Beliefs and Practices of the Unification Church (1991) London, Macmillan Professional and Academic Ltd. The author is professor of religious studies at the University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom. Hong, Nansook, In the Shadow of the Moons: My Life in the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Family. Little Brown & Company; ISBN 0-316-34816-3; (August 1998). The book is written by the ex-wife of Hyo Jin Moon, Reverend Moon's son (to whom she was married, handpicked by Moon, at 15 years of age) and details various abuses she says she suffered from members of the Moon family. Introvigne, M., 2000, The Unification Church, Signature Books, ISBN 1560851457 Lofland, John, Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith first published Prentice Hall, c/o Pearson Ed, 1966. Reprinted Ardent Media, U.S. ISBN 0-8290-0095-X Matczak, Sebastian, Unificationism: A New Philosophy and World View (Philosophical Questions Series, No 11) (1982) New York: Louvain. The author is a professor of philosophy and a Catholic priest. He taught at the Unification Theological Seminary. Tingle, D. and Fordyce, R. 1979, Phases and Faces of the Moon: A Critical Examination of the Unification Church and its Principles, Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press ISBN 0682492647 Wright, Stuart A., Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection, published by the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion: Monograph Series nr. 7 1987 ISBN 0-932566-06-5 (Contains interviews with ex-members of three groups, among others the Unification Church) Yamamoto, J. Isamu, 1995, Unification Church'', Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House ISBN 0310703816 External links Official sites Official Website of the Universal Peace Federation: The Life and Works of Reverend Sun Myung Moon Official website of the American Unification Church A History Of The Unification Church In America, 1959-74 - Emergence of a National Movement (complete text of book online) Family Federation for World Peace and Unification Today's World Monthly magazine of the American Unification Church Supportive sites Unification.org - a very extensive website created by church member Damian Anderson A FAQ about the Unification Church Critical sites Education and information on the cult phenomenon and Addiction: Allen Wood's site detailing his journey into, through, and out of the Unification Church. "Unification Church" at RickRoss.com: "Mooniverse" - articles by journalist John Gorenfeld Consortium News archive - Ten-year archive of investigative articles about Rev. Moon and the Unification Church in US politics and media Freedom of Mind - Cult critic Steve Hassan's website Unification Church: Christian or Cult? - Biblical Discernment Ministries Judgments against the Unification Church by the Supreme Court of Japan Heartbreak and Rage: Ten Years Under Sun Myung Moon, A Cult Survivor's Memoir - a memoir of 10 years in the Unification Church, by K. Gordon Neufeld Mixed sites Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity Extensive list of books and articles on the UC. Unification Church, founded by Sun Myung Moon at ReligiousTolerance.org Unification Church Profile of the UC at religionfacts.com. UC discussion board Beliefnet.com Moon at Twilight, 1998 New Yorker article by Peter Maass who interviewed church members in Asia and North and South America. 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1,221 | Acropolis_of_Athens | The Acropolis of Athens is the best known acropolis (Gr. akros, akron, acro-. (n.d.). In Greek, Acropolis means "Highest City". The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved September 29, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: Quote: "[From Greek akros, extreme; see ak- in Indo-European roots.] " edge, extremity + polis, city, pl. acropoleis) in the world. Although there are many other acropolises in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the pre-eminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007. Xinhua - English The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock which rises above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Kekrops or Cecrops, the first Athenian king. History Early settlement While the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic (6th millennium BC). There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron stood upon the hill during the late Golden Age. Nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column-base and pieces of several sandstone steps. Soon after the palace was built a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built, 760 meters long, up to 10 meters high, and ranging from 3.5 to 6 meters thick. This wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the fifth century Hurwit 2000, p. 74-75. . The wall consisted of two parapets built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called emplekton. The wall follows typical Mycenaean convention in that it followed the natural contour of the terrain and its gate was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers' right-hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the "strong-built House of Erechtheus" (Odyssey 7.81). At some point before the thirteenth century an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the acropolis. This fissure extended some thirty five meters to a bed of soft marl in which a well was dug Hurwit 2000, p. 78. . An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well was used as a protected source of drinking water during some portion of the Mycenaean period, as it was invaluable in times of siege. The Dark Ages The western side of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens. There is no conclusive evidence for the existence of a Mycenean palace on top of the Athenian Acropolis. However, if there was such a palace, it seems to have been transplanted by later building activity on the Acropolis. Not much is known as to the arcitectural appearance of the Acropolis until the archaic era. In the 7th and the 6th centuries BC the site was taken over by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt, and twice by Pisistratus: all attempts directed at seizing political power by coups d' etat. Nevertheless it seems that a nine-gate wall, the Enneapylon, had been built around the biggest water spring, the "Clepsydra", at the north-western foot. It was Pisistratus who initially established a precinct for Artemis on the site. Archaic Acropolis A temple sacred to "Athena Polias" (Protectress of the City) was quickly erected by mid-6th century BC. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the "Bluebeard" temple, named after the pedimental three-bodied man-serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or a mere sacred precinct or altar, is not known. In the late 6th century BC yet another temple was built, usually referred to as the Archaios Naos (Old Temple). This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Doerpfeld foundations. Hurwit 2000, p. 121. It is unknown where the "Bluebeard" temple was built. There are two popular theories (1) the "Bluebeard" temple was built upon the Doerpfeld foundations, (2) the "Bluebeard" temple was built where the Parthenon now stands. Hurwit 2000, p. 111. That being said it is unknown if the "Bluebeard" temple and the Archaios Naos coexisted. To confuse matters, by the time the "Bluebeard" Temple had been dismantled, a newer and grander marble building, the "Older Parthenon" (often called the Ur-Parthenon), was started following the victory at Marathon in 490 BC. To accommodate it, the south part of the summit was cleared of older remnants, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of Piraeus limestone, a foundation 11 m deep at some points, and the rest filled with earth kept in place by the retaining wall. The Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burnt and looted along with the Archaios Neos and practically everything else on the rock. After the Persian crisis had subsided the Athenians incorporated many of the unfinished temple's architectural members (still unflutted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) to the newly built northern curtain wall of the Acropolis, where they can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared from debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings and unsalvable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the classic Parthenon. This "Persian debris" is the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis. The Periclean building program Most of the major temples were rebuilt under the leadership of Pericles during the Golden Age of Athens (460–430 BC). Phidias, a great Athenian sculptor, and Ictinus and Callicrates, two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction. During the 5th century BC, the Acropolis gained its final shape. After winning at Eurymedon in 468 BC, Cimon and Themistocles ordered the reconstruction of southern and northern walls, and Pericles entrusted the building of the Parthenon to Ictinus and Phidias. the Propylaea the Erechtheum In 437 BC Mnesicles started building the Propylaea, monumental gates with columns of Pentelic marble, partly built upon the old propylaea of Pisistratus. These colonnades were almost finished in the year 432 BC and had two wings, the northern one serving as picture gallery. At the same time, south of the propylaea, building of the small Ionic Temple of Athena Nike commenced. After an interruption caused by the Peloponnesian War, the temple was finished in the time of Nicias' peace, between 421 BC and 415 BC. During the same period the building of the Erechtheum, a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of Athena Polias, Poseidon, Erechtheus, Cecrops, Herse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its so-called the Kore Porch (or Caryatids' balcony), was begun. Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon there was the temenos of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion, the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the deme of Brauron. The archaic xoanon of the goddess and a statue made by Praxiteles in the 4th century BC were both in the sanctuary. Behind the Propylaea, Phidias' gigantic bronze statue of Athena Promachos ("she who fights in the front line"), built between 450 BC and 448 BC, dominated. The base was 1.50 m high, while the total height of the statue was 9 m. The goddess held a lance whose gilt tip could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape Sounion, and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by Mys with images of the fight between the Centaurs and the Lapiths. Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the Chalkotheke, the Pandroseion, Pandion's sanctuary, Athena's altar, Zeus Polieus's sanctuary and, from Roman times, the circular temple of Augustus and Rome. Hellenistic and Roman period Byzantine, Latin and Ottoman period The Venetian siege of 1687. In the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was turned into a church, dedicated to Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). Under the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the city's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral. A large tower was added, which was demolished in the 19th century. After the Ottoman conquest, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army Hellenistic ministry of culture http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 . The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. Archaeological remains The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. A bronze statue of Athena, sculpted by Phidias, originally stood at its centre. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum. South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of an outdoor theatre called Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there is the now partially reconstructed Theatre of Herodes Atticus. Most of the valuable ancient artifacts were situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the south-east corner of the same rock. An operation to move them for the 400 metres distance to the New Acropolis Museum started on Sunday, 14 October 2007, and continued for six weeks. BBC News, Cranes move Acropolis sculptures, Retrieved on 2007-10-15. Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains Site plan Parthenon Old Temple of Athena Erechtheum Statue of Athena Promachos Propylaea Temple of Athena Nike Eleusinion Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion Chalkotheke Pandroseion Arrephorion Altar of Athena Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus Sanctuary of Pandion Odeon of Herodes Atticus Stoa of Eumenes Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus Odeon of Pericles Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus Aglaureion The Acropolis of Athens commemorative coin Cultural significance Every four years the Athenians held a festival called the Panathenaea that rivalled the Olympic Games in popularity. During the festival, a procession moved through Athens up to the Acropolis and into the Parthenon (as depicted in the frieze on the inside of the Parthenon). There, a vast robe of woven wool (peplos) was ceremoniously placed on Phidias' massive ivory and gold statue of Athena. The Acropolis was recently selected as main motif for a high value euro collectors' coins; the €100 Greek The Acropolis of Athens commemorative coin, minted in 2004 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. In the obverse of the coin, a close view of the building is depicted. References Hurwit, J (2000). "The Athenian Acropolis", Cambridge University Press External links The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government website) The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Government website) The Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens Reconstruction of the ancient Acropolis Excerpt on the geology of Athens from: A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean by Michael and Reynold Higgins, Cornell University Press, 1996 | Acropolis_of_Athens |@lemmatized acropolis:36 athens:13 best:1 know:6 gr:2 akros:2 akron:1 acro:1 n:1 greek:5 mean:1 high:4 city:6 american:1 heritage:3 dictionary:2 english:2 language:1 fourth:1 edition:1 retrieve:2 september:1 com:1 website:3 quote:1 extreme:1 see:3 ak:1 indo:1 european:2 root:1 edge:2 extremity:1 polis:1 pl:1 acropoleis:1 world:2 although:1 many:3 greece:2 significance:2 commonly:1 without:1 qualification:1 formally:1 proclaim:1 pre:1 eminent:1 monument:3 cultural:2 list:1 march:1 xinhua:1 flat:1 top:3 rock:4 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1,222 | Galileo_(spacecraft) | Galileo and Inertial Upper Stage being deployed after being launched by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-34 mission Galileo mission patch The four largest moons of Jupiter photographed by Galileo Galileo captures a dynamic eruption at Tvashtar Catena, a chain of volcanic bowls on Jupiter's moon Io Galileo was an unmanned spacecraft sent by NASA to study the planet Jupiter and its moons. Named after the astronomer and Renaissance pioneer Galileo Galilei, it was launched on October 18, 1989 by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-34 mission. It arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, a little more than six years later, via gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth. Despite antenna problems, Galileo conducted the first asteroid flyby, discovered the first asteroid moon, was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, and launched the first probe into Jupiter's atmosphere. On September 21, 2003, after 14 years in space and 8 years of service in the Jovian system, Galileo'''s mission was terminated by sending the orbiter into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of nearly 50 kilometres per second to avoid any chance of it contaminating local moons with bacteria from Earth. Of particular concern was the ice-crusted moon Europa, which, thanks to Galileo, scientists now suspect harbors a salt water ocean beneath its surface. Mission overviewGalileos launch had been significantly delayed by the hiatus in Space Shuttle launches that occurred after the Challenger space shuttle disaster. New safety protocols introduced as a result of the Challenger accident forced Galileo to use a lower-powered upper stage booster rocket, instead of a Centaur booster rocket, to send it from Earth orbit to Jupiter. Several gravitational slingshots, called a "VEEGA" or Venus Earth Earth Gravity Assist maneuver, provided the additional velocity required to reach its destination: Venus was flown by on February 10, 1990, and Earth twice, on December 8, 1990, and again on December 8, 1992. Along the way Galileo performed close observation of the asteroids 951 Gaspra (October 29, 1991) and 243 Ida (August 28, 1993), and discovered Ida's moon Dactyl. In 1994 Galileo was perfectly positioned to watch the fragments of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crash into Jupiter. Terrestrial telescopes had to wait to see the impact sites as they rotated into view. Galileo's prime mission was a two-year study of the Jovian system. The spacecraft traveled around Jupiter in elongated ellipses, each orbit lasting about two months. The differing distances from Jupiter afforded by these orbits allowed Galileo to sample different parts of the planet's extensive magnetosphere. The orbits were designed for close up flybys of Jupiter's largest moons. Once Galileo's prime mission was concluded, an extended mission followed starting on December 7, 1997; the spacecraft made a number of daring close flybys of Jupiter's moons Europa and Io. The closest approach was 180 km (112 mi) on October 15, 2001. The radiation environment near Io in particular was very unhealthy for Galileos systems, and so these flybys were saved for the extended mission when loss of the spacecraft would be more acceptable. Galileos cameras were deactivated on January 17, 2002 after they had sustained irrecoverable radiation damage. NASA engineers were able to recover the damaged tape recorder electronics, and once more Galileo continued to return other scientific data until it was deorbited in 2003 as described above, performing one last scientific experiment —a measurement of Amalthea's mass as Galileo swung by. The Galileo spacecraft The Jet Propulsion Laboratory built the Galileo spacecraft and managed the Galileo mission for NASA. Germany supplied the propulsion module. NASA's Ames Research Center managed the probe, which was built by Hughes Aircraft Company. At launch, the orbiter and probe together had a mass of 2,564 kilograms (5,653 pounds) and was seven metres tall. One section of the spacecraft rotated at 3 rpm, keeping Galileo stable and holding six instruments that gathered data from many different directions, including the fields and particles instruments. The other section of the spacecraft was an antenna, and data were periodically transmitted to it. Back on the ground the mission operations team used software containing 650,000 lines of programming code in the orbit sequence design process; 1,615,000 lines in the telemetry interpretation; and 550,000 lines of code in navigation. The spacecraft was controlled by a RCA 1802 Cosmac microprocessor CPU, clocked at about 1.6 MHz, and fabricated on sapphire (Silicon on Sapphire) which is a radiation-and static-hardened material ideal for spacecraft operation. This microprocessor was the first low-power CMOS processor chip, quite on a par with the 8-bit 6502 that was being built into the Apple II desktop computer at that time. Galileo'''s attitude control system software was written in the HAL/S programming language, also used in the Space Shuttle program. The 1802 CPU had previously been used onboard the Voyager and Viking spacecraft. Propulsion The Propulsion Subsystem consisted of a 400 N main engine and twelve 10 N thrusters together with propellant, storage and pressurizing tanks, and associated plumbing. The fuel for the system was 925 kg of monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide. Two separate tanks held another 7 kg of helium pressurant. The Propulsion Subsystem was developed and built by Daimler Benz Aero Space AG (DASA) (formerly Messerschmitt–Bölkow–Blohm (MBB)) and provided by Germany, the major international partner in Project Galileo. Engineering Galileo's power Solar panels were not a practical solution for Galileos power needs at Jupiter's distance from the Sun (it would have needed a minimum of 65 square metres (700 ft²) of solar panels); as for batteries, they would have been prohibitively massive. The solution adopted consisted of two radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). The RTGs powered the spacecraft through the radioactive decay of plutonium-238. The heat emitted by this decay was converted into electricity for the spacecraft through the solid-state Seebeck effect. This provided a reliable and long-lasting source of electricity unaffected by the cold space environment and high radiation fields such as those encountered in Jupiter's magnetosphere. Each RTG, mounted on a 5-meter long boom, carried 7.8 kilograms (17.2 lb) of 238Pu. What's in an RTG? Each RTG contained 18 separate heat source modules, and each module encased four pellets of plutonium dioxide, a ceramic material resistant to fracturing. The modules were designed to survive a range of hypothetical accidents: launch vehicle explosion or fire, re-entry into the atmosphere followed by land or water impact, and post-impact situations. An outer covering of graphite provided protection against the structural, thermal, and eroding environments of a potential re-entry. Additional graphite components provided impact protection, while iridium cladding of the fuel cells provided post-impact containment. The RTGs produced about 570 watts at launch. The power output initially decreased at the rate of 0.6 watts per month and was 493 watts when Galileo arrived at Jupiter. [[Image:Galileo Diagram.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Overview of Galileos components]] As the launch of Galileo neared, anti-nuclear groups, concerned over what they perceived as an unacceptable risk to the public's safety from Galileo's RTGs, sought a court injunction prohibiting Galileo's launch. RTGs had been used for years in planetary exploration without mishap: the Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8/9, launched by the U.S. Department of Defense, had 7% more plutonium on board than Galileo, and the two Voyager spacecraft each carried 80% as much plutonium as Galileo did. However, activists remembered the messy crash of the Soviet Union's nuclear-powered Cosmos 954 satellite in Canada in 1978, and the 1986 Challenger accident had raised public awareness of the possibility of explosive spacecraft failures. Also, no RTGs had ever been made to swing past the Earth at close range and high speed, as Galileo's Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist trajectory required it to do. This created a novel mission failure modality that might plausibly have entailed total dispersal of Galileo's plutonium in the Earth's atmosphere. Scientist Carl Sagan, for example, a strong supporter of the Galileo mission, said in 1989 that "there is nothing absurd about either side of this argument." Sagan, Carl. "Benefit outweighs risk: Launch Galileo craft," USA Today, Inquiry Page, Tuesday, October 10, 1989 After the Challenger accident, a study considered additional shielding and eventually rejected it, in part because such a design significantly increased the overall risk of mission failure and only shifted the other risks around (for example, if a failure on orbit had occurred, additional shielding would have significantly increased the consequences of a ground impact). Instrumentation overview Scientific instruments to measure fields and particles were mounted on the spinning section of the spacecraft, together with the main antenna, power supply, the propulsion module and most of the galileo computers and control electronics. The sixteen instruments, weighing 118 kg altogether, included magnetometer sensors mounted on an 11 m boom to minimize interference from the spacecraft; a plasma instrument for detecting low energy charged particles and a plasma wave detector to study waves generated by the particles; a high energy particle detector; and a detector of cosmic and Jovian dust. It also carried the Heavy Ion Counter, an engineering experiment added to assess the potentially hazardous charged particle environments the spacecraft flew through, and an added Extreme Ultraviolet detector associated with the UV spectrometer on the scan platform. The despun section's instruments included the camera system; the near infrared mapping spectrometer to make multi-spectral images for atmospheric and moon surface chemical analysis; ultraviolet spectrometer to study gases; and photo-polarimeter radiometer to measure radiant and reflected energy. The camera system was designed to obtain images of Jupiter's satellites at resolutions from 20 to 1,000 times better than Voyager's best, because Galileo flew closer to the planet and its inner moons and because the CCD sensor in Galileos camera was more sensitive and had a broader color detection band than the vidicons of Voyager. Instrumentation details The following information was taken directly from NASA's Galileo legacy site. Solar System Exploration: Galileo Legacy Site Despun section Highly detailed diagram of Galileo instruments and subsystems. Solid State Imager (SSI) The SSI is an 800 by 800 pixel solid state camera consisting of an array of silicon sensors called a "charge coupled device" (CCD). The optical portion of the camera is built as a Cassegrain telescope. Light is collected by the primary mirror and directed to a smaller secondary mirror that channels it through a hole in the center of the primary mirror and onto the CCD. The CCD sensor is shielded from radiation, a particular problem within the harsh Jovian magnetosphere. The shielding is accomplished by means of a 10 mm thick layer of tantalum surrounding the CCD except where the light enters the system. An eight position filter wheel is used to obtain images at specific wavelengths. The images are then combined electronically on Earth to produce color images. The spectral response of the SSI ranges from about 0.4 to 1.1 micrometres. The SSI weighs 29.7 kilograms and consumes, on average, 15 watts of power. SSI - Solid State Imaging SSI Imaging Team site: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/sepo/ Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) The NIMS instrument is sensitive from 0.7 to 5.2 micrometre wavelength IR light, overlapping the wavelength range of SSI. The telescope associated with NIMS is all reflective (uses mirrors and no lenses) with an aperture of 229 mm. The spectrometer of NIMS uses a grating to disperse the light collected by the telescope. The dispersed spectrum of light is focused on detectors of indium antimonide and silicon. The NIMS weighs 18 kilograms and uses 12 watts of power on average. NIMS - Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer NIMS Team site: http://jumpy.igpp.ucla.edu/~nims/ Ultraviolet Spectrometer / Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS/EUV) The Cassegrain telescope of the UVS has a 250 mm aperture and collects light from the observation target. Both the UVS and EUV instruments use a ruled grating to disperse this light for spectral analysis. This light then passes through an exit slit into photomultiplier tubes that produce pulses or "sprays" of electrons. These electron pulses are counted, and these count numbers are the data that are sent to Earth. The UVS is mounted on the scan platform and can be pointed to an object in inertial space. The EUV is mounted on the spun section of the spacecraft. As Galileo spins, the EUV observes a narrow ribbon of space perpendicular to the spin axis. The two instruments combined weigh about 9.7 kilograms and use 5.9 watts of power. EUVS - Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer EUV Team site: http://lasp.colorado.edu/galileo/ Photopolarimeter-Radiometer (PPR) The PPR has seven radiometry bands. One of these uses no filters and observes all the radiation, both solar and thermal. Another band lets only solar radiation through. The difference between the solar- plus-thermal and the solar-only channels gives the total thermal radiation emitted. The PPR also measured in five broadband channels that span the spectral range from 17 to 110 micrometres. The radiometer provides data on the temperatures of the Jovian satellites and Jupiter's atmosphere. The design of the instrument is based on that of an instrument flown on the Pioneer Venus spacecraft. A 100 mm aperture reflecting telescope collects light, directs it to a series of filters, and, from there, measurements are performed by the detectors of the PPR. The PPR weighs 5.0 kilograms and consumes about 5 watts of power. PPR - Photopolarimeter-Radiometer PPR Team site: http://www.lowell.edu/users/ppr/ Spun section Dust Detector Subsystem (DDS) The Dust Detector Subsystem (DDS) was used to measure the mass, electric charge, and velocity of incoming particles. The masses of dust particles that the DDS can detect go from 10−16 to 10−7 grams. The speed of these small particles can be measured over the range of 1 to 70 kilometers per second. The instrument can measure impact rates from 1 particle per 115 days (10 megaseconds) to 100 particles per second. These particles will help determine dust origin and dynamics within the magnetosphere. The DDS weighs 4.2 kilograms and uses an average of 5.4 watts of power. DDS - Dust Detector Subsystem DDS Team site: http://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/dustgroup/galileo/galileo.html Energetic Particles Detector (EPD) The energetic particles detector (EPD) is designed to measure the numbers and energies of ions and electrons whose energies exceed about 20 keV (3.2 fJ). The EPD can also measure the direction of travel of such particles and, in the case of ions, can determine their composition (whether the ion is oxygen or sulfur, for example). The EPD uses silicon solid state detectors and a time-of-flight detector system to measure changes in the energetic particle population at Jupiter as a function of position and time. These measurements will tell us how the particles get their energy and how they are transported through Jupiter's magnetosphere. The EPD weighs 10.5 kilograms and uses 10.1 watts of power on average. EPD - Energetic Particles Detector EPD Team site: http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/Galileo_EPD/ Heavy Ion Counter (HIC) The HIC is really a repackaged and updated version of some parts of the flight spare of the Voyager Cosmic Ray System. The HIC detects heavy ions using stacks of single crystal silicon wafers. The HIC can measure heavy ions with energies as low as 6 MeV (1 pJ) and as high as 200 MeV (32 pJ) per nucleon. This range includes all atomic substances between carbon and nickel. The HIC and the EUV share a communications link and, therefore, must share observing time. The HIC weighs 8 kilograms and uses an average of 2.8 watts of power. HIC - Heavy Ion Counter HIC Team site: http://www.srl.caltech.edu/galileo/galHIC.html Magnetometer (MAG) The magnetometer (MAG) uses two sets of three sensors. The three sensors allow the three orthogonal components of the magnetic field section to be measured. One set is located at the end of the magnetometer boom and, in this position, is about 11 m from the spin axis of the spacecraft. The second set, designed to detect stronger fields, is 6.7 m from the spin axis. The boom is used to remove the MAG from the immediate vicinity of the spacecraft to minimize magnetic effects from the spacecraft. However, not all these effects can be eliminated by distancing the instrument. The rotation of the spacecraft is used to separate natural magnetic fields from engineering induced fields. Another source of potential error in measurement comes from bending and twisting of the long magnetometer boom. To account for these motions, a calibration coil is mounted rigidly on the spacecraft and puts out a reference magnetic field during calibrations. The magnetic field at the surface of the Earth has a strength of about 50,000 nT. At Jupiter, the outboard (11 m) set of sensors can measure magnetic field strengths in the range from ±32 to ±512 nT while the inboard (6.7 m) set is active in the range from ±512 to ±16,384 nT. The MAG experiment weighs 7 kilograms and uses 3.9 watts of power. MAG - Magnetometer MAG Team site: http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/galileo/ Plasma Subsystem (PLS) The PLS uses seven fields of view to collect charged particles for energy and mass analysis. These fields of view cover most angles from 0 to 180 degrees, fanning out from the spin axis. The rotation of the spacecraft carries each field of view through a full circle. The PLS will measure particles in the energy range from 0.9 eV to 52 keV (0.1 aJ to 8.3 fJ). The PLS weighs 13.2 kilograms and uses an average of 10.7 watts of power. PLS - Plasma Subsystem PLS Team site: http://www-pi.physics.uiowa.edu/www/pls/ Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS) An electric dipole antenna is used to study the electric fields of plasmas, while two search coil magnetic antennas studied the magnetic fields. The electric dipole antenna is mounted at the tip of the magnetometer boom. The search coil magnetic antennas are mounted on the high-gain antenna feed. Nearly simultaneous measurements of the electric and magnetic field spectrum allowed electrostatic waves to be distinguished from electromagnetic waves. The PWS weighs 7.1 kilograms and uses an average of 9.8 watts. PWS - Plasma Wave Subsystem PWS Team site: http://www-pw.physics.uiowa.edu/plasma-wave/galileo/home.html Galileo's atmospheric entry probe Timeline of Galileo atmospheric entry probe. (The Probe transmitted data to the Orbiter continuously for 57.6 minutes reaching a depth of 23 bars (2.3 MPa) but the relay link to the Orbiter began at four minutes after entry, so transmission ended 61.4 minutes after entry.)The 339 kilogram atmospheric probe, built by Hughes Aircraft Company at its El Segundo, California plant, measured about 1.3 meters across. Inside the heat shield, the scientific instruments were protected from ferocious heat during entry. The probe had to withstand extreme heat and pressure on its high speed journey at 47.8 km/s. The probe was released from the main spacecraft in July 1995, five months before reaching Jupiter, and entered Jupiter's atmosphere with no braking beforehand. It was slowed from the probe's arrival speed of about 47 kilometers per second to subsonic speed in less than 2 minutes. This was by far the most difficult atmospheric entry ever attempted; the probe had to withstand 230 g's and the probe's 152 kg heat shield made up almost half of the probe's total mass, and lost 80 kg during the entry. NASA built a special laboratory, the Giant Planet Facility to simulate the heat load, which was similar to that of an ICBM-style straight-down reentry through a thermonuclear fireball. It then deployed its 2.5-meter (8 ft) parachute, and dropped its heat shield. As the probe descended through 150 kilometers of the top layers of the atmosphere, it collected 58 minutes of data on the local weather. It only stopped transmitting when ambient pressure exceeded 23 atmospheres and temperature reached 153 °C (307 °F). Galileo Mission to Jupiter, NASA The data was sent to the spacecraft overhead, then transmitted back to Earth. Each of 2 L-band transmitters operated at 128 bits per second and sent nearly identical streams of scientific data to the orbiter. All the probe's electronics were powered by lithium sulfur dioxide (LiSO2) batteries that provided a nominal power output of about 580 watts with an estimated capacity of about 21 ampere-hours on arrival at Jupiter. Diagram of Galileo atmospheric entry probe instruments and subsystems.The probe included six instruments for taking data on its plunge into Jupiter: an atmospheric structure instrument group measuring temperature, pressure and deceleration, a neutral mass spectrometer and a helium-abundance interferometer supporting atmospheric composition studies, a nephelometer for cloud location and cloud-particle observations, a net-flux radiometer measuring the difference between upward and downward radiant flux at each altitude, and a lightning/radio-emission instrument with an energetic-particle detector that measured light and radio emissions associated with lightning and energetic particles in Jupiter's radiation belts. Total data returned from the probe was about 3.5 megabits. The probe stopped transmitting before the line of sight link with the orbiter was cut. The likely proximal cause of the final probe failure was overheating, which sensors indicated before signal loss. The atmosphere as the probe descended was somewhat more turbulent and hotter than expected. The probe was eventually completely destroyed as it descended further inside Jupiter. The parachute would have melted first, roughly 30 minutes later , then the aluminum components after another 40 minutes of free fall. The titanium structure would have lasted 6.5 hours more before disintegrating. Due to the high pressure, the metals of the probe would finally have vaporised once their critical temperature had been reached, completely dissolving it into Jupiter's Liquid Metallic Hydrogen interior and are probably part of the planet's solid core. Science performed by the Galileo Orbiter at Jupiter Pwyll crater on Europa Terrain on Ganymede After arriving on December 7, 1995 and completing 35 orbits around Jupiter throughout a nearly eight year mission, the Galileo Orbiter was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on September 21, 2003. During that intervening time, Galileo forever changed the way scientists saw Jupiter and provided a wealth of information on the moons orbiting the planet which will be studied for years to come. Culled from NASA's press kit, the top orbiter science results were: Galileo made the first observation of ammonia clouds in another planet's atmosphere. The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths. The moon Io was confirmed to have extensive volcanic activity that is 100 times greater than that found on Earth. The heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth. Complex plasma interactions in Io's atmosphere create immense electrical currents which couple to Jupiter's atmosphere. Several lines of evidence from Galileo support the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa's icy surface. Ganymede possesses its own, substantial magnetic field - the first satellite known to have one. Galileo magnetic data provide evidence that Europa, Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid-saltwater layer under the visible surface. Evidence exists that Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto all have a thin atmospheric layer known as a 'surface-bound exosphere'. Jupiter's ring system is formed by dust kicked up as interplanetary meteoroids smash into the planet's four small inner moons. The outermost ring is actually two rings, one embedded with the other. There is probably a separate ring along Amalthea's orbit, as well. The Galileo spacecraft identified the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet's magnetosphere. Other science conducted with Galileo The Galileo star scanner The star scanner was a small optical telescope used to provide the spacecraft with an absolute attitude reference. It was also able to serendipitously make scientific discoveries. http://www.mindspring.com/~feez/ In the prime mission, it was found that the star scanner was able to detect high energy particles as a noise signal. These data were eventually calibrated to show the particles were predominantly > 2 MeV electrons that were trapped in the Jovian magnetic belts. A second discovery occurred in 2000. The star scanner was observing a set of stars which included the second magnitude star Delta Velorum. At one point, this star dimmed for 8 hours below the star scanner's detection threshold. Subsequent analysis of Galileo data and work by amateur and professional astronomers showed that Delta Velorum is the brightest known eclipsing binary, brighter at maximum than even Algol. IBVS 4999 (7 December 2000) It has a primary period of 45 days and the dimming is just visible with the naked eye. A final discovery occurred during the last two orbits of the mission. When the spacecraft passed the orbit of Jupiter's moon Amalthea, the star scanner detected unexpected flashes of light that were reflections from moonlets. None of the individual moonlets were sighted twice, hence no orbits were determined and the moonlets did not meet the International Astronomical Union requirements to receive designations. IAUC 8107: V4743 Sgr; OBJECTS NEAR JUPITER V (AMALTHEA); GRB 030329 It is believed that these moonlets most likely are debris ejected from Amalthea and form a tenuous, and perhaps temporary, ring. Image taken by Galileo of Earth during GOPEX test clearly showing bright laser pulses coming from a transmitting telescope on the night side. Galileo's imager was panned downward during the exposure to separate the pulses, thus blurring earth's image on the right. Remote detection of life The late Carl Sagan, pondering the question of whether life on Earth could be easily detected from space, devised a set of experiments in the late 1980s using Galileo's remote sensing instruments to determine if life indeed could be detected during the first Earth flyby of the mission in December 1990. After data acquisition and processing, Sagan et al. published a paper in Nature in 1993 detailing the results of the experiment. Galileo had found what are now referred to as the "Sagan criteria for life"; these were: strong absorption of light at the red end of the visible spectrum (especially over continents) which was caused by absorption by chlorophyll in photosynthesizing plants, absorption bands of molecular oxygen which is also a result of plant activity, infrared absorption bands caused by the ~1 micromole per mole (µmol/mol) of methane in Earth's atmosphere (a gas which must be replenished by either volcanic or biological activity) and modulated narrowband radio wave transmissions uncharacteristic of any known natural source. Galileo's experiments were thus the first ever controls in the newborn science of astrobiological remote sensing. The Galileo optical experiment In December 1992 during Galileo's second gravity assist flyby of Earth, another groundbreaking yet almost entirely unpublicized experiment was done using Galileo to assess the possibility of optical communication with spacecraft by detecting pulses of light from powerful lasers which were to be directly imaged by Galileo's CCD. The experiment, dubbed Galileo OPtical EXperiment or GOPEX, Microsoft Word - GOPEX SPIE 1993 (Edited) used two separate sites to beam laser pulses to the spacecraft, one at Table Mountain Observatory in California and the other at the Starfire Optical Range in New Mexico. The Table Mountain site used a frequency doubled Neodymium-Yttrium-Aluminium Garnet (Nd:YAG) laser operating at 532 nm with a repetition rate of ~15 to 30 Hz and a pulse power (FWHM) in the tens of megawatts range, which was coupled to a 0.6 meter Cassegrain telescope for transmission to Galileo, the Starfire range site used a similar setup with a larger transmitting telescope (1.5 m). Long exposure (~0.1 to 0.8 s) images using Galileo's 560 nm centered green filter produced images of Earth clearly showing the laser pulses even at distances of up to 6,000,000 km. Adverse weather conditions, restrictions placed on laser transmissions by the U.S. Space Defense Operations Center (SPADOC) and a pointing error caused by the scan platform acceleration on the spacecraft being slower than expected (which prevented laser detection on all frames with less than 400 ms exposure times) all contributed to the reduction of the number of successful detections of the laser transmission to 48 of the total 159 frames taken. Nonetheless, the experiment was considered a resounding success and the data acquired will likely be used in the future to design laser "downlinks" which will send large volumes of data very quickly, from spacecraft to Earth. The scheme is already being studied (as of 2004) for a data link to a future Mars orbiting spacecraft. NASA To Test Laser Communications With Mars Spacecraft Asteroid encounters NASA image of 951 Gaspra First asteroid encounter: 951 Gaspra On October 29, 1991, two months after entering the asteroid belt, Galileo performed the first ever asteroid encounter by passing about 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) from 951 Gaspra at a relative speed of about 8 kilometers per second (18,000 mph). Several pictures of Gaspra were taken along with measurements using the NIMS instrument to indicate composition and physical properties. The last (and best) two images were played back to Earth in November 1991 and June 1992. The imagery revealed a cratered and very irregular body about 19 by 12 by 11 kilometers (12 by 7.5 by 7 miles). The remainder of data taken, including low resolution images of more of the surface, were transmitted in late November 1992. Second asteroid encounter: 243 Ida and Dactyl NASA image of 243 Ida. The tiny dot to the right is its moon, Dactyl. Twenty-two months after the Gaspra encounter, on August 28, 1993, Galileo flew within 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) of asteroid 243 Ida. The probe discovered that Ida had a small moon, dubbed Dactyl, only 1.4 km in diameter which was the first asteroid moon discovered. Measurements using Galileo's solid state imager, magnetometer and NIMS instrument were taken. From subsequent analysis of data, Dactyl appears to be an SII subtype S type asteroid and is spectrally different from 243 Ida. It is hypothesized that Dactyl may have been produced by partial melting within a Koronis parent body (Ida belongs to the "Koronis" family of asteroids that travels in the main Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter) while the 243 Ida region escaped such igneous processing. Spacecraft malfunctions Main antenna failure Laboratory tests verified that holding ribs 9, 10, and 11 in the stowed position most nearly modeled the spacecraft telemetry. Artist's concept of Galileo at Jupiter with only a partially deployed high-gain antenna For reasons which are not currently known, and in all likelihood will never be known with certainty, Galileo's high-gain antenna failed to fully deploy after its first flyby of Earth. Investigators speculate that during the time that Galileo spent in storage after the Challenger disaster, the lubricants evaporated, or the system was otherwise damaged. Engineers tried thermal cycling the antenna, rotating the spacecraft up to its maximum spin rate of 10.5 rpm, and "hammering" the antenna deployment motors - turning them on and off repeatedly - over 13,000 times; all attempts failed to open the high-gain antenna. Fortunately Galileo had an additional low-gain antenna that was capable of transmitting information back to Earth, though since it transmitted a signal isotropically, the low-gain antenna's bandwidth was significantly less than the high-gain antenna's would have been; the high-gain antenna was to have transmitted at 134 kilobits per second whereas the low-gain antenna was only intended to transmit at about 8 to 16 bits per second. Galileo's low-gain antenna transmitted with a power of about 15 to 20 watts, which, by the time it reached Earth, and had been collected by one of the large aperture (70 m) DSN antennas, had a total power of about -170 dBm or 10 zeptowatts (10 × 10−21 watts). Galileo FAQ - Galileo's Antennas Through implementation of sophisticated data compression techniques, arraying of several Deep Space Network antennas and sensitivity upgrades of receivers used to listen to Galileo's signal, data throughput was increased to a maximum of 160 bits per second. The data collected on Jupiter and its moons was stored in the on board tape recorder, and transmitted back to Earth during the long apozene portion of the probe's orbit using the low-gain antenna. At the same time, measurements were made of Jupiter's magnetosphere and transmitted back to Earth. The reduction in available bandwidth reduced the total amount of data transmitted throughout the mission to about 30 gigabytes and reduced the number of pictures that were transmitted significantly; in all, only around 14,000 images were returned. Tape recorder anomalies and remote repair Since Galileo's high-gain antenna failed to open in 1991 the mission was forced to use the low-gain antenna for all communication to Earth. This meant that data storage to Galileo's tape recorder for later compression and playback was absolutely crucial in order to obtain any substantial information from the planned Jupiter and moon flybys. In October 1995, Galileo's 114 megabyte (914,489,344 bits Galileo FAQ - Tape Recorder ), four-track digital tape recorder which was manufactured by Odetics Corporation, remained stuck in rewind mode for 15 hours before engineers learned what happened and sent commands to shut it off, after recording an image of Jupiter. Though the recorder itself was still in working order the malfunction possibly damaged a length of tape at the end of the reel. This section of tape was subsequently declared "off limits" to any future data recording and was covered with 25 more turns of tape to secure the section and reduce any further stresses, which could tear it. Because it happened only weeks before Jupiter Orbit Insertion, the anomaly prompted engineers to sacrifice data acquisition of almost all of the Io and Europa observations during Jupiter Orbit Insertion in order to focus solely on recording data sent from the Jupiter probe descent. In November 2002, after completion of the mission's only encounter of Jupiter's moon Amalthea, problems with playback of the tape recorder would again plague the spacecraft. About 10 minutes after closest approach of the flyby Galileo stopped collecting data, shut down all of its instruments, and went into "safe mode"; apparently as a result of exposure to Jupiter's extremely high radiation environment. Though most of the Amalthea data was already written to tape, it was found that the recorder refused to respond to commands telling it to play back data. Through careful analysis http://parts.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/NSREC03_C6.pdf after weeks of troubleshooting of an identical flight spare of the recorder on the ground, it was determined that the cause of the malfunction was a reduction of light output in three infrared Optek OP133 http://www.optekinc.com/pdf/Op130.pdf light emitting diodes located in the drive electronics of the recorder's motor encoder wheel. The GaAs LEDs had been particularly sensitive to proton irradiation induced atomic lattice displacement defects, which greatly decreased their effective light output and caused the drive motor's electronics to falsely believe the motor encoder wheel was incorrectly positioned. Galileo's flight team then began a series of "annealing" sessions, where current was passed through the LEDs for hours at a time to heat them to a point where some of the crystalline lattice defects would be shifted back into place, thus increasing the LED's light output. After about 100 hours of annealing and playback cycles, the recorder was able to operate for up to an hour at a time. After many subsequent playback and cooling cycles, the complete transmission back to Earth of all recorded Amalthea flyby data was successful. Other radiation related anomalies The uniquely harsh radiation environment at Jupiter caused over 20 anomalies in addition to the incidents expanded upon above. Despite exceeding its radiation design limit by at least a factor of three, the spacecraft survived all the anomalies. Several of the science instruments suffered increased noise while within about 700,000 km of Jupiter. The quartz crystal used as the frequency reference for the radio suffered permanent frequency shifts with each Jupiter approach. A spin detector failed and the spacecraft gyro output was biased by the radiation environment. The SSI camera began producing totally white images when the spacecraft was hit by the exceptional 'Bastille Day' coronal mass ejection in 2000 and subsequently on close approaches to Jupiter. The most severe effect was a reset of the computers (called a CDS despun bus reset) that occurred when the spacecraft was either close to Jupiter or in the region of space magnetically downstream of the Earth. Work-arounds were found for all of these problems. Near failure of atmospheric probe parachute The atmospheric probe deployed its first parachute about one minute later than anticipated, resulting in a small loss of upper atmospheric readings. Through review of records, the problem was later determined to likely be faulty wiring in the parachute control system. The fact that the chute opened at all was attributed to luck. http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:0i9hpsuYfC8J:quest.nasa.gov/galileo/webchat/galtrans1.html+%22into+the+atmosphere+were+wired+backwards%22&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=2&client=firefox-a References External links Galileo home page Galileo Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration Galileo Satellite Image Mosaics Site explaining the LGA bandwidth upgrades from the Parkes Observatory GOPEX site from JPL NASA site on Galileo life detection experiments Mission to Jupiter: a History of the Galileo Project, by Michael Meltzer, NASA SP 2007-4231 (on-line book) Exploring the Moon: Galileo Mission | Galileo_(spacecraft) |@lemmatized galileo:99 inertial:2 upper:3 stage:2 deploy:5 launch:12 space:14 shuttle:5 atlantis:2 sts:2 mission:25 patch:1 four:5 large:5 moon:22 jupiter:54 photograph:1 capture:1 dynamic:3 eruption:2 tvashtar:1 catena:1 chain:1 volcanic:3 bowl:1 io:6 unmanned:1 spacecraft:46 send:8 nasa:17 study:10 planet:9 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1,223 | Nova_Scotia | Nova Scotia (; Latin for New Scotland; ; ) is a Canadian province located on Canada's southeastern coast. It is the most-populous province in Atlantic Canada. Its capital, Halifax, is a major economic centre of the region. Nova Scotia is the second-smallest province in Canada with an area of . Its population of 939,531 makes it the fourth-least-populous province of the country, though second-most-densely populated. Nova Scotia's economy is traditionally largely resource-based, but has diversified since the middle of the 20th century. Industries such as fishing, mining, forestry and agriculture remain very important and have been joined by tourism, technology, film, music, and finance. The province includes several regions of the Mi'kmaq nation of Mi'gma'gi, which covered all of the Maritimes, as well as parts of Maine, Newfoundland and the Gaspé Peninsula. Nova Scotia was already home to the Mi'kmaq people when the first European colonists arrived. In 1604, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement north of Florida at Port Royal, founding what would become known as Acadia. The British Empire obtained control of the region between 1713 and 1760, and established a new capital at Halifax in 1749. In 1867 Nova Scotia was one of the founding provinces of the Canadian Confederation, along with New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada (which became the separate provinces of Quebec and Ontario). Geography The province's mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km (40 mi) from the ocean. Cape Breton Island, a large island to the northeast of the Nova Scotia mainland, is also part of the province, as is Sable Island, a small island notorious for its shipwrecks, approximately 175 km (109 mi) from the province's southern coast. Nova Scotia is Canada's second-smallest province in area (after Prince Edward Island). Nova Scotia is also Canada's most-southern-centered province even though it does not have the most-southern location in Canada, which is in Ontario. Because part of Ontario stretches far to the north, Ontario's centre is further north than Nova Scotia's. Climate Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone and, although the province is almost surrounded by water, the climate is closer to continental rather than maritime. The temperature extremes of the continental climate are moderated by the ocean. Described on the provincial vehicle-licence plate as Canada's Ocean Playground, the sea is a major influence on Nova Scotia's climate. Nova Scotia is known to have cold winters and warm summers. The province is surrounded by three major bodies of water, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the north, the Bay of Fundy to the west, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and east. Rainfall varies from 140 centimetres (55 in) in the south to 100 centimetres (40 in) elsewhere. Nova Scotia is also very foggy in places, with Halifax averaging 196 foggy days per year Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada and Yarmouth 191. Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada The average annual temperatures are: Spring from 1° to 17°C Summer from 14° to 25 Environment Canada - Atlantic Climate Centre - The Climate of Nova Scotia °C Fall about 5° to 20°C Winter about -11° to 5°C Due to the ocean's moderating effect Nova Scotia is the warmest of the provinces in Canada. Nova Scotia also has a fairly wide but not extreme temperature range, a late and long summer, skies that are often cloudy or overcast; frequent coastal fog and marked changeability of weather from day to day. The main factors influencing Nova Scotia's climate are: The effects of the westerly winds The interaction between three main air masses which converge on the east coast Nova Scotia's location on the routes of the major eastward-moving storms The modifying influence of the sea. Because Nova Scotia juts out into the Atlantic, it is prone to tropical storms and hurricanes in the summer and autumn. There have been 33 such storms, including 12 hurricanes, since records were kept in 1871—about once every four years. The last hurricane was category-one Hurricane Kyle in September 2008, and the last tropical storm was Tropical Storm Noel in 2007 (downgraded from Hurricane Noel by the time the storm reached Nova Scotia). History Paleo-Indians camped at locations in present-day Nova Scotia approximately 11,000 years ago. Natives are believed to have been present in the area between 1,000 and 5,000 years ago. Mi'kmaq, the First Nations of the province and region, are their direct descendants. It is most widely believed that the Italian explorer John Cabot visited present-day Cape Breton in 1497. The first European settlement in Nova Scotia was established more than a century later in 1604. The French, led by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts established the first capital for the colony Acadia at Port Royal that year at the head of the Annapolis Basin. Also, French fishermen established a settlement at Canso the same year. In 1620, the Plymouth Council for New England, under King James I (of England) & VI (of Scots) designated the whole shorelines of Acadia and the Mid-Atlantic colonies south to the Chesapeake Bay as New England. The first documented Scottish settlement in the Americas was of Nova Scotia in 1621. On 29 September 1621, the charter for the foundation of a colony was granted by James VI to William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling and, in 1622, the first settlers left Scotland. This settlement initially failed because of difficulties in obtaining a sufficient number of skilled emigrants, and in 1624 James VI created a new order of baronets. Admission to this order was obtained by sending six labourers or artisans, sufficiently armed, dressed and supplied for two years, to Nova Scotia, or by paying 3,000 merks to William Alexander. For six months, no one took up this offer until James compelled one to make the first move. In 1627, there was a wider uptake of baronetcies and thus more settlers available to go to Nova Scotia. However, in 1627, war broke out between England and France, and the French re-established a settlement at Port Royal which they had originally settled. Later that year, a combined Scottish and English force destroyed the French settlement, forcing them out. In 1629, the first Scottish settlement at Port Royal was inhabited. The colony's charter, in law, made Nova Scotia (defined as all land between Newfoundland and New England) a part of mainland Scotland; this was later used to get around the English navigation acts. However, this did not last long: in 1631, under King Charles I, the Treaty of Suza was signed which returned Nova Scotia to the French. The Scots were forced by Charles to abandon their mission before their colony had been properly established, and the French assumed control of the Mi'kmaq and other First Nations territory. In 1654, King Louis XIV of France appointed aristocrat Nicholas Denys as Governor of Acadia and granted him the confiscated lands and the right to all its minerals. English colonists captured Acadia in the course of King William's War, but England returned the territory to France in the Treaty of Ryswick at the end of the war. The territory was recaptured by forces loyal to Britain during the course of Queen Anne's War, and its conquest was confirmed by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. France retained possession of Île St Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island), on which it established a fortress at Louisbourg to guard the sea approaches to Quebec. This fortress was captured by American colonial forces, then returned by the British to France, then ceded again after the French and Indian War of 1755. Thus mainland Nova Scotia became a British colony in 1713, although Samuel Vetch had a precarious hold on the territory as governor from the fall of Acadian Port-Royal (Annapolis Royal) in October 1710. British governing officials became increasingly concerned over the unwillingness of the French-speaking, Roman Catholic Acadians, who were the majority of colonists, to pledge allegiance to the British Crown, then George II. The colony remained mostly Acadian despite the establishment of Halifax as the province's capital, and the settlement of a large number of foreign Protestants (some French and Swiss but mostly German) at Lunenburg in 1753. In 1755, the British forcibly expelled over 12,000 Acadians in what became known as the Grand Dérangement, or Great Expulsion. At the same time the British Crown began bestowing land grants in Nova Scotia on favored subjects to encourage settlement and trade with the mother country. In June 1764, for instance, the Boards of Trade requested the King make massive land grants to such Royal favorites as Thomas Pownall, Richard Oswald, Humphry Bradstreet, John Wentworth, Thomas Thoroton Thomas Blackborne Thoroton was married to an illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Rutland. He and other family members, including Thoroton's half-brother Levett Blackborne, a barrister, had close business and social relationships with Richard Oswald and James Grant, who were instrumental in the English colonies in East Florida and Nova Scotia. and Lincoln's Inn barrister Levett Blackborne. Representation to His Majesty with a List of Several persons for Grants of Lands in Nova Scotia, Representations of the Lords of Trade to the King, June 5, 1764, www.heritage.nf.ca Two years later, in 1766, at a gathering at the home of Levett Blackborne, an adviser to the Duke of Rutland, Oswald and his friend James Grant were released from their Nova Scotia properties so they could concentrate on their grants in British East Florida. The Florida Historical Quarterly, vol. LIV, No. 4, April 1976, Gainesville, FL The colony's jurisdiction changed during this time. Nova Scotia was granted a supreme court in 1754 with the appointment of Jonathan Belcher and a Legislative Assembly in 1758. In 1763 Cape Breton Island became part of Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony. The county of Sunbury was created in 1765, and included all of the territory of current day New Brunswick and eastern Maine as far as the Penobscot River. In 1784 the western, mainland portion of the colony was separated and became the province of New Brunswick, and the territory in Maine entered the control of the newly independent American state of Massachusetts. Cape Breton became a separate colony in 1784 only to be returned to Nova Scotia in 1820. During the colonial period, Nova Scotia issued its own postage stamps printed in England. This distinctive diamond shape (issued between 1851 and 1857) was also used by neighbouring New Brunswick. Nova Scotia stamp issued 1860. Ancestors of more than half of present-day Nova Scotians arrived in the period following the Acadian Expulsion. Between 1759 and 1768, about 8,000 New England Planters responded to Governor Charles Lawrence's request for settlers from the New England colonies. Several years later, approximately 30,000 United Empire Loyalists (American Tories) settled in Nova Scotia (when it comprised present-day Maritime Canada) following the defeat of the British in the American Revolutionary War. Of these 30,000, 14,000 went to New Brunswick and 16,000 went to Nova Scotia. Approximately 3,000 of this group were Black Loyalists, about a third of whom soon relocated themselves to Sierra Leone in 1792 via the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, becoming the Original settlers of Freetown. Large numbers of Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots emigrated to Cape Breton and the western part of the mainland during the late 18th century and 19th century. About one thousand Ulster-Scots settled in mainly central Nova Scotia during this time, as did just over a thousand farming migrants from Yorkshire and Northumberland between 1772 and 1775. Nova Scotia was the first colony in British North America and in the British Empire to achieve responsible government in January-February 1848 and become self-governing through the efforts of Joseph Howe. Pro-Confederate premier Charles Tupper led Nova Scotia into the Canadian Confederation in 1867, along with New Brunswick and the Province of Canada. In the provincial election of 1868, the Anti-Confederation Party won 18 out of 19 federal seats, and 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature. For seven years, William Annand and Joseph Howe led the ultimately unsuccessful fight to convince British imperial authorities to release Nova Scotia from Confederation. The government was vocally against Confederation, contending that it was no more than the annexation of the province to the pre-existing province of Canada: A motion passed by the Nova Scotia House of Assembly in 1868 refusing to recognise the legitimacy of Confederation has never been rescinded. Repeal, as anti-confederation became known, would rear its head again in the 1880s, and transform into the Maritime Rights Movement in the 1920s. Some Nova Scotia flags flew at half mast on Dominion Day as late as that time. Demographics According to the 2001 Canadian census the largest ethnic group in Nova Scotia is Scottish (29.3%), followed by English (28.1%), Irish (19.9%), French (16.7%), German (10.0%), Dutch (3.9%), First Nations (3.2%), Welsh (1.4%), Italian (1.3%), and Acadian (1.2%). Peoples of European descent thus make up approximately 96.8% of the total population. Almost half of all respondents (47.4%) identified their ethnicity as "Canadian." Top Ten Counties by Population County 20012006Halifax (county)359,183372,858Cape Breton (county)109,330105,928Kings County58,86660,035Colchester County49,30750,023Lunenburg County47,59147,150Pictou County46,96546,513Hants County40,51341,182Cumberland County32,60532,046Yarmouth County26,84326,277Annapolis County21,77321,438 Language The 2006 Canadian census showed a population of 913,462.Of the 899,270 singular responses to the census question concerning 'mother tongue' the most-commonly reported languages were: RankLanguageRespondantsPercentage1.English832,10592.53%2.French32,5403.62%3.Arabic4,4250.49%4.Mi'kmaq4,0600.45%5.German4,0450.45%6.Chinese3,3700.37%7.Dutch2,4400.27%8.Polish1,5700.17%9.Spanish1,3050.15%10.Greek1,0350.12%11.Italian9050.10%12.Korean8600.10%13.Gaelic7990.10% Peggys Cove Harbour In addition, there were also 105 responses of both English and a 'non-official language'; 25 of both French and a 'non-official language'; 495 of both English and French; 10 of English, French, and a 'non-official language'; and about 10,300 people who either did not respond to the question, or reported multiple non-official languages, or else gave some other unenumerated response. Figures shown are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses. Detailed Mother Tongue (186), Knowledge of Official Languages (5), Age Groups (17A) and Sex (3) (2006 Census) Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church with 327,940 (37 %); the United Church of Canada with 142,520 (16 %); and the Anglican Church of Canada with 120,315 (13 %). Religions in Canada Economy Nova Scotia's traditionally resource-based economy has become more diverse in recent decades. The rise of Nova Scotia as a viable jurisdiction in North America was driven by the ready availability of natural resources, especially the fish stocks off the Scotian shelf. The fishery was pillar of the economy since its development as part of the economy of New France in the 17th century. However, the fishery suffered a sharp decline due to overfishing in the late twentieth century. The collapse of the cod stocks and the closure of this sector resulted in a loss of approximately 20,000 jobs in 1992. Per capita GDP in 2005 was $31,344, lower than the national average per capita GDP of $34,273 and less than half that of Canada's richest province, Alberta. Due, in part, to a strong small-business sector, Nova Scotia now has one of the fastest-growing economies in Canada. Small business makes up 92.2% of the provincial economy. Carter, S. (ed.) Migrationnews Canada. 2007-2008 Edition. Oceania Development Group. Retrieved on: October 10, 2008. Mining, especially of gypsum, salt and barite, is also a significant sector. Since 1991, offshore oil and gas has become an increasingly important part of the economy. Agriculture remains an important sector in the province. In the central part of Nova Scotia, lumber and paper industries are responsible for much of the employment opportunities. Nova Scotia’s defence and aerospace sector generates approximately $500 million in revenues and contributes about $1.5 billion to the provincial economy annually. Nova Scotia Business Inc. Defence, Security & Aerospace.Retrieved on: October 10, 2008. Nova Scotia has the fourth-largest film industry in Canada hosting over 100 productions yearly, more than half of which are the products of international film and television producers. Nova Scotia Film Development Corporation Production Statistics for the 12 Month Period Ended March 31, 2008. Retrieved on: October 10, 2008. The Nova Scotia tourism industry includes more than 6,500 direct businesses, supporting nearly 40,000 jobs. Tourism Industry Association of Nova Scotia. Tourism Summit 2008. Retrieved on: October 10, 2008. 200,000 cruise ship passengers from around the world flow through the Port of Halifax, Nova Scotia each year. Government of Nova Scotia. [http://www.gov.ns.ca/econ/exportstrategy/docs/Export_Development_Strategy-NS.pdf Going Global, Staying Local: A Partnership Strategy for Export Development]. Retrieved on: October 10, 2008. Halifax ranks among the top five most cost-effective places to do business when compared to large international centres in North America, Europe and Asia-Pacific. Government and politics The government of Nova Scotia is a parliamentary democracy. Its unicameral legislature, the Nova Scotia House of Assembly, consists of fifty-two members. As Canada's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is the head of Nova Scotia's Executive Council, which serves as the Cabinet of the provincial government. Her Majesty's duties in Nova Scotia are carried out by her representative, the Lieutenant-Governor, currently Mayann E. Francis. The government is headed by the Premier, Rodney MacDonald, who took office February 22, 2006. Halifax is home to the House of Assembly and Lieutenant-Governor. The province's revenue comes mainly from the taxation of personal and corporate income, although taxes on tobacco and alcohol, its stake in the Atlantic Lottery Corporation, and oil and gas royalties are also significant. In 2006-07, the Province passed a budget of $6.9 billion, with a projected $72 million surplus. Federal equalization payments account for $1.385 billion, or 20.07% of the provincial revenue. While Nova Scotians have enjoyed balanced budgets for several years, the accumulated debt exceeds $12 billion (including forecasts of future liability, such as pensions and environmental cleanups), resulting in slightly over $897 million in debt servicing payments, or 12.67% of expenses. The province participates in the HST, a blended sales tax collected by the federal government using the GST tax system. Nova Scotia has elected three minority governments over the last decade. The Progressive Conservative government of John Hamm, and now Rodney MacDonald, has required the support of the New Democratic Party or Liberal Party since the election in 2003. Nova Scotia's politics are divided on regional lines in such a way that it has become difficult to elect a majority government. Rural mainland Nova Scotia has largely been aligned behind the Progressive Conservative Party, Halifax Regional Municipality has overwhelmingly supported the New Democrats, with Cape Breton voting for Liberals with a few Progressive Conservatives and New Democrats. This has resulted in a three-way split of votes on a province-wide basis for each party and difficulty in any party gaining a majority. Progressive Conservative Premier Dr. Hamm announced his retirement in late 2005 and was replaced by Rodney MacDonald after MacDonald won a closely contested leadership convention, defeating former finance minister, and the race's frontrunner, Neil LeBlanc on the first ballot and Halifax businessman Bill Black on the second. MacDonald is the second-youngest premier in Nova Scotia's history. Halifax, provincial capital The last election on June 13, 2006 elected 23 Progressive Conservatives, 20 New Democrats and 9 Liberals, leaving Nova Scotia with a Progressive Conservative minority government. Nova Scotia no longer has any incorporated cities; they were amalgamated into Regional Municipalities in 1996. Halifax, the provincial capital, is now part of the Halifax Regional Municipality, as is Dartmouth, formerly the province's second largest city. The former city of Sydney is now part of the Cape Breton Regional Municipality. The House of Assembly passed a motion in 2004 inviting the Turks and Caicos Islands to join the province, should these Caribbean islands renew their wish to join Canada. Education The Minister of Education is responsible for the administration and delivery of education, as defined by the Education Act and other acts relating to colleges, universities and private schools. The powers of the Minister and the Department of Education are defined by the Ministerial regulations and constrained by the Governor-In-Council regulations. Nova Scotia has more than 450 public schools for children. The public system offers primary to Grade 12. There are also some private schools in the province. Public education is administered by seven regional school boards, responsible primarily for English instruction and French immersion, and also province-wide by the Conseil Scolaire Acadien Provincial, which administer French instruction to students for whom the primary language is French. The Nova Scotia Community College system has 13 campuses around the province. The community college, with its focus on training and education, was established in 1988 by amalgamating the province's former vocational schools. The province has 12 universities and colleges, including Dalhousie University, University of King's College, Saint Mary's University (Halifax), Mount Saint Vincent University, NSCAD University, Acadia University, Université Sainte-Anne, Saint Francis Xavier University, Nova Scotia Agricultural College, Cape Breton University, and the Atlantic School of Theology. Culture The lighthouse situated on Peggys Point, immediately south of Peggys Cove Despite the small population of the province, Nova Scotia's music and culture is influenced by several well-established cultural groups, which are sometimes referred to as the "founding cultures". The island was originally populated by the Mi'kmaq First Nation. The first European settlers were the French, who founded Acadia in 1604. Nova Scotia was briefly colonized by Scottish settlers in 1620, though by 1624 the Scottish settlers had been removed by treaty and the area was turned over to the French until the mid-18th century. After the defeat of the French and prior expulsion of the Acadians, settlers of English, Irish, Scottish and African descent began arriving on the shores of Nova Scotia. Settlement was greatly accelerated by the resettlement of Loyalists in Nova Scotia during the period following the end of the American Revolutionary War. It was during this time that a large African Nova Scotian community took root, populated by freed slaves and Loyalist blacks and their families, who had fought for the crown in exchange for land. This community later grew when the Royal Navy began intercepting slave ships destined for the United States, and deposited these free slaves on the shores of Nova Scotia. Later, in the 19th century the Irish Famine and, especially, the Scottish Highland Clearances resulted in large influxes of migrants with Celtic cultural roots, which helped to define the dominantly Celtic character of Cape Breton and the north mainland of the province. This Gaelic influence continues to play an important role in defining the cultural life of the province and around 500 - 2000 Nova Scotians today are fluent in Scottish Gaelic. Nearly all live in Antigonish County or on Cape Breton Island. Office of Gaelic Affairs Modern Nova Scotia is a mix of many cultures. The government works to support Mi'kmaq, French, Gaelic and African-Nova Scotian culture through the establishment of government secretariats, as well as colleges, educational programs and cultural centres. The Province is also eager to attract new immigrants, but has had limited success. The major population centres at Halifax and Sydney are the most cosmopolitan, hosting large Arab populations (in the former) and Eastern European populations (in the latter). Halifax Regional Municipality hosts a yearly multicultural festival. Arts Nova Scotia has long been a centre for artistic and cultural excellence. Halifax has emerged as the leading cultural centre in the Atlantic region. The city hosts such institutions such as NSCAD University, one of Canada's leading art, craft and design universities, and the Symphony Nova Scotia, the only full orchestra performing in Atlantic Canada. The province is home to avant-garde visual art and traditional crafting, writing and publishing, and a film industry. Nova Scotia is arguably best known for its music. While popular music from many genres has experienced almost two decades of explosive growth and success in Nova Scotia, the province remains best known for its folk and traditional based music. Nova Scotia's traditional (or folk) music is Scottish in character, and traditions from Scotland are kept true to form, in some cases more so than in Scotland. This is especially true of the island of Cape Breton, one of the major international centres for Celtic music. On mainland Nova Scotia, particularly in some of the rural villages throughout Guysborough County, Irish-influenced styles of music are commonly played, due to the predominance of Irish culture in many of the county's villages. See also Wikiproject Nova Scotia Portal: Nova Scotia Scotia List of airports in Nova Scotia List of articles on Nova Scotia by topic List of renowned Nova Scotians The Gaelic Language in Canada List of Nova Scotia schools Cape Breton Island Cape Breton Regional Municipality Halifax Regional Municipality Sable Island Bay of Fundy - renowned for having the world's highest tides Kejimkujik National Park List of parks in Nova Scotia List of Nova Scotia counties List of communities in Nova Scotia List of Nova Scotia rivers Symbols of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia House of Assembly List of Nova Scotia lieutenant-governors List of Nova Scotia premiers List of cities in Canada List of Nova Scotia provincial highways List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols Sunday shopping Same-sex marriage in Nova Scotia List of colleges and universities in Nova Scotia Petroleum Pricing in Nova Scotia Scouting in Nova Scotia Emergency Health Services in Nova Scotia Central Nova Tourist Association Goler clan Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Squadron Notes Bibliography Surveys Beck, J. Murray. The Government of Nova Scotia University of Toronto Press, 1957, the standard history Choyce, Lesley. Nova Scotia: Shaped by the Sea. A Living History. Toronto: Penguin Books Canada, 1996. 305 pp. Donovan, Kenneth, ed. Cape Breton at 200: Historical Essays in Honour of the Island's Bicentennial, 1785-1985. Sydney, N.S.: U. Coll. of Cape Breton Pr., 1985. 261 pp. Fingard, Judith; Guildford, Janet; and Sutherland, David. Halifax: The First 250 Years Halifax: Formac, 1999. 192 pp. Girard, Philip; Phillips, Jim; and Cahill, Barry, ed. The Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 1754-2004: From Imperial Bastion to Provincial Oracle U. of Toronto Press 2004. Johnson, Ralph S. Forests of Nova Scotia: A History. Tantallon: Nova Scotia Dept. of Lands and Forests; Four East Publ., 1986. 407 pp. Loomer, L. S. Windsor, Nova Scotia: A Journey in History. Windsor, N.S.: West Hants Hist. Soc., 1996. 399 pp. Robertson, Allen B. Tide & Timber: Hantsport, Nova Scotia, 1795-1995. Hantsport, N.S.: Lancelot, 1996. 182 pp. Robertson, Barbara R. Sawpower: Making Lumber in the Sawmills of Nova Scotia. Halifax: Nimbus; Nova Scotia Mus., 1986. 244 pp. Since 1900 Beck, J. Murray. Politics of Nova Scotia. vol 2: 1896-1988. Tantallon, N.S.: Four East 1985 438 pp. Bickerton, James P. Nova Scotia, Ottawa and the Politics of Regional Development. U. of Toronto Press 1990. 412 pp. Creighton, Wilfred. Forestkeeping: A History of the Department of Lands and Forests in Nova Scotia, 1926-1969. Halifax: Nova Scotia Dept. of Lands and Forests, 1988. 155 pp. Earle, Michael, ed. Workers and the State in Twentieth Century Nova Scotia. Fredericton: Acadiensis, 1989. Frank, David. J. B. McLachlan: A Biography - the Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners. Toronto: Lorimer, 1999. 592 pp. Fraser, Dawn. Echoes from Labor's Wars: The Expanded Edition, Industrial Cape Breton in the 1920s, Echoes of World War One, Autobiography and Other Writings. Wreck Cove, N.S.: Breton Books, 1992. 177 pp. McKay, Ian. The Quest of the Folk: Antimodernism and Cultural Selection in Twentieth-Century Nova Scotia. McGill-Queen's U. Pr., 1994. 371 pp. McKay, Ian. The Craft Transformed: An Essay on the Carpenters of Halifax, 1885-1985. Halifax, N.S.: Holdfast, 1985. 148 pp. March, William DesB. Red Line: The Chronicle-Herald and Mail-Star, 1875-1954. Halifax, N.S.: Chebucto Agencies, 1986. 415 pp. Morton, Suzanne. Ideal Surroundings: Domestic Life in a Working-Class Suburb in the 1920s. U. of Toronto Pr., 1995. 201 pp. about Richmond Heights Sandberg, L. Anders and Clancy, Peter. Against the Grain: Foresters and Politics in Nova Scotia. U. of British Columbia Pr., 2000. 352 pp. Sandberg, L. Anders, ed. Trouble in the Woods: Forest Policy and Social Conflict in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Fredericton, N.B.: Acadiensis, 1992. 234 pp. Pre 1900 Beck, J. Murray. Joseph Howe Volumes I & II : Conservative Reformer 1804-1848; The Briton Becomes Canadian 1848-1873 (1984) Beck, J. Murray. Politics of Nova Scotia. vol 1 1710-1896 Tantallon, N.S.: Four East 1985 438 pp. Bell, Winthrop P. The "Foreign Protestants" and the Settlement of Nova Scotia: The History of a Piece of Arrested British Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth Century. (1961). reprint Fredericton, N.B.: Acadiensis for Mount Allison U., Cen. for Can. Studies, 1990. 673 pp. Brebner, John Bartlet. New England's Outpost. Acadia before the Conquest of Canada (1927) Brebner, John Bartlet. The Neutral Yankees of Nova Scotia: A Marginal Colony During the Revolutionary Years (1937) Byers, Mary and McBurney, Margaret. Atlantic Hearth: Early Homes and Families of Nova Scotia. U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 364 pp. Campey, Lucille H. After the Hector: The Scottish Pioneers of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Toronto: Natural Heritage Books, 2004. 376 pp. J. A. Chisholm, ed. Speeches and Public Letters of Joseph Howe 2 vol Halifax, 1909 Conrad, Margaret and Moody, Barry, ed. Planter Links: Community and Culture in Colonial Nova Scotia. Fredericton, : Acadiensis, 2001. 236 pp. Conrad, Margaret, ed. Intimate Relations: Family and Community in Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800. Fredericton, : Acadiensis, 1995. 298 pp. Conrad, Margaret, ed. Making Adjustments: Change and Continuity in Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800. Fredericton: Acadiensis, 1991. 280 pp. Cuthbertson, Brian. Johnny Bluenose at the Polls: Epic Nova Scotian Election Battles, 1758-1848. Halifax: Formac, 1994. 344 pp. Donald A. Desserud; "Outpost's Response: The Language and Politics of Moderation in Eighteenth-Century Nova Scotia" American Review of Canadian Studies, Vol. 29, 1999 online Faragher, John Mack. A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from Their American Homeland (2006) Frost, James D. Merchant Princes: Halifax's First Family of Finance, Ships, and Steel Toronto: Lorimer, 2003. 376 pp. Gwyn, Julian. Excessive Expectations: Maritime Commerce and the Economic Development of Nova Scotia, 1740-1870 McGill-Queen's U. Pr., 1998. 291 pp. Hornsby, Stephen J. Nineteenth-Century Cape Breton: A Historical Geography. McGill-Queen's U. Pr., 1992. 274 pp. Johnston, A. J. B. Control and Order in French Colonial Louisbourg, 1713-1758. Michigan State U. Pr., 2001. 346 pp. Krause, Eric; Corbin, Carol; and O'Shea, William, ed. Aspects of Louisbourg: Essays on the History of an Eighteenth-Century French Community in North America. Sydney, N.S.: U. Coll. of Cape Breton Pr., 1995. 312 pp. Lanctôt, Léopold. L'Acadie des Origines, 1603-1771 Montreal: Fleuve, 1988. 234 pp. McKay, Ian. The Craft Transformed: An Essay on the Carpenters of Halifax, 1885-1985. Halifax, N.S.: Holdfast, 1985. 148 pp. MacKinnon, Neil. This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783-1791. McGill-Queen's U. Pr., 1986. 231 pp. Mancke, Elizabeth. The Fault Lines of Empire: Political Differentiation in Massachusetts and Nova Scotia, ca. 1760-1830 Routledge, 2005. 214 pp. online Marble, Allan Everett. Surgeons, Smallpox, and the Poor: A History of Medicine and Social Conditions in Nova Scotia, 1749-1799. McGill-Queen's U. Pr., 1993. 356 pp. Pryke, Kenneth G. Nova Scotia and Confederation, 1864-74 (1979) (ISBN 0-8020-5389-0) Reid, John G. et al. The "Conquest" of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions. U. of Toronto Pr., 2004. 297 pp. Waite, P. B. The Lives of Dalhousie University. Vol. 1: 1818-1925, Lord Dalhousie's College. McGill-Queen's U. Pr., 1994. 338 pp. Walker, James W. St. G. The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone, 1783-1870. (1976). reprint U. of Toronto Pr., 1992. 438 pp Whitelaw, William Menzies; The Maritimes and Canada before Confederation (1934) online External links Official links Government of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia - Come To life (Main gateway website for tourism, immigration, business, etc. links) Tourism Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Provincial Parks Other links Maritime Tourism Coastal Communities Network current issues and community profiles, coastal information, community development Photographs of War Memorials & Historic Monuments in Nova Scotia 360x180° Spherical Panoramic Images of Nova Scotia Little-Known Portions of Nova Scotia History | Nova_Scotia |@lemmatized nova:154 scotia:147 latin:1 new:22 scotland:5 canadian:9 province:41 locate:1 canada:31 southeastern:1 coast:3 populous:2 atlantic:11 capital:6 halifax:30 major:6 economic:2 centre:9 region:5 second:6 small:6 area:4 population:8 make:8 fourth:2 least:1 country:2 though:3 densely:1 populate:3 economy:9 traditionally:2 largely:2 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1,224 | Franz_Bopp | Franz Bopp Franz Bopp (September 14, 1791–October 23, 1867) was a German linguist known for extensive comparative work on Indo-European languages. Biography He was born at Mainz, but owing to the political disarray of the time, his parents moved to Aschaffenburg in Bavaria. There, he received a liberal education at the Lyceum, and Karl J. Windischmann drew his attention to the languages and literature of the East (Windischmann, along with Georg Friedrich Creuzer, Johann Joseph von Görres, and the brothers Schlegel, expressed great enthusiasm for Indian wisdom and philosophy). Moreover, Friedrich Schlegel's book, Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier (On the Speech and Wisdom of the Indians, Heidelberg, 1808), which had just begun to exert a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and historians, could not fail to stimulate also Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the Hindus. In 1812, he went to Paris at the expense of the Bavarian government, with a view to devoting himself vigorously to the study of Sanskrit. There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as Antoine-Léonard de Chézy, Silvestre de Sacy, Louis Mathieu Langlès, and, above all, of Alexander Hamilton (1762–1824) [not the U.S. statesman], who had acquired, when in India, an acquaintance with Sanskrit, and had brought out, along with Langlès, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Imperial library. In the library, Bopp had access not only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts (mostly brought from India by Jean François Pons in the early 18th century) but also to the Sanskrit books which had up to that time been issued from the Calcutta and Serampore presses. Career The first paper from his four years' study in Paris appeared in Frankfurt am Main in 1816, under the title of Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache (On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in comparison with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic) (Windischmann contributed a preface). In this first book Bopp entered at once the path on which he would focus the philological researches of his whole subsequent life. He did not need to prove the common parentage of Sanskrit with Persian, Greek, Latin and German, for previous scholars had long established that; but he aimed to trace the common origin of those languages' grammatical forms, of their inflections from composition – a task which no predecessor had attempted. By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the languages compared. After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp travelled to London where he made the acquaintance of Sir Charles Wilkins and HT Colebrooke. He also became friends with Wilhelm von Humboldt, then Prussian ambassador at the Court of St. James's, to whom he taught in Sanskrit. He brought out, in the Annals of Oriental Literature (London, 1820), an essay entitled, "Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages", in which he extended to all parts of the grammar what he had done in his first book for the verb alone. He had previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation and notes, of the story of Nala and Damayanti (London, 1819), the most beautiful episode of the Mahabharata. Other episodes of the Mahabharata – Indralokâgama, and three others (Berlin, 1824); Diluvium, and three others (Berlin, 1829); a new edition of Nala (Berlin, 1832) – followed in due course, all of which, with AW Schlegel's edition of the Bhagavad Gita (1823), proved excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole Mahabharata, Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts and confined himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations. After a short residence at Göttingen, Bopp gained, on the recommendation of Humboldt, appointment to the chair of Sanskrit and comparative grammar at Berlin in 1821, and became a member of the Royal Prussian Academy the following year. He brought out in 1827 his Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der Sanskritsprache, on which he had worked since 1821. Bopp started work on a new edition in Latin, for the following year, completed in 1832; a shorter grammar appeared in 1834. At the same time he compiled a Sanskrit and Latin glossary (1830) in which, more especially in the second and third editions (1847 and 1868-71), he also took account of the cognate languages. His chief activity, however, centred on the elaboration of his Comparative Grammar, which appeared in six parts at considerable intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under the title Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litauischen, Gotischen und Deutschen (Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend (Avestan), Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Gothic and German). How carefully Bopp matured this work emerges from the series of monographs printed in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy (1824–1831), which preceded it. They bear the general title, Vergleichende Zergliederung des Sanskrits und der mit ihm verwandten Sprachen (Comparative Analysis of Sanskrit and its related Languages). Two other essays (on the "Numerals", 1835) followed the publication of the first part of the Comparative Grammar. Old Slavonian began to take its stand among the languages compared from the second part onwards. EB Eastwick translated the work into English in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly revised (1856–1861), also covered Old Armenian. In his Comparative Grammar Bopp set himself a threefold task: to give a description of the original grammatical structure of the languages as deduced from their intercomparison to trace their phonetic laws, and to investigate the origin of their grammatical forms. The first and second points remained dependent upon the third. As Bopp based his research on the best available sources and incorporated every new item of information that came to light, his work continued to widen and deepen in the making. Witness his monographs on the vowel system in the Teutonic languages (1836), on the Celtic languages (1839), on the Old Prussian (1853) and Albanian languages (Über das Albanesische in seinen verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen, Wien, 1854), on the accent in Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the Malayo-Polynesian with the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the Caucasian languages (1846). In the two latter, the impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track. Criticism Critics have charged Bopp with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies the great libraries of Europe did not hold the requisite materials; if they had, those materials would have demanded his full attention for years, while such grammars as those of Wilkins and Henry Thomas Colebrooke, from which Bopp derived his grammatical knowledge, had all used native grammars as a basis. The further charge that Bopp, in his Comparative Grammar, gave undue prominence to Sanskrit stands disproved by his own words; for, as early as the year 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently the cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in Sanskrit (Annals of Or. Lit. i. 3), – an opinion which he further developed in all his subsequent writings. References Michel Jules Alfred Bréal's translation of Bopp's Vergleichende Grammatik (1866) introduction Theodor Benfey, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft (1869) A. Kuhn in Unsere Zeit, Neue Folge, iv. 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1,225 | General_Electric | The General Electric Company, or GE (), is a multinational American technology and services conglomerate incorporated in the State of New York. Company Information: General Electric, U.S Securities and Exchange Commission As of March 31, 2009, GE is the world's 22nd largest company in terms of market capitalization. History By 1890, Thomas Edison had brought together several of his business interests together under one corporation to form Edison General Electric. At about the same time, Thomson-Houston Company, under the leadership of Charles A. Coffin, gained access to a number of key patents through the acquisition of a number of competitors. Subsequently, General Electric was formed by the 1892 merger of Edison General Electric and Thomson-Houston Company. GE Thomas Edison: History, Electricity, Light Bulb, Research, Founder In 1896, General Electric was one of the original 12 companies listed on the newly-formed Dow Jones Industrial Average and still remains after years, the only one remaining on the Dow (though it has not continuously been in the DOW index). 23 Ton diesel electric locomotive made at the General Electric Corp. plant in Schenectady, N.Y. In 1911 the National Electric Lamp Association (NELA) was absorbed into General Electric's existing lighting business. GE then established its lighting division headquarters at Nela Park in East Cleveland, Ohio. Nela Park was the world's first industrial park, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975, and is still the headquarters for GE's lighting business. The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was founded by GE in 1919 to further international radio. RCA would quickly grow into an industrial giant of its own. GE's long history of working with turbines in the power generation field gave them the engineering know-how to move into the new field of aircraft turbosuperchargers. Led by Sanford Moss, GE introduced the first superchargers during WWI, and continued to develop them during the interbellum. They became indispensable in the years immediately prior to WWII, and GE was the world leader in exhaust-driven supercharging when the war started. This experience, in turn, made GE a natural selection to develop the Whittle W.1 jet engine that was demonstrated in the US in 1941. Although their early work with Whittle's designs was later handed to Allison Engines, GE Aviation emerged as one of the world's largest engine manufacturers. General Electric was one of the eight major computer companies through most of the 1960s — with IBM, the largest, called "Snow White" followed by the "Seven Dwarfs": Burroughs, NCR, Control Data Corporation, Honeywell, RCA, UNIVAC and GE. GE had an extensive line of general purpose and special purpose computers. Among them were the GE 200, GE 400, and GE 600 series general purpose computers, the GE 4010, GE 4020, and GE 4060 real time process control computers, and the Datanet 30 message switching computer. A Datanet 600 computer was designed, but never sold. It has been said that GE got into computer manufacturing because in the 1950s they were the largest user of computers outside of the United States federal government. In 1970 GE sold its computer division to Honeywell. In 1986 GE reacquired RCA, primarily for the NBC television network. The remainder was sold to various companies, including Bertelsmann and Thomson SA. In 2002 Francisco Partners and Norwest Venture Partners acquired a division of GE called GE Information Systems (GEIS). The new company, named GXS, is based in Gaithersburg, MD. GXS is a leading provider of B2B e-Commerce solutions. GE maintains a minority ownership position in GXS. In 2004 GE bought Vivendi's television and movie assets, becoming the third largest media conglomerate in the world. The new company was named NBC Universal. Also in 2004 GE completed the spin-off of most of its mortgage and life insurance assets into an independent company, Genworth Financial, based in Richmond, Virginia. Genpact formerly known as GE Capital International Services (GECIS) was established by GE in late 1997 as its captive India based BPO. GE sold 60% stake in Genpact to General Atlantic and Oak Hill Capital Partners in 2005 and hived off Genpact into an independent business. GE is still a major client to Genpact getting its services in customer service, finance, information technology and analytics. In May 2008, GE announced it was exploring options for divesting the bulk of its Consumer and Industrial business. For a complete list of acquisitions and divestitures, see General Electric timeline. Corporate affairs Classic GE neon sign GE is a multinational conglomerate headquartered in Fairfield, Connecticut. Its New York main offices are located at 30 Rockefeller Plaza in Rockefeller Center, known as the GE Building for the prominent GE logo on the roof. Through its RCA subsidiary, it has been associated with the Center since its construction in the 1930s. The company describes itself as composed of a number of primary business units or "businesses." Each unit is itself a vast enterprise, many of which would, even as a standalone company, rank in the Fortune 500. The list of GE businesses varies over time as the result of acquisitions, divestitures and reorganizations. General Electric's tax return is the largest return filed in the United States; the 2005 return was approximately 24,000 pages when printed out, and 237 megabytes when submitted electronically. In 2005 GE launched its "Ecomagination" initiative in an attempt to position itself as a "green" company. GE is currently one of the biggest players in the wind power industry, and it is also developing new environment-friendly products such as hybrid locomotives, desalination and water reuse solutions, and photovoltaic cells. The company has set goals for its subsidiaries to lower their greenhouse gas emissions. On May 21 2007, General Electric announced it would sell its GE Plastics division to petrochemicals manufacturer Saudi Basic Industries Corp. for net proceeds of $11.6 billion. The transaction took place on August 31, 2007, and the company name changed to SABIC Innovative Plastics, with Brian Gladden as CEO. The New York Times 22 May 2007 CEO Jeffrey Immelt is the current chairman of the board and chief executive officer of General Electric. He was selected by GE's Board of Directors in 2000 to replace John Francis Welch Jr. (Jack Welch) following his retirement. Previously, Immelt had headed GE's Medical Systems division (now GE Healthcare) as its President and CEO. He has been with GE since 1982 and is on the board of two non-profit organizations. His tenure as the Chairman and CEO started at a time of crisis — he took over the role on September 7, 2001 Jeffrey R. Immelt's Biography four days before the terrorist attacks on the United States, which killed two employees and cost GE's insurance business $600 million—as well as having a direct effect on the company's Aircraft Engines sector. Since taking over, GE's stock has dropped nearly 80%. Immelt has also been selected as one of President Obama's financial advisors concerning the economic rescue plan. Brand General Electric has the fourth most recognized brand in the world, worth almost $49 billion. "Top 100 Global Brands Scoreboard", BusinessWeek. CEO Jeffrey Immelt had a set of changes in the presentation of the brand commissioned in 2004, after he took the reins as chairman, to unify the diversified businesses of GE. The changes included a new corporate color palette, small modifications to the GE Logo, a new customized font (GE Inspira), and a new slogan, "imagination at work" replacing the longtime slogan "we bring good things to life", composed by David Lucas. The standard requires many headlines to be lowercased and adds visual "white space" to documents and advertising to promote an open and approachable company. The changes were designed by Wolff Olins and are used extensively on GE's marketing, literature and website. The value of the brand is reinforced by ownership of two letter domain ge.com. The domain was registered on August 5, 1986. Network Solutions - Domain Registration Information: ge.com General Electric is one of the few corporations worldwide to own a two letter domain name. List of Large Companies that own a Two Letter Domain The brand is also reflected by the GE New York Stock Exchange ticker symbol. Businesses GE's divisions include GE Capital (including GE Commercial Finance and GE Money and GE Consumer Finance GE Money Global Financial Solutions ), GE Technology Infrastructure (including GE Aviation,the former Smiths Aerospace and GE Healthcare), GE Energy Infrastructure, and NBC Universal, an entertainment company. Through these businesses, GE participates in a wide variety of markets including the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity (eg. Nuclear, Nuclear spin Spinwatch on GE gas and solar), lighting, industrial automation, medical imaging equipment, motors, railway locomotives, aircraft jet engines, and aviation services. It co-founded and is 80% owner (with Vivendi) of NBC Universal, the National Broadcasting Company. Through GE Commercial Finance, GE Consumer Finance, GE Equipment Services, and GE Insurance it offers a range of financial services as well. It has a presence in over 100 countries. General Electric gauges to control a railway locomotive Since over half of GE's revenue is derived from financial services, it is arguably a financial company with a manufacturing arm. It is also one of the largest lenders in countries other than the United States, such as Japan. Even though the first wave of conglomerates (such as ITT, Ling-Temco-Vought, Tenneco, etc) fell by the wayside by the mid-1980s, in the late 1990s, another wave (consisting of Westinghouse, Tyco, and others) tried and failed to emulate GE's success. It was announced in May 4, 2008 that General Electric would auction off its appliances business for an expected sale of $5–8 billion. GE confirms it's exiting appliance business - U.S. business - MSNBC.com The Finnish RFI filter firm DICRO Oy was founded in 1987 and bought out an older rival RFI filter firm named GE Procond Oy on February 13, 2006, which was renamed to Procond Oy and until then part of General Electric, Company history but now may be sold off too. Corporate recognition In 2004, GE was named number one company for employers and employees on the Forbes 500 Global Player list. Over the years GE has received several awards honoring them for their accomplishments, values and reputation: In Fortune Magazine's 2005 "Global Most Admired Companies" list, GE ranked first overall. (February 2005) In Fortune Magazine's 2006 "America's Most Admired Companies" list, GE ranked first overall. (March 2006) "America's Most Admired Companies 2006", Fortune Magazine, March 6 2006 GE was named to the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index as one of the world's leaders in environmental, social and economic programs. GE ranked ninth on Fortune Magazine's "50 Most Desirable MBA Employers" list. (April 2004) Environmental record General Electric has a history of large-scale air and water pollution. Based on year 2000 data, Political Economy Research Institute Toxic 100 Corporate Toxics Information Project Technical Notes retrieved 9 November 2007 researchers at the Political Economy Research Institute listed the corporation as the fourth-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States, with more than 4.4 million pounds per year (2,000 Tonnes) of toxic chemicals released into the air. Political Economy Research Institute General Electric has also been implicated in the creation of toxic waste. According to EPA documents, only the United States Government, Honeywell, and Chevron are responsible for producing more Superfund toxic waste sites. The Center for Public Integrity In 1983, New York State Attorney General Robert Abrams filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York to compel G.E. to pay for the cleanup of what was claimed to be more than 100,000 tons of chemicals dumped (legally, at the time) from their plant in Waterford. The Region; G.E. Plant Accused Of Water Pollution", The New York Times, January 21, 1983 In 1999, the company agreed to pay a $250 million settlement in connection with claims it polluted the Housatonic River and other sites with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other hazardous substances. General Electric agrees to $250 Million Settlement to Clean Up PCBs in Housatonic River, Department of Justice news release, October 7, 1999 From approximately 1947 to 1977, GE discharged as much as 1.3 million pounds of PCBs from its capacitor manufacturing plants at the Hudson Falls and Fort Edward facilities into the Hudson River. Hudson River PCBs Spending millions over many years, GE fought a media and political battle to avoid cleaning up the river: GE attacked the Superfund law in court, and launched an extensive media campaign to refute the benefits of cleaning up the river, claiming that dredging the river would actually stir up PCBs. Historic Hudson River Cleanup to Begin After Years of Delay, But Will General Electric Finish the Job? Under the EPA's unusual agreement with General Electric, the company could escape full responsibility for cleaning up the toxic mess it made in the Hudson River In 2002, GE was ordered to clean up a stretch of the Hudson River it had contaminated. The New York Times 1 May 2007 In 2003, acting on concerns that the plan proposed by GE did not "provide for adequate protection of public health and the environment," the United States Environmental Protection Agency issued a unilateral administrative order for the company to "address cleanup at the GE site" in Rome, Georgia, also contaminated with PCBs. United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental initiatives In May 2005 GE announced the launch of a program called "Ecomagination," intended, in the words of CEO Jeffrey Immelt "to develop tomorrow’s solutions such as solar energy, hybrid locomotives, fuel cells, lower-emission aircraft engines, lighter and stronger durable materials, efficient lighting, and water purification technology,” "Ecomagination: Inside GE's Power Play" prompting the The New York Times to observe that, "while General Electric's increased emphasis on clean technology will probably result in improved products and benefit its bottom line, Mr. Immelt's credibility as a spokesman on national environmental policy is fatally flawed because of his company's intransigence in cleaning up its own toxic legacy." "Talking Green, Acting Dirty." The New York Times 12 June 2005 GE has said that it will invest $1.4bn in cleantech research and development in 2008 as part of its Ecomagination initiative. As of October 2008, the scheme had resulted in 70 green products being brought to market, ranging from halogen lamps to biogas engines. In 2007, GE raised the annual revenue target for its Ecomagination initiative from $20bn in 2010 to $25bn following positive market response to its new product lines. GE cleantech sales to top $17bn this year GE Energy’s renewable energy business has expanded greatly, to keep up with growing U.S. and global demand for clean energy. Since entering the renewable energy industry in 2002, GE has invested more than $850 million in renewable energy technology. In 2009, GE’s renewable energy initiatives, which include solar power, wind power and Jenbacher engines using waste gases, employ more than 4,900 people globally and have created more than 10,000 supporting jobs. GE illustrates broad spectrum of alternative energy projects Criminal convictions GE has faced criminal action regarding its defense related operations. GE was convicted in 1990 of defrauding the U.S. Department of Defense, and again in 1992 on charges of corrupt practices in the sale of jet engines to Israel. Sam Husseini, Felons On The Air: Does GE's Ownership of NBC Violate the Law?, FAIR.ORG, November/December 1994 Stevenson, Richard W. G.E. Guilty Plea in U.S. Aid to Israel, New York Times, July 23 1992. Media depiction GE was the focus of a 1991 short subject Academy Award winning documentary, "Deadly Deception: General Electric, Nuclear Weapons, and Our Environment" Deadly Deception: General Electric, Nuclear Weapons, and Our Environment that juxtaposed "GE's rosy 'We Bring Good Things To Life' commercials with the true stories of workers and neighbors whose lives have been devastated by the company's involvement in building and testing nuclear bombs." Nuclear Weaponmakers Campaign - Corporate Accountability International - Challenging Abuse, Protecting People - Think Outside the Bottle - challenging the bottled water indust... See also Borazon PCBs General Electric Theater GE Aviation Lexan List of assets owned by General Electric MOOSE Rank and yank Ronald Reagan JFWTC Edison Engineering Development Program Jack Welch Jeff Immelt NBC SABIC Carousel of Progress Horizons (Epcot attraction) References Further reading Carlson, W. Bernard. Innovation as a Social Process: Elihu Thomson and the Rise of General Electric, 1870-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). Woodbury, David O. Elihu Thomson, Beloved Scientist (Boston: Museum of Science, 1944) Haney, John L. The Elihu Thomson Collection American Philosophical Society Yearbook 1944. Hammond, John W. Men and Volts: The Story of General Electric, published 1941, 436 pages. Mill, John M. Men and Volts at War: The Story of General Electric in World War II, published 1947. External links Official site. Official site for GE Appliances, the corporation's leading consumer product SEC filings including 10-k Another Hudson River Controversy Site Official site for SABIC Innovative Plastics. Financial Times article on GE's effort to go green Wind energy at GE G.E. to Double Investments in Renewables to $4B USA Today article about GE's success at creating CEOs at large companies GE Business Contacts. | General_Electric |@lemmatized general:35 electric:33 company:33 ge:105 multinational:2 american:2 technology:6 service:8 conglomerate:4 incorporate:1 state:11 new:19 york:11 information:5 u:6 security:1 exchange:2 commission:2 march:3 world:9 large:11 term:1 market:4 capitalization:1 history:5 thomas:2 edison:5 bring:4 together:2 several:2 business:17 interest:1 one:11 corporation:6 form:3 time:12 thomson:6 houston:2 leadership:1 charles:1 coffin:1 gain:1 access:1 number:4 key:1 patent:1 acquisition:3 competitor:1 subsequently:1 merger:1 electricity:2 light:3 bulb:1 research:5 founder:1 original:1 list:10 newly:1 dow:4 jones:2 industrial:5 average:1 still:3 remain:2 year:8 though:2 continuously:1 index:2 ton:2 diesel:1 locomotive:5 make:3 corp:2 plant:4 schenectady:1 n:1 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1,226 | Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress | The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is a four-engine heavy bomber aircraft developed for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC), introduced in the 1930s. Competing against Douglas and Martin for a contract to build 200 bombers, the Boeing entry outperformed both the other competitors and more than met the Air Corps' expectations. Although Boeing lost the contract due to the prototype's crash, the Air Corps was so impressed with Boeing's design that they ordered 13 B-17s. The B-17 Flying Fortress went on to enter full-scale production and was considered the first truly mass-produced large aircraft, eventually evolving through numerous design advancements. The B-17 was primarily employed by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) in the daylight precision strategic bombing campaign of World War II against German industrial, civilian, and military targets. The United States Eighth Air Force based in England and the Fifteenth Air Force based in Italy complemented the RAF Bomber Command's nighttime area bombing in Operation Pointblank, to help secure air superiority over the cities, factories and battlefields of Western Europe in preparation for Operation Overlord. Carey 1998, p. 4. The B-17 also participated, to a lesser extent, in the War in the Pacific, where it conducted raids against Japanese shipping and airfields. From its pre-war inception, the USAAC (later USAAF) touted the aircraft as a strategic weapon; it was a potent, high-flying, long-ranging bomber capable of unleashing great destruction, able to defend itself, and having the ability to return home despite extensive battle damage. It quickly took on mythic proportions. Stories and photos of B-17s surviving battle damage widely circulated, increasing its iconic status. Despite an inferior range and bombload compared to the more numerous B-24 Liberator, a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction in the B-17. With a service ceiling greater than any of its Allied contemporaries, the B-17 established itself as a superb weapons system, dropping more bombs than any other U.S. aircraft in World War II. Of the 1.5 million tonnes of bombs dropped on Germany by U.S. aircraft, 640,000 were dropped from B-17s. Design and development On 8 August 1934, the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC) tendered a proposal for a multi-engined bomber to replace the Martin B-10. Requirements were that it would carry a "useful bombload" at an altitude of 10,000 ft (3 km) for ten hours with a top speed of at least 200 mph (320 km/h). They also desired, but did not require, a range of 2,000 mi (3200 km) and a speed of 250 mph (400 km/h). The Air Corps were looking for a bomber capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama, and Alaska. Tate 1998, p. 164. The competition would be decided by a "fly-off" at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. Boeing competed with the Douglas DB-1 and Martin Model 146 for the Air Corps contract. The prototype B-17, designated Model 299, was designed by a team of engineers led by E. Gifford Emery and Edward Curtis Wells and built at Boeing's own expense. It combined features of the experimental Boeing XB-15 bomber with the Boeing 247 transport airplane. The B-17 was armed with bombs (up to 4,800 lb/2,200 kg on two racks in the bomb bay behind the cockpit) and five 0.30 in (7.62 mm) machine guns, and was powered by Pratt & Whitney R-1690 radial engines each producing 750 hp (600 kW) at 7,000 ft (2,100 m). The first flight of the Model 299 was on 28 July 1935, with Boeing chief test-pilot Leslie Tower at the controls. Salecker 2001, p. 46. Richard Williams, a reporter for the Seattle Times coined the name "Flying Fortress" when the Model 299 was rolled out, bristling with multiple machine gun installations. Yenne 2006, p. 12. Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use. On 20 August, the prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes at an average speed of 235 mph (378 km/h), much faster than the competition. At the fly-off, the four-engine Boeing design displayed superior performance over the twin-engine DB-1 and Model 146, and then-Major General Frank Maxwell Andrews of the GHQ Air Force believed that the long-range capabilities of four-engine large aircraft were more efficient than shorter-ranged twin-engined airplanes. His opinions were shared by the Air Corps procurement officers and, even before the competition was finished, they suggested buying 65 B-17s. Tate 1998, p. 165. Development continued on the Boeing Model 299, and on 30 October 1935, the Army Air Corps test-pilot, Major Ployer Peter Hill and Boeing employee Les Tower, took the Model 299 on a second evaluation flight. The crew forgot to disengage the airplane's "gust lock," a device that held the bomber's movable control surfaces in place while the plane was parked on the ground, and having taken off, the aircraft entered a steep climb, stalled, nosed over and crashed, killing Hill and Tower (other observers survived with injuries). The crashed Model 299 could not finish the evaluation, and while the Air Corps was still enthusiastic about the aircraft's potential, Army officials were daunted by the much greater expense per aircraft. Salecker 2001, p. 48. "The loss was not total, however, since the fuselage aft of the wing was intact, and the Wright Field Armament section was able to use it in subsequent gun mount development work, but Boeing's hopes for a substantial bomber contract were dashed." Bowers 1976, p. 37. Army Chief of Staff Malin Craig cancelled the order for 65 YB-17s, and ordered 133 of the twin-engine Douglas B-18 Bolo instead. Regardless, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance and, on 17 January 1936, the Air Corps ordered, through a legal loophole, 13 YB-17s (after November 1936 designated Y1B-17 to denote its special F-1 funding) for service testing. The YB-17 incorporated a number of significant changes from the Model 299, including more powerful Wright R-1820-39 Cyclone engines replacing the original Pratt & Whitneys. Although the prototype was company owned and never received a military serial ("the B-17 designation itself did not appear officially until January 1936, nearly three months after the prototype crashed"), Bowers 1976, p. 12. the term "XB-17" was retroactively applied to the airframe and has entered the lexicon to describe the first Flying Fortress. Between 1 March and 4 August 1937, 12 of the 13 Y1B-17s were delivered to the 2nd Bombardment Group at Langley Field in Virginia, and used for operational development and flight test. One suggestion adopted was the use of a checklist, to avoid accidents such as the Model 299's. In one of their first missions, three B-17s, directed by lead navigator Lieutenant Curtis LeMay, were sent by General Andrews to "intercept" the Italian ocean liner Rex 610 mi (980 km) off the Atlantic coast and take photographs. The successful mission was widely publicized. Maurer Maurer, "Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919–1939", United States Air Force Historical Research Center, Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C., 1987, ISBN 0-912799-38-2, pages 406-408. The 13th Y1B-17 was delivered to the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio, to be used for flight testing. A 14th Y1B-17 (37-369), originally constructed for ground testing of the airframe's strength, was upgraded and fitted with exhaust-driven turbochargers. Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers and its first flight was delayed until 29 April 1938. Donald 1997, p. 155. Modifications cost Boeing US$100,000 and took until spring 1939 to complete, but resulted in an increased service ceiling and maximum speed. The aircraft was delivered to the Army on 31 January 1939 and was redesignated B-17A to signify the first operational variant. In late 1937, the Air Corps ordered ten more aircraft, designated B-17B and, soon after, another 29, none of which could be funded until mid-1939. Improved with larger flaps, rudder and Plexiglas nose, the B-17Bs were delivered in five small batches between July 1939 and March 1940. They equipped two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast. Prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor, fewer than 200 B-17s were in service with the Army, 155 B-17s had been delivered between January 11, 1937, and November 30, 1941. but production quickly accelerated, and the B-17 became the first truly mass-produced large aircraft. Serling 1992, p. 55. Quote: "At the peak of production, Boeing was rolling out as many as 363 B-17s a month, averaging between 14 and 16 Forts a day, the most incredible production rate for large aircraft in aviation history... Prior to the B-17, the Boeing Y1B-9 (first flight: 1931) had only seven production aircraft, the Martin B-10 (first flight: 1932) had total production of 213, the Farman F.222 (first flight: 1932) had only 24 constructed and the Handley Page Heyford (first flight: 1933) had a total of 125 built. The B-17 easily eclipsed these numbers." The aircraft went on to serve in every World War II combat zone, and by the time production ended in May 1945, 12,731 aircraft had been built by Boeing, Douglas and Vega (a subsidiary of Lockheed). Yenne 2006, p. 6. Operational history The B-17 began operations in World War II with the RAF in 1941, USAAF Eighth Air Force and Fifteenth Air Force units in 1942, and was primarily involved in the daylight precision strategic bombing campaign against German industrial targets. Operation Pointblank guided attacks in preparation for a ground assault. During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide, and dropped 640,036 tons (650,195 tonnes) of bombs on European targets (compared to 452,508 tons (451,691 tonnes) dropped by the Liberator and 463,544 tons (420,520 tonnes) dropped by all other U.S. aircraft). Approximately 4,750, or one third, of B-17s built were lost in combat. The RAF The Royal Air Force (RAF) entered World War II with no heavy bomber of its own and while by 1941, the Short Stirling and Handley Page Halifax had become its primary bombers, in early 1940, the RAF entered into an agreement with the U.S. Army Air Corps to be provided with 20 B-17Cs, which were given the service name Fortress I. Their first operation was against Wilhelmshaven on 8 July 1941. Yenne 2006, p. 23. At the time, the Air Corps considered high-altitude flight to be 20,000 ft (6 km) but, to avoid being intercepted by fighter aircraft, the RAF bombed the naval barracks from 30,000 ft (9 km). They were unable to hit their targets and temperatures were so low that the machine guns froze up. On 24 July, they tried another target, Brest in France, but again missed completely. By September, after the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat or to accidents, Bomber Command had abandoned daylight bombing raids due to the Fortress I's poor performance. The remaining aircraft were transferred to different commands for deployment to various duties including coastal defence. The experience had showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads and more accurate bombing methods were required, which would be incorporated in later versions. Moreover, even with these improvements, it was the USAAF and not the RAF that was willing to remain faithful to using the B-17 as a "day" bomber. Bomber Command transferred its remaining Fortress I aircraft to Coastal Command for use as very long range patrol aircraft. These were later augmented in August 1942 by 19 Fortress Mk II and 45 Fortress Mk IIA (B-17F and B-17E, respectively, the USAAF offered the B-17F before offering the B-17E, thus the apparently reversed designations). A Fortress from No. 206 Squadron RAF sank U-627 on 27 October 1942: the first of 11 U-boat kills credited to RAF Fortress bombers during the war. No. 223 Squadron, as part of 100 Group operated a small number of Fortresses in support of the bombing offensive for jamming German radar. The USAAF The Air Corps (renamed United States Army Air Forces or USAAF in 1941), utilizing the B-17 and other bombers, bombed from high altitudes using the then-secret Norden Bombsight, which was an optical electro-mechanical gyro-stabilized computer. During daylight bombing missions and sorties, the device was able to determine, from variables input by the bombardier, the point in space at which the bomber's ordnance type should be released to hit the target. The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level attitude during the final moments. The USAAF began building up its air forces in Europe using B-17Es soon after entering the war. The first Eighth Air Force units arrived in High Wycombe, England on 12 May 1942, to form the 97th Bomb Group. On 17 August 1942, 18 B-17Es of the 97th, including Yankee Doodle, flown by Major Paul Tibbets and Brigadier General Ira Eaker, were escorted by RAF Spitfires on the first USAAF raid over Europe, against railroad marshalling yards at Rouen-Sotteville in France. The operation was a success, with only minor damage to two aircraft. Combined offensive The two different strategies of the American and British Bomber commands were organized at the Casablanca Conference in January 1943. The resulting Operation Pointblank described a "Combined Bomber Offensive" that would weaken the Wehrmacht and establish air superiority in preparation of a ground offensive. Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe. General Ira C. Eaker and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories and ball-bearing manufacturers. On 17 April 1943, an attack on the Focke-Wulf plant at Bremen by 115 Fortresses met with little success. 16 aircraft were shot down, and 48 others were damaged. The attacks did succeed, however, in diverting about half the Luftwaffes fighter force to anti-bomber operations. Since the airfield bombings were not appreciably reducing German fighter strength, additional B-17 groups were formed, Eaker ordered major missions deeper into Germany against important industrial targets. The 8th Air Force then targeted the ball-bearing factories in Schweinfurt, hoping to cripple the war effort there. The first raid on 17 August 1943 did not result in critical damage to the factories, with the 230 attacking B-17s being intercepted by an estimated 300 Luftwaffe fighters. 36 aircraft were shot down with the loss of 200 men, and coupled with a raid earlier in the day against Regensburg, a total of 60 B-17s were lost that day. Hess 1994, pp. 59–60. A second attempt on 14 October 1943 would later come to be known as "Black Thursday". Walden, Geoff. "Third Reich in Ruins: Schweinfurt." www.thirdreichruins.com, January 2007. Retrieved: 16 January 2007. Of the 291 attacking Fortresses, 59 were shot down over Germany, one ditched in the English Channel, five crashed in England, and 12 more were scrapped due to battle damage or crash-landings, a total loss of 77 B-17s. 122 bombers were damaged to some degree and needed repairs before their next flight. Out of 2,900 men in the crews, about 650 men did not return, although some survived as POWs. Five were killed and 43 wounded in the damaged aircraft that made it home, and 594 were listed as Missing in Action. Only 33 bombers landed without damage. The resulting losses were a result of concentrated attacks by over 300 German fighters. Hess 1994, p. 64. These losses of air crews could not be sustained, and the USAAF, recognizing the vulnerability of heavy bombers against interceptors, suspended daylight bomber raids deep into Germany until the development of an escort fighter that could protect the bombers all the way from the United Kingdom to Germany and back. The Eighth Air Force alone lost 176 bombers in October 1943. Hess 1994, p. 67. The Eighth Air Force was to suffer similar casualties on 11 January 1944 on missions to Oschersleben, Halberstadt and Brunswick. Doolittle had ordered the mission to be cancelled as the weather deteriorated, but the lead units had already entered hostile air space and continued with the mission. Most of the escorts turned back or missed the rendezvous, as a result 60 B-17s were destroyed Hess 1994, pp.69–71. Caldwell and Muller 2007, pp. 151–152. A third raid on Schweinfurt on 24 February 1944 highlighted what came to be known as "Big Week". With P-51 Mustang and P-47 Thunderbolt fighters (equipped with improved drop tanks to extend their range) escorting the American heavies all the way to and from the targets, only 11 of 231 B-17s were lost. The escort fighters reduced the loss rate to below seven percent, with only 247 B-17s lost in 3500 sorties while taking part in the Big Week raids. Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 162. By September 1944, 27 of the 40 bomb groups of the Eighth Air Force and six of the 21 groups of the Fifteenth Air Force utilized B-17s. Losses to flak continued to take a high toll of heavy bombers through 1944, but by 27 April 1945, (two days after the last heavy bombing mission in Europe) the rate of aircraft loss was so low that replacement aircraft were no longer arriving and the number of bombers per bomb group was reduced. The Combined Bomber Offensive was effectively complete. Pacific Theater Only five B-17 groups operated in the Southwest Pacific theater, and all converted to other types in 1943. On 7 December 1941, a group of 12 B-17s of the 38th (four B-17C) and 88th (eight B-17E) Reconnaissance Squadrons, en route to reinforce the Philippines, were flown into Pearl Harbor from Hamilton Field, California, arriving during the Japanese attack. Leonard "Smitty" Smith Humiston, co-pilot on First Lieutenant Robert H. Richards' B-17C, AAF S/N 40-2049, reported that he thought the U.S. Navy was giving the flight a 21 gun salute to celebrate the arrival of the bombers, after which he realized that Pearl Harbor was under attack. The Fortress came under fire from Japanese fighter aircraft, though the crew was unharmed with the exception of one who suffered an abrasion on his hand. Enemy activity forced an abort from Hickam Field to Bellows Field, where the aircraft overran the runway and into a ditch where it was then strafed. Although initially deemed repairable, 40-2049 (11th BG / 38th RS) suffered more than 200 bullet holes and never flew again. Ten of the 12 Fortresses survived the attack. Arakaki and Kuborn 1991, pp. 73, 158-159. By 1941, the Far East Air Force (FEAF) based at Clark Field in the Philippines had 35 B-17s, with the War Department eventually planning to raise that to 165. When the FEAF received word of the attack on Pearl Harbor, General Lewis H. Brereton sent his bombers and fighters on various patrol missions to prevent them from being caught on the ground. Brereton planned B-17 raids on Japanese air fields in Formosa, in accordance with Rainbow 5 war plan directives, but this was overruled by General Douglas MacArthur. A series of disputed discussions and decisions, followed by several confusing and false reports of air attacks, delayed the authorization of the sortie. By the time that the B-17s and escorting Curtiss P-40 fighters were about to get airborne, they were destroyed by Japanese bombers of the 11th Air Fleet. The FEAF lost fully half its aircraft during the first strike, and was all but destroyed over the next few days. Another early World War II Pacific engagement on 10 December 1941 involved Colin Kelly who reportedly crashed his B-17 into the Japanese battleship Haruna, which was later acknowledged as a near bomb miss on the light cruiser Ashigara. Nonetheless, this deed made him a celebrated war hero. Kelly's B-17C AAF S/N 40-2045 (19th BG / 30th BS) crashed about 6 mi (10 km) from Clark Field after he held the burning Fortress steady long enough for the surviving crew to bail out. Kelly was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. Salecker 2001, pp. 64–71. Noted Japanese ace Saburo Sakai is credited with this kill, and in the process, gained respect for the ability of the Fortress to absorb punishment. B-17s were used in early battles of the Pacific with little success, notably the Battle of Coral Sea and Battle of Midway. While there, the Fifth Air Force B-17s were tasked with disrupting the Japanese sea lanes. Air Corps doctrine dictated bombing runs from high altitude, but it was soon discovered that only one percent of their bombs hit targets. However, B-17s were operating at heights too great for most A6M Zero fighters to reach, and the B-17's heavy gun armament was easily more than a match for lightly protected Japanese planes. On March 2, 1943, six B-17s of the 64th Squadron attacked a major Japanese troop convoy from 10,000 ft (3 km) during the early stages of the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, off New Guinea, using skip bombing to sink three merchant ships including the Kyokusei Maru. A B-17 was shot down by a New Britain-based A6M Zero, whose pilot then machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew members as they descended in parachutes and attacked others in the water after they landed. Anniversary talks: Battle of the Bismarck Sea, 2–4 March 1943 [Australian War Memorial] Later, 13 B-17s bombed the convoy from medium altitude, causing the ships to disperse and prolonging the journey. The convoy was subsequently all but destroyed by a combination of low level strafing runs by Royal Australian Air Force Beaufighters, and skip bombing by USAAF B-25 Mitchells at 100 ft (30 m), while B-17s claimed five hits from higher altitudes. Frisbee 1990 A peak of 168 B-17 bombers were in theater in September 1942, with all groups converting to other types by mid-1943. Bomber defense Before the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor. The number of defensive guns increased from four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and one 0.30 in (7.62 mm) nose machine gun in the B-17C, to 13 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the B-17G. But because the bombers could not maneuver when attacked by fighters, and during their final bomb run they needed to be flown straight and level, individual aircraft struggled to fend off a direct attack. A 1943 survey by the Air Corps found that over half the bombers shot down by the Germans had left the protection of the main formation. To address this problem, the United States developed the bomb-group formation, which evolved into the staggered combat box formation where all the B-17s could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns, making a formation of the bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters. Luftwaffe "Jagdflieger" (fighter pilots) likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a fliegendes Stachelschwein, or "flying porcupine". However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive manoeuvres: they had to always fly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to the German flak. Additionally, German fighter aircraft later used the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict maximum damage with minimum risk. As a result, the B-17s' loss rate was up to 25% on some early missions (60 of 291 B-17s were lost in combat on the second Raid on Schweinfurt ), and it was not until the advent of effective long-range fighter escorts (particularly the P-51 Mustang) resulting in the degradation of the Luftwaffe as an effective interceptor force between February and June 1944, that the B-17 became strategically potent. The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely. Wally Hoffman, a B-17 pilot with the Eighth Air Force during World War II, said, "The plane can be cut and slashed almost to pieces by enemy fire and bring its crew home." Martin Caidin reported one instance in which a B-17 suffered a midair collision with a Focke-Wulf Fw 190, losing an engine and suffering serious damage to both the starboard horizontal stabilizer and the vertical stabilizer, and being knocked out of formation by the impact. The airplane was reported as shot down by observers, but it survived and brought its crew home without injury. Caidin 1960, p. 86. Its toughness more than compensated for its shorter range and lighter bomb load when compared to the Consolidated B-24 Liberator or the British Avro Lancaster heavy bombers. Stories abound of B-17s returning to base with tails having been destroyed, with only a single engine functioning or even with large portions of wings having been damaged by flak. This durability, together with the large operational numbers in the Eighth Air Force and the fame achieved by the "Memphis Belle", made the B-17 a significant bomber aircraft of the war. The B-17 design went through eight major changes over the course of its production, culminating in the B-17G, differing from its immediate predecessor by the addition of a chin turret with two .50 in (12.7 mm) caliber M2 Browning machine guns under the nose. This eliminated the B-17's main defensive weakness in head-on attacks. The Luftwaffe After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that at least 20 hits with 20 mm (0.79 in) shells fired from the rear could bring them down. Pilots of average ability hit the bombers with only about two percent of the rounds they fired, so to obtain 20 hits, the average pilot had to aim one thousand 20 mm (0.79 in) rounds at the bomber. Early versions of the Fw 190, one of the best German interceptor fighters, were equipped with two 20 mm (0.79 in) MG FF cannons, which carried only 500 rounds, and later with the better Mauser MG 151/20 cannons, which had a longer effective range than the MG FF weapon. The fighter's firing range, 1,312 ft (400 m), was also shorter than the B-17's 3,281 ft (1,000 m), and so was vulnerable while closing in through that distance. The German fighters found that when attacking from the front, where fewer defensive guns were pointed, it only took four or five hits to bring a bomber down. To address the Fw 190's shortcomings, the number of cannons fitted was doubled to four with a corresponding increase in the amount of ammunition carried, and in 1944, a further upgrade to Rheinmetall-Borsig's 30 mm (1.2 in) MK 108 cannons was made, which could bring a bomber down in just a few hits. The adoption by the Luftwaffe in mid-August 1943, as a "stand-off" style of offense, of the Werfer-Granate 21 (Wfr. Gr. 21) rocket mortar, with one strut-mounted tubular launcher fixed under each wing panel on the Luftwaffes single engined fighters, and two under each wing panel on a few Bf 110 daylight Zerstörer aircraft, had the promise of being a major weapon, but due to the ballistic drop of the fired rocket, even with the usual strut mounting of the launcher fixing it in about a 15° upward orientation, and the low numbers of fighters fitted with the weapons, the Wfr.Gr. 21 never had a major effect on the combat box formations of Fortresses. Also, the attempts of the Luftwaffe to fit heavy-calibre Bordkanone-series 37, 50 and even 75 mm (2.95 in) cannon on twin engined aircraft such as the special Ju 88P fighters, and even on one model of the Me 410 Hornisse, as anti-bomber weapons did not have much effect on the American strategic bomber offensive. The Me 262 had moderate success against the B-17 late in the war. With its usual nose-mounted armament of four MK 108 cannons, and with some examples later equipped with the R4M rocket, fired from underwing racks, it could fire from outside the range of the bombers' .50 in (12.7 mm) defensive guns and bring an aircraft down with one hit. During World War II, after crash-landing or being forced down, approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished by the Luftwaffe with about a dozen put back into the air. Given German markings and codenamed "Dornier Do 200", the captured B-17s were used for clandestine spy and reconnaissance missions by the Luftwaffe, most often used by the Luftwaffe unit known as Kampfgeschwader 200. One of the B-17s of KG200, bearing Luftwaffe markings A3+FB, was interned by Spain when it landed at Valencia airport, 27 June 1944, and remained there for the rest of the war. Some B-17s kept their Allied markings and were used in attempts to infiltrate B-17 formations and report on their position and altitude. The practice was initially successful, but the Army Air Force combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's formation. Still other B-17s were used to determine the airplane's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in tactics. Few surviving aircraft were found by the Allies following the war. Postwar history U.S. Air Force Following World War II, the B-17 was declared obsolete and the Army Air Forces retired most of its fleet. Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States, where the majority were sold for scrap and melted down. Following its establishment as an independent service in 1947, the United States Air Force had B-17 Flying Fortresses (called F-9s: for Fotorecon, at first, later RB-17s) in service with the Strategic Air Command (SAC) from 1946 through 1951. The USAF Air Rescue Service of the Military Air Transport Service (MATS) also operated SB-17s as open ocean search and rescue aircraft during the late 1940s and early to mid-1950s. By the late 1950s, the last B-17s in operational USAF service were QB-17 target drones, DB-17P drone controllers, and a few VB-17 executive transport aircraft. The last operational mission flown by a USAF Fortress was conducted on 6 August 1959, when DB-17P 44-83684 directed QB-17G 44-83717 out of Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico as a target for a Falcon air-to-air missile fired from an F-101 Voodoo. A retirement ceremony was held several days later at Holloman, after which 44-83684 was retired to the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center (MASDC) at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard During the last year of the war and shortly thereafter, the United States Navy acquired 48 ex-USAAF B-17s for patrol and air-sea rescue work. At first, these planes operated under their original USAAF designations, but on July 31, 1945 they were assigned the naval aircraft designation PB-1, a designation which had originally been used in 1925 for an experimental flying boat. Since most of the Fortresses involved were actually built by Douglas or Lockheed and not by Boeing, a more logical designation would have been P4D-1W or P3V-1G respectively. Twenty-four B-17Gs (including one B-17F that had been modified to G standards) were used by the Navy under the designation PB-1W. The W stood for antisubmarine warfare. A large radome for an AN/APS-20 search radar was fitted underneath the fuselage and additional internal fuel tanks were added for longer range. These planes were painted dark blue, a standard Navy paint scheme which had been adopted in late 1944. Most of these planes were Douglas-built aircraft, flown directly from the Long Beach factory to the Naval Aircraft Modification Unit at NAS Johnsville/NAS Warminster, Pennsylvania during the summer of 1945, where the APS-20 search radar was fitted. However, the war ended before any PB-1Ws could be deployed and the defensive armament was subsequently deleted. The first few PB-1Ws went to Patrol Bomber Squadron 101 (VPB-101) in April 1946. The PB-1W eventually evolved into an early warning aircraft by virtue of its APS-20 search radar. By 1947, PB-1Ws had been deployed to units operating with both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. VPB-101 on the East Coast was redesignated Air Test and Evaluation Squadron FOUR (VX-4) and assigned to NAS Quonset Point, Rhode Island. VX-4 later became Airborne Early Warning Squadron TWO (VW-2) in 1952 and transferred to NAS Patuxent River, Maryland. VW-2's primary mission was early warning, with secondary missions of antisubmarine warfare and hurricane reconnaissance. Airborne Early Warning Squadron ONE (VW-1) was established in 1952 with four PB-1Ws at NAS Barbers Point, Hawaii. with elements drawn from Fleet Composite Squadron ELEVEN (VC-11) at NAS Miramar and Patrol Squadron 51 (VP-51) at NAS North Island in San Diego, California. VW-1's mission set was similar to that of VW-2. PB-1Ws continued in USN service until 1955, gradually being phased out in favor of the Lockheed WV-2 (known in the USAF as the EC-121), a military version of the Lockheed 1049 Constellation commercial airliner. PB-1Ws were retired to the Naval Aircraft Storage Center at NAS Litchfield Park, Arizona and were stricken from inventory in mid-1956. Many were sold as surplus and ended up on the civil aircraft register and 13 were sold as scrap. Two ex-USAAF B-17s were obtained by the Navy under the designation XPB-1 for various development programs. The first was transferred to the Navy in June 1945, and the second was transferred in August 1946. The second plane was used by the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in a jet engine test program and was stricken in 1955. In May 1947, six additional B-17Gs of unknown serial numbers were transferred to the Navy and assigned BuNos 83993 to 83998. They were stored at NAS Corpus Christi, Texas until August 31, 1947, when they were stricken after no apparent use. Two additional PB-1s were transferred to the Navy in 1950, these planes coming from the Air Force, which had modified two EB-17Gs to PB-1W configuration for test programs. After the completion of these tests, these planes were transferred to the Navy. Seventeen ex-USAAF Vega-built B-17Gs were used by the U.S. Coast Guard under the designation PB-1G. In July 1945, 18 B-17s were set aside by the USAAF for transfer to the Coast Guard via the Navy. These aircraft were initially assigned Navy Bureau Numbers and the first PB-1Gs were delivered to the Coast Guard beginning in July 1946. Only fifteen PB-1Gs were actually transferred to the Coast Guard. The USCG obtained one more aircraft directly from the USAF in 1947. Coast Guard PB-1Gs were stationed throughout the hemisphere, with five at Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City, North Carolina, two at CGAS San Francisco, two at NAS Argentia, Newfoundland, one at CGAS Kodiak, Alaska, and one in Washington state. They were used primarily for air-sea rescue, but were also used for iceberg patrol duties and for photo mapping. Air-sea rescue PB-1Gs usually carried a droppable lifeboat underneath the fuselage and were painted in yellow and black air-rescue markings. The chin turret was often replaced by a radome. In postwar years, Coast Guard PB-1Gs would often carry the national insignia on their vertical tails rather than on the fuselage, a practice that continues on U.S. Coast Guard fixed-wing aircraft to this day. The Coast Guard PB-1Gs served throughout the 1950s, the last example not being withdrawn from service until October 14, 1959. This airplane was sold as surplus, operated as an air tanker for many years, and is now on display in Arizona. Other uses About a dozen B-17s are still operable of some 50 airframes known to survive. Many of these surviving examples are surplus or training aircraft, which stayed in the U.S. during World War II. However, there are a few exceptions. Several B-17s, along with other World War II bombers, were converted into airliners or corporate aircraft. Other B-17s saw extended and valiant service, either as aerial spray aircraft against fire ant infestations in the southeastern United States or as converted aerial tankers used for fighting forest fires in the western United States. Variants/design stages + Production numbers Variant Produced First flight Model 299 1 28 July 1935 YB-17 13 2 December 1936 YB-17A 1 29 April 1938. B-17B 39 27 June 1939 B-17C 38 21 July 1940 B-17D 42 3 February 1941 B-17E 512 5 September 1941 B-17F 3,405 30 May 1942 B-17F-BO 2,300 B-17F-DL 605 B-17F-VE 500 B-17G 8,680 B-17G-BO 4,035 B-17G-DL 2,395 B-17G-VE 2,250 Grand total 12,731 The B-17 went through several alterations in each of its design stages and variants. Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd Bomb Group of Langley Field, Virginia to develop heavy bombing techniques, and the 13th was used for flight testing at the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio. Experiments on this aircraft led to the use of a turbo-supercharger, which would become standard on the B-17 line. A 14th plane, the Y1B-17A, originally destined for ground testing only, was upgraded with the turbocharger. When this aircraft had finished testing, it was re-designated the B-17A, and in April 1938 was the first aircraft to enter service under the B-17 designation. As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon the basic design. To enhance performance at slower speeds, the B-17B was altered to include larger rudder and flaps. The B-17C changed from gun blisters to flush, oval-shaped windows. Most significantly, with the B-17E version, the fuselage was extended by , a much larger vertical fin and rudder were incorporated into the original design, a gunner's position in the tail and an improved nose were added. The engines were upgraded to more powerful versions several times, and similarly, the gun stations were altered on numerous occasions to enhance their effectiveness. By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to 13, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were complete. The B-17G was the final version of the B-17, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F, and in total 8,680 were built, the last one on 9 April 1945. Many B-17Gs were converted for other missions such as cargo hauling, engine testing and reconnaissance. Initially designated SB-17G, a number of B-17Gs were also converted for search-and-rescue duties, later to be redesignated B-17H. Two versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations. These were the XB-38 and the YB-40. The XB-38 was an engine test-bed for Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled engines, should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable. The YB-40 was a heavily armed modification of the standard B-17 used before the P-51 Mustang, an effective long-range fighter, became available to act as escort. Additional armament included a power turret in the radio room, a chin turret (which went on to become standard with the B-17G) and twin .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in the waist positions. The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds, making the YB-40 well over 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) heavier than a fully loaded B-17F. Unfortunately, the YB-40s with their numerous heavy modifications had trouble keeping up with empty bombers, and so, together with the advent of the P-51 Mustang, the project was abandoned and finally phased out in July 1943. Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls, loaded with 20,000 lb (9,000 kg) of high-explosives, dubbed "BQ-7 Aphrodite missiles". "Attacks on the V-site bunkers were also initiated by the Americans using radio controlled bombers packed with . of Torpex and TNT. Called Aphrodite drones, operation 'CASTOR' was begun on June 23, 1944, using the 388th Bombardment Group at Knettishall. An airfield in a sparsely populated area of Norfolk was chosen at RAF Fersfield. near Winfarthing The drone was usually a B-17 Fortress with a B-34 Ventura being used to control the aircraft and crash it onto its target." Ramsey, Winston G. The V-Weapons. London, United Kingdom: After The Battle, Number 6, 1974, page 20. "The first four drones were sent to Mimoyecques, Siracourt, Watten and Wizernes on August 4, causing little damage. On the 6th, two more B-17s were crashed on the Watten site with little success. The project came to a sudden end with the unexplained mid-air explosion over the Blyth estuary of a Liberator, part of the United States Navy's contribution as project Anvil, en route for Heligoland piloted by Lieutenant" Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., future U.S. president John F. Kennedy's elder brother. Blast damage was caused over a radius of five miles (8 km). British authorities were anxious that no similar accidents should again occur. Ramsey, Winston G. The V-Weapons. London, United Kingdom: After The Battle, Number 6, 1974, page 21. Because few (if any) BQ-7s hit their target, the Aphrodite project was scrapped in early 1945. During and after World War II, a number of weapons were tested and used operationally on B-17s. Some of these weapons included "razons" (radio-guided) glide bombs, and Ford-Republic JB-2 Loons, also nicknamed "Thunderbugs" (American reverse-engineered models of the German V-1 Buzz Bomb). A much-used travelling airborne shot of a V-1/JB-2 launch in World War II documentaries was filmed from a USAF A-26 of the Air Proving Grounds, Eglin Air Force Base, launched from Santa Rosa Island, Florida. In the late 1950s, the last B-17s in United States Air Force service were QB-17 drones and DB-17P drone controllers, plus a few polished VB-17 squadron "hacks" (a 1953 request by the Wright Air Development Center to redesignate the QB-17s to Q-7 was turned down by Air Research & Development Command). The last operational mission flown by a USAF Fortress was conducted on 6 August 1959, when DB-17P 44-83684 directed QB-17G 44-83717 out of Holloman Air Force Base as a target for a Falcon air-to-air missile fired from an F-101 Voodoo fighter. A retirement ceremony was held several days later at Holloman, after which 44-83684 was retired to the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center (MASDC) at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base. Operators The B-17 was a versatile aircraft, serving in dozens of USAAF units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in non-bomber roles for the RAF. Its main use was in Europe, where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft available did not hamper it as much as in the Pacific Theater. Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide. Survivors There are a total of 53 surviving airframes worldwide : 15 active flying 19 on static display 5 currently undergoing restoration to fly 2 currently undergoing restoration for display 5 in storage 7 partial airframes/hulks http://www.johnweeks.com/b17static/index.html http://www.johnweeks.com/b17active/index.html The Fortress as a symbol The B-17 Flying Fortress has become, for many reasons, an icon of American power and a symbol of its Air Force. It achieved a lasting fame in the general public, which has eluded most other bomber aircraft. Johnsen 2006 During the 1930s, the USAAC, as articulated by then-Major General Frank Maxwell Andrews and the Air Corps Tactical School, touted the bomber as a strategic weapon. Tate 1998, pp. 149–150. Quote: "The Howell Commission's report...stated "...an adequate striking force for use against objectives both near and remote is a necessity for a modern army..." General Henry H. Arnold, Chief of the Air Corps, recommended the development of bigger aircraft with better performance and the Tactical School agreed completely. Tate 1998, p. 161. Quote: "To them it seemed that the bomber was well-nigh invincible. They argued that pursuit was obsolete and attack an expensive luxury, since aviation was more effective when used for interdiction behind enemy lines and strategic bombardment to destroy the enemy's means and will to fight." The B-17 was exactly what the Air Corps was looking for; it was a high-flying, long-ranging potent bomber capable of defending itself. When the Model 299 was rolled out on 28 July 1935, bristling with multiple machine gun installations, Richard Williams, a reporter for the Seattle Times coined the name "Flying Fortress" with his comment "Why, it's a flying fortress!". Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use. After the initial B-17s were delivered to the Air Corps 2nd Bombardment Group, they were used on promotional flights emphasizing its great range and navigational precision. In January 1938, group commander Colonel Robert Olds flew a YB-17 from the east to west coast, setting a transcontinental record of 13 hours 27 minutes. He also broke the west-to-east coast record on the return trip, averaging in 11 hours 1 minute. pp. 42-43. Six bombers of the 2nd Bombardment group took off from Langley Field on 15 February 1938 as part of a good will flight to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Covering they returned on 27 February. In a well publicized mission on May 12 of the same year, three B-17s, "intercepted" and took photographs of the Italian ocean liner SS Rex off the Atlantic coast. John T. Correll, "Rendezvous With the Rex", AIR FORCE Magazine December 2008, Vol. 91 No. 12, p. 56. This is a common error. The Rex was 725 miles offshore on her last position report as the B-17s were taxiing for takeoff from Mitchel Field, four hours before interception. The Flying Fortress found a place in the public psyche as well. In 1943, Consolidated Aircraft commissioned a poll to see “to what degree the public is familiar with the names of the Liberator and the Flying Fortress.” Of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated ads had been run in newspapers, only 73% had heard of the B-24 Liberator, while 90% knew of the B-17. Hollywood featured the airplane in its movies, such as Twelve O'Clock High, with Gregory Peck. This film was made with the full cooperation of the United States Air Force and made use of actual combat footage. In 1964, the movie was made into a television show of the same name, and ran for three years. The B-17 also appeared in the 1938 movie Test Pilot with Clark Gable and Spencer Tracy, with Clark Gable in Command Decision in 1948, and in Memphis Belle with Eric Stoltz, Billy Zane and Harry Connick, Jr. in 1990. During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the Eighth Air Force, was run by officers who openly preferred the B-17. Lieutenant General Jimmy Doolittle wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping fielded forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their unique servicing and spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth. His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose studies purportedly showed that Fortresses had utility and survivability much greater than that of the B-24. Loved by its crews for bringing them home despite extensive battle damage, its durability, especially in belly-landings and ditchings, quickly took on mythical proportions. Stories and photos of B-17s surviving battle damage widely circulated, boosting its iconic status. Despite an inferior performance and bombload compared to the more numerous B-24 Liberator, a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction in the B-17. The most famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, toured the U.S. with its crew to reinforce national morale (and to sell War Bonds), and starred in a USAAF documentary, Memphis Belle: A Story of a Flying Fortress. After the war ended, most B-17s were scrapped, but the U.S. Air Force did keep some B-17s for VIP transports and drone directors. The United States Navy and U.S. Coast Guard obtained thirty B-17s beginning in 1945 for over-water patrols as PB-1Gs, an air rescue aircraft similar to USAF B-17Hs, and PB-1Ws, a patrol aircraft with early warning radar installations aboard. The war ended before any PB-1Ws were operational and defensive armament was subsequently deleted. The Coast Guard retired the last PB-1G, BuNo 77254, in October 1959, making it the last U.S. military Flying Fortress in operation. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the surviving Fortresses had to earn their keep, as operation of a four-engine aircraft was costly, and the Warbirds preservation movement had not yet begun. The preservation of the remaining Fortresses gained steam when firebomber B-17s began to come on the market in the 1970s. Notable B-17s Aluminum Overcast Fuddy Duddy Memphis Belle My Gal Sal Nine-O-Nine Old 666 Sally B Sentimental Journey Shoo Shoo Baby Texas Raiders The Swoose Yankee Doodle Piccadilly Lilly Venus Ramey Noted B-17 pilots and crew members Medal of Honor awards Many B-17 crew members received military honors and 17 received the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration awarded by the United States: Brig Gen Frederick Castle Frisbee, John L. "Valor: The Quiet Hero." Air Force Magazine Volume 71, Issue 3, March 1998. 2nd Lt Robert Femoyer Frisbee, John L. "Valor:'I Am the Captain of My Soul'". Air Force Magazine Volume 68, Issue 5, May 1985. 1st Lt Donald Gott Frisbee, John L. "Valor: 'Valor at its Highest'". Air Force Magazine Volume 72, Issue 6, June 1989. 2nd Lt David Kingsley Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Rather Special Award." Air Force Magazine Volume 73, Issue 8, August 1990. 1st Lt William R. Lawley, Jr. Frisbee, John L. "Valor: One Turning and One Burning." Air Force Magazine Volume 82, Issue 6, June 1999. Sgt Archibald Mathies (awarded posthumously) Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Point of Honor." Air Force Magazine Volume 68, Issue 8, August 1985. 1st Lt Jack Mathis (the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor) Frisbee, John L. "Valor: A Tale of Two Texans." Air Force Magazine Volume 69, Issue 3, March 1986. 2nd Lt William E. Metzger, Jr. 1st Lt Edward Michael Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Gauntlet of Fire." Air Force Magazine Volume 68, Issue 8, August 1985. 1st Lt John C. Morgan Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Crisis in the Cockpit." Air Force Magazine Volume 67, Issue 1, January 1984. Capt Harl Pease Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Rabaul on a Wing and a Prayer." Air Force Magazine Volume 73, Issue 7, July 1990. 2nd Lt Joseph Sarnoski (awarded posthumously) S/Sgt Maynard H. Smith Frisbee, John L. "Valor: First of the Few." Air Force Magazine Volume 67, Issue 4, April 1984. 1st Lt Walter E. Truemper (awarded posthumously) S/Sgt Forrest L. Vosler Frisbee, John L. "Valor: The Right Touch." Air Force Magazine Volume 81, Issue 9, September 1998. Brig Gen Kenneth Walker Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Courage and Conviction." Air Force Magazine Volume 73, Issue 10, October 1990. Maj Jay Zeamer, Jr. Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Battle Over Bougainville." Air Force Magazine Volume 68, Issue 12, December 1985. Other military achievements or events Allison C. Brooks (1917–2006): Was awarded numerous military decorations, and was ultimately promoted to the rank of Major General and served in active duty until 1971. Captain Werner G. Goering: American-born nephew of the Nazi Commander of the Luftwaffe in World War II, Hermann Göring. Immanuel J. Klette (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II. Freeman 1993, pp. 497–500. Colin Kelly (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action. Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Colin Kelly (He was a Hero in Legend and in Fact)." Air Force Magazine Volume 77, Issue 6, June 1994. Col Frank Kurtz (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II; Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy; Clark Field Philippines attack survivor; Olympic bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945; father of actress Swoosie Kurtz. Gen Curtis LeMay (1906–1990): Became head of the Strategic Air Command and head of the USAF. Lt Col Nancy Love (1914–1976) and Betty (Huyler) Gillies (1908–1998): The first women to be certified to fly the B-17, in 1943. Col Robert K. Morgan (1918–2004): Pilot of Memphis Belle. Lt Col Robert Rosenthal (1917–2007): Commanded the only surviving B-17, "Rosie's Riveters", of a US 8th Air Force raid by the 100th Bomb Group on Münster in 1943, earned sixteen medals for gallantry (including one each from Britain and France), and led the raid on Berlin on February 3, 1945 that is likely to have ended the life of Roland Freisler, the Third Reich's infamous "hanging judge". Brig Gen Paul Tibbets (1915–2007): Flew with the 97th Bombardment Group (Heavy) with both the 8th Air Force in England and the 12th Air Force in North Africa; later pilot of the B-29 Enola Gay dropping the atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. Robert Webb (1922–2002): One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces, received the Distinguished Flying Cross with seven Oak Leaf Clusters. 1st Lt Eugene Emond (1921–1998): Lead Pilot for Man O War II Horsepower Limited received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with 3 Oak Leaf Clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a ME-262 flew through his formation over Germany: One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces . Civilian achievements or events Martin Caidin (1927–1997): Author of Cyborg, the story that formed the basis of The Six Million Dollar Man and the saga of the last transatlantic formation flight of B-17s ever made, Everything But the Flak. Clark Gable (1901–1960): Academy Award-winning film actor, five missions as waist gunner with several groups from May to September 1943, including the B-17 Eight Ball of the 359th Bomb Squadron (351st Bomb Group). Tom Landry (1924–2000): American football player and coach, flew 30 missions over Europe in 1944–45 as a B-17 pilot with the 493rd Bomb Group, surviving a crash landing in Czechoslovakia. (His older brother Robert died in a B-17 crash) Norman Lear: Radio operator, with the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy; television producer of American sitcoms Sanford and Son, Maude and All in the Family, among others. Gene Roddenberry (1921–1991): Creator of Star Trek; flew B-17s for the 394th Bomb Squadron, 5th Bomb Group (H), in the Pacific theater. Robert Rosenthal (1917–2007): Assistant to the U.S. prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials, where he interrogated Hermann Göring, pilot with the 100th Bomb Group. Brigadier General Robert Lee Scott, Jr. (1908–2006): Best known for his autobiography God is My Co-Pilot, about his exploits in World War II with the Flying Tigers and the United States Army Air Forces in China and Burma. James Stewart (1908–1997): Academy Award-winning film actor, instructed in B-17s before flying 20 combat missions in B-24s with the 8th Air Force, England; retired from Air Force Reserve as a Brigadier General. Bert Stiles (1920–1944): 91st Bomb Group co-pilot from March to October 1944, short-story author, killed in action flying a P-51 on a second tour. Smokey Yunick (1923–2001): Award-winning motorsports car designer and premier NASCAR crew chief flew 50 missions as a B-17 pilot with the 97th Bombardment Group (Heavy) of the 15th Air Force, out of Amendola Airfield, Foggia, Italy. Specifications (B-17G) See also References Notes Bibliography Arakaki, Leatrice R. and John R. Kuborn. 7 December 1941: The Air Force Story. Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii: Pacific Air Forces, Office of History, 1991. ISBN 0-912799-73-0. Birdsall, Steve. The B-17 Flying Fortress. Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965. Bowers, Peter M. Boeing Aircraft Since 1916. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989. ISBN 0-37000-016-1. Bowers, Peter M. Fortress In The Sky, Granada Hills, California: Sentry Books, 1976. ISBN 0-913194-04-2. Bowman, Martin W. Castles in the Air: The Story of the B-17 Flying Fortress Crews of the U.S. 8th Air Force. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2000, p. 216. ISBN 1-57488-320-8. Caidin, Martin. Black Thursday. New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1960. ISBN 0-553-26729-9. Caldwell, Donald and Richard Muller. The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich. London: Greenhill Books Publications, 2007. ISBN 978-1-85367-712-0. Carey, Brian Todd. "Operation Pointblank: Evolution of Allied Air Doctrine During World War II." World War II, November 1998. Retrieved: 15 January 2007. David, Donald. "Boeing Model 299 (B-17 Flying Fortress)." The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada: Prospero Books, 1997. ISBN 1-85605-375-X. Davis, Larry. B-17 in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. ISBN 0-89747-152-0. Freeman, Roger A. B-17 Fortress at War. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977. ISBN 0-684-14872-2. Frisbee, John L. "Valor: Courage and Conviction." Air Force Magazine Volume 73, Issue 10, October 1990. Hess, William N. B-17 Flying Fortress: Combat and Development History of the Flying Fortress. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbook International, 1994. ISBN 0-87938-881-1. Hess, William N. B-17 Flying Fortress Units of the MTO. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2003. ISBN 1-84176-580-5. Hess, William N. Big Bombers of WWII. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Lowe & B. Hould, 1998. ISBN 0-681-07570-8. Hoffman, Wally and Rouyer, Philipppe. "La guerre à 30 000 pieds" . Louviers : Ysec Editions, 2008. ISBN 9782846731096. [Available only in French] Jablonski, Edward. Flying Fortress. New York: Doubleday, 1965. ISBN 0-385-03855-0. Johnsen, Frederick A. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 2001. ISBN 1-58007-052-3. Johnsen, Frederick A. "The Making of an Iconic Bomber." Air Force Magazine, Volume 89, Issue 10, 2006. Retrieved: 15 January 2007. Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale vol.11: Derivatives, part 2. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1983. ISBN 0-8168-5021-6. Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale vol.20: More derivatives, part 3. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986. ISBN 0-8168-5029-1. Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale vol.1: Production Versions, part 1. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1981. ISBN 0-8168-5012-7. O'Leary, Michael. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1-85532-814-3. Salecker, Gene Eric. Fortress Against The Sun – The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing, 2001 ISBN 1-58097-049-4. Serling, Robert J. Legend & Legacy: The Story of Boeing and its People. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. ISBN 0-312-05890-X. Tate, Dr. James P. "The Army and Its Air Corps: Army Policy toward Aviation 1919–1941." Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, 1998. ISBN 1-42891-257-6. Retrieved: 1 August 2008. Thompson, Scott A. Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress, The Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition. Highland County, Ohio: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 2000. ISBN 1-57510-077-0. Trescott, Jacqueline. "Smithsonian Panel Backs Transfer of Famed B-17 Bomber." Washington Post Volume 130, Issue 333, 3 November 2007. Willmott, H.P. B-17 Flying Fortress. London: Bison Books, 1980. ISBN 0-85368-444-8. Yenne, Bill. B-17 at War. St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2006. ISBN 0-7603-2522-7. External links Liberty Foundation Home of the B-17G Liberty Belle Big Yank History American Combat Planes of the 20th Century by Ray Wagner Commemorative Air Force Gulf Coast Wing: Home of B-17G "Texas Raiders" Official site of the 303rd "Hell's Angels" Bomb Group Official site of the 398th "Hell From Heaven" Bomb Group Official site of the 463rd "The Swoose" Bomb Group Information on Sally B World War II 8th Air Force website Warbird Alley: B-17 page. Information about B-17s still flying today Sam Hewitt: 15th Air Force World War II POW Lacey Lady, TheBomber.com The Most Unbelieveable Landing of a B-17 The Air War in Retrospect: First-hand accounts of WWII Veterans Lt. Bob Swan's Photos of Life as a B-17 Flying Fortress Navigator in England during World War II Second-Lieutenant David Kingsley, the Ultimate Sacrifice Arizona Wing of the Commemorative Air Force & Their Touring B-17: Sentimental Journey The EAA's Touring B-17: Aluminum Overcast Fantasy of Flight's B17, B-17 Flying Fortress on display at Fantasy of Flight Battle-Damaged B-17s: Photographic chronicle of the damage the "Queen of the Skies" could sustain and still bring her crews home Warbirdregistry.org Photograph of USAF B-17 and crew that crash landed in neutral Ireland in WWII List Of Surviving B-17s List Of B-17s and B-24s downed in France between 1942 and 1945, 778 aircraft and more than 6500 crew members Crew 21, 96BG 337BS 1943 East Anglia, UK Shadows: the Flying Fortresses that fell from the sky, a 2008 documentary by Sean Caveille about a tragic mid-air collision between two B-17s during World War II Bail Out Over the Balkans: True Story by B17 Pilot Richard Munsen after being 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1,227 | Dale_Earnhardt | Ralph Dale Earnhardt, Sr. (April 29, 1951 – February 18, 2001) was an American race car driver, best known for his career driving stock cars in NASCAR's top division. Earnhardt had four children, Kerry, Kelley Earnhardt Elledge, Dale Jr., and Taylor Earnhardt. His widow, Teresa Earnhardt (whom he married in 1982) was the owner of Earnhardt Ganassi Racing, (EGR) the race team and merchandising corporation Earnhardt founded with Teresa was founded in February 1980. The DEI corporation merged with Chip Ganassi at the end of the 2008 race season, and is now known as Earnhardt Ganassi Racing with Felix Sabates. www.DaleEarnhardtInc.com : Dale Earnhardt, Inc Dale Earnhardt is notable for his success in the Winston Cup Series, now known as the Sprint Cup Series, winning seventy-six races (including one Daytona 500 victory in 1998). Earnhardt's seven championships are tied for most all-time with Richard Petty. His aggressive driving style led to a high profile, and often controversial career; and, earned him the nicknames "Ironhead," "Mr. Restrictor Plate," "The Man in Black" and most famously, "The Intimidator." Earnhardt died in a last-lap crash during the 2001 Daytona 500, the fourth NASCAR driver to die in a nine-month period that began with the death of Adam Petty in May 2000. On October 4, 2001, Blaise Alexander died in a ARCA race car crash at Lowe's Motor Speedway, suffering from the same life-ending injuries as Dale Earnhardt. After 6 deaths in less than two years NASCAR began an intensive focus on safety that has seen the organization begin to require the use of head-and-neck restraints such as the HANS device, oversee the installation of SAFER barriers at all oval tracks, set rigorous new rules for seat-belt and seat inspection, develop a roof-hatch escape system (used briefly, but later eliminated), and develop a next-generation race car built with extra driver safety in mind, dubbed the Car of Tomorrow. Early life and personal life Earnhardt was born in Kannapolis, North Carolina, on April 29, 1951, to Martha Coleman and Ralph Earnhardt, who was then one of the best short-track drivers in North Carolina. Ralph won his one and only NASCAR Sportsman Championship in 1956. Although Ralph did not want his son to follow in his footsteps, Earnhardt would not be persuaded to give up his dream of racing, and even dropped out of school to race. Ralph was a hard teacher for Earnhardt, and after Ralph died of a heart attack at his home in 1973, it took many years before Earnhardt felt as though he had finally "proven" himself to his father. When he was 17, he married his first wife, Latane Brown, in 1968. Brown gave birth to Earnhardt's first son, Kerry, in 1969. They were subsequently divorced in 1970. In 1971, Earnhardt married his second wife, Brenda Gee (the daughter of NASCAR car builder Robert Gee), who gave birth to a daughter, Kelley, in 1972, and a son, Dale Jr., in 1974. Not long after his second son was born Dale and Brenda divorced. Dale then married his last wife, Teresa Houston in 1982, who gave birth to their daughter Taylor in 1988. NASCAR career Early Winston Cup career Dale Earnhardt began his Winston Cup career in 1975, making his first start at the Charlotte Motor Speedway in North Carolina in the longest race on the Cup circuit, the World 600. Earnhardt drove an Ed Negre Dodge Charger(#8) and finished 22nd in the race, one place ahead of his future car owner, Richard Childress. Earnhardt competed in 8 more races until 1979, when he joined Rod Osterlund Racing, in a season that included a rookie class of future stars - Earnhardt, Harry Gant and Terry Labonte. In his rookie season, Earnhardt won one race at Bristol, captured four poles, had 11 Top 5 finishes, 17 Top 10 finishes, and finished 7th in the points standings, in spite of missing four races because of a broken collarbone, winning Rookie of the Year honors. In his sophomore season, Earnhardt, now with 20-year old Doug Richert as his crew chief, began the season winning the Busch Clash. With wins at Atlanta, Bristol, Nashville, Martinsville, and Charlotte, Earnhardt won his first Winston Cup championship. To this day, Earnhardt is the only driver in NASCAR Winston Cup history to win Rookie of the Year honors, and the following season win the NASCAR Winston Cup Championship. 1983 racecar In 1981, after Osterlund sold his team to J. D. Stacy during the season, Earnhardt left for Richard Childress Racing, and finished the season 7th in the points standings, despite not winning any races. The following year, at Childress' suggestion, he joined car owner Bud Moore for the 1982 and 1983 seasons driving the #15 Wrangler Jeans Ford Thunderbird (Earnhardt's only full-time Ford ride in his career). During the 1982 season, Earnhardt struggled. Although he won at Darlington, he failed to finish 15 races, and completed the season 12th in the points standings, for his career worst finish. He also suffered a broken knee cap at Pocono when he flipped after contact with Tim Richmond. In 1983, Earnhardt rebounded and won his first of 12 Twin 125 Daytona 500 qualifying races. Earnhardt won at Nashville and at Talladega, and finished eighth in the points standings. Return to Richard Childress Racing After the 1983 season, Earnhardt returned to Richard Childress Racing, or RCR, swapping teams with Ricky Rudd. Rudd went to Bud Moore's #15, and Dale took over the #3. (Wrangler followed Earnhardt to RCR while also staying at Moore's team, in an odd twist of fate.) During the 1984 and 1985 seasons, Earnhardt visited victory lane six times, at Talladega, Atlanta, Richmond, Bristol (twice), and Martinsville, where he finished fourth and eighth in the season standings, respectively. The 1986 season saw Earnhardt win his second career Winston Cup Championship and the first owner's championship for RCR. He won five races and had ten Top 5 and sixteen Top 10 finishes. Earnhardt successfully defended his championship the following year, visiting victory lane eleven times and winning the championship by 489 points over "Awesome" Bill Elliott. In the process, Earnhardt set a NASCAR modern era record of four consecutive wins and won five of the first seven races. In the 1987 season Earnhardt earned his nickname "The Intimidator" after spinning out Elliott in the final segment of "The Winston," a non-points event now known as the NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race. The 1988 season saw Earnhardt racing with a new sponsor, GM Goodwrench, which replaced Wrangler Jeans. During this season Earnhardt garnered a second nickname, "The Man in Black", owing to the black paint scheme in which the #3 car was painted. He was also called "Darth Vader" more than once because of the black uniform and car, adding to his notoriety as a driver who would wreck you if he couldn't pass you. He won three times in 1988, finishing third in the points standings behind Bill Elliott and Rusty Wallace. The following year, Earnhardt won five times, but a late spin out at North Wilkesboro arguably cost him the 1989 championship, as Rusty Wallace edged out Earnhardt for the championship. 1990s As part of a Winston No Bull 5 fan contest, Dale Earnhardt drives a Bomb Lift Truck and attempts to load an AIM-120 advanced medium-range air-to-air missile (AMRAAM) missile as he competes in a load crew competition at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, September 2000. The 1990 season started with heartbreak at Daytona. Speed Week started auspiciously with victories in the Busch Clash and his heat of the Gatorade Twin 125's. Near the end of the 500, he had a 4 second lead when the final caution flag came out with a handful of laps to go. When the green flag waved, Earnhardt was leading Derrike Cope. On the final lap, Earnhardt ran over a piece of metal in the final turn, cutting a tire. Cope, in an upset, won the race while Earnhardt finished 5th. The #3 Goodwrench Chevy team took the flat tire that cost them the win and hung it on the shop wall. Apparently, this strategy to inspire worked, because Earnhardt won nine races. He also won his 4th Winston Cup title, beating out Mark Martin by just 26 points. Earnhardt also won The Winston, his second, the first to win two. The 1991 season saw Earnhardt win his 5th Winston Cup championship. He scored just 4 wins, but took the title by 195 points over Ricky Rudd. One of the biggest highlights of the season for Earnhardt was scoring the win at North Wilkesboro. Harry Gant, who had tied Earnhardt's mark of 4 consecutive wins and was going for a 5th, lost the brakes late in the race, giving Earnhardt the chance he needed to make the pass for the win. After winning his second set of consecutive titles, Dale Earnhardt was determined to make it 3 in a row, but Ford's new engine and aerodynamic package for the Thunderbird dominated, winning 13 consecutive races from the end of the 1991 season into the first nine races of 1992. Earnhardt's only win in 1992 came at Charlotte, in the prestigious Coca-Cola 600, ending the 13-race win streak for the Ford teams. Earnhardt finished a career-low 12th in the points for the second time in his career, and the only time he had finished that low since joining RCR. Earnhardt still made the trip to the annual Awards Banquet with Rusty Wallace but did not have the best seat in the house. Wallace states he and Earnhardt had to sit on the backs of their chairs to see and Earnhardt said "This sucks, I could have gone hunting". http://sports.espn.go.com/rpm/nascar/cup/columns/story?columnist=mcgee_ryan&id=3736700 At the end of the year, longtime crew chief Kirk Shelmerdine left to become a driver. Andy Petree took over as crew chief. Hiring Petree turned out to be beneficial, as the #3 GM Goodwrench Chevy returned to the front in 1993. Earnhardt once again came close to a win at the Daytona 500, and dominated Speedweeks before finishing 2nd to Dale Jarrett on a last-lap pass. Earnhardt scored 6 wins en route to his 6th Winston Cup title, including wins in the Coca-Cola 600 and The Winston at Charlotte, and the Pepsi 400 at Daytona. Earnhardt beat Rusty Wallace for the championship by 80 points. Dale's 1994 racecar In 1994, Earnhardt achieved a feat that he himself had believed to be impossible - he scored his seventh Winston Cup championship, tying the legendary Richard Petty. Earnhardt was very consistent, scoring 4 wins, and winning the title by over 400 points over Mark Martin. Earnhardt sealed the deal at Rockingham by winning the race over Rick Mast. Although Earnhardt continued to dominate in the seasons ahead, this proved to be the last Winston Cup title of his career. Earnhardt started off the 1995 season by finishing second in the Daytona 500 to Sterling Marlin. He won 5 races in 1995, including his first road course victory at Sears Point. He also won the prestigious Brickyard 400 at Indianapolis Motor Speedway, a win he called the biggest of his career. But in the end, Earnhardt lost the championship to Jeff Gordon by just 34 points. This is considered to be a symbolic passing of the torch, as Gordon won his first Winston Cup Championship after Earnhardt won his last. Earnhardt began 1996 with a repeat of 1993 - he dominated Speedweeks only to finish second in the Daytona 500 to Dale Jarrett for a second time. Earnhardt won early in the year, scoring consecutive victories at Rockingham and Atlanta. In late July in the DieHard 500 at Talladega, he was in the points lead and looking for his eighth title despite the departure of crew chief Andy Petree. Late in the race, Ernie Irvan lost control of his #28 Havoline Ford Thunderbird, igniting a frightening crash that saw Earnhardt's #3 Chevrolet hit the tri-oval wall nearly head-on at almost 200 miles per hour. After hitting the wall, Earnhardt's car flipped and slid across the track, in front of race-traffic. His car was hit in the roof and windshield, and the accident led NASCAR to mandate the "Earnhardt Bar", a metal brace located in the center of the windshield that reinforces the roof in case of a similar crash. Rain-delays had canceled the live telecast of the race and most fans first learned of the accident during the night's sports newscasts. Video of the crash showed what appeared to be a fatal incident, but once medical workers arrived at the car, Earnhardt climbed out and waved to the crowd, refusing to be loaded onto a stretcher despite a broken collarbone, sternum, and shoulder blade. Many thought the incident would end his season early, but Earnhardt refused to give up. The next week at Indianapolis, he started the race but exited the car on the first pit stop, allowing Mike Skinner to take the wheel. When asked, Earnhardt said that vacating the #3 car was the hardest thing he'd ever done. The following weekend at Watkins Glen, he drove the #3 Goodwrench Chevrolet to the fastest time in qualifying, earning the "True Grit" pole. T-shirts emblazoned with Earnhardt's face were quickly printed up, brandishing the caption, "It Hurt So Good." Earnhardt led most of the race and looked to have victory in hand, but fatigue finally took its toll and Earnhardt ended up 6th, behind race winner Geoff Bodine. Earnhardt did not win again in 1996, but still finished 4th in the standings behind Terry Labonte, Jeff Gordon and Dale Jarrett. David Smith departed as crew chief of the #3 team and RCR at the end of the year for personal reasons, and was replaced by Larry McReynolds. In the 1997 season, Earnhardt went winless for only the second time in his career. The only (non-points) win came during Speedweeks at Daytona in the Twin 125-mile qualifying race, his record 8th straight win in the event. Once again in the hunt for the Daytona 500 with 10 laps to go, Earnhardt was taken out of the Daytona 500 by a late crash which sent his car upside down on the backstretch. Earnhardt hit the low point of his year when he blacked out early in the Mountain Dew Southern 500 at Darlington, causing him to hit the wall. Afterward, he was disoriented and it took several laps before he could find his pit stall. When asked, Earnhardt complained of double vision which made it difficult to pit. Mike Dillon was brought in to relieve Earnhardt for the remainder of the race. Earnhardt was evaluated at a hospital and cleared to race the very next week, but the cause of the blackout and double vision was never determined. Despite no wins (all of Chevrolet's wins were by Hendrick Motorsports – Pontiac won one race, Ford won every other race in 1997) the RCR team finished the season 5th in the final standings, with no DNF's, one of six times a Childress team has finished an entire season without a DNF. (1997, 2000 #3, 2007-2008 #29, #07) After 20 years of disappointment in the Daytona 500, Earnhardt finally won the race in 1998. He started Speedweeks by winning his Twin 125-mile qualifier race for the ninth straight year. On race day, Dale showed himself to be a contender early. Halfway through the race, however, it seemed that Jeff Gordon had the upper hand. But by lap 138, Earnhardt had taken the lead, and thanks to a push by teammate Mike Skinner, he was able to maintain it. Earnhardt beat Bobby Labonte to the checkered flag in the race. Afterwards, there was a large show of respect for Earnhardt, in which every crew member of every team lined pit road to shake his hand as he made his way to Victory Lane. Earnhardt then drove his #3 into the infield grass, starting a trend of post-race celebrations. He spun the car twice, throwing grass and leaving tire tracks in the shape of a #3 in the grass. Earnhardt then spoke about the victory, saying "I have had a lot of great fans and people behind me all through the years and I just can't thank them enough. The Daytona 500 is ours. We won it! We won it! We won it!" Unfortunately, the rest of the season did not go as well. He slipped to 12th in the standings halfway through the season, and Richard Childress decided to make a crew chief change, taking Mike Skinner's crew chief Kevin Hamlin and putting him with Earnhardt while giving Skinner Larry McReynolds. Earnhardt was able to climb back to 8th in the final standings. Before the 1999 season, fans began discussing Earnhardt's age and speculating that with his son, Dale Jr getting into racing, Earnhardt might be contemplating retirement. Earnhardt swept both races for the year at Talladega, leading most observers to conclude that Earnhardt's talent had become limited to the restrictor plate tracks, which require a unique skill set and an exceptionally powerful car to win. But halfway through the year, Earnhardt began to show some of the old spark. In the August race at Michigan International Speedway, Earnhardt led laps late in the race and nearly pulled off his first win on a non-restrictor plate track since 1996. One week later, he provided the sport with one of its most controversial moments. At the August Bristol race, Earnhardt found himself in contention to win his first short track race since Martinsville in 1995. When a caution came out with 15 laps to go, leader Terry Labonte got hit from behind by the lapped car of Darrell Waltrip. His spin put Earnhardt in the lead with 5 cars between him and Labonte with 5 laps to go. Labonte had four fresh tires and Earnhardt was driving on old tires, which made Earnhardt's car considerably slower. Labonte caught Earnhardt and passed him coming to the white flag, but Earnhardt drove hard into turn two, bumping Labonte and spinning him around. Dale went on to collect the win while spectators booed and made obscene gestures. "I didn't try to turn him around, I just wanted to rattle his cage", Earnhardt said of the incident. Earnhardt finished 7th in the standings that year, and looked like a contender again. In the 2000 season, Earnhardt had a resurgence, which some attributed to neck surgery he underwent to correct a lingering injury from his 1996 Talladega crash. He scored what many considered the 2 most exciting wins of the year - winning by .006 seconds over Bobby Labonte at Atlanta, then gaining seventeen positions in the final four laps to win at Talladega, claiming his only No Bull million dollar bonus. Earnhardt also enjoyed strong second-place runs at Richmond and Martinsville, tracks where he'd struggled through the late '90s. On the strength of these performances, Earnhardt took the No. 3 GM Goodwrench Chevrolet Monte Carlo to 2nd in the standings. However, poor performances at the road course of Watkins Glen, where he wrecked coming out of the chicane, and mid-pack runs at intermediate tracks like Lowe's and Dover in a season dominated by the Ford Taurus in those tracks of Roush, Yates, and Penske, denied Earnhardt the coveted eighth championship title. Death Always a media favorite, in the weeks before the 2001 Daytona 500, Earnhardt stirred up controversy by skipping the annual fan and media preview event, drawing criticism from fellow driver Jimmy Spencer. Despite the early start, Speedweeks was a disappointment for Earnhardt, who had a long-running tradition of winning at least one race during the two-week season kick-off. Earnhardt finished second to Tony Stewart in the Budweiser Shootout. He was also denied victory in the Gatorade Twin 125 qualifying race in which he participated. Earnhardt had won every Twin 125 event he competed in during the 1990s, and was in 3rd place on the final lap in 2001 when Sterling Marlin pulled off a slingshot pass going down the backstretch. Taking it in stride, Earnhardt appeared relaxed and confident in television interviews on the morning of the 2001 Daytona 500. When the Daytona 500 started, Earnhardt showed early promise, leading the race and running up front for most of the event. A multi-car wreck late in the race eliminated several cars in spectacular fashion. Tony Stewart, who had beaten Earnhardt in the Budweiser Shootout, found his car tumbling wildly down the backstretch. As it tumbled, Earnhardt managed to weave his way through wrecked cars and come out unscathed. The race was red flagged to facilitate cleanup of the track, and when the race resumed, it was Earnhardt and DEI drivers Earnhardt Jr. and Michael Waltrip who were running up front. As the laps wound down, Waltrip was leading Earnhardt Jr. and Earnhardt. On the front stretch coming to 3 laps to go, Sterling Marlin made contact with Earnhardt's left rear fender. Earnhardt's car wiggled but Dale kept control and he remained in third position. Marlin was known for having a fast car throughout the race, and Earnhardt repeatedly blocked his attempts at passing during the last few laps. With less than two laps remaining, Darrell Waltrip commented that "Sterling has beat the front end off of that old Dodge (Marlin's car) trying to get around Dale (Earnhardt)". Heading into Turn 3 on the last lap, Earnhardt was racing three wide with Marlin to his left and Schrader to his right. In the corner, Earnhardt's left rear fender made slight contact with Marlin's front bumper. Dale Earnhardt's crash in Turn 4 during the 2001 Daytona 500 Earnhardt’s car slid off the track's steep banking, onto the flat apron, and then turned sharply up the track toward the outside retaining wall. As the #3 car came up the track it collided with the #36 Pontiac driven by Ken Schrader. Schrader's car hit Earnhardt's car just behind the passenger door, causing both cars to run nose-first into the wall. Earnhardt's #3 hit at a critical angle at nearly 150 miles per hour. The right-rear wheel assembly broke off the car on impact. The hood pins severed and the hood flapped open, slamming against the windshield as the car slid slowly down the track. To most observers, the crash looked minor, and certainly not as dramatic as his famous 1996 wreck at Talladega, when Earnhardt's car was pelted several times in the roof and windshield as it slid across the track. While Michael Waltrip raced toward the checkered flag to claim his first victory, with Earnhardt Jr. close behind, the cars of Earnhardt and Schrader slid off the track's asphalt banking toward the infield grass just inside of turn four. After climbing from his car, Schrader peered into Earnhardt's car, only to jump back and signal for EMTs. As medical crews converged upon the crash scene, NASCAR on FOX reporter Jeanne Zelasko asked Schrader about Earnhardt's condition. "I'm not a doctor, but I got the heck out of the way as soon as they got there," Schrader said solemnly. Earnhardt was taken to Halifax Medical Center by ambulance after being removed from his car. Hours later, at a press conference, NASCAR President Mike Helton made the formal announcement to the world saying, "Undoubtedly this is one of the toughest announcements I've personally had to make. After the accident in Turn 4 at the end of the Daytona 500, we've lost Dale Earnhardt." "Earnhardt dies following Daytona 500 accident"; Dave Rodman, Turner Sports Interactive, February 21, 2001; NASCAR.com; Retrieved September 6 2007 Aftermath Earnhardt's death was the catalyst for change that continues even now. Following his death, there was a police investigation, as well as a NASCAR-sanctioned investigation. Nearly every detail of the event was made public, from the finding of a torn seatbelt inside Earnhardt's car to graphic descriptions of the injuries the driver suffered at the moment of impact. There were rumors that he did not have his seat belt on properly, as he liked to wear it loose so he could move around and not feel too constrained. The allegations of seatbelt failure led Bill Simpson to resign from the company bearing his name, which manufactured the seatbelts used in Earnhardt's car and nearly every other NASCAR competitor's machine. Daytona: From the Birth of Speed to the Death of the Man in Black. Hinton, Ed. Warner Books, 2001. ISBN 0-446-52677-0. Several press conferences were held in the days following Earnhardt's death. Some fans wrote threatening letters to Sterling Marlin, blaming him for causing the wreck. Quickly thereafter, Michael Waltrip and Earnhardt's son, Dale Earnhardt, Jr., publicly and adamantly absolved Marlin of any responsibility. Richard Childress made a public pledge that the number would never again adorn the side of a black car sponsored by GM Goodwrench. Childress who currently holds the rights, from NASCAR to the #3 has placed a moratorium on using it. Earnhardt's team was re-christened as the #29 team, with the same sponsor but with a new look (a reversed color scheme with white with black numerals and a black stripe on the bottom) for the following races at Rockingham and Las Vegas. For Atlanta, a new GM Goodwrench scheme was introduced, with angled red stripes and a thin blue pinstripe, resembling the Childress AC Delco Chevrolets driven in the Busch Series. Childress' second-year Busch Series driver Kevin Harvick was named as Earnhardt's replacement driver, beginning with the race following Earnhardt's death held at the North Carolina Speedway. Special hats bearing the #3 were distributed to everyone at the track to honor Earnhardt, and the Childress team wore blank uniforms out of respect, something which disappeared quickly and was replaced by the wearing of the GM Goodwrench Service Plus uniforms. Fans took it upon themselves to begin honoring Earnhardt by holding three fingers aloft on the third lap of every NASCAR Cup race, and the television coverage of FOX and NBC went silent for each third lap from Rockingham through to the next Daytona 500 in honor of Earnhardt (and, after 9/11, in remembrance of those who perished that day). For the first three weeks after Earnhardt's death, on-track incidents brought out the caution flag on lap three. Three weeks after Earnhardt's death, Harvick scored his first career Cup win at Atlanta driving a car that had been prepared for Earnhardt. In the final lap of the 2001 Cracker Barrel Old Country Store 500, Harvick beat Jeff Gordon by .006 seconds, the same margin that Earnhardt won over Bobby Labonte at the same race a year ago, and the images of Earnhardt's longtime gas man, Danny "Chocolate" Myers, crying after the victory, Harvick's tire-smoking burnout on the frontstretch with three fingers held aloft outside the driver's window, and the FOX television call by Mike Joy, Larry McReynolds, and Darrell Waltrip, concluding with "Gordon got loose, it's Harvick! Harvick by inches!" are memorable to many NASCAR fans. The win was also considered cathartic for a sport whose epicenter had been ripped away. Other notable events include: Steve Park, driver of the #1 DEI Pennzoil Chevy Monte Carlo won the very next NASCAR Winston Cup race: The DuraLube 400 at North Carolina Speedway in Rockingham, NC held on February 26, 2001. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won in the next Cup race at Daytona: the Pepsi 400 on July 7, 2001. This led to an emotional celebration on the infield with driver Michael Waltrip, whose victory at the Daytona 500 was vastly overshadowed. Earnhardt was credited with finishing 57th in the final point standings in 2001, despite running one race. He also won the 2001 Most Popular Driver award at the end of the year in the awards' ceremony banquet. Earnhardt Jr. later went on to win the 2004 Daytona 500, three years after his father's death and six years to the day after his father won the 1998 Daytona 500. Kevin Harvick won the 2007 Daytona 500 on February 18, 2007, the sixth anniversary of Earnhardt's death. It was Harvick's first Daytona 500 win and Richard Childress's second, having previously won in 1998 with Earnhardt. As of 2009, Earnhardt is interred in a concrete memorial on his farm in Mooresville, NC. #3 Car Earnhardt drove the #3 car for most of his career, spanning the early 1980s until his death in 2001. Although he had other sponsors during his career, his #3 is associated in fan's minds with his last sponsor, GM Goodwrench, and his last color scheme — a predominantly black car with bold red and silver trim. The black and red #3 continues to be one of the most famous logos in North American motor racing. In 2002, Dale Earnhardt, Jr., drove a Chevrolet Monte Carlo in the Busch Grand National series race at Daytona. The car featured Oreo Cookies as a primary sponsor, and carried the trademarked #3 on the doors and roof. He went on to win the race. As of 2009, he hasn't driven the #3 again (in fact, no other team in any of the major NASCAR series has used it since Earnhardt's death), however in interviews he has stated that he would "probably finish his career driving the #3 car". A common misconception is that Richard Childress Racing "owns the rights" to the #3 (fueled by the fact that Kevin Harvick's car has a little #3 as an homage to Earnhardt), but in fact no team owns the rights to this or any other number: NASCAR decides who uses which number. However, according to established NASCAR procedures, RCR would have priority over other teams if and when the time came to reuse the number. RCR and the Earnhardt estate do own the rights to various black and red #3 logos used during Earnhardt's lifetime; however these rights would not prevent a future racing team from using a different #3 design. (Also, a new #3 team would, in any case, need to create logos which fit with their sponsor's logos.) It is generally believed that current NASCAR owners have agreed never to use the #3 in Sprint Cup competition again, although this is not official NASCAR policy. Only the former International Race of Champions has actually retired the #3, which they did in a rule change effective in 2004. Anyone wishing to use the #3 again has to use #03 instead. In 2004, ESPN released a made-for-TV movie entitled 3: The Dale Earnhardt Story which used a new (but similarly colored) #3 logo. Even though the movie was a sympathetic portrayal of Earnhardt's life, the producers did get sued for using the #3 logo. In December 2006, the ESPN lawsuit was settled, but details were not released to the public. In 2008, Andy Santerre Motorsports used the #3, in its trademark stylised RCR design, in the Camping World Series East with Austin Dillon driving. Dillon is the grandson of Childress. NASCAR.COM - Childress' grandson driving No. 3 car back to NASCAR - March 20, 2008 Legacy Earnhardt was a very polarizing figure in NASCAR. He was both loved and hated in the sport, yet despite his numerous detractors, Earnhardt remained one of the sport's most popular drivers. His death drew a considerable amount of reaction from the nation, NASCAR, and his fans. Earnhardt kept his personal life relatively private. He enjoyed the company of his family, being outdoors, hunting and fishing, and actively working on his farm in Mooresville. In contrast with his image as a hardnosed competitor on the track, off the track he was known to his friends as someone who was charitable and generous, but usually kept that side of himself hidden from the rest of the world. Earnhardt has a street in his hometown of Kannapolis named after him. Dale Earnhardt Boulevard (originally Earnhardt Road) is marked as Exit 60 off Interstate 85, northeast of Charlotte. Dale Earnhardt Drive is also the start of The Dale Journey Trail, Welcome to "The Dale Trail" a self-guided driving tour of landmarks in the lives of Dale and his family. A road between Kannapolis and Mooresville, near the headquarters of DEI, formerly NC 136, was switched with State Highway 3 which was in Currituck County by the North Carolina Department of Transportation. In addition, Exit 73 off Interstate 35W, one of the entrances to Texas Motor Speedway, is named "Dale Earnhardt Way". Also the Single A baseball team in Earnhardt's home town is known as the Kannapolis Intimidators in his honor. Recording artist Jason Swain's song "Victory Lane" was among many songs released in tribute to Dale Earnhardt posthumously. Atlanta Braves assistant coach Ned Yost was a friend of Earnhardt, and Richard Childress. When Yost was named Milwaukee Brewers manager, he changed jersey numbers, from #5 to #3 in Earnhardt's honor. (#3 is retired by the Braves in honor of outfielder Dale Murphy, so Yost could not make the change while in Atlanta.) Between the 2004 and 2005 JGTC (subsequently renamed Super GT from 2005) season, Hasemi Sport competed in the series with a sole black G'Zox sponsored Nissan 350Z with the same number and letterset as Earnhardt on the roof. A 2005 novel, St. Dale by Sharyn McCrumb explores the world of NASCAR as it follows several racing fans on a tribute tour of tracks in memory of Dale Earnhardt. During the April 29, 2006 - May 1, 2006 NASCAR weekend races at Talladega Superspeedway, the Dale Earnhardt Inc cars competed in identical special black paint schemes on Dale Earnhardt Day, held annually on his birthday, April 29th. Martin Truex Jr won the Aaron's 312 in the black car, painted to reflect Earnhardt's Intimidating Black #3 Winston Cup Car. In the Nextel Cup race on May 1st, #8 Dale Earnhardt Jr., #1 Martin Truex Jr., and #15 Paul Menard competed in cars with the same type of paint scheme. On June 18 2006 at Michigan for the 3M Performance 400 Dale Earnhardt Jr ran a special vintage Budweiser car to honor his father and his grandfather Ralph Earnhardt. He finished 3rd after rain caused the race to be cut short. The car was painted to resemble Ralph's 1956 dirt cars, and carried 1956-era Budweiser logos to complete the throwback look. In the summer of 2007, Dale Earnhardt Inc. (DEI) with the Dale Earnhardt Foundation, announced it will fund an annual undergraduate scholarship at Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina for students interested in motorsports and automotive engineering. Scholarship winners are also eligible to work at DEI in internships. "DEI partners with Clemson motorsports. Clemson World. Fall 2007. p. 5. The first winner was William Bostic, a senior at Clemson majoring in mechanical engineering. "Earnhardt Motorsports Scholar". Clemson World. Fall 2007. p. 31. "Earnhardt Tower", a seating section at Daytona International Speedway, the track where Earnhardt was killed, was named in his honor. In 2008, DEI and RCR teamed up to make a special COT sporting Earnhardt's 1998 Daytona 500 paint scheme to honor the tenth anniversary of his Daytona 500 victory. The throwback car featured the authentic 1998-era design on a current-era car, a concept similar to modern throwback jerseys in other sports. The car was later sold in 1:64 and 1:24 scale models. Awards Earnhardt was named Number 1 among ESPN's NASCAR's 20 Greatest Drivers in 2007 in front of Richard Petty. Earnhardt was named second among NASCAR's 50 Greatest Drivers in 1998 (ranked behind David Pearson). Earnhardt was posthumously named NASCAR's Most Popular Driver in 2001, the only time he received the award. He was posthumously inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2002. He was inducted in the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2006. Films about Earnhardt In 2004, Dale Earnhardt's life story was made into a television movie by ESPN titled, 3: The Dale Earnhardt Story, starring Barry Pepper as Earnhardt. In 2007, a documentary-style movie, entitled Dale, was released in theatres and, according to the movie website, includes original, never-before-seen footage of Earnhardt's racing career and personal life, as well as family photos and historical interviews with him. The narrator for the movie was Paul Newman. Dale Movie Dale The Movie was released in early 2007 showing only in major NASCAR markets. The film is a collaboration between NASCAR Media and CMT, and was released on DVD in December 2007 Connections with Music Earnhardt has had several connections with various genres of music, especially Country, both before and after his death. In 1980, Record Executive Mike Curb sponsored Dale's winning Winston Cup car. The Curb Motosports Museum in Kannapolis, NC, has the #2 car Dale Earnhardt drove in his first Winston Cup Championship alongside Curb's music memorabilia. In 1997, Earnhardt appeared as a special guest with his close friends, the country duo Brooks and Dunn, in the video for Brooks and Dunn's hit song, Honky Tonk Truth. The video was a play on Earnhardt's resemblance to Kix Brooks, with the two switching roles throughout the video. In 2004, Keith Bryant released the album "Ridin' with the Legend," with the title track being a tribute to Dale Earnhardt based on David Allan Coe's "The Ride (The Ghost of Hank Williams)" Charlie Daniels wrote and performed a song called "The Intimidator" about Dale Earnhardt. John Boy and Billy presented a song set to the music of “Uneasy Rider” by the Charlie Daniels Band called "The Bristol Song", which recounts the interactions between Rusty Wallace and Dale Earnhardt at the August 1995 race at Bristol Motor Speedway. Country singer Travis Tritt plays a guitar with Earnhardt's image airbrushed onto the front during concerts. Troy Gentry, of the country duo Montgomery Gentry, also had a guitar with the #3 and a picture of Earnhardt on its face, which was played during their Crossroads television special with Lynyrd Skynyrd. Similarly, Gentry's bandmate Eddie Montgomery can be seen with Earnhardt's #3 embroidered onto both sleeves of his trademark black trenchcoat in the video for the song "Speed." The Bled's first album, Pass the Flask, includes a song called "You Know Who's Seatbelt", which is loosely based on Earnhardt's story. The song was originally titled "Dale Earnhardt's Seatbelt", but was subsequently changed for legal reasons. It is still labeled as such in the liner notes. On a VH1 special C.C. DeVille of Poison played a guitar with a Dale Earnhardt number 3 sticker on it during the song "Fallen Angel". In the Brad Paisley video "When I Get To Where I'm Goin" Teresa Earnhardt appears in front of a picture of the legend. Billy Ray Cyrus's song "The Man" is a tribute to Earnhardt. The Bowling For Soup song "99 Biker Friends" has the lyrics "your tiny pickup truck in the driveway, with the sticker on the window, 'rest in peace #3'" near the start of the track. Cledus T. Judd's comedy spoof song, 'I Love NASCAR,' styled after Toby Keith's 'I Love This Bar,' features a verse by Toby Kieth singing, "I love NASCAR, it's my kind of race. Just to see Big E back on the track, Would put a smile on every face. No-one drove a car quite like Earnhardt..." There was a special single of Tim McGraw's "Please Remember Me" with sound bytes from the day of the race and later interviews called the "Dale Earnhardt Tribute" Similarly, there was a special single of Garth Brook's "The Dance," with sound bytes from the day of the race and later interviews, also called the "Dale Earnhardt Tribute" John Hiatt devotes a verse to Earnhardt in 'The Tiki Bar is Open', singing "The king is gone, but he'll not be forgotten/nor his like will we ever see" Christian Metalcore band The Devil Wears Prada's song "Number Three, Never Forget" is a reference to Earnhardt although the lyrics have nothing to do whatsoever with Dale. Rapper Canibus references Earnhardt in a track called "2fast2real" in which he says "Blink quickly, still missed me/ Leave burn marks like Earnhardt then sip real whisky" Country singer Chris Cagle mentions Earnhardt in his hit song "Chicks Dig It" (2nd Verse) Country singer Trace Adkins speaks of Earnhardt in his song "Rough and Ready" on the "Comin' on Strong" album. Toby Keith's song The Last Ride Southern metal band Weedeater also paid a tribute to Dale Earnhardt with the song "#3" from the album Sixteen tons which features the band playing over television broadcasts of Earnhardt's races. Canadian singer/songwriter Alanis Morisette performs a song entitled King of Intimidation. It doesn't refer to Earnhardt in the lyrics, but the title is from a term referincing him. Diamond Rio's song "One More Day" was remade with tidbits of the announcement of his death Jimmy Buffett dedicated the song "Take Another Road" to Earnhardt during a concert at the Charlotte Coliseum, two days after his death. Dave Grohl owns a Gibson Les Paul-style guitar made from NASCAR car parts which Earnhardt gave him. Footnotes See also Dale Earnhardt, Inc. Teresa Earnhardt, wife Dale Earnhardt, Jr., son Jeffrey Earnhardt, grandson Kerry Earnhardt, son Richard Childress Racing External links Dale Earnhardt Inc. The Dale Trail, official tour of Dale Earnhardt's Hometown of Kannapolis, NC Career statistics at racing-reference.info Orlando Sentinel article on the inquiries into the cause of death Sports Illustrated article on the controversy over Earnhardt's seat belt Dale Earnhardt Movie Dale Earnhardt at The Crittenden Automotive Library includes full Win List, Statistics | Dale_Earnhardt |@lemmatized ralph:8 dale:66 earnhardt:248 sr:1 april:4 february:5 american:2 race:85 car:65 driver:20 best:3 know:8 career:19 drive:17 stock:1 nascar:40 top:5 division:1 four:7 child:1 kerry:3 kelley:2 elledge:1 jr:15 taylor:2 widow:1 teresa:5 marry:4 owner:5 ganassi:3 racing:6 egr:1 team:20 merchandise:1 corporation:2 found:2 dei:8 merge:1 chip:1 end:13 season:35 felix:1 sabates:1 www:1 daleearnhardtinc:1 com:4 inc:5 notable:2 success:1 winston:21 cup:25 series:8 sprint:3 win:81 seventy:1 six:4 include:8 one:18 daytona:31 victory:15 seven:2 championship:17 tie:3 time:15 richard:13 petty:4 aggressive:1 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1,228 | Expected_value | In probability theory and statistics, the expected value (or expectation value, or mathematical expectation, or mean, or first moment) of a random variable is the integral of the random variable with respect to its probability measure. For discrete random variables this is equivalent to the probability-weighted sum of the possible values, and for continuous random variables with a density function it is the probability density -weighted integral of the possible values. The term "expected value" can be misleading. It must not be confused with the "most probable value." The expected value is in general not a typical value that the random variable can take on. It is often helpful to interpret the expected value of a random variable as the long-run average value of the variable over many independent repetitions of an experiment. The expected value may be intuitively understood by the law of large numbers: The expected value, when it exists, is almost surely the limit of the sample mean as sample size grows to infinity. The value may not be expected in the general sense – the "expected value" itself may be unlikely or even impossible (such as having 2.5 children), just like the sample mean. The expected value does not exist for all distributions, such as the Cauchy distribution. It is possible to construct an expected value equal to the probability of an event by taking the expectation of an indicator function that is one if the event has occurred and zero otherwise. This relationship can be used to translate properties of expected values into properties of probabilities, e.g. using the law of large numbers to justify estimating probabilities by frequencies. Examples The expected value from the roll of an ordinary six-sided die is which is not among the possible outcomes. A common application of expected value is gambling. For example, an American roulette wheel has 38 places where the ball may land, all equally likely. A winning bet on a single number pays 35-to-1, meaning that the original stake is not lost, and 35 times that amount is won, so you receive 36 times what you've bet. Considering all 38 possible outcomes, the expected value of the profit resulting from a dollar bet on a single number is the sum of what you may lose times the odds of losing and what you will win times the odds of winning, that is, The change in your financial holdings is −$1 when you lose, and $35 when you win. Thus one may expect, on average, to lose about five cents for every dollar bet, and the expected value of a one-dollar bet is $0.9474. In gambling, an event of which the expected value equals the stake (of which the bettor's expected profit is zero) is called a "fair game." Mathematical definition In general, if is a random variable defined on a probability space , then the expected value of , denoted , , or , is defined as where the Lebesgue integral is employed. Note that not all random variables have an expected value, since the integral may not exist (e.g., Cauchy distribution). Two variables with the same probability distribution will have the same expected value, if it is defined. If is a discrete random variable with probability mass function , then the expected value becomes as in the gambling example mentioned above. If the probability distribution of admits a probability density function , then the expected value can be computed as It follows directly from the discrete case definition that if is a constant random variable, i.e. for some fixed real number , then the expected value of is also . The expected value of an arbitrary function of X, g(X), with respect to the probability density function f(x) is given by the inner product of f and g: Using representations as Riemann–Stieltjes integral and integration by parts the formula can be restated as if . As a special case let denote a positive real number, then In particular, for , this reduces to: if . Conventional terminology When one speaks of the "expected price", "expected height", etc. one means the expected value of a random variable that is a price, a height, etc. When one speaks of the "expected number of attempts needed to get one successful attempt," one might conservatively approximate it as the reciprocal of the probability of success for such an attempt. Cf. expected value of the geometric distribution. Properties Constants The expected value of a constant is equal to the constant itself; i.e., if 'c' is a constant, then . Monotonicity If X and Y are random variables so that almost surely, then . Linearity The expected value operator (or expectation operator) is linear in the sense that Note that the second result is valid even if X is not statistically independent of Y. Combining the results from previous three equations, we can see that for any two random variables and (which need to be defined on the same probability space) and any real numbers and . Iterated expectation Iterated expectation for discrete random variables For any two discrete random variables one may define the conditional expectation: which means that is a function on . Then the expectation of satisfies Hence, the following equation holds: The right hand side of this equation is referred to as the iterated expectation and is also sometimes called the tower rule. This proposition is treated in law of total expectation. Iterated expectation for continuous random variables In the continuous case, the results are completely analogous. The definition of conditional expectation would use inequalities, density functions, and integrals to replace equalities, mass functions, and summations, respectively. However, the main result still holds: Inequality If a random variable X is always less than or equal to another random variable Y, the expectation of X is less than or equal to that of Y: If , then . In particular, since and , the absolute value of expectation of a random variable is less than or equal to the expectation of its absolute value: Non-multiplicativity In general, the expected value operator is not multiplicative, i.e. is not necessarily equal to . If multiplicativity occurs, the and variables are said to be uncorrelated (independent variables are a notable case of uncorrelated variables). The lack of multiplicativity gives rise to study of covariance and correlation. If one considers the joint PDF of X and Y, say j(X,Y), then the expectation of XY is Now if X and Y are independent, then by definition j(X,Y)=f(X)g(Y) where f and g are the marginal PDFs for X and Y. Then Observe that independence of X and Y is required only to write j(X,Y)=f(X)g(Y), and this is required to establish the third equality above. Functional non-invariance In general, the expectation operator and functions of random variables do not commute; that is A notable inequality concerning this topic is Jensen's inequality, involving expected values of convex (or concave) functions. The law of the unconscious statistician Uses and applications of the expected value The expected values of the powers of are called the moments of ; the moments about the mean of are expected values of powers of . The moments of some random variables can be used to specify their distributions, via their moment generating functions. To empirically estimate the expected value of a random variable, one repeatedly measures observations of the variable and computes the arithmetic mean of the results. If the expected value exists, this procedure estimates the true expected value in an unbiased manner and has the property of minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals (the sum of the squared differences between the observations and the estimate). The law of large numbers demonstrates (under fairly mild conditions) that, as the size of the sample gets larger, the variance of this estimate gets smaller. In classical mechanics, the center of mass is an analogous concept to expectation. For example, suppose is a discrete random variable with values and corresponding probabilities . Now consider a weightless rod on which are placed weights, at locations along the rod and having masses (whose sum is one). The point at which the rod balances is . Expected values can also be used to compute the variance, by means of the computational formula for the variance A very important application of the expectation value is in the field of quantum mechanics. The expectation value of a quantum mechanical operator operating on a quantum state vector is written as . The uncertainty in can be calculated using the formula . Expectation of matrices If is an matrix, then the expected value of the matrix is defined as the matrix of expected values: This is utilized in covariance matrices. Computation It is often useful to update a computed expected value as new data come in. This can be done as follows, where is the -th value, and we use the previous estimate to compute : Formulas for special cases Discrete distribution taking only non-negative integer values When a random variable takes only values in we can use the following formula for computing its expectation: Proof: interchanging the order of summation, we have as claimed. This result can be a useful computational shortcut. For example, suppose we toss a coin where the probability of heads is . How many tosses can we expect until the first heads? Let be this number. Note that we are counting only the tails and not the heads which ends the experiment; in particular, we can have . The expectation of may be computed by . This is because the number of tosses is at least exactly when the first tosses yielded tails. This matches the expectation of a random variable with an Exponential distribution. We used the formula for Geometric progression: Continuous distribution taking non-negative values Analogously with the discrete case above, when a continuous random variable X takes only non-negative values, we can use the following formula for computing its expectation: Proof: interchanging the order of integration, we have as claimed. See also Conditional expectation An inequality on location and scale parameters Expected value is also a key concept in economics, finance, and bioinformatics. 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1,229 | Foreign_relations_of_Finland | The foreign relations of Finland are in the responsibility of President of Finland, who leads foreign policy in cooperation with the government. Implicitly the government is responsible for internal policy and decisionmaking in the European Union. Within the government, preparative discussions are conducted in the government committee of foreign and security policy (ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittinen ministerivaliokunta), which includes the Prime Minister and at least Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Defence, and at most four other ministers as necessary. http://www.valtioneuvosto.fi/hallitus/ministerivaliokunnat/en.jsp The committee meets with the President as necessary. Laws concerning foreign relations are discussed in the parliamentary committee of foreign relations (ulkoasiainvaliokunta). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy. The current officerholders are President Tarja Halonen, Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen, Foreign Minister Alexander Stubb and Defence Minister Jyri Häkämies. During the Cold War, Finland's foreign policy was based on official neutrality between the Western powers and the Soviet Union, while simultaneously stressing Nordic cooperation in the framework of the Nordic Council and cautious economic integration to the West as in the Bretton-Woods Agreement and the free trade treaty with the European Economic Community. Finland did not join the Soviet Union's economic sphere (Comecon) but remained a free-market economy and conducted bilateral trade with the Soviet Union. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland unilaterally abrogated the last restrictions imposed on it by the Paris peace treaties of 1947 and the Finno-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance. Although opposed by socialists and agrarians, the government filed an EU membership application three months after the dissolution of the USSR and became a member in 1995. Finland did not attempt to join NATO, even though other post-Soviet countries in the Baltic sea and elsewhere joined. Nevertheless, defense policymakers have quietly converted to NATO equipment and contributed troops. President Martti Ahtisaari and the coalition governments led Finland closer to the core EU in the late 1990s. Finland was considered a cooperative model state, and Finland did not oppose proposals for a common EU defence policy. "Finland's foreign policy idea" ("Suomen ulkopolitiikan idea"), Risto E. J. Penttilä, 2008 This was reversed in the 2000s, when Tarja Halonen and Erkki Tuomioja made Finland's official policy to resist other EU members' plans for common defense. However, Halonen allowed Finland to join European Union Battlegroups in 2006 and the NATO Response Force in 2008. Relations with most countries except Russia have been good. Relations with Russia are cordial and common issues include bureaucracy (particularly at the Vaalimaa border crossing), airspace violations, development aid Finland gives to Russia (especially in environmental problems that affect Finland), and Finland's energy dependency on Russian gas and electricity. Behind the scenes, the administration has witnessed a resurrection of Soviet-era tactics. The National Security Agency, SUPO, estimates that the known number of Russian agents from SVR and GRU now exceeds Cold War levels and there are unknown numbers of others. Helsinki again a centre of international espionage History From the end of the Continuation War with the U.S.S.R. in 1944 until 1991, the policy was to avoid superpower conflicts and to build mutual confidence with the Western powers and the Soviet Union. Although the country was culturally, socially, and politically Western, Finns realized they must live in peace with the U.S.S.R. and take no action that might be interpreted as a security threat. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 opened up dramatic new possibilities for Finland and has resulted in the Finns actively seeking greater participation in Western political and economic structures. The popular support for the strictly self-defensive doctrine remains. Relations With the Soviet Union The principal architect of the post-1944 foreign policy of neutrality was J.K. Paasikivi, who was President from 1946 to 1956. Urho Kekkonen, President from 1956 until 1981, further developed this policy, stressing that Finland should be an active rather than a passive neutral. This policy is now popularly known as the “Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line.” Humiliation Finland signed the Paris Peace Treaty with the Allies in February 1947, which: confirmed Finland’s concessions in the Moscow Peace Treaty with exception for the Soviet lease of Hanko Peninsula in south-westernmost Finland limited the size of Finland’s armed forces ratified the cessions after the Winter War and the Continuation War gave the Soviet Union a naval base at Porkkala 30 kilometres west of Helsinki including rights of free transit contained provisions directed against “Fascism in Finland” called for Finland to pay to the Soviet Union war reparations amounting to an estimated $570 million in 1952, the year the payments ended. Arguably these reparations, however, strengthened the Finnish economy(citation needed). The development from the Abyssinia crisis, indicating the failure of the League of Nations, to the Paris Peace Treaty, when the last hope of more than oral support from the ideologically akin Western countries faded, convinced the Finns that they had absolutely no-one other than themselves to rely on in their problematic relations with the Soviet Union. The Finnish Army, which in defence against the Soviet Union had numbered to over 500,000, was to be limited to 34,400 men, the navy to 4,500 men and 10,000 tons, and the air force to 3,000 men and 60 planes. With this provision the Western Allies had, seemingly, left Finland in the Soviet Union’s power. The political clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty were particularly alienating. Through this clause, the Allies agreed to the Kremlin view that the Soviet Union represented “Liberty” and Finland represented “Fascism”. The peace treaty stipulated that the country should take all measures necessary to secure “human rights and the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, of press and publication, of religious worship, of political opinion and of public meeting.” Finland’s government undertook further to prevent the resurgence of Fascist organizations or any others, “whether political, military or semi-military, whose purpose it is to deprive the people of their democratic rights.” With the exception that the victor’s interpretation of “Fascist organizations” turned out to be wide, these clauses had no practical effects. Reassurance (See also: Finlandization) For the survival of Finland as an independent sovereign country, firmly convicted in the value of democracy, human and civil rights, Finland had to find a formula to convince Stalin and his successors, that the Soviet Union’s vital interests could be met voluntarily by the Finns. This was the gist of the Paasikivi doctrine. In April 1948, Finland signed an Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union. Under this mutual assistance pact, Finland was obliged — with the aid of the Soviet Union, if requested by Finland, not unilaterally by USSR — to resist armed attacks by Germany or its allies against Finland or against the U.S.S.R. through Finland. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland’s desire to remain outside great-power conflicts. This agreement was renewed for 20 years in 1955, in 1970, and again in 1983 to the year 2003. In practice, this prevented Finland from joining NATO. Also, President Urho Kekkonen gained a disproportionate political advantage over his opponents by monopolizing this policy. Finland responded cautiously in 1990–91 to the collapse of the Soviet Union. They unilaterally abrogated restrictions imposed by the 1947 and 1948 treaties, joined in voicing Nordic concern over the coup against Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, and gave increasing unofficial encouragement to Baltic independence. At the same time, by replacing the Soviet-Finnish mutual assistance pact with treaties on general cooperation and trade, Finns put themselves on an equal footing while retaining a friendly bilateral relationship. Finland now is boosting cross-border commercial ties and touting its potential as a commercial gateway to Russia. It has reassured Russia that it will not raise claims for Finnish territory seized by the U.S.S.R., and continues to reaffirm the importance of good bilateral relations. Although the Karelian question in Finnish politics remains in the public debate, irredentists have persistently failed to gain support from the majority of the populace, political establishment or political parties. 2000 constitution In the 2000 constitution, where diverse constitutional laws were unified into one statute, the leading role of the President was slightly moderated. However, because the constitution still stipulates only that the President leads foreign policy and the government internal policy, the responsibility over European Union affairs is not explicitly resolved. Implicitly this belongs to the powers of the government. In a cohabitation situation as with the current Matti Vanhanen's second government right-wing government and left-wing President Tarja Halonen, there can be friction between government ministers and the president. The arrangement has been criticized by Risto E.J. Penttilä for not giving a simple answer of who's in charge. "Finland's foreign policy idea" ("Suomen ulkopolitiikan idea"), Risto E. J. Penttilä, 2008 Multilateral Relations Finnish foreign policy emphasizes its participation in multilateral organizations. Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and the European Union in 1995. As noted, the country also is a member of NATO’s Partnership for Peace as well as an observer in the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council and the Western European Union. The military has been prepared to be more compatible with NATO, as co-operation with NATO in peacekeeping is needed, but military alliance does not have popular support. In the European Union, Finland is a member of the Eurozone, and in addition, the Schengen treaty abolishing passport controls. 60% of foreign trade is to the EU. Other large trade partners are Russia and the United States. Finland is well represented in the UN civil service in proportion to its population and belongs to several of its specialized and related agencies. Finnish troops have participated in UN peacekeeping activities since 1956, and the Finns continue to be one of the largest per capita contributors of peacekeepers in the world. Finland is an active participant in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and in early 1995 assumed the co-chairmanship of the OSCE’s Minsk Group on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Cooperation with the other Scandinavian countries also is important to Finland, and it has been a member of the Nordic Council since 1955. Under the council’s auspices, the Nordic countries have created a common labor market and have abolished immigration controls among themselves. The council also serves to coordinate social and cultural policies of the participating countries and has promoted increased cooperation in many fields. In addition to the organizations already mentioned, Finland is a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, the International Finance Corporation, the International Development Association, the Bank for International Settlements, the Asian Development Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Council of Europe, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Finland has moved steadily towards integration into Western institutions and abandoned its formal policy of neutrality, which has been recast as a policy of military nonalliance coupled with the maintenance of a credible, independent defence. Finland’s 1994 decision to buy 64 F-18 Hornet fighter planes from the United States signalled the abandonment of the country’s policy of balanced arms purchases from Communist countries and Western countries. In 1994, Finland joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace; the country is also an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Finland became a full member of the European Union (EU) in January 1995, at the same time acquiring observer status in the EU’s defence arm, the Western European Union. Relations with various countries Generally, Finland has abided by the principle of neutrality and has good relations with nearly all countries, as evidenced by the freedom of travel that a Finnish passport gives. Relations with United States Relations between the United States and Finland are warm. Some 200,000 U.S. citizens visit Finland annually, and about 3,000 U.S. citizens are resident there. The U.S. has an educational exchange program in Finland that is comparatively large for a Western European country of Finland’s size. It is financed in part from a trust fund established in 1976 from Finland’s final repayment of a U.S. loan made in the aftermath of World War I. Finland is bordered on the east by Russia and, as one of the former Soviet Union’s neighbours, has been of particular interest and importance to the US both during the Cold War and in its aftermath. Before the USSR dissolved in 1991, longstanding US policy was to support Finnish neutrality while maintaining and reinforcing Finland’s historic, cultural, and economic ties with the West. The US has welcomed Finland’s increased participation since 1991 in Western economic and political structures. Economic and trade relations between Finland and the United States are active and were bolstered by the F-18 purchase. U.S.-Finland trade totals almost $5 billion annually. The U.S. receives about 7% of Finland’s exports — mainly pulp and paper, ships, machinery, electronics and instruments and refined petroleum products Finnish Customs statistics for 2006. http://www.tulli.fi/resources/tekstiversio.jsp?pageoid=24045 — and provides about 7% of its imports — principally computers, semiconductors, aircraft, machinery. Relations with Sweden Finland and Sweden have always had very close relations, resulting from shared history, numerous commonalities in society and politics, and close trade relations. A newly appointed Foreign Minister makes his first state visit to Sweden. Finnish politicians often consider Sweden's reaction to international affairs first as a base for further actions, and thus finally both countries often agree on such issues. If there has ever been any dissonance between the two countries those were the Åland question in the early 1920s and the Swedish neutrality during the Winter War. Both Finland and Sweden are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement, freeing international travel and trade between the countries. Relations with Estonia Finland's main language, Finnish, is related to Estonian, and there is and has been a certain feeling of kinship. 76% of Finns have visited Estonia and in 2004, 1.8 million Finns reported visiting Estonia. Finnish and Swedish investors are the largest foreign investors in Estonia. http://www.finland.ee/doc/fi/suhteet/poliittiset.html Both Finland and Estonia are members of the European Union and the Schengen agreement, freeing international travel and trade between the countries. Finland's government recognized Estonia's independence in 1920. In response to the Soviet invasion, diplomatic missions were de facto removed. However, when Estonia declared independence, this "temporary obstruction" was resolved. Finland contributed and continues to contribute military aid to Estonia; e.g. training of officers, provision of equipment. Relations with Russia Relations with Russia are peaceful. Finland imports a lot of goods and basic necessities, such as fuel, and the two nations are agreeing on issues more than disagreeing on them. Finland was a part of the Russian Empire for 108 years, after being annexed from the Swedish empire. Discontent with Russian rule, Finnish national identity, and World War I eventually caused Finland to break away from Russia, taking advantage of the fact that Russia was withdrawing from World War I and a revolution was starting in earnest. Following the Finnish Civil War and October revolution, Russians were virtually equated with Communists and due to official hostility to Communism, Finno-Soviet relations in the period between the world wars remained tense. Voluntary activists arranged expeditions to Karelia (heimosodat), which ended when Finland and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Tartu in 1920. However, the Soviet Union did not abide by the treaty when they blockaded Finnish naval ships. Finland was attacked by the U.S.S.R. in 1939. Finland fought the Winter War and the Continuation War against the Soviet Union in World War II. During these wars the Finns suffered 90,000 casualties and inflicted severe casualties on the Russians (120,000 dead in the Winter War, 200,000 in the Continuation War) as compared to other nations such as Poland. Contemporary issues include problems with border controls causing persistent truck queues at the border, airspace violations, pollution of the Baltic Sea, and Russian duties on exported wood to Finland's pulp and paper industry. Right-wing commentators accuse the government of continuing the policy of Finlandization. Relations by country Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1956-05-11 Afghanistan recognised the independence of Finland on July 17, 1928. Afghanistan is representated in Finland through its embassy in Oslo, Norway. Embassy of Afghanistan in Oslo, Norway Finland opened a Liaison Office in Kabul in 2002. It converted into an Embassy in January 1, 2006. Embassy of Finland in Kabul Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about relations with Afghanistan 1918-05-11 Argentina has an embassy in Helsinki. Argentine embassy in Helsinki Finland has an embassy in Buenos Aires and 5 honorary consulates (in Córdoba, Mendoza, Oberá, Rosario and Ushuaia). Finnish embassy in Buenos Aires (in Finnish, Swedish and Spanish only) Argentina Ministry of Foreign Relations: list of bilateral treaties with Finland (in Spanish only) Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Argentina 1992-03-25 Finland recognised Armenia on December 30, 1991. Armenia is represented in Finland by a non-resident ambassador (based in Yerevan at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). Finland is represented in Armenia by a non resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan. Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with ArmeniaSee Australia–Finland relationsSee Austria–Finland relationsSee Belgium–Finland relationsSee Brazil–Finland relations 1918-08-05 In 1963, the diplomatic representations of the two countries were upgraded to the level of embassy. Bulgaria has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Kemi. Bulgarian embassy in Helsinki Finland has an embassy in Sofia and an honorary consulate in Varna. Finnish embassy in Sofia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with BulgariaSee Canada–Finland relationsSee Chile–Finland relationsSee Croatian-Finnish relations 1961-09-02 Finland recognized Cyprus on August 16, 1960. Cyprus has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Vantaa. Cyprus embassy in Helsinki Finland has an embassy and 2 honorary consulates in Nicosia. Finish embassy in Nicosia Both countries are full members of the European Union. Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with FinlandSee Czech Republic – Finland relationsSee Denmark–Finland relationsSee Egypt–Finland relationsSee Estonia–Finland relationsSee Ethiopia–Finland relationsSee Finland–France relationsSee Finland–Georgia relationsSee German-Finnish relationsSee Finland–Hungary relationsSee Finland–Iceland relationsSee Finland–India relationsSee Finland–Indonesia relationsSee Finland–Ireland relationsSee Finland–Israel relationsSee Finland–Italy relationsSee Finland–Japan relationsSee Finland–Kenya relationsSee Finnish–Kosovan relationsSee Finland–Latvia relationsSee Finland–Lithuania relationsSee Finland–Luxembourg relationsSee Finland–Mexico relationsSee Finland–Morocco relationsSee Finland–Mozambique relationsSee Finland–Namibia relationsSee Finland–Nepal relationsSee Finland–Netherlands relationsSee Finland–Nicaragua relationsSee Finland–Norway relationsSee People's Republic of China – Finland relationsSee Finland–Poland relationsSee Finland–Portugal relationsSee Finland–Romania relationsSee Finland–Russia relationsSee Finland – Saudi Arabia relationsSee Finland–Serbia relationsSee Finland–Slovakia relationsSee Finland–Slovenia relationsSee Finland – South Africa relationsSee Finland – South Korea relationsSee Finland–Spain relationsSee Finland–Sweden relations 1953-05-22 Finland has an embassy in Damascus and two honorary consulates general in Aleppo and Latakia. Syria is represented in Finland through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. Embassy of Syria in Stockholm, Sweden Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland about relations with SyriaSee Finland–Tanzania relationsSee Finland–Thailand relationsSee Finland–Tunisia relationsSee Finnish–Turkish relationsSee Finland–Ukraine relationsSee Finland – United States relationsSee Uruguay–Finland relationsSee Finland–Vietnam relationsSee Finland–Zambia relations International organization participation <tr valign="top"><td width="25%"> AfDB AsDB Australia Group BIS CBSS CCC CE CERN EAPC EBRD ECE EIB ESA EU FAO G-9 IADB <td width="25%"> IAEA IBRD ICAO ICC ICC ICRM IDA IEA IFAD IFC IFRCS IHO ILO IMF IMO ITUC Interpol IOC <td width="25%"> IOM ISO ITU MINURSO NAM (guest) NC NEA NIB NSG OAS (observer) OECD OPCW OSCE PCA PFP UN UNCTAD UNESCO UNHCR <td width="25%"> UNIDO UNIKOM UNITAR UNMEE UNMIBH UNMIK UNMOGIP UNMOP UNOMIG UNTAET UNTSO UPU WEU (observer) EFTU WHO WIPO WMO WTrO Zangger Committee See also Diplomatic missions of Finland List of diplomatic missions in Finland Politics of Finland Pulp mill conflict between Argentina and Uruguay (for the ongoing conflict over the installation of a pulp mill by the Finnish company Botnia in Uruguay, across the Uruguay River) References CIA World Factbook - Finland | Foreign_relations_of_Finland |@lemmatized foreign:27 relation:33 finland:148 responsibility:2 president:11 lead:4 policy:23 cooperation:9 government:14 implicitly:2 responsible:1 internal:2 decisionmaking:1 european:14 union:34 within:1 preparative:1 discussion:1 conduct:1 committee:4 security:4 ulko:1 ja:1 turvallisuuspoliittinen:1 ministerivaliokunta:1 include:5 prime:2 minister:9 least:1 affair:12 defence:6 four:1 necessary:3 http:3 www:3 valtioneuvosto:1 fi:3 hallitus:1 ministerivaliokunnat:1 en:1 jsp:2 meet:2 law:2 concern:2 discuss:1 parliamentary:1 ulkoasiainvaliokunta:1 ministry:9 implement:1 current:2 officerholders:1 tarja:3 halonen:4 matti:2 vanhanen:2 alexander:1 stubb:1 jyri:1 häkämies:1 cold:3 war:19 base:5 official:3 neutrality:6 western:12 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1,230 | Hungarian_Defence_Force | The "Hungarian Home Defence Force" () currently has two branches, the "Hungarian Ground Force" and the "Hungarian Air Force." The term "Home Defence Force" was originally used to refer to the armed forces established by Lajos Kossuth and the National Defence Committee of the Revolutionary Hungarian Parliamnet in September 1848 during the Hungarian Revolution. In accordance with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the Hungarians were allowed to have their own forces for homeland defence adjunct to and integrated with the standing Imperial and Royal Army. The Honvédség became a specifically Hungarian Army within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The term Honvédség is the name of the Hungarian military since 1848 referring to its purpose ("Hon" meaning "homeland" and "véd" meaning "defender" or "defence" thence "Honvéd" meaning "Homeland Defence"). The Hungarian Army is called Magyar Honvédség. The rank equal to a Private is a Honvéd. The Hungarian Air Force is the air force branch of the Hungarian Home Defence Forces. History Ancient, medieval, and early modern military Horse archer presentation in Hungary The Hungarian tribes of Árpád vezér who came to settle in the Carpathian Basin were noted for their fearsome light cavalry, which conducted frequent raids throughout much of Western Europe (as far as present-day Spain), maintaining their military supremacy with long range and rapid-firing reflex bows. Not until the introduction of well-regulated, plate-armored knight heavy cavalry could German emperors stop the Hungarian armies. During the Árpáds the light cavalry based army was transformed slowly into a western-style one. The light cavalry lost its privileged position, replaced by a feudal army formed mainly from heavy cavalry. The Hungarian field armies were drawn up into an articulated formation (as it happened in Battle of Przemysl- 1099, Battle at Leitha- 1146, Battle of Morvamezo- 1278, 1349), in three main battle (formation) (1146, 1278, 1349). According to the contemporary sources and later speculations, the first line was formed by light cavalry archers (Battle of Oslava- 1116, 1146, 1260, 1278). Usually they started the battle followed by a planned retreat (1116, 1146, Battle of Kroisennbrunn- 1260). The major decisive battles of the Hungarian army were placed in the second or third lines consisted mainly of the most valuable parts of the army - in general heavy cavalry (1146, 1278, 1349). The commanders of the Hungarian Kingdom's army used different tactics, based on a recognition of their own and the enemies' (Holy Roman Empire, Pechenegs, Uzes, Cumans, Mongols, Byzantine Empire) abilities and deficiencies. The Hungarian knight army had its golden age under King Louis the Great, who himself was a famed warrior and conducted successful campaigns in Italy due to family matters (his younger brother married Joan I, Queen of Naples who murdered him later.) King Matthias Corvinus maintained very modern mercenary-based royal troops, called the Black Army. King Matthias favoured ancient artillery (catapults) as opposed to cannons, which were the favourite of his father, Johannes Hunyadi the ottoman-beater, victor of the Siege of Nándorfehérvár in 1456. During the Ottoman invasion of Central Europe (between late 1300s and circa 1700) Hungarian soldiers protected fortresses and launched light cavalry attacks against the Turks (see hussars). The northern fortress of Eger was famously defended in the autumn of 1552 during the 39 day Siege of Eger against the combined force of two Ottoman armies numbering circa 120,000 men and 16 ultra-heavy siege guns. The victory was very important, because two much stronger forts of Szolnok and Temesvár had fallen quickly during the summer. Public opinion attributed Eger's success to the all-Hungarian garrison, as the above two forts have fallen due to treason by the foreign mercenaries manning them. In 1596, Eger fell to the Ottomans for the same reason. In the 1566 Battle of Szigetvár, Miklós Zrínyi defended Szigetvár for 30 days against the largest Ottoman army ever seen up to that day, and died leading his remaining few soldiers on a final suicide charge to become one of the best known national heroes. His great-grandson, Miklós Zrínyi, poet and general became of the better known stratagems of 1660s. In 1686, the capital city Buda was freed from the Ottomans by an allied Christian army composed of Hungarian, Austrian and Western European troops, each roughly 1/3rd of the army. The Habsburg then annexed Hungary. Habsburg Hungarian military Hungarian hussars in battle at Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Under Habsburg rule, Hungarian hussars rose to international fame and served as a model for light cavalry in many European countries. Hundreds of thousands of forcibly enrolled Hungarian males served 12 years or more as line infantry during the 1700s-1800s in the Austrian Imperial Army. Two independence wars interrupted this era, that of Prince Francis II Rákóczi between 1703 and 1711 and that of Lajos Kossuth in 1848–1849. In 1848-49 the newly created independent Hungarian military (mostly made up of enthusiastic patriots with no prior military training) achieved incredible successes against better trained and equipped Austrian forces, despite the obvious advantage in numbers on the Austrian side. The Winter Campaign of Józef Bem and the Spring Campaign of Artúr Görgey are to this day taught at prestigious military schools around the globe, including West Point Academy in the United States. By the end of spring 1849, Hungary was basically cleared of foreign forces, and would have achieved independence, were it not for the Russian intervention, which alone brought a force of 190.000 soldiers into the country (the Hungarian army at this point consisted of about 135.000 men), and caused a decisive defeat to Józef Bem's second army in Transylvania, opening the path into the heart of Hungary. This way the Austrian-Russian coalition outnumbered Hungarian forces 3:1, which led to the capitulation of Hungary at Világos on August 13, 1849. Sándor Petőfi, the great Hungarian poet became a MIA in the Battle of Segesvár, against invading Russian forces. In April 1867, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was established. Habsburg Franz-Josef was Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. On 5 December 1868, the Royal Hungarian Army (Magyar Kiralyi Honvedseg, or Defense Force) was established. World War I Huge numbers of Hungarians served and fell in World War I, especially on the Eastern Front and in the battles fought at Isonzo on the Italian Front. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in late 1918, the Red Army of the Hungarian commune-state (Hungarian Soviet Republic) conducted successful campaigns to protect the borders. However, the Hungarians Reds were eventually crushed by the Romanian, French and American Army, in the spring of 1919, during the Battle of Tisza. When Serbian and French troops had broken the Thessaloniki front-line, Austria, Hungary, and Bulgaria were finally defeated. This way, Hungary came under occupation of Romanian, Serbian, American, and French troops. The leaving Romanian army pillaged the country: livestock, machinery and agricultural products were carried to Romania in hundreds of freight cars. After World War I, in accordance with the Trianon Treaty, the Hungarian Army was limited to 35,000 men, there was to be no conscription, and the army was forbidden from having any tanks. The Hungarians were also not allowed to have an air force. Mid-twentieth century On 9 August 1919, Admiral Miklos Horthy united various anti-communist military units into a 25,000-strong National Army (Nemzeti Hadsereg). On 1 January 1922, the National Army was once again redesignated the Royal Hungarian Army. During the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was preoccupied with the regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the Trianon peace treaty at Versailles in 1920. This required strong armed forces to defeat the neighbouring states and this was something Hungary could not afford. Instead, the Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, made an alliance with German dictator Adolf Hitler's Third Reich. In exchange for this alliance and via the Vienna Awards, Hungary received back parts of its lost territories from Yugoslavia, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. Hungary was to pay dearly during and after World War II for these temporary gains. On 5 March 1938, Prime Minister Kálmán Darányi announced a rearmament program (Gyor Programme). Starting 1 October, the armed forces established a five-year expansion plan with Huba I-III revised orders of battle. Conscription was introduced on a national basis in 1939. The peacetime strength of the Hungarian Army grew to 80,000 men organized into seven corps commands. Page 207, Mollo, Andrew, The Armed Forces of World War II, Crown, 1981, New York, ISBN 0-517-54479-4 In March 1939, Hungary launched an invasion of the newly formed Slovak Republic. Both the Royal Hungarian Army and the Royal Hungarian Air Force fought in the brief Slovak-Hungarian War. This invasion was launched to reclaim a part of the Slovakian territory lost after World War I. On 1 March 1940, Hungary organized its ground forces into three field armies. The Hungarian Army fielded the Hungarian First Army, the Hungarian Second Army, and the Hungarian Third Army. With the exception of the independent "Fast Moving Army Corps" (Gyorshadtest), all three Hungarian field armies were initially relegated to defensive and occupation duties within the newly enlarged Hungarian state. World War II In November 1940, Hungary signed the Tripartite Pact and became a member of the Axis with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In April 1941, in order to gain territory, Hungary joined the Germans in the invasion of Yugoslavia. On 22 June 1941, elements of the Hungarian Army support the German invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa. In the late summer of 1941, the Hungarian "Fast Moving Army Corps" (Gyorshadtest) scored a huge success against the Soviets at the Battle of Uman. A little more than a year later and contrasting sharply with the success at Uman, was the near total devastation of the Hungarian Second Army on banks of the Don River in December 1942 during the Battle for Stalingrad. During 1943, the Hungarian Second Army was re-built. The re-built army even experienced some success of its own. In late 1944, as part of Panzerarmee Fretter-Pico, it participated in the destruction of a Soviet mechanized group at the Battle of Debrecen. But this success proves too costly in men and materials. Unable to re-build again, the Hungarian Second Army was disbanded towards the end of 1944. To keep Hungary as an ally, the Germans occupied Hungary in March 1944 (Operation Margarethe). However, during the Warsaw Uprising, Hungarian troops refused to participate. Page 208, Mollo, Andrew, The Armed Forces of World War II, Crown, 1981, New York, ISBN 0-517-54479-4 Graves of a Hungarian honvéd captain and 6 of his men who fell, fighting on the Polish side in Warsaw uprising 1944 On 15 October 1944, the Germans forced Horthy to abdicate (Operation Panzerfaust) and pro-Nazi Ferenc Szálasi was made Prime Minister by the Germans. On 28 December 1944, a provisional government was formed with Béla Miklós as its Prime Minister. Miklós was the commander of the Hungarian First Army. He immediately ousted Prime Minister Ferenc Szálasi's government but most of the First Army sided with the Germans. The Germans, Szálasi, and pro-German Hungarian forces loyal to Szálasi fought on. The Red Army completed the encirclement of Budapest on 29 December 1944 and the Battle of Budapest began and continued into February 1945. Most of what remained of the Hungarian First Army was destroyed about 200 kilometers north of Budapest between 1 January and 16 February 1945. On 20 January 1945, representatives of the provisional government of Béla Miklós signed an armistice in Moscow. But forces loyal to Szálasi continued to fight on. On 2 February 1945, the strength of the Hungarian Army was 214,465 men, but about 50,000 of these had been formed into unarmed labor battalions. Page 208, Mollo, Andrew, The Armed Forces of World War II, Crown, 1981, New York, ISBN 0-517-54479-4 The siege of Budapest ended with the surrender of the city on 13 February. But, while the German forces in Hungary were generally in a state of defeat, the Germans had one more surprise for the Soviets. In early March 1945, the Germans launched the Lake Balaton Offensive with support from the Hungarians. This offensive was almost over before it began. By 19 March 1945, Soviet troops had recaptured all the territory lost during a 13-day German offensive. Page 182, The Decline and Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, Hans Dollinger, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 67-27047 After the failed offensive, the Germans in Hungary were defeated. Most of what remained of the Hungarian Third Army was destroyed about 50 kilometers west of Budapest between 16 March and 25 March 1945. Officially, Soviet operations in Hungary ended on 4 April 1945 when the last German troops were expelled. Some pro-fascist Hungarians like Szálasi retreated with the Germans into Austria and Czechoslovakia. During the very last phase of the war, Fascist Hungarian forces fought in Vienna, Breslau, Küstrin, and along the Oder River. Page 208, Mollo, Andrew, The Armed Forces of World War II, Crown, 1981, New York, ISBN 0-517-54479-4 On 7 May 1945, General Alfred Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, signed the document of unconditional surrender for all German forces. Jodl signed this document during a ceremony in France. On 8 May, in accordance with the wishes of the Soviet Union, the ceremony was repeated in Germany by General Wilhelm Keitel. On 11 June, the Allies agreed to make 9 May 1945 the official "Victory in Europe" day. Page 298, The Decline and Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan, Hans Dollinger, Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 67-27047 Szálasi and many other pro-fascist Hungarians were captured and ultimately returned to Hungary's provisional government for trial. Warsaw Pact Uniform of the Hungarian People's Army (Magyar Néphadsereg): Hungarian military police summer uniform (enlisted, private, 1965-2005) During the Socialist and the Warsaw Pact era (1955–1989), the entire 200,000 strong Southern Group of Forces was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regiments, air force and missile troops (with nuclear weapons). It was by all means a very capable force that made little contact with the local population. Between 1949 and 1955 there was also a huge effort to build a big Hungarian army. All procedures, disciplines, and equipment were exact copies of the Soviet Red Army in methods and material, but the huge costs collapsed the economy by 1956. After the autumn 1956 revolution was crushed in Budapest, the Soviets took away most of the Hungarian Army's equipment. A few years later, when offered a choice of withdrawal, the new Hungarian leader János Kádár asked for all the 200,000 Soviet troops to stay, because it allowed the socialist Hungarian People's Republic to neglect its own draft-based armed forces, quickly leading to deterioration of the military. Large sums of money were saved that way and spent on feel-good measures for the population, thus Hungary could become "the happiest barrack" in the Soviet Bloc. Training for army conscripts was poor and most of those drafted were actually used as a free labour force (esp. railway track construction and agricultural work) after just a few weeks of basic rifle training. Popular opinion grew very negative towards the Hungarian Army and most young men tried to avoid the draft with bogus medical excuses. Current military Hungarian Ground Forces welcome the President of the United States. Mounted hussars can be seen along the top. The Hungarian Air Force has 14 JAS 39 Gripens on lease, including two two-seaters (C/D versions). The final three aircraft were delivered in December 2007. Hungarian Hussars Military of Eufor Command structure Since 2007, the Hungarian Defence Forces is under an unified command structure. The Ministry of Defence maintains the political and civil control over the army. The military leadership is exercised by the Defence Staff of the Ministry of Defence. A subordinate Joint Forces Command is co-ordinating and commanding the HDF corps. Structure of modern day Hungarian Defence Forces Administrative support HDF Military Administrative and Data Processing Centre HDF Augmentation / Recruitment Commands HDF Western Hungarian Augmentation / Recruitment Command HDF Eastern Hungarian Augmentation / Recruitment Command HDF Operations Centre NATO/EU positions Combat HDF 5th ‘István Bocskai’ Infantry Brigade HDF 25th ’György Klapka’ Infantry Brigade HDF 25/88 Light Mixed Battalion HDF 34th ’László Bercsényi’ Special Operations Battalion HDF 59th ’Dezsõ Szentgyörgyi’ Aviation Base HDF 12th Arrabona Anti Aircraft Missile Regiment HDF 86th Szolnok Helicopter Base Combat support MH 37th ’Ferenc Rákóczi II’ Engineering Battalion HDF 93rd ’Sándor Petõfi’ NBC Battalion HDF 43rd Signal and Command and Control Support Regiment HDF 54th Veszprém Air Surveillance Regiment HDF Civilian–Military Cooperation and Psychological Operations Centre HDF ‘Artúr Görgei’ NBC Information Centre HDF Peace Support Training Centre HDF Military Transport Centre HDF 1st Honvéd Explosive Ordnance Disposal and Warship Battalion Service – Support HDF 64th ’József Boconádi Szabó’ Logistics Regiment HDF Bakony Combat Training Centre HDF Pápa Base Airport HDF Hazardous Material Supply Centre HDF Logistics Supply Centre HDF Aircraft Repair Plant HDF Military Transport Centre HDF Support Brigade HDF Geoinformation Service HDF ’Dr György Radó’ Honvéd Medical Centre HDF Central Training Base and HDF ‘Pál Kinizsi’ NCO Training School Szentendre Missions HDF Provincial Reconstruction Team, Afghanistan HDF EUFOR Althea Contingent, Bosnia and Herzegovina HDF UNFICYP Contingent, Cyprus and specific other missions.The Hungarian armed forces has severely reduced the number of battle tanks in service, surplussed all tracked IFV A large number of garrisons were shut down, some of them sold to municipal authorities for peaceful uses. In 1997, Hungary spent about 123 billion HUF ($560 million) on defense. Hungary became a member of NATO on March 12, 1999. Hungary provided airbases and support for NATO's air campaign against Serbia and has provided military units to serve in Kosovo as part of the NATO-led KFOR operation. Hungary has sent a 300 strong logistics unit to Iraq in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war. One soldier was killed in action due to a roadside bomb in Iraq. The parliament refused to extend the one year mandate of the logistics unit and all troops have returned from Iraq as of mid-January 2005. Hungarian troops are still in Afghanistan as of early 2005 to assist in peace-keeping and de-talibanization. However Hungary has started replace the old rovers to Iveco LMV types. Hungarian forces deploy the Gepárd anti-materiel rifle. In a significant move for modernization, Hungary decided in 2001 to buy 14 JAS 39 Gripen fighter aircraft (the contract includes 2 dual-seater airplanes and 12 single-seaters as well as ground maintenance facilities, a simulator, and training for pilots and ground crews) for 210 billion HUF (about 800 million EUR). Five Gripens (3 single-seaters and 2 two-seaters) arrived in Kecskemét on March 21, 2006, expected to be transferred to the Hungarian Air Force on March 30. Structure of the Armed Forces of Hungary Military branches Hungarian Ground Forces Hungarian Air Force See also Hungary History of Hungary Military history of Hungary Military ranks of Hungary On-line magazin of Hungarian Ministry of Defence The homepage of the Hungarian Ministry of Defence Magyar Tudomány 2000. január References Trivia This term is also used in the name of the Hungarian football club, Budapest Honvéd FC. 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1,231 | Anno_Domini | Dionysius Exiguus invented Anno Domini years to date Easter. (sometimes found in the irregular form ), abbreviated as AD or A.D., and Before Christ, abbreviated as BC or B.C., are designations used to number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The calendar era to which they refer is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus Christ, with AD denoting years after the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of this epoch. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. The Gregorian calendar, and the year numbering system associated with it, is the calendar system with the most widespread usage in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. It is also a basis of scholarly dating, though some people adopt the Common Era labels, retaining the same numeric values but using the label "CE" (Common Era) instead of "AD", and "BCE" (Before the Common Era) instead of "BC". The term Anno Domini is Medieval Latin, translated as In the year of (the/Our) Lord). (reprinted & corrected, originally published 1999) It is sometimes specified more fully as Anno Domini Nostri Iesu (Jesu) Christi ("In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ"). Traditionally, English copied Latin usage by placing the abbreviation before the year number for AD, but after the year number for BC; for example: 64 BC, but AD . However, placing the AD after the year number (as in " AD") is now also common. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "4th century AD" or "2nd millennium AD". In these cases it should be read as, e.g., "in the 4th century of the AD scale". Because B.C. is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, some people incorrectly conclude that A.D. must mean After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. If that were true, the thirty-three or so years of his life would not be in any era. Donald P. Ryan, (2000), 15. History The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus, who used it to compute the date of the Christian Easter festival, and to identify the several Easters in his Easter table, but did not use it to date any historical event. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year — he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ". Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius Introduction and First Argumentum. Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date." Blackburn & Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are: In modern times Incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity The civil, or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August There were inaccuracies in the list of consuls There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years Accuracy According to Doggett, "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before A.D. 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating". Doggett 1992, 579. According to and , King Herod the Great was alive when Jesus was born, and ordered the Massacre of the Innocents in response to his birth. Blackburn & Holford-Strevens fix King Herod's death shortly before Passover in 4 BC, and say that those who accept the story of the Massacre of the Innocents sometimes associate the star that led the Biblical Magi with the planetary conjunction of 15 September 7 BC or Halley's comet of 12 BC; even historians who do not accept the Massacre accept the birth under Herod as a tradition older than the written gospels. The Gospel of St. Luke states that Jesus was born during the reign of the Emperor Augustus and while Cyrenius (or Quirinius) was the governor of Syria (2:1–2). Blackburn and Holford-Strevens indicate Cyrenius/Quirinius' governorship of Syria began in AD 6, which is incompatible with conception in 4 BC, and say that "St. Luke raises greater difficulty....Most critics therefore discard Luke". Some scholars rely on , "thou are not yet fifty years old", to place Christ's birth in c. 18 BC. Popularization The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, finished in 731. In this same history he also used another Latin term, "ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation"), equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era, Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence. while establishing the standard for historians of no year zero. Compare Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence, with Chapter 3. even though he used zero in his computus. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25" (Annunciation style). On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by Alcuin. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence until present times. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries. Gerard, 1908 Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries. Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late 15th century. Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (1474) used Anno ante xpi nativitatem (in the year before the birth of Christ) for all years between Creation and Jesus. "xpi" is the Greek χρι in Latin letters, which is a cryptic abbreviation for christi. This phrase appears upside down in the center of recto folios (right hand pages). From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno christi or its cryptic form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Anno mundi alongside all of these terms for all years. Other eras During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating. Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for all of the years of their reign alongside their regnal years. Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt, Leiden, Brill, 2004. Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell xciv of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888. Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this Incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were only used, and are still only used, in Ethiopia, accounting for the eight- or seven-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and the Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' Creation of the World. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system. The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria, and is still used officially by the Coptic church. It also used to be used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript. Synonyms Common Era Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the Common Era, Christian Era or Current Era (abbreviated as C.E. or CE). CE is often preferred by those who desire a term ostensibly unrelated to Christian conceptions of time. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B.C.E./C.E. ... do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D." Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Western calendar in 1912 and the translated term was 西元 (lit. Western Era). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China reiterated the use of the Gregorian calendar and accepted the term gōngyuán (公元, lit. Common Era). Numbering of years In the Julian calendar AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. For computational reasons astronomers use a time scale in which AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1. To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign (unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from the context that the year is after the year 0). Doggett, 1992, p. 579. Notes and references Notes: References: Bede. (731). Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum. Accessed 2007-12-07. (despite beginning with 2, it is English) Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of Anno Domini. Doggett. (1992). "Calendars" (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7. Gerard, J. (1908). "General Chronology". In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 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1,232 | Demographics_of_Costa_Rica | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Costa Rica, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Costa Rica, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. In May 2009, Costa Rica had an estimated population of 4,509,290 persons. Together, whites (mostly Spanish) and mestizos (white people mixed with Amerindian people) make up a full 94% of the population, 3% are black people and 1.5% Amerindians. Just under 3% of the population is of black African descent who are called Afro-Costa Ricans and are English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers. Another 1% is composed of ethnic Chinese, and less than 1% are Middle Easterners, mainly of Lebanese descent. There is also a community of North American (American and Canadian) and Australian retirees. The indigenous population today numbers about 60,000 (1.5% of the population) . Descendants of 19th century Jamaican immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and -- at 3% of the population -- number about 96,000. An estimated 10% of the Costa Rican population is made up of Nicaraguans, www.state.gov Background Note: Costa Rica - People most of whom migrate for seasonal work opportunities and return to their country. There is also a number of Colombian refugees. Moreover, Costa Rica took in lots of refugees from a range of other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 80s - notably from Chile and Argentina. Almost 100,000 Costa Ricans (2% of the country's population) live abroad, mostly in the United States, Mexico and Spain. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. 4.381.987 (July 2008 est.) Median age Total: 26.4 years Male: 26 Female: 26.9 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 1.45% (2006 est.) Birth rate 18.32 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 4.36 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0.49 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.00 male(s)/female Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 9.6 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 10.58 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 8.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 77.085 years Male: 74.43 years Female: 79.74 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 2.24 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 0.6% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 12,000 (2003 est.) Deaths: 900 (2003 est.) Nationality Noun: Costa Rican(s) Adjective: Costa Rican Ethnic groups White and mestizo 94% Black/Afro-Caribbean 3%, Amerindian 1,5%, Chinese 1%, Religions Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical 13.7%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%, other Protestant 0.7%, other 4.8%, none 3.2% Languages Spanish (official), English Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 96% Male: 96% Female: 96.1% (2008 est.) See also Ethnic groups in Central America References External links UNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics INEC. National Institute of Statistics and Census (in Spanish) | Demographics_of_Costa_Rica |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:18 costa:11 rica:6 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:1 fao:1 year:9 number:4 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 may:1 estimate:1 person:1 together:1 white:3 mostly:2 spanish:3 mestizo:2 people:5 mixed:1 amerindian:3 make:2 full:1 black:4 african:1 descent:2 call:1 afro:2 ricans:2 english:3 speak:1 descendant:2 century:2 jamaican:2 immigrant:2 worker:2 another:1 compose:1 ethnic:3 chinese:2 less:1 middle:1 easterner:1 mainly:1 lebanese:1 also:3 community:1 north:1 american:3 canadian:1 australian:1 retiree:1 indigenous:1 today:1 constitute:1 speaking:1 minority:1 estimated:1 rican:3 nicaraguan:1 www:1 state:2 gov:1 background:1 note:1 migrate:1 seasonal:1 work:1 opportunity:1 return:1 country:3 colombian:1 refugee:2 moreover:1 take:1 lot:1 range:1 latin:1 flee:1 civil:1 war:1 dictatorship:1 notably:1 chile:1 argentina:1 almost:1 live:5 abroad:1 united:1 mexico:1 spain:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:3 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:14 median:1 age:2 total:6 male:9 female:9 growth:1 rate:7 birth:7 death:6 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 group:2 caribbean:1 religion:1 roman:1 catholic:1 evangelical:1 jehovah:1 witness:1 protestant:1 none:1 language:1 official:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 see:1 central:1 america:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 unicef:1 information:1 inec:1 national:1 institute:1 census:1 |@bigram costa_rica:6 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 mixed_amerindian:1 costa_ricans:2 jamaican_immigrant:2 middle_easterner:1 costa_rican:3 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:7 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 afro_caribbean:1 jehovah_witness:1 literacy_definition:1 external_link:1 |
1,233 | Machete | Modern factory-made machete of US Forces issue. The machete () is a large cleaver-like cutting tool. The blade is typically long and usually under thick. In the English language, an equivalent term is matchet, though the name 'machete' is more commonly known. Uses As a tool In tropical and subtropical countries, the machete is frequently used to cut through rainforest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes (e.g. cutting sugarcane). Besides this, in Latin America it is not uncommon to see a machete being used for such household tasks as cutting large foodstuffs into pieces — much as a cleaver is used — or to perform crude cutting tasks such as making simple wooden handles for other tools. It is also common to see people using machetes for their odd jobs such as splitting open coconuts, working the lawns, or other related activities. Additionally, it is the most popular no-fire weapon used by bandits and outlaws. As a weapon In many (tropical) countries, a machete is a common and ubiquitous tool. Consequently, it is often the weapon of choice for uprisings. A machete should also be classified as a basic sword, because it can be used like one. Machetes were the primary weapon used by the Interahamwe militias in the Rwandan Genocide, as well as the distinctive tool/weapon of the Haitian Tonton Macoute. In 1762, the Kingdom of Great Britain invaded Cuba in the Battle of Havana, and peasant guerrillas led by Pepe Antonio, a Guanabacoa councilman, used machetes in the defense of the city. The machete was also the most iconic weapon during the independence wars in that country (1868–1898), although it saw limited battlefield use. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, owner of the sugar refinery La Demajagua near Manzanillo, freed his slaves on 10 October 1868. Armed with machetes, he proceeded to lead them in revolt against the Spanish government. The first cavalry charge using machetes as the primary weapon was carried out on 4 November 1868 by Máximo Gómez, a sergeant born in the Dominican Republic, who later became the General in Chief of the Cuban army. Possibly due to this historical background, machetes inspired a form of martial discipline in Cuba known as "machete fencing", focused as its name puts it, in the best movements and techniques to use machetes as weapons, especially against similarly armed enemies or even firearms. The machete was (and still is) a common side arm and tool for many ethnic groups in West Africa. Machetes in this role are referenced in Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart. Some tropical countries have a name for the blow of a machete; the Spanish machetazo is sometimes used in English. In the British Virgin Islands, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Trinidad and Tobago, the word planass means to hit someone with the flat of the blade of a machete or cutlass. Throughout the Caribbean, the term 'cutlass' refers to a laborers' cutting tool with a upturned blade. The Brazilian Army's Instruction Center on Jungle Warfare developed a machete with a blade in length and a very pronounced clip point. This machete is issued with a 5-inch Bowie knife and a sharpening stone in the scabbard; collectively called a "jungle kit" (Conjunto de Selva in Portuguese), it is manufactured by Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil (IMBEL). Cultural variations The panga is a variant used in East and southern Africa. This name may be of Swahili etymology; do not confuse this tool with the Panga fish. The panga blade broadens on the backside and has a length of . The upper inclined portion of the blade may be sharpened. This tool was used as a weapon in South Africa particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s when the former province of Natal was wracked by conflict between the African National Congress and the Zulu-nationalist Inkatha Freedom Party. bolo or itak Mexican Machete, from Acapulco, 1970. Horn handle, hand forged blade taper (hammer marks visible.). (Has been sharpened by owner. Rust marks visible.) In the Philippines, the bolo is a very similar tool, but with the blade swelling just before the tip to make the knife even more tip-heavy for chopping. A longer and a more pointed tip bolo or itak (intended for combat) was also used during the Philippine Revolution against the Spanish, and later a signature weapon of guerrillas in the Philippine-American War. Filipinos still use machetes for everyday cutting and chopping of dense vegetation and meats. Machetes are also commonly found in most Filipino kitchens, having sets on the walls for show and other sets for everyday usage. Other similar tools include the parang and the golok (from Malaysia and Indonesia); however, these tend to have shorter, thicker blades with a primary grind, and are more effective on woody vegetation. The Nepalese kukri is a curved blade which is often used for similar tasks. Some types of Chinese saber (dao) are similar. In the Southern Brazil (state of Rio Grande do Sul), the machete is largely used by the native inhabitants. It's used to open ways through the bushes, and was used to fight against the Brazilian Empire in the farrapos' war (War of Tatters). There, the machete is called "facão" or "facón" (literally "big knife"). Today, there is a dance called dança dos facões (machetes' dance), that is danced in this region. In this dance, performed only by men, the dancers knock their machetes while dancing, simulating a battle. Maculelê, an Afro-Brazilian dance/martial art, can also be performed with facãos. This practice began in the city of Santo Amaro, Bahia, in the northwestern part of the country. Similar historic tools/weapons The modern machete is very similar to some forms of the medieval falchion, a short sword popular from the 13th century onwards. The cutting edge the falchion was curved, widening toward the point, and had a straight, unsharpened back edge. The falchion differs from machetes mainly in the lack of a guard and a simpler hilt, though some machetes do have a guard for greater protection of hands during work. The kopis was an ancient Greek tool/weapon comparable to the machete. The makhaira was also similar, but was intended primarily to be a weapon rather than a tool. The seax was a Germanic tool/weapon that was also similar in function, although different in shape. The fascine knife is a somewhat similar tool/weapon used by European armies throughout the late 18th to early 20th centuries. In fact, the Spanish Army called its fascine knives machetes. Whereas infantry were usually issued short sabres as side arms, engineers and artillerymen often received fascine knives, as besides being side arms they also served as useful tools for the construction of fortifications and other utilitarian tasks. They differ from machetes in that they generally have far thicker, tapered blades optimized for chopping European vegetation (the thin, flat blade of the machete is better for soft plants found in tropical environments), sword-like hilts and guards, and sometimes a sawback-blade. Some later models could be fixed to rifles as bayonets as well. Manufacturing Cane knife In manufacturing, both the materials used and the shape of the machete itself are important to make a good machete. In the past, the best and most famous manufacturer of machetes in Latin America and the Caribbean was Collins Company of Collinsville, Connecticut. The company was founded as Collins & Company in 1826 by Samuel W. Collins to make axes. Its first machetes were sold in 1845 and became so famous that all good machetes were called "un Collins." Since the 1950s however, manufacturing shortcuts have resulted in a quality decline of machetes. Today, most modern factory-made machetes are of very simple construction, consisting of a blade and full-length tang punched from a single piece of flat steel plate of uniform thickness (and thus lack a primary grind), and a simple grip of two plates of wood or plastic bolted or riveted together around the tang. Finally, one side is ground down to an edge — although some are made so that the purchaser is expected to finish the sharpening. These machetes are occasionally provided with a simple cord loop as a sort of lanyard, and a canvas scabbard — although in some regions where machetes are valuable, commonly used tools, the users may make decorative leather scabbards for them. Toughness is important because of the twisting and impact forces that the relatively thin blade may encounter, while edge retention is secondary. Medium to high carbon spring steels such as 1050 to 1095 are well suited to this application (with better machetes using the latter), and are relatively easy to sharpen. Most stainless steel machetes should be avoided, as a lot of high carbon stainless cannot stand up to repeated impacts, and will easily break if abused. After hardening, many blades are tempered to maximum toughness, often nearly spring tempered. This also makes the blade relatively easier to sharpen. A properly constructed machete will have a convex or flat primary bevel from the spine to the edge, which is formed by a secondary bevel. Better machetes will also have a slight distal taper. In popular culture The machete is also a performance weapon used in variations of the Brazilian martial dance called maculele, often practiced by exponents of capoeira. In some Central American regions, the machete is believed to be the best weapon to kill the mythical cadejo. In the Friday the 13th series of films, Jason Voorhees uses a machete as his primary weapon. Danny Trejo plays a series of characters named Machete in Spy Kids, Grindhouse and finally into a planned feature film named for the character, Machete. 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1,234 | Genocide | Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group. Buchenwald concentration camp While precise definition varies among genocide scholars, a legal definition is found in the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG). Article 2 of this convention defines genocide as "any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group." Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide The preamble to the CPPCG states that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history, but it was not until Raphael Lemkin coined the term and the prosecution of perpetrators of the Holocaust at the Nuremberg trials that the United Nations agreed to the CPPCG which defined the crime of genocide under international law. There was a gap of more than forty years between the CPPCG coming into force and the first prosecution under the provision of the treaty. To date all international prosecutions of genocide, for the Rwandan Genocide, the Srebrenica Genocide, have been by ad hoc international tribunals. Verdirame, Guglielmo "The Genocide Definition in the Jurisprudence of the Ad Hoc Tribunals", International & Comparative Law Quarterly (2000), 49 : 578-598 Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/S002058930006437X. Abstract The International Criminal Court came into existence in 2002 and it has the authority to try people from the states that have signed the treaty, but to date it has not tried anyone. Since the CPPCG came into effect in January 1951 about 80 member states of the United Nations have passed legislation that incorporates the provisions of the CPPCG into their municipal law, and some perpetrators of genocide have been found guilty under such municipal laws, such as Nikola Jorgic ,who was found guilty of genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany). Critics of the CPPCG point to the narrow definition of the groups that are protected under the treaty, particularly the lack of protection for political groups for what has been termed politicide (politicide is included as genocide under some municipal jurisdictions). Naomi Klein. The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, Macmillan, 2007 ISBN 0805079831, 9780805079838. p. 101, see footnote One of the problems was that until there was a body of case law from prosecutions, the precise definition of what the treaty meant had not been tested in court, for example, what precisely does the term "in part" mean? As more perpetrators are tried under international tribunals and municipal court cases, a body of legal arguments and legal interpretations are helping to address these issues. Another criticism of the CPPCG is that when its provisions have been invoked by the United Nations Security Council, they have only been invoked to punish those who have already committed genocide and been foolish enough to leave a paper trail. It was this criticism that led to the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1674 by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006 commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict and to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. Genocide scholars such as Gregory Stanton have postulated that conditions and acts that often occur before, during, and after genocide— such as dehumanization of victim groups, strong organization of genocidal groups, and denial of genocide by its perpetrators— can be identified and actions taken to stop genocides before they happen. Critics of this approach such as Dirk Moses assert that this is unrealistic and that, for example, "Darfur will end when it suits the great powers that have a stake in the region". Coining of the term genocide The term "genocide" was coined by Raphael Lemkin (1900–1959), a Polish-Jewish legal scholar, in 1944, firstly from the Latin "gens, gentis," meaning "birth, race, stock, kind" or the Greek root génos (γένος) (same meaning); secondly from Latin -cidium (cutting, killing) via French -cide. Oxford English Dictionary, second edition draft entry 2004. "genocide". Raphael Lemkin Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation - Analysis of Government - Proposals for Redress Chapter IX: Genocide a new term and new conception for destruction of nations, (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944), pages 79 - 95 In Noah 1933, Lemkin prepared an essay entitled the Crime of Barbarity in which genocide was portrayed as a crime against international law. The concept of the crime, which later evolved into the idea of genocide, originated with the experience of the Assyrians Raphael Lemkin - EuropeWorld, 22/6/2001 massacred in Iraq on 11 August 1933. To Lemkin, the event in Iraq evoked "memories of the slaughter of Armenians" during World War I. He presented his first proposal to outlaw such "acts of barbarism" to the Legal Council of the League of Nations in Madrid the same year. The proposal failed, and his work incurred the disapproval of the Polish government, which was at the time pursuing a policy of conciliation with Nazi Germany. In 1944, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace published Lemkin's most important work, entitled Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, in the United States. This book included an extensive legal analysis of German rule in countries occupied by Nazi Germany during the course of World War II, along with the definition of the term genocide. "By 'genocide', we mean the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group." Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, ix. 79. As quoted in the 3rd Oxford English Dictionary. Lemkin's idea of genocide as an offense against international law was widely accepted by the international community and was one of the legal bases of the Nuremberg Trials (the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders specifies in Count 3 that the defendants "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..." Oxford English Dictionary "Genocide" citing Sunday Times 21 October 1945. ) Lemkin presented a draft resolution for a Genocide Convention treaty to a number of countries in an effort to persuade them to sponsor the resolution. With the support of the United States, the resolution was placed before the General Assembly for consideration. Defining genocide in 1943, Lemkin wrote: Genocide as a crime Under international law In the wake of the Holocaust, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocide. This was achieved in 1948, with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The CPPCG was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). It contains an internationally-recognized definition of genocide which was incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was also adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC). The Convention (in article 2) defines genocide: The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but the USSR along with some other nations would not accept that actions against groups identified as holding similar political opinions or social status would constitute genocide, ] so these stipulations were subsequently removed in a political and diplomatic compromise. Intent to destroy In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnical group was enough to qualify as genocide. European Court of Human Rights Judgement in Jorgic v. Germany (Application no. 74613/01) paragraphs 18, 36,74 In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted that at the time of its the judgement, apart from courts in Germany which had taken a broad view, that there had been few cases of genocide under other Convention States municipal laws and that "There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide". European Court of Human Rights Judgement in Jorgic v. Germany (Application no. 74613/01) paragraphs 43-46 In part The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. What is Genocide? McGill Faculty of Law (McGill University) The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Trial Chamber I - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Trial Chamber I - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide had been committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Appeals Chamber - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Appeals Chamber - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of in part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion. The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the Tribunal's Statute]." Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Appeals Chamber - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) See Paragraph 6: "Article 4 of the Tribunal's Statute, like the Genocide Convention, covers certain acts done with "intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such." Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, U.N. Doc. S/25704 at 36, annex (1993) and S/25704/Add.1 (1993), adopted by Security Council on 25 May 1993, U.N. Doc. S/RES/827 (1993). In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can - in combination with other factors - inform the analysis." CPPCG coming into force After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (UNSC) were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. Eventually the Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Genocide Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced. Security Council responsibility to protect UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity". Resolution 1674 (2006) The resolution commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict. Under municipal law Since the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) came into effect in January 1951 about 80 member states of the United Nations have passed legislation that incorporates the provisions of the CPPCG into their municipal law. Criticisms of the CPPCG and other definitions of genocide William Schabas has suggested that a permanent body as recommended by the Whitaker Report to monitor the implementation of the Genocide Convention, and require States to issue reports on their compliance with the convention (such as were incorporated into the United Nations Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture), would make the convention more effective. William Schabas War crimes and human rights: essays on the death penalty, justice and accountability, Cameron May, 2008 ISBN 1905017634, 9781905017638. p. 791 Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has a international legal credibility that other lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that non of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons. Kurt Jonassohn & Karin Solveig Björnson, Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective: In Comparative Perspective, Transaction Publishers, 1998, ISBN 0765804174, 9780765804174. pp. 133-135 Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For example Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Björnson are critical of some of these studies arguing that they are too expansive and concludes that the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic paradigm. The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982<ref>M. Hassan Kakar Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982 University of California press © 1995 The Regents of the University of California.</ref> argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted, M. Hassan Kakar 4. The Story of Genocide in Afghanistan: 13. Genocide Throughout the Country and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator." Frank Chalk, Kurt Jonassohn The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, Yale University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-300-04446-1 While there are various definitions of the term, Adam Jones states that the majority of genocide scholars consider that "intent to destroy" is a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide, and that there is growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion. Jones, Adam. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction, Routledge/Taylor & Francis Publishers, 2006. ISBN 0-415-35385-8. Chapter 1: The Origins of Genocide pp.20-21 Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." What is Genocide? McGill Faculty of Law (McGill University) source cites Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr Toward empirical theory of genocides and politicides, International Studies Quarterly, 37:3, 1988 Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Origins and Evolution of the Concept in the Science Encyclopedia by Net Industries. states "Politicide, as [Barbara] Harff and [Ted R.] Gurr define it, refers to the killing of groups of people who are targeted not because of shared ethnic or communal traits, but because of 'their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups' (p. 360)". But does not give the book title to go with the page number. Staff. There are NO Statutes of Limitations on the Crimes of Genocide! On the website of the American Patriot Friends Network. Cites Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr "Toward empirical theory of genocides and politicides," International Studies Quarterly 37, 3 [1988]. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses." Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. of Holocaust and gun control, Washington University Law Quarterly 1997, (Cite as 75 Wash. U. L.Q. 1237). Article cites Citing Barbara Harff, Recognizing Genocides and Politicides, in GENOCIDE WATCH 27 (Helen Fein ed., 1992) pp.37,38 According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning. Domocide versus genocide; which is what? A major criticism of the international community's response to the Rwandan Genocide was that it was reactive, not proactive. The international community has developed a mechanism for prosecuting the perpetrators of genocide but has not developed the will or the mechanisms for intervening in a genocide as it happens. Critics point to the Darfur conflict and suggest that if anyone is found guilty of genocide after the conflict either by prosecutions brought in the International Criminal Court or in an ad hoc International Criminal Tribunal, this will confirm this perception. International prosecution of genocide By ad hoc tribunals All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories — namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and Yugoslavia — signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. United Nations Treaty Collection (As of 9 October 2001): Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide on the web site of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War. (See for example the submission by Agent of the United States, Mr. David Andrews to the ICJ Public Sitting, 11 May 1999) It is commonly accepted that, at least since World War II, genocide has been illegal under customary international law as a peremptory norm, as well as under conventional international law. Acts of genocide are generally difficult to establish for prosecution, because a chain of accountability must be established. International criminal courts and tribunals function primarily because the states involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes of this magnitude themselves. Nuremberg Trials Because the universal acceptance of international laws, defining and forbidding genocide was achieved in 1948, with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts, for taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder. Nevertheless the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, Oxford English Dictionary: 1944 R. Lemkin Axis Rule in Occupied Europe ix. 79 "By 'genocide' we mean the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group." appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide – namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..." Oxford English Dictionary "Genocide" citing Sunday Times 21 October 1945 Rwanda Skulls of Rwandan genocide victims in museum The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April, 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. So far, the ICTR has finished nineteen trials and convicted twenty five accused persons. Another twenty five persons are still on trial. Nineteen are awaiting trial in detention. Ten are still at large. The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997. Jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pleaded guilty. These figures need revising they are from the ICTR page which says see www.ictr.org Former Yugoslavia The term Bosnian Genocide is used to refer either to the genocide committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica in 1995, Staff. Bosnian genocide suspect extradited, BBC, 2 April 2002 or to ethnic cleansing that took place during the 1992-1995 Bosnian War (an interpretation rejected by a majority of scholars). European Court of Human Rights - Jorgic v. Germany Judgment, 12 July 2007. § 47 In 2001 the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre was an act of genocide. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Trial Chamber I - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that genocide had been committed. (see paragraph 560 for name of group in English on whom the genocide was committed). It was upheld in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic - Appeals Chamber - Judgment - IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) On 26 February 2007 the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the Bosnian Genocide Case upheld the ICTY's earlier finding that the Srebrenica massacre constituted genocide, but found that the Serbian government had not participated in a wider genocide on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, as the Bosnian government had claimed. On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgic against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. ECHR Jorgic v. Germany. § 42 citing Prosecutor v. Krstic, IT-98-33-T, judgment of 2 August 2001, §§ 580 ECHR Jorgic v. Germany Judgment, 12 July 2007. § 44 citing Prosecutor v. Kupreskic and Others (IT-95-16-T, judgment of 14 January 2000), § 751. In 14 January 2000 the ICTY ruled in the Prosecutor v. Kupreskic and Others case that the killing of 116 Muslims in order to expel the Muslim population from a village, was persecution, not of genocide. ICJ press release 2007/8 26 February 2007 The ECHR also noted that in the 21 century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide" ECHR Jorgic v. Germany Judgment, 12 July 2007. § 47 About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal only Radislav Krstic had been found guilty of complicity in genocide in an international court. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgic lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. Several former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces are currently on trial in Bosnia and Herzegovina indicted on several charges including genocide. Slobodan Milosevic, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995 the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008 Karadzic was arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague prison awaiting trial. Ratko Mladic is still at large. By the International Criminal Court To date all international prosecutions for genocide have been brought in specially convened international tribunals. Since 2002, the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states. Due to the United States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened international tribunals for such investigations and potential prosecutions. 23 November 2005 Darfur, Sudan The on-going conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. POWELL DECLARES KILLING IN DARFUR 'GENOCIDE', The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, September 9, 2004 Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide." , 25 January 2005, at 4 Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide." In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. SECURITY COUNCIL REFERS SITUATION IN DARFUR, SUDAN, TO PROSECUTOR OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, UN Press Release SC/8351, March 31, 2005 As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide. , Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, December 14, 2006. In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmad Harun, and a Militia Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes. Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005), International Criminal Court, 5 June 2008 On 14 July 2008, prosecutors at the International Criminal Court (ICC), filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir: three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity and two of murder. The ICC's prosecutors have claimed that al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity. The ICC's prosecutor for Darfur, Luis Moreno-Ocampo, is expected within months to ask a panel of ICC judges to issue an arrest warrant for al-Bashir. Genocide in history The preamble to the CPPCG not only states that "genocide is a crime under international law, contrary to the spirit and aims of the United Nations and condemned by the civilized world", but that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity". Determining which historical events constitute genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. Furthermore, in nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have fiercely disputed the interpretation and details of the event, often to the point of promoting wildly different versions of the facts. An accusation of genocide is certainly not taken lightly and will almost always be controversial. Revisionist attempts to deny or challenge genocides (mainly the Holocaust) are, in some countries, illegal. Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it In 1996 Gregory Stanton the president of Genocide Watch presented a briefing paper called "The 8 Stages of Genocide" at the United States Department of State. Gregory Stanton. The 8 Stages of Genocide, Genocide Watch, 1996 In it he suggested that genocide develops in eight stages that are "predictable but not inexorable". The FBI has found somewhat similar stages for hate groups. The Stanton paper was presented at the State Department, shortly after the Rwanda genocide and much of the analysis is based on why that genocide occurred. The preventative measures suggested, given the original target audience, were those that the United States could implement directly or use their influence on other governments to have implemented. Stage Characteristics Preventive measures 1.Classification People are divided into "us and them". "The main preventive measure at this early stage is to develop universalistic institutions that transcend... divisions." 2.Symbolization "When combined with hatred, symbols may be forced upon unwilling members of pariah groups..." "To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be legally forbidden as can hate speech". 3.Dehumanization "One group denies the humanity of the other group. Members of it are equated with animals, vermin, insects or diseases." "Local and international leaders should condemn the use of hate speech and make it culturally unacceptable. Leaders who incite genocide should be banned from international travel and have their foreign finances frozen." 4.Organization "Genocide is always organized... Special army units or militias are often trained and armed..." "The U.N. should impose arms embargoes on governments and citizens of countries involved in genocidal massacres, and create commissions to investigate violations" 5.Polarization "Hate groups broadcast polarizing propaganda..." "Prevention may mean security protection for moderate leaders or assistance to human rights groups...Coups d’état by extremists should be opposed by international sanctions." 6.Preparation "Victims are identified and separated out because of their ethnic or religious identity..." "At this stage, a Genocide Emergency must be declared. ..." 7.Extermination "It is "extermination" to the killers because they do not believe their victims to be fully human." "At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming armed intervention can stop genocide. Real safe areas or refugee escape corridors should be established with heavily armed international protection." 8.Denial "The perpetrators... deny that they committed any crimes..." "The response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts." In a paper for the Social Science Research Council Dirk Moses criticises Stanton approach concluding: Prevention of Genocide Task Force On 8 December 2008, the Prevention of Genocide Task Force, co-chaired by Madeline Albright, a former US Secretary of State, and William Cohen, a former US Secretary of Defence, released its final report which concludes that the US government can prevent genocide and mass atrocities in the future. Christian Science Monitor 9 December 2008 In the words of Mr. Cohen, “This report provides a blueprint that can enable the United States to take preventive action, along with international partners, to forestall the specter of future cases of genocide and mass atrocities.” PGTF press release Recommendations include: a proactive role of the US president which would demonstrate to the US and the World that preventing genocide and mass atrocities is a national priority creating an body within the United States National Security Council to analyze threats and consider preventative action set up a fund of $250 million for crisis prevention and response help create an international network for the sharing of information and the coordination of preventative action Report of the Prevention of Genocide Task Forcepp. 111-114 See also Autogenocide Cultural genocide Ethnocide Fondation Chirezi Gendercide International Association of Genocide Scholars Minority Rights Group International Nazi eugenics Policide Ten Threats identified by the UN Universal jurisdiction Völkerstrafgesetzbuch Footnotes References Kakar, M. Hassan. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0520085914. Further reading Books Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn, The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, Yale University Press, 1990 Israel W. Charny, Encyclopedia of Genocide, ABC-Clio Inc, 720 pages, ISBN 0-87436-928-2 (1 December 1999) Daniele Conversi, 'Genocide, ethnic cleansing, and nationalism', in Gerard Delanty and Krishan Kumar (eds) Handbook of Nations and Nationalism. London: Sage Publications, 2005, vol. 1, pp. 319–333 Barbara Harff, Early Warning of Communal Conflict and Genocide: Linking Empirical Research to International Responses, Westview Press, August 2003, paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0-8133-9840-1 Michael J. Kelly, Nowhere to Hide: Defeat of the Sovereign Immunity Defense for Crimes of Genocide & the Trials of Slobodan Milosevic and Saddam Hussein (Peter Lang 2005) Alexander Laban. Genocide: An Anthropological Reader, Blackwell Publishing 2002 ISBN 063122355X Catharine A. MacKinnon <cite>Are Women Human?: And Other International Dialogues<cite>, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006 Powers, Samantha, "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide Harper Perennial (2003) paperback, 656 pages ISBN 0-06-054164-4 Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. The Politics of Uniqueness: Reflections on the Recent Polemical Turn in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1999 13(1):28-61; doi:10.1093/hgs/13.1.28 R.J. Rummel. Death by Government. Transaction Publishers, 496 pages, ISBN 1-56000-927-6 (March 1997) Martin Shaw, What is Genocide? Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007. Lyal S. Sunga, The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation , Kluwer (1997) 508 p. (ISBN 90-411-0472-0) Lyal S. Sunga, Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff (1992) 252 p. (ISBN 0-7923-1453-0) Samuel Totten, William S. Parsons, and Israel W. Charny, Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, 2nd edition, Routledge, 2004 Benjamin A. Valentino. Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century. Cornell University Press, 2004. ISBN 0801439655 , report by Minority Rights Group International, 2006 Overviews An independent international organisation dedicated to eliminating genocide BBC on defining genocide Committee on Conscience of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum; Responding to Threats of Genocide Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide at Law-Ref.org - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents Documents and Resources on War, War Crimes and Genocide Facing History and Ourselves Genocide Intervention Network Genocide Watch stages of genocide Institute for the Study of Genocide/International Association of Genocide Scholars Never Again International youth genocide prevention organization; organized the 2004 Rwanda Forum at the Imperial War Museum in London. Never Again Wiki OneWorld Perspectives Magazine: Preventing Genocide (April/May 2006)- global human rights and development network looks at genocide from a variety of perspectives Staff, The Crime of Genocide in Domestic Laws and Penal Codes'', Prevent Genocide International Voices of the Holocaust - a learning resource at the British Library Worst Genocides of the 20th Century - a list of the some of the worst genocides in the 20th century. Listing from the most amount of victims to the least amount. Test of Genocide in Cambodia and Reparations for the Khmer Rouge (Democratic Kampuchea) period (Court Monitoring and Analysis) Genocide & Crimes Against Humanity - a learning resource, highlighting the cases of Myanmar, Bosnia, the DRC, and Darfur Whitaker Report Resources USA for UNHCR Web site War Crimes TV Videos and Communities against War Crimes and Genocide Research Programs Centre for the Study of Genocide and Mass Violence, Sheffield, United Kingdom Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Amsterdam, the Netherlands Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota Genocide Studies Program, Yale University GenoDynamics: Understanding Genocide Through Time and Space by Christian Davenport (University of Maryland) and Allan Stam (Dartmouth University) Montreal Institute for Genocide Studies, Concordia University Minorities at Risk project at the University of Maryland The Inforce Foundation (International Forensic Centre of Excellence), UK | Genocide |@lemmatized genocide:199 deliberate:3 systematic:3 destruction:11 whole:7 part:17 ethnic:11 racial:7 religious:6 national:12 group:57 buchenwald:1 concentration:1 camp:1 precise:2 definition:16 varies:1 among:1 scholar:11 legal:13 find:16 united:32 nation:22 convention:23 prevention:14 punishment:9 crime:41 cppcg:19 article:5 define:14 following:1 act:11 commit:13 intent:7 destroy:9 ethnical:3 kill:3 member:11 cause:2 serious:5 bodily:1 mental:1 harm:1 deliberately:1 inflict:2 condition:2 life:1 calculate:1 bring:4 physical:5 impose:2 measure:4 intend:5 prevent:8 birth:3 within:6 forcibly:2 transfer:2 child:2 another:4 office:3 high:2 commissioner:2 human:17 right:15 preamble:2 state:39 instance:1 take:12 place:3 throughout:2 history:7 raphael:5 lemkin:13 coin:3 term:15 prosecution:12 perpetrator:12 holocaust:12 nuremberg:3 trial:15 agree:2 international:80 law:29 gap:1 forty:1 year:3 come:8 force:9 first:4 provision:5 treaty:10 date:4 rwandan:4 srebrenica:4 ad:4 hoc:4 tribunal:17 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resource:4 face:1 institute:2 never:2 youth:1 forum:1 imperial:1 wiki:1 oneworld:1 magazine:1 preventing:1 global:1 variety:1 domestic:1 penal:1 code:1 voice:1 learning:2 british:1 library:1 bad:2 list:1 listing:1 cambodia:1 reparation:1 khmer:1 rouge:1 democratic:1 kampuchea:1 monitoring:1 highlight:1 myanmar:1 drc:1 usa:1 unhcr:1 tv:1 video:1 program:2 centre:2 sheffield:1 center:2 amsterdam:1 netherlands:1 minnesota:1 genodynamics:1 understanding:1 space:1 davenport:1 maryland:2 allan:1 stam:1 dartmouth:1 montreal:1 concordia:1 risk:1 project:1 inforce:1 foundation:1 forensic:1 excellence:1 uk:1 |@bigram concentration_camp:1 genocide_cppcg:5 raphael_lemkin:5 nuremberg_trial:3 rwandan_genocide:3 ad_hoc:4 jorgic_v:9 naomi_klein:1 ethnic_cleansing:5 carnegie_endowment:2 criminal_tribunal:6 v_radislav:7 radislav_krstic:8 soviet_union:1 kurt_jonassohn:5 j_rummel:3 barbara_harff:7 harff_ted:5 taylor_francis:1 statute_limitation:1 short_lived:1 avoid_confusion:1 bahrain_bangladesh:1 immunity_prosecution:1 tribunal_rwanda:1 prime_minister:1 plead_guilty:1 yugoslavia_icty:1 srebrenica_massacre:2 justice_icj:1 bosnia_herzegovina:4 plea_bargain:1 bosnian_serb:2 investigate_prosecute:1 darfur_sudan:3 colin_powell:1 newshour_jim:1 jim_lehrer:1 arrest_warrant:2 icc_prosecutor:2 preventative_measure:1 hate_speech:2 arm_embargo:1 coup_état:1 abc_clio:1 westview_press:1 saddam_hussein:1 belknap_press:1 harper_perennial:1 eyewitness_account:1 penal_code:1 khmer_rouge:1 democratic_kampuchea:1 |
1,235 | Brooke_Burke | Brooke Lisa Burke (born September 8, 1971) is an American television personality, model, and occasional dancer known for hosting Wild On! (1999–2002) and Rock Star (2005–2006) and for winning the seventh season of Dancing with the Stars. Biography Early life Burke was born as the first of nine children in Hartford, Connecticut to Donna and George Burke and was raised in Tucson, Arizona. Her mother is Jewish and she identifies herself as Jewish; she also has Irish, French, and Portuguese ancestry. She attended both Sahuaro High School and Palo Verde High School in Tucson, and later studied broadcast journalism at the University of California, Los Angeles. Career Burke worked as a model for Venus Swimwear and Frederick's of Hollywood. From 1992 to 2002, Burke became well-known while hosting Wild On!, a popular travel series on the E! Entertainment Television channel, replacing previous host Jules Asner. As part of the series, she traveled the world extensively, profiling many popular travel destinations. Burke first appeared nude during her early modeling career for the website BlueNudes, and most notably after gaining fame in the May 2001 and November 2004 issues of Playboy. She also appeared in lad mags such as Maxim, Stuff, and FHM. In 2007, she was listed as one of Blender'''s hottest women of film and TV. Burke has fronted infomercials promoting a Swiss ball video home fitness workout named Gunnar Peterson's Core Secrets, and appears in the first video of the series titled 20 Minute Full Body Workout. The infomercials have screened in New Zealand and Australia. In 2005 and 2006, Burke hosted the CBS summer reality show Rock Star, an American Idol-like series in which aspiring singers competed to become either the frontman or frontwoman for a rock band. She was the voice and face of "Rachel Teller" in Electronic Arts' video game Need for Speed: Underground 2, and asks the "People and Places" questions in the video game Trivial Pursuit Unhinged. Burke starred as a playable character in the Burger King advergaming title PocketBike Racer and in Big Bumpin'. In 2007, Burke started a company called Baboosh Baby, which offers wraps for pregnant women. The company's website features a blog from Burke about her children. In 2009, Burke hosted NBC's pre-show for the 66th Annual Golden Globe Awards with Tiki Barber and Nancy O'Dell. Burke, along with Derek Hough as her partner, won Season 7 of Dancing with the Stars. Burke also starred in the TV show host edition of The Weakest Link''. Personal life In 2001, Burke married Dr. Garth Fisher, a plastic surgeon at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. They have two daughters together: Neriah (named after one of her best friends, Playmate Neriah Davis) and Sierra Sky. In 2005, Fisher and Burke filed for divorce, and their divorce was finalized in 2006. On August 21, 2006, she announced that she was engaged to actor/singer David Charvet. They have two children together: a daughter named Heaven Rain (born January 8, 2007) and a son named Shaya Braven (born March 5, 2008). Notes External links Official site for Brooke Burke | Brooke_Burke |@lemmatized brooke:2 lisa:1 burke:17 born:2 september:1 american:2 television:2 personality:1 model:2 occasional:1 dancer:1 know:2 host:6 wild:2 rock:3 star:6 win:2 seventh:1 season:2 dance:2 biography:1 early:2 life:2 bear:2 first:3 nine:1 child:3 hartford:1 connecticut:1 donna:1 george:1 raise:1 tucson:2 arizona:1 mother:1 jewish:2 identify:1 also:3 irish:1 french:1 portuguese:1 ancestry:1 attend:1 sahuaro:1 high:2 school:2 palo:1 verde:1 later:1 study:1 broadcast:1 journalism:1 university:1 california:1 los:2 angeles:2 career:2 work:1 venus:1 swimwear:1 frederick:1 hollywood:1 become:2 well:1 popular:2 travel:3 series:4 e:1 entertainment:1 channel:1 replace:1 previous:1 jules:1 asner:1 part:1 world:1 extensively:1 profile:1 many:1 destination:1 appear:3 nude:1 modeling:1 website:2 bluenudes:1 notably:1 gain:1 fame:1 may:1 november:1 issue:1 playboy:1 lad:1 mag:1 maxim:1 stuff:1 fhm:1 list:1 one:2 blender:1 hot:1 woman:2 film:1 tv:2 front:1 infomercial:2 promote:1 swiss:1 ball:1 video:4 home:1 fitness:1 workout:2 name:4 gunnar:1 peterson:1 core:1 secret:1 title:2 minute:1 full:1 body:1 screen:1 new:1 zealand:1 australia:1 cbs:1 summer:1 reality:1 show:3 idol:1 like:1 aspire:1 singer:2 compete:1 either:1 frontman:1 frontwoman:1 band:1 voice:1 face:1 rachel:1 teller:1 electronic:1 art:1 game:2 need:1 speed:1 underground:1 ask:1 people:1 place:1 question:1 trivial:1 pursuit:1 unhinge:1 playable:1 character:1 burger:1 king:1 advergaming:1 pocketbike:1 racer:1 big:1 bumpin:1 start:1 company:2 call:1 baboosh:1 baby:1 offer:1 wrap:1 pregnant:1 feature:1 blog:1 nbc:1 pre:1 annual:1 golden:1 globe:1 award:1 tiki:1 barber:1 nancy:1 dell:1 along:1 derek:1 hough:1 partner:1 edition:1 weak:1 link:2 personal:1 married:1 dr:1 garth:1 fisher:2 plastic:1 surgeon:1 cedar:1 sinai:1 medical:1 center:1 two:2 daughter:2 together:2 neriah:2 best:1 friend:1 playmate:1 davis:1 sierra:1 sky:1 file:1 divorce:2 finalize:1 august:1 announce:1 engage:1 actor:1 david:1 charvet:1 heaven:1 rain:1 january:1 son:1 shaya:1 braven:1 march:1 note:1 external:1 official:1 site:1 |@bigram hartford_connecticut:1 tucson_arizona:1 palo_verde:1 los_angeles:2 trivial_pursuit:1 playable_character:1 golden_globe:1 cedar_sinai:1 divorce_finalize:1 external_link:1 |
1,236 | European_Council | The European Council (referred to as a European Summit) is the highest political body of the European Union. It comprises the heads of state or government of the Union's member states along with the President of the European Commission. Its meeting is chaired by the member from the member state currently holding Presidency of the Council of the European Union. While the Council has no formal executive or legislative powers, it is an institution that deals with major issues and any decisions made are "a major impetus in defining the general political guidelines of the European Union". The Council meets at least twice a year; usually in the Justus Lipsius building, the quarters of the Council of the European Union (Consilium) of Brussels. History The first Councils were held in February and July 1961 (in Paris and Bonn respectively). They were informal summits of the leaders of the European Community and were started due to then-French President Charles de Gaulle's resentment at the domination of supranational institutions (e.g. the European Commission) over the integration process. The first influential summit was held in 1969 after a series of irregular summits. The Hague summit of 1969 reached an agreement on the admittance of the United Kingdom into the Community and initiated foreign policy cooperation (the European Political Cooperation) taking integration beyond economics. The summits were only formalised in 1974, at the December summit in Paris, following a proposal from then-French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. It was felt that more intergovernmental input was needed following the "empty chair crisis" and economic problems. The inaugural Council, as it had become, was held in Dublin on 1975-03-10/1975-03-11 during Ireland's first Presidency of the Council of the European Union. In 1987 it was included in the treaties for the first time (the Single European Act) and had a defined role for the first time in the Maastricht Treaty. At first only two meetings per year were required, now there are on average four European Councils each year (two per presidency). The seat of the Council was formalised in 2002, basing it in Brussels (see Seat). In addition to usual councils, there are the occasional extraordinary councils, for example in 2001 the European Council gathered to lead the EUs response to those events. The meetings of the Council are seen by some as turning points in the history of the European Union. For example: 1969, The Hague: Foreign policy and enlargement. 1974, Paris: Creation of the Council. 1985, Milan: Initiate IGC leading to the Single European Act. 1991, Maastricht: Agreement on the Maastricht Treaty. 1997, Amsterdam: Agreement on the Amsterdam Treaty. 1998, Brussels: Selected member states to adopt the euro. 1999; Cologne: Declaration on military forces. 1999, Tampere: Institutional reform 2000, Lisbon: Lisbon Strategy 2002, Copenhagen: Agreement for May 2004 enlargement. 2007, Lisbon: Agreement on the Lisbon Treaty. Powers and functions The European Council isn't an official institution of the EU, although it is mentioned in the treaties as a body which "shall provide the Union with the necessary impetus for its development". Essentially it defines the EU's policy agenda and has thus been considered to be the motor of European integration. It does this without any formal powers, only the influence it has being composed of national leaders. Beyond the need to provide "impetus", the Council has developed further roles; to "settle issues outstanding from discussions at a lower level", to lead in foreign policy - acting externally as a "collective Head of State", "formal ratification of important documents" and "involvement in the negotiation of the treaty changes". Because it's composed of national leaders, the body brings together the executive power of the member states, having a great deal of influence outside the European Community: for example over foreign policy and police & justice. It also exercises the more executive powers of the Council of the European Union (the European Council could be described as a configuration of that body) such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission. Hence with powers over the supranational executive of the EU, in addition to its other powers, the European Council has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority". However, the body has been criticised by some for a lack of leadership, in part stemming from the weak structure of the body, meeting only 4 times a year for 2 days with no staff and no legislative decisions made. Composition Officially the members of the Council consist of the heads of state or government of the Union, plus the Commission President (non-voting). When meetings take place, the national foreign minister usually attends with the leaders. The Commission President likewise is also accompanied by another member of the Commission. These are the members seen in the "family photo" taken at each Council. Meetings can also include national ministers, including foreign ministers, other leading national positions (French Prime Minister), Commissioners as required. The Secretary General of the Council (and his/her deputy) is also a regular attendee. The position has become highly important due to its regular role in organising the meetings while also acting as the Union's High Representative. The President of the European Parliament usually attends to give an opening speech outlining the European Parliament's position before talks begin. However the negotiations usually involve a large number of other people working behind the scenes. Most of those people however are not allowed into the conference room, except for two delegates per state to relay messages. At the push of a button members can also call for advice from a Permanent Representative via the "Antici Group" in an adjacent room. The group is composed of diplomats and assistants who convey information and requests. Interpretors are also required for meetings as members are permitted to speak in their own languages. As the composition is not precisely defined, some states where there is a considerably split of executive power can find it difficult deciding who attends the meetings. While an MEP, Alexander Stubb argued that there was no need for the President of Finland to attend Council meetings with or instead of the Prime Minister of Finland (who was head of European foreign policy). In 2008, having become Finnish Foreign Minister, Stubb was forced out of the Finnish delegation to the emergency council meeting on the Georgian crisis because the President wanted to attend the high profile summit as well as the Prime Minister (only two people from each country can attend the meetings). This was despite Stubb being head of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe at the time which was heavily involved in the crisis. Problems also occurred in Poland where the President of Poland and the Prime Minister of Poland were of different parties and had a different foreign policy response to the crisis. President-in-Office The role of President-in-Office of the assembled European Council is performed by the head of government or head of state of the member state currently holding the Council Presidency. This presidency rotates every six months, with every three presidencies co-operating on a common programme in triplets, meaning there is also a new president of the European Council every six months. The agenda of the meetings are defined by the Presidency, hence it may be misused by the country holding the Presidency by pushing their national interests up the agenda. The presiding country may also have additional negotiators at the table. The role as President-in-Office is in no sense equivalent to an office of a head of state, merely a primus inter pares (first among equals) role with other European heads of government. The President-in-Office is primarily responsible for preparing and chairing Council meetings, and has no executive powers. It does however offer external representation of the council and the Union and reports to the European Parliament after Council meetings and at the beginning and end of the Presidency. Council members Member StateRepresentativeTitlePolitical partyMember sincePhotoChancellorPESNational: SPÖPrime MinisterEPPNational: CD&VPrime MinisterPESNational: БСПPresidentPELNational: ΑΚΕΛ Party holds only observer status with the Party of the European Left ( Presidency) Czech Republic currently holds the Presidency of the Council of the European Union; Jan Fischer, as Prime Minister of that member state, is the President-in-Office. Jan FischerPrime MinisterIndependentPrime MinisterELDRNational: VenstrePrime MinisterELDRNational: ReformierakondPrime MinisterELDRNational: KeskustaPresidentEPPNational: UMPChancellorEPPNational: CDUPrime MinisterEPPNational: ΝΔPrime MinisterIndependent IrelandTaoiseachELDRNational: FFPrime MinisterEPPNational: PdL Silvio Berlusconi's People of Freedom has yet to be formally founded; it is expected to become a member party of the EPP. Prime MinisterEPPNational: JLPrime MinisterEPPNational: TS–LKDPrime MinisterEPPNational: CSVPrime MinisterEPPNational: PNPrime MinisterEPPNational: CDADonald TuskPrime MinisterEPPNational: POPrime MinisterPESNational: PSPrime MinisterEPPNational: PD-LPrime MinisterPESNational: SmerPrime MinisterPESNational: SDPrime MinisterPESNational: PSOEPrime MinisterEPPNational: ModeraternaPrime MinisterPESNational: Labour Commission José Manuel Barroso does not represent a member state, but sits in the European Council as the President of the Commission and does not vote. PresidentEPP<small>National: PSD</small> Source for positions Political parties The states of the European Union by the European party affiliations of their leaders, as of 8 May 2009 Almost all members of the Council are members of a political party at national level, and most of these are members of a European-level political party. However the Council is composed in order to represent the Union's states rather than political parties, and decisions are generally made on these lines. The table below outlines the European party affiliations of the European Council members for each country. Seat and meetings The Justus Lipsius building, the headquarters of the European Council in Brussels. Meetings of the council usually take place four times a year (two per Presidency) in Brussels and last for two days, although this can sometimes be longer if contentious issues are on the agenda. Up until 2002, the venue of the council meeting rotated between member states, as its location was decided by the country holding the rotating presidency. However, the 22nd declaration attached to the Treaty of Nice stated that; "As from 2002, one European Council meeting per Presidency will be held in Brussels. When the Union comprises 18 members, all European Council meetings will be held in Brussels." So between 2002 and 2004 half the councils were held in Brussels, and from the 2004 enlargement, all were. The European Council uses the same building as the Council of the European Union (the Justus Lipsius building). However some extraordinary councils still take place outside of the city in the member holding the Presidency; (Rome, 2003 or Hampton Court Palace in 2005). The European Council is due to move with the Council of the European Union to a new building, Résidence Palace, next to the existing building. The choice of a single seat was due to a number of factors, such as the experience of the Belgian police in dealing with protesters (a protester in Gothenburg was shot by police) as well as Brussels having fixed facilities for the Council and journalists at every meeting. By having a permanent seat (that's the same as the Council), particularly since enlargement, it was expected the Council would integrate further into the Community framework, rather than continuing under heavy national influence, developing as a governmental body (some have argued it is already the de facto EU government). In 2007 the new situation became a source of contention with the European Council wanting to sign the Lisbon Treaty in Lisbon. However the Belgian government, keen not to set a precedent, insisted that the actual meeting take place in Brussels as usual. This would mean that after the signing, photo suit and formal dinner the entire summit would transfer from Lisbon to Brussels to continue with normal business. The idea of such an eventuality, mirrored with the "travelling circus" of the European Parliament, garnered protests from environmental groups describing the hypocrisy of demanding lower carbon emissions while flying across Europe for the same summit for political reasons. Future of the European Council Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair is the current front runner for the first permanent President of the European Council. There would be a number of changes to the European Council under the proposed Treaty of Lisbon, which largely retains the reforms outlined in the rejected Constitutional Treaty. The treaty would make the European Council a formal institution, separate from the Council of the European Union (now the Council of Ministers). While the Council of Ministers would continue with the rotating presidency, the European Council would have a single, fixed, President of the European Council with a renewable two-and-a-half year mandate. The position would stay a non-executive, administrative role. It would have an important role in organising work and meetings, providing external representation (including working with the CFSP) and being able to call extraordinary meetings beyond the four that are now formally required to take place. The role of the council is clearly separate from the Council, and primarily follows previous definitions. In separating from the Council of Ministers, the European Council gains no legislative power. It does however gain a greater say over police and justice planning, foreign policy and constitutional matters, including: the composition of the Parliament and Commission; matters relating to the rotating presidency; the suspension of membership rights; changing the voting systems in the treaties bridging clauses; and nominating the President of the European Commission and the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. The High Representative, along with the new post of President, are the only formal changes in composition. Further more, under the "emergency break" procedure, a state may refer contenious legislation from the Council of Ministers to the European Council if it is outvoted in the Council, although it may still be outvoted in the European Council. Although there may be some informal changes; currently the President of Finland informally takes part in the European Council as s/he is responsible for the Finland's foreign policy outside the EU. This is alongside the Prime Minister who deals with policy within the EU. Under the new treaty the Council becomes a formal EU institution and deals with foreign policy (making it EU policy). Hence, some see the President's attendance would no longer be justified. There has been speculation on who would be the first (full time) President of the European Council, being dubbed as the President of the European Union. Currently the most common name is former British Prime Minister, Tony Blair. This was backed up further when, in June 2007, French president Nicolas Sarkozy was the first leader to propose that Blair be the first president. However in August 2007, there has been specuation that Bertie Ahern, the former Irish Taoiseach, could also be a contender. Lastly, the Bulgarian government has floated the name of former Prime Minister Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha psz.pl - UE/ Bułgar unijnym prezydentem? . References External links Official website Archive of European Integration - Summit Guide European Council | European_Council |@lemmatized european:63 council:73 refer:2 summit:11 high:5 political:9 body:7 union:22 comprise:2 head:9 state:19 government:7 member:23 along:2 president:27 commission:10 meeting:23 chair:3 currently:5 hold:13 presidency:17 formal:7 executive:7 legislative:3 power:10 institution:5 deal:5 major:2 issue:3 decision:3 make:5 impetus:3 define:4 general:2 guideline:1 meet:2 least:1 twice:1 year:6 usually:5 justus:3 lipsius:3 building:6 quarter:1 consilium:1 brussels:11 history:2 first:11 february:1 july:1 paris:3 bonn:1 respectively:1 informal:2 leader:6 community:4 start:1 due:4 french:4 charles:1 de:2 gaulle:1 resentment:1 domination:1 supranational:2 e:1 g:1 integration:4 process:1 influential:1 series:1 irregular:1 hague:2 reach:1 agreement:5 admittance:1 united:1 kingdom:1 initiated:1 foreign:13 policy:13 cooperation:2 take:8 beyond:3 economics:1 formalise:2 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1,237 | Graphical_user_interface | A screenshot of a modern GUI (GNOME), taken from Ubuntu version 9.04. A graphical user interface (GUI, GUI, Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989. ) is a type of user interface which allows people to interact with electronic devices such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable Media Players or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment with images rather than text commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual indicators, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation to fully represent the information and actions available to a user. The actions are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. The term GUI is historically restricted to the scope of two-dimensional display screens with display resolutions capable of describing generic information, in the tradition of the computer science research at Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The term GUI earlier might have been applicable to other high-resolution types of interfaces that are non-generic, such as videogames, or not restricted to flat screens, like volumetric displays. History Precursors An early-1990s style Unix desktop running the X Window System graphical user interface The precursor to GUIs was invented by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute, led by Douglas Engelbart. They developed the use of text-based hyperlinks manipulated with a mouse for the On-Line System. The concept of hyperlinks was further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at Xerox PARC, who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used a GUI as the primary interface for the Xerox Alto computer. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system. As a result, some people call this class of interface a PARC User Interface (PUI) (note that PUI is also an acronym for perceptual user interface). Ivan Sutherland developed a pointer-based system called the Sketchpad in 1963. It used a light-pen to guide the creation and manipulation of objects in engineering drawings. PARC User Interface The PARC User Interface consisted of graphical elements such as windows, menus, radio buttons, check boxes and icons. The PARC User Interface employs a pointing device in addition to a keyboard. These aspects can be emphasized by using the alternative acronym WIMP, which stands for Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointing device. Evolution Following PARC the first GUI-centric computer operating model was the Xerox 8010 Star Information System in 1981 The first GUIs followed by the Apple Lisa (which presented concept of menu bar as well as window controls), in 1982 and the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga in 1985. The GUIs familiar to most people today are Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and the X Window System interfaces. Apple, IBM and Microsoft used many of Xerox's ideas to develop products, and IBMs Common User Access specifications formed the basis of the user interface found in Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2 Presentation Manager, and the Unix Motif toolkit and window manager. These ideas evolved to create the interface found in current versions of Microsoft Windows, as well as in Mac OS X and various desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux. Thus most current GUIs have largely common idioms. Components A GUI uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform the user can interact with, for the tasks of gathering and producing information. The most common combination in GUIs is the WIMP paradigm, especially in personal computers. This style of interaction uses a physical input device to control the position of a cursor and presents information organized in windows and represented with icons. Available commands are compiled together in menus and actioned through the pointing device. A window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications, and the windowing system. The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices and graphics hardware, as well as the positioning of the cursor. In personal computers all these elements are modelled through a desktop metaphor, to produce a simulation called a desktop environment in which the display represents a desktop, upon which documents and folders of documents can be placed. Window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Post-WIMP interfaces Smaller mobile devices such as PDAs and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space and available input devices. Applications for which WIMP is not well suited may use newer interaction techniques, collectively named as post-WIMP user interfaces. Some touch-screen-based devices such as Apple's iPhone currently use post-WIMP styles of interaction. The iPhone's use of more than one finger in contact with the screen allows actions such as pinching and rotating, which are not supported by a single pointer and mouse. A class of GUIs sometimes referred to as post-WIMP include 3D compositing window manager such as Compiz, Desktop Window Manager, and LG3D. Some post-WIMP interfaces may be better suited for applications which model immersive 3D environments, such as Google Earth. User interface and interaction design Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of GUI is an important part of software application programming. Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the underlying logical design of a stored program, a design discipline known as usability. Techniques of user-centered design are used to ensure that the visual language introduced in the design is well tailored to the tasks it must perform. Typically, the user interacts with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of a well-designed interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of the user. A Model-view-controller allows for a flexible structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly linked to application functionality, so the GUI can be easily customized. This allows the user to select or design a different skin at will, and eases the designer's work to change the interface as the user needs evolve. Nevertheless, good user interface design relates to the user, not the system architecture. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as "chrome". The Jargon Book, "Chrome" Larger widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, email message or drawing. Smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the rigorous requirements of a vertical market. This is known as an "application specific graphical user interface." Examples of an application specific GUI are: Touchscreen point of sale software used by waitstaff in a busy restaurant Self-service checkouts used in a retail store Automated teller machines (ATM) Airline self-ticketing and check-in Information kiosks in a public space, like a train station or a museum Monitors or control screens in an embedded industrial application which employ a real time operating system (RTOS). The latest cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touchscreen GUIs. Newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and touch screen multimedia centers. Comparison to other interfaces Command-line interfaces Modern CLI GUIs were introduced in reaction to the steep learning curve of command-line interfaces (CLI) http://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch000619.htm http://blogs.technet.com/mscom/archive/2007/03/12/the-gui-versus-the-command-line-which-is-better-part-1.aspx http://blogs.technet.com/mscom/archive/2007/03/26/the-gui-versus-the-command-line-which-is-better-part-2.aspx , which require commands to be typed on the keyboard. Since the commands available in command line interfaces can be numerous, complicated operations can be completed using a short sequence of words and symbols. This allows for greater efficiency and productivity once many commands are learnt, http://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch000619.htm http://blogs.technet.com/mscom/archive/2007/03/12/the-gui-versus-the-command-line-which-is-better-part-1.aspx http://blogs.technet.com/mscom/archive/2007/03/26/the-gui-versus-the-command-line-which-is-better-part-2.aspx but reaching this level takes some time because the command words are not easily discoverable and not mnemonic. WIMPs ("window, icon, menu, pointing device"), on the other hand, present the user with numerous widgets that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands. WIMPs extensively use modes as the meaning of all keys and clicks on specific positions on the screen are redefined all the time. Command line interfaces use modes only in limited forms, such as the current directory and environment variables. Most modern operating systems provide both a GUI and some level of a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention. The GUI is usually WIMP-based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as those used in Microsoft Bob, 3dwm or File System Visualizer (FSV). Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a WIMP wrapper around the command-line version. This is especially common with applications designed for Unix-like operating systems. The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons. Designing programs this way also allows users to run the program non-interactively, such as in a shell script. Three-dimensional user interfaces For typical computer displays, three-dimensional is a misnomer—their displays are two-dimensional. Three-dimensional images are projected on them in two dimensions. Since this technique has been in use for many years, the recent use of the term three-dimensional must be considered a declaration by equipment marketers that the speed of three dimension to two dimension projection is adequate to use in standard GUIs. Motivation Three-dimensional GUIs are quite common in science fiction literature and movies, such as in Jurassic Park, which features Silicon Graphics' three-dimensional file manager, "File system navigator", an actual file manager that never got much widespread use as the user interface for a Unix computer. In fiction, three-dimensional user interfaces are often immersible environments like William Gibson's Cyberspace or Neal Stephenson's Metaverse. Three-dimensional graphics are currently mostly used in computer games, art and computer-aided design (CAD). There have been several attempts at making three-dimensional desktop environments like Sun's Project Looking Glass or SphereXP from Sphere Inc. A three-dimensional computing environment could possibly be used for collaborative work. For example, scientists could study three-dimensional models of molecules in a virtual reality environment, or engineers could work on assembling a three-dimensional model of an airplane. This is a goal of the Croquet project and Project Looking Glass. Project Looking Glass Technologies The use of three-dimensional graphics has become increasingly common in mainstream operating systems, from creating attractive interfaces—eye candy— to functional purposes only possible using three dimensions. For example, user switching is represented by rotating a cube whose faces are each user's workspace, and window management is represented in the form or via a Rolodex-style flipping mechanism in Windows Vista (see Windows Flip 3D). In both cases, the operating system transforms windows on-the-fly while continuing to update the content of those windows. An example of a combination of eye-candy and added functionality is 3DTop, where the desktop and -animated- icons are presented in a user configurable 3 dimensional environment. Added functionality is for instance the possibility to seamlessly slide or move around the whole desktop while partly covered by windows. Interfaces for the X Window System have also implemented advanced three-dimensional user interfaces through compositing window managers such as Beryl, Compiz and KWin using the AIGLX or XGL architectures, allowing for the usage of OpenGL to animate the user's interactions with the desktop. Another branch in the three-dimensional desktop environment is the three-dimensional GUIs that take the desktop metaphor a step further, like the BumpTop, where a user can manipulate documents and windows as if they were "real world" documents, with realistic movement and physics. The Zooming User Interface (ZUI) is a related technology that promises to deliver the representation benefits of 3D environments without their usability drawbacks of orientation problems and hidden objects. It is a logical advancement on the GUI, blending some three-dimensional movement with two-dimensional or "2.5D" vector objects. See also Ajax Apple v. Microsoft Ergonomics Human-Machine Interface Look and feel Model-view-controller Ncurses Object-oriented user interface Organic User Interface Post-WIMP Rich Internet applications Skin Usability User interface engineering Vector-Based GUI Worrell WIMP (computing) KDE GNOME References External links The men who really invented the GUI by Clive Akass Graphical User Interface Gallery, screenshots of various GUIs Marcin Wichary's GUIdebook, Graphical User Interface gallery: over 5500 screenshots of GUI, application and icon history The Real History of the GUI by Mike Tuck A History of the GUI by Jeremy Reimer of Ars Technica GUI Automated Tests, a program that can be used to record user actions (mouse and keyboard), to play recorded actions, to validate desktop after each action, create reports and has built-in integration with Cruise Control. | Graphical_user_interface |@lemmatized screenshot:1 modern:4 gui:41 gnome:2 take:3 ubuntu:1 version:3 graphical:9 user:41 interface:45 oxford:1 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1,238 | Essenes | The Essenes (Greek Εσσηνοι, Εσσαιοι, or Οσσαιοι) were a Jewish religious group that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Being much fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees (the other two major sects at the time) the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to asceticism, voluntary poverty, and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including sex. Many separate but related religious groups of that era shared similar mystic, eschatological, messianic, and ascetic beliefs. These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as the "Essenes." The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, commonly believed to be their library. These documents include preserved multiple copies of the Hebrew Bible untouched from as early as 300 BCE until their discovery in 1946. Some scholars, however, dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. Hillel Newman, Ph.D Bar Ilan University : Proximity to Power and Jewish Sectarian Groups of the Ancient Period Brill ISBN 9004146997 One scholar, Rachel Elior, even argues that the group never existed. Contemporary ancient sources The earliest mention of the Essenes is by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria (c. 20-54 CE). Philo told his readers that there were more than 4,000 Essenes (Essaioi) living in villages throughout Judea. Among their neighbours they were noted for their love of God and their concerns with piety, honesty, morality, philanthropy, holiness, equality, and freedom. The holy Essenes did not marry and lived a celibate life, and practiced communal residence, money, property, food and clothing. They observed the Sabbath according to all the strictest instructions and spent much of their time studying the Law according to philosophical and allegorical interpretations. They cherished freedom, possessed no slaves, and rejected the use of weapons or participation in commerce. Philo did not mention any names or places, nor any background to the origins of this group. The next reference is by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder (died c 79 CE) in his Natural History. Pliny relates in a few lines that the Essenes do not marry, possess no money, and had existed for thousands of generations. Unlike Philo, who did not mention any particular geographical location of the Essenes other than the whole land of Israel, Pliny places them in Ein Gedi, next to the Dead Sea. A little later Josephus gave a detailed account of the Essenes in The Jewish War (c.75 CE) with a shorter description in Antiquities of the Jews (c. 94 CE) and The Life of Flavius Josephus (c. 97 CE). Claiming first hand knowledge, he lists the Essenoi as one of the three sects of Jewish philosophy Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119 alongside the Pharisees and the Sadducees. He relates the same information concerning piety, celibacy, the absence of personal property and of money, the belief in communality and commitment to a strict observance of the Sabbath. He further adds that the Essenes ritually immersed in water every morning, ate together after prayer, devoted themselves to charity and benevolence, forbade the expression of anger, studied the books of the elders, preserved secrets, and were very mindful of the names of the angels kept in their sacred writings. Pliny, also a geographer and explorer, located them in the desert near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in the year 1947 by Muhammed edh-Dhib and Ahmed Mohammed, two Bedouin shepherds of the Ta'amireh tribe. Name Josephus uses the name Essenes in his two main accounts Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.119, 158, 160 Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.171-2 as well as in some other contexts ("an account of the Essenes"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.298 "the gate of the Essenes"; Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 5.145 "Judas of the Essene race"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 13.311 but some manuscripts read here Essaion; "holding the Essenes in honour"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.372 "a certain Essene named Manaemus"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.373 "to hold all Essenes in honour"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.378 "the Essenes"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.11 Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18 Josephus (). The Life of Flavius Josephus. 10 ). In several places, however, Josephus has Essaios, which is usually assumed to mean Essene ("Judas of the Essaios race"; Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. I.78 "Simon of the Essaios race"; Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.113 "John the Essaios"; Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.567; 3.11 "those who are called by us Essaioi"; Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 15.371 "Simon a man of the Essaios race" Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 17.346 ). Philo's usage is Essaioi, although he admits this Greek form of the original name that according to his etymology signifies "holiness" to be inexact. Philo (). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75-87 Pliny's Latin text has Esseni. Pliny the Elder (). Natural History. 5.73. Josephus identified the Essenes as one of the three major Jewish sects of that period. And when I was about sixteen years old, I had a mind to make trim of the several sects that were among us. These sects are three: - The first is that of the Pharisees, the second that Sadducees, and the third that of the Essenes, as we have frequently told you - The Life of Josephus Flavius, 2 Gabriele Boccaccini implies that a convincing etymology for the name Essene has not been found, but that the term applies to a larger group within Palestine that also included the Qumran community. It was proposed before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered that the name came into several Greek spellings from a Hebrew self-designation later found in some Dead Sea Scrolls, 'osey hatorah, "observers of torah." Location Remains of living quarters at Qumran. According to Josephus, the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town". Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.124 Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" Essaioi living in "Palestinian Syria", Philo (). Quod Omnis Probus Liber. XII.75 more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members". Philo. Hypothetica. 11.1. in Eusebius. Praeparatio Evangelica. VIII Pliny locates them "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast… [above] the town of Engeda". Some modern scholars and archaeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at Qumran, a plateau in the Judean Desert along the Dead Sea, citing Pliny the Elder in support, and giving credence that the Dead Sea Scrolls are the product of the Essenes. This view, though not yet conclusively proven, has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes. Josephus' reference to a "gate of the Essenes" in his description of the course of "the most ancient" of the three walls of Jerusalem, Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 5.145 in the Mount Zion area, cf. map of ancient Jerusalem perhaps suggests an Essene community living in this quarter of the city or regularly gathering at this part of the Temple precincts. Rules, customs, theology and beliefs The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes led a strictly celibate and communal life often compared by scholars to later Christian monastic living although Josephus speaks also of another "rank of Essenes" that did get married. Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.160–161 According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership, Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.122 Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.20 elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed, Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.123, 134 were forbidden from swearing oaths Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.135 and sacrificing animals, Philo, §75 controlled their temper and served as channels of peace, carried weapons only as protection against robbers, Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.125 had no slaves but served each other Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.21 and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in trading. Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.127 Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations. After a total of three years probation, Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.137-138 newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practice piety towards "the Deity" (το θειον) and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels. Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.139–142 Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death. Josephus (). The Wars of the Jews. 2.153-158 Josephus (). Antiquities of the Jews. 18.18 Part of their activities included purification by water rituals, which was supported by rainwater catchment and storage. The Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the fourth century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: "Of those that came before his [Elxai, an Ossaean prophet] time and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nazarean.". Epiphanius of Salamis (). Panarion. 1:19 Epiphanius describes each group as following: If it is correct to identify the community at Qumran with the Essenes (and that the community at Qumran are the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls), then according to the Dead Sea Scrolls the Essenes' community school was called "Yahad" (meaning "unity") in order to differentiate themselves from the rest of the Jews who are repeatedly labeled "The Breakers of the Covenant". Scholarly discussion The Essenes are discussed in detail by Josephus and Philo. Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by Norman Golb and other scholars. Golb, for instance, uses strong arguments claiming that the primary research on the Qumran documents and ruins (by Father Roland de Vaux, from the École Biblique et Archéologique de Jérusalem) lacked scientific method, and drew wrong conclusions that comfortably entered the academic canon. For Golb, the amount of documents is too extensive and includes many different writing styles and calligraphies; the ruins seem to have been a fortress, used as a military base for a very long period of time including the 1st Century so they could not have been inhabited by the Essenes; and the large graveyard excavated in 1870, just 50 metres east of the Qumran ruins was made of over 1200 tombs that included many women and children Pliny clearly wrote that the Essenes that lived near the Dead Sea "had not one woman, had renounced all pleasure ... and no one was born in their race". Golb's book presents sharp observations about de Vaux's premature conclusions and their uncontoverted acceptance by the general academic community. He states that the documents probably stemmed from various libraries in Jerusalem, kept safe in the desert from the Roman invasions. Another issue is the relationship between the Essaioi and Philo's Therapeutae and Therapeutrides. It may be argued that he regarded the Therapeutae as a contemplative branch of the Essaioi who, he said, pursued an active life. Philo. De Vita Contemplativa. I.1. One theory on the formation of the Essenes suggested the movement was founded by a Jewish high priest, dubbed by the Essenes the Teacher of Righteousness, whose office had been usurped by Jonathan (of priestly but not Zadokite lineage), labeled the "man of lies" or "false priest". Connections with Kabbalah According to a Jewish legend, one of the Essenes, named Menachem, had passed at least some of his mystical knowledge to the Talmudic mystic Nehunya ben ha-Kanah, to whom the Kabbalistic tradition attributes Sefer ha-Bahir and, by some opinions, Sefer ha-Kanah, Sefer ha-Peliah and Sefer ha-Temunah. Some Essene rituals, such as daily immersion in the Mikvah, coincide with contemporary Hasidic practices; some historians had also suggested, that name "Essene" is a Hellenized form of the word "Hasidim" or "Hasin" ("pious ones"). However, the legendary connections between Essene and Kabbalistic tradition are not verified by modern historians. Modern Essenes The modern pseudo-Essene movement "is directly derivative of two occult bestsellers, The Aquarian Gospel of Jesus the Christ, by Levi H. Dowling; and The Mystical Life of Jesus, by Rosicrucian author H. Spencer Lewis, and possesses no authentic ties to the ancient Essene movement, J. Gordon Melton, The Encyclopedia of American Religions Other pseudo-Essene writers include the Rev. Gideon Ousely and Dr. Edmund Bordeaux Szekely, both of whom assert that the Essene teachings had been hidden and assimilated into many mystical spiritual traditions around the world, where the teachings were hidden within ancient libraries. References Further reading See also Therapeutae Jewish eschatology Mount Carmel Qumran Dead Sea scrolls Ebionite Ein Gedi Vegetarianism and religion External links Historical Facts on Essene Culture Thematically compiled comparison of the parallels in the ancient sources Encyclopedia Britannica: Essenes Catholic Encyclopedia: Essenes Jewish Encyclopedia: Essenes Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed - Haaretz, March 13, 2009 | Essenes |@lemmatized essene:54 greek:3 εσσηνοι:1 εσσαιοι:1 οσσαιοι:1 jewish:10 religious:4 group:11 flourish:1 century:4 bce:2 ce:7 much:2 number:2 pharisee:3 sadducee:2 two:5 major:2 sect:5 time:5 live:4 various:3 city:4 congregate:1 communal:5 life:9 dedicate:1 asceticism:1 voluntary:1 poverty:1 abstinence:1 worldly:1 pleasure:2 include:10 sex:1 many:8 separate:1 related:1 era:1 share:1 similar:1 mystic:2 eschatological:1 messianic:1 ascetic:1 belief:3 collectively:1 refer:1 scholar:8 gain:1 fame:1 modern:5 result:2 discovery:2 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1,239 | Pope | The Pope (from Latin: "papa" or "father" from Greek , pápas, "papa", Papa in Italian) is the Bishop of Rome and as such is the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church (that is, all Latin Rite and Eastern Rite churches which are in full communion with the Roman Pontiff). The Pope is also head of state of Vatican City. The current (265th) pope is Pope Benedict XVI, who was elected April 19, 2005 in papal conclave. The office of the pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin) or "Apostolic See" (the latter on the basis that both St. Peter and St. Paul were martyred at Rome). In addition to his spiritual role, the pope is Head of State of the independent sovereign state of the Vatican City, a city-state entirely enclaved by the city of Rome. Early popes helped spread Christianity and resolve doctrinal disputes. After the conversion of the Roman Empire, the pope's secular ally was the Roman Emperor. In the 8th century, however, Pope Stephen II was forced to appeal to the Franks for help, Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. Chapter XXI: Christianity in Conflict 529-1085. p. 517-551 beginning a period of close interaction with the rulers of the West. For centuries, the forged Donation of Constantine also provided the basis for the papacy's claim of political supremacy over the entire former Western Roman Empire. In medieval times, popes played powerful roles in Western Europe, often struggling with monarchs for power over wide-ranging affairs of church and state, crowning emperors (Charlemagne was the first emperor crowned by a pope) and regulating disputes among secular rulers. Such as regulating the colonization of the New World. See Treaty of Tordesillas and Inter caetera. Gradually forced to give up secular power, popes have come to focus again almost exclusively on spiritual matters. Over the centuries, popes' claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the first centuries, culminating in the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of faith or morals. The last such occasion was in the year 1950 with the definition of the dogma of the Assumption of Mary. History Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and "rock" of the Church. In the early Christian era, Rome and a few other cities had claims on the leadership of worldwide ("Catholic") church. James the Just, known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Alexandria had been a center of Jewish learning and became a center of Christian learning. Rome had a large congregation early in the apostolic period, and Paul the Apostle was martyred in there. Early Christianity (c 30 - 325) During the first century of the Christian Church (ca. 30-130), the Roman capital became recognized as a Christian center of exceptional importance; but there are only a few references of that time to recognition of the authoritative primacy of the Roman See outside of Rome. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, theologians chosen by the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches stated: "41. Both sides agree ... that Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium." In addition, in the last years of the first century AD the Church in Rome intervened in the affairs of the Christian Church in Corinth to help solve their internal disputes. Later in the second century AD, there were further manifestations of Roman authority over other churches. In 189 AD, assertion of the primacy of the Church of Rome may be indicated in Irenaeus of Lyons's Against Heresies (3:3:2): "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." And in 195 AD, Pope Victor I, in what is seen as an exercise of Roman authority over other churches, excommunicated the Quartodecimans for observing Easter on the 14th of Nisan, the date of the Jewish Passover, a tradition handed down by St. John the Evangelist (see Easter controversy). Celebration of Easter on a Sunday, as insisted on by the Pope, is the system that has prevailed (see computus). Early popes helped spread Christianity and resolve doctrinal disputes. Nicea to East-West Schism (325 - 1054) During these seven centuries, the church unified by Emperor Constantine effectively split into a Greek East and a Latin West. The pope became independent of the Emperor, in the East, and became a major force in politics in the West. Imperial capitals: Rome and Constantinople With the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine to Christianity and the Council of Nicea, Christian unity and Rome's primacy were well-established. After the imperial capital was moved to Constantinople in AD 330 the eastern churches, especially the Bishop of Constantinople, started to assert pre-eminence by virtue of its imperial status. The First Council of Constantinople (AD 381) suggested strongly that Roman primacy was already asserted; however, it should be noted that, because of the controversy over this claim, the pope did not personally attend this ecumenical council, which was held in the eastern capital of the Roman empire, rather than in Rome. It was not until 440 that Leo the Great more clearly articulated the extension of papal authority as doctrine, promulgating in edicts and in councils his right to exercise "the full range of apostolic powers that Jesus had first bestowed on the apostle Peter". It was at the ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451 that Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, the Bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honour equal to that of the Bishop of Rome, because "Constantinople is the New Rome." The title Pope The title of Pope was from the early third century an honorific designation used for any bishop in the West. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pope In the East it was used only for the Bishop of Alexandria. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pope From the 6th century, the imperial chancery of Constantinople normally reserved it for the Bishop of Rome. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pope From the early sixth century it began to be confined in the West to the Bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Pope Medieval development After the fall of Rome, the Church served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity. Gregory the Great (c 540-604) administered the church with wisdom and stern reform. Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. Chapter XXI: Christianity in Conflict 529-1085. p. 517-551 From an ancient senatorial family, Gregory worked with the prudence, stern judgment, and discipline typical of ancient Roman rule. Theologically, he represents the shift from the classical to the medieval outlook, his popular writings full of dramatic miracles, potent relics, demons, angels, ghosts, and the approaching end of the world. Gregory's successors were mostly dominated by the exarch or the Eastern emperor. These humiliations, the weakening of the Empire in the face of Muslim expansion, and the inability of the Emperor to protect the papal estates made Pope Stephen II turn from the Emperor. Seeking protection against the Lombards and getting no help from Emperor Constantine V, the pope appealed to the Franks to protect his lands. Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the Papacy. When Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800), he established the precedent that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope. Around 850, a forger, probably from among the French opposers of Hincmar, Archbishop of Reims "False Decretals." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 made a collection of church legislation that contained forgeries as well as genuine documents. Encyclopaedia Britannica: False Decretals At first some attacked it as false, but it was taken as genuine throughout the rest of the Middle Ages It is now known as the False Decretals. It was part of a series of falsifications of past legislation by a party in the Carolingian Empire whose principal aim was to free the church and the bishops from interference by the state and the metropolitans respectively, and who were concerned for papal supremacy as guaranteeing those rights. The author, a French cleric calling himself Isidore Mercator, created false documents purportedly by early church popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions. The decretals include the Donation of Constantine, in which Constantine grants Pope Sylvester I secular authority over all Western Europe. Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. p. 525-526 Thanks to this forgery in the collection, the decretals became one of the most persuasive forgeries in the history of the West. It supported Papal policies for centuries. Pope Nicholas I (858-867) asserted that the pope should have suzerain authority over all Christians, even royalty, in matters of faith and morals. Only Photius, bishop of Constantinople, dared gainsay him. He sternly defended morality and justice in a decadent age. After his death, the authority of the papacy was acknowledged more widely than ever before. The low point of the Papacy was 867-1049. The Papacy came under the control of vying political factions. Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force. The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years. The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII, held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran palace. Emperor Otto I of Germany had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected a layman as Pope Leo VIII. John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as Pope. Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX became pope, at last a pope with the character to face the papacy's problems. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services (simony) and clerical marriage and concubinage. With his long journey, he restored the prestige of the Papacy in the north. East-West Schism to Reformation (1054 to 1517) The East and West churches split definitively in 1054. This split was caused more by political events than by slight diversities of creed. Popes had galled the emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the exarchate of Ravenna, and driving into Greek Italy. Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972 In the Middle Ages, popes struggled with monarchs over power. From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon (see Avignon Papacy). The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. Durant, Will. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1957. "Chapter I. The Roman Catholic Church." 1300-1517. p. 3-25 During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England. Durant, Will. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1957. "Chapter II. England: Wyclif, Chaucer, and the Great Revolt." 1308-1400. p. 26-57 The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, reducing one's time in purgatory. The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common understanding that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution. Popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences. Popes also contended with the cardinals, who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of councils over the pope's. Conciliar theory holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope. "Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century. "Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 The failure of the conciliar theory to win general acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation. "Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Various antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378 - 1417). In this schism, the papacy had returned to Rome from Avignon, but an antipope was installed in Avignon, as if to extend the papacy there. The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern Emperor tried to force the Eastern Church to reunify with the West. Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. Reformation to present (1517 to today) Protestant Reformers criticized the Papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the antichrist. Popes instituted the Catholic Reformation (1560 - 1648), which addressed challenges of the Protestant Reformation and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which established the triumph of the Papacy over rulers who sought to reconcile with Protestants and against French and Spanish bishops opposed to Papal claims. "Counter-Reformation." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Gradually forced to give up secular power, popes focused on spiritual issues. The pope's claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the first centuries. In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of faith or morals. Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. Later in 1870, Victor Emmanuel II seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy. Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. The Papal States that the pope lost had been used to support papal independence. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican guaranteed papal independence from secular rule. Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994. In 1950, the pope defined the Assumption of Mary as dogma, the only time that a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared. The Petrine Doctrine is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western churches as well as separating Protestants from Rome. In Roman Catholic ecclesiology The dogmas and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Biblical passages: For Catholic Apologists the most important passage used to defend the Papacy is Matthew 16:18-19. Catholics believe that this passage shows Jesus establishing his church on the shoulders of Simon son of John, whom Jesus re-named Peter (meaning rock). Thus Peter was the rock upon which Christ's Church was built, therefore Jesus established a head to his earthly Church, calling for a successor to that head and thus the Papacy was established. However, this interpretation of events is challenged by non-Catholics. Some say it was Peter's confession of faith that Jesus referred to. However, others propose that Jesus never called Peter rock at all but instead he was called "small stone". The names "Petros" and "Peter" are Greek and Latin translations of the Aramaic word "Cephas," spoken by Jesus Christ. "Cephas" means "rock." The Aramaic word for small stone is "Evna" The Origin of the Papacy | About Catholics John (1:41) is scriptural proof that, in the original Aramaic language, Jesus did not name Simon "Evna" (small stone) Christ named Simon "Cephas" (rock): The translation of Matthew's Gospel into Greek named Simon "Petros" rather than "petra" because "petra" is a feminine noun and unsuitable for a man's name. The translator had no problem substituting the masculine form "Petros" because in Koine Greek, which was the dialect in use at the time of the New Testament, "petra" and "petros" both meant the same thing, "rock." "Petros" and "petras" meant "small stone" and "large rock" in some ancient Greek poetry, centuries before the time of Christ, but that distinction had disappeared from the language by the time Matthew’s Gospel was rendered in Greek. As Greek scholars—even non-Catholic ones—admit, the words "petros" and "petra" were synonyms in first century Greek. The difference between "petros" and "petras" can only be found in Attic Greek, but the New Testament was written in Koine Greek—an entirely different dialect. In Koine Greek, both "petros" and "petra" simply meant "rock." If Jesus had wanted to call Simon a small stone, the translation of Christ's Aramaic into Greek would have been "lithos," which means "small stone" in Koine Greek. Karl Keating, Peter the Rock Simon-Peter's Aramaic name given by Christ is also preserved at later points in the New Testament: Isaiah 22:22 is used to show the Old Testament connection to the "keys." The Bible further explains the position of Eliakim in Isaiah in the following: "Then Eliakim son of Hilkiah, who was in charge of the palace..." () Some Jewish commentators of the Old Testament understood in a manner similar to Peter with this commentary from the Jewish Encyclopedia on Peter regarding Abraham: "Upon Abraham as top of the rocks God said I shall build my kingdom" The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here are the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below). Election, death and abdication Election The pope was originally chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. In 1059 the electorate was restricted to the Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. Pope Urban VI, elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the Dean of the College of Cardinals before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The Second Council of Lyons was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion (see Papal conclave) until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year Sede Vacante following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors. Traditionally, the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. Pope John Paul II abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the Sacred College of Cardinals by ballot (see Papal election). The election of the pope almost always takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a sequestered meeting called a "conclave" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, cum clave, until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar (in the 2005 conclave, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate). The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority With the promulgation of Universi Dominici Gregis in 1996, a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed, but this was revoked by Pope Benedict XVI by motu proprio in 2007. . One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St. Peter's Square. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or fumata nera. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (fumata bianca) through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI, church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen. The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the cardinal who has been successfully-elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto", his reign as Pope begins at that instant, not at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. (If the Dean himself is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this duty). The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments (immantatio) await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (adoratio) and to receive his blessing. The senior Cardinal Deacon then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following proclamation: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam! ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name. Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the Papal Coronation. A procession with great pomp and circumstance formed from the Sistine Chapel to St. Peter's Basilica, with the newly elected pope borne in the sedia gestatoria. There, after a solemn Papal Mass, the new pope was crowned with the triregnum (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing Urbi et Orbi ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of flax at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, with the admonition Sic transit gloria mundi ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar sombre warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the ritual exclamation "Annos Petri non videbis", reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest reigning Pope in the history of the Catholic Church. A traditionalist Catholic belief claims the existence of the Papal Oath (not to be confused with the Oath Against Modernism mandated by Pope Pius X), which the popes from John Paul I on are said to have refused to swear, but there is no reliable authority for this claim. The Latin term sede vacante ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term sedevacantism, which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a Sede Vacante. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and especially the replacement of the Tridentine Mass with the Mass of Paul VI are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things. Secevacantists are considered to be schismatics by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church. For centuries, the papacy was an institution dominated by Italians. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was Pope Adrian VI of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over. Death The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum that is, a sede vacante ("vacant seat") were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the "Sede Vacante", the Sacred College of Cardinals, composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office. In recent centuries it was traditional, when a Pope was judged to have died, for the Cardinal Chamberlain to confirm the death ceremonially by gently tapping the Pope's head thrice with a silver hammer, calling his birth name each time. This custom was not followed at the death of Pope John Paul I Sullivan, George E. Pope John Paul II : The People's Pope. Boston: Walker & Company, 1984. and probably was not revived upon the death of Pope John Paul II. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the Ring of the Fisherman and cuts it in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed. The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novendialis) follows the interment of the late Pope. Abdication The Code of Canon Law 332 §2 states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." This right has been exercised by Pope Celestine V in 1294 and Pope Gregory XII in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so. It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper Corriere della Sera. Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that: Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties. Pope John Paul II, however, did not resign. He died on 2 April 2005 after a long period of ill-health and was buried on 8 April 2005. After his death, it was reported in his last will and testament that he considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday. That portion of the will, however, is unclear and others interpret it differently. Titles Current The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio: Bishop of Rome Vicar of Christ Successor of the Prince of the Apostles Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church Primate of Italy Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City Servant of the Servants of God Former Patriarch of the West (dropped 2006) Vicar of the Apostolic See Vicar of Peter Forms of address "Your Holiness" "Holy Father" "Il Papa" History Marcellinus (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome whom sources show used the title of "pope". In the 11th century, Pope Gregory VII declared the term "Pope" to be reserved for the Bishop of Rome. Early bishops occupying the See of Rome were designated "Vicar of Peter" (St. Peter being considered "Prince of the Apostles" or leader of the apostolic Church); for later popes the more authoritative-sounding "Vicar of Christ" was substituted. The designation "Vicar of Christ" was first used by the Roman Synod of 495 to refer to Pope Gelasius I, an advocate of papal supremacy. The title "Vicar of Christ" refers to the Pope's claims of divine commission. Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 220) used the phrase "Vicar of Christ" of the Holy Spirit with regard to the Spirit's role of maintaining in the Church the teaching given by the apostles: "Grant, then, that all have erred; that the apostle was mistaken in giving his testimony; that the Holy Ghost had no such respect to any one (church) as to lead it into truth, although sent with this view by Christ, ... grant also that He, the Steward of God, the Vicar of Christ neglected His office, permitting the churches for a time to understand differently, (and) to believe differently, what He Himself was preaching by the apostles,— is it likely that so many churches, and they so great, should have gone astray into one and the same faith?" Prescription Against the Heretics, Chapter 28) He also referred to the Holy Spirit as the "Vicar of the Lord": "For what kind of (supposition) is it, that, while the devil is always operating and adding daily to the ingenuities of iniquity, the work of God should either have ceased, or else have desisted from advancing? whereas the reason why the Lord sent the Paraclete was, that, since human mediocrity was unable to take in all things at once, discipline should, little by little, be directed, and ordained, and carried on to perfection, by that Vicar of the Lord, the Holy Spirit." Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, Chapter 1) The Second Vatican Council confirmed the titles "Vicar of Christ" and "Successor of Peter" or "Successor of the Prince of the Apostles" as titles of the pope. The term "Supreme Pontiff" (Summus Pontifex) or, more completely, "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church" (Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis) is another of the official titles of the Pope. The ancient title Pontifex Maximus, which dates back to the early years of the Roman Republic, and, beginning with Julius Caesar, was associated with the Roman Emperors, until Gratian (359-383), under the influence of Saint Ambrose, formally renounced the title, is not included in the official list of the Pope's titles, but is commonly found in inscriptions on buildings erected in the time of a particular Pope. It is usually abbreviated as "Pont. Max." or as "P.M." The phrase literally means "Greatest Pontifex", but is often rendered as "Supreme Pontiff", which is instead a literal translation of "Summus Pontifex". The title "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including St. Augustine and St. Benedict, was first used by Pope St. Gregory the Great in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "Ecumenical Patriarch". It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The documents of the Second Vatican Council reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops. The best-known title of the Popes, that of "Pope", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus Pope Paul VI signed as "Paulus PP. VI", the "PP." standing for "Papa" ("Pope"). Papal bulls are headed N. Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei ("N., Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God") and in general are not signed by the Pope. Bulls of canonization are an exception: the Pope signs them as N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae ("N., Bishop of the Catholic Church"), and to his signature are added those of all the cardinals present in Rome. Classic Encyclopedia: Curia Romana . In the mid-1980s, Pope John Paul II introduced the custom by which the Pope also signs bulls of nomination of bishops, using his normal signature, such as "Benedictus PP. XVI". Decrees of ecumenical councils also bear the Pope's signature as Bishop of the universal Church (N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae), followed by the signatures of the other bishops participating in the council, each signing as Bishop of a particular see. The full list of the official titles of Pope Benedict XVI, as published in the Annuario Pontificio is as follows: "Benedict XVI, Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Province of Rome, Sovereign of the State of Vatican City, Servant of the Servants of God". Annuario Pontificio 2007 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana. ISBN 978-88-209-7908-9) From 1863 until 2005, the Annuario Pontificio included also the title "Patriarch of the West". This title was first used by Pope Theodore in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the Eastern Churches, as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council. Communiqué concernant la suppression du titre «Patriarche d’Occident» dans l'Annuaire pontifical 2006 Other titles commonly used are "His Holiness", "Holy Father". In Spanish and Italian, "Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to "Santísimo/Santissimo Padre" (Most Holy Father). In the medieval period, "Dominus Apostolicus" ("the Apostolic Lord") was also used. The pope's official seat or cathedral is the Basilica of St. John Lateran, and his official residence is the Palace of the Vatican. He also possesses a summer residence at Castel Gandolfo (situated on the site of the ancient city of Alba Longa). Until the time of the Avignon Papacy, the residence of the Pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the Roman Curia) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church. The names "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" are in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the Apostle Saint Peter (see Apostolic Succession). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ubi Papa, ibi Curia, wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in Avignon (see Avignon Papacy), a period often called the Babylonian Captivity in allusion to the Biblical exile of Israel. Since in the Eastern Churches the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the Bishop of Rome, they often use the expression "Pope of Rome", whether they are in communion with Rome or not. Regalia and insignia "Triregnum", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown", represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor", "supreme teacher" and "supreme priest". Recent popes have not, however, worn the triregnum, though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal mitre (an erect cloth hat). Pastoral Staff topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the 13th century (see papal cross). Pallium, or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the chasuble. It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the primates, but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black. "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven. Ring of the Fisherman, a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it. Umbraculum (better known in the Italian form ombrellino) is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions. Sedia gestatoria, a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen (palafrenieri) in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing flabella (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large canopy, carried by eight attendants. The use of the flabella was discontinued by Pope John Paul I. The use of the sedia gestatoria was discontinued by Pope John Paul II, being replaced by the so-called Popemobile. In heraldry, each pope has his own Papal Coat of Arms. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns and red infulae (lappets—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is blazoned: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). With the recent election of Benedict XVI in 2005, his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a mitre with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan archbishops as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered. The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the papacy. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag. Status and authority First Vatican Council The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the Council established the following canons: The texts of these canons are given in Denzinger, Latin original; English translation "If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the apostles, and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be anathema. Denzinger 3055 (old numbering, 1823) If anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema. Denzinger 3058 (old numbering, 1825) If anyone thus speaks, that the Roman Pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema. Denzinger 3064 (old numbering, 1831) We, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by virtue of his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema." Denzinger 3073-3075 (old numbering, 1839-1840 Second Vatican Council In its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (1964), the Second Vatican Council declared: "Among the principal duties of bishops the preaching of the Gospel occupies an eminent place. For bishops are preachers of the faith, who lead new disciples to Christ, and they are authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the authority of Christ, who preach to the people committed to them the faith they must believe and put into practice, and by the light of the Holy Spirit illustrate that faith. They bring forth from the treasury of Revelation new things and old, making it bear fruit and vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock. Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown in such a way that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking. … this infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed in defining doctrine of faith and morals, extends as far as the deposit of Revelation extends, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. And this is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the college of bishops, enjoys in virtue of his office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, by a definitive act he proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals. And therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of Bishops, when that body exercises the supreme magisterium with the successor of Peter. To these definitions the assent of the Church can never be wanting, on account of the activity of that same Holy Spirit, by which the whole flock of Christ is preserved and progresses in unity of faith." Lumen gentium, 25 Political role Though the progressive Christianisation of the Roman Empire in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the fifth century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by Pope Leo I's confrontation with Attila in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the Donation of Sutri, which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the Frankish ruler Pippin the Younger gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the Lombards. The pope may have utilized the forged Donation of Constantine to gain this land, which formed the core of the Papal States. This document, accepted as genuine until the 1400s, states that Constantine I placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800 Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish ruler Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the Holy Roman Empire; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of Charles V in 1530. Pope Pius VII was present at the coronation of Napoleon I in 1804, but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by Italy. Popes like Alexander VI, an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and Pope Julius II, a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Alexander III). Papal bulls, interdict, and excommunication (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull Laudabiliter in 1155 authorized Henry II of England to invade Ireland. In 1207, Innocent III placed England under interdict until King John made his kingdom a fiefdom to the Pope, complete with yearly tribute, saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins". Quoted from the Medieval Sourcebook The Bull Inter caetera in 1493 led to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world into areas of Spanish and Portuguese rule. The Bull Regnans in Excelsis in 1570 excommunicated Elizabeth I of England and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull Inter Gravissimas in 1582 established the Gregorian Calendar. See selection from Concordia Cyclopedia: Roman Catholic Church, History of Objections to the papacy The Pope's claim of being the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is recognized as dogmatic and not considered open to debate within the Roman Church (however, like all teachings of the Catholic Church, the Church encourages its members to ask questions about any aspects that they do not fully understand and learn about their faith). While the First Vatican Council anathematized all who dispute the pope's claims of primacy of honor and of jurisdiction, this does not exclude disagreement even within the Church itself about some practical applications of the teaching. The Pope's claim to authority is disputed outside the Roman Church. These objections differ from denomination to denomination but can roughly be outlined as objections to the extent of the primacy of the pope and to the institution of the papacy itself. For a look at some of those objections, see 16th century Reformer [Philip Melancthon]'s A Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic Churches Some Christian communities (Assyrian Church of the East, the Oriental Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Old Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Independent Catholic Churches, etc.) accept the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, and to varying extents, Papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the Roman Empire, a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of universal immediate jurisdiction, or to claims of papal infallibility. Several of these communities refer to such claims as ultramontanism. Protestant denominations Some Christian denominations reject the doctrine of Apostolic Succession, See the comparative dogmatic text Popular Symbolics by Engelder, p. 109, 161, 498, and thereby also reject the claims of Petrine primacy of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the Antichrist 'Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”' from Statement on the Antichrist, from the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, also The Pope is the Antichrist from 1 John 2:18, Brief Statment the Man of Sin from 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12, See Kretzmann's Popular Commentary, 2 Thessalonians chapter two and An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10 by Mark Jeske and the Beast out of the Earth from Revelation 13:11-18. See See Kretzmann's Popular Commentary, Revelation Chapter 13 Confessional Lutherans hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a quia rather than quatenus subscription to the Book of Concord. In 1932, the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS) adopted A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod, which a number of Lutheran church bodies now hold. The Lutheran Churches of the Reformation, the Concordia Lutheran Conference, the Church of the Lutheran Confession, and the Illinois Lutheran Conference all hold to Brief Statement, which the LCMS adopted in 1932 and places in the LCMS.org website Statement 43, Of the Antichrist: Online atOf the Antichrist 43. As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, 2 Thess. 2:3-12;1 John 2:18, have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," 2 Thess. 2:4; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man (Rom. 3:20-28; Gal. 2:16); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy. (Cf. Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 515, Paragraphs 39-41; p. 401, Paragraph 45; M. pp. 336, 258.) Hence we subscribe to the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist." (Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 475, Paragraph 10; M., p. 308.) Many Protestant groups cite Biblical verses as evidence against Petrine Supremacy and the Papacy. Many Protestants point out that Matthew 16:16-18 use two different forms of the word translated "rock." The Greek passage uses the masculine form "Petros" and the feminine form "petra." Protestant apologists sometimes claim that the "rock" on which the Church is built is not Peter, since Peter is "Petros," but Peter's confession that Jesus is the Christ. Christ the Rock, the Rooster's Crow, and the Cross. http://www.ichthys.com/mail-Rock%20Rooster%20Cross.htm Catholics counter by pointing out that there was no such distinction in the Aramaic language that Jesus spoke, so that in that language Jesus was saying: "You are Rock, and upon this rock I will build my church." Peter the Rock The claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy, raises objection. See the Baltimore Catechism on the temporal power of the pope over governments and Innocent III's Letter to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany. For objection to this, see the Concordia Cyclopedia, p.564 and 750 The papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the Roman and Byzantine Empires are also objections. Some disapprove of the autocratic character of the papal office. See Luther, Smalcald Articles, Article four In Western Christianity these objections both contributed to and are products of the Protestant Reformation. Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing out that popes Callixtus III and Alexander VI were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Roman Catholic Church. Defenders of the papacy counter that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men, citing examples like some of the kings of Israel and the apostle Judas Iscariot, as well as St. Peter's rejection of Jesus during the period leading up to the crucifixion. Antipopes Groups sometimes form around antipopes, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it. Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church (heresy) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see schism). Briefly in the 1400s, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see Papal Schism). Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor fringe causes. Other popes In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities. In the Roman Catholic Church The "Black Pope" is a name that was popularly, but quite unofficially, given to the Superior General of the Society of Jesus due to the Jesuits' in reference to the importance, within the Church, of the Jesuit order. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the "White Pope" (since the time of Pope Pius V the Popes dress in white) and the Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the "Red Pope" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia, Sandro Magister, Espresso Online. but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where Protestants or Eastern Christianity was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, New Zealand is still in the care of this Congregation. In the Eastern Churches Today, the heads of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle" and the last called "Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa". In the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Russian Orthodox Church and Serbian Orthodox Church, it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" ("поп" pop). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа" papa, Russian "папа римский" papa rimskiy). Longest-reigning Popes Although the average reign of the pope from the middle ages was a decade, a number of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following: Pius IX (1846–1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days). John Paul II (1978–2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days). Leo XIII (1878–1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days). Pius VI (1775–1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days). Adrian I (772–795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days). Pius VII (1800–1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days). Alexander III (1159–1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days). St. Sylvester I (314–335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days). St. Leo I (440–461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days). Urban VIII (1623–1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days). Saint Peter is thought to have reigned for over thirty years (AD 29 - 64?/67?), but the exact length is not reliably known. Shortest-reigning Popes Conversely, there have been a number of popes whose reign lasted less than a month. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days. Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days. Urban VII (15 September–27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before consecration. Answers.com Boniface VI (April, 896): reigned for 16 calendar days Celestine IV (25 October–10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before consecration. Theodore II (December, 897): reigned for 20 calendar days Sisinnius (15 January–4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days Marcellus II (9 April–1 May 1555): reigned for 22 calendar days Damasus II (17 July–9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days Pius III (22 September–18 October 1503): reigned for 27 calendar days Leo XI (1 April–27 April 1605): reigned for 27 calendar days Benedict V (22 May–23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days. Note: Stephen (23 March–26 March 752), died of apoplexy three days after his election, and before his consecration as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the fifteenth century as Stephen II, causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the Vatican's list (see "Pope-elect Stephen" for detailed explanation). See also List of popes List of popes (graphical) List of popes by length of reign List of canonised popes List of names of popes Caesaropapism Sedevacantism Investiture Controversy Legends surrounding the Papacy Prophecy of the Popes History of the Papacy African popes List of French popes List of German popes Papal regalia and insignia Papal Slippers Papal Coronation Papal Inauguration Pontiff Notes References . Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916. Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 - (World Cat entry) Hartmann Grisar (1845-1932), History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages, AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1 James Joseph Walsh, The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time, Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9 Further reading Brusher, Joseph H. Popes Through The Ages. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc. 1959. Chamberlain, E.R. The Bad Popes. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble. 1993. Dollison, John Pope - Pourri. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1994. Kelly, J.N.D. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. Oxford: University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9 Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. Chronicles of the Popes - The Reign By Reign Record of The Papacy From St. Peter To The Present. London: Thames and Hudson. 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0 External links The Holy See - The Holy Father – website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since Leo XIII) The Holy Father's 2008 Prayer Intentions Catholic Encyclopedia entry Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes Scholarly articles on the Roman Catholic Papacy from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library Data Base of more than 23,000 documents of the Popes in latin and modern languages be-x-old:Папа | Pope |@lemmatized pope:242 latin:10 papa:8 father:9 greek:17 pápas:1 italian:7 bishop:45 rome:51 leader:3 worldwide:2 catholic:39 church:123 rite:2 eastern:16 full:6 communion:5 roman:49 pontiff:17 also:21 head:12 state:19 vatican:23 city:14 current:3 benedict:11 xvi:10 elect:18 april:7 papal:55 conclave:6 office:8 call:19 papacy:38 ecclesiastical:4 jurisdiction:10 holy:28 see:42 sancta:1 sedes:1 apostolic:13 latter:2 basis:4 st:20 peter:40 paul:20 martyr:2 addition:2 spiritual:5 role:6 independent:3 sovereign:3 entirely:3 enclaved:1 early:12 help:6 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1,240 | Aslan | Aslan, the "Great Lion", is the central character in The Chronicles of Narnia, a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by C. S. Lewis. He is the eponymous lion of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, and his role in Narnia is developed throughout the remaining books. He is also the only character to appear in all seven books of the series. He is a talking lion, King of the Beasts, son of the Emperor-Over-the-Sea; a wise, compassionate, magical authority (both temporal and spiritual); mysterious and beloved guide to the human children who visit; guardian and savior of Narnia. The author, C. S. Lewis, described Aslan as an alternate version of Christ—that is, as the form that Christ might have appeared in a fantastic world. Aslan is the Turkish word for "lion" Langenscheidt Pocket Turkish Dictionary and was also used as a title by Seljuq and Ottoman rulers. Throughout the series, it is stated that Aslan is "not a tame lion", since, despite his gentle and loving nature, he is powerful and can be dangerous. He has many followers, which include vast numbers of Talking Beasts, Centaurs, Fauns, Dryads, Dwarfs, Satyrs, Naiads, Hamadryads, Mermaids, Silvans, Unicorns, and Winged Horses. Lewis often capitalises the word lion, since he is essentially God. Biography In The Magician's Nephew (This is the first story in the chronology of Narnia, and of its human visitors, but the sixth tale Lewis wrote, and for most readers it is not the first meeting with the character.) Aslan makes his first appearance at the creation of Narnia. When Digory, Polly, Jadis, Uncle Andrew, The Cabby, and Fledge inadvertently enter a new world using magic rings, they find it an empty void. Aslan appears, and through the power of his singing, calls the world of Narnia into existence. While all the characters immediately feel awe for Aslan, Jadis expresses this as fear and hatred, and unsuccessfully assaults Aslan with an iron bar before fleeing. Aslan is unperturbed, and continues calling plants and animals into existence. The power of his song is so great that even the iron bar, dropped on fertile earth, grows into a functioning lamp post, and toffees sprout into fruit trees. Aslan then selects certain species from among the beasts his song has called into existence, and gives them the power of speech and reason. He instructs them to look after the animals. He appoints The Cabby to be King Frank of Narnia, and brings his wife Nellie to Narnia from Earth to be Queen Helen. Aslan explains that Jadis will pose a great threat to the Narnians, and charges Digory and Polly with a quest to acquire a magic fruit to protect the land. He turns the horse Strawberry into a winged horse. When the quest is complete, he crowns The Cabby and Nellie, and advises Digory on how to care for his sick mother. At the end of the novel, he takes Digory, Polly and Uncle Andrew back to the Wood between the Worlds, without the use of magic rings, and warns them that their Earth is in danger of a similar fate to the dead world Charn which is the world that Jadis (the White Witch) is from. In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (This is the second Narnia story chronologically, but the first one Lewis wrote, and for many readers their introduction to Aslan.) Narnia is in the hundredth year of the tyrannical rule of Jadis, the White Witch, who has condemned the land to endless winter. The Witch has turned hundreds of Aslan's followers to stone. But the Narnians are beginning to anticipate the return of Aslan: in fearful secrecy they repeat that "Aslan is on the move" as a message of hope. The Narnians expect Aslan to bring an end to the White Witch's tyrannical reign. Four human children from Earth (Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy) are aided by Mr. and Mrs. Beaver, who undertake to lead them to Aslan. But before they set off, Edmund leaves to betray them to the White Witch. He soon discovers that she is the true tyrant and bears him no good will. The other children find Aslan leading a large gathering of Narnians preparing for war. Aslan sends some Narnians to attack the Witch and her small entourage, and Edmund is rescued. Meanwhile Aslan makes Peter a knight. The White Witch comes in parley and demands her right to execute Edmund as a traitor, citing Deep Magic from the Dawn of Time. Aslan offers himself in Edmund's place, and she accepts. On the Stone Table, as Susan and Lucy watch in secret, the White Witch mocks Aslan and slays him with her knife. The Witch leaves with her army to attack the Narnians. Lucy, Susan, and a number of mice remove the bonds from Aslan's body; but as dawn breaks they find that his body is gone, and Aslan reappears alive, thanks to a Deeper Magic from before the Dawn of Time. The Witch, having entered Narnia only at the Dawn of Time, had not known of this. Aslan explains that "when a willing victim who had committed no treachery was killed in a traitor's stead, the Table would crack and Death itself would start working backward." Aslan goes to the Witch's palace and with his Breath brings the statues of her petrified enemies back to life. He leads them all to aid Peter, Edmund, and the Narnian army, who are fighting the Witch's army. At the conclusion of the battle, Aslan leaps upon the witch and kills her. Aslan crowns the four children as Kings and Queens of Narnia, and then during the celebration he quietly slips away. The children say nothing about it, for Mr. Beaver had warned them, "...one day you'll see him and another you won't." Mr. Beaver's comments serve as a foreshadowing of Aslan's role in the books to follow. In The Horse and his Boy The Horse and His Boy is set during the reign of Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy in Narnia, the only extended story told of that period. The Horse and His Boy is about finding one's home. For Bree and Hwin, the talking horses in this story, the home they seek is the land of Narnia, where they were born. For Shasta and Aravis, the two humans who journey with them, finding "home" is more a matter of the heart. Aslan's repeated influence throughout "The Horse and his Boy" is at first hidden from the characters. Secretly, he delivered the infant Prince Cor of Archenland from his enemies, placing him into the hands of a Calormene fisherman (who gave him the name of Shasta). When Shasta meets Bree, it is Aslan, disguised as a "witless" lion, who forces them into joining up with Aravis and Hwin. Aslan comforts Shasta in the form of a cat when he feels abandoned at the Tombs of the Ancient Kings (although as a lion, he defends him from predatory jackals). It is Aslan who chases Bree and Hwin so that they will reach Archenland in time to warn the king of the impending attack by the Calormene army. He gives Shasta the resolve to help save Archenland and Narnia from the invaders. He slashes Aravis across her back with his claws. The attack is not terrible, however; Aslan explains that it is punishment for her disregard for her servant's safety when she ran away from home. The cuts on her back equal the severity of the servant's whipping. Eventually, Aslan shows himself directly to the travellers, addressing their fears, or their self-pity, or their condescension towards others, or their pomposity. Aslan reveals himself to Rabadash, the leader of the Calormen army, in an effort to free him of his arrogant and violent ways. When kind words and forgiveness fail to soften Rabadash, Aslan resorts to an act of severe kindness: he turns Rabadash into a donkey. He leaves Rabadash with a cure for his "condition", requiring that he humble himself before all of his Calormen people: Rabadash must go to the temple of the Calormen god, Tash (since Rabadash had insulted Aslan in Tash's name). There he would be turned back into a man. In Prince Caspian 1,300 Narnian years after the events in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Aslan and the Pevensie children have become near-forgotten myths. Narnia is now ruled by Telmarines, humans who have settled in Narnia. The Telmarines fear native Narnians and their magic, and seek to exterminate them. Miraz, the king of the Telmarines, has usurped his brother's throne and determines to do away with his nephew, Prince Caspian, the rightful heir. Caspian escapes into the forest, where Narnians offer him help and shelter. The Pevensies, recalled into Narnia when Caspian in desperation winds Susan's magical horn, are shown the right way to Caspian by Aslan, and find their faith tested as Aslan does not appear to them until they really try to see him. Aslan's How, a mound on the site of the Stone Table, serves as the gathering point for loyal Narnians, where Prince Caspian forms his army to fight against his uncle for Narnia. Meanwhile, Aslan re-awakens the spirits of the forest and the river, leading a Bacchanalian revel through the oppressed towns and fomenting a popular revolution. When the Telmarines are defeated, Aslan creates a door allowing the children and the Telmarines to return to Earth. He tells Peter and Susan that they are now too old to return to Narnia, and have learned all they can from their experiences in Narnia. In Voyage of the Dawn Treader Caspian, now King, sets out on a voyage in search of the Seven Lost Lords. The talking mouse Reepicheep accompanies him in hopes that their voyage will lead to Aslan's Country in the uttermost East, for he was told by a dryad that his fate lies in Aslan's country. On many of the islands where they stop, a brief glimpse of Aslan, or his image, is enough to guide Caspian and his crew away from danger and folly. When the recalcitrant Eustace is turned into a dragon, Aslan meets with him and pulls the dragon-skin away, leaving him as a human boy and a more pleasant person. In a magician's house on another island, Lucy attempts to perform a spell that would make her dazzlingly beautiful, despite knowing that this would cause havoc as thousands of men would battle to win her favour. Just as she is about to say the words, however, she sees an image of Aslan snarling at her, frightening her from pronouncing the spell. Aslan also reprimands her for using another spell to see what her friends say about her: Lucy had seen one of her friends renouncing Lucy's friendship, but Aslan tells Lucy that her friend did love her, but feared an older girl who was present. He also assures Lucy that she will once again read a story-spell that she had read in the magician's house, which Lucy felt was the best story ever. Eventually, Edmund, Lucy, Eustace, and Reepicheep reach the world's end, where Aslan appears as a lamb. He shows Reepicheep the way to his country and helps the children return home. He tells Edmund and Lucy that, like Peter and Susan, they have become too old to return to Narnia, and that they must instead come to know him in their world — a relatively direct reference to the Christian theme of the series. In The Silver Chair The story begins with Eustace Scrubb, who was introduced in The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, and his classmate Jill. They are unhappy at their school, where bullying is left uncorrected. One day they are beset by bullies, and Eustace suggests that they ask for Aslan's help. They blunder through a temporary gate and find themselves in Aslan's Country, atop an immense cliff. Jill, showing off, moves too close to the edge, and Eustace falls off trying to pull her back. Aslan appears and saves Eustace by blowing him into Narnia; then he explains to Jill that she and Eustace are charged with the quest of finding Prince Rilian, Caspian's son, who disappeared years before. He tells her that their task has become more difficult because of what she did, but gives her four Signs to guide them on their quest. The fourth and final Sign is that at a key moment they will be asked to do something "in Aslan's name". Aslan then blows Jill into Narnia, where she arrives a few moments after Eustace. They see a very old King Caspian setting sail to search for Aslan one last time. They have arrived too late to speak with Caspian, but the Lord Regent, Trumpkin the Dwarf, takes them to Cair Paravel. There they are aided by Master Glimfeather and a Parliament of his fellow talking owls (a pun on Chaucer's Parlement of Foules, and a nod toward "parliament" as a collective noun for owls, as "exaltation" is for larks). The owls explain that Rilian disappeared while searching for the green serpent that killed his mother, and is now under the spell of an enchantress. As Jill and Eustace journey toward the far north of Narnia, they acquire a companion and guide, a gloomy but stalwart Marsh-wiggle, fittingly named Puddleglum. Aslan makes no further appearance until the end of the story, but his Signs prove central to the quest, and belief in Aslan plays a crucial part in defeating the Lady of the Green Kirtle, who tries to destroy the children's belief in the reality of Narnia. In the end, Aslan sends Jill and Eustace back to our world, and helps them repay the school bullies — and make a better school in the process. In The Last Battle The ape Shift disguises the reluctant donkey Puzzle as Aslan and fools the Narnians into thinking that Aslan has returned. Shift issues commands in "Aslan's" name and takes advantage of the credulous Narnians. Shift and the unbelieving Calormene leader Rishda Tarkaan encourage the invading Calormenes and the dispirited Narnians to treat Aslan and the Calormene god Tash as a single, combined being — "Tashlan". Dissenters are thrown into Puzzle's stable, supposedly to meet "Tashlan", where they are murdered by Calormene soldiers. King Tirian of Narnia calls on Aslan for help, and Jill and Eustace arrive in Narnia. They help Tirian and the remaining loyal Narnians battle the Calormenes and their allies, but are all forced through the stable door along with several dwarves who have lost faith in Narnia. They find themselves not within the confines of a stable, but in a paradise: Aslan's Country. Aslan is there, with King Peter and other characters from previous books, and they watch through the stable door as the world of Narnia is destroyed. But the dwarves are unable to see Aslan's Country, certain that they are inside an ordinary stable. When Lucy asks Aslan to help them, he tells her that he will show her what he can and what he cannot do. He then growls at the dwarves, and makes food magically appear in their hands. This fails to convince them: they think that the growling is a machine and that the food is only what would normally be found in a stable. Aslan tells the children that the dwarves shut themselves out from him, and therefore cannot be reached, much like Uncle Andrew in The Magician's Nephew. Aslan then commands Peter to shut the door on Narnia, and leads them into his country, a platonic ideal of Narnia. He greets Emeth, a devout yet kind Tash-worshipping Calormene, telling him that "I and [Tash] are of such different kinds that no service which is vile can be done to me, and none which is not vile can be done to him." As they get "further up and further in," the Narnians find Aslan's country getting bigger and better, eventually encompassing Earth as well. At the very end, drawing close to the Christian theme, Aslan appears no longer as a lion, and the word He (referring to Aslan) becomes capitalized at this point. Influences The theory that the figure of Aslan may have been inspired by a mysterious lion which appears and disappears suddenly at key moments in the novel The Place of the Lion, written by Lewis' close friend Charles Williams, was specifically denied by Lewis in a paper published later in his life. Christian interpretation Although Aslan can be read as an original character, there are parallels with the character and story of Christ. In particular, Aslan's sacrifice and subsequent resurrection parallel Christ's crucifixion and resurrection. Aslan also has God-like powers; he created Narnia with a song (The Magician’s Nephew). The Emperor-Over-the-Sea then refers to God the Father, and Aslan’s country (The Voyage of the Dawn Treader) to heaven. In The Last Battle a new Narnia is made and also a new Earth, as in the Book of Revelation. Furthermore, there are biblical references of Christ being called a lion, as in Revelation 5:5 "And one of the elders saith unto me, Weep not: behold, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, hath prevailed to open the book, and to loose the seven seals thereof." (KJV) According to the author, Aslan is not an allegorical portrayal of Christ, but rather a different, hypothetical, incarnation of Christ himself: This interpretation is related to J. R. R. Tolkien's concept of "secondary creation" expounded in his 1947 essay "On Fairy-Stories," reflecting discussions Lewis and Tolkien had in the Inklings group. Portrayals In the animated adaptation of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe distributed by the Children's Television Workshop (now Sesame Workshop), Aslan is voiced by Stephen Thorne. Thorne also makes appearances as the Great Lion in the adaptations made in the mid-1990s by BBC Radio. In all three of the BBC television serial adaptations of the late 1980s and early 1990s (The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Prince Caspian and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, The Silver Chair), Aslan is voiced by Ronald Pickup and the costume is operated by William Todd Jones, who also appeared as Glenstorm the centaur. In the Focus on the Family radio adaptations, he is portrayed by David Suchet. In the 2005 film, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, the CGI Aslan is voiced by Liam Neeson. Neeson returned to voice the character in the sequel, The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian in 2008, and is scheduled to return for the third film in the series. In Epic Movie, Fred Willard appears as a parody of Aslan. He is a human/lion hybrid known as Aslo. He's constantly drinking and sleeps with anyone who's willing. He helps the heroes get Edward out of the White Bitch's dungeon, kills Silas, and ends up killed by the White Bitch. Aslan appears in the Robot Chicken episode "Robot Chicken's Half-Assed Christmas Special" voiced by Seth MacFarlane. Appearing in a segment parodying Narnia, he is referred to as "the Jesus-allegory Lion," and is seen talking to a centaur when his head gets cut off by a nerd on a unicorn. In the "Imaginationland" trilogy of "South Park" episodes, Aslan is the leader of the Council of Nine, along with other beloved, good imaginary characters like Luke Skywalker, Gandalf, Wonder Woman, and Jesus Christ, who tell Butters that he is The Key who will save Imaginationland from the invasion of evil imaginary characters. On the CD Dichotomy by Christian progressive death metal band Becoming the Archetype, Aslan's roar from the Disney adaptation of the books can be heard in the last track, "End of the Age/The Lion." References External links SparkNotes reference to the meaning of Aslan's death "Aslan is still on the move" Christianity Today editorial, 6 August 2001. 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1,241 | The_Amazing_Spider-Man | The Amazing Spider-Man is an American comic book series published by Marvel Comics, featuring the adventures of the superhero Spider-Man. Publication history Spider-Man first appeared in the comic book Amazing Fantasy #15 (August 1962). The series was cancelled with that issue, but response to the character was so positive that a solo title, The Amazing Spider-Man, was launched with a March 1963 cover-date. The character was created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Steve Ditko, and the pair produced 38 issues from 1963 to 1966. Since then, many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic through the years, chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero. The Amazing Spider-Man is the character's flagship series. Most of the major characters and villains of the Spider-Man saga have been introduced here, and it is where key events occur. The title was published continuously until 1998 when Marvel Comics relaunched it with a new issue #1 (January 1999), but on Spider-Man's 40th anniversary, this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, beginning again with issue #500 (December 2003) The 1960s The initial years of the book, under Lee and Ditko, chronicled Spider-Man's nascent career with his civilian life as hard-luck yet perpetually good-humored teenager Peter Parker. Parker balanced his career as Spider-Man with his job as a freelance photographer for The Daily Bugle (under the bombastic editor-publisher J. Jonah Jameson) to help support himself and his frail Aunt May. At the same time, Parker dealt with public hostility towards Spider-Man and the antagonism of his classmates Flash Thompson and Liz Allan at Midtown High School, while also embarking on a tentative, ill-fated romance with Jameson's secretary, Betty Brant. By focusing on Parker's everyday problems, Lee and Ditko created a groundbreakingly flawed, self-doubting superhero, and the first major teenaged superhero to be a protagonist and not a sidekick. Ditko's quirky art provided a stark contrast to the more cleanly dynamic stylings of Marvel's most prominent artist, Jack Kirby, and Ditko's Spider-Man, slightly sinister yet affectionately cartoony, combined with the humor and pathos of Lee's writing to lay the foundation for what became an enduring mythos. Most of Spider-Man's key villains and supporting characters were introduced during this time. Issue #1 (March 1963) featured the first appearances of J. Jonah Jameson and his astronaut son John Jameson, and the supervillain the Chameleon. It also included the hero's first encounter with the superhero team The Fantastic Four. Issue #2 (May 1963) featured the first appearance of The Vulture and the beginning of Parker's freelance photography career at the newspaper The Daily Bugle. The Lee-Ditko era continued to usher in a significant number of villains and supporting characters, including Doctor Octopus in #3 (July 1963); the Sandman and Betty Brant in #4 (September 1963); the Lizard in #6 (November 1963); Electro in #9 (March 1964); Mysterio in #13 (June 1964); the Green Goblin in #14 (July 1964); Kraven The Hunter in #15 (August 1964); reporter Ned Leeds in #18 (November 1964); the Scorpion in #20 (January 1965); and the Molten Man in #28 (September 1965), an issue that also featured Parker's graduation from high school Parker began attending Empire State University in #31 (December 1965), the issue which also featured the first appearances of friends and classmates Gwen Stacy and Harry Osborn. Harry's father, Norman Osborn first appeared in #23 (April 1965) as a member of Jameson's country club but is not named nor revealed as Harry's father until #37 (June 1966). Probably the most celebrated issue of the Lee-Ditko run is #33 (February 1966), the third part of the story arc "If This Be My Destiny", and featuring the dramatic scene of Spider-Man, through force of will and thoughts of family, escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery. Although credited only as artist for most of his run, Ditko would eventually plot the stories as well as draw them, leaving Lee to script the dialogue. However, a rift between Ditko and Lee developed, and the two men were not on speaking terms long before Ditko completed his last issue, The Amazing Spider-Man #38 (July 1966). The exact reasons for the Ditko-Lee split have been a source of controversy ever since. In successor penciler John Romita Sr.'s first issue, #39 (August 1966), archnemesis the Green Goblin discovers Spider-Man's secret identity and reveals his own to the captive hero. Romita's Spider-Man – more muscular and heroic-looking than Ditko's – became the model for two decades. The Lee-Romita era saw the introduction of such characters as Daily Bugle managing editor Joseph "Robbie" Robertson in #52 (September 1967) and NYPD Captain George Stacy, father of Parker's girlfriend Gwen Stacy, in #56 (January 1968). The most important supporting character to be introduced during the Romita era was Mary Jane Watson, who made her first full appearance in #42, (November 1966), although she first appeared in #25 (June 1965) with her face obscured and had been mentioned since #15 (August 1964). Lee and Romita toned down the prevalent sense of antagonism in Parker's world by improving Parker's relationship with the supporting characters and having stories focused as much on the social and college lives of the characters as they did on Spider-Man's adventures. The stories also became more topical, addressing issues such as civil rights, racism, prisoners' rights, the Vietnam War, and political elections. Issue #50 (June 1967) introduced the highly enduring criminal mastermind the Kingpin, who would become a major force as well in the superhero series Daredevil. Other notable first appearances in the Lee-Romita era include the Rhino in #41 (October 1966), the The Shocker in #46 (March 1967), the Prowler in #78 (November 1969), and the Kingpin's son, Richard Fisk, in #83 (April 1970). The 1970s Two spin-off series debuted in the 1970s: Marvel Team-Up in 1972, and The Spectacular Spider-Man in 1976. The flagship title's second decade took a grim turn with a story in #89-90 (October-November 1970) featuring the death of Captain George Stacy. This was also the first Spider-Man story to be penciled by Gil Kane, who would alternate drawing duties with Romita for the next year-and-a-half and would draw several landmark issues. One such story took place in the controversial issues #96-98 (May-July 1971). Writer-editor Lee defied the Comics Code Authority with this story, in which Parker's friend Harry Osborn, was hospitalized after tripping on LSD. Lee wrote this story upon a request from the US Department of Health, Education and Welfare for a story about the dangers of drugs. Citing its dictum against depicting drug use, even in an anti-drug context, the CCA refused to put its seal on these issues. With the approval of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman, Lee had the comics published without the seal. The comics sold well and Marvel won praise for its socially conscious efforts. The CCA subsequently loosened the Code to permit negative depictions of drugs, among other new freedoms. The "Six-Arm Saga" of #100-102 (September-November 1971) introduced Morbius, the Living Vampire. The second installment was the first Amazing Spider-Man story not written by co-creator Lee, with Roy Thomas taking over writing the book for several months before Stan Lee returned to write #105-110 (February-July 1972). Lee, who was going on to become Marvel Comics' publisher, with Thomas becoming editor-in-chief, then turned writing duties over to 19-year-old wunderkind Gerry Conway, who scripted the series through 1975. Romita penciled Conway's first half-dozen issues, which introduced the gangster Hammerhead in #113 (October 1972). Kane then succeeded Romita as penciler, although Romita would continue inking Kane for a time. The most memorable work of the Conway/Kane/Romita team was #121-122 (June-July 1973), which featured the death of Gwen Stacy at the hands of The Green Goblin in the story which shocked readers, "The Night Gwen Stacy Died" (#121). Her demise and the Goblin's apparent death one issue later formed a story arc widely considered as the most defining in the history of Spider-Man. The aftermath of the story also deepened both the characterization of Mary Jane Watson and her relationship with Parker. By late 1973, Gil Kane was succeeded by Ross Andru, whose run lasted nearly 60 issues, from 1973 to 1978. Issue #129 (February 1974) introduced the Punisher, who would become one of Marvel Comics' principal and most widely recognized characters. The Conway-Andru era also featured the first appearances of the Man-Wolf in #124-125 (September-October 1973); the near-marriage of Doctor Octopus and Aunt May in #131 (April 1974); Harry Osborn stepping into his father's role as the Green Goblin in #135-137 (August-October 1974); and the original "Clone Saga", containing the introduction of Spider-Man's clone, in #147-149 (August-October 1975). Archie Goodwin and Gil Kane produced the title's 150th issue (November 1975) before Len Wein became writer for two-and-a-half years.During Wein's tenure, Harry Osborn and Liz Allen dated and became engaged, J. Jonah Jameson was introduced to his eventual second wife, Marla Madison, and Aunt May suffered a heart attack. Wein's last story on Amazing was a five-issue arc in #176-180 (January-May 1978) featuring a third Green Goblin (Harry Osborn’s psychiatrist, Bart Hamilton). Marv Wolfman, Marvel's editor-in-chief from 1975 to 1976, succeeded Wein as writer, and in his first issue, #182 (July 1978), had Parker propose marriage to Watson (who refused, in the following issue). Keith Pollard succeeded Ross Andru as artist shortly afterward, and with Wolfman introduced the likable rogue the Black Cat (Felicia Hardy) in #194 (July 1979). As a love interest for Spider-Man, the Black Cat would go on to be an important supporting character for the better part of the next decade. The 1980s The Amazing Spider-Man #252 (May 1984): Spider-Man's black costume debuts. Cover art Ron Frenz & Klaus Janson. The Amazing Spider-Man #200 (January 1980) featured the return and death of the burglar who killed Spider-Man's Uncle Ben. Writer Marv Wolfman and penciler Keith Pollard both left the title by mid-year, succeeded by Dennis O'Neil, a writer known for groundbreaking 1970s work at rival DC Comics, and penciler John Romita, Jr.. Roger Stern, who had written nearly 20 issues of sister title The Spectacular Spider-Man, took over Amazing in late 1981. During his two years on the title, Stern augmented the backgrounds of long-established Spider-Man villains, and with Romita Jr. created the mysterious supervillain the Hobgoblin in #238-239 (March-April 1983). Fans engaged with the mystery of the Hobgoblin's secret identity, which continued throughout #244-245 and 249-251 (September-October 1983 & February-April 1984). One lasting change was the reintroduction of Mary Jane Watson as a much more serious, mature woman who becomes Peter's confidant after she reveals that she knows his secret identity. By mid-1984, Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz took over scripting and penciling. DeFalco helped establish the maturation in Parker and Watson's relationship, laying the foundation for the character's eventual wedding. Notably, in #257 (October 1984), Watson tells Parker that she knows he is Spider-Man, and in #259 (December 1984), she reveals to Parker the extent of her troubled childhood. Other notable issues of the DeFalco-Frenz era include #252 (May 1984), with the first appearance of Spider-Man's black costume, which the hero would wear almost exclusively for the next four years' worth of comics; the debut of criminal mastermind the Rose, in #253 (June 1984); the revelation in #258 (November 1984) that the black costume is a living being, a symbiote; and the introduction of the female mercenary Silver Sable in #265 (June 1985). Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz were both removed from Amazing Spider-Man in 1986 by editor Owsley under acrimonious circumstances. Digital Priest (Owsley official site) A succession of artists including Alan Kupperberg, John Romita, Jr., and Alex Saviuk penciled the book from 1987 to 1988; Owsley wrote the book for the first half of 1987, scripting the five-part "Gang War" story (#284-288) that DeFalco plotted. Former Spectacular Spider-Man writer Peter David scripted #289 (June 1987), which revealed the late Ned Leeds as being the Hobgoblin (although this was retconned in 1996 by Roger Stern into Leeds not being the original Hobgoblin after all). David Michelinie took over as writer in the next issue, for a story arc in #290-292 (July-September 1987) that led to the marriage of Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson in Amazing Spider-Man Annual #21. Issue #298 (March 1988) was the first Spider-Man comic to be drawn by future industry star Todd McFarlane, the first regular artist on Amazing Spider-Man since Frenz's departure. McFarlane revolutionized Spider-Man's look. His depiction – large-eyed, with wiry, contorted limbs, and messy, knotted, convoluted webbing – influenced the way virtually all subsequent artists would draw the character. McFarlane's other significant contribution to the Spider-Man canon was the design for what would become one of Spider-Man's most wildly popular antagonists, the supervillain Venom. Issue #299 (April 1988) featured Venom's first appearance (a last-page cameo) before his first full appearance in #300 (May 1988). The latter issue also featured Spider-Man reverting to his original red-and-blue costume. Other notable issues of the Michelinie-McFarlane era include #312 (February 1989), featuring the Green Goblin vs. the Hobgoblin; and #315-317 (May-July 1989), with the return of Venom. After the editorial and creative turmoil that beset Amazing Spider-Man in 1987, the Michelinie/McFarlane team at the tail-end of the 1980s restored a sense of creative consistency and quality to the book, and set the tone for Spider-Man for the next decade. The 1990s With a civilian life as a married man, the Spider-Man of the 1990s was different from the superhero of the previous three decades. Following his 1988-1989 run on Amazing Spider-Man, Todd McFarlane left the title in 1990 to write and draw a new series titled simply Spider-Man. McFarlane's successor, Erik Larsen, penciled the book from early 1990 to mid-1991. After issue #350, Larsen was succeeded by Mark Bagley, who had won the 1986 Marvel Tryout Contest and was assigned a number of low-profile penciling jobs followed by a run on New Warriors in 1990. Bagley penciled the flagship Spider-Man title from 1991 to 1996, with his art forming the basis for most Spider-Man licensed merchandise of the decade and onward. Issues #361-363 (April-June 1992) introduced Carnage, a second symbiote nemesis for Spider-Man. The series' 30th-anniversary issue, #365 (August 1992), was a double-sized, hologram-cover issue with the cliffhanger ending of Peter Parker's parents, long thought dead, reappearing alive. It would be close to two years before they were revealed to be impostors, who are killed in #388 (April 1994), scripter Michelinie's last issue. His 1987-1994 stint gave him the second-longest run as writer on the title, behind Stan Lee. With #389, writer J.M. DeMatteis, whose Spider-Man credits included the 1987 "Kraven's Last Hunt" story arc and a 1991-1993 run on The Spectacular Spider-Man, took over the title. From October 1994 to June 1996, Amazing stopped running stories exclusive to it, and ran installments of multi-part stories that crossed over into all the Spider-Man books. One of the few self-contained stories during this period was in #400 (April 1995), which featured the death of Aunt May — later revealed to have been faked. The "Clone Saga" culminated with the revelation that the Spider-Man who had appeared in the previous 20 years of comics was a clone of the real Spider-Man. This plot twist was massively unpopular with many readers, and was later reversed in the "Revelations" story arc that crossed over the Spider-Man books in late 1996. The Clone Saga tied into a publishing gap after #406 (October 1995), when the title was temporarily replaced by The Amazing Scarlet Spider #1-2 (November-December 1995), featuring Ben Reilly. The series picked up again with #407 (January 1996), with Tom DeFalco returning as writer. Bagley completed his 5½-year run by September 1996. A succession of artists, including Ron Garney, Steve Skroce, Joe Bennett, and Rafael Kayanan, penciled the book until the final issue, #441 (November 1998), after which Marvel rebooted the title with vol. 2, #1 (January 1999). Promotional art by J. Scott Campbell for The Amazing Spider-Man vol. 2, #51 The reboot Marvel began The Amazing Spider-Man anew with vol. 2, #1 (January 1999). Howard Mackie wrote the first 29 issues. With #30 (June 2001), J. Michael Straczynski took over as writer. The relaunch proved very controversial with Sandman being regressed back to his evil ways and the "death" of Mary-Jane, whose death was ultimately reversed due to fan backlash. Other elements included the introduction of a new Spider-Woman (who was spun off into her own short-lived series) and major references to John Byrne's controversial "Spider-Man: Chapter One", which launched at the same time as the reboot. Mackie's run would end with Amazing Spider-Man Annual 2000, which saw the return of Mary Jane, who controversially left her husband upon reuniting with him. With #30 (June 2001), J. Michael Straczynski took over as writer. While his arrival saw the title regain lost readers, Straczynski oversaw additional controversial storylines; most notably his lengthy "Spider-Totem" arc, which raised the controversial issue of whether or not Spider-Man's powers were magic-based, as Spider-Man found himself fighting a string of supernatural based insect villains created by Straczynski. Less controversial was the resurrection of the plot point of Aunt May discovering her nephew was Spider-Man Amazing Spider-Man (vol. 2) #37 and the return of Mary Jane to both the franchise as the couple reunited in Amazing Spider-Man #50. Straczynski also gave Spider-Man a new profession, having Peter Parker land a teaching position at his former high school. Issue #30 began a dual numbering system, with the original series numbering (#471) returned and placed alongside the volume-two number on the cover. Other longtime, rebooted Marvel Comics titles, including Fantastic Four, were given the dual numbering around this time. In October 2000, John Romita, Jr. succeeded John Byrne as artist. After vol. 2, #58 (November 2003), the title reverted to its original numbering for #500 (December 2003), with vol. 2, #1-58 considered #442-499 of the original run. Mike Deodato, Jr. penciled the book from mid-2004 until 2006. Civil War and aftermath As part of the 2006 Civil War crossover story arc, which included The Amazing Spider-Man, Spider-Man initially works with Iron Man and the government to fulfill the Superhuman Registration Act, capturing superheroes who refuse to reveal their identities and register with the government. On live television, he reveals his own true identity as Peter Parker, but eventually changes side and, alongside Captain America and others, becomes an opponent of registration and exposes several of Iron Man's dirty secrets in the process (most notably, Iron Man's concentration camp-style prison for non-registered super-heroes). Due to Iron Man's revoking of security protecting Mary Jane and Aunt May in the wake of Peter's denouncement of Iron Man, the two join Spider-Man on the run. However, the villainous Kingpin of Crime Wilson Fisk orders the Parker family killed, culminating in Aunt May being mortally wounded as a result. This, plus the death of Captain America, causes Parker to retrieve his long-unused black costume to wear. After discovering that Kingpin gave the order that led to May being shot, he breaks into prison and delivers Kingpin a humiliating beating as a warning to leave his family alone. One More Day Promotional art by Joe Quesada for The Amazing Spider-Man #545, the final issue of the Parkers' marriage One More Day is a four-part, crossover story arc, written partially by J. Michael Straczynski and illustrated by Joe Quesada, running through The Amazing Spider-Man #544-545 (November-December 2007), and Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man #24 (November 2007) and Sensational Spider-Man #41 (December 2007), the final issues of those two titles. The demon Mephisto makes a Faustian bargain with Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson-Parker, offering to save Parker's dying Aunt May if the couple will allow their marriage to have never existed, rewriting that portion of their pasts. This story arc crossover also marked the end of Straczynski's six and a half years run as writer (from 2001-2007) on The Amazing Spider-Man after 75 issues (including issues of Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man and The Sensational Spider-Man as part of crossovers). Brand New Day Following this, Marvel made The Amazing Spider-Man the company's sole Spider-Man title, upped its frequency of publication to three issues monthly, and inaugurated the series with a sequence of "back to basics" story arcs under the banner of "Brand New Day", wherein Peter now exists in a changed world where he and Mary Jane had never married — neither having any memory of being married together — and with domino-effect differences in their immediate world. The alternating regular writers are Dan Slott, Bob Gale, Marc Guggenheim and Zeb Wells, joined by a rotation of artists that includes Chris Bachalo, Phil Jimenez, Mike McKone, John Romita, Jr. and Marcos Martin. Joe Kelly, Mark Waid and Roger Stern later joined the writing team and Barry Kitson the artists roster. See also List of The Amazing Spider-Man comics Footnotes References Grand Comics Database Marvel.com External links Amazing Spider-Man comic book sales figures from 1966-present at The Comics Chronicles Marvel Comics wiki: Spider-Man Amazing Spider-Man cover gallery | The_Amazing_Spider-Man |@lemmatized amazing:20 spider:83 man:88 american:1 comic:20 book:13 series:13 publish:3 marvel:17 feature:16 adventure:3 superhero:6 publication:2 history:2 first:23 appear:4 amaze:10 fantasy:1 august:7 cancel:1 issue:45 response:1 character:14 positive:1 solo:1 title:20 launch:2 march:6 cover:5 date:2 create:4 writer:16 editor:7 stan:3 lee:19 artist:12 co:2 plotter:1 steve:2 ditko:12 pair:1 produce:2 since:4 many:2 take:10 monthly:2 year:12 chronicle:3 identifiable:1 hero:5 flagship:3 major:4 villain:5 saga:5 introduce:10 key:2 event:1 occur:1 continuously:1 relaunched:1 new:9 january:8 anniversary:2 revert:3 use:2 numbering:4 original:7 begin:4 december:7 initial:1 nascent:1 career:3 civilian:2 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1,242 | Electricity_generation | Electricity generation is the process of creating electricity from other forms of energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820's and early 1830's by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between the poles of a magnet. 'The Institution of Engineering & Technology: Michael Faraday' For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other processes, electric power transmission, electricity distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped storage methods are normally carried out by the electrical power industry. Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators, primarily driven by heat engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. There are many other technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics and geothermal power. Sources of electricity in the U.S. in 2006; Net Generation by Energy Source by Type of Producer, (c. 2006), accessed 2008-03-28, Washington: U.S. Dept. of Energy, Energy Information Administration. fossil fuel generation (mainly coal) was the largest source. History Sources of electricity in France in 2006; nuclear power was the main source. Centralised power generation became possible when it was recognized that alternating current power lines can transport electricity at very low costs across great distances by taking advantage of the ability to raise and lower the voltage using power transformers. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1881. The first power plants were run on water power or coal, Pearl Street Station: The Dawn of Commercial Electric Power and today we rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydroelectric, and petroleum with a small amount from solar energy, tidal harnesses, wind generators, and geothermal sources. Methods of generating electricity There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into electrical energy: Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of charge (examples: triboelectric effect and lightning) Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy of motion) into electricity Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into electricity, as in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse Photoelectric effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy, as in solar cells Thermoelectric effect, direct conversion of temperature differences to electricity, as in thermocouples and thermopiles Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of electrically anisotropic molecules or crystals Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged particles (examples: betavoltaics or alpha particle emission) Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. Electrons are mechanically separated and transported to increase their electric potential. Almost all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical energy forces an electrical generator to rotate. There are many different methods of developing the mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. The direct conversion of nuclear energy to electricity by beta decay is used only on a small scale. In a full-size nuclear power plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run a heat engine. This drives a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electricity by magnetic induction. Most electric generation is driven by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. Turbines Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it will have a 22.5 GW capability. Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, a nuclear power plant. A combined cycle natural gas power plant near Orem, Utah. All turbines are driven by a fluid acting as an intermediate energy carrier. Many of the heat engines just mentioned are turbines. Other types of turbines can be driven by wind or falling water. Sources includes: Steam - Water is boiled by: nuclear fission, the burning of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or petroleum). In hot gas (gas turbine), turbines are driven directly by gases produced by the combustion of natural gas or oil. Combined cycle gas turbine plants are driven by both steam and natural gas. They generate power by burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to generate additional electricity from steam. These plants offer efficiencies of up to 60%. Renewables. The steam generated by: Biomass The sun as the heat source: solar parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to produce steam. Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges from the ground and drives a turbine or hot water evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapour to drive a turbine. Other renewable sources: Water (hydroelectric) - Turbine blades are acted upon by flowing water, produced by hydroelectric dams or tidal forces. Wind - Most wind turbines generate electricity from naturally occurring wind. Solar updraft towers use wind that is artificially produced inside the chimney by heating it with sunlight, and are more properly seen as forms of solar thermal energy. Reciprocating engines Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas or natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages. Biogas is often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine. A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased operations after declining to invest in pollution control equipment to comply with pollution regulations. Photovoltaic panels Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in experimental systems. New World Record Achieved in Solar Cell Technology (press release, 2006-12-05), U.S. Department of Energy. Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by 40% per year led by increases in Germany, Japan, California and New Jersey. Other generation methods Wind-powered turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with other methods of producing power. Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation. Solid-state generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications. This area is largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI) and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE devices are used at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems. Piezoelectric devices are used for power generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power harvesting. Betavoltaics are another type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity from radioactive decay. Fluid-based magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation has been studied as a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel combustion systems. Osmotic power finally is another possibility at places where salt and sweet water merges (eg deltas, ...) Electrochemical electricity generation is also important in portable and mobile applications. Currently, most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical cells ("batteries") World's Largest Utility Battery System Installed in Alaska (press release, 2003-09-24), U.S. Department of Energy. "13,670 nickel-cadmium battery cells to generate up to 40 megawatts of power for about 7 minutes, or 27 megawatts of power for 15 minutes." , which are arguably utilized more as storage systems than generation systems, but open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a great deal of research and development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to extract power either from natural fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either generation systems or storage systems depending on their use. Production by country Electricity output in 2005 The United States has long been the largest producer and consumer of electricity, with a global share in 2005 of at least 25%, followed by China, Japan and Russia. Global warming It has been suggested that emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases from electricity generation account for a significant portion of world greenhouse gas emissions; in the United States, electricity generation accounts for nearly 40 percent of emissions, the largest of any source. Transportation emissions are close behind, contributing about one-third of U.S. production of carbon dioxide http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003732690_carbon03.html . See also Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources Distributed generation Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID) List of countries by electricity production from renewable source Electric power transmission Electric utility Electricity distribution Electricity retailing Energy development Environmental concerns with electricity generation Eugene Green Energy Standard Generating Availability Data System Load profile Mains electricity Power quality Virtual power plant Voltage drop References Large dams such as Hoover Dam can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has a 2.07 gigawatt capability. External links Power Technologies Energy Data Book NOW on PBS: Power Struggle | Electricity_generation |@lemmatized electricity:38 generation:22 process:3 create:2 form:4 energy:24 fundamental:2 principle:1 discover:2 early:1 british:1 scientist:1 michael:2 faraday:2 basic:1 method:8 still:3 use:17 today:2 generate:11 movement:1 loop:1 wire:1 disc:1 copper:1 pole:1 magnet:1 institution:1 engineering:1 technology:6 electric:8 utility:3 first:3 delivery:1 consumer:2 power:43 transmission:2 distribution:2 electrical:9 storage:4 recovery:1 pumped:1 normally:1 carry:1 industry:1 often:4 station:4 electromechanical:1 generator:10 primarily:1 drive:10 heat:13 engine:9 fuel:10 chemical:2 combustion:4 nuclear:11 fission:3 also:4 mean:1 kinetic:2 flow:2 water:8 wind:9 many:3 solar:12 photovoltaics:2 geothermal:3 source:14 u:6 net:1 type:3 producer:2 c:1 access:2 washington:1 dept:1 information:1 administration:1 fossil:3 mainly:3 coal:5 large:9 history:1 france:1 main:1 centralised:1 become:1 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1,243 | Cardinal_vowels | X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ]. Highest tongue positions of cardinal front vowels Diagram of relative highest points of tongue for cardinal vowels Highest tongue positions of cardinal back vowels A more commonly seen schematic diagram of highest tongue positions of cardinal vowels Cardinal vowels are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages. For instance, the vowel of the English word "feet" can be described with reference to cardinal vowel 1, , which is the cardinal vowel closest to it. A cardinal vowel is a vowel sound produced when the tongue is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by Daniel Jones in the early 20th century, though the idea goes back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis and Bell. Three of the cardinal vowels, , and have articulatory definitions. [i] is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible (without producing friction), with spread lips. is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with pursed lips. This sound can be approximated by adopting the posture to whistle a very low note, or blow out a candle. is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible. The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue position). The Ngwe language of West Africa has been cited as a language with a vowel system that has 8 vowels which are rather similar to the 8 primary cardinal vowels (Ladefoged 1971:67). These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define 8 reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria. These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages. The lip positions can be reversed with the lip position for the corresponding vowel on the opposite side of the front-back dimension, so that e.g. Cardinal 1 can be produced with the rounding for Cardinal 9, etc.; these are known as 'secondary cardinal vowels'. Sounds such as these are less common in the world's languages. Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the vowel chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Table of cardinal vowels cardinal IPA description 1 close front unrounded vowel 2 close-mid front unrounded vowel 3 open-mid front unrounded vowel 4 open front unrounded vowel 5 open back unrounded vowel 6 open-mid back rounded vowel 7 close-mid back rounded vowel 8 close back rounded vowel 9 close front rounded vowel 10 close-mid front rounded vowel 11 open-mid front rounded vowel 12 open front rounded vowel 13 open back rounded vowel 14 open-mid back unrounded vowel 15 close-mid back unrounded vowel 16 close back unrounded vowel 17 Close central unrounded vowel 18 Close central rounded vowel In the IPA's number chart, the cardinal vowels have the same numbers used above, but added to 300. See also list of phonetics topics audio demonstrations of cardinal vowels as spoken by Daniel Jones at age 75 Bibliography Ladefoged, Peter. (1971). Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. | Cardinal_vowels |@lemmatized x:1 ray:1 daniel:3 jones:3 u:1 ɑ:1 high:8 tongue:10 position:8 cardinal:18 front:12 vowel:44 diagram:2 relative:1 point:2 back:15 vowels:1 commonly:1 see:2 schematic:1 set:1 reference:3 use:2 phonetician:2 describe:2 sound:5 language:5 instance:1 english:1 word:1 foot:1 close:13 produce:6 extreme:1 either:1 low:4 current:1 system:2 systematise:1 early:1 century:1 though:1 idea:1 go:1 earlier:1 notably:1 ellis:1 bell:1 three:2 articulatory:2 definition:1 far:3 forward:1 mouth:3 possible:3 without:1 friction:1 spread:1 lip:4 pursed:1 approximate:1 adopt:1 posture:1 whistle:1 note:1 blow:1 candle:1 auditorily:1 equidistant:1 corner:1 four:1 degree:2 aperture:2 height:1 mid:10 open:10 ngwe:1 west:1 africa:1 cite:1 rather:1 similar:1 primary:2 ladefoged:2 plus:1 distinction:1 define:1 mixture:1 auditory:1 criterion:1 eight:2 know:2 like:1 common:2 world:2 reverse:1 corresponding:1 opposite:1 side:1 dimension:1 e:1 g:1 rounding:1 etc:1 secondary:1 less:1 also:2 recognise:1 chart:2 international:1 phonetic:1 alphabet:1 table:1 ipa:2 description:1 unrounded:9 round:9 central:2 number:2 add:1 list:1 phonetics:2 topic:1 audio:1 demonstration:1 speak:1 age:1 bibliography:1 peter:1 preliminary:1 linguistic:1 chicago:2 university:1 press:1 |@bigram schematic_diagram:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 front_unrounded:4 unrounded_vowel:9 phonetics_topic:1 ladefoged_peter:1 |
1,244 | N.W.A | N.W.A (the initialism for: "Niggaz With Attitude") was a Compton, California-based hip hop group widely considered one of the seminal acts of the gangsta rap sub-genre. Former N.W.A. manager Otto Kaiserauer talks gangsta rap Active from 1986 to 1991, the group endured controversy due to the explicit nature of their lyrics. They were subsequently banned from many mainstream U.S. radio stations and even at times prevented from touring - yet the group has still sold over 9 million units in the U.S. alone. Their second album, Straight Outta Compton, marked the beginning of the new gangsta rap era as the production and the social commentary in their lyrics were revolutionary within the genre. Rolling Stone ranked N.W.A 83rd on their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". "100 Greatest Artists of All Time", Rolling Stone. Although largely unknown at the group's inception, rappers Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, Eazy-E and MC Ren would all go on to be platinum-selling stars as solo artists. History Compton-based former drug dealer Eazy-E began Ruthless Records with Jerry Heller. Ruthless released N.W.A. and the Posse in 1987 with Macola Records. N.W.A. was still in its developing stages, and only credited on four of the eleven tracks, notably the uncharacteristic electro hop record "Panic Zone", "8Ball", and "Dopeman", which first brought together (on wax) Ice Cube, Dr. Dre and Eazy-E. Also included was Eazy-E's solo record "Boyz-n-the Hood". Henderson, Alex. "N.W.A. and the Posse" - Overview. Allmusic. Last accessed August 17, 2007. In 1988, rapper MC Ren joined the group. "The World's Most Dangerous Group" N.W.A released Straight Outta Compton in 1988. With its famous opening salvo of three songs, the group reflected the rising anger of the urban youth. "Straight Outta Compton" introduced the group; "Fuck tha Police" protested police brutality and racial profiling, and "Gangsta Gangsta" painted the worldview of the inner-city youth. While the group was later credited with pioneering the burgeoning subgenre of gangsta rap, N.W.A in fact referred to their music as "reality rap". Duff, S.L. N.W.A. YA BOY Biography. Yahoo! Music. Last accessed August 17, 2007. Jason Raspanti and DJ Yella, as HighPowered Productions, composed the beats for each song, with Dre making occasional rapping appearances. N.W.A. - Gangsta, Gangsta Ice Cube and MC Ren wrote the lyrics. "Fuck tha Police", perhaps the group's most notorious song, brought them into conflict with various law enforcement agencies. Under pressure from Focus on the Family, Milt Ahlerich, an assistant director of the FBI, sent a letter to Ruthless and its parent company Priority Records advising the rappers that "advocating violence and assault is wrong and we in the law enforcement community take exception to such action". This letter can still be seen at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. Policemen refused to provide security for the group's concerts, hurting their plans to tour. Nonetheless, the FBI's letter only served to draw more publicity to the group. Straight Outta Compton was also one of the first albums to adhere to the new Parental Advisory label scheme, then in its early stages: the now-iconic label then only consisted of "WARNING: Moderate impact coarse language and/or themes". However, the taboo nature of N.W.A's music was the greatest part of its mass appeal. The media coverage compensated for N.W.A's virtual lack of airplay and their album eventually went double platinum. One month after Straight Outta Compton, Eazy-E's solo debut was released. Eazy-Duz-It was dominated by Eazy's persona - MC Ren, appearing on two songs, was the only guest rapper - but behind the scenes it was a group effort. Music was handled by Dr. Dre and DJ Yella, and the lyrics were largely written by Ren, with contributions from Ice Cube and The D.O.C. The album was another platinum success for Ruthless (in addition to girl group J.J. Fad in 1988 and singer Michel'le in 1989), also going double. Easy-E Biography at Easye.info 1989 saw the re-issue of Straight Outta Compton on compact disc, and the release of The D.O.C.'s No One Can Do It Better. The album was essentially a collaboration between "The D.O.C. and The Doctor" and notably free of "gangsta rap content", but culminated in the N.W.A posse cut "The Grand Finalé". It would be another number one album for the group. Darker Days Ice Cube left in late 1989 over royalty disputes, having written 40% of the "Compton" album himself, he felt he was not getting a fair share. Leigh, Danny. Chillin' With Cube. The Guardian: February 25, 2000. He wasted little time putting together his solo debut, 1990's AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted, but avoided mentioning his former labelmates. N.W.A's next release was some five months later, the EP 100 Miles and Runnin', but would not be equally diplomatic. They alluded to Ice Cube's departure in its eponymous single, stating the group "we started out with too much cargo/so I'm glad we got ridda Benedict Arnold". Also heard on the EP (which also found its way on Efil4zaggin) was "Real Niggaz", a full-blown diss on Cube where the remaining members accuse him of cowardice, and question his authenticity, longevity and originality: "How the fuck you think a rapper lasts/With your ass sayin shit, that was said in the past/Yo, be original, your shit is sloppy/Get off the dick, you motherfucking carbon-copy." The song "100 Miles and Runnin'" is also notable for being Dr. Dre's final uptempo record, which had been a common feature of late-80s hip hop. N.W.A is referenced on Cube's 1990 EP, Kill at Will, where he name-checks his former group (likely in a mocking manner) on the song "Jackin' For Beats". On "I Gotta Say What Up!!!", Cube gives shout-outs to his rap peers at the time, among them Public Enemy, the Geto Boys, Sir Jinx, et cetera. At the end of the track, in what appears to be an on-the-phone interview, Ice Cube is asked, "Since you went solo, whatever happened to your crew?" and the interviewer is abruptly hung up on. The group's second full-length release, 1991's Efil4zaggin ("Niggaz4Life" spelled backwards), re-established the group in the face of Ice Cube's continued solo success. The album is considered by many Dr. Dre's finest production work, and heralded the beginning of the "G-Funk era". It also showed a clear animosity towards their former member, and derogatory references to Ice Cube are found in several songs. The interlude "A Message to B.A." echoes the beginning of his song "Turn Off the Radio" from AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted: in it, Ice Cube is first addressed by the name "Benedict Arnold" (after the infamous traitor of the American Revolution) but then named outright in a torrent of abuse from both the group and its fans: "When we see yo' ass, we gon' cut yo' hair off and fuck you with a broomstick", promised MC Ren. The N.W.A-Ice Cube feud escalated. AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted had avoided direct attacks on N.W.A, but on Death Certificate, Ice Cube’s second full-length released later that year, he fired back. He sampled and mocked the "Message to B.A." skit before embarking on a full-blown tirade, the infamous "No Vaseline". In a series of verses, Ice Cube addressed the group (and responded to "100 Miles and Runnin'", explaining "I started off with too much cargo, dropped four Niggaz now I'm makin' all the dough"), and then MC Ren, Dr. Dre and especially Eazy-E individually, using homosexual metaphors to describe their unequal business relationship with Jerry Heller, who becomes the target of very harsh criticism: "Get rid of that devil real simple, put a bullet in his temple." The song attracted controversy for its perceived anti-Semitism (the beginning of such allegations involving Ice Cube) for referencing Heller's religion; Nuzum, 113. the track was omitted from the U.K. release, and later pressings have had the words edited. The alleged slurs used in lines such as "you let a Jew break up my crew" however, could be explained away as the results of writing in rhyme. "No Vaseline" is considered one of the greatest diss records of all time. The increasingly violent content was reflected in real life as well—on January 27, 1991, Dr. Dre assaulted Dee Barnes, host of the hip hop show Pump It Up, after its coverage Rose, Tricia. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Wesleyan University Press, 1994. p179. ISBN 0819562750 of the N.W.A/Ice Cube beef. According to Rolling Stone reporter Alan Light: Light, Alan. "Beating Up the Charts." Rolling Stone 8 Aug. 1991. p66. Despite a lawsuit, the group was unrepentant. MC Ren later stated, "bitch deserved it"—Eazy-E, "yeah, bitch had it coming." As Dre described it: "People talk all this shit, but you know, somebody fuck with me, I'm gonna fuck with them. I just did it, you know. Ain't nothing you can do now by talking about it. Besides, it ain't no big thing—I just threw her through a door." In this time as well the demographic which were interested in the group also began to change. Although they still rapped about similar themes of the "gangster life" in Compton and South Central Los Angeles, without Ice Cube they were not as serious and hardly political at all, as they were on Straight Outta Compton. The end of N.W.A 1991's Efil4zaggin would be the group's final album. After Dr. Dre, The D.O.C. and Michel'le's departure from Ruthless for Death Row Records, in which Eazy-E was allegedly coerced into signing away their contracts (while however retaining a portion of their publishing rights), a bitter rivalry ensued. Dr. Dre began the exchange with Death Row's first release, 1992's "Fuck Wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')", and its accompanying video featured a character named Sleazy-E who ran around desperately trying to get money. The insults continued on The Chronic with "Bitches Ain't Shit". Eazy-E responded in 1993 with the EP It's On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa and the tracks "Real Muthaphuckkin G's" and "It's On". Eazy-E accused Dr. Dre of homosexual tendencies, calling him a "she thang", and the music video for "Real Muthaphuckkin G's" shows promo pictures of him wearing make-up and a sequined jumpsuit. The photos were from Dr. Dre's World Class Wreckin' Cru days, when such fashions were the style of West Coast Electro hop prior to N.W.A.'s popularizing of gangsta rap. After Eazy-E's AIDS-related death on March 26, 1995, all bad blood between the group ceased. Dr. Dre and Ice Cube would later express their re-evaluated feelings to their old friend on 1999's "What's The Difference" and "Chin Check", 2000's "Hello", and 2006's "Growin' Up". Reunions and legacy Having both found themselves exploited by Ruthless Records, tensions eased between Ice Cube and Dr. Dre. The two recorded the hit song "Natural Born Killaz" for Snoop Doggy Dogg's 1994 short film and soundtrack Murder Was the Case. MC Ren appeared on Dre's 1999 album The Chronic 2001, and the three remaining N.W.A emcees would reunite for "Hello", from Ice Cube's 2000 album War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc), featuring the hook "I started this gangsta shit/And this the motherfucking thanks I get?". The West Coast and "gangsta" music scene had however fallen out of the spotlight since the death of Tupac Shakur in 1996, and it was only after Dr. Dre's successful patronage of Eminem and his ensuing comeback album 2001 would the genre and its artists regain the national spotlight. 2000's all-star Up In Smoke Tour would reunite much of the N.W.A and Death Row families, and during time spent on the road Dre, Ice Cube, MC Ren, and honorary member Snoop Dogg began recording in a mobile studio. A comeback album entitled Not These Niggaz Again was planned O'Connor, Christopher.1999 Reunited N.W.A Get Serious About Recording Album, VH1.com, December 7, 1999. (and would include DJ Yella, who had not been present on the tour). But due to busy and conflicting schedules, and the obstacles of coordinating three different record labels (Priority, No Limit and Interscope), obtaining the rights to the name "N.W.A", and endorsing the whole project to gain exclusive rights, the album never materialized. Moss, Corey. N.W.A. May Still Have Attitude but They Don't Have an Album, MTV.com, April 25, 2002. Only two tracks from these sessions would be released - "Chin Check" (with Snoop Dogg as a member of N.W.A) from 1999's Next Friday soundtrack) and "Hello" from Ice Cube's 2000 album War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) - both songs would appear on N.W.A's remastered and re-released Greatest Hits. There would also be partial reunions on "Set It Off", from Snoop Dogg's Tha Last Meal (2000), which featured MC Ren and Ice Cube as well as former Death Row "Inmates", and The D.O.C.'s "The Shit", from his 2003 album Deuce, which featured MC Ren, Ice Cube, Snoop Dogg and Six-Two. Dr. Dre and DJ Yella have nothing to do with either song, however they were present in the studio for the latter. In addition to the Greatest Hits originally released by Priority in 1996, Capitol and Ruthless Records released The N.W.A. Legacy, Vol. 1: 1988-1998 in 1998, an album that contained only three songs from the actual group but various solo tracks from the five members. The success of the album prompted a second volume, The N.W.A. Legacy, Vol. 2, two years later. It followed the same format of the first album, containing only three "N.W.A" tracks and many songs from them as solo artists. In 2007, a new greatest hits package was released, The Best of N.W.A: The Strength of Street Knowledge. Future Biopic With the success of Notorious, New Line Cinema reps announced to Entertainment Weekly's "Hollywood Insider Blog" that N.W.A.'s story is in development to become a theatrical release in 2010. Producing the film will be Ice Cube, Dr. Dre, and Tomica Wright. A director has not been chosen yet; however, the producers are reportedly seeking a helmer on par with 8 Mile director Curtis Hanson. The cast has yet to be disclosed. MC Ren and DJ Yella have not yet commented on whether or not they will be involved in the production. Main artists Eazy-E Eric Wright was a former Compton drug dealer when he founded Ruthless Records with Jerry Heller, and the two would oversee numerous platinum-selling releases, most notably those of N.W.A. He was said to be the leader of the group until they split up. After the group's break-up - while Death Row Records remade hip hop in its image - Eazy-E's solo career was largely dominated by his hip hop rivalry Ruthless vs. Death Row feud with Dr. Dre, evidenced by records such as the Platinum EP It's On (Dr. Dre) 187um Killa which featured the famous 'diss' towards Dr. Dre in the song "Real Muthaphukkin G's". Nonetheless, he continued to run Ruthless Records, releasing albums by MC Ren, Above the Law, and in 1994, the four-times platinum debut of Bone Thugs-N-Harmony. Eazy was working on a come-back album, Str8 off tha Streetz of Muthaphukkin Compton which would have involved artists such as 2Pac, Guns N' Roses and Notorious B.I.G when he checked into Cedars-Sinai Medical Center on March 16 1995, believing he had strep throat. In a publicized statement on March 20, Eazy-E announced he had contracted HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Six days later, Eric Wright succumbed to the disease. He was 31. On his death bed days before, Eazy married long-term girlfriend and mother of his child Tomica Woods, and she inherited his share of Ruthless Records. She and her son are HIV-negative. Dr. Dre Andre Young began his career as a DJ for electro-hop group the World Class Wreckin' Cru, and was featured on their 1984 debut 12-inch single, "Surgery". The fashions of this period would later come back to haunt Dre several years later during a feud with Eazy-E. After two albums and allegations of mispayment, Dr. Dre and fellow World Class Wreckin' Cru member DJ Yella left Alonzo William's Kru-Cut Records for Eazy-E and Jerry Heller's Ruthless Records in 1986, where they would move into production. After producing several platinum-selling albums for Ruthless, Dre found himself regarded as one of the top producers in hip hop but once again under-compensated for his work. Together with The D.O.C., he would leave to form Death Row Records, and embark on a solo career unmatched by any of the N.W.A alumni. Dr. Dre's 1992 solo The Chronic would introduce the world to the sounds of G-Funk and rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg, whose five-times platinum debut would be the last album entirely produced by Dre. While Death Row began its near-domination of hip hop, this marked the end of Dr. Dre's prolific era. Dr. Dre left Death Row before its eventual self-destruction, and would form his own label, Aftermath Entertainment. After years of fruitless and failed projects, most notably that of the 1997 supergroup The Firm, Dr. Dre's reputation would be vindicated with the phenomenal success of Eminem in 1999, leading to the West Coast comeback album, 2001. Dre's success continued with that of Eminem, and in a joint-venture, the two signed 50 Cent in 2002, who would go on to sell over 20 million records. Dr. Dre meanwhile has developed into a master of the recording process, and maintains his status as one of hip hop's premier producers. A long delayed third solo album, Detox, has been anticipated for several years. Ice Cube Ice Cube left N.W.A. at the peak of their popularity in late-1989 but would become a highly successful rapper in his own right. By 2008 he had released eight solo albums. Whereas N.W.A. rapped about gang life on the street, Ice Cube continued to include social commentary on his records on subjects such as gun control in the ghetto and the 1992 Los Angeles riots. His political albums are most remembered for referring to America as AmeriKKKa, as well as addressing hypocrisy and issues such as gang life and racism. All of his solo albums, except his first, debuted in the top five. His first three albums (AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted, Death Certificate, and The Predator) were big hits; they all achieved platinum status, and were greeted with rave reviews by critics. His fourth solo effort, Lethal Injection, was recorded on the back of projects with his crew, Da Lench Mob, and starring in Boyz-N-The Hood. Ice Cube has experience as a film actor and director, starring in films such as Friday, Next Friday, Friday After Next, Three Kings, xXx: State of the Union, Barbershop, and Are We There Yet?. He has also released a reality TV series in March 2006, named Black. White.. He released the album, Laugh Now, Cry Later, in 2006 on his own record company, Da Lench Mob Records. Ice Cube's latest album entitled Raw Footage was released on August 19th, 2008. MC Ren As the N.W.A album Niggaz4Life reached the #1 spot on the Billboard 200 in 1991, financial conflict between Dr. Dre and Ruthless Records led to the group disbanding. Eazy-E, along with the group's manager Jerry Heller, was accused of skimming money. Dr. Dre left to form Death Row Records and MC Ren subsequently released his debut album with the help of Eazy-E in 1992, entitled Kizz My Black Azz. With little commercial promotion, the album went platinum. MC Ren's next album, Life Sentence, was scrapped due to the fact that he converted to Islam and changed a lot of his old views. Shock of the Hour was released the next year in 1993. It also features the single "Mayday on the Frontline" which appeared in the film CB4. Following this, there was the release 'Forget What Ya Heard'. Two years followed before an E.P. sampler for the 'Villain In Black' album hit the streets. This particular 12" is considered a collectors' item. Incidentally, during the 1992-94 period, Ren along with the likes of Dre, Warren G (Dre's half brother) Eazy-E and Snoop Doggy Dogg were instrumental in pioneering what would become known as 'G Funk' - a direct evolution from the N.W.A. sound. This sound can actually be traced back as far as the 1987 N.W.A release 'Dopeman'. However it wasn't until the N.W.A. group split that the likes of Ren, Dre and Eazy developed their own brand of G Funk. MC Ren's "Same Old Shit" and "Fuck What Ya Heard" being good examples of his own style. Soon after, tragedy struck MC Ren when DJ Train died in a house fire before the release of The Villain in Black (1996). Before leaving Ruthless Records, MC Ren released Ruthless for Life (1998) which proved a worthy comeback. He appeared on the posse cut "Some L.A. Niggaz" from Dr. Dre's 2001 album, but only took part in the intro, speaking. In 2000 he appeared on the song "Hello" which featured Dr. Dre and Ice Cube on Ice Cube's War & Peace Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc) album. He joined the Up In Smoke Tour that same year. MC Ren would go on to release the straight-to-DVD movie entitled Lost in the Game in 2004. His most recent work has appeared on more politically-oriented projects such as Paris' album Hard Truth Soldiers Vol. 1 as well as on Public Enemy's album Rebirth of a Nation (2006). MC Ren appeared on the 2006 edition of the VH1 Hip Hop Honors talking about Eazy-E in the tribute to him. Currently, he hosts the weekly online based MC Ren Radio Show at 92.5 KYHY Burbank Radio (www.925burbank.com) and is in the process of finishing his next album titled RenIncarnated. DJ Yella There was not much of a commercial solo career for DJ Yella to pursue, thus he was the lone member to remain loyal to Eazy-E after the breakup. He continued producing Eazy-E's records, including a couple of tracks for Eazy-E's protégés Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's debut EP Creepin on ah Come Up. He also claimed he was the lone member of N.W.A to be at Eazy-E's deathbed when he died. After the death of his friend, DJ Yella released a solo album as a tribute to his former band-mate, but as with N.W.A, DJ Yella did not touch the mic; instead, he hired guest rappers such as Dirty Red, Dresta, Traci Nelson, Leicy Loc, B.G. Knocc Out, and Efil4zaggin lyricist Kokane to perform. Arabian Prince Arabian Prince found the going tough when he departed the group for a solo career in 1988. His debut Brother Arab barely scraped the bottom of the R&B and Pop Charts in 1989. His album credits include Where's My Bytches and "She's Got a Big Posse" as well as work on N.W.A's Straight Outta Compton and production for various other West Coast hip-hop artists. He later released an album. Discography Albums N.W.A. and the Posse (1987) Straight Outta Compton (1988) 100 Miles and Runnin' (1990) Niggaz4life (1991) Compilations Greatest Hits (1996) Straight Outta Compton: N.W.A. 10th Anniversary Tribute (1998) The N.W.A. Legacy, Vol. 1: 1988-1998 (1999) The N.W.A. Legacy, Vol. 2 (2002) The Best of N.W.A: The Strength of Street Knowledge (2006) Straight Outta Compton (20th Anniversary) (2007) Family Tree (N.W.A. album) (2008) References External links Official site | N.W.A |@lemmatized n:54 w:49 initialism:1 niggaz:5 attitude:2 compton:17 california:1 base:3 hip:10 hop:13 group:33 widely:1 consider:4 one:8 seminal:1 act:1 gangsta:12 rap:11 sub:1 genre:3 former:8 manager:2 otto:1 kaiserauer:1 talk:4 active:1 endure:1 controversy:2 due:3 explicit:1 nature:2 lyric:4 subsequently:2 ban:1 many:3 mainstream:1 u:3 radio:4 station:1 even:1 time:10 prevent:1 tour:5 yet:5 still:5 sell:3 million:2 unit:1 alone:1 second:4 album:49 straight:12 outta:11 mark:2 beginning:4 new:4 era:3 production:6 social:2 commentary:2 revolutionary:1 within:1 roll:5 stone:4 rank:1 list:1 great:7 artist:8 although:2 largely:3 unknown:1 inception:1 rapper:8 dr:31 dre:43 ice:31 cube:35 eazy:29 e:27 mc:22 ren:25 would:25 go:8 platinum:10 star:4 solo:18 history:1 drug:2 dealer:2 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1,245 | Fort_Collins,_Colorado | Fort Collins is a Home Rule Municipality situated on the Cache La Poudre River along the Colorado Front Range, and is the county seat and most populous city of Larimer County, Colorado, United States. Fort Collins is located north of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver. With an estimated 2006 population of 129,467, it is the fifth most populous city in Colorado. Fort Collins is a large college town, home to Colorado State University. It was named Money magazine's Best Place to Live 2006 and #2 in 2008. History Fort Collins was founded as a military outpost of the United States Army in 1864. It succeeded a previous encampment, known as Camp Collins, on the Cache La Poudre River, near present-day Laporte. Camp Collins was erected during the Indian wars of the mid-1860s to protect the Overland mail route that had been recently relocated through the region. Travelers crossing the county on the Overland Trail would camp there, but a flood destroyed the camp in June 1864. Afterward, the commander of the fort wrote to the commandant of Fort Laramie in southeast Wyoming, Colonel William O. Collins, suggesting that a site several miles further down the Poudre would make a good location for the fort. The post was manned originally by two companies of the 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry and never had walls. Nineteenth-century bird's-eye view of Fort Collins. Settlers began arriving in the vicinity of the fort nearly immediately. The fort was decommissioned in 1867. The original fort site is now adjacent to the present historic "Old Town" portion of the city. The first school and church opened in 1866, and the town was platted in 1867. The civilian population of Fort Collins, led by local businessman Joseph Mason, led an effort to relocate the county seat to Fort Collins from LaPorte, and they were successful in 1868. The city's first population boom came in 1872, with the establishment of an agricultural colony. Hundreds of settlers arrived, developing lots just south of the original Old Town. Tension between new settlers and earlier inhabitants led to political divisions in the new town, which was incorporated in 1873. The first classes at the new state agricultural college were held in 1870. The 1880s saw the construction of a number of elegant homes and commercial buildings and the growth of a distinctive identity for Fort Collins. Stone quarrying, sugar beet farming, and the slaughter of sheep were among the area's earliest industries. Beet tops, an industry supported by the College and its associated agricultural experiment station, proved to be an excellent and abundant food for local sheep, and by the early 1900s the area was being referred to as the "Lamb feeding capital of the world." In 1901 the Great Western sugar processing plant was built in the neighboring city of Loveland. Poudre Valley Bank, now Nature's Own at Linden and Walnut, Fort Collins, Colorado (1908) Although the city was affected by the Great Depression and simultaneous drought, it nevertheless experienced slow and steady growth throughout the early part of the twentieth century. During the decade following World War II, the population doubled and an era of economic prosperity occurred. Old buildings were razed to make way for new, modern structures. Along with revitalization came many changes, including the closing of the Great Western sugar factory in 1955, and a new city charter, adopting a council-manager form of government in 1954. Similarly, Colorado State University's enrollment doubled during the 1960s, making it the city's primary economic force by the end of the century. Fort Collins gained a reputation as a very conservative city in the twentieth century, with a prohibition of alcoholic beverages, a contentious political issue in the town's early decades, being retained from the late 1890s until student activism helped bring it to an end in 1969. During that same period, civil rights activism and anti-war disturbances heightened tensions in the city, including the burning of several buildings on the CSU campus. During the late 20th century, Fort Collins expanded rapidly to the south, adding new development, including several regional malls. Management of city growth patterns became a political priority during the 1980s, as well as the revitalization of Fort Collins' Old Town with the creation of a Downtown Development Authority. Fort Collins, facing west (1875) In 2006, Money ranked Fort Collins as the best place to live in America, proclaiming that "great schools, low crime, good jobs in a high-tech economy and a fantastic outdoor life make Fort Collins No. 1." Fort Collins continues to grow in population at a measured pace, with competition from other development in northern Colorado, debate over future growth patterns and town and gown relations emerging as dominant local issues in the early 21st century. In the spring of 2008, several scenes from the comedy film The Overbrook Brothers were shot in the city and surrounding areas. For more information on local history see the Fort Collins Museum and Discovery Science Center's local historical archives. Fort Collins Local History Archives: Museum and Library Partnership Geography and climate Fort Collins is located at (40.559238, -105.078302). The city is situated just east of the Rocky Mountain foothills of the Northern Front Range approximately north of Denver, Colorado and south of Cheyenne, Wyoming. Elevation is 5,003 ft (or 1,524 m) above sea level. Prominent geographic landmarks include Horsetooth Reservoir and Horsetooth Mountain—so named because of a tooth shaped granite rock that dominates the city's western skyline. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 47.1 square miles (122.1 km²), of which, 46.5 square miles (120.5 km²) of it is land and 0.6 square miles (1.6 km²) of it (1.27%) is water. The city experiences about 296 days of sunshine per year and 22 days with 90° + weather. The average temperature in July is 71.2°. Annual snowfall averages , and the snow generally melts within a few days. Average precipitation overall is about 15 inches. The Cache La Poudre River and Spring Creek (Colorado) run through Fort Collins. Demographics Fort Collins is the fifth most populous city in the State of Colorado and the 185th most populous city in the United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that in 2005 the population of the City of Fort Collins was 128,026 (185th most populous U.S. city), the population of the Fort Collins-Loveland Metropolitan Statistical Area was 271,927 (163rd most populous MSA), and the population of the Front Range Urban Corridor was 4,013,055. As of the census of 2000, there were 118,652 people, 45,882 households, and 25,785 families residing in the city. This was an increase from 108,905 in 1998, 87,491 in 1990, 64,092 in 1980, 43,337 in 1970, 14,937 in 1950, and 8,755 in 1920. The metropolitan statistical area (MSA) includes Loveland. When this city is included, the population increases to 251,494 for 2000. The population density was 2,549.3 people per square mile (984.4/km²). There were 47,755 housing units at an average density of 1,026.0/sq mi (396.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 82.4% White, 3.01% Black or African American, 0.60% Native American, 2.48% Asian, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 3.61% from other races, and 2.53% from two or more races. 10.79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. In 2000, there were 45,882 households out of which 29.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% were non-families. 26.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.01. In the city the population was spread out with 21.5% under the age of 18, 22.1% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 17.0% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 100.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $44,459, and the median income for a family was $59,332. Males had a median income of $40,856 versus $28,385 for females. The per capita income for the city was $22,133. About 5.5% of families and 14.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.3% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over. Law and government + City Council: Mayor Doug Hutchinson District 1 Ben Manvel District 2 Lisa Poppaw District 3 Aislinn Kottwitz District 4 Wade Troxell District 5 Kelly Ohlson,Mayor Pro Tem District 6 David Roy Fort Collins has a council-manager form of government. The mayor, who serves a two-year term and stands for election in municipal elections held in April of odd-numbered years, presides over a seven member City Council. The current mayor of Fort Collins is Doug Hutchinson, first elected in April 2005. The six remaining council members are elected from districts for staggered four-year terms; even-numbered districts are up for election in April 2007 and odd-numbered districts in April 2009. Fort Collins is the largest city in Colorado's predominantly rural 4th Congressional district, and is represented in Congress by Representative Betsy Markey (Democrat). On the state level, the city lies in the 14th district of the Colorado Senate, represented by Bob Bacon and is split between the 52nd and 53rd districts of the Colorado House of Representatives, represented by John Kefalas and Randy Fischer, respectively. All three of Fort Collins' state legislators are Democrats. Fort Collins is additionally the county seat of Larimer County, and houses county offices and courts. Culture The 2004 Colorado Brewers Festival in Fort Collins Much of Fort Collins' culture is centered on the students of Colorado State University. Driven by a large college-age demographic, the city has a thriving local music circuit, and is home to a number of well-recognized microbreweries. Old Town, a historic downtown shopping district, hosts a number of large festivals each year. For example, the New West Fest occurs in late summer, featuring local cuisine, music, and businesses. The Fort Collins Lincoln Center is home to the Fort Collins Symphony Orchestra and regularly attracts national touring companies of Broadway plays. There is a thriving beer culture in the city. There are three microbreweries, the New Belgium Brewing Company, the Odell Brewing Company, and the Fort Collins Brewery. New Belgium is the largest of the local craft-breweries, with national distribution from California to states east of the Mississippi. The largest brewery in America, Anheuser-Busch, also has a brewery in the city. There are several brewpubs, including the original C.B. & Potts Restaurant and its Big Horn Brewery and CooperSmith's Pub & Brewing, a local mainstay since 1989. The Colorado Brewer's Festival is held in late June annually in Fort Collins. The outdoor event is held in Fort Collins' old town area and features beers from as many as 45 brewers from the state of Colorado and averages around 30,000 attendees. The Colorado Marathon is a yearly event running down the Poudre Valley and finishing in the Old Town district of Fort Collins. The principal venue for the performing arts in Fort Collins is Lincoln Center, 417 W. Magnolia St., at Meldrum Street. Built in 1978, the center includes the 1,180-seat Performance Hall and the 220-seat Mini-Theatre, as well as four exhibit galleries and an outdoor sculpture and performance garden. It is home to many local arts groups, including the Fort Collins Symphony, Opera Fort Collins, Canyon Concert Ballet, Larimer Chorale, Youth Orchestra of the Rockies, OpenStage Theatre, Foothills Pops Band and the Fort Collins Children’s Theatre. Concert, dance, children’s, and travel film series are presented annually. The center is wheelchair accessible and has an infrared sound system for the hearing impaired. Ticket prices vary considerably, but children’s programs are often free or less than $10, and big name acts and Broadway shows are $18 to $36. The center hosts nearly 1,750 events each year. The Fort Collins Museum, established in 1941, is a regional center focusing on the culture and history of Fort Collins and the surrounding area. The Fort Collins Museum houses over 30,000 artifacts and features temporary and permanent exhibits, on-going educational programs and events, and is home to four historic structures located in the outdoor Heritage Courtyard. Fort Collins is home to many activities including the Fort Collins Catz, a Professional Inline Hockey Association member. Communications One daily newspaper the Fort Collins Coloradoan and one weekly newspaper , the Fort Collins Now, are published in the city. Several niche publications including the Fort Collins Courier and Fossil Creek Current are distributed for free at local businesses and by mail. The Rocky Mountain Collegian is Colorado State University's student newspaper, and is published each weekday during the fall and spring semesters. The Collegian is the only daily student-run newspaper in the state, and includes a weekly entertainment tabloid called The Verve. Scene Magazine is a long-time entertainment monthly serving several regional cities. Swift Newspapers introduced NEXTnc, a Northern Colorado weekly entertainment and lifestyles newspaper in March 2006. Rocky Mountain Parent Magazine and Parent Pages are niche publications serving Fort Collins among other northern Colorado community families. Colorado State University funds a student-run radio station that focuses on underground and local music, KCSU 90.5 FM. Public Radio for the Front Range operates a volunteer-based radio station, KRFC 88.9 FM. One local television station provides coverage of Fort Collins and the surrounding area, NoCo Channel 5 , a CBS affliate. City Cable 14 is the local government access channel, and broadcasts city and county meetings, as well as studio-produced local programming. Poudre School District and Colorado State University each have public access stations as well. There is also a Fort Collins Public Access Network (PAN) station, Channel 97 on Comcast, which broadcast 24 hours a day. Education Fossil Ridge High School. This state-of-the-art 290,000-square-foot building is LEED certified and has a capacity for 1,800 students. K-12 public education is provided through Poudre School District (PSD), the second-largest employer in Fort Collins after Colorado State University. Fort Collins is home to four major high schools and several charter schools with Junior High and High School grades. They include Fort Collins High School, Rocky Mountain High School, Poudre High School, Fossil Ridge High School, Centennial High School, Polaris School for Expeditionary Learning Outward Bound, Ridgeview Classical Schools, and Liberty Common School. The Poudre School District is also home to eleven junior high schools. Among the list are Kinard Core Knowledge, which is the only junior high school in the district offering the core knowledge curriculum, Mountain View, a small alternative junior high, and Lincoln Junior High IB World School, offering the International Baccalaureate (IB) program. While some schools may stand out for their particular programs, the teachers of PSD also excel as leaders in the educational community, challenging staff and students to find new ways of learning, incorporating the environment around them into the classroom. Excellence in the classroom trickles further down into the elementary schools. PSD is home to thirty-two elementary schools. The elementary schools range from neighborhood schools, specialized schools, core knowledge programs and the IB program. Among the schools housing the core knowledge program are Moore Core Knowledge, O'Dea Core Knowledge, Traut Core Knowledge and Zach Core Knowledge. Bennett IB World School, Dunn IB World School and McGraw IB World School house the IB program. In addition, PSD is home to a bilingual educational experience at Harris Bilingual. Other schools with an entrance selection include the Lab School and Traut Core Knowledge. The newest elementary school is Bethke, a Core Knowledge school in Timnath, that started in the fall of 2008. The city has a number of private and charter schools. T.R. Paul Academy of Arts and Knowledge is a charter school formerly known as Northern Colorado Academy of Arts and Knowledge. Heritage Christian Academy (formerly known as Heritage Christian School) is a private, preK-12 school with a Christian worldview. Colorado State University heads up the choices in higher education. Front Range Community College also maintains a campus in the city, and grants Associate's degrees in arts, science, general studies, and applied science. The college offers 17 high school vocational programs and more than 90 continuing education classes. Additionally, the University of Phoenix and Regis also maintain satellite campuses here. The Fort Collins Public Library was established in 1900, the sixth public library in the state. The library formed a regional library district through a ballot measure in 2006. It has been renamed, Poudre River Public Library District . The Main Library is located in Old Town, with a second branch shared with Front Range Community College, the Harmony Library. A third branch, Council Tree Library, opened in March 2009 in the Front Range Village Shopping Center. The library also participates in innovative cooperative projects with the local school district and Colorado State University. Fort Collins has a range of research institutes. Facilities are maintained by the Centers for Disease Control Division of Vector-Born Infectious Diseases, the Center for Advanced Technology and the Colorado Water Resource Research Institute. Other facilities include the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere, Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere the Institute for Scientific Computing, the U.S. Forest Service Experimental Station, the National Seed Storage Laboratory, and the U.S.D.A. Crops Research Laboratory. Economy Major industries and commercial activity Fort Collins' economy has been described as well-balanced, with a good mix of manufacturing and service-related businesses. Each year, Fort Collins generates 11.45 patents per 10,000 people, nearly four times the U.S. city average. Fort Collins has a strong manufacturing base; it is home to such firms as Hewlett Packard, Woodward Governor, and Anheuser-Busch. Many high-tech companies have relocated to Fort Collins because of the resources of Colorado State University and its research facilities. Intel, AMD, Avago, National Semi-Conductor, LSI, and Pelco all have offices in Fort Collins. Other strong industries include clean energy, bioscience, and agri-tech businesses. The largest employers of Fort Collins residents at the turn of the century were the following: Northern Colorado Economic Development Corporation Colorado State University (6,948 employees) Hewlett Packard (3,182) Poudre Valley Health System (3,020) Poudre School District (3,014) Agilent (2,800) City of Fort Collins (1,864) Eastman Kodak (1,700) Larimer County (1,467) Avago Technologies (1,200) McKee Medical Center (950) Walmart (909) City of Loveland (890) Advanced Energy (825) Anheuser-Busch (760) Center Partners (700) Woodward Governor Company (650) Teledyne Water Pik (585) LSI Corporation (341) AMD (200) Regional economic development partners include the City of Fort Collins Economic Health Office , Northern Colorado Economic Development Corporation , Small Business Development Center , and Rocky Mountain Innovation Initiative (RMI2). Small businesses, entrepreneurship Fort Collins is also home to many small businesses and entrepreneurial ventures. The Fort Collins/Larimer Small Business Development Center has been a strong contributing force in helping small businesses in the area get started and become profitable. Another factor in the entrepreneurial climate of Fort Collins is Colorado State University's College of Business and its Entrepreneurship Center, which has spawned such ventures as Optibrand, a unique method of tracking livestock with retinal scans, and Revolution Donuts, a donut/pastry shop with a new approach - late night hours in addition to the usual morning hours. The Rocky Mountain Innovation Initiative (RMI2) helps northern Colorado entrepreneurs turn great ideas into great businesses. They connect startup businesses with the resources they need to turn their innovations into successful enterprises. Items and goods produced Pharmaceuticals, electronic components and accessories, aircraft and parts, scientific instruments, measuring and controlling instruments, radio and TV equipment, industrial chemicals, engines, turbines, machinery, and communications equipment. Clean energy technology is also produced in Fort Collins, including Smart Grid technology, biofuels, and solar technology. Local incentive programs The City of Fort Collins has established an economic development policy that allows the rebate of use taxes paid by qualifying firms on qualifying equipment. On a case-by-case basis, the county will consider negotiating financial incentives, giving up to a 50 percent credit towards a company's personal property tax liability for up to four years. The Northern Colorado Economic Development Corporation supports existing employers and recruits new ones to the city and region. It assists local companies to grow and expand and, in partnership with Colorado State University, encourages technology transfer to nurture local start-up companies. Fort Collins can negotiate with individual taxpayers who have qualifying new business facilities an incentive payment equal to not more than the amount of the increase in property tax liability over pre-enterprise zone levels; and a refund of local sales taxes on purchases of equipment, machinery tools, or supplies used in the taxpayer's business in the Enterprise Zone. Innovative Programs FortZEDis growing to be the world’s largest zero energy district. The FortZED area encompasses the Downtown area of Fort Collins and the main campus of Colorado State University. FortZED is a set of active projects and initiatives, created by public-private partnerships, which utilize Smart Grid and renewable energy technologies to achieve local power generation and energy demand management. Federal, State, and local funding are making the project a reality. The U.S. Department of Energy has contributed $6.3 million, the Colorado Department of Local Affairs has contributed $778,000 while locally, private companies and foundations have contributed nearly $8 million. Learn more Mason Corridoris a five mile north-south byway with bus rapid transit within the city of Fort Collins which extends from Cherry Street on the north to south of Harmony Road. The corridor is centered along the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway property, located a few hundred feet west of College Avenue (US 287). Mason Corridor and the Mason Express or MAX, will provide the framework for future economic development and serve as the foundation to encourage community partnerships, private investment, active living, and attractive, urban lifestyles. The Mason Corridor is a fundamental connection between the City, Colorado State University, and local business and neighborhoods. Mason Corridor was recognized as a top “Small Starts” project in 2007 by the Federal Transit Authority. $11.18 million in Federal funding to support Mason Corridor development is in the President’s FY2009 budget. UniverCity Connections focuses on three of Fort Collins’ community assets: Colorado State University, Downtown, and the Poudre River. UniverCity Connections is an initiative of the Community Foundation of Northern Colorado and serves as a think tank for community vision and a neutral convener that creates community connections necessary for ideas to evolve into positive change. Transportation Allegiant Air.com Allegiant Air Official site. offers regular passenger airplane service into the nearby Fort Collins / Loveland Airport. Denver International Airport, which is to the south, is served by nearly twenty airlines. Fort Collins can be approached from Denver by car via Interstate 25. Fort Collins' downtown streets form a grid with Interstate 25 running north and south on the east side of the city. U.S. Highway 287 becomes College Avenue inside the city and is the busiest street; It runs north and south, effectively bisecting the city. The city bus system, known as Transfort, Transfort Official site. operates more than a dozen routes throughout Fort Collins Monday through Saturday, except major holidays. Most routes run from about 6:30am to 7:00pm, and additional runs are made, including some on Sundays, when CSU is in session. All buses have bike racks. There are fares for adults, for seniors 60 and older and those with disabilities; youths 17 and under ride free. Taxi service is provided 24 hours a day by Shamrock Yellow Cab. Ride Shamrock Yellow Cab Official site. Bicycling is a popular and viable means of transportation in Fort Collins. Just about the only place you can’t ride is a 3.8-mile section of College Avenue (Highway 287) between Harmony Road and Laurel Street (however riding on the adjacent sidewalk is not prohibited by state law). There are more than of designated bikeways in Fort Collins, including on street designated bike lanes, and the Spring Creek and Poudre River Trails, both paved. There’s also a dirt trail, the Foothills Trail, parallel to Horsetooth Reservoir from Dixon Reservoir north to Campeau Open Space and Michaud Lane. The Fort Collins Bicycle Library lends bicycles to visitors, students, and residents looking to explore the City of Fort Collins. There are self guided tours from the "Bike the Sites" collection, including a Brewery Tour, Environmental Learning Tour, and the Historic Tour. The Bike Library is centrally located in the heart of downtown Fort Collins in Old Town Square. Look for the Cafe Bicyclette! Fort Collins also once had a trolley service with three branches from the intersection of Mountain and College Avenues. It was torn out after ceasing to be profitable in 1951. Currently, the Mountain Avenue branch has been reconstructed and provides weekend and holiday service. Commercial shipping Parcel service for Fort Collins is provided by FedEx, Airport Express, DHL, Burlington Air Express, Emery, UPS, Pony Express, and Purolator. Fort Collins has two-day rail freight access to the West Coast or the East Coast and has eight motor freight carriers. Many local industrial sites have rail freight spur service. The city is served by Union Pacific and Burlington Northern Santa Fe railroads. Facilities NIST time signal transmitters WWV and WWVB. Poudre Valley Hospital has helped make Fort Collins into a regional health care center. The National Center for Genetic Resources Preservation (NCGRP)(Human Genome Project) The city is the headquarters of Roosevelt National Forest. Atmospheric Chemistry and Aerosol Laboratory Center For Disease Control: Vectorbourne Illness Laboratory USDA Seed Lab Storage Headquarters for SCUBA Schools International (SSI) Notable natives and residents Isaac Adamson, author. Wayne Allard, former U.S. Senator from Colorado John Ashton, actor Carol Berg, fantasy author Frank Caeti, former repertory cast member on the late night sketch comedy series,MADtv Jon Cooper, center for the Minnesota Vikings Harper Goff, artist, musician, and actor Jon Heder, title character in 2004's Napoleon Dynamite Jake Lloyd, young Anakin Skywalker in 1999's Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace David Mattingly, science fiction illustrator Hattie McDaniel, first African-American to win an Academy Award (Best Supporting Actress 1939) Pete Monty, linebacker for the Minnesota Vikings Mike Moore, top Professional Bull Rider with the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association Blake Neubert, artist Holmes Rolston III, 2003 Templeton Prize winner L. Neil Smith, libertarian science fiction author Pat Stryker, Billionaire heiress and philanthropist Thomas Sutherland, Colorado State University professor and former Beirut hostage Ryan Sutter, bachelor chosen as a groom by Trista Rehn in 2003's "The Bachelorette" Tickle Me Pink, pop-punk band Byron Raymond White, former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court See also State of Colorado Colorado cities and towns Colorado municipalities Colorado counties Boulder County, Colorado Colorado metropolitan areas Fort Collins-Loveland Metropolitan Statistical Area North Central Colorado Urban Area Front Range Urban Corridor United States Forest Service Roosevelt National Forest References External links New Local Book on Fort Collins City of Fort Collins website CDOT map of the City of Fort Collins Fort Collins Nightlife * NEXTnc weekly entertainment newspaper Fort Collins Now - News, Entertainment from Fort Collins, CO Downtown Business Association: Old Town information and Events The Rocky Mountain Collegian Fort Collins Coloradoan Fort Collins community gateway site Colorado State University Fort Collins Website Directory Fort Collins Municipal Railway Fort Collins Aerial - including fun 'easter eggs' (this has been online for several years and is still higher resolution than Google Maps, TerraServer, Mapquest and others) | Fort_Collins,_Colorado |@lemmatized fort:104 collins:101 home:14 rule:1 municipality:2 situate:2 cache:3 la:3 poudre:16 river:6 along:3 colorado:52 front:8 range:10 county:12 seat:5 populous:6 city:57 larimer:5 united:6 state:37 located:1 north:8 capitol:1 denver:4 estimated:1 population:13 fifth:2 large:9 college:12 town:15 university:19 name:3 money:2 magazine:3 best:3 place:3 live:4 history:4 found:1 military:1 outpost:1 army:1 succeed:1 previous:1 encampment:1 know:4 camp:4 near:1 present:4 day:7 laporte:2 erect:1 indian:1 war:4 mid:1 protect:1 overland:2 mail:2 route:3 recently:1 relocate:3 region:2 traveler:1 cross:1 trail:4 would:2 flood:1 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1,246 | Foundationalism | Foundationalism is any theory in epistemology (typically, theories of justification, but also of knowledge) that holds that beliefs are justified (known, etc.) based on what are called basic beliefs (also commonly called foundational beliefs). Basic beliefs are beliefs that give justificatory support to other beliefs, and more derivative beliefs are based on those more basic beliefs. The basic beliefs are said to be self-justifying or self-evident, that is, they enjoy a non-inferential warrant (or justification), i.e., they are not justified by other beliefs. Typically and historically, foundationalists have held either that basic beliefs are justified by mental events or states, such as experiences, that do not constitute beliefs (these are called nondoxastic mental states), or that they simply are not the type of thing that can be (or needs to be) justified. Hence, generally, a Foundationalist might offer the following theory of justification: A belief is epistemically justified if and only if (1) it is justified by a basic belief or beliefs, or (2) it is justified by a chain of beliefs that is supported by a basic belief or beliefs, and on which all the others are ultimately based. A basic belief, on the other hand, does not require justification because it is a different kind of belief than a non-foundational one. Historical Foundationalism: Rationalism vs. Empiricism Historically, two varieties of foundationalist theories were rationalism and empiricism (or British Empiricism). Strictly speaking, neither empiricism nor rationalism is necessarily committed to foundationalism (it is possible to be an empiricist coherentist, for example, and that was a common epistemological position in 20th century philosophy). Rationalism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that reason is the source and criterion of knowledge. Rationalists generally hold that so-called truths of reason are the (most important) epistemologically basic propositions. The historical, continental rationalism expounded by René Descartes is often regarded as antithetical to empiricism, while some contemporary rationalists assert that reason is strongest when it is supported by or consistent with empirical evidence and hence relies heavily on empirical science in analyzing justifications for belief. Descartes famously held that some of these truths are known innately and therefore constitute basic innate knowledge, a view not always held in contemporary rationalism. Empiricism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that sensation reports are the source and criterion of knowledge. Classical empiricists generally held that such reports are indubitable and incorrigible and therefore worthy of serving as epistemologically basic propositions. Alternatives to foundationalism Alternatives to foundationalism, usually called Anti-foundationalism, include coherentism, foundherentism, and reformed epistemology. Many forms of reliabilism are foundationalist, but reliabilist theories need not be foundationalist. See also pragmatism, postfoundationalism and critical rationalism. References | Foundationalism |@lemmatized foundationalism:6 theory:7 epistemology:2 typically:2 justification:5 also:3 knowledge:4 hold:6 belief:21 justified:2 know:2 etc:1 base:3 call:5 basic:11 commonly:1 foundational:2 give:1 justificatory:1 support:3 derivative:1 say:1 self:2 justifying:1 evident:1 enjoy:1 non:2 inferential:1 warrant:1 e:1 justify:5 historically:2 foundationalists:1 either:1 mental:2 event:1 state:2 experience:1 constitute:2 nondoxastic:1 simply:1 type:1 thing:1 need:2 hence:2 generally:3 foundationalist:4 might:1 offer:1 following:1 epistemically:1 chain:1 others:1 ultimately:1 hand:1 require:1 different:1 kind:1 one:1 historical:2 rationalism:7 v:1 empiricism:6 two:1 variety:1 british:1 strictly:1 speak:1 neither:1 necessarily:1 commit:1 possible:1 empiricist:2 coherentist:1 example:1 common:1 epistemological:3 position:1 century:1 philosophy:1 general:2 name:2 maintain:2 reason:3 source:2 criterion:2 rationalist:2 truth:2 important:1 epistemologically:2 proposition:2 continental:1 expound:1 rené:1 descartes:2 often:1 regard:1 antithetical:1 contemporary:2 assert:1 strong:1 consistent:1 empirical:2 evidence:1 relies:1 heavily:1 science:1 analyze:1 famously:1 innately:1 therefore:2 innate:1 view:1 always:1 sensation:1 report:2 classical:1 indubitable:1 incorrigible:1 worthy:1 serve:1 alternative:2 usually:1 anti:1 include:1 coherentism:1 foundherentism:1 reform:1 many:1 form:1 reliabilism:1 reliabilist:1 see:1 pragmatism:1 postfoundationalism:1 critical:1 reference:1 |@bigram rené_descartes:1 relies_heavily:1 critical_rationalism:1 |
1,247 | Kathleen_Kenyon | Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon (5 January 1906 – 24 August 1978), was a leading archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent. She is best known for her excavations in Jericho in 1952-1958. Biography Kathleen Kenyon was the eldest daughter of Sir Frederic Kenyon, a Bible scholar and later director of the British Museum. She studied at St Paul's Girls' School, read history at Somerville College, Oxford, England, and became the first woman president of the Oxford University Archaeological Society. In 1962, Kenyon was appointed Principal of St. Hugh's College, Oxford. On her retirement in 1973, she was appointed a DBE. Kenyon never married. "Grand Kenyon," review of Dame Kathleen Kenyon by Miriam Davis, Magen Broshi,Haaretz, Books, February 2009, p.34 Archaeological career Kathleen Kenyon's first field experience was as a photographer for the pioneering excavations at Great Zimbabwe in 1929, led by Gertrude Caton-Thompson. Returning to England, Kenyon joined the archaeological couple Mortimer and Tessa Wheeler on their excavation of the Romano-British settlement of Verulamium (St Albans), 20 miles north of London. Working there each summer between 1930 and 1935, Kenyon directed the excavation of the Roman theatre. In the years 1931 to 1934 Kenyon worked simultaneously at Samaria, then located in the British Mandated Territory of Palestine, with John and Grace Crowfoot. There she cut a stratigraphic trench across the summit of the mound and down the northern and southern slopes, exposing the Iron II to the Roman period stratigraphic sequence of the site. In addition to providing crucial dating material for the Iron Age stratigraphy of Palestine, she obtained key stratified data for the study of Eastern terra sigilata ware. In 1934 Kenyon was closely associated with the Wheelers in the foundation of the Institute of Archaeology of University College London. From 1936 to 1939 she carried out important excavations at the Jewry Wall in the city of Leicester. During the Second World War, Kenyon served as Divisional Commander of the Red Cross in Hammersmith, London, and later as Acting Director and Secretary of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of London. After the war, she excavated in Southwark, at The Wrekin, Shropshire and elsewhere in Britain, as well as at Sabratha, a Roman city in Libya. As a member of the Council of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem (BSAJ), Kenyon was involved in the efforts to reopen the School after the hiatus of the Second World War. In January 1951 she travelled to the Transjordan and undertook excavations in the West Bank at Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) on behalf of the BSAJ. Her work at Jericho, from 1952 until 1958, made her world famous and established a lasting legacy in the archaeological methodology of the Levant. Ground-breaking discoveries concerning the Neolithic cultures of the Levant were made in this ancient settlement. In this period she also completed the publication of the excavations at Samaria. Her volume, Samaria Sebaste III: The Objects, appeared in 1957. Having completed her excavations at Jericho in 1958, Kenyon excavated in Jerusalem from 1961 to 1967, concentrating on the 'City of David' to the immediate south of the Temple Mount. Kenyon's vast legacy in the field of excavation technique and ceramic methodology, not only in the Levant but also further afield, is attested to by Larry G. Herr, one of the directors of the Madaba Plains Project. He attributes to her directly the first of the key events (after the advances made by William F. Albright at Tell Beit Mirsim in the 1920s) that brought about our modern understanding of pottery in the southern Levant: "The first event was the refinement of stratigraphic techniques that Kathleen Kenyon's dig at Jericho catalyzed. The strict separation of earth layers, or archaeological sediments, also allowed the strict separation of ceramic assemblages". Herr, Larry G. (2002), "W.F. Albright and the History of Pottery in Palestine", Near Eastern Archaeology 65.1 (2002), 53. Herr detects Kenyon's powerful indirect influence in the second event that promoted advance within ceramic methodology, namely: "...the importation of Kenyon's digging techniques by Larry Toombs and Joe Callaway to Ernest Wright's project at Balata. Here, they combined Wright's interest in ceramic typology in the best Albright tradition with Kenyon's methods of excavation, which allowed the isolation of clear, stratigraphically determined pottery assemblages". Herr, Larry G. (2002), "W.F. Albright and the History of Pottery in Palestine", Near Eastern Archaeology 65.1 (2002), 53. Herr summarises the somewhat mixed nature of Kenyon's legacy: for all the positive advances, there were also shortcomings: "Kenyon... did not capitilize fully on (the) implication of her stratigraphic techniques by producing final publications promptly. Indeed her method of digging, which most of us have subsequently adopted, causes a proliferation of loci that excavators often have difficulty keeping straight long enough to produce coherent published stratigraphic syntheses. Moreover, her insistence that excavation proceed in narrow trenches denies us, when we use the Jericho reports, the confidence that her loci, and the pottery assemblages that go with them, represent understandable human activity patterns over coherently connected living areas. The individual layers, insufficiently exposed horizontally, simply cannot be interpreted credibly in terms of function. This further makes publication difficult, both to produce and to use". Herr, Larry G. (2002), "W.F. Albright and the History of Pottery in Palestine", Near Eastern Archaeology 65.1 (2002), 53. Another important aspect of Kathleen Kenyon's archaeological career was her role as a teacher. From 1948 to 1962 she lectured in Levantine Archaeology at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London. Kenyon's teaching, complemented by her excavations at Jericho and Jerusalem (which successively formed her 'field school'), helped to train a generation of archaeologists, who went on themselves to teach in Britain, Australia, Canada, the United States, Denmark and elsewhere. Awards and commemoration The British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem, amalgamated within the Council for British Research in the Levant (CBRL) in 1998, was officially renamed the Kenyon Institute on 10 July 2003 in honour of Kathleen Kenyon. Published works 1942 The Buildings at Samaria, [Samaria-Sebaste I], London, 1942 (co-authored with Crowfoot, J.W. & Sukenik, E.L.) 1948 Excavations at the Jewry Wall Site, [Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 15], Leicester, London : Society of Antiquaries, 1948. 1949 Guide to Wroxeter Roman City, London, 1949. 1951 "Some Notes on the History of Jericho in the Second Millennium B.C.", PEQ 83 (1951), 101-138. 1952 Beginning in Archaeology, London, 1952. 1952 "Early Jericho", Antiquity 26 (1952), 116-122. 1953 Beginning in Archaeology, second edition, London, 1953. 1954 Guide to Ancient Jericho, Jerusalem, 1954. 1957 Digging Up Jericho, London, 1957. (also published in Dutch, Hebrew, Italian, Spanish and Swedish editions). 1957 The Objects from Samaria, [Samaria-Sebaste III], London, 1957 (co-authored with Crowfoot, J.W. & Crowfoot, G.M. 1958 "Some Notes on the Early and Middle Bronze Age Strata of Megiddo", Eretz Israel 5 (1958), pp.51-60. 1959 Excavations at Southwark, [Research Papers of Surrey Archaeological Society 5], 1959. 1960 Archaeology in the Holy Land, first edition, London, 1960. 1960 Excavations at Jericho - Volume I Tombs Excavated in 1952-4, London 1960. 1961 Beginning in Archaeology, revised edition, London, 1961. 1965 Archaeology in the Holy Land, second edition, London, 1965. 1965 Excavations at Jericho - Volume II Tombs Excavated in 1955-8, London, 1965. 1965, "British Archaeology Abroad - Jerusalem", Antiquity 39 (1965), 36-37. 1966 Amorites and Canaanites, (Schweich Lectures Series, 1963), London : Published for the British Academy by Oxford University Press, 1966. 1966 "Excavations in Jerusalem, 1965", PEQ (1966), 73-88. 1967 Jerusalem - Excavating 3000 Years of History, [New Aspects of Antiquity], London, 1967 (also published in a German edition). 1969 "Middle and Late Bronze Age Strata at Megiddo", Levant 1 (1969), pp.25-60. 1970 Archaeology in the Holy Land, third edition, 1970 (also published in Dutch, Danish, German, Spanish and Swedish editions). 1971 Royal Cities of the Old Testament, London, 1971. 1971 "An Essay on Archaeological Technique: the Publication of Results from the Excavation of a Tell", Harvard Theological Review 64 (1971), 271-279. 1974 Digging up Jerusalem, London : Benn, 1974. 1974 "Tombs of the Intermediate Early Bronze - Middle Bronze Age at Tel 'Ajjul", in Stewart, J.R. (ed.), Tell el Ajjul - the Middle Bronze Age Remains, [App. 2. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology], Göteborg, 1974, 76-85. 1978 The Bible and recent archaeology, London : British Museum Publications Ltd, 1978. References Bibliography Callaway, Joseph A. (1979), "Dame Kathleen Kenyon, 1906 -1978", The Biblical Archaeologist 42.2 (1979), pp.122-125. Davis, Miriam (2008), Dame Kathleen Kenyon: Digging Up the Holy Land, Left Coast Press, San Francisco, 304 pp. Dever, William G. (1978), "Kathleen Kenyon (1906-1978): A Tribute", BASOR 232 (1978), pp.3-4. Herr, Larry G. (2002), "W.F. Albright and the History of Pottery in Palestine", NEA 65.1 (2002), pp.51-55. Kenrick, Philip M. (1986), Excavations at Sabratha, 1948-1951: a Report on the Excavations conducted by Kathleen Kenyon and John Ward-Perkins, (Journal of Roman Studies Monographs 2), London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1986. Moorey, P. Roger S. and Parr, Peter (eds) (1978), Archaeology in the Levant - Essays for Kathleen Kenyon, Aris & Phillips, 1978. Steiner, Margreet L. (2001), Excavations by Kathleen M. Kenyon in Jerusalem 1961–1967, Volume III—The Settlement in the Bronze and Iron Ages, London: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001. Miriam C. Davis, Dame Katheleen Kenyon: Digging up the Holy Land, Left Coast Press External links Paul James Cowie. 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1,248 | Aspirated_consonant | Voice onset time+ Aspirated0 Tenuis− Voiced In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of his or her mouth, and say tore () and then store (). One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with tore that one does not get with store. In most dialects of English, the t is aspirated in tore and unaspirated in store. The diacritic for aspiration in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a superscript "h", . Unaspirated consonants are not normally marked explicitly, but there is a diacritic for non-aspiration in the Extensions to the IPA, the superscript equal sign, . Description Voiceless consonants are produced with the vocal cords open and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed. Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal cords remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's voice onset time, as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal cords close. Usage patterns English voiceless stop consonants are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable, as in pen, ten, Ken. They are unaspirated for almost all speakers when immediately following word-initial s, as in spun, stun, skunk. After s elsewhere in a word they are normally unaspirated as well, except when the cluster is heteromorphemic and the stop belongs to an unbound morpheme; compare dis[t]end vs. dis[tʰ]aste. Word-final voiceless stops optionally aspirate. Aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds; indeed, in Eastern Armenian, aspiration is contrastive even at the ends of words. For example compare: pillow, with difficult and high. In many languages, such as the Chinese languages, Indo-Aryan languages (from Sanskrit), Dravidian languages (i.e. under the influence of Sanskrit. Tamil, the classical Dravidian tongue does not show aspiration at all), Icelandic, Korean, Thai, and Ancient Greek, etc. and etc. are different phonemes altogether. Alemannic German dialects have unaspirated as well as aspirated ; the latter series are usually viewed as consonant clusters. In Danish and most southern varieties of German, the "lenis" consonants transcribed for historical reasons as are distinguished from their "fortis" counterparts mainly in their lack of aspiration. Icelandic and Faroese have pre-aspirated ; some scholars interpret these as consonant clusters as well. Preaspirated stops also occur in some Sami languages; e.g. in Skolt Sami the unvoiced stop phonemes , , , are pronounced preaspirated (, ) when they occur in medial or final position. French, Dutch and Latvian are among the languages that do not have aspirated consonants. There are degrees of aspiration. Armenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, as well as unaspirated stops like Spanish. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops, as well as strongly aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See voice onset time.) An old IPA symbol for light aspiration was (that is, like a rotated ejective symbol), but this is no longer commonly used. There is no specific symbol for strong aspiration, but can be iconically doubled for, say, Korean * vs. *. Note however that Korean is nearly universally transcribed as vs. , with the details of voice onset time given numerically. Aspiration also varies with place of articulation. Spanish /p t k/, for example, have voice onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, whereas English /p t k/ have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for and 90, 95, and 125 for . Usage of The word 'aspiration' and the aspiration symbol is sometimes used with voiced stops, such as . However, such "voiced aspiration", also known as breathy voice or murmur, is less ambiguously transcribed with dedicated diacritics, either or . (Some linguists restrict the subscript diacritic to sonorants, such as vowels and nasal consonants, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript for the murmured release of obstruents.) When murmur is included under the term aspiration, as is common in Indo-Aryan linguistics, "voiceless aspiration" is called just that to avoid ambiguity. References Taehong Cho and Peter Ladefoged, "Variations and universals in VOT". In Fieldwork Studies of Targeted Languages V: UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics vol. 95. 1997. See also Voice onset time List of phonetic topics Phonation Preaspiration Spiritus asper Spiritus lenis | Aspirated_consonant |@lemmatized voice:9 onset:6 time:6 tenuis:1 phonetics:2 aspiration:18 strong:2 burst:1 air:2 accompany:1 either:3 release:3 case:1 preaspiration:2 closure:1 obstruent:2 feel:2 see:4 difference:1 aspirate:11 unaspirated:8 sound:2 one:3 put:1 hand:1 lit:1 candle:2 front:1 mouth:1 say:2 tore:3 store:3 puff:1 flicker:1 flame:1 get:1 dialect:2 english:4 diacritic:4 international:1 phonetic:2 alphabet:1 ipa:3 superscript:3 h:1 consonant:12 normally:2 mark:1 explicitly:1 non:1 extension:1 equal:1 sign:1 description:1 voiceless:5 produce:2 vocal:4 cord:3 open:2 voiced:3 fold:1 fractionally:1 close:2 occur:3 remain:1 easy:1 way:1 measure:2 note:2 voicing:1 following:1 vowel:3 cannot:1 begin:2 usage:2 pattern:1 stop:11 native:1 speaker:2 word:6 initial:2 stressed:1 syllable:1 pen:1 ten:1 ken:1 almost:1 immediately:1 follow:2 spun:1 stun:1 skunk:1 elsewhere:1 well:5 except:1 cluster:3 heteromorphemic:1 belongs:1 unbound:1 morpheme:1 compare:2 dis:2 end:2 v:4 tʰ:1 aste:1 final:2 optionally:1 always:1 indeed:1 eastern:1 armenian:4 contrastive:1 even:1 example:2 pillow:1 difficult:1 high:1 many:1 language:7 chinese:1 indo:2 aryan:2 sanskrit:2 dravidian:2 e:2 influence:1 tamil:1 classical:1 tongue:1 show:1 icelandic:2 korean:5 thai:1 ancient:1 greek:1 etc:2 different:1 phoneme:2 altogether:1 alemannic:1 german:2 latter:1 series:1 usually:1 view:1 danish:1 southern:1 variety:1 lenis:2 transcribe:3 historical:1 reason:1 distinguish:1 fortis:1 counterparts:1 mainly:1 lack:1 faroese:1 pre:1 scholar:1 interpret:1 preaspirated:2 also:4 sami:2 g:1 skolt:1 unvoiced:1 pronounce:1 medial:1 position:1 french:1 dutch:1 latvian:1 among:1 degree:1 cantonese:3 last:2 long:2 like:2 spanish:2 lightly:1 fall:1 aspirated:1 strongly:1 whose:1 old:1 symbol:4 light:1 rotated:1 ejective:1 longer:1 commonly:1 use:3 specific:1 iconically:1 double:1 however:2 nearly:1 universally:1 detail:1 give:1 numerically:1 vary:1 place:1 articulation:1 p:2 k:2 vots:2 millisecond:1 whereas:1 sometimes:1 know:1 breathy:1 murmur:3 less:1 ambiguously:1 dedicated:1 linguist:1 restrict:1 subscript:1 sonorants:1 nasal:1 throughout:1 duration:1 murmured:1 include:1 term:1 common:1 linguistics:1 call:1 avoid:1 ambiguity:1 reference:1 taehong:1 cho:1 peter:1 ladefoged:1 variation:1 universal:1 vot:1 fieldwork:1 study:1 targeted:1 ucla:1 work:1 paper:1 vol:1 list:1 topic:1 phonation:1 spiritus:2 asper:1 |@bigram aspirate_unaspirated:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 voiceless_consonant:1 vocal_cord:3 voiced_consonant:1 stressed_syllable:1 indo_aryan:2 sanskrit_tamil:1 consonant_cluster:2 icelandic_faroese:1 skolt_sami:1 aspirated_stop:1 breathy_voice:1 nasal_consonant:1 spiritus_asper:1 |
1,249 | Internalization | Internalization has different definitions depending on the field that the term is used in. Internalization is the opposite of externalization. General Generally, internalization is the long-term process of consolidating and embedding one’s own beliefs, attitudes, and values, when it comes to moral behavior. The accomplishment of this may involve the deliberate use of psychoanalytical or behavioral methods. When changing moral behavior, one is said to be "internalized" when a new set of beliefs, attitudes, and values, replace or habituates the desired behavior. For example, such internalization might take place following religious conversion. Internalization is also often associated with learning (for example learning ideas or skills) and making use of it from then on. The notion of internalization therefore also finds currency in applications in education, learning and training and in business and management thinking. Psychology and sociology In sciences such as psychology and sociology, internalization is the process of acceptance of a set of norms established by people or groups which are influential to the individual. The process starts with learning what the norms are, and then the individual goes through a process of understanding why they are of value or why they make sense, until finally they accept the norm as their own viewpoint. Role models can also help. If someone we respect is seen to endorse a particular set of norms, we are more likely to internalize those norms. This is called identification. In Freudian psychology, internalization is one of the concepts of the psychological process of introjection, a psychological defense mechanism. In developmental psychology, internalization is the process through which social interactions become part of the child’s mental functions, i.e., after having experienced an interaction with another person the child subsequently experiences the same interaction within him/herself and makes it a part of his/her understanding of interactions with others in general. As the child experiences similar interactions over and over again, s/he slowly learns to understand and think about them on higher, abstract levels. Lev Vygotsky suggested that mental functions, such as concepts, language, voluntary attention and memory are cultural tools acquired through social interactions . Biology In sciences such as biology internalization is what the body does to cells, neurons, receptors, transporters etc. once they've lived out their life cycle or have otherwise been damaged or compromised. It is a process by which a dead or mutated cell is recycled by the body in a way to consume said cell for its energy in the body as the body creates new ones. Economics In Economics, internalization can refer to several concepts. "When you place an order to buy or sell a stock, your broker has choices on where to execute your order. Instead of routing your order to a market or market-makers for execution, your broker may fill the order from the firm's own inventory -- this is called 'internalization.' In this way, your broker's firm may make money on the "spread" – which is the difference between the purchase price and the sale price." SEC.gov References Meissner, W. W. (1981), Internalization in Psychoanalysis, International Universities Press, New York. Wallis, K. C. and J. L. Poulton (2001), Internalization: The Origins and Construction of Internal Reality, Open University Press, Buckingham and Philadelphia. Oxford Open Learning GCSE Psychology - Module three: lesson nine. | Internalization |@lemmatized internalization:14 different:1 definition:1 depend:1 field:1 term:2 use:3 opposite:1 externalization:1 general:2 generally:1 long:1 process:7 consolidate:1 embed:1 one:4 belief:2 attitude:2 value:3 come:1 moral:2 behavior:3 accomplishment:1 may:3 involve:1 deliberate:1 psychoanalytical:1 behavioral:1 method:1 change:1 say:2 internalize:2 new:3 set:3 replace:1 habituate:1 desired:1 example:2 might:1 take:1 place:2 follow:1 religious:1 conversion:1 also:3 often:1 associate:1 learning:1 learn:5 idea:1 skill:1 make:4 notion:1 therefore:1 find:1 currency:1 application:1 education:1 training:1 business:1 management:1 thinking:1 psychology:5 sociology:2 science:2 acceptance:1 norm:5 establish:1 people:1 group:1 influential:1 individual:2 start:1 go:1 understand:2 sense:1 finally:1 accept:1 viewpoint:1 role:1 model:1 help:1 someone:1 respect:1 see:1 endorse:1 particular:1 likely:1 call:2 identification:1 freudian:1 concept:3 psychological:2 introjection:1 defense:1 mechanism:1 developmental:1 social:2 interaction:6 become:1 part:2 child:3 mental:2 function:2 e:1 experience:3 another:1 person:1 subsequently:1 within:1 understanding:1 others:1 similar:1 slowly:1 think:1 high:1 abstract:1 level:1 lev:1 vygotsky:1 suggest:1 language:1 voluntary:1 attention:1 memory:1 cultural:1 tool:1 acquire:1 biology:2 body:4 cell:3 neuron:1 receptor:1 transporter:1 etc:1 live:1 life:1 cycle:1 otherwise:1 damage:1 compromise:1 dead:1 mutate:1 recycle:1 way:2 consume:1 energy:1 create:1 economics:2 refer:1 several:1 order:4 buy:1 sell:1 stock:1 broker:3 choice:1 execute:1 instead:1 rout:1 market:2 maker:1 execution:1 fill:1 firm:2 inventory:1 money:1 spread:1 difference:1 purchase:1 price:2 sale:1 sec:1 gov:1 reference:1 meissner:1 w:2 psychoanalysis:1 international:1 university:2 press:2 york:1 wallis:1 k:1 c:1 j:1 l:1 poulton:1 origin:1 construction:1 internal:1 reality:1 open:2 buckingham:1 philadelphia:1 oxford:1 gcse:1 module:1 three:1 lesson:1 nine:1 |@bigram developmental_psychology:1 lev_vygotsky:1 |
1,250 | High_fantasy | High fantasy or epic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy that is set in invented or parallel worlds. High fantasy came to fruition through the work of authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis whose major fantasy works were published in the 1950s. High fantasy, along with sword and sorcery, has become one of the two genres most commonly associated with the general term fantasy. Genre overview These stories are generally serious in tone and often epic in scope, dealing with themes of grand struggle against supernatural, evil forces. Philip Martin, The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest, p 34, ISBN 0-87116-195-8 It is one of the most popular subgenres of fantasy fiction. Some typical characteristics of high fantasy include fantastical elements such as elves, fairies, dwarves, magic or sorcery, wizards or magicians, invented languages, quests, coming-of-age themes, and multi-volume narratives. Siegfried kills Fafner, by Arthur Rackham High fantasy is a well-defined genre with established characteristics. This contrasts with low fantasy, a term that can be defined in many contradictory ways, each separate in its own way from high fantasy. In some fiction, a contemporary, "real-world" character is placed in the invented world, sometimes through devices such as portals to other worlds or even subconscious travels. Purists might not consider this to be "true" high fantasy, although such stories are often categorized as high fantasy due to the fact that they've yet to be classified as their own distinct subgenre, and often resemble this subgenre more closely than any other. High fantasy worlds may be more or less closely based on real world milieus, or on legends such as Arthurian. When the resemblance is strong, particularly when real-world history is used, high fantasy shades into alternate history. High fantasy is the most popular and successful subgenre of the fantasy fiction. Its fandom ranges from Tolkien to contemporary. Recent screen versions of Rowling's Harry Potter, Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, and Lewis' The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe have contributed to the subgenre's continuing popularity. Moreover, film adaptations of some novels are in preproduction, such as David Farland's The Runelords, and also Terry Brooks' Magic Kingdom of Landover and The Elfstones of Shannara. Characters Most high fantasy storylines are told from the viewpoint of one main hero. Often, much of the plot revolves around his heritage or mysterious nature. In many novels the hero is an orphan or unusual sibling, often with some incredible ability or abilities and skills in a particular area (usually either magic or skill with a weapon). He begins the story young, if not an actual child. Michael Moorcock, Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy p 84 ISBN 1-932265-07-4 Some examples of this are J.R.R. Tolkien's Frodo Baggins of The Lord of the Rings, Terry Brooks' Shea and Wil Ohmsford of The Sword of Shannara and The Elfstones of Shannara, Terry Goodkind's Richard Rahl, Robert Jordan's Rand al'Thor of The Wheel of Time, Pug and Arutha of Raymond Feist's Riftwar Saga, Philip Pullman's Lyra Belacqua of His Dark Materials. In other works he is a completely developed individual with his own character and spirit — David Eddings' Sparhawk of The Elenium and The Tamuli. However, epic fantasy is not by any means limited to a male protagonist, as seen in such works as Elizabeth Moon's The Deed of Paksenarrion and P.C. Hodgell's Jame. In the beginning of the storyline, the hero is threatened by the unknown force. One reason for such a threat is that, unlike the typical sword and sorcery adventurer, the hero is seldom bored stiff by ordinary life and therefore will not abandon it quickly and on any excuse. While, like Bilbo Baggins, he may be eager for adventure, he is also usually capable of appreciating the quotidian. By the same token, the hero of the high fantasy adventure is capable of completing it and settling down to ordinary life again. Typically, the hero slowly gains knowledge of his past through legend, prophecy, lost-and-found-again family members, or encounters with "mentor" characters who know more about him than he does. With that knowledge comes power and self-confidence; the hero often begins as a childlike figure, but matures rapidly, experiencing a huge gain in fighting/problem-solving abilities along the way. Casey Lieb, "Unlikely Heroes and their role in Fantasy Literature" The plot of the story often depicts the hero's fight against the evil forces as a Bildungsroman. However, the epic adventure is not always quite so stereotyped. A good example of a less stereotyped epic is The Deed of Paksenarrion in which the main character becomes a paladin through her own growing strength instead of it having been forced on her at birth. In many books there is a knowing, mystical teacher, associated with the Jungian archetype of Senex, or wise old man. This character is often a formidable wizard or warrior, who provides the main character with advice and help. Examples would be: Tolkien's Gandalf of The Lord of the Rings, Rowling's Dumbledore of Harry Potter, Brooks' Allanon of The Sword of Shannara, Eddings' Belgarath of The Belgariad, Feist's Macros the Black of The Riftwar Saga, and Goodkind's Zeddicus Zu'l Zorander of The Sword of Truth. These characters derive originally from the Merlin topos, a theme in fantasy fiction flowing from Le Morte d'Arthur (1485). In books, there is also a mysterious Dark Lord, often obsessed with taking over the world and killing the main hero. This character is an evil wizard or sorcerer who often tortures and kills innocent people. This character commands a huge army and a group of highly feared servants. Examples would be: Tolkien's Morgoth of The Silmarillion and Sauron of The Lord of the Rings, Rowling's Lord Voldemort of Harry Potter, Brooks' Warlock Lord of The Sword of Shannara, Jordan's Dark One of The Wheel of Time, and Eddings' Torak of The Belgariad. These characters derive originally from the Satan topos. Examples of feared servants are Tolkien's Nazgul (Servants of Sauron), Rowling's Death Eaters, and Jordan's Forsaken. Some Dark Lords also have very loyal followers. Examples would be Tolkien's Mouth of Sauron and Rowling's Wormtail. Most of the time, innocent people are afraid to speak out the names of the Dark Lord (As with Dark Lord Sauron, Dark Lord Voldemort and the Dark One). The progress of the story leads to the character learning the nature of the unknown forces against him, that they constitute a force with great power and malevolence. Patricia A. McKillip, "Writing High Fantasy", p 53, Philip Martin, ed., The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest, ISBN 0-87116-195-8 Facing down this evil is the culmination of the hero's story and permits the return to normal life. Good versus Evil Good versus Evil is a common concept in high fantasy, and the character of evil is often an important concept in a work of high fantasy, Tom Shippey, J.R.R. Tolkien: Author of the Century, p 120, ISBN 0-618-25759-4 as in The Lord of the Rings. Indeed, the importance of the concepts of good and evil can be regarded as distinguishing mark between high fantasy and sword and sorcery. Joseph A. McCullough V, "The Demarcation of Sword and Sorcery" In many works of high fantasy, this conflict marks a deep concern with moral issues; in other works, the conflict is a power struggle, with, for instance, wizards behaving irresponsibly whether they are "good" or "evil". Ursula K. LeGuin, "The Question I Get Asked Most Often" p 274, The Wave in the Mind, ISBN 1-59030-006-8 Saga or series Role-playing campaign settings like Greyhawk by Gary Gygax and Dragonlance by Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis are a common basis for many fantasy books and many other authors continue to contribute to the settings. From Tolkien to the modern day, authors in this genre tend to create their own worlds where they set multi-tiered narratives such as the Belgariad, Malloreon and Memory, Sorrow, and Thorn. Other authors such as Terry Brooks, Stephen R. Donaldson, Robert Jordan, R. Scott Bakker, Steven Erikson, Raymond E. Feist, David and Leigh Eddings, L. E. Modesitt, Jr., Terry Goodkind, R.A. Salvatore, and Paul Edwin Zimmer write extended stories over several volumes relating with the same character threads. Publishers There are several publishing companies that are devoted entirely to publishing fantasy literature (or fantasy and science fiction). DAW Books was one of the first such publishers established, and others include Baen Books, Roc, Tor Books, and Del Rey Books. References See also Eric Rücker Eddison (The Worm Ouroboros and The Zimiamvian Trilogy) was a pre-Tolkien high fantasy writer. List of high fantasy fiction Low fantasy | High_fantasy |@lemmatized high:20 fantasy:37 epic:6 subgenre:5 set:2 invented:2 parallel:1 world:9 come:3 fruition:1 work:7 author:5 j:3 r:9 tolkien:11 c:2 lewis:2 whose:1 major:1 publish:3 along:2 sword:8 sorcery:5 become:2 one:7 two:1 genre:4 commonly:1 associate:2 general:1 term:2 overview:1 story:7 generally:1 serious:1 tone:1 often:12 scope:1 deal:1 theme:3 grand:1 struggle:2 supernatural:1 evil:9 force:6 philip:3 martin:2 writer:3 guide:2 literature:4 dragon:2 lair:2 hero:13 quest:3 p:6 isbn:5 popular:2 subgenres:1 fiction:6 typical:2 characteristic:2 include:2 fantastical:1 element:1 elf:1 fairy:1 dwarf:1 magic:3 wizard:4 magician:1 invent:1 language:1 age:1 multi:2 volume:2 narrative:2 siegfried:1 kill:3 fafner:1 arthur:2 rackham:1 well:1 define:2 establish:2 contrast:1 low:2 many:6 contradictory:1 way:3 separate:1 contemporary:2 real:3 character:14 place:1 sometimes:1 device:1 portal:1 even:1 subconscious:1 travel:1 purist:1 might:1 consider:1 true:1 although:1 categorize:1 due:1 fact:1 yet:1 classify:1 distinct:1 resemble:1 closely:2 may:2 less:2 base:1 milieu:1 legend:2 arthurian:1 resemblance:1 strong:1 particularly:1 history:2 use:1 shade:1 alternate:1 successful:1 fandom:1 range:1 recent:1 screen:1 version:1 rowling:5 harry:3 potter:3 lord:12 ring:5 lion:1 witch:1 wardrobe:1 contribute:2 continue:2 popularity:1 moreover:1 film:1 adaptation:1 novel:2 preproduction:1 david:3 farland:1 runelords:1 also:5 terry:5 brook:5 kingdom:1 landover:1 elfstones:2 shannara:5 storyline:2 tell:1 viewpoint:1 main:4 much:1 plot:2 revolve:1 around:1 heritage:1 mysterious:2 nature:2 orphan:1 unusual:1 sibling:1 incredible:1 ability:3 skill:2 particular:1 area:1 usually:2 either:1 weapon:1 begin:2 young:1 actual:1 child:1 michael:1 moorcock:1 wizardry:1 wild:1 romance:1 study:1 example:6 frodo:1 baggins:2 shea:1 wil:1 ohmsford:1 goodkind:3 richard:1 rahl:1 robert:2 jordan:4 rand:1 al:1 thor:1 wheel:2 time:3 pug:1 arutha:1 raymond:2 feist:3 riftwar:2 saga:3 pullman:1 lyra:1 belacqua:1 dark:8 material:1 completely:1 develop:1 individual:1 spirit:1 eddings:4 sparhawk:1 elenium:1 tamuli:1 however:2 mean:1 limit:1 male:1 protagonist:1 see:2 elizabeth:1 moon:1 deed:2 paksenarrion:2 hodgell:1 jame:1 beginning:1 threaten:1 unknown:2 reason:1 threat:1 unlike:1 adventurer:1 seldom:1 bore:1 stiff:1 ordinary:2 life:3 therefore:1 abandon:1 quickly:1 excuse:1 like:2 bilbo:1 eager:1 adventure:3 capable:2 appreciate:1 quotidian:1 token:1 complete:1 settle:1 typically:1 slowly:1 gain:2 knowledge:2 past:1 prophecy:1 lose:1 find:1 family:1 member:1 encounter:1 mentor:1 know:1 power:3 self:1 confidence:1 childlike:1 figure:1 mature:1 rapidly:1 experience:1 huge:2 fight:2 problem:1 solve:1 casey:1 lieb:1 unlikely:1 role:2 depict:1 bildungsroman:1 always:1 quite:1 stereotyped:2 good:5 paladin:1 grow:1 strength:1 instead:1 birth:1 book:7 knowing:1 mystical:1 teacher:1 jungian:1 archetype:1 senex:1 wise:1 old:1 man:1 formidable:1 warrior:1 provide:1 advice:1 help:1 would:3 gandalf:1 dumbledore:1 allanon:1 belgarath:1 belgariad:3 macro:1 black:1 zeddicus:1 zu:1 l:2 zorander:1 truth:1 derive:2 originally:2 merlin:1 topos:2 flow:1 le:1 morte:1 obsess:1 take:1 sorcerer:1 torture:1 innocent:2 people:2 command:1 army:1 group:1 highly:1 fear:1 servant:3 morgoth:1 silmarillion:1 sauron:4 voldemort:2 warlock:1 torak:1 satan:1 feared:1 nazgul:1 death:1 eater:1 forsaken:1 loyal:1 follower:1 mouth:1 wormtail:1 afraid:1 speak:1 name:1 progress:1 lead:1 learn:1 constitute:1 great:1 malevolence:1 patricia:1 mckillip:1 write:2 ed:1 face:1 culmination:1 permit:1 return:1 normal:1 versus:2 common:2 concept:3 important:1 tom:1 shippey:1 century:1 indeed:1 importance:1 regard:1 distinguish:1 mark:2 joseph:1 mccullough:1 v:1 demarcation:1 conflict:2 deep:1 concern:1 moral:1 issue:1 instance:1 behave:1 irresponsibly:1 whether:1 ursula:1 k:1 leguin:1 question:1 get:1 ask:1 wave:1 mind:1 series:1 play:1 campaign:1 setting:2 greyhawk:1 gary:1 gygax:1 dragonlance:1 tracy:1 hickman:1 margaret:1 wei:1 basis:1 modern:1 day:1 tend:1 create:1 tiered:1 malloreon:1 memory:1 sorrow:1 thorn:1 stephen:1 donaldson:1 scott:1 bakker:1 steven:1 erikson:1 e:2 leigh:1 modesitt:1 jr:1 salvatore:1 paul:1 edwin:1 zimmer:1 extend:1 several:2 relate:1 thread:1 publisher:2 company:1 devote:1 entirely:1 science:1 daw:1 first:1 others:1 baen:1 roc:1 tor:1 del:1 rey:1 reference:1 eric:1 rücker:1 eddison:1 worm:1 ouroboros:1 zimiamvian:1 trilogy:1 pre:1 list:1 |@bigram subgenre_fantasy:2 come_fruition:1 sword_sorcery:4 dragon_lair:2 arthur_rackham:1 fiction_fandom:1 rowling_harry:1 harry_potter:3 lion_witch:1 witch_wardrobe:1 revolve_around:1 michael_moorcock:1 wizardry_wild:1 philip_pullman:1 le_morte:1 morte_arthur:1 tom_shippey:1 ursula_k:1 multi_tiered:1 science_fiction:1 del_rey:1 |
1,251 | Hausdorff_dimension | In mathematics, the Hausdorff dimension (also known as the Hausdorff–Besicovitch dimension) is an extended non-negative real number associated to any metric space. The Hausdorff dimension generalizes the notion of the dimension of a real vector space. In particular, the Hausdorff dimension of a single point is zero, the Hausdorff dimension of a line is one, the Hausdorff dimension of the plane is two, etc. There are however many irregular sets that have noninteger Hausdorff dimension. The concept was introduced in 1918 by the mathematician Felix Hausdorff. Many of the technical developments used to compute the Hausdorff dimension for highly irregular sets were obtained by Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch. Informal discussion Intuitively, the dimension of a set (for example, a subset of Euclidean space) is the number of independent parameters needed to describe a point in the set. One mathematical concept which closely models this naïve idea is that of topological dimension of a set. For example a point in the plane is described by two independent parameters (the Cartesian coordinates of the point), so in this sense, the plane is two-dimensional. As one would expect, the topological dimension is always a natural number. However, topological dimension behaves in quite unexpected ways on certain highly irregular sets such as fractals. For example, the Cantor set has topological dimension zero, but in some sense it behaves as a higher dimensional space. Hausdorff dimension gives another way to define dimension, which takes the metric into account. Sierpinski triangle. A space with fractal dimension log2 3 or ln3/ln2, which is approximately 1.585 To define the Hausdorff dimension for X as non-negative real number (that is a number in the half-closed infinite interval [0, ∞)), we first consider the number N(r) of balls of radius at most r required to cover X completely. Clearly, as r gets smaller N(r) gets larger. Very roughly, if N(r) grows in the same way as 1/rd as r is squeezed down towards zero, then we say X has dimension d. In fact the rigorous definition of Hausdorff dimension is somewhat roundabout, as it allows the covering of by balls of different sizes. For many shapes that are often considered in mathematics, physics and other disciplines, the Hausdorff dimension is an integer. However, sets with non-integer Hausdorff dimension are important and prevalent. Benoît Mandelbrot, a popularizer of fractals, advocates that most shapes found in nature are fractals with non-integer dimension, explaining that "[c]louds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line." There are various closely related notions of possibly fractional dimension. For example box-counting dimension, generalizes the idea of counting the squares of graph paper in which a point of X can be found, as the size of the squares is made smaller and smaller. (The box-counting dimension is also called the Minkowski-Bouligand dimension). The packing dimension is yet another notion of dimension admitting fractional values. These notions (packing dimension, Hausdorff dimension, Minkowski-Bouligand dimension) all give the same value for many shapes, but there are well documented exceptions. Formal definition Let be a metric space. If and , the -dimensional Hausdorff content of is defined by In other words, is the infimum of the set of numbers such that there is some (indexed) collection of balls with for each which satisfies . (One can assume, with no loss of generality, that the index set is the natural numbers .) Here, we use the standard convention that inf Ø =∞. The Hausdorff dimension of is defined by Equivalently, may be defined as the infimum of the set of such that the -dimensional Hausdorff measure of is zero. This is the same as the supremum of the set of such that the -dimensional Hausdorff measure of is infinite (except that when this latter set of numbers is empty the Hausdorff dimension is zero). Examples The Euclidean space Rn has Hausdorff dimension n. The circle S1 has Hausdorff dimension 1. Countable sets have Hausdorff dimension 0. Fractals often are spaces whose Hausdorff dimension strictly exceeds the topological dimension. For example, the Cantor set (a zero-dimensional topological space) is a union of two copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor 1/3; this fact can be used to prove that its Hausdorff dimension is which is approximately (see natural logarithm). The Sierpinski triangle is a union of three copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor of 1/2; this yields a Hausdorff dimension of , which is approximately . Space-filling curves like the Peano and the Sierpiński curve have the same Hausdorff dimension as the space they fill. The trajectory of Brownian motion in dimension 2 and above has Hausdorff dimension 2 almost surely. An early paper by Benoit Mandelbrot entitled How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension and subsequent work by other authors have claimed that the Hausdorff dimension of many coastlines can be estimated. Their results have varied from 1.02 for the coastline of South Africa to 1.25 for the west coast of Great Britain. However, 'fractal dimensions' of coastlines and many other natural phenomena are largely heuristic and cannot be regarded rigorously as a Hausdorff dimension. It is based on scaling properties of coastlines at a large range of scales, but which does not however include all arbitrarily small scales, where measurements would depend on atomic and sub-atomic structures, and are not well defined. The bond system of an amorphous solid changes its Hausdorff dimension from Euclidian 3 below glass transition temperature Tg (where the amorphous material is solid), to fractal 2.55±0.05 above Tg, where the amorphous material is liquid. M.I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee. J. Phys.: Condensed Matter, 18, 11507-11520 (2006). http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/1958/ Properties of Hausdorff dimension Hausdorff dimension and inductive dimension Let X be an arbitrary separable metric space. There is a topological notion of inductive dimension for X which is defined recursively. It is always an integer (or +∞) and is denoted dimind(X). Theorem. Suppose X is non-empty. Then Moreover where Y ranges over metric spaces homeomorphic to X. In other words, X and Y have the same underlying set of points and the metric dY of Y is topologically equivalent to dX. These results were originally established by Edward Szpilrajn (1907-1976). The treatment in Chapter VII of the Hurewicz and Wallman reference is particularly recommended. Hausdorff dimension and Minkowski dimension The Minkowski dimension is similar to the Hausdorff dimension, except that it is not associated with a measure. The Minkowski dimension of a set is at least as large as the Hausdorff dimension. In many situations, they are equal. However, the set of rational points in has Hausdorff dimension zero and Minkowski dimension one. There are also compact sets for which the Minkowski dimension is strictly larger than the Hausdorff dimension. Hausdorff dimensions and Frostman measures If there is a measure defined on Borel subsets of a metric space such that and holds for some constant and for every ball in , then . A partial converse is provided by Frostman's lemma. That article also discusses another useful characterization of the Hausdorff dimension. Behaviour under unions and products If is a finite or countable union, then This can be verified directly from the definition. If and are metric spaces, then the Hausdorff dimension of their product satisfies An example in which the inequality is strict has been constructed by J. M. Marstrand Marstrand, J. M. The dimension of Cartesian product sets. Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 50, (1954). 198--202. . It is known that when and are Borel subsets of , the Hausdorff dimension of is bounded from above by the Hausdorff dimension of plus the upper packing dimension of . These facts are discussed in Mattila (1995). Self-similar sets Many sets defined by a self-similarity condition have dimensions which can be determined explicitly. Roughly, a set E is self-similar if it is the fixed point of a set-valued transformation ψ, that is ψ(E) = E, although the exact definition is given below. Theorem. Suppose are contractive mappings on Rn with contraction constant rj < 1. Then there is a unique non-empty compact set A such that The theorem follows from Stefan Banach's contractive mapping fixed point theorem applied to the complete metric space of non-empty compact subsets of Rn with the Hausdorff distance K. J. Falconer, The Geometry of Fractal Sets, Cambridge University Press, 1985 Theorem 8.3 . To determine the dimension of the self-similar set A (in certain cases), we need a technical condition called the open set condition on the sequence of contractions ψi which is stated as follows: There is a relatively compact open set V such that where the sets in union on the left are pairwise disjoint. Theorem. Suppose the open set condition holds and each ψi is a similitude, that is a composition of an isometry and a dilation around some point. Then the unique fixed point of ψ is a set whose Hausdorff dimension is s where s is the unique solution of Note that the contraction coefficient of a similitude is the magnitude of the dilation. We can use this theorem to compute the Hausdorff dimension of the Sierpinski triangle (or sometimes called Sierpinski gasket). Consider three non-collinear points a1, a2, a3 in the plane R² and let ψi be the dilation of ratio 1/2 around ai. The unique non-empty fixed point of the corresponding mapping ψ is a Sierpinski gasket and the dimension s is the unique solution of Taking natural logarithms of both sides of the above equation, we can solve for s, that is: The Sierpinski gasket is self-similar. In general a set E which is a fixed point of a mapping is self-similar if and only if the intersections where s is the Hausdorff dimension of E and denotes Hausdorff measure. This is clear in the case of the Sierpinski gasket (the intersections are just points), but is also true more generally: Theorem. Under the same conditions as the previous theorem, the unique fixed point of ψ is self-similar. See also List of fractals by Hausdorff dimension Examples of deterministic fractals, random and natural fractals. Historical references A. S. Besicovitch, On Linear Sets of Points of Fractional Dimensions, Mathematische Annalen 101 (1929). A. S. Besicovitch and H. D. Ursell, Sets of Fractional Dimensions, Journal of the London Mathematical Society, v12 (1937). Several selections from this volume are reprinted in Classics on Fractals,ed. Gerald A. Edgar, Addison-Wesley (1993) ISBN 0-201-58701-7 See chapters 9,10,11. F. Hausdorff, Dimension und äußeres Maß, Mathematische Annalen 79(1–2) (March 1919) pp. 157–179. Notes References M. Maurice Dodson and Simon Kristensen, Hausdorff Dimension and Diophantine Approximation (June 12, 2003). W. Hurewicz and H. Wallman, Dimension Theory, Princeton University Press, 1948. E. 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1,252 | Boris_Yeltsin | Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin (; ) (1 February 1931 23 April 2007) was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999. Yeltsin came to power with a wave of high expectations. On 12 June 1991 he was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after a series of economic and political crises in Russia in the 1990s. The Yeltsin era was marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. By the time he left office, Yeltsin had an approval rating of two percent by some estimates. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991, Yeltsin, vowing to transform Russia's socialist command economy into a free market economy, endorsed price liberalization and privatization programs. Due to corruption and other factors, a good deal of the national wealth fell into the hands of a relatively small group of people. In August 1991, Yeltsin won international plaudits for casting himself as a democrat and defying the August coup attempt of 1991 by the members of Soviet government opposed to perestroika. He left office widely unpopular with the Russian population as an ineffectual and ailing autocrat. Paul J. Saunders, "U.S. Must Ease Away From Yeltsin", Newsday, 14 May 1999. He either acted as his own prime minister (until June 1992) or appointed men of his choice, regardless of parliament. His confrontations with parliament climaxed in the October 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, when Yeltsin called up tanks to shell the Russian White House, blasting out his opponents in parliament. Later in 1993, Yeltsin imposed a new constitution with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December. Just hours before the first day of 2000, Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the presidency in the hands of Vladimir Putin. Early life Boris Yeltsin was born in the village of Butka, in Talitsky District of Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia. His father, Nikolay Yeltsin, was convicted of anti-Soviet agitation in 1934 and sentenced to hard labour in a gulag for three years. Following his release he remained unemployed for a period of time and then worked in construction. His mother, Klavdiya Vasilyevna Yeltsina, worked as a seamstress. Boris Yeltsin studied at Pushkin High School in Berezniki in Perm Krai. He was fond of sports (in particular skiing, gymnastics, volleyball, track and field, boxing and wrestling) despite losing the thumb and index finger of his left hand when he and some friends snuck into a Red Army supply depot, stole several grenades, and tried to dissect them. Yeltsin received his higher education at the Ural State Technical University in Sverdlovsk, majoring in construction, and graduated in 1955. The subject of his degree paper was "Television Tower". From 1955 to 1957 he worked as a foreman with the building trust Uraltyazhtrubstroy and from 1957 to 1963 he worked in Sverdlovsk, and was promoted from construction site superintendent to chief of the Construction Directorate with the Yuzhgorstroy Trust. In 1963 he became chief engineer, and in 1965 head of the Sverdlovsk House-Building Combine, responsible for sewerage and technical plumbing. He joined the ranks of the CPSU nomenklatura in 1968 when he was appointed head of construction with the Sverdlovsk Regional Party Committee. In 1975 he became secretary of the regional committee in charge of the region's industrial development. In 1976 the Politburo of the CPSU promoted him to the post of the first secretary of the CPSU Committee of Sverdlovsk Oblast (effectively he became the head of one of the most important industrial regions in the USSR), he remained in this position until 1985. CPSU member Yeltsin was a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) from 1961 to July 1990, and began working in the Communist administration in 1968. He later commented on his communist views: "I sincerely believed in the ideals of justice propagated by the party, and just as sincerely joined the party, made a thorough study of the charter, the programme and the classics, re-reading the works of Lenin, Marx and Engels." In 1977 as party boss in Sverdlovsk, Yeltsin—on orders from Moscow—ordered the destruction of the Ipatiev House where the last Russian tsar had been killed by Bolshevik troops. The Ipatiev House was demolished in one night, 27 July 1977. Chronology Also during Yeltsin's stay in Sverdlovsk, a CPSU palace was built which was named "White Tooth" by the residents. Yeltsin Boris Nikolayevich During this time, Yeltsin developed connections with key people in the Soviet power structure. He was appointed to the Politburo, and was also "Mayor" of Moscow (First Secretary of the CPSU Moscow City Committee) from 24 December 1985 to 1987. He was promoted to these high rank positions by Mikhail Gorbachev and Yegor Ligachev, who presumed that Yeltsin would be their man. Yeltsin was also given a country house (dacha) previously occupied by Gorbachev. During this period Yeltsin portrayed himself as a reformer and populist (for example, he took a trolleybus to work), firing and reshuffling his staff several times. His initiatives became popular among Moscow residents. In 1987, after a confrontation with hardliner Yegor Ligachev and Mikhail Gorbachev about Gorbachev's wife, Raisa, meddling in affairs of the state, Yeltsin was sacked from his high ranking party positions. On 21 October 1987 at the plenary meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Yeltsin, without prior approval from Gorbachev, lashed out at the Politburo. He expressed his discontent with both the slow pace of reform in society and the servility shown to the General Secretary, then asked to resign from the Politburo, adding that the City Committee would decide whether he should resign from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee. In his reply, Gorbachev accused Yeltsin of "political immaturity" and "absolute irresponsibility", and at the plenary meeting of the Moscow City Party Committee proposed relieving Yeltsin of his post of first secretary. Nobody backed Yeltsin. Criticism of Yeltsin continued on 11 November 1987 at the meeting of the Moscow City Party Committee. After Yeltsin admitted that his speech had been a mistake, he was fired from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Committee. He was demoted to the position of first deputy commissioner for the State Committee for Construction. After being fired, Yeltsin was hospitalized and later (confirmed by Nikolai Ryzhkov) attempted suicide. He was perturbed and humiliated but began plotting his revenge. The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire, page 86; ISBN 0-8050-4154-0 His opportunity came with Gorbachev's establishment of the Congress of People's Deputies. The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire, page 90; ISBN 0-8050-4154-0 He recovered, and started intensively criticizing Gorbachev, highlighting the slow pace of reform in the Soviet Union as his major argument. Yeltsin's criticism of the Politburo and Gorbachev led to a smear campaign against him, in which examples of Yeltsin's awkward behavior were used against him. An article published in Pravda described him as being drunk at a lecture during his visit to the United States, an allegation which appeared to be confirmed by a TV account of his speech. However, popular dissatisfaction with the regime was very strong, and these attempts to smear Yeltsin only added to his popularity. In another incident, Yeltsin fell from a bridge. Commenting on this event, Yeltsin hinted that he was helped to fall from the bridge by the enemies of perestroika, but his opponents suggested that he was simply drunk. President of the RSFSR Yeltsin on 21 February 1989. Yeltsin, with his personal bodyguard Alexander Korzhakov, stands on a tank to defy the August coup in 1991 In March 1989, Yeltsin was elected to the Congress of People's Deputies as the delegate from Moscow district and gained a seat on the Supreme Soviet. On 29 May 1990, he was elected chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR (RSFSR), the post he held until 10 July 1991. He was supported by both democratic and conservative members of the Supreme Soviet, which sought power in the developing political situation in the country. A part of this power struggle was the opposition between power structures of the Soviet Union and the RSFSR. In an attempt to gain more power, on 12 June 1990, the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted a declaration of sovereignty and Yeltsin quit the CPSU in July 1990. On 12 June 1991, Yeltsin won 57% of the popular vote in the democratic presidential elections for the Russian republic, defeating Gorbachev's preferred candidate, Nikolai Ryzhkov who got just 16% of the vote. In his election campaign, Yeltsin criticized the "dictatorship of the center", but did not suggest the introduction of a market economy. Instead, he said that he would put his head on the railtrack in the event of increased prices. Yeltsin took office on 10 July. On 18 August 1991, a coup against Gorbachev was launched by the government members opposed to perestroika. Gorbachev was held in Crimea while Yeltsin raced to the White House of Russia (residence of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR) in Moscow to defy the coup. The White House was surrounded by the military but the troops defected in the face of mass popular demonstrations. Yeltsin responded to the coup by making a memorable speech from the turret of a tank. By 21 August most of the coup leaders had fled Moscow and Gorbachev was "rescued" from Crimea and then returned to Moscow. Yeltsin was subsequently hailed by his supporters around the world for rallying mass opposition to the coup. Although restored to his position, Gorbachev's powers were now fatally compromised. Neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin. Through the fall of 1991, the Russian government took over the union government, ministry by ministry. On 6 November 1991, Yeltsin issued a decree banning the Communist Party throughout the RSFSR. In early December 1991, Ukraine voted for independence from the Soviet Union. A week later, on 8 December, Yeltsin met with Ukrainian president Leonid Kravchuk and the leader of Belarus, Stanislav Shushkevich, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, where the three presidents announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union and that they would establish a voluntary Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place. According to Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union at that time, Yeltsin kept the plans of the Belovezhskaya meeting in strict secrecy and the main goal of the dissolution of the Soviet Union was to get rid of Gorbachev, who by that time had started to recover his position after the events of August. Mikhail Gorbachev has also accused Yeltsin of violating the people's will expressed in the referendum in which the majority voted to keep the Soviet Union. On 24 December, the Russian Federation took the Soviet Union's seat in the United Nations. The next day, President Gorbachev resigned and the Soviet Union ceased to exist, thereby ending the world's largest and most influential socialist state. Economic relations between the former Soviet republics were severely compromised. Millions of ethnic Russians found themselves in the newly formed foreign countries. President of the Russian Federation Yeltsin's first term Radical reforms Just days after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Boris Yeltsin resolved to embark on a program of radical economic reform, with the aim of restructuring Russia's economic system—converting the world's largest command economy into a free-market one. During early discussions of this transition, Yeltsin's advisers debated issues of speed and sequencing, with an apparent division between those favoring a rapid approach and those favoring a gradual or slower approach. In late 1991 Yeltsin turned to the advice of Western economists, and Western institutions such as the IMF, the World Bank, and the U.S. Treasury Department, who had developed a standard policy recipe for transition economies in the late 1980s. This policy recipe came to be known as the "Washington Consensus" or "shock therapy", a combination of measures intended to liberalize prices and stabilize the state's budget. Such measures had been attempted in Poland, and advocates of "shock therapy" felt the same could be done in Russia. Some Russian policymakers were skeptical that this was the way to go, but the approach was favored by Yeltsin's deputy, Yegor Gaidar, a 35-year-old Russian economist inclined toward radical reform. On 2 January 1992, Yeltsin, acting as his own prime minister, ordered the liberalization of foreign trade, prices, and currency. At the same time, Yeltsin followed a policy of 'macroeconomic stabilization,' a harsh austerity regime designed to control inflation. Under Yeltsin's stabilization program, interest rates were raised to extremely high levels to tighten money and restrict credit. To bring state spending and revenues into balance, Yeltsin raised new taxes heavily, cut back sharply on government subsidies to industry and construction, and made steep cuts to state welfare spending. In early 1992, prices skyrocketed throughout Russia, and deep credit crunch shut down many industries and brought about a protracted depression. The reforms devastated the living standards of much of the population, especially the groups dependent on Soviet-era state subsidies and welfare entitlement programs. Peter Nolan, China's Rise, Russia's Fall. Macmillan Press, 1995. pp. 17–18. Through the 1990s, Russia's GDP fell by 50 percent, vast sectors of the economy were wiped out, inequality and unemployment grew dramatically, while incomes fell. Hyperinflation, caused by the Central Bank of Russia's loose monetary policy, wiped out a lot of personal savings, and tens of millions of Russians were plunged into poverty. Daniel Treisman, "Why Yeltsin Won: A Russian Tammany Hall", Foreign Affairs, September/October 1996. Theodore P. Gerber, Michael Hout, "More Shock than Therapy: Market Transition, Employment, and Income in Russia, 1991–1995", AJS Volume 104 Number 1 (July 1998): 1–50. Some economists argue that in the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression. Peter Nolan, China's Rise, Russia's Fall. Macmillan Press, 1995. pp. 17–18. Russian commentators and even some Western economists, such as Marshall Goldman, widely blamed Yeltsin's Western-backed economic program for the country's disastrous economic performance in the 1990s. Many politicians began to quickly distance themselves from the program. In February 1992, Russia's vice president, Alexander Rutskoy denounced the Yeltsin program as "economic genocide." Celestine Bohlen, "Yeltsin Deputy Calls Reforms 'Economic Genocide,'" The New York Times, 9 February 1992. By 1993 conflict over the reform direction escalated between Yeltsin on the one side, and the opposition to radical economic reform in Russia's parliament on the other. Confrontation with parliament Also throughout 1992, Yeltsin wrestled with the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies for control over government, government policy, government banking and property. In the course of 1992, the speaker of the Russian Supreme Soviet, Ruslan Khasbulatov, came out in opposition to the reforms, despite claiming to support Yeltsin's overall goals. In December 1992, the 7th Congress of People's Deputies succeeded in turning down the Yeltsin-backed candidacy of Yegor Gaidar for the position of Russian prime minister. Eventually, on 14 December, Viktor Chernomyrdin, seen as a compromise figure, was confirmed in the office. The conflict escalated on 20 March 1993 when Yeltsin, in a televised address to the nation, announced that he was going to assume certain "special powers" in order to implement his program of reforms. In response, the hastily-called 9th Congress of People's Deputies attempted to remove Yeltsin from presidency through impeachment on 26 March 1993. Yeltsin's opponents gathered more than 600 votes for impeachment, but fell 72 votes short of the required two-thirds majority. Boris Yeltsin On 21 September 1993 Yeltsin announced in a televised address his decision to disband the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies by decree. In his address Yeltsin declared his intent to rule by decree until the election of the new parliament and a referendum on a new constitution, triggering the constitutional crisis of October 1993. On the night after Yeltsin's televised address, the Supreme Soviet declared Yeltsin removed from presidency, by virtue of his breaching the constitution, and Vice-President Alexander Rutskoy was sworn in as the acting president. Between 21–24 September Yeltsin was confronted by significant popular unrest, encouraging the defenders of the parliament. Moscow saw what amounted to a spontaneous mass uprising of anti-Yeltsin demonstrators numbering in the tens of thousands marching in the streets resolutely seeking to aid forces defending the parliament building. The demonstrators were protesting the new and terrible living conditions under Yeltsin. Since 1989 GDP had declined by half. Corruption was rampant, violent crime was skyrocketing, medical services were collapsing, food and fuel were increasingly scarce and life expectancy was falling for all but a tiny handful of the population; moreover, Yeltsin was increasingly getting the blame. By early October, Yeltsin had secured the support of Russia's army and ministry of interior forces. In a massive show of force, Yeltsin called up tanks to shell the Russian White House, Russia's parliament building. As Supreme Soviet was dissolved, in December 1993 elections to the newly established parliament, the State Duma, were held. Candidates associated with Yeltsin's economic policies were overwhelmed by a huge anti-Yeltsin vote, the bulk of which was divided between the Communist Party and ultra-nationalists. The referendum, however, held at the same time, approved the new constitution, which significantly expanded the powers of the president, giving Yeltsin a right to appoint the members of the government, to dismiss the prime minister and, in some cases, to dissolve the Duma. Russian Constitution SECTION ONE Chapter 4 Chechnya In December 1994, Yeltsin ordered the military invasion of Chechnya in an attempt to restore Moscow's control over the separatist republic. Nearly two years later Yeltsin withdrew federal forces from the devastated Chechnya under a 1996 peace agreement brokered by Alexander Lebed, then Yeltsin's security chief. The peace deal allowed Chechnya greater autonomy but not full independence. The decision to launch the war in Chechnya dismayed many in the West. TIME magazine wrote: "Then, what was to be made of Boris Yeltsin? Clearly he could no longer be regarded as the democratic hero of Western myth. But had he become an old- style communist boss, turning his back on the democratic reformers he once championed and throwing in his lot with militarists and ultranationalists? Or was he a befuddled, out-of-touch chief being manipulated, knowingly or unwittingly, by well, by whom exactly? If there was to be a dictatorial coup, would Yeltsin be its victim or its leader?" Death Trap - TIME Chechnya was the ultimate downfall for Boris Yeltsin, he chose military intervention which led to 15,000 deaths--most being civilians. Privatization and the rise of "the oligarchs" Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin promoted privatization as a way of spreading ownership of shares in former state enterprises as widely as possible to create political support for his economic reforms. In the West, privatization was viewed as the key to the transition from communism in Eastern Europe, ensuring a quick dismantling of the Soviet-era command economy to make way for 'free market reforms.' In the early 1990s, Anatoly Chubais, Yeltsin's deputy for economic policy, emerged as a leading advocate of privatization in Russia. In late 1992, Yeltsin launched a program of free vouchers as a way to give mass privatization a jump-start. Under the program, all Russian citizens were issued vouchers, each with a nominal value of around 10,000 rubles, for purchase of shares of select state enterprises. Although each citizen initially received a voucher of equal face value, within months most of them converged in the hands of intermediaries who were ready to buy them for cash right away. In 1995, as Yeltsin struggled to finance Russia's growing foreign debt and gain support from the Russian business elite for his bid in the spring 1996 presidential elections, the Russian president prepared for a new wave of privatization offering stock shares in some of Russia's most valuable state enterprises in exchange for bank loans. The program was promoted as a way of simultaneously speeding up privatization and ensuring the government a much-needed infusion of cash for its operating needs. However, the deals were effectively giveaways of valuable state assets to a small group of tycoons in finance, industry, energy, telecommunications, and the media who came to be known as "oligarchs" in the mid-1990s. By summer 1996, substantial ownership shares over major firms were acquired at very low prices by a handful of people. Boris Berezovsky, who controlled major stakes in several banks and the national media, emerged as one of Yeltsin's most prominent backers. Along with Berezovsky, Mikhail Khodorkovsky, Vladimir Potanin, Vladimir Bogdanov, Rem Viakhirev, Vagit Alekperov, Alexander Smolensky, Victor Vekselberg, Mikhail Fridman and a few years later Roman Abramovich, were habitually mentioned in the media as Russia's oligarchs. KAL 007 On 5 December 1991, Senator Jesse Helms, ranking member of the Minority Staff of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, wrote to Boris Yeltsin concerning U.S. servicemen who were POWs or MIAs. "The status of thousands and thousands of American servicemen who are held by Soviet and other Communist forces, and who were never repatriated after every major war this century, is of grave concern to the American people." Moscow Bound: Policy, Politics, and the POW/MIA Dilemma, John M. G. Brown, Veteren Press, Eureka Springs, California, 1993, Chapt. 14 Yeltsin would ultimately respond with a statement made on 15 June 1992, while being interviewed aboard his presidential jet on his way to the United States, "Our archives have shown that it is true — some of them were transferred to the territory of the U.S.S.R. and were kept in labor camps... We can only surmise that some of them may still be alive.". Moscow Bound: Policy, Politics, and the POW/MIA Dilemma, John M. G. Brown, Veteren Press, Eureka Springs, California, 1993, Chapt. 14 On 10 December 1991, just five days after Senator Helms had written Yeltsin concerning American servicemen, he again wrote to Yeltsin, this time concerning Korean Air Lines Flight 007 (KAL 007) requesting information concerning possible survivors, including Congressman from Georgia Larry McDonald, and their whereabouts. "One of the greatest tragedies of the Cold War was the shoot-down of the Korean Airlines Flight 007 by the Armed Forces of what was then the Soviet Union on 1 September 1983... The KAL-007 tragedy was one of the most tense incidences of the entire Cold War. However, now that relations between our two nations have improved substantially, I believe that it is time to resolve the mysteries surrounding this event." http://www.rescue007.org/helms_letter.htm Clearing the air on this issue could help further to improve relations Helms' Letter to Yeltsin - December 1991 ." In March 1992, Yeltsin would hand over KAL 007's Black Box without its tapes to Korean President Roh Tae-Woo at the end of the plenary session of the Korean National Assembly with this statement, "We apologize for the tragedy and are trying to settle some unsolved issues." Yeltsin would ultimately respond on 8 January 1992 by handing over to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) of the United Nations what the Russians had for so many years denied possessing: the tapes of the KAL 007's "Black Box" (its Digital Flight Data Recorder and Cockpit Voice Recorder). The openness of Yeltsin about POW/MIA and KAL 007 matters may also have signaled his willingness for more openness to the West. In 1992, which he labelled the "window of opportunity", he was willing to discuss biological weapons with the U.S. but never admitted that the Sverdlovsk anthrax leak of 2 April 1979 had been caused as a result of a mishap at a military facility. Knoph JT, Westerdahl KS: Re-evaluating Russia's biological weapons policy, as reflected in the Criminal Code and Official Admissions: insubordination leading to a president's subordination. Crit Rev Microbiol. 2006;32(1):1-13. The Russian government has maintained that the cause was contaminated meat. The true number of victims in the anthrax outbreak at Sverdlovsk, about east of Moscow, is not known. 1996 presidential election In February 1996, Yeltsin announced that he would seek a second term in the spring 1996 Russian presidential election. The announcement followed weeks of speculation that Yeltsin was at the end of his political career because of his health problems and growing unpopularity in Russia. At the time Yeltsin was recuperating from a series of heart attacks. Domestic and international observers also noted his occasionally erratic behaviour. When campaigning opened at the beginning of 1996, Yeltsin's popularity was close to zero. CNN, Russian presidential candidate profiles, 1906. Meanwhile, the opposition Communist Party of the Russian Federation had already gained ground in parliamentary voting on 17 December 1995, and its candidate, Gennady Zyuganov, had a strong grass roots organization, especially in the rural areas and small towns, and appealed effectively to memories of the old days of Soviet prestige on the international stage and the socialist domestic order. CNN, Gennady Zyuganov candidate profile, 1996. Panic struck the Yeltsin team when opinion polls suggested that the ailing president could not win; some members of his entourage urged him to cancel presidential elections and effectively rule as dictator from then on. Instead, Yeltsin changed his campaign team, assigning a key role to his daughter, Tatyana Dyachenko, and appointing Chubais as campaign manager. http://vms.cc.wmich.edu/~97levintova/Ny.html Chubais, acting as both Yeltsin's campaign manager and adviser on Russia's privatisation programme, used his control of the privatisation programme as an instrument of Yeltsin's reelection campaign. In the spring of 1996, Chubais and Yeltsin recruited a team of a handful of financial and media oligarchs to bankroll the Yeltsin campaign and guaranteed favorable media coverage the president on national television and in leading newspapers. Daniel Treisman, "Blaming Russia First", Foreign Affairs, November/December 2000. In return, Chubais allowed well-connected Russian business leaders to acquire majority stakes in some of Russia's most valuable state-owned assets. See, e.g., Pekka Sutela, "Insider Privatization in Russia: Speculations on Systemic Changes", Europe-Asia Studies 46:3 (1994), p. 420–21. The media painted a picture of a fateful choice for Russia, between Yeltsin and a "return to totalitarianism." The oligarchs even played up the threat of civil war if a Communist were elected president. Yeltsin and Bill Clinton share a laugh in October 1995. Yeltsin campaigned energetically, dispelling concerns about his health, and maintained a high media profile. To boost his popularity, Yeltsin promised to abandon some his more unpopular economic reforms, boost welfare spending, end the war in Chechnya, and pay wage and pension arrears. Yeltsin's campaign also got a boost from the announcement of a $10 billion loan to the Russian government from the International Monetary Fund. CNN Interactive: Pivotal Elections: Russian Elections; Candidates: Boris Yeltsin Zyuganov, who lacked Yeltsin's resources and financial backing, saw his strong initial lead whittle away. After the first round on 16 June Yeltsin appointed a highly popular candidate Alexander Lebed, who came in third in the first round, Secretary of the Security Council of Russia, sacked at the latter's behest defence minister Pavel Grachev and on 20 June sacked a number of his siloviki, one of them being his chief of presidential security Alexander Korzhakov, viewed by many as Yeltsin's éminence grise. In the run-off on 3 July, with a turnout of 68.9%, Yeltsin won 53.8% of the vote and Zyuganov 40.3%, with the rest (5.9%) voting "against all". Lee Hockstader, Washington Post Foreign Service, Friday, 5 July 1996 In his second term, Yeltsin was unable to follow through on most of his campaign promises, except for ending the Chechen war, which was halted for most of the period. Yeltsin's second term In July 1996, Yeltsin was re-elected as president with financial support from influential business oligarchs who owed their wealth to their connections with Yeltsin's administration. Despite only gaining 35% of the first round vote in the 1996 elections, Yeltsin defeated his communist rival Gennady Zyuganov with 54% in the runoff election. Later that year, Yeltsin underwent an emergency quintuple heart bypass surgery and remained in the hospital for months. During Yeltsin's presidency, Russia received US$ 40 billion in funds from the IMF and other international lending organizations. However, his opponents allege that most of these funds were stolen by people from Yeltsin's circle and placed in foreign banks. ; In 1998, a political and economic crisis emerged when Yeltsin's government defaulted on its debts, causing financial markets to panic and the ruble to collapse in the 1998 financial crisis. During the 1999 Kosovo war, Yeltsin strongly opposed the NATO military campaign against Yugoslavia, and warned of possible Russian intervention if NATO deployed ground troops to Kosovo. In televised comments he stated: "I told NATO, the Americans, the Germans: Don't push us toward military action. Otherwise there will be a European war for sure and possibly world war." Also, Yeltsin on the day of his resignation, together with Putin and Alexander Voloshin On 15 May 1999, Yeltsin survived another attempt of impeachment, this time by the democratic and communist opposition in the State Duma. He was charged with several unconstitutional activities, including the signing of the Belavezha Accords, dissolving the Soviet Union in December 1991, the coup-d'état in October 1993, and initiating the war in Chechnya in 1994. None of these charges received the two-thirds majority of the Duma which was required to initiate the process of impeachment of the president. On 9 August 1999 Yeltsin fired his prime minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time, fired his entire cabinet. In Stepashin's place he appointed Vladimir Putin, relatively unknown at that time, and announced his wish to see Putin as his successor. In late 1999 Yeltsin and President Clinton openly disagreed on the war in Chechnya. At the November meeting of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Clinton pointed his finger at Yeltsin and demanded he halt bombing attacks that had resulted in many civilian casualties. Yeltsin immediately left the conference. In December while visiting China to seek support on Chechnya, Yeltsin replied to Clinton’s criticism of a Russian ultimatum to citizens of Grozny. He bluntly pronounced: "Yesterday, Clinton permitted himself to put pressure on Russia. It seems he has for a minute, for a second, for half a minute, forgotten that Russia has a full arsenal of nuclear weapons. He has forgotten about that." Clinton dismissed Yeltsin's comments stating: "I didn't think he'd forgotten that America was a great power when he disagreed with what I did in Kosovo." It fell to Vladimir Putin to downplay Yeltsin's comments and present reassurances about U.S. and Russian relations. Resignation Yeltsin appearing on TV announcing his resignation on 31 December 1999. On 31 December 1999, in a surprise announcement aired at 12:00 noon on Russian television and taped in the morning of the same day, Yeltsin said he had resigned and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin had taken over as acting president, with elections due to take place on 26 March 2000. Yeltsin asked for forgiveness for what he acknowledged were errors of his rule, and said Russia needed to enter the new century with new political leaders. Yeltsin said: "I want to beg forgiveness for your dreams that never came true. And also I would like to beg forgiveness not to have justified your hopes." Alleged alcoholism and neurological disorder According to numerous reports, Yeltsin struggled with alcoholism. The subject made headlines abroad during Yeltsin's visit to the U.S. in 1989 for a series of lectures on social and political life in the Soviet Union. That trip was described by a report in the Italian newspaper La Repubblica. The article reported that Yeltsin often appeared drunk in public. The article was reprinted by Pravda. Yeltsin's alleged alcoholism was also the subject of media discussion following his meeting with U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott following Clinton's inauguration in 1993 and after his flight stop-over at Shannon Airport, Ireland in September 1994 when the waiting Irish Taoiseach (prime minister) Albert Reynolds was told that Yeltsin was unwell and would not be leaving the aircraft. According to former Deputy Prime Minister of Russia Boris Nemtsov, the bizarre behavior of Yeltsin resulted from "strong drugs" given to him by Kremlin's doctors, which were incompatible even with a small amount of alcohol. This was discussed by journalist Yelena Tregubova from the "Kremlin's pool" in connection with an episode during Yeltsin's visit to Stockholm in 1997 when Yeltsin suddenly started talking nonsense (he allegedly told his bemused audience that Swedish meatballs reminded him of Björn Borg's face), http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top-stories/2009/02/17/office-party-the-top-ten-drunk-politicians-115875-21131145/ lost his balance, and almost fell down on the podium after drinking a single glass of Champagne. Yelena Tregubova Tales of a Kremlin Digger (, 2003 ISBN 5-93321-073-0 Full text in Russian. German translation. Tregubova barely escaped an assassination attempt after publishing this material Yeltsin, in his memoirs, claimed no recollection of the event but did however make a passing reference to the incident when he met Borg a year later at The World Circle Kabaddi Cup in Hamilton, Ontario, where the pair had been invited to present the trophy. Yeltsin, B "Midnight Diaries", New York, p.344 Similarly, Yeltsin made a hasty withdrawal from the funeral of Hussein of Jordan in February 1999. (, 2003 ISBN 5-93321-073-0 Full text in Russian. German translation. After Yeltsin's death, a Dutch neurosurgeon revealed that his team was secretly flown to Moscow to operate on Yeltsin in 1999. Yeltsin suffered from an unspecified neurological disorder that affected his sense of balance, causing him to wobble as if in a drunken state; the goal of the operation was to reduce the pain. The television show "The Simpsons" made reference to Yeltsin's drinking capacity by showing a breathalyzer's highest reading as 'Yeltsin.' http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/6486,features,what-the-bloggers-are-saying-about-yeltsin,2 Life after resignation Yeltsin with Naina Yeltsina on his 75th birthday on 1 February 2006. Yeltsin's personal and health problems received a great deal of attention in the global press. As the years went on, he was often viewed as an increasingly unstable leader, rather than the inspiring figure he was once seen as. The possibility that he might die in office was often discussed. Starting in the last years of his presidential term, Yeltsin's primary residence was the Gorki-9 presidential dacha west of Moscow. He made frequent stays at the nearby government sanatorium in Barvikha. Yeltsin maintained a low profile after his resignation, making almost no public statements or appearances. However, on 13 September 2004, following the Beslan school hostage crisis and nearly-concurrent terrorist attacks in Moscow, Putin launched an initiative to replace the election of regional governors with a system whereby they would be directly appointed by the president and approved by regional legislatures. Yeltsin, together with Mikhail Gorbachev, publicly criticized Putin's plan as a step away from democracy in Russia and a return to the centrally-run political apparatus of the Soviet era. In September 2005, Yeltsin underwent a hip operation in Moscow after breaking his femur in a fall while vacationing on the Italian island of Sardinia. On 1 February 2006, Yeltsin celebrated his 75th birthday. He used this occasion as an opportunity to criticize a "monopolistic" U.S. foreign policy, and to state that Vladimir Putin was the right choice for Russia. He also disputed accusations of corruption. Passion for tennis Yeltsin at the semi-finals of the Davis Cup with tennis player Dmitry Tursunov after the game in which the Russian won against the American Andy Roddick. Yeltsin also used his retirement to pursue his considerable love of tennis. He was a frequent fixture at tournaments held in Russia, notably Russian Davis Cup and Federation Cup team events. Far from a passive supporter like many VIPs who attend sports events, Yeltsin gained a reputation as an animated fan, cheering and jumping in support of the Russians. When the Russian men won the Davis Cup in 2002 and 2006 Yeltsin descended the stands to celebrate with the players, group hugging the team. Following his death in April 2007, his widow, Naina, attended in Yeltsin's place the final of that year's Federation Cup, in which Russia's women comprehensively beat Italy. Death Funeral of Yeltsin on 25 April 2007. Boris Yeltsin died of congestive heart failure on 23 April 2007 at the age of 76. According to experts quoted by Komsomolskaya Pravda, the onset of Yeltsin's condition was due to his visit to Jordan between 25 March and 2 April. He was buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery on 25 April 2007, following a period during which his body had lain in state in the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow. BBC News Yeltsin to lie in state in Moscow retrieved on 24 April 2007 Yeltsin was the first Russian statesman in 113 years to be buried in a church ceremony, after Emperor Alexander III. He was also the first leader in Russian and Soviet history to die quietly in retirement having overseen a peaceful transfer to his successor, Lenin being forced to retire by illness and Khrushchev being ousted in a coup. President Putin declared the day of his funeral a national day of mourning, with flags flown at half-staff and all entertainment programs suspended for the day. Yeltsin is survived by his wife, Naina Iosifovna Yeltsina, whom he married in 1956, and their two daughters Yelena and Tatyana, born in 1957 and 1959 respectively. Reaction —Russian president Vladimir Putin said, declaring 25 April 2007, a day of national mourning, that: Yeltsin's "presidency has inscribed him forever in Russian and in world history." ... "A new democratic Russia was born during his time: a free, open and peaceful country. A state in which the power truly does belong to the people." ... "the first President of Russia’s strength consisted in the mass support of Russian citizens for his ideas and aspirations. Thanks to the will and direct initiative of President Boris Yeltsin a new constitution, one which declared human rights a supreme value, was adopted. It gave people the opportunity to freely express their thoughts, to freely choose power in Russia, to realise their creative and entrepreneurial plans. This Constitution permitted us to begin building a truly effective Federation." ... "We knew (Yeltsin) as a brave and a warm-hearted, spiritual person. He was an upstanding and courageous national leader. And he was always very honest and frank while defending his position." ... "(Yeltsin) assumed full responsibility for everything he called for, for everything he aspired to. For everything he tried to do and did do for the sake of Russia, for the sake of millions of Russians. And he invariably took upon himself, let it in his heart, all the trials and tribulations of Russia, peoples’ difficulties and problems." Vladimir Putin`s Address on the Occasion of Boris Yelstin’s Passing Kremlin, 23 April 2007. Retrieved: 2007-04-24 —Shortly after the news broke, former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev issued a statement, saying: "I offer my deepest condolences to the family of a man on whose shoulders rested many great deeds for the good of the country and serious mistakes—a tragic fate". In quotes: Reactions to Yeltsin death 23 April 2007. Memorial Boris Yeltsin's grave at Novodevichy cemetery. In April 2008, a new memorial to Yeltsin was dedicated in Moscow's Novodevichy cemetery, to mixed reactions. The sculpture resembles a Russian flag but to others looks more like a giant birthday cake. At the memorial service, a military chorus performed Russia's national anthem - an anthem that was changed shortly after the end of Mr. Yeltsin's term, to follow the music of the old Soviet anthem, with lyrics reflecting Russia's new status. References Books Midnight Diaries By Boris Yeltsin. Translated by Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. Illustrated. 398 pp. New York: PublicAffairs. (See Boris Yeltsin: From Dawn to Dusk) See also Yeltsinism Footnotes External links Obituary and public tributes on Lasting Tribute CNN Cold War — Profile: Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin Death of a Bear- Hammernews The Good Czar The Strange Nobility of Boris Yeltsin The Yeltsin Years Documentary be-x-old:Барыс Ельцын | Boris_Yeltsin |@lemmatized boris:20 nikolayevich:3 yeltsin:195 february:8 april:12 first:17 president:28 russian:50 federation:7 serve:1 come:7 power:14 wave:2 high:8 expectation:1 june:7 elect:6 soviet:40 federative:1 socialist:4 republic:4 vote:11 become:6 popularly:1 never:4 recover:3 popularity:4 series:3 economic:16 political:10 crisis:6 russia:45 era:4 mark:1 widespread:1 corruption:4 collapse:4 enormous:1 social:2 problem:4 time:18 leave:5 office:6 approval:2 rating:1 two:6 percent:2 estimate:1 follow:12 dissolution:4 union:18 december:19 vow:1 transform:1 command:4 economy:7 free:5 market:6 endorsed:1 price:6 liberalization:2 privatization:9 program:12 due:3 factor:1 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1,253 | Melting | Melting (sometimes called fusion) is a process that results in the phase change of a substance from a solid to a liquid. The internal energy of a solid substance is increased (typically by the application of heat or pressure) to a specific temperature (called the melting point) at which it changes to the liquid phase. An object that has melted completely is molten. Ordinarily, the melting point of a substance is a characteristic property. The melting point is equal to the freezing point. However, under carefully created conditions supercooling or superheating past the melting or freezing point can occur. Water on a very clean glass surface will often supercool several degrees below the melting point without freezing. Fine emulsions of pure water have been cooled to -38 degrees celsius without the nucleation of ice taking place.. The change is due to fluctuations in the properties of the material. If the material is kept very still there is often nothing to trigger this change, such a physical vibration and supercooling (or superheating) can occur. Thermodynamically, the supercooled material is unstable with respect to the frozen phase. This phenomena is similar to hysterisis in permanent magnets, as they are heated and cooled near the Curie point. Molecular vibrations When the internal energy of a solid is increased by the application of an external energy source, the molecular vibrations of the substance increases. As these vibrations increase, the substance becomes less and less ordered. Fusion is also another term used for this. Constant temperature Substances melt at a constant temperature, the melting point. Further increases in temperature (even with continued application of energy) do not occur until the substance is molten. The thermodynamics of melting From a thermodynamics point of view, at the melting point the change in Gibbs free energy () of the Material is zero, but the enthalpy () and the entropy () of the material are increasing (). Melting phenomenon happens when the Gibbs free energy of the liquid becomes lower than the solid for that material. At various pressures this happens at a specific temperature. It can also be shown that: The "","", and "" in the above are respectively the temperature at the melting point, change of entropy of melting, and the change of enthalpy of melting. Books Kleinert, Hagen, Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter, Vol. II, "STRESSES AND DEFECTS; Differential Geometry, Crystal Melting", pp. 743-1456, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989); Paperback ISBN 9971-5-0210-0 (readable online here) Other meanings In genetics, melting DNA means to separate the double-stranded DNA into two single strands by heating or the use of chemicals. See also : Polymerase chain reaction See also Ice Melting point List of elements by melting point Phase diagram Phase transition | Melting |@lemmatized melting:7 sometimes:1 call:2 fusion:2 process:1 result:1 phase:5 change:7 substance:7 solid:4 liquid:3 internal:2 energy:6 increase:6 typically:1 application:3 heat:3 pressure:2 specific:2 temperature:6 point:13 object:1 melt:13 completely:1 molten:1 ordinarily:1 characteristic:1 property:2 equal:1 freezing:1 however:1 carefully:1 create:1 condition:1 supercooling:2 superheating:2 past:1 freeze:2 occur:3 water:2 clean:1 glass:1 surface:1 often:2 supercool:1 several:1 degree:2 without:2 fine:1 emulsion:1 pure:1 cool:2 celsius:1 nucleation:1 ice:2 take:1 place:1 due:1 fluctuation:1 material:6 kept:1 still:1 nothing:1 trigger:1 physical:1 vibration:4 thermodynamically:1 supercooled:1 unstable:1 respect:1 frozen:1 phenomenon:2 similar:1 hysterisis:1 permanent:1 magnet:1 near:1 curie:1 molecular:2 external:1 source:1 become:2 less:2 ordered:1 also:4 another:1 term:1 use:2 constant:2 even:1 continued:1 thermodynamics:2 view:1 gibbs:2 free:2 zero:1 enthalpy:2 entropy:2 happens:1 low:1 various:1 happen:1 show:1 respectively:1 book:1 kleinert:1 hagen:1 gauge:1 field:1 condensed:1 matter:1 vol:1 ii:1 stress:1 defect:1 differential:1 geometry:1 crystal:1 pp:1 world:1 scientific:1 singapore:1 paperback:1 isbn:1 readable:1 online:1 meaning:1 genetics:1 dna:2 mean:1 separate:1 double:1 strand:2 two:1 single:1 chemical:1 see:2 polymerase:1 chain:1 reaction:1 list:1 element:1 diagram:1 transition:1 |@bigram degree_celsius:1 permanent_magnet:1 enthalpy_entropy:1 condensed_matter:1 differential_geometry:1 strand_dna:1 polymerase_chain:1 |
1,254 | Divinity | Divinity and divine (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine') are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems — and even by different individuals within a given faith — to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power, or its attributes or manifestations in the world. The root of the words is literally 'Godlike' (from the Latin 'Deus', cf. Dyaus, closely related to Greek 'Zeus', Divan in Persian and Deva in Sanskrit), but the use varies significantly depending on which god is being discussed. This article outlines the major distinctions in the conventional use of the terms. For academic or professional uses of the terms, see Divinity (academic discipline), or Divine (Anglican) Usages To refer to powers or forces that are universal, or transcend human capacities To refer to qualities of individuals who are considered to have some special access or relationship to the divine Overlap occurs between these usages because deities or godlike entities are often identical with and/or identified by the powers and forces that are credited to them — in many cases a deity is merely a power or force personified — and these powers and forces may then be extended or granted to mortal individuals. For instance, throughout much of the Old Testament Yahweh is closely associated with storms and thunder: He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of His anger. This power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies. Divinity in monotheistic faiths always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, and other positive, pro-social attributes. In these faiths there is an equivalent cohort of malefic supranormal beings and powers, such as demons, devils, afreet, etc., which are not conventionally referred to as divine; demonic is often used instead. Pantheistic and polytheistic faiths make no such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts. Note that while the terms demon and demonic are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to divine, they are in fact derived from the Greek word daimón (δαίμων), which itself translates as divinity. There are three distinct usages of divinity and divine in religious discourse: Divinity as entity In monotheistic faiths, the word divinity is often used to refer to the single, supreme being central to that faith. Often the word takes the definite article and is capitalized — "the Divinity" — as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific. Thus Yahweh, Allah, and Jehovah are sometimes referred to as "the Divinities" of their particular faiths. Divine — capitalized — may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g. "basking in the Divine presence..." The terms divinity and divine — uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article — are sometimes used as to denote 'god(s) See, for example "The Great Stag: A Sumerian Divinity" by Bobula Ida (Yearbook of Ancient and Medieval History 1953) or certain other beings and entities which fall short of godhood but lie outside the human realm. These include (by no means an exhaustive list): The multiple gods of pan- and polytheistic faiths (as in the ancient Greek ) Elementals such as the dragons of traditional Chinese religion and sylphs and salamanders from Celtic traditions Anthropomorphized aspects of nature, like the tree and river spirits of Roman mythology Animal beings, many of which populate the stories of Native Americans and Indigenous Australians Conceptual beings like the Muses and Fates of ancient Greek belief In certain instances, individual humans are elevated to divine status without becoming actual gods: the eight immortals of taoism, for instance. Compare with the section on divinity and mortals given below. Divine force or power As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them, note Augustine's argument that divinity is not a quality of God, but that "God is [...] Divinity itself" (Nature and Grace, part I, question 3, article 3) "Whether God is the Same as His Essence or Nature" so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently. This leads to the second usage of the word divine (and a less common usage of divinity): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world. In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention. For pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events. In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms which blew Odysseus' craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a god-sent wind saved them from Mongol invasion. Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods of pantheisms to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g. safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops. Many faiths around the world — from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religion, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs — hold that ancestral or household spirits offer daily protection and blessings. In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures. Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths. Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world. Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine', in deferences like the Muslim inshallah ('as God wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways'. Often such faiths hold out the possibility of divine retribution as well, where the divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs, to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood. Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of karma shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe. Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle — transliterated in English as tao or dao, meaning 'the way' — which is neither an entity or a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world. Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle and/or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the source or wellspring of life. In these latter cases the faiths do not promote deference, as happens in monotheisms; rather each suggests a path of action that will bring the practitioner into conformance with the divine law: ahimsa — 'no harm' — for Buddhist and Hindu faiths; de or te — 'virtuous action' — in daoism; and any of numerous practices of peace and love in new age thinking. Divinity applied to mortals In the third usage, extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals. Political leaders are known to have claimed actual divinity in certain early societies — the ancient Egyptian Pharaohs being the premier case — taking a role as objects of worship and being credited with superhuman status and powers. More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, suggesting that their rule is in accordance with the will of God. The doctrine of the divine right of kings was introduced as late as the 17th century, proposing that kings rule by divine decree; Japanese Emperors ruled by divine mandate until the inception of the Japanese constitution after World War II; to this day Catholics are supposed to consider the Pope to be the literal voice of God on earth. Less politically, most faiths have any number of people that are believed to have been touched by divine forces: saints, prophets, heroes, oracles, martyrs, and enlightened beings, among others. Saint Francis of Assisi, in Catholicism, is said to have received instruction directly from God and it is believed that he grants plenary indulgence to all who confess their sins and visit his chapel on the appropriate day. In Greek mythology, Achilles' mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and Hercules — as the son of Zeus — inherited near-godlike powers. In religious Taoism, Lao Tsu is venerated as a saint with his own powers. Various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious forms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers. Mohamed and Christ, in their respective traditions, are each said to have performed divine miracles. In general, mortals with divine qualities are carefully distinguished from the deity or deities in their religion's main pantheon. This is sometimes a controversial issue, however; see , for example, for a discussion of the status of the Japanese emperor. Even the Christian faith, which holds Christ to be identical to God, distinguishes between God the father and Christ the begotten son. See, for example, "The Divinity of Alpha's Jesus" by Peterson & McDonald (Media Spotlight 25:4, 2002) There are, however, certain esoteric and mystical schools of thought, present in many faiths — Sufis in Islam, Gnostics in Christianity, Advaitan Hindus, Zen Buddhists, as well as several non-specific perspectives developed in new age philosophy — which hold that all humans are in essence divine, or unified with the Divine in a non-trivial way. Such divinity, in these faiths, would express itself naturally if it were not obscured by the social and physical worlds we live in; it needs to be brought to the fore through appropriate spiritual practices. See, for example, "Twelve Signs of Your Awakening Divinity" by Geoffrey Hoppe and Tobias According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, such spiritual practices are, in and of themselves, inspired by promptings from the light of Christ or the Holy Spirit that are communications with an individual's divine essence or spirit that is linked directly to God through pre-existence as his offspring. Belief in the divine potential of humankind Belief in a divine potential of humankind is taught by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS). The LDS teaches that there is a pre-mortal stage of human existence, known as pre-existence, during which pre-mortal human spirits, called spirit children, are able to make choices that influence their upcoming fully mortal existence as a direct result of the individual spirit's choices regarding truth, love and faith. Spirit children come into existence out of "intelligences". "Intelligences" are eternal forms of energy or matter existing in a less progressed form than God. (See Joseph Smith's King Follett discourse.) According to the LDS church, Christ's unwavering ability to obey truth, perceive light, and act in perfect love and faith, distinguishes his pre-mortal existence from the pre-mortal existence of the other spirit beings who were in the presence of the Eternal Father. Christ's behaviour during his "spirit child" phase serves to explain why he is considered to be God-like. The God-like quality ascribed to Jesus explains why he had a greater capacity to suffer more than mortal man could suffer; thus he could endure the anguish and incomprehensible pain of the atonement. The LDS belief is that Christ's divinity qualified him to return to the presence of God after his death and resurrection. By means of the atonement and his offering of divine grace to humankind, Christ provided access to divinity for humankind. A divine being is filled with perfect love, and desires to share these qualities because of the joy they bring to each individual soul. 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soul:1 theosis:1 reference:1 |@bigram loosely_defined:1 closely_relate:2 mongol_invasion:1 monotheistic_religion:1 divine_providence:1 divine_retribution:2 evil_doer:1 sodom_gomorrah:1 buddhism_hinduism:1 per_se:1 francis_assisi:1 confess_sin:1 river_styx:1 zen_buddhist:1 jesus_christ:2 holy_spirit:1 joseph_smith:1 lds_church:1 |
1,255 | Nasal_consonant | A nasal consonant (also called nasal stop or nasal continuant) is produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound, but the air does not escape through the mouth as it is blocked by the tongue. Rarely, other types of consonants may be nasalized. Definition Acoustically, nasal stops are sonorants, meaning they do not restrict the escape of air and cross-linguistically are nearly always voiced. Two notable exceptions are Icelandic and Welsh, which have unvoiced nasal sounds. (Compare oral plosives, which block off the air completely, and fricatives, which obstruct the air with a narrow channel. Both stops and fricatives are more commonly voiceless than voiced, and are known as obstruents.) However, nasals are also stops in their articulation because the flow of air through the mouth is blocked completely. This duality, a sonorant airflow through the nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, means that nasal stops behave both like sonorants and like obstruents. For the purposes of acoustic description they are generally considered sonorants, but in many languages they may develop from or into plosives. Acoustically, nasal stops have bands of energy at around 200 and 2,000 Hz. IPA description SAMPA voiced bilabial nasal voiced labiodental nasal [F] dental nasal [n_d] alveolar or dental nasal: see alveolar nasal voiced retroflex nasal, common in Indic languages [n`] voiced palatal nasal, a common sound in European languages as in: Spanish ñ; or French and Italian gn; or Catalan, Hungarian and Luganda ny; or Occitan, or Polish ń; and Portuguese nh. [J] voiced velar nasal, commonly written ng. [N] voiced uvular nasal [N\] Examples of languages containing nasal consonants: English, German and Cantonese have , and . Tamil possesses distinct letters to represent , , , , and (ம,ந,ன,ண,ஞ,ங). Catalan, Occitan, Spanish, and Italian have , , as phonemes, and and as allophones. (In several American dialects of Spanish, there is no palatal nasal, but only a palatalized nasal, , as in English canyon.) The term 'nasal stop' will often be abbreviated to just "nasal". However, there are also nasal fricatives, nasal flaps, and nasal vowels, as in French, Portuguese, Catalan (dialectal feature), Yoruba, Gbe, Polish, and Ljubljana Slovene. In the IPA, nasal vowels are indicated by placing a tilde (~) over the vowel in question: French sang . Languages without nasals Few languages, perhaps 2.3% Maddieson, Ian. 2008. Absence of Common Consonants. In: Haspelmath, Martin & Dryer, Matthew S. & Gil, David & Comrie, Bernard (eds.) The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library, chapter 18. Available online at http://wals.info/feature/18. Accessed on 2008-09-15. , contain no nasal consonants. This has led Ferguson (1963) to assume that all languages have at least one primary nasal consonant. When a language is claimed to lack nasal consonants altogether, as with several Niger-Congo languages, or the Pirahã language of the Amazon, nasal and non-nasal or prenasalized consonants usually alternate allophonically, and it is a theoretical claim on the part of the individual linguist that the nasal version is not the basic form of the consonant. In the case of some Niger-Congo languages, for example, nasal consonants only occur before nasal vowels. Since nasal vowels are phonemic, it simplifies the picture somewhat to assume that nasalization in stops is allophonic. There is then a second step in claiming that nasal vowels nasalize oral stops, rather than oral vowels denasalizing nasal stops, that is, whether are phonemically without full nasal stops, or without prenasalized stops. Postulating underlying oral or prenasalized rather than nasal consonants helps to explain the apparent instability of nasal correspondences throughout Niger-Congo compared with, for example, Indo-European. As noted by Williamson (1989:24). In older speakers of the Tlingit language, and are allophones. Tlingit is usually described as having an unusual, perhaps unique lack of despite having six lateral obstruents; the older generation could be argued to have but at the expense of having no nasals. However, several of the Chimakuan, Salish, and Wakashan languages surrounding Puget Sound, such as Quileute, Lushootseed, and Makah, are truly without any nasalization at all, in consonants or vowels, except in special speech registers such as baby-talk or the archaic speech of mythological figures (and perhaps not even that in the case of Quileute). This is an areal feature, only a few hundred years old, where nasal stops became voiced plosives ([m] became [b], etc). The only other places in the world where this occurs is in a dialect of the Rotokas language of Papua New Guinea, where nasal stops are only used when imitating foreign accents (a second dialect does have nasal stops), and in some of the Lakes Plain languages of West Papua. See also Oral consonant List of phonetics topics Nasalization Notes and references Notes References Ferguson (1963) 'Assumptions about nasals', in Greenberg (ed.) Universals of Language, pp 50-60. Saout, J. le (1973) 'Languages sans consonnes nasales', Annales de l Université d'Abidjan, H, 6, 1, 179-205. Williamson, Kay (1989) 'Niger-Congo overview', in Bendor-Samuel & Hartell (eds.) The Niger-Congo Languages, 3-45. | Nasal_consonant |@lemmatized nasal:46 consonant:13 also:4 call:1 stop:15 continuant:1 produce:1 lowered:1 velum:1 mouth:4 allow:1 air:6 escape:3 freely:1 nose:2 oral:6 cavity:1 still:1 act:1 resonance:1 chamber:1 sound:4 block:3 tongue:1 rarely:1 type:1 may:2 nasalize:2 definition:1 acoustically:2 sonorants:3 mean:2 restrict:1 cross:1 linguistically:1 nearly:1 always:1 voice:8 two:1 notable:1 exception:1 icelandic:1 welsh:1 unvoiced:1 compare:2 plosive:3 completely:2 fricative:3 obstruct:1 narrow:1 channel:1 commonly:2 voiceless:1 know:1 obstruent:3 however:3 articulation:1 flow:1 duality:1 sonorant:1 airflow:1 along:1 obstruction:1 behave:1 like:2 purpose:1 acoustic:1 description:2 generally:1 consider:1 many:1 language:19 develop:1 band:1 energy:1 around:1 hz:1 ipa:2 sampa:1 bilabial:1 labiodental:1 f:1 dental:2 alveolar:2 see:2 retroflex:1 common:3 indic:1 n:3 palatal:2 european:2 spanish:3 ñ:1 french:3 italian:2 gn:1 catalan:3 hungarian:1 luganda:1 ny:1 occitan:2 polish:2 ń:1 portuguese:2 nh:1 j:2 velar:1 write:1 ng:1 uvular:1 example:3 contain:2 english:2 german:1 cantonese:1 tamil:1 possess:1 distinct:1 letter:1 represent:1 ம:1 ந:1 ன:1 ண:1 ஞ:1 ங:1 phoneme:1 allophone:2 several:3 american:1 dialect:3 palatalized:1 canyon:1 term:1 often:1 abbreviate:1 flap:1 vowel:8 dialectal:1 feature:3 yoruba:1 gbe:1 ljubljana:1 slovene:1 indicate:1 place:2 tilde:1 question:1 sang:1 without:4 perhaps:3 maddieson:1 ian:1 absence:1 haspelmath:1 martin:1 dryer:1 matthew:1 gil:1 david:1 comrie:1 bernard:1 eds:2 world:2 atlas:1 structure:1 online:2 munich:1 max:1 planck:1 digital:1 library:1 chapter:1 available:1 http:1 wals:1 info:1 access:1 lead:1 ferguson:2 assume:2 least:1 one:1 primary:1 claim:3 lack:2 altogether:1 niger:5 congo:5 pirahã:1 amazon:1 non:1 prenasalized:3 usually:2 alternate:1 allophonically:1 theoretical:1 part:1 individual:1 linguist:1 version:1 basic:1 form:1 case:2 occur:2 since:1 phonemic:1 simplify:1 picture:1 somewhat:1 nasalization:3 allophonic:1 second:2 step:1 rather:2 denasalizing:1 whether:1 phonemically:1 full:1 postulate:1 underlying:1 help:1 explain:1 apparent:1 instability:1 correspondence:1 throughout:1 indo:1 note:3 williamson:2 old:3 speaker:1 tlingit:2 describe:1 unusual:1 unique:1 despite:1 six:1 lateral:1 generation:1 could:1 argue:1 expense:1 chimakuan:1 salish:1 wakashan:1 surround:1 puget:1 quileute:2 lushootseed:1 makah:1 truly:1 except:1 special:1 speech:2 register:1 baby:1 talk:1 archaic:1 mythological:1 figure:1 even:1 areal:1 hundred:1 year:1 become:2 voiced:1 b:1 etc:1 rotokas:1 papua:2 new:1 guinea:1 use:1 imitate:1 foreign:1 accent:1 lake:1 plain:1 west:1 list:1 phonetics:1 topic:1 reference:2 assumption:1 greenberg:1 ed:1 universal:1 pp:1 saout:1 le:1 sans:1 consonnes:1 nasales:1 annales:1 de:1 l:1 université:1 abidjan:1 h:1 kay:1 overview:1 bendor:1 samuel:1 hartell:1 |@bigram nasal_consonant:7 oral_cavity:1 alveolar_nasal:1 palatal_nasal:2 velar_nasal:1 catalan_occitan:1 nasal_fricative:1 fricative_nasal:1 maddieson_ian:1 max_planck:1 niger_congo:5 indo_european:1 puget_sound:1 voiced_plosive:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
1,256 | Buckminster_Fuller | Richard Buckminster “Bucky” Fuller (July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, author, designer, futurist, inventor, and visionary. Throughout his life, Fuller was concerned with the question "Does humanity have a chance to survive lastingly and successfully on planet Earth, and if so, how?" Considering himself an average individual without special monetary means or academic degree, he chose to devote his life to this question, trying to identify what he, as an individual, could do to improve humanity's condition, which large organizations, governments, and private enterprises inherently could not do. Pursuing this lifelong experiment, Fuller wrote more than thirty books, coining and popularizing terms such as "Spaceship Earth", ephemeralization, and synergetics. He also worked in the development of numerous inventions, chiefly in the fields of design and architecture, the best known of which is the geodesic dome. Carbon molecules known as fullerenes or buckyballs were named for their resemblance to geodesic spheres. Biography Fuller was born on July 12, 1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews, and also the grandnephew of the American Transcendentalist Margaret Fuller. He attended Froebelian Kindergarten. Spending his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine, he was a boy with a natural propensity for design and construction. He often made things from materials he brought home from the woods, and sometimes made his own tools. He experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. Years later, he decided that this sort of experience had provided him with not only an interest in design, but a habit of being fully familiar and knowledgeable about the materials that his later projects would require. Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade. Fuller was sent to Milton Academy, in Massachusetts, and after that, began studying at Harvard. He was expelled from Harvard twice: first for looking at porn troupe, and then, after having been readmitted, for his "irresponsibility and lack of interest". By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. Many years later, however, he would receive a Sc.D. from Bates College in Lewiston, Maine. Between his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a labourer in the meat-packing industry. He also served in the U.S. Navy in World War I, as a shipboard radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as a crash-boat commander. After discharge, he returned to the meat packing industry, where he acquired management experience. In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett. In the early 1920s, he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing – although the company would ultimately fail. In 1927, at age 32, bankrupt and jobless, living in public, low-income housing in Chicago, Illinois, Fuller lost his young daughter Alexandra to complications from polio and spinal meningitis. He felt responsible, and this drove him to drink and to the verge of suicide. At the last moment, he decided instead to embark on "an experiment, to find what a single individual [could] contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity". Design – A Three-Wheel Dream That Died at Takeoff – Buckminster Fuller and the Dymaxion Car – NYTimes.com By 1928, Fuller was living in Greenwich Village and spending a lot of time at Romany Marie's, See also: where he had spent a fascinating evening in conversation with Marie and Eugene O'Neill several years earlier. Lloyd Steven Sieden. Buckminster Fuller's Universe: His Life and Work (pp. 74, 119-142). New York: Perseus Books Group, 2000. ISBN 0-73820-379-3. p. 74: “Although O'Neill soon became well known as a major American playwright, it was Romany Marie who would significantly influence Bucky, becoming his close friend and confidante during the most difficult years of his life.” Fuller took on the interior decoration of the café in exchange for meals, giving informal lectures several times a week, and models of the Dymaxion house were exhibited at the café. Isamu Noguchi appeared on the scene in 1929 –Constantin Brâncuşi, an old friend of Marie's, Robert Schulman. Romany Marie: The Queen of Greenwich Village (pp. 85–86, 109–110). Louisville: Butler Books, 2006. ISBN 1-88453-274-8. had directed him there – and Noguchi and Fuller were soon collaborating on several projects, including the modelling of the Dymaxion car. Includes several images. It was the beginning of their lifelong friendship. Fuller taught at Black Mountain College in North Carolina during the summers of 1948 and 1949, serving as its Summer Institute director in 1949. There, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began reinventing a project that would make him famous: the geodesic dome. Although the geodesic dome had been created some 30 years earlier by Dr. Walther Bauersfeld, Fuller was awarded US patents. He is credited for popularizing this type of structure. One of his early models was first constructed in 1945 at Bennington College in Vermont, where he frequently lectured. In 1949, he erected his first geodesic dome building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. It was 4.3 meters (14 ft) in diameter and constructed of aluminum aircraft tubing and a vinyl-plastic skin, in the form of a tetrahedron. To prove his design, and to awe non-believers, Fuller hung from the structure’s framework with several students who had helped him build it. The U.S. government recognized the importance of his work, and employed him to make small domes for the army. Within a few years there were thousands of these domes around the world. For the next half-century, Fuller contributed a wide range of ideas, designs and inventions to the world, particularly in the areas of practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy and ideas scrupulously in a daily diary (later called the Dymaxion Chronofile), and in twenty-eight publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited funds, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion Car project. The Montreal Biosphère by Buckminster Fuller, 1967 International recognition came with the success of his huge geodesic domes in the 1950s. Fuller taught at Washington University in St. Louis in 1955, where he met James Fitzgibbon, who would become a close friend and colleague. From 1959 to 1970, Fuller taught at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Beginning as an assistant professor, he gained full professorship in 1968, in the School of Art and Design. Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, he lectured for many years around the world. He collaborated at SIU with the designer John McHale. In 1965, Fuller inaugurated the World Design Science Decade (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the International Union of Architects in Paris, which was, in his own words, devoted to "applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity". Fuller believed human societies would soon rely mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity. He hoped for an age of "omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity". For his lifetime of work, the American Humanist Association named him the 1969 Humanist of the Year. Fuller was awarded 28 US patents Partial list of Fuller US patents and many honorary doctorates. On January 16, 1970, he received the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects, and also received numerous other awards. Gravestone (see trim tab) Fuller died on July 1, 1983, aged 87, a guru of the design, architecture, and 'alternative' communities, such as Drop City, the community of experimental artists to whom he awarded the 1966 "Dymaxion Award" for "poetically economic" domed living structures. In the period leading up to his death, his wife had been lying comatose in a Los Angeles hospital , dying of cancer. It was while visiting her there that he exclaimed, at a certain point: "She is squeezing my hand!" He then stood up, suffered a heart attack and died an hour later. His wife died 36 hours after he did. He is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Philosophy and worldview The grandson of a Unitarian minister (Arthur Buckminster Fuller), Arthur Buckminster Fuller R. Buckminster Fuller was also Unitarian. Buckminster Fuller: Designer of a New World Buckminster Fuller was an early environmental activist. He was very aware of the finite resources the planet has to offer, and promoted a principle that he termed "ephemeralization", which, in essence – according to futurist and Fuller disciple Stewart Brand – Fuller coined to mean "doing more with less". Resources and waste material from cruder products could be recycled into making higher-value products, increasing the efficiency of the entire process. Fuller also introduced synergetics, a metaphoric language for communicating experiences using geometric concepts, long before the term synergy became popular. Buckminster Fuller was one of the first to propagate a systemic worldview, and he explored principles of energy and material efficiency in the fields of architecture, engineering and design. He cited François de Chardenedes' view that petroleum, from the standpoint of its replacement cost out of our current energy "budget" (essentially, the net incoming solar flux), had cost nature "over a million dollars" per U.S. gallon (US$300,000 per litre) to produce. From this point of view, its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their earnings. Fuller was concerned about sustainability and about human survival under the existing socio-economic system, yet remained optimistic about humanity's future. Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the "technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life," his analysis of the condition of "Spaceship Earth" led him to conclude that at a certain time in the 1970s, humanity had marked an unprecedented watershed. He was convinced that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of key recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had reached a critical level, such that competition for necessities was no longer necessary. Cooperation had become the optimum survival strategy. "Selfishness," he declared, "is unnecessary and hence-forth unrationalizable.... War is obsolete." Fuller also claimed that the natural analytic geometry of the universe was based on arrays of tetrahedra. He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space. One confirming result was that the strongest possible homogeneous truss is cyclically tetrahedral. His technologically oriented point of view can also be taken as a metaphor for what it is to be human generally. In his 1970 book I Seem To Be a Verb, he wrote: "I live on Earth at present, and I don’t know what I am. I know that I am not a category. I am not a thing — a noun. I seem to be a verb, an evolutionary process – an integral function of the universe." Major design projects A geodesic sphere and its dual. Fuller was most famous for his lattice shell structures - geodesic domes, which can be seen as part of military radar stations, civic buildings, environmental protest camps and exhibition attractions. However, the original design came from Dr. Walther Bauersfeld. Chapter 3 of Fuller's Book Critical Path states: "....I found a similar situation to be existent in World War II. As head mechanical engineer of the U.S.A. Board of Economic Warfare I had available to me copies of any so-called intercepts I wanted. Those were transcriptions of censor-listened-to intercontinental telephone conversations, along with letters and cables that were opened by the censor and often deciphered, and so forth. As a student of patents I asked for and received all the intercept information relating to strategic patents held by both our enemies and our own big corporations,..." An examination of the geodesic design by Bauersfeld for the Zeiss Planetarium,built some 20 years prior to Fuller's work, reveals that it is an exact duplicate of Fuller's Geodesic Dome Patent. Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple tensegrity structures (tetrahedron, octahedron, and the closest packing of spheres), making them lightweight and stable. The patent for geodesic domes was awarded in 1954, part of Fuller's exploration of nature's constructing principles to find design solutions. The Fuller Dome is referenced in the Hugo Award-winning novel Stand on Zanzibar by John Brunner, where a geodesic dome is said to cover the entire island of Manhattan, and it floats on air due to the hot-air balloon effect of the large air-mass under the dome (and perhaps its construction of lightweight materials). The R. Buckminster Fuller FAQ: Geodesic Domes Previously, Fuller had designed and built prototypes of what he hoped would be a safer, aerodynamic Dymaxion car. ("Dymaxion" is a syllabic abbreviation of dynamic maximum tension, or possibly of dynamic maximum ion as reported the National Automobile Museum.) Fuller worked with professional colleagues for three years beginning in 1932. Based on a design idea Fuller had derived from aircraft, the three prototype cars were different from anything on the market. They had three wheels (two front drive wheels and one rear steered wheel. The engine was in the rear, and the chassis and body were original designs. The aerodynamic, somewhat tear-shaped body was large enough to seat 11 people. In one of the prototypes it was about long. It resembled a melding of a light aircraft (without wings) and a Volkswagen van of 1950s vintage. All three prototypes were essentially a mini-bus, and its concept long predated the Volkswagen Type 2 mini-bus conceived in 1947 by Ben Pon. Despite its length, and due to its three-wheel design, the Dymaxion turned on a small radius and parked in a tight space quite nicely. The prototypes were efficient in fuel consumption for their day. Fuller poured a great deal of his own money into the project, in addition to funds from one of his professional collaborators. An industrial investor was also keenly interested in the concept. Fuller anticipated the cars could travel on an open highway safely at up to about 160 km/h (100 miles per hour). But due to some concept oversights, they were unruly above 80 km/h (50 mph), and difficult to steer. Research ended after one of the prototypes was involved in a collision resulting in a fatality. In 1943, industrialist Henry J. Kaiser asked Fuller to develop a prototype for a smaller car, and Fuller designed a five-seater which never went beyond development. Another of Fuller's ideas was the alternative-projection Dymaxion map. This was designed to show Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface. A Dymaxion House at The Henry Ford. Fuller's energy-efficient and low-cost Dymaxion House garnered much interest, but has never gone into production. Here the term "Dymaxion" is used in effect to signify a "radically strong and light tensegrity structure". One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at The Henry Ford in Dearborn, Michigan. Designed and developed in the mid-1940s, this prototype is a round structure (not a dome), shaped something like the flattened "bell" of certain jellyfish. It has several innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption. According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two cylindrical packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers. A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to use natural winds for cooling and air circulation. Conceived nearly two decades before, and developed in Wichita, Kansas, the house was designed to be lightweight and adapted to windy climes. It was to be inexpensive to produce and purchase, and easily assembled. It was to be produced using factories, workers and technologies that had produced World War II aircraft. It was ultramodern-looking at the time, built of metal, and sheathed in polished aluminum. The basic model enclosed 90 m² (1000 square feet) of floor area. Due to publicity, there were many orders in the early Post-War years, but the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to management problems. In 1969, Fuller began the Otisco Project, named after its location in Otisco, New York. The project developed and demonstrated concrete spray technology used in conjunction with mesh covered wireforms as a viable means of producing large scale, load bearing spanning structures built in situ without the use of pouring molds, other adjacent surfaces or hoisting. The initial construction method used a circular concrete footing in which anchor posts were set. Tubes cut to length and with ends flattened were then bolted together to form a duodeca-rhombicahedron (22 sided hemisphere) geodesic structure with spans ranging to . The form was then draped with layers of ¼-inch wire mesh attached by twist ties. Concrete was then sprayed onto the structure, building up a solid layer which, when dried, would support additional concrete to be added by a variety of tradition means. Fuller referred to these buildings as monolithic ferroconcrete geodesic domes. The tubular frame form proved too problematic when it came to setting windows and doors, and was abandoned. The second method used iron rebar set vertically in the concrete footing and then bent inward and welded in place to create the dome’s wireform structure and performed satisfactorily. Domes up to 3 stories tall built with this method proved to be remarkably strong. Other shapes such as cones, pyramids and arches proved equally adaptable. The project was enabled by a grant underwritten by Syracuse University and sponsored by US Steel (rebar), the Johnson Wire Corp, (mesh) and Portland Cement Company (concrete). The ability to build large complex load bearing concrete spanning structures in free space would open many possibilities in architecture, and is considered as one of Fuller’s greatest contributions. Quirks Fuller was a frequent flier, often crossing time zones. He famously wore three watches; one for the current zone, one for the zone he had departed, and one for the zone he was going to. Annals of Innovation: Dymaxion Man: Reporting & Essays: The New Yorker Fuller also noted that a single sheet of newsprint, inserted over a shirt and under a suit jacket, provided completely effective heat insulation during long flights. Practical achievements Fuller's development of the dome and his roles as a philosopher and as a gadfly within the design and architectural communities left an important legacy. He introduced a number of concepts, and if every one wasn't entirely new, he honed each one well. Certainly, a number of Fuller's projects did not meet success in terms of commitment from industry or acceptance by a broad public. However, more than 500,000 geodesic domes have been built around the world and many are in use. According to the Buckminster Fuller Institute Web site, the largest geodesic-dome structures are: Fantasy Entertainment Complex: Kyosho Isle, Japan, 216 m (710 ft). Multi-Purpose Arena: Nagoya, Japan, 187 m (614 ft). Tacoma Dome: Tacoma, WA, USA, 162 m (530 ft). Superior Dome: Northern Michigan Univ. Marquette, MI, USA, 160 m (525 ft). Walkup Skydome: Northern Arizona Univ. Flagstaff, AZ, USA, 153 m (502 ft). Poliedro de Caracas: Caracas, Venezuela, 145 m (475 ft). http://www.poliedrodecaracas.gob.ve/index.php Poliedro de Caracas - Sightseeing with Google Satellite Maps http://cityguides.salsaweb.com/belgium/reports/2001/20010120venezuelatravel/venezimages/caracas04.jpg Round Valley High School Stadium: Springerville-Eagar, AZ, USA, 134 m (440 ft). Former Spruce Goose Hangar: Long Beach, CA, USA, 126 m (415 ft). Formosa Plastics Storage Facility: Mai Liao, Taiwan, 123 m (402 ft). Union Tank Car Maintenance Facility: Baton Rouge, LA USA, 117 m (384 ft), destroyed in November 2007. 2theadvocate.com News | Kansas City Southern razes geodesic dome — Baton Rouge, LA Lehigh Portland Cement Storage Facility: Union Bridge, MD USA, 114 m (374 ft). The Eden Project, Cornwall, United Kingdom http://www.edenproject.com/index.html - The Eden Project Panoramic view of the geodesic domes at the Eden Project Other notable domes include: Spaceship Earth at Disney World's Epcot Center in Florida, 80.8-meters (265 ft) wide The dome over a shopping center in downtown Ankara, Turkey, 109.7-meter (360 ft) tall The dome enclosing a civic center in Stockholm, Sweden, 85.3-meter (280 ft) high. The world’s largest aluminum dome formerly housed the “Spruce Goose” airplane in Long Beach Harbor, California. However, contrary to Fuller's hopes, domes are not an everyday sight in most places. In practice, most of the smaller owner-built geodesic structures had drawbacks (see geodesic domes). Used as family houses, domes put off many people by their unconventional appearance. An interesting spin-off of Fuller's dome-design conceptualization was the Buckminster Ball, which was the official FIFA approved design for footballs (association football), from their introduction at the 1970 World Cup until recently. The design was a truncated icosahedron -- essentially a "Geodesic Sphere", consisting of 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal panels. This was used continuously for 34 years until it was replaced by a 14-panel version in the 2006 World Cup. While an envisioned widespread and common adoption of geodesic domes is yet to materialize, Fuller's ideas, teachings, and attitude to life and creativity, in combination, have prodded designers and engineers. What Fuller accomplished, in that sense, was to make professionals and students think "outside the box"; to question convention. Fuller was followed (historically) by other designers and architects, such as Sir Norman Foster and Steve Baer, willing to explore the possibilities of new geometries in the design of buildings, not based on conventional rectangles. The English writer, playwright, and philosopher John Dryden wrote something quite relevant to the pioneering forays of Fuller still to be brought to full result: "We must beat the iron while it is hot, but we may polish it at leisure." Facts and figures Fuller was friends with Boston artist Pietro Pezzati. He experimented with polyphasic sleep, which he called Dymaxion sleep, and claimed that for two years he was able to sleep only two hours a day. Dymaxion Sleep - TIME An allotrope of carbon - fullerene, and a particular molecule of that allotrope C60 (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome. The 1996 Nobel prize in chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene. Chemistry 1996 On July 12, 2004, the United States Post Office released a new commemorative stamp honoring R. Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and on the occasion of his 109th birthday. Fuller documented his life every 15 minutes from 1915 to 1983, leaving 80 meters (270 ft) of journals. He called this the Dymaxion Chronofile. That is said to be the most documented human life in history. He dedicated the US Pavilion dome at Expo 67 to his wife Anne when they celebrated their 50th wedding anniversary there. Around 1979-1980, Bucky shared a lecture tour across America with philosopher Werner Erhard. "If somebody kept a very accurate record of a human being, going through the era from the Gay 90s, from a very different kind of world through the turn of the century — as far into the twentieth century as you might live. I decided to make myself a good case history of such a human being and it meant that I could not be judge of what was valid to put in or not. I must put everything in, so I started a very rigorous record." Buckminster Fuller conversations resume January 22 : 01/03 http://www-sul.stanford.edu//depts/spc/fuller/about.html In 2005, American country rock legend Jason Ringenberg recorded 'Buckminster Fuller We Need You Now' in Fuller's Carbondale, Illinois dome. In June 2008, the Whitney Museum of American Art presented Buckminster Fuller: Starting with the Universe, the most comprehensive retrospective to date of his work and ideas British singer-songwriter Nerina Pallot released The Buckminster Fuller EP, featuring a song of the same name, in 2009. Nerina Pallot Blog Use of language and neologisms Buckminster Fuller spoke and wrote in a unique style and thought it crucial to describe the world as accurately as possible. "What is important in this connection is the way in which humans reflex spontaneously for that is the way in which they usually behave in critical moments, and it is often "common sense" to reflex in perversely ignorant ways that produce social disasters by denying knowledge and ignorantly yielding to common sense." Intuition, 1972 Doubleday, New York. p.103 Fuller often created long run-on sentences and used unusual compound words (omniwell-informed, intertransformative, omni-interaccommodative, omniself-regenerative) as well as terms he himself coined. He wrote a single unpuncuated sentence approximately 3000 words long titled "What I Am Trying to Do." And It Came to Pass - Not to Stay Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1976. Fuller used the word 'Universe' without the definite or indefinite articles (a or the) and always capitalized the word. Fuller wrote that "by Universe I mean: the aggregate of all humanity's consciously apprehended and communicated (to self or others) Experiences." "How Little I Know" from And It Came to Pass - Not to Stay Macmillan, 1976 The words "down" and "up", according to Fuller, are awkward in that they refer to a planar concept of direction inconsistent with human experience. The words "in" and "out" should be used instead, he argued, because they better describe an object's relation to a gravitational center, the Earth. "I suggest to audiences that they say, "I'm going 'outstairs' and 'instairs.'" At first that sounds strange to them; They all laugh about it. But if they try saying in and out for a few days in fun, they find themselves beginning to realize that they are indeed going inward and outward in respect to the center of Earth, which is our Spaceship Earth. And for the first time they begin to feel real "reality." Intuition (1972). "World-around" is a term coined by Fuller to replace "worldwide". The general belief in a flat Earth died out in the Middle Ages, so using "wide" is an anachronism when referring to the surface of the Earth — a spheroidal surface has area and encloses a volume, but has no width. Fuller held that unthinking use of obsolete scientific ideas detracts from and misleads intuition. Other neologisms collectively coined by the Fuller family, according to Allegra Fuller Snyder, are the terms sunsight and sunclipse, replacing sunrise and sunset to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-Copernican celestial mechanics. Fuller also coined the phrase Spaceship Earth. Fuller also invented the word "livingry," as opposed to weaponry (or "killingry"), to mean that which is in support of all human, plant, and Earth life. "The architectural profession--civil, naval, aeronautical, and astronautical — has always been the place where the most competent thinking is conducted regarding livingry, as opposed to weaponry." — <ref>Critical Path, page xxv</ref> Fuller coined the term (but did not invent) "tensegrity", a portmanteau of tensional integrity. "Tensegrity describes a structural-relationship principle in which structural shape is guaranteed by the finitely closed, comprehensively continuous, tensional behaviors of the system and not by the discontinuous and exclusively local compressional member behaviors. Tensegrity provides the ability to yield increasingly without ultimately breaking or coming asunder" — Synergetics, page 372 "Dymaxion", is a portmanteau of "Dynamic maximum tension". It is a trademark of the Buckminster Fuller Institute. Concepts and buildings R. Buckminster Fuller's 28 patentsHis concepts and buildings include: Dymaxion house (1928) See autonomous building Aerodynamic Dymaxion car (1933) Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937) Dymaxion Deployment Unit (1940) Dymaxion Map of the world (1946) Buildings (1943) Tensegrity structures (1949) Geodesic dome for Ford Motor Company (1953) Patent on geodesic domes (1954) The World Game (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972) Patent on octet truss (1961) Montreal Biosphère (1967) The United States pavilion of the World Exposition Comprehensive Anticipatory Design Science Bibliography 4d Timelock (1928) Nine Chains to the Moon (1938) Untitled Epic Poem on the History of Industrialization (1962) Ideas and Integrities, a Spontaneous Autobiographical Disclosure (1963) ISBN 0134491408 No More Secondhand God and Other Writings (1963) Education Automation: Freeing the Scholar to Return (1963) What I Have Learned: A Collection of 20 Autobiograhical Essays, Chapter "How Little I Know", (1968) Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (1969) ISBN 080932461X Utopia or Oblivion (1969) ISBN 0553028839 Approaching the Benign Environment (1970) ISBN 0817366415 I Seem to Be a Verb (1970) coauthors Jerome Agel, Quentin Fiore, ISBN 1127231537 Intuition (1970) The Buckminster Fuller Reader (1970) editor James Meller, ISBN 0224617850 Buckminster Fuller to Children of Earth (1972) compiled and photographed by Cam Smith, ISBN 0385029799 The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller (1960, 1973) coauthor Robert Marks, ISBN 0385018045 Earth, Inc (1973) ISBN 0385018258 Synergetics: Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking (1975) in collaboration with E.J. Applewhite with a preface and contribution by Arthur L. Loeb, ISBN 002541870X Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears, A Cosmic Fairy Tale (1975) And It Came to Pass—Not to Stay (1976) ISBN 0025418106 R. Buckminster Fuller on Education (1979) ISBN 0870232762 Synergetics 2: Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking (1979) in collaboration with E.J. Applewhite Buckminster Fuller Sketchbook (1981) Critical Path (1981) ISBN 0312174888 Grunch of Giants (1983) ISBN 0312351933 Humans in Universe (1983) coauthor Anwar Dil, ISBN 0899250017 Inventions: The Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller (1983) ISBN 0312434774 Cosmography: A Posthumous Scenario for the Future of Humanity (1992) coauthor Kiyoshi Kuromiya, ISBN 0025418505 See also Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out LoudCloud nine (Tensegrity sphere) Design science revolution Fullerene Margaret Fuller: Noted transcendentalist and Buckminster Fuller's great aunt. Noosphere Thin-shell structure Whole Earth CatalogFormer students Constance Abernathy Ruth Asawa J. Baldwin Aiden Carty Joseph Clinton Jacque Fresco Mark Victor Hansen David Johnston Kristine Maffin Lang Edwin Schlossberg Kenneth Snelson Robert Anton Wilson Medard Gabel Robert Kiyosaki References Further reading Synergetic Stew: Explorations In Dymaxion Dining. The Buckminster Fuller Institute, Philadelphia. paperback. 1982 (ISBN 0-911573-00-3) Alden Hatch Buckminster Fuller At Home In The Universe. 1974 (ISBN 0-440-04408-1) Crown Publishers, New York. Brenneman, Richard. Fuller's Earth, A Day With Bucky And The Kids St. Martin's Press, New York, c. 1984. hardcover (ISBN 0-312-30981-3) Buckminster Fuller also appears as a character in Paul Wühr's book "Das falsche Buch". Donald Robertson Mind's Eye Of Buckminster Fuller. 1974 (ISBN 0-533-01017-9) Vantage Press, Inc., New York. E. J. Applewhite Cosmic Fishing: An account of writing Synergetics with Buckminster Fuller. 1977 (ISBN 0-02-502710-7) E. J. Applewhite, ed. Synergetics Dictionary, The Mind Of Buckminster Fuller; in four volumes. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York and London. 1986 (ISBN 0-8240-8729-1) Eastham, Scott: American Dreamer. Bucky Fuller and the Sacred Geometry of Nature; The Lutterworth Press 2007, Cambridge; ISBN 9780718830311 Edmondson, Amy: "A Fuller Explanation"; EmergentWorld LLC. 2007 (ISBN 978-0-6151-8314-5) His former student J. Baldwin wrote BuckyWorks: Buckminster Fuller's Ideas for Today 1997 (ISBN 0-471-19812-9). Hugh Kenner Bucky: A guided tour of Buckminster Fuller. 1973 (ISBN 0-688-00141-6) Krausse, Joachim and Lichtenstein, Claude. ed. Your Private Sky, R. Buckminster Fuller: The Art Of Design Science. Lars Mueller Publishers. 1999 (ISBN 3-907044-88-6) Lloyd Sieden Buckminster Fuller's Universe, His Life and Work. 1989 (ISBN 0-7382-0379-3), explores Fuller's personal life, his beliefs and drives. Lord, V. Athena. Pilot For Spaceship Earth. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. hardback. 1978 (ISBN 0-02-761420-4) Martin Pawley Buckminster Fuller. 1991 (ISBN 0-8008-1116-X), offers an architectural critic's assessment of Fuller's ideas and projects. McHale, John. R. Buckminster Fuller. George Brazillier, Inc., New York. hardback. 1962. Pawley, Martin. Buckminster Fuller. Taplinger Publishing Company, New York. 1991. hardcover (ISBN 0-8008-1116-X) Potter, R. Robert. Buckminster Fuller (Pioneers in Change Series). Silver Burdett Publishers. 1990 (ISBN 0-382-09972-9) Sidney Rosen Wizard of the Dome: R. Buckminster Fuller, Designer for the Future. 1969 (ISBN 0-316-75707-1) Snyder, Robert. Buckminster Fuller: An Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario. St. Martin's Press, New York. hardback. 1980 (ISBN 0-312-24547-5) Ward, James. Ed. The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One. The Dymaxion Experiment, 1926-1943; Volume Two. Dymaxion Deployment, 1927-1946; Volume Three. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 1, 1947-1959; Volume Four. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960-1983: Edited with descriptions by James Ward. Garland Publishing, New York. 1984 (ISBN 0-8240-5082-7 vol. 1, ISBN 0-8240-5083-5 vol. 2, ISBN 0-8240-5084-3 vol. 3, ISBN 0-8240-5085-1 vol. 4) Wong, Yunn Chii, The Geodesic Works of Richard Buckminster Fuller, 1948-1968 (The Universe as a Home of Man), Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Architecture, 1999. A thorough and thoughtful review of Bucky's work on geodesic domes with detailed and well-cited looks at the major controversies (Fuller-Bauersfeld and Fuller-Snelson are two). Zung, T.K. Thomas. Buckminster Fuller: Anthology for a New Millennium. St. Martin’s Press. 2001 (ISBN 0-312-26639-1) Preface dedicates book to Bucky and relates the potential of networked virtual globes to Bucky's Geoscope. External links 'Outstairs & Instairs' Buckminister Quote on Stray Poetry "Everything I Know" Session, Philly, PA 1975 at Archives at Stanford University Libraries Buckminster Fuller and interstellar communication explored: 'An Unlikely Oracle: R. Buckminster Fuller' Buckminster Fuller discussed on The State of Things Transcript of "Everything I Know" -(Archived copy at the Internet Archive) CBC Archives - clip about United States Pavilion at Expo 67 Buckminster Fuller Digital Collection at Stanford includes 380 hrs. of streamed audio-visual material from Fuller's personal archive Buckminster Fuller Papers 1200 feet housed at Stanford University Libraries Buckminster Fuller: Grandfather Of The Future A Fuller Explanation Introduction into the Design Revolution The "Everything I Know" 42-hour lecture session — video, audio, and full transcripts. Information about Fuller's commemorative postage stamp The Buckminster Fuller Institute Directory of Audio and Video real streams from the Buckminster Fuller Institute Buckminster Fuller Virtual Institute Chris Fearnley's List of Buckminster Fuller Resources on the Internet FAQ — R. Buckminster Fuller Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth Synergetics on the Web The Dymaxion house at the Henry Ford museum The Buckminster Alternative Fuller's life as a lesson in living Fuller, R. Buckminster — includes list of books written by and about Fuller Buckminster Fuller at Pionniers & Précurseurs. Containing a good bibliography Excellent Portrait of RBF in the design magazine ROGER Notes to R. Buckminster Fuller's Work Buckminster Fuller's SYNERGETICS R. Buckminster Fuller on PBS Thinking Out Loud, a PBS TV program about Buckminster Fuller Bucky Revisited - Reflections on Buckminster Fuller WIRED article about Buckminster Fuller Wired News Article on the Buckminster stamp Build Genius: Zome System We are all astronauts. a random design project A website about Buckminster Fullers theories - made by the multimedia studio urbn; interaction. Dymaxion Man: The Visions of Buckminster Fuller By Elizabeth Kolbert, The New Yorker'' (June 9, 2008) The Love Song of R. 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1,257 | Hillbilly | Hillbilly is a term referring to people who dwell in rural, mountainous areas of the United States, primarily Appalachia and the Ozarks. Due to its strongly stereotypical connotations, the term is frequently considered derogatory, and so is usually offensive to those Americans of Ozarkan and Appalachian heritage. However, the term is also used in celebration of their culture by mountain people themselves. Such co-opting and neutralizing use is almost exclusively reserved for Appalachian people themselves. History Hillbilly Hot Dogs, a roadside hot dog stand located near Huntington, West Virginia. The origins of the term "hillbilly" are obscure. According to Anthony Harkins in Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon, the term first appeared in print in a 1900 New York Journal article, with the definition: "a Hill-Billie is a free and untrammeled white citizen of Alabama, who lives in the hills, has no means to speak of, dresses as he can, talks as he pleases, drinks whiskey when he gets it, and fires off his revolver as the fancy takes him." The Appalachian region was largely settled in the 1700s by the Scotch-Irish, the majority of whom originated in the lowlands of Scotland. Harkins believes the most credible theory of the term's origin is that it derives from the linkage of two older Scottish expressions, "hill-folk" and "billie" which was a synonym for "fellow", similar to "guy" or "bloke". Although the term is not documented until 1900, there have been many conjectural etymologies for the term, including: The term originated in 17th century Ireland for Protestant supporters of King William of Orange. Hillbillies in the White House Roman Catholic King James II landed at Kinsale in Ireland in 1689 and began to raise a Catholic army in an attempt to regain the British throne. Protestant King William III, Prince of Orange, led an English counterforce into Ireland and defeated James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. A significant portion of William III's army was composed of Protestants of Scottish descent (Planters) who had been settled on land confiscated from Catholics in Ulster, the northernmost of the four provinces of Ireland. The southern Irish Catholic supporters of James II referred to these northern Protestant supporters of King William as Billy Boys — Billy being an abbreviation of William. The term in the United States was conferred during the early 18th century by the occupying British soldiers as a carry over from the Irish term, in referring to Scots-Irish immigrants of mainly Presbyterian origin, dwelling in the frontier areas of the Appalachian Mountains. These Protestant Irish colonists brought their cultural traditions with them when they immigrated. Many of their stories, songs, and ballads dealt with the history of their Ulster and Lowland Scot homelands, especially relating the tale of the Protestant King William III, Prince of Orange. Many of the settlers in the Appalachian mountains were of German origin and were named Wilhelm with the short form Willy, a common German name during that time. Those Wilhelms, who went by Bill or Billy, living in the Appalachian Mountains became known as hillbillies, that is Bills who lived in the hills. The term emerged as a derogatory nickname given by the coastal plain-dwelling Southerners to the hill-dwelling settlers of Eastern Tennessee, Western Virginia (including modern West Virginia), and Eastern Kentucky, many of whom were ambivalent to the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Harkins theorizes that use of the term outside the Appalachians arose in the years after the American Civil War, when the Appalachian region became increasingly bypassed by technological and social changes taking place in the rest of the country. Until the Civil War, the Appalachians were not significantly different from other rural areas of the country. After the war, as the frontier pushed further west, the Appalachian country retained its frontier character, and the people themselves came to be seen as backward, quick to violence, and inbred in their isolation. Fueled by news stories of mountain feuds, such as that in the 1880s between the Hatfields and McCoys, the hillbilly stereotype developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The "classic" hillbilly stereotype - the poor, ignorant, feuding family with a huge brood of children tending the family moonshine still - reached its current characterization during the years of the Great Depression, when many mountaineers left their homes to find work in other areas of the country. It was during these years that comic strips such as Lil' Abner and films such as The Grapes of Wrath made the "hillbilly" a common American stereotype. The period of Appalachian out-migration, roughly from the 1930s through the 1950s, saw many mountain residents moving north to the midwestern industrial cities of Chicago, Cleveland, and particularly Detroit, where jobs in the automotive industry were plentiful. This movement north became known as the "Hillbilly Highway". The advent of the interstate highway system and television brought many previously isolated communities into mainstream United States culture in the 1950s and 1960s. The Internet continues this integration, but many communities with relatively traditional lifestyles remain throughout the Appalachian region. Slang Use The term hillbilly is commonly used in non-Appalachian areas as a reference in describing socially backward people that fit certain "hillbilly" characteristics. In this context, it is often (though not always) derogatory. Although the described person may not reside in a region that has hills of any kind, it is substituted in place of more disparaging terms like white trash. In urban usage, it is sometimes used interchangeably for terms like redneck or hick. Music Hillbilly music was at one time considered an acceptable label for what is now known as country music. However, some artists and fans, notably Hank Williams Sr., found the term offensive even in its heyday. The label, coined in 1925 by country pianist Al Hopkins, David Sanjek, "All the Memories Money Can Buy: Marketing Authenticity and Manufacturing Authorship", p. 155–172 in Eric Weisbard, ed., This is Pop, Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-674-01321-2 (cloth), ISBN 0-674-01344-1 (paper). p. 156–157. persisted until the 1950s. Now, the older name is widely deemed offensive (and inappropriate). However, the term hillbilly music is now sometimes used to describe old-time music. An early tune that contained the word hillbilly was "Hillbilly Boogie" by the Delmore Brothers in 1946. Earlier, in the 1920s, there were records by a band called the Beverly Hillbillies. In 1927, the Gennett studios in Richmond, Indiana, made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker with other instrumentalists; their recordings were labeled "made for Hillbilly" in the Gennett files, and were marketed to a white audience. Also during the 1920s, an old-time music band known as the Hill Billies featuring Al Hopkins and Fiddlin' Charlie Bowman, achieved acclaim as recording artists for Columbia Records. By the late forties, radio stations broadcast music described as "hillbilly," originally to describe fiddlers and string bands, but was then used to describe the traditional music of the people of the Appalachian Mountains. The people who actually sang these songs and lived in the Appalachian Mountains never used these terms to describe their own music. Popular songs whose style bore characteristics of both hillbilly and African American music were referred to, in the late 1940s and early 1950s as hillbilly boogie, and in the mid-1950s as rockabilly. Elvis Presley was a prominent player of the latter genre. When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term hillbilly music gradually fell out of use. However, the term rockabilly is still in common use. Later, the music industry merged hillbilly music, Western Swing, and Cowboy music, to form the current category C&W, Country and Western. The famous bluegrass fiddler Vassar Clements described his style of music as "hillbilly jazz." As in Hillbilly, slap bass was used in Western Swing and Bluegrass and is a critical element in a new form of music called Gypsybilly created by Fabrice Vignati and Tracy Vignati. Billy Hill and the Hillbillies are a musical/variety group at Disneyland Park (Anaheim) in Anaheim, California. In fiction & popular culture In the Appalachian and Ozark regions, the hillbilly stereotype formed the basis for financially lucrative commercial interpretations of traditional culture through theme parks and theaters, such as Dogpatch USA in Arkansas, and Dollywood in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee. The stereotypical hillbilly has inspired many fictional accounts in a variety of media, from novels and comic strips to movies and television. These accounts introduced the hillbilly to the general American public. The hillbilly lifestyle of Kentucky was gently parodied in the comic strip Li'l Abner, which inspired a Broadway musical and movie by the same name. Another comic strip, Snuffy Smith, offers a less gentle hillbilly family parody set in North Carolina, featuring a lazy father, a hard-working church-attending mother, and a simple nephew "Jughaid" who wears a pan for a hat. Lum and Abner was a popular radio show about two stereotypical hillbillies of Arkansas that ran from 1931 to 1954. Ma and Pa Kettle were very popular characters in comedic movies of the 1940s and 1950s. The earliest television series dealing with hillbillies was The Real McCoys, starring Walter Brennan, Richard Crenna, and Kathleen Nolan, about a West Virginia family that moves to California. The show ran from 1957-1963. The 1960s American sitcom The Andy Griffith Show has two contrasting stereotypes of recurring hillbilly characters: The ignorant but kindly, impoverished but generous Darling family, portrayed by bluegrass band The Dillards, Maggie Peterson, and Denver Pyle; and the belligerent, paranoid, frankly violent buffoon, Ernest T. Bass, portrayed by Howard Morris. In the 1960s American sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies, the Clampett family were supposed to have come from the hills near a fictional hamlet in the Ozarks known as Bugtussle. Anthony Harkins, Hillbilly: A Cultural History of an American Icon, Oxford University Press US, 2005, ppg 187-191. While Granny was from "across the river" in Tennessee, Jed and his family were from the Ozarks as noted to the references of Tulsa and Joplin being close by. In 1970, the author James Dickey published the novel Deliverance, a story about four men going for a canoe-trip on a river in the mountains of Georgia. They encounter several sociopathic hillbillies and are subsequently attacked, captured, tortured, and raped by them. (Dickey based his novel on a real canoe trip in which he was actually helped by friendly mountaineers.) A popular television comedy-variety show Hee Haw starred several well-known country singers and regularly lampooned the stereotypical hillbilly lifestyle. Local pride The Springfield, Missouri Chamber of Commerce once presented dignitaries visiting the city with an "Ozark Hillbilly Medallion" and a certificate proclaiming the honoree a "hillbilly of the Ozarks." On June 7, 1953, President Harry Truman received the medallian after a breakfast speech at the Shrine Mosque for the 35th Division Association. Other recipients included US Army generals Omar Bradley and Matthew Ridgeway, J. C. Penney, Johnny Olsen and Ralph Story. Dessauer, Phil "Springfield, Mo.-Radio City of Country Music" (April, 1957), Coronet, p. 151 Hillbilly Days is an annual festival held in mid-April in Pikeville, Kentucky celebrating the best of Appalachian culture. The event began by local Shriners as a fundraiser to support the Shriners Children's Hospital. It has grown since its beginning in 1976 and now is the second largest festival held in the state of Kentucky. Artists and craftspeople showcase their talents and sell their works on display. Nationally renowned musicians as well as the best of the regional mountain musicians share six different stages located throughout the downtown area of Pikeville. Want-to-be hillbillies from across the nation complete to come up with the wildest Hillbilly outfit. The event has earned its name as the Mardi Gras of the Mountains. See also List of ethnic slurs Cracker Pikey Trailer trash Yokel Hillbilly armor Notes References Dessauer, Phil "Springfield, Mo.-Radio City of Country Music" (April, 1957), Coronet Hillbilly, A Cultural History of an American Icon, by Anthony Harkins Hillbillyland: What the Movies Did to the Mountains & What the Mountains Did to the Movies, by J.W. 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1,258 | Indo-European_languages | The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. It is composed of 449 languages and dialects, according to the 2005 Ethnologue estimate, about half (219) belonging to the Indo-Aryan sub-branch. "Indo" refers to the Indian subcontinent, as the language group geographically extends from Europe in the west to India in the east. The languages of the Indo-European group are spoken by approximately three billion native speakers, the largest number of the recognised families of languages. (The Sino-Tibetan family has the second-largest number of speakers.) History of the Indo-European theory Suggestions of similarities between Indian and European languages began to be made by European visitors to India in the 16th century. In 1583 Thomas Stephens, an English Jesuit missionary in Goa, noted similarities between Indian languages, specifically Konkani, and Greek and Latin. These observations were included in a letter to his brother which was not published until the twentieth century. The first account to mention Sanskrit came from Filippo Sassetti (born in Florence, Italy in 1540 AD), a Florentine merchant who traveled to the Indian subcontinent and was among the first European observers to study the ancient Indian language, Sanskrit. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian (e.g. devaḥ/dio "God", sarpaḥ/serpe "serpent", sapta/sette "seven", aṣṭa/otto "eight", nava/nove "nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. In 1647 Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among Indo-European languages, and supposed the existence of a primitive common language which he called "Scythian". He included in his hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, later adding Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. However, the suggestions of Van Boxhorn did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. The hypothesis re-appeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and Persian. It was Thomas Young who first used the term Indo-European in 1813,<ref>In London Quarterly Review X/2 1813.; cf. Szemerényi 1999:12, footnote 6</ref> which became the standard scientific term (except in Germany In German it's indogermanisch 'Indo-Germanic' which indicates the east-west extension. That term was first recorded in use in French original as indo-germanique, in 1810 by Conrad Malte-Brun, a French geographer of Danish descent. ) through the work of Franz Bopp, whose systematic comparison of these and other old languages supported the theory. Bopp's Comparative Grammar, appearing between 1833 and 1852, counts as the starting-point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. Classification Indo-European language family. The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches (in historical order of their first attestation): Anatolian languages, earliest attested branch. Isolated terms in Old Assyrian sources from the 19th century BC, Hittite texts from about the 16th century BC; extinct by Late Antiquity. Greek language, fragmentary records in Mycenaean from the late 15th - early 14th century BC; Homeric traditions date to the 8th century BC. (See Proto-Greek language, History of the Greek language.) Indo-Iranian languages, descending from a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan languages, including Sanskrit, attested (via oral tradition) from about the mid 2nd millennium BC (Rigveda). Epigraphically from the 3rd century BC. Iranian languages, attested from roughly 1000 BC in the form of Avestan. Epigraphically from 520 BC in the form of Old Persian (Behistun inscription) Dardic languages Nuristani languages Italic languages, including Latin and its descendants (the Romance languages), attested from the 7th century BC. Celtic languages, descended from Proto-Celtic. Gaulish inscriptions date as early as the 6th century BC; Old Irish manuscript tradition from about the 8th century AD. Germanic languages (from Proto-Germanic), earliest testimonies in runic inscriptions from around the 2nd century, earliest coherent texts in Gothic, 4th century AD. Old English manuscript tradition from about the 8th century. Armenian language, Alphabet writings known from the beginning of the 5th century AD. Tocharian languages, extant in two dialects, attested from roughly the 6th to the 9th century AD. Marginalized by the Old Turkic Uyghur Khaganate and likely extinct by the 10th century. Balto-Slavic languages, believed by most Indo-Europeanists such as Schleicher 1861, Szemerényi 1957, Collinge 1985, and Beekes 1995 to form a phylogenetic unit, while a minority ascribes similarities to prolongued language contact. Slavic languages (from Proto-Slavic), attested from the 9th century, earliest texts in Old Church Slavonic. Baltic languages, attested from the 14th century, and, for languages attested that late, they retain unusually many archaic features attributed to Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Albanian language, attested from the 15th century; Proto-Albanian likely emerged from "Paleo-Balkanic" predecessors. Of the Albanian Language - William Martin Leake, London, 1814. ANCIENT ALBANIA INHABITED BY ILLYRIANS-Chapter 36 : Turmoil In The Balkans - Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and Greece Part Three - Albania In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages have existed: Illyrian languages — possibly related to Messapian or Venetic; relation to Albanian also proposed. Venetic language — close to Italic. Liburnian language — apparently grouped with Venetic. Messapian language — not conclusively deciphered. Phrygian language — language of ancient Phrygia, possibly close to Greek, Thracian, or Armenian. Paionian language — extinct language once spoken north of Macedon. Thracian language — possibly including Dacian. Dacian language — possibly close to Thracian or to Proto-Albanian – or both. Ancient Macedonian language — related to Greek; some propose relationships to Illyrian, Thracian or Phrygian. Ligurian language — possibly not Indo-European; possibly close to or part of Celtic. Lusitanian language — possibly related to (or part of) Celtic, or Ligurian, or Italic. Grouping Of the top 20 contemporary languages in terms of native speakers according to SIL Ethnologue, 12 are Indo-European: Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Marathi, French, Italian, Punjabi and Urdu, accounting for over 1.6 billion native speakers. 308 languages according to SIL; more than one billion speakers (see List of languages by number of native speakers). Historically, also in terms of geographical spread (stretching from the Caucasus to South Asia; c.f. Scythia) Membership of these languages in the Indo-European language family and branches, groups and subgroups thereof, is determined by a genetic relationship, defined by shared innovations which are presumed to have taken place in a common ancestor. For example, what makes Germanic languages "Germanic" is that large parts of the structures of all the languages so designated can be stated just once for all of them. In other words, they can be treated as an innovation that took place in Proto-Germanic, the source of all the Germanic languages. Exempted from this concept are shared innovations acquired by borrowing (or other means of convergence), that can not be considered genetic. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be "areal features". More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language, such as the uniform development of a high vowel (*u in the case of Germanic, *i/u in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants *ṛ,* ḷ, *ṃ, *ṇ, unique to these two groups among IE languages. The Balkan sprachbund even features areal convergence that comprise very different branches. To the evolutionary history of a language family, a genetic "tree model" is considered appropriate only if communities do not remain in effective contact as their languages diverge. Otherwise, a "wave model" applies, featuring borrowings and no clear underlying genetic tree. Using an extension to the Ringe-Warnow model of language evolution early IE was confirmed to have featured limited contact between distinct lineages, while only the Germanic subfamily exhibited a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution rather than from its direct ancestors. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic is cited to have been radically non-treelike. Perfect Phylogenetic Networks: A New Methodology for Reconstructing the Evolutionary History of Natural Languages - Luay Nakhleh,Don Ringe & Tandy Warnow, 2005, Language- Journal of the Linguistic Society of America, Volume 81, Number 2, June 2005 The Indo-Iranian languages form the largest sub-branch of Indo-European in terms of the number of native speakers as well as in terms of the number of individual languages. Proposed subgroupings Specialists have postulated the existence of such subfamilies (subgroups) as Italo-Celtic, Graeco-Armenian, Graeco-Aryan, and Germanic with Balto-Slavic. The vogue for such subgroups waxes and wanes; Italo-Celtic for example used to be a standard subgroup of Indo-European, but it is now little honored, in part because much of the evidence on which it was based has turned out to have been misinterpreted. Subgroupings of the Indo European languages are commonly held to reflect genetic relationships and linguistic change. The generic differentiation of Proto-Indo-European into dialects and languages happened hand in hand with language contact and the spread of innovations over different territories. Rather than being entirely genetic, the grouping of satem languages is commonly inferred as an innovative change that occurred just once, and subsequently spread over a large cohesive territory or PIE continuum that affected all but the peripheral areas. Britannica 15th edition, vol.22, 1981, p.588, 594 For instance, Kortlandt proposes this satemization process involved interaction between a western and central Indo-European sphere of influence to the ancestors of Balts and Slavs. Frederik Kortlandt-The spread of the Indo-Europeans, 1989, Shared features of Phrygian and Greek Lubotsky - The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription, Kadmos 27, 9-26, 1988 and of Thracian and Armenian Kortlandt - The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift, Linguistique Balkanique 31, 71-74, 1988 group the southeastern branches of Indo-European together. Some fundamental shared features, like the verbal aorist category (this is a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having the perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol.22, Helen Hemingway Benton Publisher, Chicago, (15th ed.) 1981, p.593 and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. George S. Lane, Douglas Q. Adams, Britannica 15th edition 22:667, "The Tocharian problem" The Indo-Hittite hypothesis proposes the Indo European language family to consist of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as the gender or the verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia The supposed autochthony of Hittites, the Indo-Hittite hypothesis and migration of agricultural "Indo-European" societies became intrinsically linked together by C. Renfrew. (Renfrew, C 2001a The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites. In R. Drews ed., Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language. family: 36-63. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man). and the preservation of laryngeals. Britannica 15th edition, 22 p. 586 "Indo-European languages, The parent language, Laryngeal theory" - W.C.; p. 589, 593 "Anatolian languages" - Philo H.J. Houwink ten Cate, H. Craig Melchert and Theo P.J. van den Hout However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view the Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non-satem languages in general - including Anatolian - might be due to their peripheral location in the Indo-European language area and early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. Britannica 15th edition, 22 p. 594, "Indo-Hittite hypothesis" Holm (2008) Holm, Hans J.: The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages. In: Christine Preisach, Hans Burkhardt, Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Reinhold Decker (eds.): Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proc. of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, March 7-9, 2007. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin (2008) based on lexical calculations arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. Satem and centum languages Diachronic map showing the Centum (blue) and Satem (red) areas. The supposed area of origin of satemization is shown in darker red (Sintashta/Abashevo/Srubna cultures). The terms Centum and Satem are used to describe the evolution of the three original sets of velar consonants that have been reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European, * (labiovelars), * (velars), and *; (palatovelars). Satem languages (Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic) lost the distinction between labiovelar and pure velar sounds, and at the same time assibilated the palatal velars. The Centum languages (Germanic, Italic, and Celtic), on the other hand, changed the palatal velars to be the same as pure velars. Note that the terms "Centum" or "Satem" do not imply that Centum languages descend from a "proto-Centum" or that languages exhibiting Satem features descend from a "proto-Satem". Most modern scholars see the Satem sound change as an areal feature radiating outward from the central Indo-European language communities, but largely failing to reach the western and eastern peripheries. The Satem-Centum isogloss runs right between the Greek (Centum) and Armenian (Satem) languages (which a number of scholars regard as closely related), with Greek exhibiting some marginal Satem features. Some scholars think that some languages classify neither as Satem nor as Centum (Anatolian, Tocharian, and possibly Albanian). Areal contact among already distinct post-PIE languages (say, during the 3rd millennium BC) may have spread the sound changes involved. In any case, present-day specialists are rather less galvanized by the division than 19th cent. scholars were, partly because of the recognition that it is, after all, just one isogloss among the multitudes that criss-cross Indo-European linguistic geography. Suggested superfamilies Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages form part of a hypothetical Nostratic language superfamily, and attempt to relate Indo-European to other language families, such as South Caucasian languages, Altaic languages, Uralic languages, Dravidian languages, and Afro-Asiatic languages. This theory remains controversial, like the similar Eurasiatic theory of Joseph Greenberg, and the Proto-Pontic postulation of John Colarusso. Objections to such groupings are not based on any theoretical claim about the likely historical existence or non-existence of such super-families; it is entirely reasonable to suppose that they existed. The difficulty in identifying the details of actual relationships between language families, however, comes in finding concrete evidence that transcends chance resemblance. Since the noise-to-signal ratio in historical linguistics increases steadily over time, at great enough time-depths it becomes open to reasonable doubt that it can even be possible to distinguish between signal and noise. Historical evolution Proto-Indo-European The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. The classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from Franz Bopp's Comparative Grammar (1833) to August Schleicher's 1861 Compendium and up to Karl Brugmann's Grundriss published from the 1880s. Brugmann's junggrammatische re-evaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussure's development of the laryngeal theory may be considered the beginning of "contemporary" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as Calvert Watkins, Jochem Schindler and Helmut Rix) developed a better understanding of morphology and, in the wake of Kuryłowicz's 1956 Apophonie, understanding of the ablaut. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of internal reconstruction an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed. PIE was an inflected language, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The roots of PIE are basic morphemes carrying a lexical meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of desinences (usually endings), these form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs). The hypothetical Indo-European verb system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of ablaut. Diversification The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of Indo-European origins. mid 2nd millennium BC distribution mid 1st millennium BC distribution post- Roman Empire and Migrations period distribution late medieval distribution (after Islamic, Hungarian and Turkic expansions) 2500 BC–2000 BC: The breakup into the proto-languages of the attested dialects is complete. Proto-Greek is spoken in the Balkans, Proto-Indo-Iranian north of the Caspian in the emerging Andronovo culture. The Bronze Age reaches Central Europe with the Beaker culture, likely composed of various Centum dialects. The Tarim mummies possibly correspond to proto-Tocharians. 2000 BC–1500 BC: Catacomb culture north of the black sea. The chariot is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of Iranian and Indo-Aryan from the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex over much of Central Asia, Northern India, Iran and Eastern Anatolia. Proto-Anatolian is split into Hittite and Luwian. The pre-Proto-Celtic Unetice culture has an active metal industry (Nebra skydisk). 1500 BC–1000 BC: The Nordic Bronze Age develops pre-Proto-Germanic, and the (pre)-Proto-Celtic Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the Iron Age. Migration of the Proto-Italic speakers into the Italian peninsula (Bagnolo stele). Redaction of the Rigveda and rise of the Vedic civilization in the Punjab. The Mycenaean civilization gives way to the Greek Dark Ages. 1000 BC–500 BC: The Celtic languages spread over Central and Western Europe. Baltic languages are spoken in a huge area from present-day Poland to the Ural Mountains in western Russia http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie-lg/Balto-Slavic.html . Proto Germanic. Homer and the beginning of Classical Antiquity. The Vedic Civilization gives way to the Mahajanapadas. Siddhartha Gautama attains enlightenment and preaches Buddhism. Zoroaster composes the Gathas, rise of the Achaemenid Empire, replacing the Elamites and Babylonia. Separation of Proto-Italic into Osco-Umbrian and Latin-Faliscan. Genesis of the Greek and Old Italic alphabets. A variety of Paleo-Balkan languages are spoken in Southern Europe. The Anatolian languages are extinct. 500 BC–1 BC/AD: Classical Antiquity: spread of Greek and Latin throughout the Mediterranean, and during Hellenism (Indo-Greeks) to Central Asia and the Hindukush. Kushan Empire, Mauryan Empire. Proto-Germanic. 1 BC/AD 500: Late Antiquity, Gupta period; attestation of Armenian. Proto-Slavic. The Roman Empire and then the Great Migrations marginalize the Celtic languages to the British Isles. 500–1000: Early Middle Ages. The Viking Age forms an Old Norse koine spanning Scandinavia, the British Isles and Iceland. The Islamic conquest and the Turkic expansion results in the Arabization and Turkification of significant areas where Indo-European languages were spoken. Tocharian is extinct in the course of the Turkic expansion while Northeastern Iranian (Scytho-Sarmatian) is reduced to small refugia. 1000–1500: Late Middle Ages: Attestation of Albanian and Baltic languages. 1500–2000: Early Modern period to present: Colonialism results in the spread of Indo-European languages to every continent, most notably Romance (North, Central and South America, French Canada, North and South Africa, West Asia), West Germanic (English in North America, South Asia and Australia; to a lesser extent Dutch and German), and Russian to Central Asia and the Russian Far East. Sound changes As the Proto-Indo-European language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, changing according to various sound laws evidenced in the daughter-languages. Notable cases of such sound laws include Grimm's law in Proto-Germanic, loss of prevocalic *p- in Proto-Celtic, loss of prevocalic *s- in Proto-Greek, Brugmann's law in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as well as satemization (discussed above). Grassmann's law and Bartholomae's law may or may not have operated at the common Indo-European stage. Comparison of conjugations The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the thematic present indicative of the verbal root * 'to carry' (whence English verb to bear) and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system. + Proto-Indo-European (* 'to carry')I (1st. Sg.)*You (2nd. Sg.)*He/She/It (3rd. Sg.)*We (1st. Du.)*You (2nd. Du.)*They (3rd. Du.)*We (1st. Pl.)*You (2nd. Pl.)*They (3rd. Pl.)* + Language FamilyIndo-AryanGreekItalicGermanicCelticSlavicArmenianVedic SanskritAncient GreekLatinGothicOld IrishOCSCl. Arm.I (1st. Sg.)bhárāmiphérōferōbaíra /bɛra/biruberǫberemYou (2nd. Sg.)bhárasiphéreisfersbaírisbiriberešiberesHe/She/It (3rd. Sg.)bháratiphéreifertbaíriþberidberetъberēWe (1st. Du.)bhárāvas------baíros---berevě---You (2nd. Du.)bhárathasphéreton---baírats---bereta---They (3rd. Du.)bháratasphéreton---------berete---We (1st. Pl.)bhárāmasphéromenferimusbaírambermaiberemъberemk`You (2nd. Pl.)bhárathaphéretefertisbaíriþbeirthebereteberēk`They (3rd. Pl.)bhárantiphérousiferuntbaírandberaitberǫtъberenLanguage FamilyHindiModern GreekFrenchGermanIrishCzechPersianI (1st. Sg.)(maiṃ) bharūṃférno(je) {con}fère(ich) {ge}bärebeirimberubordamYou (2nd. Sg.)(tū) bhareférnis(tu) {con}fères(du) {ge}bärstbeireann (tú)berešbordiHe/She/It (3rd. Sg.)(vah) bhareférni(il) {con}fère(er) {ge}bärtbeireann (sé/sí)berebordadWe (1st. Pl.)(ham) bhareṃférnoume(nous) {con}ferons(wir) {ge}bärenbeirimidberem(e)bordimYou (2nd. Pl.)(tum) bharoférnete(vous) {con}ferez(ihr) {ge}bärtbeireann (sibh)beretebordidThey (3rd. Pl.)(ve) bhareṃférnoun(ils) {con}fèrent(sie) {ge}bärenbeireann (siad)beroubordan While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from synthetic verb systems to largely periphrastic systems. The pronouns of periphrastic forms are in brackets when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well. In Modern Irish beir usually only carries the meaning to bear in the sense of bearing a child, its common meanings are to catch, grab. The Hindi verb bharnā, the continuation of the Sanskrit verb, can have a variety of meanings, but the most common is "to fill". The forms given in the table, although etymologically derived from the present indicative, now have the meaning of subjunctive. The present indicative is conjugated periphrastically, using a participle (etymologically the Sanskrit present participle bharant-) and an auxiliary: maiṃ bhartā hūṃ, tū bhartā hai, vah bhartā hai, ham bharte haiṃ, tum bharte ho, ve bharte haiṃ (masculine forms). German is not directly descended from Gothic, but the Gothic forms are a close approximation of what the early West Germanic forms of c. 400 AD would have looked like. The cognate of Germanic beranan (English bear) survives in German only in the compound gebären, meaning "bear (a child)". The Latin verb ferre is irregular, and not a good representative of a normal thematic verb. In French, the irregular Latin verb ferre "to carry" has been supplanted by other verbs and ferre only survives in compounds such as souffrir "to suffer" (from Latin sub- and ferre) and "to confer" (from Latin "con-" and "ferre). In Modern Greek, phero φέρω (modern transliteration fero) "to bear" is still used but only in specific contexts not in everyday language. The form that is (very) common today is pherno φέρνω (modern transliteration ferno) meaning "to bring". Additionally, the perfective form of pherno (used for the subjuctive voice and also for the future tense) is also phero. See also Grammatical conjugation Indo-European copula Indo-European sound laws Indo-European studies Language family List of Indo-European languages Proto-Indo-European language Proto-Indo-European root Nostratic languages Citations and notes References Auroux, Sylvain, History of the Language Sciences, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 2000 ISBN 3110167352. Kortlandt, Frederik, 1990, The Spread of the Indo-Europeans, Journal of Indo-European Studies, 18.1-2: 131-140 Lubotsky, A., The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription, Kadmos 27, 9-26, 1988 Kortlandt, Frederik , The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift, Linguistique Balkanique 31, 71-74, 1988 Lane, George S., Adams, Douglas Q., The Tocharian problem, Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol.22, Helen Hemingway Benton Publisher, Chicago, (15th ed.) 1981 Renfrew, C., The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites. In R. Drews ed., Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family, Institute for the Study of Man, Washington, DC, 2001 Houwink ten Cate, H.J., Melchert, H. Craig and van den Hout, Theo P.J. Indo-European languages, The parent language, Laryngeal theory, Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol.22, Helen Hemingway Benton Publisher, Chicago, (15th ed.) 1981 Holm, Hans J., The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages, in Christine Preisach, Hans Burkhardt, Lars Schmidt-Thieme, Reinhold Decker (eds.), Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications, Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, March 7-9, 2007, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin, 2008 Recommended readings Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 8170741289 Mallory, J.P., (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1 Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-02495-7 Schleicher, August, A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages (1861/62). Remys, Edmund, General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian. Berlin, New York: Indogermanische Forschungen, Vol. 112, 2007. External links Databases The Indo-European Database(Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)) IE language family overview (SIL) Indo-European at the LLOW-database Indo-European Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin TITUS(English Startpage) Collection of IE scholarly materials The Indo-European Database A site of joint resource of Indo-European languages, history, archaeology and religion. The Dyen, Kruskal and Black lexicostatistical database : the 200-meaning Swadesh lists for 95 Indo-European languages. Lexica Indo-European Roots, from the American Heritage Dictionary''. Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish. 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1,259 | Diet_of_Nuremberg | The Diet of Nuremberg is often called the Imperial Diet at Nuremberg. There were several of them because, according to the Golden Bull of 1356, each Holy Roman Emperor had to hold his first diet in Nuremberg after his election. There were also a number of other diets held. 1211 elected the future emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen German king. 1356 Charles IV issued his Golden Bull - regulating the election of Holy Roman Emperors. Important to Protestantism (and the Turks) were the: 1522 - 1st Diet of Nuremberg 1524 - 2nd Diet of Nuremberg 1532 - 3rd Diet of Nuremberg 1522 Diet of Nuremberg This Diet has become known mostly for the reaction of the papacy to the decision made on Luther at the Diet of Worms the previous year. The new pope, Adrian VI, sent his nuncio Chieregati to the Diet, to insist both that the edict of Worms be executed, and that action be taken promptly against Luther. This demand, however, was coupled with a promise of thorough reform in the Roman hierarchy, and openly admitted the partial guilt of the Vatican in the decline of the Church. In the recess drafted on 9 February 1523, however, the German princes rejected this appeal. Using Adrian's admissions, they declared that they could not have it appear 'as though they wished to oppress evangelical truth and assist unchristian and evil abuses.' 1524 Diet of Nuremberg This Diet generally took the same line as the previous Diet. The Estates reiterated their decision from the previous Diet. The Cardinal-legate, Campeggio, who was present, showed his disgust at the behaviour of the Estates. On 18 April, the Estates decided to call 'a general gathering of the German nation', to meet at Speyer the following year, and to decide what would be done until the meeting of the general council of the Church which they demanded. References Karl Brandi, The Emperor Charles V, 1939, pp185-8 | Diet_of_Nuremberg |@lemmatized diet:15 nuremberg:8 often:1 call:2 imperial:1 several:1 accord:1 golden:2 bull:2 holy:2 roman:3 emperor:4 hold:2 first:1 election:2 also:1 number:1 elect:1 future:1 frederick:1 ii:1 hohenstaufen:1 german:3 king:1 charles:2 iv:1 issue:1 regulate:1 important:1 protestantism:1 turk:1 become:1 know:1 mostly:1 reaction:1 papacy:1 decision:2 make:1 luther:2 worm:2 previous:3 year:2 new:1 pope:1 adrian:2 vi:1 send:1 nuncio:1 chieregati:1 insist:1 edict:1 execute:1 action:1 take:2 promptly:1 demand:2 however:2 couple:1 promise:1 thorough:1 reform:1 hierarchy:1 openly:1 admit:1 partial:1 guilt:1 vatican:1 decline:1 church:2 recess:1 draft:1 february:1 prince:1 reject:1 appeal:1 use:1 admission:1 declare:1 could:1 appear:1 though:1 wish:1 oppress:1 evangelical:1 truth:1 assist:1 unchristian:1 evil:1 abuse:1 generally:1 line:1 estate:3 reiterate:1 cardinal:1 legate:1 campeggio:1 present:1 show:1 disgust:1 behaviour:1 april:1 decide:2 general:2 gathering:1 nation:1 meet:1 speyer:1 following:1 would:1 meeting:1 council:1 reference:1 karl:1 brandi:1 v:1 |@bigram |
1,260 | Constantine_II_of_Scotland | Constantine, son of Áed (Mediaeval Gaelic: Constantín mac Áeda; Modern Gaelic: Còiseam mac Aoidh), known in most modern regnal lists as Constantine II Until the Victorian era, Constantine, son of Kenneth MacAlpin was listed as "Constantine II of Scotland", and this Constantine as "Constantine III". Since then, revised historical opinion has removed Caustantín of the Picts, previously titled "Constantine I of Scotland", from the traditional list of Scottish monarchs, leading to this Constantine being retitled as "Constantine II". , nicknamed An Midhaise, "the Middle Aged" Skene, Chronicles, p. 91; Hudson, Celtic Kings, p. 65. (before 879 – 952) was an early King of Scotland, known then by the Gaelic name Alba. The Kingdom of Alba, a name which first appears in Constantine's lifetime, was in northern Britain. The core of the kingdom was formed by the lands around the River Tay. Its southern limit was the River Forth, northwards it extended towards the Moray Firth and perhaps to Caithness, while its western limits are uncertain. Constantine's grandfather Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) (died 858) was the first of the family recorded as a king, but as king of the Picts. This change of title, from king of the Picts to king of Alba, is part of a broader transformation of Pictland and the origins of the Kingdom of Alba are traced to Constantine's lifetime. His reign, like those of his predecessors, was dominated by the actions of Viking rulers in Britain and Ireland, particularly the Uí Ímair ("the grandsons of Ímar", or Ivar the Boneless). During Constantine's reign the rulers of the southern kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, later the kingdom of England, extended their authority northwards into the disputed kingdoms of Northumbria. At first allied with the southern rulers against the Vikings, Constantine in time came into conflict with them. King Æthelstan was successful in securing Constantine's submission in 927 and 934, but the two again fought when Constantine, allied with the Strathclyde Britons and the Viking king of Dublin, invaded Æthelstan's kingdom in 937, only to be defeated at the great battle of Brunanburh. In 943 Constantine abdicated the throne and retired to the Céli Dé (Culdee) monastery of St Andrews where he died in 952. He was succeeded by his predecessor's son Malcolm I (Máel Coluim mac Domnaill). Constantine's reign of 43 years, exceeded in Scotland only by that of King William the Lion before the Union of the Crowns in 1603, is believed to have played a defining part in the gaelicisation of Pictland in which his patronage of the Irish Céli Dé monastic reformers was a significant factor. During his reign the words "Scots" and "Scotland" () are first used to mean part of what is now Scotland. The earliest evidence for the ecclesiastical and administrative institutions which would last until Davidian Revolution also appears at this time. Sources Compared to neighbouring Ireland and Anglo-Saxon England, few records of ninth and tenth century events in northern Britain survive. The main local source from the period is the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, a list of kings from Kenneth MacAlpin (died 858) to Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim, died 995). The list survives in the Poppleton Manuscript, a thirteenth century compilation. Originally simply a list of kings with reign lengths, the other details contained in the Poppleton Manuscript version were added in the tenth and twelfth centuries. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 87–93; Dumville, "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba". In addition to this, later king lists survive. Anderson, Kings and Kingship, reproduces these lists and discusses their origins. The earliest genealogical records of the descendants of Kenneth MacAlpin may date from the end of the tenth century, but their value lies more in their context, and the information they provide about the interests of those for whom they were compiled, than in the unreliable claims they contain. Broun, Irish Identity, pp. 133–164; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 220–221. For narrative history the principal sources are the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Irish annals. The evidence from charters created in the Kingdom of England provides occasional insight into events in northern Britain. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 2–3, 87–88, & 357–359. While Scandinavian sagas describe events in 10th century Britain, their value as sources of historical narrative, rather than documents of social history, is disputed. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 277–285; Ó Corrain, "Vikings in Scotland and Ireland"; Sawyer & Sawyer, Medieval Scandinavia, pp. 21–26. Mainland European sources rarely concern themselves with affairs in Britain, and even less commonly with events in northern Britain, but the life of Saint Cathróe of Metz, a work of hagiography written in Germany at the end of the tenth century, provides plausible details of the Saint's early life in north Britain. MacQuarrie, Saints of Scotland, pp. 199–210. While the sources for north-eastern Britain, the lands of the kingdom of Northumbria and the former Pictland, are limited and late, those for the areas on the Irish Sea and Atlantic coasts—the modern regions of north-west England and all of northern and western Scotland—are non-existent, and archaeology and toponymy are of primary importance. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 12. Pictland from Constantín mac Fergusa to Constantine I Recorded relationships within the early House of Alpin The dominant kingdom in eastern Scotland before the Viking Age was the northern Pictish kingdom of Fortriu on the shores of the Moray Firth. By the ninth century, the Gaels of Dál Riata (Dalriada) were subject to the kings of Fortriu of the family of Constantín mac Fergusa (Constantine son of Fergus). Constantín's family dominated Fortriu after 789 and perhaps, if Constantín was a kinsman of Óengus I of the Picts (Óengus son of Fergus), from around 730. The dominance of Fortriu came to an end in 839 with a defeat by Viking armies reported by the Annals of Ulster in which King Uen of Fortriu and his brother Bran, Constantín's nephews, together with the king of Dál Riata, Áed mac Boanta, "and others almost innumerable" were killed. Annals of Ulster, s.a. 838. These deaths led to a period of instability lasting a decade as several families attempted to establish their dominance in Pictland. By around 848 Kenneth MacAlpin had emerged as the winner. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 57–67 & 93–98; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 180–185; Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, pp. 8–10; Bannerman, "Scottish takeover"; Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots, pp. 107–108. Later national myth made Kenneth MacAlpin the creator of the kingdom of Scotland, the founding of which was dated from 843, the year in which he was said to have destroyed the Picts and inaugurated a new era. The historical record for ninth century Scotland is meagre, but the Irish annals and the tenth century Chronicle of the Kings of Alba agree that Kenneth was a Pictish king, and call him "king of the Picts" at his death. The same style is used of Kenneth's brother Donald I (Domnall mac Ailpín) and sons Constantine I (Constantín mac Cináeda) and Áed (Áed mac Cináeda). Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 93–117 & 320–322; Broun, "Dunkeld"; Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, pp. 13–14; Herbert, "Ri Éirenn, Ri Alban"; Dumville, "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", p. 76. The kingdom ruled by Kenneth's descendants—older works used the name House of Alpin to describe them but descent from Kenneth was the defining factor, Irish sources referring to Clann Cináeda meic Ailpín ("the Clan of Kenneth MacAlpin") Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 220–221 & 256–257; Broun, Irish Identity, pp. 173–174 —lay to the south of the previously dominant kingdom of Fortriu, centred in the lands around the River Tay. The extent of Kenneth's nameless kingdom is uncertain, but it certainly extended from the Firth of Forth in the south to the Mounth in the north. Whether it extended beyond the mountainous spine of north Britain—Druim Alban—is unclear. The core of the kingdom was similar to the old counties of Mearns, Forfar, Perth, Fife, and Kinross. Among the chief ecclesiastical centres named in the records are Dunkeld, probably seat of the bishop of the kingdom, and Cell Rígmonaid (modern St Andrews). Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 98–101; Driscoll, Alba pp. 33–51; Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots, pp. 8 fig. 1, 39 fig. 24., & 110–111. Kenneth's son Constantine died in 876, probably killed fighting against a Viking army which had come north from Northumbria in 874. According to the king lists, he was counted the 70th and last king of the Picts in later times. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 106–116; Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 72–75, s.a. 875. For Constantine as the last Pictish king, the original count being 66 kings, see Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 124–126; Broun, Irish Identity, p. 168–169; Anderson, Kings and Kingship, pp. 78–79. Britain and Ireland at the end of the ninth century Some locations in northern Britain, late 9th and early 10th centuries. The dotted line marked A represents the southern boundary of the Kingdom of Alba, c. 890–950. The dotted line marked B represents the southern boundary of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, c. 925–945. In 899 Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, died leaving his son Edward the Elder as ruler of Britain south of the River Thames and his daughter Æthelflæd and son-in-law Æthelred ruling the western, English part of Mercia. The situation in the Danish kingdoms of eastern Britain is less clear. King Eohric was probably ruling in East Anglia, but no dates can reliably be assigned to the successors of Guthfrith of York in Northumbria. It is known that Guthfrith was succeeded by Sigurd and Cnut, although whether these men ruled jointly or one after the other is uncertain. Northumbria may have been divided by this time between the Viking kings in York and the local rulers, perhaps represented by Eadulf, based at Bamburgh who controlled the lands from the River Tyne or River Tees to the Forth in the north. Keynes, "Rulers of the English", pp. 504–505; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 138–139; Blair, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 75–79. In Ireland, Flann Sinna, married to Constantine's aunt Máel Muire, was dominant. The years around 900 represented a period of weakness among the Vikings and Norse-Gaels of Dublin. They are reported to have been divided between two rival leaders. In 894 one group left Dublin, perhaps settling on the Irish Sea coast of Britain between the River Mersey and the Firth of Clyde. The remaining Dubliners were expelled in 902 by Flann Sinna's son-in-law Cerball mac Muirecáin, and soon afterwards appeared in western and northern Britain. Annals of Ulster, s.a. 893 & 902; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp 131 & 138–139. To the south-west of Constantine's lands lay the kingdom of Strathclyde. This extended north into the Lennox, east to the River Forth, and south into the Southern Uplands. In 900 it was ruled by King Dyfnwal. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 153–157. The situation of the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata in western Scotland is uncertain. No kings are known by name after Áed mac Boanta. The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides, the seaward part of Dál Riata, by Northmen in 849. Woolf, pp. 99–100 & 286–289; Anderson, Early Sources, p. 277. In addition to these, the arrival of new groups of Vikings from northern and western Europe was still commonplace. Whether there were Viking or Norse-Gael kingdoms in the Western Isles or the Northern Isles at this time is debated. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 275–311, especially 286–289; Ó Corrain, "Vikings in Scotland and Ireland"; Crawford, Scandinavian Scotland, pp. 39–62; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 141–174. Early life Áed, Constantine's father, succeeded Constantine's uncle and namesake Constantine I in 876 but was killed in 878. Áed's short reign is glossed as being of no importance by most king lists. Although the date of his birth is nowhere recorded, Constantine II cannot have been born any later than the year after his father's death, that is 879. His name may suggest that he was born rather earlier, during the reign of his uncle Constantine I. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 116–117, 124, & 166, note 84. After Áed's death there is a two decade gap until the death of Donald II (Domnall mac Constantín) in 900 during which nothing is reported in the Irish annals. Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 358–358 & 395; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 117–118. The entry for the reign between Áed and Donald II is corrupt in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, and in this case the Chronicle is at variance with every other king list. On this, note Dumville's comments regarding damnatio memoriae, Dumville, "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", p. 75; see also Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 117–121. According to the Chronicle, Áed was followed by Eochaid, a grandson of Kenneth MacAlpin, who is somehow connected with Giric, but all other lists say that Giric ruled after Áed and make great claims for him. Anderson, Kings and Kingship, pp. 251–252, 254, 263, 267, 274, 283, & 288. Giric is not known to have been a kinsman of Kenneth's, although it has been suggested that he was related to him by marriage. The major changes in Pictland which began at about this time have been associated by Alex Woolf and Archie Duncan with Giric's reign. Duncan, pp. 11–16; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 117–121, 137–138, & 320–322. For an alternative view of all this, see Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 215–218. Woolf suggests that Constantine and his cousin Donald may have passed Giric's reign in exile in Ireland where their aunt Máel Muire was wife of two successive High Kings of Ireland, Áed Findliath and Flann Sinna. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 122–125. Giric died in 889. If he had been in exile, Constantine may have returned to Pictland where his cousin Donald II became king. Donald's reputation is suggested by the epithet dasachtach, a word used of violent madmen and mad bulls, attached to him in the eleventh century writings of Flann Mainistrech, echoed by the his description in the Prophecy of Berchan as "the rough one who will think relics and psalms of little worth". Anderson, Early Sources, pp. cxlix & 397–398. Wars with the Viking kings in Britain and Ireland continued during Donald's reign and he was probably killed fighting yet more Vikings at Dunnottar in the Mearns in 900. Constantine succeeded him as king. Woolf, p. 125; Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 395–398. The account of the conquest of the kingdom of Strathclyde in Domnall's time given by, for example, Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 217–218, is rejected by Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, p. 40, and Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 152–157. Vikings and bishops The cult of Saint Columba and its relics were associated with victory in battle. The Cathbuaid, Columba's crozier or staff, has been lost but the eighth century Breccbennach or Monymusk Reliquary shown here, which held relics of Columba, is known to have been carried into battle from the reign of King William I onwards. Yorke, The Conversion of Britain, pp. 190–191; Alcock, Kings and Warriors, pp. 327–329; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, p.136. See also the Cathach of St. Columba, a seventh century psalter to which similar powers were attributed. The earliest event recorded in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba in Constantine's reign is an attack by Vikings and the plundering of Dunkeld "and all Albania" in his third year. This is the first use of the word Albania, the Latin form of the Old Irish Alba, in the Chronicle which until then describes the lands ruled by the descendants of Cináed as Pictavia. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 122–126; Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 444–446, where Albania is translated as Scotland; Broun, "Dunkeld". These Northmen may have been some of those who were driven out of Dublin in 902, but could also have been the same group who had defeated Domnall in 900. The Chronicle states that the Northmen were killed in Srath Erenn, which is confirmed by the Annals of Ulster which records the death of Ímar grandson of Ímar and many others at the hands of the men of Fortriu in 904. This Ímar was the first of the Uí Ímair, that is the grandsons of Ímar, to be reported; three more grandsons of Ímar appear later in Constantín's reign. The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland contain an account of the battle, and this attributes the defeat of the Norsemen to the intercession of Saint Columba following fasting and prayer. An entry in the Chronicon Scotorum under the year 904 may possibly contain a corrupted reference to this battle. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 127–128 & 130–131; Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 398, 399, & 444–446; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 902, 904; Chronicon Scotorum, s.a. 902, 904; Fragmentary Annals, FA 429. The next event reported by the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba is dated to 906. This records that:King Constantine and Bishop Cellach met at the Hill of Belief near the royal city of Scone and pledged themselves that the laws and disciplines of the faith, and the laws of churches and gospels, should be kept pariter cum Scottis. After Anderson, Early Sources, p. 445. The meaning of this entry, and its significance, have been the subject of debate. The moot hill at Scone, perhaps the Hill of Belief of 906 Bannerman, "Scottish Takeover", p. 79. The phrase pariter cum Scottis in the Latin text of the Chronicle has been translated in several ways. William Forbes Skene and Alan Orr Anderson proposed that it should be read as "in conformity with the customs of the Gaels", relating it to the claims in the king lists that Giric liberated the church from secular oppression and adopted Irish customs. Anderson, Early Sources, p. 445, note 1; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 135. This version is followed by Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 188–189. It has been read as "together with the Gaels", suggesting either public participation or the presence of Gaels from the western coasts as well as the people of the east coast. Driscoll, p. 37, translates the phrase in this way; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 135–136. Finally, it is suggested that it was the ceremony which followed "the custom of the Gaels" and not the agreements. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 136; see also Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, p. 188. The idea that this gathering agreed to uphold Irish laws governing the church has suggested that it was an important step in the gaelicisation of the lands east of Druim Alban. Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 188–189, writes that "it marks the final triumph of the Gaelic order over the old Pictish order". Others have proposed that the ceremony in some way endorsed Constantine's kingship, prefiguring later royal inaugurations at Scone. Driscoll, Alba, p. 37; Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, pp. 15–16. Alternatively, if Bishop Cellach was appointed by Giric, it may be that the gathering was intended to heal a rift between king and church. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 137–138. Return of the Uí Ímair Following the events at Scone, there is little of substance reported for a decade. A story in the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, perhaps referring to events some time after 911, claims that Queen Æthelflæd, who ruled in Mercia, allied with the Irish and northern rulers against the Norsemen on the Irish sea coasts of Northumbria. The Annals of Ulster record the defeat of an Irish fleet from the kingdom of Ulaid by Vikings "on the coast of England" at about this time. Higham, Kingdom of Northumbria, pp. 185–186; Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, FA 429; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 913. In this period the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports the death of Cormac mac Cuilennáin, king of Munster, in the eighth year of Constantine's reign. The Annals of Ulster states that Cormac died on 13 September 908; Woolf, p. 127–129. This is followed by an undated entry which was formerly read as "In his time Domnall [i.e. Dyfnwal], king of the [Strathclyde] Britons died, and Domnall son of Áed was elected". This was thought to record the election of a brother of Constantine named Domnall to the kingship of the Britons of Strathclyde and was seen as early evidence of the domination of Strathclyde by the kings of Alba. The entry in question is now read as "...Dynfwal...and Domnall son Áed king of Ailech died", this Domnall being a son of Áed Findliath who died on 21 March 915. Domnall's death is recorded by the Annals of Ulster. For the re-reading by Benjamin Hudson, see Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 127–129 & 152–157; Dumville, "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba", p. 77. Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 222–223, is typical of the interpretation found in older works. The phrase in question reads "et Dunenaldus filius Ede elig7". Finally, the deaths of Flann Sinna and Niall Glúndub are recorded. The Annals of Ulster record the death of Flann on 25 May 916 and that of Niall on 14 September 919; Woolf, p. 127–129. There are more reports of Viking fleets in the Irish Sea from 914 onwards. By 916 fleets under Sihtric Cáech and Ragnall, said to be grandsons of Ímar (that is, they belonged to the same Uí Ímair kindred as the Ímar who was killed in 904), were very active in Ireland. Sihtric inflicted a heavy defeat on the armies of Leinster and retook Dublin in 917. Hart, "Sihtric Cáech"; Hart "Ragnall"; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 138–141; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 914–917. The following year Ragnall appears to have returned across the Irish sea intent on establishing himself as king at York. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 142; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 918. The only precisely dated event in the summer of 918 is the death of Queen Æthelflæd on 12 June 918 at Tamworth. Æthelflæd had been negotiating with the Northumbrians to obtain their submission, but her death put an end to this and her successor, her brother Edward the Elder, was occupied with securing control of Mercia. Higham, Kingdom of Northumbria, pp. 186–188; Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. 105, Ms. C, s.a. 918, 919. Dere Street; Corbridge is just south of Hadrian's Wall in the centre of the map. The northern part of Northumbria, and perhaps the whole kingdom, had probably been ruled by Ealdred son of Eadulf since 913. Keynes, "Rulers of the English"; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 138–141. Faced with Ragnall's invasion, Ealdred came north seeking assistance from Constantine. The two advanced south to face Ragnall, and this led to a battle somewhere on the banks of the River Tyne, probably at Corbridge where Dere Street crosses the river. The battle of Corbridge appears to have been indecisive; the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba is alone in giving Constantine the victory. There is disagreement as to whether there was one battle at Corbridge in the 910s or two. The Annals of Ulster, s.a. 918, the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, and the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, report only one battle. The idea that there were two rests on the Historia de Sancto Cuthberto, for which see Anderson, Scottish Annals, p. 64. The question is discussed by Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 142–144; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 332–333. The report of the battle in the Annals of Ulster says that none of the kings or mormaers among the men of Alba were killed. This is the first surviving use of the word mormaer; other than the knowledge that Constantine's kingdom had its own bishop or bishops and royal villas, this is the only hint to the institutions of the kingdom. For Mormaers, see Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp 342–350; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 219–220. For the later institutions of the kingdom of Alba, see After Corbridge, Ragnall enjoyed only a short respite. In the south, Alfred's son Edward had rapidly secured control of Mercia and had a burh constructed at Bakewell in the Peak District from which his armies could easily strike north. An army from Dublin led by Ragnall's kinsman Sihtric struck at north-western Mercia in 919, but in 920 or 921 Edward met with Ragnall and other kings. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that these king "chose Edward as father and lord". Among the other kings present were Constantine, Ealdred son of Eadwulf, and the king of Strathclyde, either Dyfnwal II or, more probably, Owen I. Here, again, a new term appears in the record, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the first time using the word scottas, from which Scots derives, to describe the inhabitants of Constantine's kingdom in its report of these events. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 333–335; Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. 104, Ms. A, s.a. 924; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 145–147. Edward died in 924. His realms appear to have been divided with the West Saxons recognising Ælfweard while the Mercians chose Æthelstan who had been raised at Æthelflæd's court. Ælfweard died within weeks of his father and Æthelstan was inaugurated as king of all of Edward's lands in 925. Keynes, "Rulers of the English, p. 514; Miller, "Æthelstan"; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 339. Æthelstan By 926 Sihtric had evidently acknowledged Æthelstan as over-king, adopting Christianity and marrying a sister of Æthelstan at Tamworth. Within the year he may have abandoned his new faith and repudiated his wife, but before Æthelstan and he could fight, Sihtric died suddenly in 927. His kinsman, perhaps brother, Gofraid, who had remained as his deputy in Dublin, came from Ireland to take power in York, but failed. Æthelstan moved quickly, seizing much of Northumbria. In less than a decade, the kingdom of the English had become by far the greatest power in Britain and Ireland, perhaps stretching as far north as the Firth of Forth. Higham, Kingdom of Northumbria, pp. 186–190; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 339–340; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp.148–151; Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 105 & 107, Ms. D, s.a. 925, 926, Ms. E, F, s.a. 927. John of Worcester's chronicle suggests that Æthelstan faced opposition from Constantine, from Owain of Strathclyde, and from the Welsh kings. William of Malmesbury writes that Gofraid, together with Sihtric's young son Olaf Cuaran fled north and received refuge from Constantine, which led to war with Æthelstan. A meeting at Eamont Bridge on 12 July 927 was sealed by an agreement that Constantine, Owen of Strathclyde, Hywel Dda, and Ealdred would "renounce all idolatry": that is, they would not ally with the Viking kings. William states that Æthelstan stood godfather to a son of Constantine, probably Indulf (Ildulb mac Constantín), during the conference. Anderson, Scottish Annals, pp. 66–67; Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p.107, Ms. D, s.a. 926; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 339–340; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp 150–152 & 192–193; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp. 201–202; Miller, "Æthelstan". Æthelstan followed up his advances in the north by securing the recognition of the Welsh kings. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 340–341. For the next seven years, the record of events in the north is blank. Æthelstan's court was attended by the Welsh kings, but not by Constantine or Owen of Strathclyde. This absence of record means that Æthelstan's reasons for marching north against Constantine in 934 are unclear. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 161–165. The previous year had seen the death of Æthelstan's brother Edwin, perhaps drowned on the king's orders; Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. 107, Ms. E, s.a. 933 & note 11; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 355–356. The following year Gofraid died and was succeeded by his son Amlaíb, Constantine's son-in-law; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 934. Finally, the Annals of Clonmacnoise report the death of "Adulf mcEtulfe, king of the North Saxons" in the same year as Æthelstan's campaign; Woolf suggests that this may represent Ealdred, or some other son of Eadulf, ruling in Northumbria. Æthelstan's campaign is reported by in brief by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and later chroniclers such as John of Worcester, William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Symeon of Durham add detail to that bald account. Æthelstan's army began gathering at Winchester by 28 May 927, and reached Nottingham by 7 June. He was accompanied by many leaders, including the Welsh kings Hywel Dda, Idwal Foel, and Morgan ab Owain. From Mercia the army went north, stopping at Chester-le-Street, before resuming the march accompanied by a fleet of ships. Owen of Strathclyde was defeated and Symeon states that the army went as far north as Dunnottar and Fortriu, while the fleet is said to have raided Caithness, by which a much larger area, including Sutherland, is probably intended. It is unlikely that Constantine's personal authority extended so far north, and while the attacks may have been directed at his allies, they may also have been simple looting expeditions. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, p. 107, Ms. D, s.a. 934; Anderson, Scottish Annals, pp. 67–69; Miller, "Æthelstan"; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, p. 342; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 160–166; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, p. 203. The Annals of Clonmacnoise state that "the Scottish men compelled [Æthelstan] to return without any great victory", while Henry of Huntingdon claims that the English faced no opposition. A negotiated settlement may have ended matters: according to John of Worcester, a son of Constantine was given as a hostage to Æthelstan and Constantín himself accompanied the English king on his return south. He witnessed a charter with Æthelstan at Buckingham on 13 September 934 in which he is described as subregulus, that is a king acknowledging Æthelstan's overlordship. Anderson, Early Sources, p. 426; Anderson, Scottish Annals, pp. 67–69; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 166–168; The following year, Constantine was again in England at Æthelstan's court, this time at Cirencester where he appears as a witness, appearing as the first of several subject kings, followed by Owen of Strathclyde and Hywel Dda, who subscribed to the diploma. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 166–168; only a part of this charter survives, see At Christmas of 935, Owen of Strathclyde was once more at Æthelstan's court along with the Welsh kings, but Constantine was not. His return to England less than two years later would be in very different circumstances. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 167–168. Brunanburh and after Following his disappearance from Æthelstan's court after 935, there is no further report of Constantine until 937. In that year, together with Owen of Strathclyde and Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin, Constantine invaded England. The resulting battle of Brunanburh—Dún Brunde—is reported in the Annals of Ulster as follows:a great battle, lamentable and terrible was cruelly fought...in which fell uncounted thousands of the Northmen. ... And on the other side, a multitude of Saxons fell; but Æthelstan, the king of the Saxons, obtained a great victory. Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 428–429; Annals of Ulster, s.a. 937. The battle was remembered in England a generation later as "the Great Battle". When reporting the battle, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle abandons its usual terse style in favour of a heroic poem vaunting the great victory. In this the "hoary" Constantine, by now around 60 years of age, is said to have lost a son in the battle, a claim which the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba confirms. The Annals of Clonmacnoise give his name as Cellach. For all its fame, the site of the battle is uncertain and several sites have been advanced, with Bromborough on the Wirral the most favoured location. Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 106–110, Ms. A, s.a. 937; Anderson, Scottish Annals, pp. 69–73; Anderson, Early Sources, p. 429; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, 168–173; Smyth, Warlords and Holy Men, pp 203–204; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 342–343; Scragg, "Battle of Brunanburh". Brunanburh, for all that it had been a famous and bloody battle, settled nothing. On 27 October 939 Æthelstan, the "pillar of the dignity of the western world" in the words of the Annals of Ulster, died at Malmesbury. He was succeeded by his brother Edmund, then aged 18. Æthelstan's empire, seemingly made safe by the victory of Brunanburh, collapsed in little more than a year from his death when Amlaíb returned from Ireland and seized Northumbria and the Mercian Danelaw. Edmund spent the remainder of Constantín's reign rebuilding the empire. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 174; Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 356–359; Higham, Kingdom of Northumbria, p. 193; Blair, Anglo-Saxon England, pp. 87–89. For Constantine's last years as king there is only the meagre record of the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba. The death of Æthelstan is reported, as are two others. The first of these, in 938, is that of Dubacan, mormaer of Angus or son of the mormaer. Unlike the report of 918, on this occasion the title mormaer is attached to a geographical area, but it is unknown whether the Angus of 938 was in any way similar to the later mormaerdom or earldom. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 175 & 211–212. The second death, entered with that of Æthelstan, is that of Eochaid mac Ailpín, who may, from his name, have been a kinsman of Constantín. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 175. Abdication and posterity By the early 940s Constantine was an old man, perhaps more than 70 years of age. The kingdom of Alba was too new to be said to have a customary rule of succession, but Pictish and Irish precedents favoured an adult successor descended from Kenneth MacAlpin. Constantine's surviving son Indulf, probably baptised in 927, would have been too young to be a serious candidate for the kingship in the early 940s, and the obvious heir was Constantine's nephew, Malcolm I. As Malcolm was born no later than 901, by the 940s he was no longer a young man, and may have been impatient. Willingly or not—the 11th century Prophecy of Berchán, a verse history in the form of a supposed prophecy, states that it was not a voluntary decision—Constantine abdicated in 943 and entered a monastery, leaving the kingdom to Malcolm. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 175; Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 444–448; Broun, "Constantine II". Although his retirement may have been involuntary, the Life of Cathróe of Metz and the Prophecy of Berchán portray Constantine as a devout king. The monastery which Constantine retired to, and where he is said to have been abbot, was probably that of St Andrews. This had been refounded in his reign and given to the reforming Céli Dé (Culdee) movement. The Céli Dé were subsequently to be entrusted with many monasteries throughout the kingdom of Alba until replaced in the 12th century by new orders imported from France. Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 431–444; Broun, "Constantine II"; Woolf, Pictland to Alba, p. 175; MacQuarrie, Saints of Scotland, pp. 199–210. The Prophecy of Berchán describes Constantine's "fair, long reign" as a time "with fruit upon slender branches, with ale, with music, with good cheer; with corn, with milk, with nimble cattle; with pride, with fortune, with [worth]"; Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 447–448. Seven years later the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says:[Malcolm I] plundered the English as far as the river Tees, and he seized a multitude of people and many herds of cattle: and the Scots called this the raid of Albidosorum, that is, Nainndisi. But others say that Constantine made this raid, asking of the king, Malcolm, that the kingship should be given to him for a week's time, so that he could visit the English. In fact, it was Malcolm who made the raid, but Constantine incited him, as I have said. Anderson, Early Sources, pp. 452–453. Woolf suggests that the association of Constantine with the raid is a late addition, one derived from a now-lost saga or poem. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 178–181. Constantine's death in 952 is recorded by the Irish annals, who enter it among ecclesiastics. His son Indulf would become king on Malcolm's death. The last of Constantine's certain descendants to be king in Alba was a great-grandson, Constantine III (Constantín mac Cuiléin). Another son had died at Brunanburh, and, according to John of Worcester, Amlaíb mac Gofraid was married to a daughter of Constantine. It is possible that Constantine had other children, but like the name of his wife, or wives, this has not been recorded. Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 171, 175, & 177; Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, p. 345, table A; Anderson, Early Sources, p. 451. The kingdom which began to appear in Constantine's reign continued in much the same form until the Davidian Revolution in the 12th century. As with his ecclestiastical reforms, his political legacy was the creation of a new form of Scottish kingship that lasted for two centuries after his death. Broun, "Constantine II". The nature of that kingdom is, however, still a matter of debate, see Woolf, Pictland to Alba, pp. 342–350; . 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1,261 | Era | An era is a commonly used word for long period of time. When used in science, for example geology, eras denote clearly defined periods of time of arbitrary but well defined length, such as for example the Mesozoic era from 252 Ma–66 Ma, delimited by a start event and an end event. When used in social history, eras may for example denote a period of some monarch's reign. In colloquial language, eras denote longer spans of time, before and after which the practices or fashions change to a significant degree. Uses In chronology, an era is the highest level for the organization of the measurement of time. A calendar era indicates a span of many years which are numbered beginning at a specific reference date (epoch), which often marks the origin of a political state or cosmology, dynasty, ruler, the birth of a leader, or another significant historical or mythological event; it is generally called after its focus accordingly as in Victorian era. Regnal eras The word era also denotes the units used under a different, more arbitrary system where time is not represented as an endless continuum with a single reference year, but each unit starts counting from one again, as if time starts again. Such rather impractical system — a nightmare for historians once a single piece of the puzzle is missing — is the use of regnal years, which often reflects the preponderance in public life of the absolute ruler in many ancient cultures, while such tradition sometimes outlives the political power of the throne. In East Asia, each emperor's reign may be subdivided into several reign periods, each being treated as a new era. The name of each was a motto or slogan chosen by the emperor. Different East Asian countries utilized slightly different systems, notably: Chinese Eras Japanese Eras Korean Eras Vietnamese Eras A similar practice survived in the United Kingdom until quite recently, but only for formal official writings: in daily life the ordinary year A.D. was used since long, but Acts of Parliament were dated according to the years of the reign of the current Monarch, so that "61 & 62 Vict c. 37" refers to the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 passed in the session of Parliament in the 61st/62nd year of the reign of Queen Victoria. Geological era In natural science, there is need for another time perspective, independent from human activity, and indeed spanning a far longer period (mainly prehistoric), where era refers to well-defined time spans which subdivide Eons. There are currently four Eras defined in the geological record, in chronological order from eldest to yougest they are:- - Precambrian (4.6Ga - 542Ma) - Paleozoic (542.0Ma(+/-1.0)) - (251.0Ma(+/-0.4)) - Mesozoic (251.0Ma(+/-0.4)) - (65.5Ma(+/-0.3)) - Cenozoic (65.5Ma(+/-0.3)) - Present Cosmological era In astronomy the periods are even longer, to cover the entire existence of the universe (in the order of 13.7 billion years), but usually just denoted in numerical units, as there is no significant link to any earthly reality, our planet being astronomically insignificant (except as the only known observation point). Religious era The term Christian era refers to Anno Domini, the time when Jesus was born, while the expressions Jewish era and Islamic era indicates the time since those said religions began. Colloquial "eras" In common speech and various contexts, the term era is also used, by extension, for any (as a rule relatively long) period in history with a name, often relating to common characteristic(s), even if this is not the normal way to organize time. The most relevant type are politic periods, for example: the Roman era, the Elizabethan era, the Victorian era (dynastic criteria, only formally correct within the British realm/empire/Commonwealth) and the Soviet era, or comparable literary notions like the Biblical era. The word era is also popularly used to denote the passing of — often shorter — periods that are only defined in terms of a specific discipline of sphere of life, such as the prominence of an artistic style, or more specifically in music, see musical eras, described in History of music, such as the Big Band era, Disco era. An event such as the death of Frank Sinatra is poetically called the end of an era. Etymology The word has been in use in English since 1615, and is derived from Late Latin aera "an era or epoch from which time is reckoned," probably identical to Latin æra "counters used for calculation," plural of æs "brass, money". The Latin word's use in chronology seems to have begun in 5th century Visigothic Spain, where it appears in the History of Isidore of Seville, and in later texts. The Spanish era is calculated from 38 BC, perhaps because of a tax (cfr. indiction) levied in that year, or due to a miscalculation of the Battle of Actium, which occurred in 31 BC. Like epoch, "era" in English originally meant "the starting point of an age"; the meaning "system of chronological notation" is c.1646; that of "historical period" is 1741. See also List of time periods | Era |@lemmatized era:36 commonly:1 use:11 word:5 long:4 period:11 time:13 science:2 example:4 geology:1 denote:6 clearly:1 define:4 arbitrary:2 well:2 defined:1 length:1 mesozoic:2 delimit:1 start:4 event:4 end:2 social:1 history:4 may:2 monarch:2 reign:5 colloquial:2 language:1 longer:2 span:4 practice:2 fashion:1 change:1 significant:3 degree:1 us:1 chronology:2 high:1 level:1 organization:1 measurement:1 calendar:1 indicate:2 many:2 year:8 numbered:1 beginning:1 specific:2 reference:2 date:2 epoch:3 often:4 mark:1 origin:1 political:2 state:1 cosmology:1 dynasty:1 ruler:2 birth:1 leader:1 another:2 historical:2 mythological:1 generally:1 call:2 focus:1 accordingly:1 victorian:2 regnal:2 also:4 unit:3 different:3 system:4 represent:1 endless:1 continuum:1 single:2 count:1 one:1 rather:1 impractical:1 nightmare:1 historian:1 piece:1 puzzle:1 miss:1 reflect:1 preponderance:1 public:1 life:3 absolute:1 ancient:1 culture:1 tradition:1 sometimes:1 outlive:1 power:1 throne:1 east:2 asia:1 emperor:2 subdivide:2 several:1 treat:1 new:1 name:2 motto:1 slogan:1 choose:1 asian:1 country:1 utilize:1 slightly:1 notably:1 chinese:1 japanese:1 eras:2 korean:1 vietnamese:1 similar:1 survive:1 united:1 kingdom:1 quite:1 recently:1 formal:1 official:1 writing:1 daily:1 ordinary:1 since:3 act:2 parliament:2 accord:1 current:1 vict:1 c:2 refers:3 local:1 government:1 ireland:1 pass:1 session:1 queen:1 victoria:1 geological:2 natural:1 need:1 perspective:1 independent:1 human:1 activity:1 indeed:1 far:1 mainly:1 prehistoric:1 eon:1 currently:1 four:1 record:1 chronological:2 order:2 eldest:1 yougest:1 precambrian:1 paleozoic:1 cenozoic:1 present:1 cosmological:1 astronomy:1 even:2 cover:1 entire:1 existence:1 universe:1 billion:1 usually:1 numerical:1 link:1 earthly:1 reality:1 planet:1 astronomically:1 insignificant:1 except:1 known:1 observation:1 point:2 religious:1 term:3 christian:1 anno:1 domini:1 jesus:1 bear:1 expression:1 jewish:1 islamic:1 say:1 religion:1 begin:2 common:2 speech:1 various:1 context:1 extension:1 rule:1 relatively:1 relate:1 characteristic:1 normal:1 way:1 organize:1 relevant:1 type:1 politic:1 roman:1 elizabethan:1 dynastic:1 criterion:1 formally:1 correct:1 within:1 british:1 realm:1 empire:1 commonwealth:1 soviet:1 comparable:1 literary:1 notion:1 like:2 biblical:1 popularly:1 passing:1 short:1 discipline:1 sphere:1 prominence:1 artistic:1 style:1 specifically:1 music:2 see:2 musical:1 describe:1 big:1 band:1 disco:1 death:1 frank:1 sinatra:1 poetically:1 etymology:1 english:2 derive:1 late:1 latin:3 aera:1 reckon:1 probably:1 identical:1 æra:1 counter:1 calculation:1 plural:1 æs:1 brass:1 money:1 seem:1 century:1 visigothic:1 spain:1 appear:1 isidore:1 seville:1 later:1 text:1 spanish:1 calculate:1 bc:2 perhaps:1 tax:1 cfr:1 indiction:1 levy:1 due:1 miscalculation:1 battle:1 actium:1 occur:1 originally:1 mean:1 age:1 meaning:1 notation:1 list:1 |@bigram mesozoic_era:1 victorian_era:2 queen_victoria:1 anno_domini:1 frank_sinatra:1 isidore_seville:1 battle_actium:1 |
1,262 | Emperor_Kanmu | (737–806) was the 50th imperial ruler of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Spelling note: A modified Hepburn romanization system for Japanese words is used throughout Western publications in a range of languages including English. Unlike the standard system, the "n" is maintained even when followed by "homorganic consonants" (e.g., shinbun, not shimbun). In the same way that Wikipedia has not yet adopted a consensus policy to address spelling variations in English (e.g., humour, not humor), variant spellings based on place of articulation are unresolved, perhaps unresolvable -- as in Emperor Kammu vs. Emperor Kanmu, which are each construed as technically correct. His reign spanned the years from 781 through 806. Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon, pp. 86-95; Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, pp. 277-279; Varley, H. Paul. Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 148-150. Genealogy Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name (his imina) was Yamabe-shinnō (Yama-no Bu-no shinno). Titsingh, p. 85; Brown, p. 264. [Up until the time of Emperor Jomei, the personal names of the emperors (their imina) were very long and people did not generally use them. The number of characters in each name diminished after Jomei's reign.] Yamabe was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe, later Emperor Kōnin. Titsingh, p. 85; Varley, p. 149. According to the , Yamabe's mother Yamato no Niigasa, later Takano no Niigasa, was a descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje. Yamabe was born before his father ascended to the throne. After his father, Kōnin, became emperor, Kammu's half-brother was appointed to the rank of crown prince; but instead of his half-brother, it was Kammu who was later named to succeed their father. Later, when he ascended to the throne, Kammu appointed his young brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa, as crown prince. Prince Sawara was later expelled and died in exile. Kammu had 16 empresses and consorts, and 32 imperial sons and daughters. Brown, p. 277. Among them, three sons would eventually ascend to the imperial throne: Emperor Heizei, Emperor Saga and Emperor Junna. Some of his descendants (known as the Kammu Taira or Kammu Heishi) took the Taira hereditary clan title, and in later generations became prominent warriors. Examples include Taira no Masakado, Taira no Kiyomori, and (with a further surname expansion) the Hōjō clan. The waka poet Ariwara no Narihira was one of his grandsons. Events of Kammu's life During his reign, from 781 to 806, the Capital of Japan was moved from Nara (Heijō-kyō) -- first to Nagaoka (Nagaoka-kyō in 784, where the palace was named Nagaoka no Miya), and then to Heian-kyō in 794, where the palace was named Heian no Miya. [see above] This marks the beginning of the Heian era in Japanese history. Kammu was an active emperor who attempted to consolidate government hierarchies and functioning. Kammu appointed Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (758-811) to lead a military expedition against the Emishi. Brown, pp. 278-279; Varley, p. 272; Titsingh, p. 99. Ten'ō 1, on the 3rd day of the 12th month (天応元年, 781): In 11th year of Emperor Kōnin's reign (光仁天皇11年), he abdicated; and the succession (the senso) was received by his son. Titsingh, pp. 85-86; Brown, p. 277. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kammu is said to have acceded to the throne (‘‘sokui’’). Titsingh, p. 86; Varley, p. 44. [A distinct act of senso is unrecognized prior to Emperor Tenji; and all sovereigns except Jitō, Yōzei, Go-Toba, and Fushimi have senso and sokui in the same year until the reign of Go-Murakami.] Enryaku 1, in the 6th month (782): The sadaijin Fujiwara no Uona was removed from his office and exiled to Kyushi. Some time later, the emperor did permit him to return to the capital where he died. In the same general time frame, Fujiwara no Tamaro was named Udaijin. During these days in which the offices of sadaijin and udaijin were vacant, the major counselors (the dainagon) and the emperor assumed responsibilities and powers which would have been otherwise delegated. Titsingh, p. 86. Enryaku 3, in the 3rd month (783): The udaijin Tamaro died at the age of 62 years. Enryaku 3, in the 7th month (783): Fujiwara no Korekimi became the new udaijin to replace the late Fujiwara no Tamaro. Enryaku 12 (793): Under the leadership of Dengyō, construction began on the Enryaku Temple. Brown, p. 279. Enryaku 13, on the 21st day of the 10th month (794): The Emperor traveled by carriage from Nara to Heian-kyō in a grand procession. [see above] Emperor Kammu's reign lasted for 25 years. He died at the age of 70. Varley, p. 150. Politics Earlier Imperial sponsorship of Buddhism, beginning with Prince Shōtoku (574–622), had led to a general politicization of the clergy, along with an increase in intrigue and corruption. In 784 Kammu shifted his capital from Nara to Nagaoka in a move that was said to be designed to edge the powerful Nara Buddhist establishments out of state politics—while the capital moved, the major Buddhist temples, and their officials, stayed put. Indeed there was a steady stream of edicts issued from 771 right through the period of Kūkai's studies which, for instance, sought to limit the number of Buddhist priests, and the building of clan temples. However the move was to prove disastrous and was followed by a series of natural disasters including the flooding of half the city. In 785 the principal architect of the new capital, and royal favourite, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, was assassinated. Meanwhile, Kammu's armies were pushing back the boundaries of his empire. This led to an uprising, and in 789 a substantial defeat for Kammu's troops. Also in 789 there was a severe drought and famine—the streets of the capital were clogged with the sick, and people avoiding being drafted into the military, or into forced labour. Many disguised themselves as Buddhist priests for the same reason. Then in 794 Kammu suddenly shifted the capital again, this time to Heian-kyō, which is modern day Kyoto. The new capital was started early the previous year, but the change was abrupt and led to even more confusion amongst the populace. Politically Kammu shored up his rule by changing the syllabus of the university. Confucian ideology still provided the raison d'être for the Imperial government. In 784 Kammu authorised the teaching of a new course based on the Annals of Spring and Autumn based on two newly imported commentaries: Kung-yang, and Ku-liang. These commentaries used political rhetoric to promote a state in which the Emperor, as "Son of Heaven," should extend his sphere of influence to barbarous lands, thereby gladdening the people. In 798 the two commentaries became required reading at the government university. Kammu also sponsored the travels of the monks Saichō and Kūkai to China, from where they returned to found the Japanese branches of, respectively, Tendai and Shingon Buddhism. Kugyō Kugyō (公卿) is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras.-- kugyō of Kammu-tennō (French) In general, this elite group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have brought them to the pinnacle of a life's career. During Kammu's reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included: Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Uona (藤原魚名), 781-782. Brown, p. 278. Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Tamaro (藤原田麿), 783. Udaijin, Ōnakatomi no Kiyomaro (大中臣清麿), 771-781 Udaijin, Fujiwara no Tamaro (藤原田麿), 782-783. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Korekimi (藤原是公), 783-789. Udaijin, Fujiwara no Tsugutada (藤原継縄), 790-796. Udaijin, Miwa ōkimi or Miwa oh (神王), 798-806 Udaijin, Fujiwara no Uchimaro (藤原内麻呂) (756-812), 806-812. [see above] DainagonEras of Kammu's reign The years of Kammu's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. [see above] Ten'ō (781-782) Enryaku (782-806) Consorts and Children Empress: Fujiwara no Otomuro (藤原乙牟漏) (760-790), daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu (藤原良継) Imperial Prince Ate (安殿親王) (Emperor Heizei) (774-824) Imperial Prince Kamino (賀美能親王/神野親王) (Emperor Saga) (786-842) Imperial Princess Koshi (高志内親王) (789-809), married to Prince Ōtomo(Emperor Junna later)Hi: Princess Sakahito (酒人内親王) (754-829), daughter of Emperor Kōnin Imperial Princess Asahara (朝原内親王) (779-817), 12th Saiō in Ise Shrine782-before 796, and married to Emperor Heizei laterBunin: Fujiwara no Tabiko (藤原旅子) (759-788), daughter of Fujiwara no Momokawa (藤原百川) Imperial Prince Ōtomo (大伴親王) (Emperor Junna) (786-840)Bunin: Fujiwara no Yoshiko (藤原吉子) (?-807), daughter of Fujiwara no Korekimi (藤原是公) Imperial Prince Iyo (伊予親王) (?-807)Bunin: Tajihi no Mamune (多治比真宗) (769-823), daughter of Tajihi no Nagano (多治比長野) Imperial Prince Kazurahara (葛原親王) (786-853) Imperial Princess Inaba (因幡内親王) (?-824) Imperial Princess Anou (安濃内親王) (?-841) Imperial Prince Sami (佐味親王) (793-825) Imperial Prince Kaya (賀陽親王) (794-871) Imperial Prince Ōno(Daitoko) (大野親王/大徳親王) (798-803)Bunin: Fujiwara no Oguso (藤原小屎), daughter of Fujiwara no Washitori (藤原鷲取) Imperial Prince Manta (万多親王) (788-830)Nyōgo: Tachibana no Miiko (橘御井子), daughter of Tachibana no Irii (橘入居) Imperial Princess Sugawara (菅原内親王) (?-825) Imperial Princess Kara (賀楽内親王) (?-874)Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Nakako (藤原仲子), daughter of Fujiwara no Ieyori (藤原家依)Nyōgo: Fujiwara no Shōshi (藤原正子), daughter of Fujiwara no Kiyonari (藤原清成)Nyōgo: Ki no Otoio (紀乙魚)(?-840)Nyōgo: Kudara no Kyōhō (百済教法) (?-840), daughter of Kudara no Shuntetsu (百済俊哲) Court lady: Fujiwara no Kamiko (藤原上子), daughter of Fujiwara no Oguromaro (藤原小黒麻呂) Imperial Princess Shigeno (滋野内親王) (?-857) Court lady: Tachibana no Tsuneko (橘常子) (788-817), daughter of Tachibana no Shimadamaro (橘島田麻呂) Imperial Princess Ōyake (大宅内親王) (?-849), married to Emperor Heizei Court lady: Sakanoue no Matako (坂上全子) (?-790), daughter of Sakanoue no Karitamaro (坂上刈田麻呂) Imperial Princess Takatsu (高津内親王) (?-841), married to Emperor Saga Court lady: Ki no Wakako (紀若子), daughter of Ki no Funamori (紀船守) Imperial Prince Asuka (明日香親王) (?-834) Court lady: Fujiwara no Kawako (藤原河子) (?-838), daughter of Fujiwara no Ōtsugu (藤原大継) Imperial Prince Nakano (仲野親王) (792-867) Imperial Princess Ate (安勅内親王) (?-855) Imperial Princess Ōi (大井内親王) (?-865) Imperial Princess Ki (紀内親王) (799-886) Imperial Princess Yoshihara (善原内親王) (?-863) Court lady: Kudara no Kyōnin (百済教仁), daughter of Kudara no Bukyō (百済武鏡) Imperial Prince Ōta (大田親王) (793-808) Court lady: Fujiwara no Azumako (藤原東子) (?-816), daughter of Fujiwara no Tanetsugu (藤原種継) Imperial Princess Kannabi (甘南備内親王) (800-817) Court lady: Sakanoue no Haruko (坂上春子) (?-834), daughter of Sakanoue no Tamuramaro (坂上田村麻呂) Imperial Prince Fujii (葛井親王) (800-850) vPrincess Kasuga (春日内親王) (?-833) Court lady: Fujiwara no Heishi/Nanshi (藤原平子/南子) (?-833), daughter of Fujiwara no Takatoshi (藤原乙叡) Imperial Princess Ito (伊都内親王) (ca.801-861), married to Prince Abo(son of Emperor Heizei) Court lady: Tachubana no Tamurako (橘田村子), daughter of Tachibana no Irii (橘入居) Imperial Princess Ikenoe (池上内親王) (?-868) Court lady: Kudara no Jōkyō (百済貞香), daughter of Kudara no Kyōtoku (百済教徳) Imperial Princess Suruga (駿河内親王) (801-820) Court lady: Nakatomi no Toyoko (中臣豊子), daughter of Nakatomi no Ōio (中臣大魚) Imperial Princess Fuse (布勢内親王) (?-812), 13th Saiō in Ise Shrine 797-806 Court lady: Kawakami no Manu (河上真奴), daughter of Nishikibe no Haruhito (錦部春人) Imperial Prince Sakamoto (坂本親王) (793-818) Court lady(Nyoju): Tajihi no Toyotsugu (多治比豊継), daughter of Tajihi no Hironari (多治比広成) Nagaoka no Okanari (長岡岡成) (?-848), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 787 Court lady: Kudara no Yōkei (百済永継), daughter of Asukabe no Natomaro (飛鳥部奈止麻呂) Yoshimine no Yasuyo (良岑安世) (785-830), removed from the Imperial Family by receiving the family name from Emperor (Shisei Kōka, 賜姓降下) in 802 Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Heian kyō Nagaoka-kyō, National Museum of Japanese History exhibit | Emperor_Kanmu |@lemmatized imperial:41 ruler:1 japan:7 accord:2 traditional:1 order:1 succession:2 spell:2 note:2 modified:1 hepburn:1 romanization:1 system:2 japanese:4 word:1 use:3 throughout:1 western:1 publication:1 range:1 language:1 include:5 english:2 unlike:1 standard:1 n:1 maintain:1 even:2 follow:2 homorganic:1 consonant:1 e:2 g:2 shinbun:1 shimbun:1 way:1 wikipedia:1 yet:1 adopt:1 consensus:1 policy:1 address:1 variation:1 humour:1 humor:1 variant:1 spelling:1 base:3 place:1 articulation:1 unresolved:1 perhaps:1 unresolvable:1 emperor:32 kammu:23 v:1 kanmu:1 construe:1 technically:1 correct:1 reign:9 span:1 year:7 titsingh:8 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:5 brown:8 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 varley:7 h:3 paul:3 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 genealogy:1 ascension:1 chrysanthemum:1 throne:5 personal:2 name:10 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1,263 | Jerk | Jerk may refer to one of the following: Jamaican jerk spice, a style of cooking native to Jamaica in which meats are dry-rubbed with a fiery spice mixture The second phase of the "clean and jerk", a weightlifting exercise Hypnic jerk, an involuntary muscle twitch during the transition from wakefulness to sleep Soda jerk, a person who operates a soda fountain Jerk (physics), in physics, the rate of change of acceleration The Jerk (1979), a comedy film starring Steve Martin "The Jerk" (House episode), a third season episode of the TV series House Jerk, an album by hHead Jerk (band), an industrial metal band from Sydney, Australia The Jerk (dance), a 1960s dance craze | Jerk |@lemmatized jerk:11 may:1 refer:1 one:1 following:1 jamaican:1 spice:2 style:1 cook:1 native:1 jamaica:1 meat:1 dry:1 rubbed:1 fiery:1 mixture:1 second:1 phase:1 clean:1 weightlifting:1 exercise:1 hypnic:1 involuntary:1 muscle:1 twitch:1 transition:1 wakefulness:1 sleep:1 soda:2 person:1 operate:1 fountain:1 physic:2 rate:1 change:1 acceleration:1 comedy:1 film:1 star:1 steve:1 martin:1 house:2 episode:2 third:1 season:1 tv:1 series:1 album:1 hhead:1 band:2 industrial:1 metal:1 sydney:1 australia:1 dance:2 craze:1 |@bigram |
1,264 | Foreign_relations_of_Mexico | The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of the United Mexican States and managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The principles of the foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states, their sovereignty and independence, non-intervention in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts, and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations. Since the 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles. After the War of Independence, the relations of Mexico were focused primarily on the United States, its northern neighbor, largest trading partner, and the most powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs, as well as on its historically-tied neighbors in Latin America and the Caribbean. Due to domestic issues in the early 1900s, Mexico was kept isolated from international affairs. Once the order was reestablished, its foreign policy was built under hemispheric prestige in subsequent decades. Demonstrating independence from the U.S., Mexico supported the Cuban government since its establishment in the early 1960s, the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s, and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s. In the second millennium, former President Vicente Fox adopted a new foreign policy that calls for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs, as well as a further integration towards its northern neighbors. A greater priority to Latin America and the Caribbean has been given in the administration of President Felipe Calderón. Mexico is one of the founding members of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Organization of American States, Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 145. the Organization of Ibero-American States, the OPANAL and the Rio Group. For a long time, Mexico has been one of the largest contributors to the United Nations regular budget, in 2008 over 40 million dollars were given to the organization. In addition, it is the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since 1994. Mexico is considered as a newly industrialized country, a regional power and an emerging market, hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20. In addition, since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 215. with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club. Foreign policy Current headquarters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Article 89, Section 10 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States states the principles of the Mexican foreign policy, which were officially incorporated in 1988. Pereña-García (2001), p. 35. The direction that the foreign policy will take lies on the President, as the head of state, and it is executed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Textually, the article establishes that: Aside from these principles constitutionally recognized, the foreign policy has been based on some doctrines. The Estrada Doctrine as the most influential and representative instrument in this field, proclaimed in the early 1930s and strictly applied until 2000, claimed that foreign governments should not judge, positively or negatively, the governments or changes in government of other nations, in that such action would imply a breach to their sovereignty. This policy was said to be based on the principles of non-intervention, peaceful resolution of disputes and self-determination of all nations. During the first presidency of the National Action Party, Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Castañeda to be his Minister of Foreign Affairs. Castañeda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the "Castañeda Doctrine". The new foreign policy called for an openness and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in foreign affairs. On November 28 2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón announced that Patricia Espinosa would serve as his Minister of Foreign Affairs starting on December 1 2006. Her declared priorities include the diversification of the United States-Mexico agenda, heavily concentrated on immigration and security issues, and the rebuilding of diplomatic relations with Cuba and Venezuela, which were heavily strained during the previous administration. As well as giving greater priority to Latin America and the Caribbean. Diplomatic relations Mexican diplomatic missions overseas. The Mexican foreign service officially started in 1822, the year after the signing of the Treaty of Cordoba, which marked the beginning of the country's independence. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 519-523. In 1831, legislation was passed that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic representations with other states in Europe and the Americas. As a regional power and emerging market, Mexico holds a significant global presence. As of 2009, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has over 150 representations at its disposal overseas, which include: 7 permanent missions. 75 embassies. 72 consulates. In the early 1970s, Mexico recognized the People's Republic of China as the sole and legit government of China, therefore issues related to the Republic of China (Taiwan) are managed through the Office of Consular Liaison under the circumscription of the Consulate General of Mexico in the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau. In addition, Mexico does not recognize Kosovo as an independent country. Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in . However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican army, air force or navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. Bilateral relations North America Since the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, relations between Canada, Mexico and the United States have significantly strengthened politically, economically, socially and culturally. During the Fox administration, a further integration towards Mexico's northern neighbors was a top priority. The September 11 attacks were a crucial event that changed the priorities of the U.S. foreign policy, therefore the strengthening of the regional security was an important task to archive. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 25 As a result, several trilateral summit meetings regarding this issue have occurred within the framework of the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America (SPP), a region-level dialogue with the stated purpose of providing greater cooperation on security and economic issues, founded in Waco, Texas on March 23 2005 by Paul Martin, former Prime Minister of Canada, Vicente Fox, then-President of Mexico, and George W. Bush, former President of the United States. Other issues of concern are the ones related to conservation and protection of the environment, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) consists of a declaration of principles and objectives concerning this issues as well as concrete measures to further cooperation on these matters tripartitely. In addition, the Independent Task Force on North America advocates a greater economic and social integration between Canada, Mexico and the U.S. as a region. It is a group of prominent business, political and academic leaders from the three countries organized and sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations (U.S.), the Canadian Council of Chief Executives, and the Mexican Council on Foreign Relations. Canada Formal relations did not begin until 1944, at the height of the Second World War, which both countries participated in on the Allied side. Prior to the negotiations around the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), economic and political ties between Mexico and Canada were relatively weak. Since NAFTA has come into force, the two countries have become much more important to each other, and often collaborate when dealing with the United States, for example with issues related to the economic embargo imposed to Cuba. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 208. Currently, Mexico and Canada are close friends and strategic partners and benefit from a very active bilateral relationship which includes ever increasing commercial ties, high-level political exchanges and an expanding collaborative network between Mexicans and Canadians in areas such as climate change, culture, energy, education, good governance, human rights and public service modernization. And more recently, both countries have been building a closer security and defence relationship. In recent years, both partners along with Italy, Argentina, Pakistan and other eight countries have sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 215. Which form a group informally called the Coffee Club, that opposes to the proposition of the G4. United States When Mexico finally gained its independence from Spain in 1821, the United States was the first country to ever recognize it. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 541. On December 12, 1822 the then-United States Secretary of State John Quincy Adams introduced José Manuel Zozoya, the first Mexican representative, to the then-U.S. president James Monroe in the White House. Through this event, the U.S. recognized de facto the independence of Mexico and the recently-born Mexican Empire led by Agustín de Iturbide. However, Washington did not establish diplomatic relations formally with Mexico until 1825, naming Joel Poinsett as its representative, who had the mission of buying territory and getting trading facilities. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 89. The Mexican Cession, shown in red, and the later Gadsden Purchase, shown in yellow. The Mexican-American war was a conflict that sparked when the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845 and the Mexican government refused to recognize the secession of Texas which was the precursor to the annexation. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 96. The war, which began in 1846 and lasted for two years, was settled via the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo which led to Mexico giving up even more of its land to the U.S., including California. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 99-100. Mexico further transferred some of its territories (southern Arizona and New Mexico) to the U.S. via the Gadsden Purchase in 1854. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 101-102. In the Reform War, that lasted from 1858 to 1861, the liberals led by Benito Juarez, were given the U.S. recognition as the legitimate government in Mexico. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 100-103. Meanwhile, the conservatives, headed by Comonfort, Zuloaga and Miramón, brought an European Emperor to govern the country, Maximilian I, which led to the French Intervention in 1862, Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 105. violating the Monroe Doctrine, there was nothing the U.S. could do, as it was involved in its own civil war. Affecting Mexico's foreign policy, both sides, the Union and the Confederacy, were looking for international recognition as well. The Juárez administration was ideologically closer to the Union, but geographically Mexico shared a large border with the Confederacy. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 106-108. In 1861, the then-U.S. President Abraham Lincoln named Thomas Corwin as his minister for Mexico and instructed him to neutralize the Mexican aid given to the Confederates, he successfully archived this mission. Once the civil war ended, then-Secretary of State William Seward declared that the French invasion in Mexico was harmful to the friendship between France and the U.S., and Washington provided financial aid to Benito Juárez, who successfully expelled the French in 1867. Lasting for seven years, the 1910 Mexican Revolution ended the rule of the dictator-president Porfirio Díaz. The war was sparked when the U.S.-supported Díaz was proclaimed the winner of the 1910 elections despite mass popular support for his rival in the election Francisco I. Madero. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 759-762. After the war, the various groups that made up the revolutionary forces splintered as they lost the unifying goal of unseating Díaz —leading to a civil war. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 771-772. The U.S. intervened in the conflict, including the involvement of the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson, in the plotting of the 1913 coup d'état which overthrew Madero. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 776-780. The 1917 Constitution of Mexico caused several problems with the British and American transnational oil companies mainly derived from the article 27, which declares that "the wealth contained in the soil, the subsoil, the waters and seas of Mexico belongs to the Nation; the right to land ownership and to exploit the subsoil may therefore only be granted by the Nation." Due to foreign pressure, the implementation of the article was continuously ignored by the government until March 18, 1938 when then-President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized the oil industry. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 134-136. PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, as well as an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later. During the Cold War, demonstrating independence from the United States, Mexico supported the Cuban government during the 1960s, the Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua during the late 1970s, and leftist revolutionary groups in El Salvador during the 1980s. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect on January 1, 1994, which led to the elimination of tariffs and other trade barriers between Mexico and the U.S. and serves as a multilateral platform for cooperation between both countries. Selee (2007), p. 13-16 The agreement increased trade volume and cooperation in both countries. Selee (2007), p. 1 The free trade agreement has come under attack from Mexican and American farmers and the political left claiming that it hurts the interest of local small farmers in both the U.S. and Mexico. Selee (2007), p. 3-5 Allegations of violations of labor and environmental laws have been considered by the trilateral institutions. Selee (2007), p. 5-8 The Bush Administration argued that NAFTA had had modest positive impacts on all three member countries, but Mexican farmers have strongly criticized the effects of NAFTA. Selee (2007), p. 3 Notable bilateral trade disputes relate to trucking, tuna, sweeteners and anti-dumping measures. Selee (2007), p. 2-3 Migration, border security Selee (2007), p. 13 and trade issues have dominated the bilateral relationship in recent years. In September 2006, Congress approved the Secure Fence Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-367) to authorize the construction of a border fence and other barriers along 700 miles of the U.S.-Mexico border. In March 2009, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton officially visited Mexico to discuss issues of concern for both countries, specifically the ones related to drug trafficking and the U.S. financial support in the Mexican drug war. Latin America and the Caribbean The Caribbean Cuba In 1902, Mexico became the first country to ever recognize and establish relations with the Republic of Cuba once it gained full sovereignty. The cultural ties between the two nations got stronger during the following decades. In the mid-twentieth century, the Cuban Revolution took place, culminating with the triumph of the 26th of July Movement on January 1, 1959. In 1964, when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained. Mexico thereafter maintained diplomatic relations with Cuba, which effectively established it as the sole link between Fidel Castro and the rest of the hemisphere because none of the other Latin American governments recognized Cuba's revolutionary regime until after 1970. Since then, Mexico constantly supported Cuba in international organizations and multilateral forums, and strongly opposed to the economic embargo imposed to the Caribbean island in the early 1960s. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 207-209. Relations remained strong and stable until 1998 when Fidel Castro declared that Mexican children would find it easier to name Disney characters than to recount key figures in Mexican history, such declarations led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. He later apologized and said that his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the U.S. On November 16 1999, former Mexican president Ernesto Zedillo highly criticized the lack of democracy and freedom in Cuba when officially visited the Caribbean island. Relations worsened when then-president Vicente Fox, from the National Action Party, redirected the country's foreign policy. In April 2002, the UN Human Rights Commission again criticized Cuba's rights record, the resolution was sponsored by Uruguay and supported by many of Cuba's traditional allies such as Mexico, that historically had abstained. The same month, Fox apologized to Fidel Castro over allegations by Castro that Fox forced him to leave the United Nations International Conference on Financing for Development in Monterrey, Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of former U.S. President George W. Bush, who also attended. Relations between the two countries reached their lowest point. Under the Calderón administration, Mexico has concentrated on rebuilding diplomatic relations with Havana. On December 15-17 2008, in the framework of the "First Latin American and Caribbean Summit for Integration and Development", President Calderón introduced Cuba to the regional organization Rio Group and held talks with President Raul Castro about topics of interests for both countries. They both agreed to schedule mutual visits for 2009. Central America South America Mexico is an observer of several regional organizations such as the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) and the Andean Community of Nations (CAN). Former President of Argentina Néstor Kirchner expressed, during a state visit in Mexico City, that Mexico should become a full member of Mercosur, other Latin American leaders such as Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and Tabaré Vázquez share this vision and have extended the invitation, the latter emphasized Mexico's key role in integration of Latin America and the Caribbean and stated that: Argentina First contacts started in 1818 with the United Provinces of South America. Due to internal conflicts in each nation, relations between Mexico and Argentina were established de jure until the 1880s when both countries officially accredited their respective representations, upgraded to embassies in 1927. In May 20, 1914, accredited diplomats from Argentina, Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries, met in Niagara Falls, Canada, to prevent a war between Mexico and the United States, potentially possible due to measures taken by then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson concerning the Tampico Affair. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 123. Relations reached their lowest point during the rule of the military government in Argentina, because of the asylum provided by Mexico to Héctor Cámpora and Abal Medina. Nearly at the end of the López Portillo administration, in April 1982, Argentina challenged the British government when invaded the Falkland Islands, Mexico acknowledged the Argentine rights over the islands but condemned the use of force to solve the conflict and supported a resolution of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) that called for an end of hostilities. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 159. In 2005, during the Fourth Summit of the Americas in Mar de Plata, Argentina, tensions between the two countries started when former President Vicente Fox canceled the anticipatively programed bilateral reunion with then-President Néstor Kirchner. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 353. At the Summit, Fox actively promoted the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and suggested the exclusion of those who did not agree; Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela argued that the Summit was not meant to discuss the FTAA and rejected the proposition. At the end of the ceremony, Fox expressed that "the most important countries of the Americas (Canada, Mexico and the U.S.) supported the FTAA, and the secondary ones (Cuba, Venezuela and the members of Mercosur) were against it". Later, he criticized Kirchner's interest of "pleasing the Argentine public opinion", Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 354. who responded that "Fox should only care for the affairs that involve Mexico [...] and good diplomacy was not about bowing down to powerful countries". The respective Ministries of Foreign Affairs redacted a joint communiqué apologizing for the incident and reminded the "importance of the good relations for both countries". In 2007, when Kirchner paid a state visit, he and President Felipe Calderón signed a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" to strengthen bilateral ties. In recent years, both partners, along with Italy, Pakistan, South Korea and other eight countries, developed a movement called Uniting for Consensus, nicknamed the "Coffee Club", in opposition to the possible expansion of the United Nations Security Council. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 215. Argentina and Mexico, specifically, do not support the integration of Brazil as a permanent member of the UNSC. Brazil Mexico and Brazil represent more than half of population, territory and economic development in Latin America, and have the major prestige in the region. Considered as regional powers by analysts, relations between the two countries remain good. In the economic area, both are members of the ALADI, the G8+5 and the G-20. Diplomatic relations between Mexico and Brazil were formally established in the 1820s. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 33. During the French Intervention in Mexico, every Latin American country, except Guatemala and the Brazilian Empire, refused to recognize the government of Maximilian I. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 106. In 1914, an incident occurred in the Port of Tampico Detailed description of the "Tampico Incident" available on New Medicine in Vera Cruz was enough to lead the U.S. to send troops to occupy the Port of Veracruz, event that coincided with the military aid provided by Germany to General Victoriano Huerta. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 123. The governments of Argentina, Brazil and Chile, that were given the term ABC countries, supported by then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, offered their mediation to solve the dispute peacefully. The ABC countries met in Niagara Falls, Canada to prevent a war between Mexico and the U.S. Legit President Venustiano Carranza refused to participate because of discussions regarding the ideal form of government that should be established in Mexico took place at the Niagara Falls conferences, thus the Carranza followers condemned these actions and refused to accept any foreign aid. Nonetheless, the ABC Pact of 1915 was successfully implemented during the following years. Since the 1970s, relations between Mexico and Brazil have been substantially strengthened. In October 2006, President-elect Felipe Calderón visited Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, to deepen the dialogue and cooperation between the two countries. The governments of Brazil and Mexico look for maintaining an opened dialogue with several visits to strengthen the bilateral relations and allow a major exchange in areas such as non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, human rights, environment and energy. Thus the Brazil-Mexico Bilateral Commission was released in March 2007 to strengthen their relations. In August 2007, when President "Lula" da Silva paid a state visit, both leaders agreed to coordinate their foreign policies towards Latin America in order to further integrate the region. In the multilateral scene, Brazil and Mexico's actions are guided by solid principles such as respect for international law, defense of multilateralism, social justice and democratization of international relations. As noted, both countries share views internationally. However, some differences remain, being the most significant the Reform of the United Nations Security Council. Brazil and Mexico, along with India, the People's Republic of China and South Africa, often represent the interests of the developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5 and the G-20. Chile In the early 1820s, Chile and Mexico established diplomatic relations, both countries had interest of integrating the region, however, due to Mexico's economic and political instability the project did not go further. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 91-92. In 1914, due to the Tampico Affair, then-U.S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the occupation of the Port of Veracruz. Once Wilson realized that his objectives had failed, he appealed to the accredited diplomats of Argentina, Brazil and Chile, known as the ABC countries, to mediate and find a peaceful solution to the international conflict preventing a between Mexico and the U.S. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 123. Based on the principle of ideological plurality, the Mexican government actively supported the regimes of Fidel Castro in Cuba and Salvador Allende in Chile. After the coup d'état of September 11, 1973, Mexico condemned the dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, but did not break off diplomatic relations immediately due to the amount of Chileans seeking for asylum refuged in the Mexican embassy. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 155. Months later, then-President Luis Echeverría formally broke off diplomatic ties with Chile. Relations were reestablished in 1990 after the Chilean transition to democracy with the election of Patricio Aylwin. A Free Trade Agreement with Chile was signed in April 1998 and went into force on August 1, 1999. Since then, bilateral trade has significantly increased and exceeded the USD$3,3 billion mark as of 2006. In addition, Mexico has become Chile's main Latin American investor, accumulating nearly USD$870 million. Under the Fox administration, the candidacy of then-Minister of Foreign Affairs Luis Ernesto Derbez for the Secretary General of the Organization of American States was highly promoted. It eventually failed but brought a diplomatic crisis with Chile when Derbez had announced that he would no longer compete against José Miguel Insulza, however, the Mexican delegation abstained despite being previously agreed that it would vote for the Chilean candidate. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 289-301. Bilateral relations were raised to a new level during the state visit of President Michelle Bachelet to Mexico in March 2007, both countries put into effect a "Strategic Partnership Agreement" aimed at bolstering trade, political, diplomatic and cultural relations, as well as ties with civil society. It also creates a fund that will provide USD$2 million a year for development projects in Chile, Mexico and third countries. Europe Mexico was the first Latin American country to sign a partnership agreement with the European Union (EU), in 1997, composed by 15 members at the time. The agreement entered into force in July 2000 and has considerably strengthened bilateral relations between the two partners. It governs all relations between them, including a regular high-level political dialogue, and shared values such as democracy and human rights. In addition, Mexico signed a free trade agreement with the European Free Trade Area (EFTA), in 2000 integrated by Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. France The independence of Mexico was recognized de jure by France until 1830. The first official contacts concerned trading, in 1827 an agreement signed in Paris established that both countries and its citizens would enjoy a privileged position reciprocally, which included complaints and demands related to the damages suffered during the war from French citizens living in Mexico, the Mexican Congress refused to ratify it. then-French Foreign Minister Louis, comte Molé sent an ultimatum urging the Mexican government to pay off its debts, due to economic instability, refused to do so. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 95. In 1838, a French pastry cook, Monsieur Remontel, claimed his shop in the Tacubaya district of Mexico City had been ruined by looting Mexican officers in 1828, he appealed to French King Louis-Philippe. Coming to its citizen's aid, France demanded MXN$600,000 in damages. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 574-577. When the payment was not forthcoming from then-President Anastasio Bustamante, Louis-Philippe sent a fleet to declare a blockade of all Mexican ports from Yucatán to the Rio Grande, and to seize the Port of Veracruz, which led to an armed conflict known as the Pastry War. British diplomat Richard Pakenham offered his mediation, after several negotiations, Mexico was eventually forced to pay the initially demanded MXN$600,000 and burdensome compensations. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 96. In 1861, the liberals won the War of Reform, however, it left the treasury depleted. Trade was stagnant, and foreign creditors were demanding full repayment of Mexican debts, Juárez proceeded to declare a moratorium on all foreign debt repayments. France, Great Britain and Spain decided to launch a joint occupation of the Mexican Gulf coast to force repayment. The Spanish and British quickly figured out that Juárez fully intended to pay the debts when he could, so they withdrew. They also realized that the French had other intentions, indicated by the arrival of reinforcements, and had no desire to help France achieve its ambitions, which led to a military intervention, encouraged by the defeated conservatives. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 105. When the French entered Mexico City in mid-1863, the conservatives quickly invited Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria to accept the Mexican crown, who agreed believing that this act responded to the desire of a majority of Mexicans. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 617-618. However, once the conservatives understood Maximilian's democratic sentiments and anticlerical attitudes, began withdrawing their support. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 621-624. When the American Civil War ended, the U.S. made its Monroe Doctrine valid and intervened by providing military and financial aid to Juárez. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 107. Meanwhile, in Europe, France was increasingly threatened by a belligerent Prussia and, by 1866, Napoleon III began recalling his troops stationed in Mexico. Conservative forces switched sides and began supporting the Mexican liberals. United resumed their campaign on February 19, 1867, and on May 15, Maximilian surrendered. He was tried and, on Juárez's orders, was executed on [une 19. After an exhaustive process, diplomatic relations were reestablished in 1880, leaving behind claims related to the war. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 117. When the Fourth Republic collapsed in 1958, Mexico was the first country that recognized the Fifth Republic founded by General Charles de Gaulle. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 141. In subsequent years, both countries coordinated actions and released a communiqué that supported the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) during the Salvadoran Civil War. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 157. Recently, President Nicolas Sarkozy paid a state visit in March 2009, however, controversy over the Florence Cassez case, a Frenchwoman convicted of kidnapping in Mexico sentenced to 60 years in jail, overshadowed the bilateral agenda. Backed by the "Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons", Sarkozy persuaded the Mexican government to allow Cassez to serve out her sentence in France, however, public opinion in Mexico strongly opposes under the suspicion that once home, she would quickly be released from jail. A bilateral commission was established to handle the case and is expected to give its report in upcoming weeks. Meanwhile, speaking at the National Palace in Mexico City, Sarkozy praised Calderón for Mexico's "courageous and determined" battle against drug cartels and urged the Congress to reform the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican military to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions. Supported by British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Sarkozy has previously expressed that the G8 would benefit from a permanent enlargement that includes the +5 countries. Germany Alexander von Humboldt's reports on his trip to then-New Spain back in the early 1800s heralded the start of Germany's interest in Mexico. Commercial links were quickly established through the signing of the "Treaty of Commerce and Navigation" between Mexico and Hamburg in 1823. Due to increasing investment, six years later, Prussia sent Carl Koppe as its first General Consul and first representative in the newly-born nation. During the administration of dictator Porfirio Diaz, commercial ties significantly strengthened. In January 1917, Britain's secret Royal Navy cryptanalytic group, Room 40, intercepted a proposal from Berlin, the Zimmermann Telegram, to Mexico to join the Great War as Germany's ally against the United States, should the U.S. join. The proposal suggested, if the U.S. were to enter the war, Mexico should declare war against the U.S. and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the U.S. from joining the Allies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. When the U.S. entered the war on April 2, 1917, eleven days later then-President Venustiano Carranza not only turned down the proposition but also declared neutrality. El Colegio de México (2007) p. 808. Nearly 25,000 Mennonites of German ancestry immigrated from Canada to Mexico and settled in the states of Chihuahua and Durango in 1922, their agricultural centers still contribute to the economy of the region. During the Third Reich, Mexico received hundreds of asylum seekers, standing out important figures such as Egon Erwin Kisch, Anna Seghers and Paul Westheim. During the Second World War, the Axis Powers sank several Mexican oil tankers such as Faja de Oro and Potrero de Llano, despite Mexico's neutrality. This attacks were enough to make Mexico enter the world conflict. In 1952, diplomatic relations between the two countries were officially reestablished. In 1964, the foundation of Volkswagen in Puebla, Mexico, best represents the foreign investment from Germany; specifically, the Volkswagen Beetle, informally called "vocho", is commonly seen as a symbol of Germany in the country. In contemporary times, Germany is viewed as a privileged partner in Europe, from whom economic, political and cultural engagement in Mexico is expected. Bilateral relations are being intensified in all areas based on a "Joint Declaration" between the two countries' Foreign Ministries signed in April 2007. Economic ties have been strengthened since the European Union-Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Germany has become Mexico's fourth-largest trading partner. Spain After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was successfully archived in 1521, Mexico became part of the Spanish Empire as the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which lasted until 1821 when the Kingdom of Spain officially recognized the independence of Mexico by signing the Treaty of Córdoba. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 529-530. Ferdinand VII never gave his approval to the treaty signed by Juan O'Donojú, until he died in 1833, serious negotiations started to formalize the independence, the "Treaty of Peace and Friendship" was signed on December 28, 1836. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 540-544. The first decades of Mexico's post-independence period were characterized by economic instability. On July 17, 1861, then-President Benito Juárez's suspension of interest payments to foreign countries angered Mexico's major creditors: Spain, France and Great Britain. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 105. Napoleon III was the leader of this operation, and the three powers signed the Treaty of London on October 31 to unite their efforts to receive payments from Mexico. On December 8 the Spanish fleet and troops from Spanish-controlled Cuba arrived at Mexico's main Gulf port, Veracruz. Spain along Great Britain soon withdrew after the signing of the "Treaty of La Soledad", France did not agree with the terms and immediately invaded Mexico. During the Spanish–American War, Mexico remained neutral to avoid conflicts with the United States and Spain, despite previously having negotiated the eventual annexation of Cuba with Washington. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 119. In 1936, the Cárdenas administration declared, in the League of Nations, that "Spain was a victim of foreign aggression and had the right of moral and diplomatic support from the international community". The government decided to openly support the republican forces during the Spanish Civil War. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 137. Once the war finished in 1939, Mexico received nearly 30,000 asylum seekers and immediately broke off diplomatic relations with the "Spanish State" under the rule of dictator Francisco Franco. Diplomatic relations, since their reestablishment on March 28 1977, have been strengthened within a modern, legal and institutional framework to promote politic dialogue and cooperation. In January 1990, the "General Treaty of Cooperation and Friendship" was signed to establish a Bilateral Commission. In 2007, President Calderón and Spanish President José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero paid state visits reciprocally and signed a declaration to deepen the strategic association between the two countries. After the European Union-Mexico Free Trade Agreement went into force in July 2000, Spain became Mexico's seventh trading partner and second amongst the European Union members. United Kingdom Due to rivalry with France and Spain, then-Prime Minister George Canning was interested in recognizing the independence of the newly-born nations in the Americas. On June 27, 1824, Canning received Mexican plenipotentiary minister José Mariano Michelena and recognized Mexico as an independent country de facto, and formally on December 30, despite opposition from the British cabinet. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 85. In subsequent decades, the United Kingdom would persuade other European countries to recognize Mexico, especially Spain, and offer mediation in different international conflicts that involved Mexico in the 19th century such as the Pastry War Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 96. and the Texas War of Independence. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 575. By 1861, Mexico was a country deeply in debt and torn by divisions of the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Mexico's creditors demanded repayment, forcing then-President Benito Juárez to declare a two-year moratorium on foreign debt, which in turn led to a punitive expedition sent by Britain, France and Spain. Juarez successfully negotiated the "Treaty of La Soledad" with the British and Spanish, who soon withdrew. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 105. After the Mexican Congress ratified a commercial agreement with the U.S. in 1883, Great Britain showed more interest in reestablish diplomatic relations with Mexico, and quickly did so a couple of years later. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 118. Sovereignty over the territory of Belize was historically claimed by Mexico, but the British crown refused to discuss this issue for a long time; however, in 1897, the signing of the "Mariscal-Spencer Treaty" resolved the territorial disputes with the British crown colony. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 114. In 1917, Mexico's newly promulgated Constitution provided, among other things, restrictions on foreign ownership of land and subsoil resources, notably oil. El Colegio de México (2007), p. 817. This last provision, included in Article 27, was ominous for American and British investors who had obtained oil-mining concessions. Due to heavy foreign pressure, subsequent governments did not strictly applicate the article, until Lázaro Cárdenas, who on March 18, 1938, fully nationalized the oil-industry. This measure led to protests by the British government questioning the expropriation and Mexico's solvency to execute it. In response, a check, in an amount worth of the demands for nationalization, was sent and diplomatic ties were broken off. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 135-136. PEMEX replaced the 17 Anglo-American companies, however, the country faced hard retaliations from the transnational oil companies, and an international boycott that could be overcome ten years later. Decades later, several state visits would be reciprocally paid, notably Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom in 1975. On March 31-April 1, 2009, President Felipe Calderón officially visited the UK to discuss issues related to modernization of the national oil industry, climate change and strategic cooperation with Prime Minister Gordon Brown, as well as coordinating actions for the G-20 London Summit. Asia-Pacific First contacts with Asia started in 1565, when Governor General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi claimed the Philippines as a Spanish Colony and designated Manila as the capital in 1571. Due to its distance from Spain, the Spanish Government assigned Manila's administration and government to Viceroyalty of New Spain for two and a half centuries. Evangelization and commercialization constituted the core of intercontinental ties between Asia and America that materialized with the Manila-Acapulco galleons. Williams, Glyn (1999). The Prize of All the Oceans. Viking, New York. ISBN 0-670-89197-5, p. 4. In 1993, Mexico joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum, within this framework Mexico has sought to strengthen its relations with the region, especially with Australia, India, Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 38-40. the People's Republic of China Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 37-38. and South Korea. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 41. India Former President Vicente Fox with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh during an official visit in 2005. As two of the fastest-growing economies, regional powers and potential superpowers, India and Mexico are reciprocally considered as strategic partners. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 40. Under the Fox administration, several visits and bilateral meetings occurred concerning diverse areas such as economy, technology and culture. In April 2004, the "Group of Friendship Mexico-India" was established at the LIX Legislature. To promote a major rapprochement with India, then-Secretary of Foreign Affairs Luis Ernesto Derbez met with his Indian counterpart in mid-2004 in Washington, D.C., and officially visited New Delhi in August, where both ministers agreed to celebrate the IV Binational Commission, formerly suspended in 1996, with the aim of strengthening the bilateral agenda. In May 2007, India and Mexico signed the "Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement" (BIPA) to strengthen their trading relations, with proximity to the U.S., the joint ventures would enable Indian companies to increase their presence in the world's biggest market, taking advantage of Mexico's membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Japan The Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1888 between the two countries was Japan's first "equal" treaty with a foreign country. In 1897, the 35 members of the so-called Enomoto Colonization Party settle in the Mexican state of Chiapas to grow coffee, this was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America. Former Mexican President Álvaro Obregón was awarded Japan's Order of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony in Mexico City. On November 27, 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón. It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside the Imperial family. In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty, preceded only by the United Kingdom. On September 17, 2004, Mexico and Japan signed a free trade agreement, formally known as the "Agreement Between Japan and the United Mexican States for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership", which went into effect in April 2005. This was the among many historic steps led by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability. As a result, in 2007 Mexico became Japan's largest trading partner in Latin America. Over sixty treaties and agreements have been signed between the two countries, standing out the ones related to technological and scientific cooperation, several academic and cultural exchanges, as well as an increasing inter-parliamentary dialogue. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 39-40. Multilateral relations United Nations Mexico is the tenth largest contributor to the United Nations (UN) regular budgets. Currently, it is a member of eighteen organizations arisen from the General Assembly, Social and Economic Council and other specialized organizations of the UN. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 230. The United Nations Security Council. Mexico has served as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) three times (1946, 1982-83, 2002-03). In October 17, 2008, picking up 185 votes, it was elected to serve as a non-permanent member for the fourth time, from January 1, 2009 to December 31, 2010. Since April 1, Mexico holds the rotative presidency of the UNSC. In recent years, the need of reforming the UNSC and its working methods has been widely impulsed by Mexico, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), p. 215. with the support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries. And have formed a movement informally called the Coffee Club, created in the 1990s, which highly opposes to the reform that the Group of Four (G4) suggests. In line with the Castañeda Doctrine of new openness in Mexico's foreign policy, established in the early 2000s, some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican army, air force or navy to collaborate with the UN in peacekeeping missions. Organization of American States Mexican Permanent Mission to the Organization of American States (OAS) in Washington, D.C.. As a founding member of the Organization of American States (OAS), Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 145. Mexico has actively participated in the intergovernmental organization. Since the creation of the OAS, Mexico always promoted to include more principals related to international cooperation and less military aspects, Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 150. its position was based on the principles of non-intervention and the pacific resolution of disputes. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 169. In addition, Mexico favored the membership of Canada in 1989 and Belize and Guatemala in 1991. In 1964, under U.S. pressure, the OAS required all member countries to break off diplomatic ties with Cuba. Mexico refused, condemned the Bay of Pigs invasion, and did not support the expulsion of Cuba from the OAS. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 149. Years later, Mexico strongly opposed to the creation of a military alliance within the OAS framework, and condemned the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 170. Under the Fox administration, the candidacy of then-Secretary of Foreign Affairs Luis Ernesto Derbez for the Secretary General of the OAS was highly promoted. It eventually failed but brought a diplomatic crisis with Chile and harsh critics from the Mexican public opinion when Derbez had announced that he would no longer compete against José Miguel Insulza but the Mexican delegation abstained despite being previously agreed that it would vote for the Chilean candidate. Velázquez Flores (2007), p. 289-301. Participation in international organizations Regional Organizations: • CAN • IDB • LAC-EU • LAES • LAIA • Latin American and Caribbean Summit on Integration and Development • Latin American Pacific Rim Forum • Ibero-American Summit • Mercosur • OAS • OEI • OPANAL • Rio Group • SICA • Summits of the Americas • UNASUR • UNECLAC International and Multilateral Organizations: • APEC • CCW • CD • Codex Alimentarius Commission • ECOSOC • FAO • G8+5 • G15 • G20 • G20+ • ICRC • ICC • ILO • IMF • IOM • IPU • ITC • Interpol • ITU • Latin Union • NAM • UN • UNAIDS • UNOCHA • UNCTAD • UNDIR • UNESCO • UNHCR • UNITAR • UNRISD • UNWTO • UPU • World Bank • WHO • WIPO • WMO • WSIS • WTO Free trade agreements Mexico is currently the country with most free trade agreements in the world. Ordered by date, the free trade agreements in force are: NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992. From left to right (standing) President Carlos Salinas de Gortari, President George H. W. Bush, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. (Seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills, Michael Wilson. 1994: North American Free Trade Agreement (Canada and the United States). 1995: G-3 Free Trade Agreement (Colombia and formerly Venezuela). 1995: Free Trade Agreement with Costa Rica. 1995: Free Trade Agreement with Bolivia. 1998: Free Trade Agreement with Nicaragua. 1999: Free Trade Agreement with Chile. 2000: Free Trade Agreement with the European Union. 2000: Free Trade Agreement with Israel. 2001: Free Trade Agreement with the Northern Triangle (Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras). 2001: Free Trade Agreement with the European Free Trade Association (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland). 2004: Free Trade Agreement with Uruguay. 2005: Agreement for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership with Japan. Transnational issues Illicit drugs Hot spots where police corruption and extreme drug cartel violence prompted an increased use of the military in law enforcement roles. Mexico remains a transit and not a cocaine production country. Methamphetamine and marijuana production do take place in Mexico and are responsible for an estimated 80% of the methamphetamine on the streets in the United States, while 1,100 metric tons of marijuana are smuggled each year from Mexico. In 1990 just over half the cocaine imported into the U.S. came through Mexico, by 2007 that had risen to more than 90 percent, according to U.S. State Department estimates. Although violence between drug cartels has been occurring long before the war began, the government used its police forces in the 1990s and early 2000s with little effect. That changed on December 11 2006, when newly elected President Felipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state of Michoacán to put an end to drug violence there. This action is regarded as the first major retaliation made against cartel operations, and is generally viewed as the starting point of the war between the government and the drug cartels. As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now well over 25,000 troops involved. During the Calderón administration, the Mexican government has spent approximately USD$7 billion in an 18-month-old campaign against drug cartels. It is estimated that during 2006, there were about 2,000 drug-related violent deaths, about 2,300 deaths during 2007, and more than 6,200 people by the end of 2008. Many of the dead were gang members killed by rivals or by the government, some have been bystanders. Drug trafficking is acknowledged as an issue with shared responsibilities that requires coordinated measures by the U.S. and Mexico. In March 2009, United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, when officially visited Mexico City, stated that: Illegal migration Almost a third of all immigrants in the U.S. were born in Mexico, being the source of the greatest number of both authorized (20%) and unauthorized (56%) migrants who come to the U.S. every year. Selee (2007), p. 5 Since the early 1990s, Mexican immigrants are no longer concentrated in California, the Southwest, and Illinois, but have been coming to new gateway states, including New York, North Carolina, Georgia, Nevada, and Washington, D.C., in increasing numbers. This phenomenon can be mainly attributed to poverty in Mexico, the growing demand for unskilled labor in the U.S., the existence of established family and community networks that allow migrants to arrive in the U.S. with people known to them. The framework of U.S. immigration law has largely remained the same since 1965. The U.S. economy needs both high-skilled and low-skilled immigrant workers to remain competitive and to have enough workers who continue to pay into Social Security and Medicare as the U.S. population grows older. Nonetheless, there are currently very few channels for immigration to the U.S. for work-related reasons under current law. Selee (2007), p. 6 Furthermore, Amnesty International has taken concern regarding the excessive brutality inflicted upon illegal immigrants, which includes beatings, sexual assault, denial of medical attention, and denial of food, water and warmth for long periods. For many years, the Mexican government showed limited interest in the issues. However, former President Vicente Fox actively sought to recognize the contribution of migrants to the U.S. and Mexico and to pursue a bilateral migration agreement with the U.S. government, which eventually failed. Selee (2007), p. 9 The current administration has placed an emphasis on how to create jobs in Mexico, enhance border security, and protect Mexican citizens living abroad. Traditionally, Mexico built a reputation as one of the classic asylum countries, with a varying attitude toward refugees from Spain and other European countries before and during World War II, from Latin America's Southern Cone in the 1970s, and from Central America since the beginning of the 1980s. However, in recent years refugees who solicit asylum are usually treated as if they were just immigrants, with exhaustive administrative processes. The southern border of Mexico has experienced a significant increase in legal and illegal flows over the past decade, in particular for migrants seeking to transit Mexico to reach the U.S. José Luis Soberanes, president of the National Human Rights Commission, condemned the repressing policy implemented by the Mexican government against illegal immigrants who cross the country's southern border. President Calderón modified the "General Law on Population" to derogate some penalties against immigrants such as jail, instead undocumented immigrants have to pay fines as high as USD$500. See also Diplomacy Diplomatic missions of Mexico List of diplomatic missions in Mexico Ministry of Foreign Affairs Mexican Council on Foreign Relations Policy and Doctrine Estrada Doctrine Castañeda Doctrine Human rights in Mexico Footnotes References Pereña-García, Mercedes (2001). Las Relaciones Diplomáticas de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 94. ISBN 9688569178. Velázquez Flores, Rafael (2007). Factores, Bases y Fundamentos de la Política Exterior de México. Plaza y Valdés, p. 331. ISBN 9707224738. Alponte, Juan María (1993). La Política Exterior de México en el Nuevo Orden Mundial : Antología de Principios y Tesis. FCE, p. 428. ISBN 9681641671. Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005) La Política Exterior Mexicana en la Transición. FCE, SRE, p. 281. ISBN 9681677455. Lajous Vargas, Roberta (2000) Los Retos de la Política Exterior de México en el Siglo XXI. SRE, p. 560. ISBN 9688106216. El Colegio de México (2007). Historia General de México: Versión 2000. El Colegio de México, Centro de Estudios Históricos, p. 1103. ISBN 9681209699. Selee, Andrew D. (2007). More Than Neighbors: An Overview of Mexico and U.S.-Mexican Relations. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, p. 43. ISBN 1933549262. External links Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores — Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Foreign Affairs — Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Treaties Signed by Mexico — Searchable Database Mexican Missions to the United Nations — Official website | Foreign_relations_of_Mexico |@lemmatized foreign:60 relation:43 mexico:161 direct:1 president:45 united:38 mexican:55 state:49 manage:2 ministry:22 affair:34 principle:9 policy:16 constitutionally:2 recognize:17 article:7 section:2 include:13 respect:2 international:21 law:7 legal:3 equality:1 sovereignty:4 independence:13 non:6 intervention:6 domestic:2 country:65 peaceful:3 resolution:6 conflict:10 promotion:1 collective:1 security:16 active:2 participation:2 organization:19 since:16 estrada:4 doctrine:11 serve:6 crucial:2 complement:1 war:34 focus:1 primarily:1 northern:4 neighbor:5 large:6 trading:7 partner:10 powerful:2 actor:1 hemispheric:2 world:8 well:10 historically:4 tied:1 latin:20 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1,265 | Mary_Shelley | Richard Rothwell's portrait of Mary Shelley was shown at the Royal Academy in 1840, accompanied by lines from Percy Shelley's poem The Revolt of Islam calling her a "child of love and light". Seymour, 458. Mary Shelley (née Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin; 30 August 1797 – 1 February 1851) was a British novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley. Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft. Mary Godwin's mother died when she was ten days old; afterwards, she and her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, were raised by her father. When Mary was four, Godwin married his neighbour, Mary Jane Clairmont. Godwin provided his daughter with a rich, if informal, education, encouraging her to adhere to his liberal political theories. In 1814, Mary Godwin began a romantic relationship with one of her father’s political followers, the married Percy Bysshe Shelley. Together with Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont, they left for France and travelled through Europe; upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percy's child. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter. They married in late 1816 after the suicide of Percy Shelley's first wife, Harriet. In 1816, the couple famously spent a summer with Lord Byron, John William Polidori, and Claire Clairmont near Geneva, Switzerland, where Mary conceived the idea for her novel Frankenstein. The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy, where their second and third children died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child, Percy Florence. In 1822, her husband drowned when his sailing boat sank during a storm in the Bay of La Spezia. A year later, Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son and a career as a professional author. The last decade of her life was dogged by illness, probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53. Until the 1970s, Mary Shelley was known mainly for her efforts to publish Percy Shelley's works and for her novel Frankenstein, which remains widely read and has inspired many theatrical and film adaptations. Recent scholarship has yielded a more comprehensive view of Mary Shelley’s achievements. Scholars have shown increasing interest in her literary output, particularly in her novels, which include the historical novels Valperga (1823) and Perkin Warbeck (1830), the apocalyptic novel The Last Man (1826), and her final two novels, Lodore (1835) and Falkner (1837). Studies of her lesser-known works such as the travel book Rambles in Germany and Italy (1844) and the biographical articles for Dionysius Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia (1829–46) support the growing view that Mary Shelley remained a political radical throughout her life. Mary Shelley's works often argue that cooperation and sympathy, particularly as practised by women in the family, were the ways to reform civil society. This view was a direct challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley and the Enlightenment political theories articulated by her father, William Godwin. Biography Early life Page from William Godwin's journal recording "Birth of Mary, 20 minutes after 11 at night" (left column, four rows down) Mary Shelley was born Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in Somers Town, London, in 1797. She was the second child of the feminist philosopher, educator, and writer Mary Wollstonecraft, and the first child of the philosopher, novelist, and journalist William Godwin. Wollstonecraft died of puerperal fever ten days after Mary was born. Godwin was left to bring up Mary, along with her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, Wollstonecraft's child by the American speculator Gilbert Imlay. Seymour, 28–29; St Clair, 176–78. A year after Wollstonecraft's death, Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798), which he intended as a sincere and compassionate tribute. However, because the Memoirs revealed Wollstonecraft's affairs and her illegitimate child, they were seen as shocking. Mary Godwin read these memoirs and her mother's books, and was brought up to cherish her mother's memory. St Clair, 179–188; Seymour, 31–34; Clemit, "Legacies of Godwin and Wollstonecraft" (CC), 27–28. Mary's earliest years were happy ones, judging from the letters of William Godwin's housekeeper and nurse, Louisa Jones. Seymour, 38, 49; St. Clair, 255–300. But Godwin was often deeply in debt; feeling that he could not raise the children by himself, he cast about for a second wife. St Clair, 199–207. In December 1801, he married Mary Jane Clairmont, a well-educated woman with two young children of her own—Charles and Claire. Claire's first name was "Jane", but from 1814 (see Gittings and Manton, 22) she preferred to be called "Claire" (her second name was "Clara"), which is how she is known to history. To avoid confusion, this article calls her "Claire" throughout. Most of Godwin’s friends disliked his new wife, describing her as quick-tempered and quarrelsome; Seymour, 47–49; St Clair, 238–54. William St Clair, in his biography of the Godwins and the Shelleys, notes that "it is easy to forget in reading of these crises [in the lives of the Godwins and the Shelleys] how unrepresentative the references in surviving documents may be. It is easy for the biographer to give undue weight to the opinions of the people who happen to have written things down." (246) but Godwin was devoted to her, and the marriage was a success. St Clair, 243–44, 334; Seymour, 48. Mary Godwin, on the other hand, came to detest her stepmother. Letter to Percy Shelley, 28 October 1814. Selected Letters, 3; St Clair, 295; Seymour 61. William Godwin's 19th-century biographer C. Kegan Paul later suggested that Mrs Godwin had favoured her own children over Mary Wollstonecraft’s. St Clair, 295. Together, the Godwins started a publishing firm called M. J. Godwin, which sold children's books as well as stationery, maps, and games. However, the business did not turn a profit, and Godwin was forced to borrow substantial sums to keep it going. St. Clair, 283–87. He continued to borrow to pay off earlier loans, compounding his problems. By 1809, Godwin's business was close to failure and he was "near to despair". St. Clair, 306. Godwin was saved from debtor's prison by philosophical devotees such as Francis Place, who lent him further money. St. Clair, 308–9. The Polygon (at left) in Somers Town, London, between Camden Town and St Pancras, where Mary Godwin was born and spent her earliest years Though Mary Godwin received little formal education, her father tutored her in a broad range of subjects. He often took the children on educational outings, and they had access to his library and to the many intellectuals who visited him, including the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the former vice-president of the United States Aaron Burr. Bennett, An Introduction, 16–17. Godwin admitted he was not educating the children according to Mary Wollstonecraft's philosophy as outlined in works such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), but Mary Godwin nonetheless received an unusual and advanced education for a girl of the time. She had a governess, a daily tutor, and read many of her father's children's books on Roman and Greek history in manuscript. Sunstein, 38–40; Seymour, 53; see also Clemit, "Legacies of Godwin and Wollstonecraft" (CC), 29. For six months in 1811, she also attended a boarding school in Ramsgate. Seymour, 61. Her father described her at fifteen as "singularly bold, somewhat imperious, and active of mind. Her desire of knowledge is great, and her perseverance in everything she undertakes almost invincible." Sunstein, 58; Spark, 15. In June 1812, her father sent Mary to stay with the Dissenting family of the radical William Baxter, near Dundee, Scotland. Seymour, 74–75. To Baxter, he wrote, "I am anxious that she should be brought up ... like a philosopher, even like a cynic." Quoted in Seymour, 72. Scholars have speculated that she may have been sent away for her health, to remove her from the seamy side of business, or to introduce her to radical politics. Seymour, 71–74. Mary Godwin revelled in the spacious surroundings of Baxter's house and in the companionship of his four daughters, and she returned north in the summer of 1813 for a further stay of ten months. Spark, 17–18; Seymour, 73–86. In the 1831 introduction to Frankenstein, she recalled: "I wrote then—but in a most common-place style. It was beneath the trees of the grounds belonging to our house, or on the bleak sides of the woodless mountains near, that my true compositions, the airy flights of my imagination, were born and fostered." Qtd. in Spark, 17. Percy Bysshe Shelley On 26 June 1814, Mary declared her love for Percy at Mary Wollstonecraft's graveside in the cemetery of St Pancras Old Church (shown here in 1815). St Clair, 358. Mary Godwin may have first met the radical poet-philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley in the interval between her two stays in Scotland. Bennett, An Introduction, 17; St Clair, 357; Seymour, 89. By the time she returned home for a second time on 30 March 1814, Percy Shelley had become estranged from his wife and was regularly visiting Godwin, whom he had agreed to bail out of debt. Sunstein, 70–75; Seymour, 88; St. Clair, 329–35. Percy Shelley's radicalism, particularly his economic views, which he had imbibed from Godwin's Political Justice (1793), had alienated him from his wealthy aristocratic family: they wanted him to follow traditional models of the landed aristocracy, and he wanted to donate large amounts of the family's money to schemes intended to help the disadvantaged. Percy Shelley therefore had difficulty gaining access to money until he inherited his estate because his family did not want him wasting it on projects of "political justice". After several months of promises, Shelley announced that he either could not or would not pay off all of Godwin's debts. Godwin was angry and felt betrayed. St. Clair, 355. Mary and Percy began meeting each other secretly at Mary Wollstonecraft's grave in St Pancras Churchyard, and they fell in love—she was nearly seventeen, he nearly twenty-two. Spark, 19–22; St Clair, 358. To Mary's dismay, her father disapproved and tried to thwart the relationship and salvage the "spotless fame" of his daughter. At about the same time, Godwin learned of Shelley's inability to pay off his loans for him. Seymour, 94, 100; Spark, 22–23; St. Clair, 355. Mary, who later wrote of "my excessive and romantic attachment to my father", Letter to Maria Gisborne, 30 October–17 November, 1824. Seymour, 49. was confused. She saw Percy Shelley as an embodiment of her parents' liberal and reformist ideas of the 1790s, particularly Godwin's view that marriage was a repressive monopoly, which he had argued in his 1793 edition of Political Justice but since retracted. St Clair, 373; Seymour, 89 n, 94–96; Spark, 23 n2. On 28 July 1814, the couple secretly left for France, taking Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont, with them Spark, 24; Seymour, 98–99. , but leaving Percy's pregnant wife behind. After convincing Mary Jane Godwin, who had pursued them to Calais, that they did not wish to return, the trio travelled to Paris, and then, by donkey, mule, and carriage, through a France recently ravaged by war, to Switzerland. "It was acting in a novel, being an incarnate romance," Mary Shelley recalled in 1826. Quoted in Sunstein, 84. As they travelled, Mary and Percy read works by Mary Wollstonecraft and others, kept a joint journal, and continued their own writing. Spark, 26–30. At Lucerne, lack of money forced the three to turn back. They travelled down the Rhine and by land to the Dutch port of Marsluys, arriving at Gravesend, Kent, on 13 September 1814. Spark, 30; Seymour, 109, 113. Percy Bysshe Shelley was inspired by the radicalism of Godwin's Political Justice (1793). When the poet Robert Southey met Shelley, he felt as if he were seeing himself from the 1790s. St Clair, 318. (Portrait by Amelia Curran, 1819.) The situation awaiting Mary Godwin in England was fraught with complications, some of which she had not foreseen. Either before or during the journey, she had become pregnant. She and Percy now found themselves penniless, and, to Mary's genuine surprise, her father refused to have anything to do with her. Bennett, An Introduction, 20; St Clair, 373; Sunstein, 88–89; Seymour, 115–16. The couple moved with Claire into lodgings at Somers Town, and later, Nelson Square. They maintained their intense programme of reading and writing and entertained Percy Shelley's friends, such as Thomas Jefferson Hogg and the writer Thomas Love Peacock. Spark, 31–32. Percy Shelley sometimes left home for short periods to dodge creditors. Spark, 36–37; St Clair, 374. The couple's distraught letters reveal their pain at these separations. Sunstein, 91–92; Seymour, 122–23. Pregnant and often ill, Mary Godwin had to cope with Percy's joy at the birth of his son by Harriet Shelley in late 1814 and his constant outings with Claire Clairmont. "Journal 6th December—Very Unwell. Shelley & Clary walk out, as usual, to heaps of places...A letter from Hookham to say that Harriet has been brought to bed of a son and heir. Shelley writes a number of circular letters on this event, which ought to be ushered in with ringing of bells, etc., for it is the son of his wife." (Quoted in Spark, 39.) She was partly consoled by the visits of Hogg, whom she disliked at first but soon considered a close friend. Spark, 38–44. Percy Shelley seems to have wanted Mary Godwin and Hogg to become lovers; St Clair, 375. Mary did not dismiss the idea, since in principle she believed in free love. Sunstein, 94–97; Seymour, 127 In practice, however, she loved only Percy Shelley and seems to have ventured no further than flirting with Hogg. Spark, 41–46; Seymour, 126–27; Sunstein, 98–99. Sunstein speculates that Mary Shelley and Jefferson Hogg made love in April 1815. (Sunstein, 98–99) On 22 February 1815, she gave birth to a two-months premature baby girl, who was not expected to survive. Seymour, 128. On 6 March, she wrote to Hogg: My dearest Hogg my baby is dead—will you come to see me as soon as you can. I wish to see you—It was perfectly well when I went to bed—I awoke in the night to give it suck it appeared to be sleeping so quietly that I would not awake it. It was dead then, but we did not find that out till morning—from its appearance it evidently died of convulsions—Will you come—you are so calm a creature & Shelley is afraid of a fever from the milk—for I am no longer a mother now. Quoted in Spark, 45. The loss of her child induced acute depression in Mary Godwin, who was haunted by visions of the baby; but she conceived again and had recovered by the summer. St Clair, 375; Spark, 45, 48. With a revival in Percy Shelley's finances after the death of his grandfather, Sir Bysshe Shelley, the couple holidayed in Torquay and then rented a two-storey cottage at Bishopsgate, on the edge of Windsor Great Park. Sunstein, 93–94, 101; Seymour, 127–28, 130. Little is known about this period in Mary Godwin's life, since her journal from May 1815 to July 1816 is lost. At Bishopsgate, Percy wrote his poem Alastor; and on 24 January 1816, Mary gave birth to a second child, William, named after her father and soon nicknamed "Willmouse". In her novel The Last Man, she later imagined Windsor as a Garden of Eden. Sunstein, 101–103. Lake Geneva and Frankenstein Draft of Frankenstein ("It was on a dreary night of November that I beheld my man completed ...") In May 1816, Mary Godwin, Percy Shelley, and their son travelled to Geneva with Claire Clairmont. They planned to spend the summer with the poet Lord Byron, whose recent affair with Claire had left her pregnant. Gittings and Manton, 28–31. The party arrived at Geneva on 14 May 1816, where Mary called herself "Mrs Shelley". Byron joined them on 25 May, with his young physician, John William Polidori, Sunstein, 117. and rented the Villa Diodati, close to Lake Geneva at the village of Cologny; Percy Shelley rented a smaller building called Maison Chapuis on the waterfront nearby. Gittings and Manton, 31; Seymour, 152. Sometimes spelled "Chappuis"; Wolfson, Introduction to Frankenstein, 273. They spent their time writing, boating on the lake, and talking late into the night. Sunstein, 118. "It proved a wet, ungenial summer", Mary Shelley remembered in 1831, "and incessant rain often confined us for days to the house". Preface to the 1831 edition of Frankenstein; Sunstein, 118. The violent storms were, it is now known, a repercussion of the volcanic eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia the year before (Sunstein, 118). See also The Year Without a Summer. Amongst other subjects, the conversation turned to the experiments of the 18th-century natural philosopher and poet Erasmus Darwin, who was said to have animated dead matter, and to galvanism and the feasibility of returning a corpse or assembled body parts to life. Holmes, 328; see also Mary Shelley’s introduction to the 1831 edition of Frankenstein. Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company also amused themselves by reading German ghost stories, prompting Byron to suggest they each write their own supernatural tale. Shortly afterwards, in a waking dream, Mary Godwin conceived the idea for Frankenstein: She began writing what she assumed would be a short story. With Percy Shelley's encouragement, she expanded this tale into her first novel, Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus, published in 1818. Bennett, An Introduction, 30–31; Sunstein, 124. She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment "when I first stepped out from childhood into life". Bath and Marlow On their return to England in September, Mary and Percy moved—with Claire Clairmont, who took lodgings nearby—to Bath, where they hoped to keep Claire’s pregnancy secret. Sunstein, 124–25; Seymour, 165. At Cologny, Mary Godwin had received two letters from her half-sister, Fanny Imlay, who alluded to her "unhappy life"; on 9 October, Fanny wrote an "alarming letter" from Bristol that sent Percy Shelley racing off to search for her, without success. On the morning of 10 October, Fanny Imlay was found dead in a room at a Swansea inn, along with a suicide note and a laudanum bottle. On 10 December, Percy Shelley's wife, Harriet, was discovered drowned in the Serpentine, a lake in Hyde Park, London. St Clair, 413; Seymour, 175. Both suicides were hushed up. Harriet’s family obstructed Percy Shelley's efforts—fully supported by Mary Godwin—to assume custody of his two children by Harriet. His lawyers advised him to improve his case by marrying; so he and Mary, who was pregnant again, married on 30 December 1816 at St Mildred's Church, Bread Street, London. Sunstein, 129; St Clair, 414–15; Seymour, 176. Mr and Mrs Godwin were present and the marriage ended the family rift. Spark, 54–55; Seymour, 176–77. Claire Clairmont gave birth to a baby girl on 13 January, at first called Alba, later Allegra. Spark, 57; Seymour, 177. Alba was renamed "Allegra" in 1818. (Seymour, 177) In March of that year, the Chancery Court ruled Percy Shelley morally unfit to assume custody of his children and later placed them with a clergyman's family. Spark, 58; Bennett, An Introduction, 21–22. Also in March, the Shelleys moved with Claire and Alba to Albion House at Marlow, Buckinghamshire, a large, damp building on the river Thames. There Mary Shelley gave birth to her third child, Clara, on 2 September. At Marlow, they entertained their new friends Marianne and Leigh Hunt, worked hard at their writing, and often discussed politics. Seymour, 185; Sunstein, 136–37. Early in the summer of 1817, Mary Shelley finished Frankenstein, which was published anonymously in January 1818. Reviewers and readers assumed that Percy Shelley was the author, since the book was published with his preface and dedicated to his political hero William Godwin. Seymour, 195–96. At Marlow, Mary edited the joint journal of the group's 1814 Continental journey, adding material written in Switzerland in 1816, along with Percy's poem "Mont Blanc". The result was the History of a Six Weeks' Tour, published in November 1817. That autumn, Percy Shelley often lived away from home in London to evade creditors. The threat of a debtor's prison, combined with their ill health and fears of losing custody of their children, contributed to the couple's decision to leave England for Italy on 12 March 1818, taking Claire Clairmont and Alba with them. Spark, 60–62; St Clair, 443; Sunstein, 143–49; Seymour, 191–92. They had no intention of returning. St Clair, 445. Italy William "Willmouse" Shelley, painted just before his death from malaria in 1819 (portrait by Amelia Curran, 1819) One of the party's first tasks on arriving in Italy was to hand Alba over to Byron, who was living in Venice. He had agreed to raise her so long as Claire had nothing more to do with her. Gittings and Manton, 39–42; Spark, 62–63; Seymour, 205–6. The Shelleys then embarked on a roving existence, never settling in any one place for long. Bennett, An Introduction, 43. At various times, the Shelleys lived at Livorno, Bagni di Lucca, Venice, Este, Naples, Rome, Florence, Pisa, Bagni di Pisa, and San Terenzo. Along the way, they accumulated a circle of friends and acquaintances who often moved with them. The couple devoted their time to writing, reading, learning, sightseeing, and socialising. The Italian adventure was, however, blighted for Mary Shelley by the deaths of both her children—Clara, in September 1818 in Venice, and William, in June 1819 in Rome. Seymour, 214–16; Bennett, An Introduction, 46. Clara died of dysentery at the age of one, and William of malaria at three and a half. (Seymour, 214, 231) These losses left her in a deep depression that isolated her from Percy Shelley, Sunstein, 170–71, 179–82, 191. who wrote in his notebook: My dearest Mary, wherefore hast thou gone, And left me in this dreary world alone? Thy form is here indeed—a lovely one— But thou art fled, gone down a dreary road That leads to Sorrow’s most obscure abode. For thine own sake I cannot follow thee Do thou return for mine. Quoted in Seymour, 233. For a time, Mary Shelley found comfort only in her writing. Bennett, An Introduction, 47, 53. The birth of her fourth child, Percy Florence, on 12 November 1819, finally lifted her spirits, Spark, 72. though she nursed the memory of her lost children till the end of her life. Sunstein, 384–85. Italy provided the Shelleys, Byron, and other exiles with a political freedom unattainable at home. Despite its associations with personal loss, Italy became for Mary Shelley "a country which memory painted as paradise". Bennett, An Introduction, 115. Their Italian years were a time of intense intellectual and creative activity for both Shelleys. While Percy composed a series of major poems, Mary wrote the autobiographical novel Matilda, the historical novel Valperga, and the plays Proserpine and Midas. Mary wrote Valperga to help alleviate her father's financial difficulties, as Percy refused to assist him further. Seymour, 251. She was often physically ill, however, and prone to depressions. She also had to cope with Percy’s interest in other women, such as Sophia Stacey, Emilia Viviani, and Jane Williams. Bieri, 170–76; Seymour, 267–70, 290; Sunstein, 193–95, 200–201. Since Mary Shelley shared his belief in the non-exclusivity of marriage, she formed emotional ties of her own among the men and women of their circle. She became particularly fond of the Greek revolutionary Prince Alexander Mavrocordato and of Jane and Edward Williams. Bennett, An Introduction, 43–44; Spark, 77, 89–90; Gittings and Manton, 61–62. The Williamses were not technically married; Jane was still the wife of an army officer named Johnson. In December 1818, the Shelleys travelled south with Claire Clairmont and their servants to Naples, where they stayed for three months, receiving only one visitor, a physician. Holmes, 464; Bieri, 103–4. In 1820, they found themselves plagued by accusations and threats from Paolo and Elise Foggi, former servants whom Percy Shelley had dismissed in Naples shortly after the Foggis had married. Gittings and Manton, 46. The pair revealed that on 27 February 1819 in Naples, Percy Shelley had registered as his child by Mary Shelley a two-month-old baby girl named Elena Adelaide Shelley. Gittings and Manton, 46; Seymour, 221–22. The Foggis also claimed that Claire Clairmont was the baby's mother. Spark, 73; Seymour, 224; Holmes, 469–70. Biographers have offered various interpretations of these events: that Percy Shelley decided to adopt a local child; that the baby was his by Elise, Claire, or an unknown woman; or that she was Elise’s by Byron. Journals, 249–50 n3; Seymour, 221; Holmes, 460–74; Bieri, 103–12. Elise had been employed by Byron as Allegra's nurse. Mary Shelley stated in a letter that Elise had been pregnant by Paolo at the time, which was the reason they had married, but not that she had had a child in Naples. Elise seems to have first met Paolo only in September. See Mary Shelley's letter to Isabella Hoppner, 10 August 1821, Selected Letters, 75–79. Mary Shelley insisted she would have known if Claire had been pregnant, but it is unclear how much she really knew. Seymour, 221; Spark, 86; Letter to Isabella Hoppner, 10 August 1821, Selected Letters, 75–79. The events in Naples, a city Mary Shelley later called a paradise inhabited by devils, Seymour, 221. remain shrouded in mystery. "Establishing Elena Adelaide's parentage is one of the greatest bafflements Shelley left for his biographers." (Bieri, 106) The only certainty is that she herself was not the child’s mother. Elena Adelaide Shelley died in Naples on 9 June 1820. Holmes, 466; Bieri, 105. Claire Clairmont, Mary's stepsister and mistress of Lord Byron (portrait by Amelia Curran, 1819) In the summer of 1822, a pregnant Mary moved with Percy, Claire, and Edward and Jane Williams to the isolated Villa Magni, at the sea's edge near the hamlet of San Terenzo in the Bay of Lerici. Once they were settled in, Percy broke the "evil news" to Claire that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in a convent at Bagnacavallo. Spark, 79; Seymour, 292. Mary Shelley was distracted and unhappy in the cramped and remote Villa Magni, which she came to regard as a dungeon. Seymour, 301. Holmes, 717; Sunstein, 216. On 16 June, she miscarried, losing so much blood that she nearly died. Rather than wait for a doctor, Percy sat her in a bath of ice to staunch the bleeding, an act the doctor later told him saved her life. Gittings and Manton, 71. All was not well between the couple that summer, however, and Percy spent more time with Jane Williams than with his depressed and debilitated wife. Holmes, 725; Sunstein, 217–218; Seymour, 270–73. Most of the short poems Shelley wrote at San Terenzo were addressed to Jane rather than to Mary. The coast offered Percy Shelley and Edward Williams the chance to enjoy their "perfect plaything for the summer", a new sailing boat. Gittings and Manton, 71; Holmes, 715. The boat had been designed by Daniel Roberts and Edward Trelawny, an admirer of Byron's who had joined the party in January 1822. Seymour, 283–84, 298. On 1 July 1822, Percy Shelley, Edward Williams, and Captain Daniel Roberts sailed south down the coast to Livorno. There Percy Shelley discussed with Byron and Leigh Hunt the launch of a radical magazine called The Liberal. Holmes, 728. On 8 July, he and Edward Williams set out on the return journey to Lerici with their eighteen-year-old boatboy, Charles Vivian. Seymour, 298. They never reached their destination. A letter arrived at Villa Magni from Hunt to Percy Shelley, dated 8 July, saying, "pray write to tell us how you got home, for they say you had bad weather after you sailed monday & we are anxious". Letter to Maria Gisborne, 15 August 1815, Selected Letters, 99. "The paper fell from me," Mary told a friend later. "I trembled all over." Letter to Maria Gisborne, 15 August 1815, Selected Letters, 99. She and Jane Williams rushed desperately to Livorno and then to Pisa in the fading hope that their husbands were still alive. Ten days after the storm, three bodies washed up on the coast near Viareggio, midway between Livorno and Lerici. Trelawny, Byron, and Hunt cremated Percy Shelley’s corpse on the beach at Viareggio. Seymour, 302–7. Return to England and writing career After her husband's death, Mary Shelley lived for a year with Leigh Hunt and his family in Genoa, where she often saw Byron and transcribed his poems. She resolved to live by her pen and for her son, but her financial situation was precarious. On 23 July 1823, she left Genoa for England and stayed with her father and stepmother in the Strand until a small advance from her father-in-law enabled her to lodge nearby. Spark, 100–104. Sir Timothy Shelley had at first agreed to support his grandson, Percy Florence, only if he were handed over to an appointed guardian. Mary Shelley rejected this idea instantly. Spark, 102–3; Seymour, 321–22. She managed instead to wring out of Sir Timothy a limited annual allowance (which she had to repay when Percy Florence inherited the estate), but to the end of his days he refused to meet her in person and dealt with her only through lawyers. Mary Shelley busied herself with editing her husband's poems, among other literary endeavors, but concern for her son restricted her options. Sir Timothy threatened to stop the allowance if any biography of the poet were published. Spark, 106–7; Seymour, 336–37; Bennett, An Introduction, 65. In 1826, Percy Florence became the legal heir of the Shelley estate after the death of Charles Shelley, his father's son by Harriet Shelley. Sir Timothy raised Mary's allowance from £100 a year to £250 but remained as difficult as ever. Seymour, 362. Mary Shelley enjoyed the stimulating society of William Godwin's circle, but poverty prevented her from socialising as she wished. She also felt ostracised by those who, like Sir Timothy, still disapproved of her relationship with Percy Bysshe Shelley. Spark, 108. In the summer of 1824, Mary Shelley moved to Kentish Town in north London to be near Jane Williams. She may have been, in the words of her biographer Muriel Spark, "a little in love" with Jane. Jane later disillusioned her by gossiping that Percy had preferred her to Mary, owing to Mary's inadequacy as a wife. Spark, 116, 119. At around this time, Mary Shelley was working on her novel, The Last Man (1826); and she assisted a series of friends who were writing memoirs of Byron and Percy Shelley—the beginnings of her attempts to immortalise her husband. Seymour, 341, 363–65. She also met the American actor John Howard Payne and the American writer Washington Irving, who intrigued her. Payne fell in love with her and in 1826 asked her to marry him. She refused, saying that after being married to one genius, she could only marry another. Spark, 111. Payne accepted the rejection and tried without success to talk his friend Irving into proposing himself. Mary Shelley was aware of Payne's plan, but how seriously she took it is unclear. Spark, 111–13; Seymour, 370–71. Reginald Easton's miniature of Mary Shelley is allegedly drawn from her death mask (c. 1857). Seymour, 543. In 1827, Mary Shelley was party to a scheme that enabled her friend Isabel Robinson and Isabel's lover, Mary Diana Dods, who wrote under the name David Lyndsay, to embark on a life together in France as man and wife. Spark, 117–19. Dods, who had an infant daughter, assumed the name Walter Sholto Douglas and was accepted in France as a man. With the help of Payne, whom she kept in the dark about the details, Mary Shelley obtained false passports for the couple. Seymour, 384–85. In 1828, she fell ill with smallpox while visiting them in Paris. Weeks later she recovered, unscarred but without her youthful beauty. Seymour, 389–90. During the period 1827–40, Mary Shelley was busy as an editor and writer. She wrote the novels Perkin Warbeck (1830), Lodore (1835), and Falkner (1837). She contributed five volumes of Lives of Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French authors to Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. She also wrote stories for ladies' magazines. She was still helping to support her father, and they looked out for publishers for each other. Seymour, 404, 433–35, 438. In 1830, she sold the copyright for a new edition of Frankenstein for £60 to Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley for their new Standard Novels series. Seymour, 406. After her father's death in 1836 at the age of eighty, she began assembling his letters and a memoir for publication, as he had requested in his will; but after two years of work, she abandoned the project. Seymour, 450, 455. Throughout this period, she also championed Percy Shelley's poetry, promoting its publication and quoting it in her writing. By 1837, Percy's works were well-known and increasingly admired. Seymour, 453. In the summer of 1838 Edward Moxon, the publisher of Tennyson and the son-in-law of Charles Lamb, proposed publishing a collected works of Percy Shelley. Mary was paid £500 to edit the Poetical Works (1838), which Sir Timothy insisted should not include a biography. Mary found a way to tell the story of Percy's life, nonetheless: she included extensive biographical notes about the poems. Seymour, 465. Mary Shelley continued to treat potential romantic partners with caution. In 1828, she met and flirted with the French writer Prosper Mérimée, but her one surviving letter to him appears to be a deflection of his declaration of love. See Bennett, Introduction to Selected Letters, xx, and Mary Shelley's letter of 24 May 1828, with Bennett's note, 198–99. She was delighted when her old friend from Italy, Edward Trelawny, returned to England, and they joked about marriage in their letters. Spark, 122. Their friendship had altered, however, following her refusal to cooperate with his proposed biography of Percy Shelley; and he later reacted angrily to her omission of the atheistic section of Queen Mab from Percy Shelley's poems. Seymour, 401–2, 467–68. Oblique references in her journals, from the early 1830s until the early 1840s, suggest that Mary Shelley had feelings for the radical politician Aubrey Beauclerk, who may have disappointed her by twice marrying others. Spark, 133–34; Seymour, 425–26; Bennett, Introduction to Selected Letters, xx. Beauclerk married Ida Goring in 1838 and, after Ida's death, Mary Shelley's friend Rosa Robinson in 1841. A clear picture of Mary Shelley's relationship with Beauclerk is difficult to reconstruct from the evidence. (Seymour, 425–26) Mary Shelley's first concern during these years was the welfare of Percy Florence. She honoured her late husband's wish that his son attend public school, and, with Sir Timothy's grudging help, had him educated at Harrow. To avoid boarding fees, she moved to Harrow on the Hill herself so that Percy could attend as a day scholar. Spark, 124; Seymour, 424. Though Percy went on to Trinity College, Cambridge, and dabbled in politics and the law, he showed no sign of his parents' gifts. Spark, 127; Seymour, 429, 500–501. He was devoted to his mother, and after he left university in 1841, he came to live with her. Final years and death In 1840 and 1842, mother and son travelled together on the continent, journeys that Mary Shelley recorded in Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840, 1842 and 1843 (1844). Seymour, 489. In 1844, Sir Timothy Shelley finally died at the age of ninety, "falling from the stalk like an overblown flower", as Mary put it. Spark, 138. For the first time, she and her son were financially independent, though the estate proved less valuable than they had hoped. Seymour, 495. In order to fulfil Mary Shelley's wishes, Percy Florence and his wife Jane had the coffins of Mary Shelley's parents exhumed and buried with her in Bournemouth. Sunstein, 383–84. In the mid-1840s, Mary Shelley found herself the target of three separate blackmailers. In 1845, an Italian political exile called Gatteschi, whom she had met in Paris, threatened to publish letters she had sent him. A friend of her son's bribed a police chief into seizing Gatteschi's papers, including the letters, which were then destroyed. Spark, 140; Seymour, 506–7. Shortly afterwards, Mary Shelley bought some letters written by herself and Percy Bysshe Shelley from a man calling himself G. Byron and posing as the illegitimate son of the late Lord Byron. Spark, 141–42; Seymour, 508–10. Also in 1845, Percy Bysshe Shelley's cousin Thomas Medwin approached her claiming to have written a damaging biography of Percy Shelley. He said he would suppress it in return for £250, but Mary Shelley refused. Seymour, 515–16; Bieri, 112. According to Bieri, Medwin claimed to possess evidence relating to Naples. Medwin is the source for the theory that the child registered by Percy Shelley in Naples was his daughter by a mystery woman. See also, Journals, 249–50 n3. In 1848, Percy Florence married Jane Gibson St John. The marriage proved a happy one, and Mary Shelley and Jane were fond of each other. Spark, 143; Seymour, 528. Mary lived with her son and daughter-in-law at Field Place, Sussex, the Shelleys' ancestral home, and at Chester Square, London, and accompanied them on travels abroad. Mary Shelley's last years were blighted by illness. From 1839, she suffered from headaches and bouts of paralysis in parts of her body, which sometimes prevented her from reading and writing. Spark, 144; Bennett, Introduction to Selected Letters, xxvii. On 1 February 1851, at Chester Square, she died at the age of fifty-three from what her physician suspected was a brain tumour. According to Jane Shelley, Mary Shelley had asked to be buried with her mother and father; but Percy and Jane, judging the graveyard at St Pancras to be "dreadful", chose to bury her instead at St Peter's Church, Bournemouth, near their new home at Boscombe. Seymour, 540. On the first anniversary of Mary Shelley's death, the Shelleys opened her box-desk. Inside they found locks of her dead children's hair, a notebook she had shared with Percy Bysshe Shelley, and a copy of his poem Adonaïs with one page folded round a silk parcel containing some of his ashes and the remains of his heart. Literary themes and styles Mary Shelley lived a literary life. Her father encouraged her to learn to write by composing letters, Bennett, "Mary Shelley's letters" (CC), 212–13. and her favourite occupation as a child was writing stories. Mary Shelley, Introduction to 1831 edition of Frankenstein. Unfortunately, all of Mary's juvenilia were lost when she ran off with Percy in 1814, and none of her surviving manuscripts can be definitively dated before that year. Nora Crook, "General Editor's Introduction", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xiv. Her first published work is often thought to have been Mounseer Nongtongpaw, Sussman, 163; St Clair, 297; Sunstein, 42. comic verses written for Godwin's Juvenile Library when she was ten and a half; however, the poem is attributed to another writer in the most recent authoritative collection of her works. Seymour, 55; Carlson, 245; "Appendix 2: 'Mounseer Nongtongpaw': Verses formerly attributed to Mary Shelley", Travel Writing: The Novels and Selected Works of Mary Shelley, Vol. 8, Ed. Jeanne Moskal, London: William Pickering (1996). Percy Shelley enthusiastically encouraged Mary Shelley's writing: "My husband was, from the first, very anxious that I should prove myself worthy of my parentage, and enrol myself on the page of fame. He was forever inciting me to obtain literary reputation." Quoted in Wolfson, Introduction to Frankenstein, xvii. Novels Autobiographical elements Certain sections of Mary Shelley's novels are often interpreted as masked rewritings of her life. Critics have pointed to the recurrence of the father–daughter motif in particular as evidence of this autobiographical style. Mellor, 184. For example, commentators frequently read Mathilda (1820) autobiographically, identifying the three central characters as versions of Mary Shelley, William Godwin, and Percy Shelley. See Nitchie, Introduction to Mathilda, and Mellor, 143. Mary Shelley herself confided that she modelled the central characters of The Last Man on her Italian circle. Lord Raymond, who leaves England to fight for the Greeks and dies in Constantinople, is based on Lord Byron; and the utopian Adrian, Earl of Windsor, who leads his followers in search of a natural paradise and dies when his boat sinks in a storm, is a fictional portrait of Percy Bysshe Shelley. Bennett, An Introduction, 74; Lokke, "The Last Man" (CC), 119. However, as she wrote in her review of Godwin's novel Cloudesley (1830), she did not believe that authors "were merely copying from our own hearts". Qtd. in Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 190. William Godwin regarded his daughter's characters as types rather than portraits from real life. Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 191. Some modern critics, such as Patricia Clemit and Jane Blumberg, have taken the same view, resisting autobiographical readings of Mary Shelley's works. See, for example, Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 190–92; Clemit, "From The Fields of Fancy to Matilda", 64–75; Blumberg, 84–85. Novelistic genres Mary Shelley employed the techniques of many different novelistic genres, most vividly the Godwinian novel, Walter Scott's new historical novel, and the Gothic novel. The Godwinian novel, made popular during the 1790s with works such as Godwin's Caleb Williams (1794), "employed a Rousseauvian confessional form to explore the contradictory relations between the self and society", Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 140–41, 176; Clemit, "Legacies of Godwin and Wollstonecraft" (CC), 31. and Frankenstein exhibits many of the same themes and literary devices as Godwin's novel. Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 143–44; Blumberg, 38–40. However, Shelley critiques those Enlightenment ideals that Godwin promotes in his works. Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 144. In The Last Man, she uses the philosophical form of the Godwinian novel to demonstrate the ultimate meaninglessness of the world. Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 187. While earlier Godwinian novels had shown how rational individuals could slowly improve society, The Last Man and Frankenstein demonstrate the individual's lack of control over history. Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 187, 196. Shelley uses the historical novel to comment on gender relations; for example, Valperga is a feminist version of Scott's masculinist genre. Curran, "Valperga" (CC), 106–7; Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 179; Lew, "God's Sister" (OMS), 164–65. Introducing women into the story who are not part of the historical record, Shelley uses their narratives to question established theological and political institutions. Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 183; Bennett, "Political Philosophy", 357. Shelley sets the male protagonist's compulsive greed for conquest in opposition to a female alternative: reason and sensibility. Lew, "God's Sister" (OMS), 173–78. In Perkin Warbeck, Shelley's other historical novel, Lady Gordon stands for the values of friendship, domesticity, and equality. Through her, Shelley offers a feminine alternative to the masculine power politics that destroy the male characters. The novel provides a more inclusive historical narrative to challenge the one which usually relates only masculine events. Bunnell, 132; Lynch, "Historical novelist" (CC), 143–44; see also Lew, "God's Sister" (OMS), 164–65. Gender With the rise of feminist literary criticism in the 1970s, Mary Shelley's works, particularly Frankenstein, began to attract much more attention from scholars. Feminist and psychoanalytic critics were largely responsible for the recovery from neglect of Shelley as a writer. Mellor, xi. Ellen Moers was one of the first to claim that Shelley's loss of a baby was a crucial influence on the writing of Frankenstein. Hoeveler, "Frankenstein, feminism, and literary theory" (CC), 46. She argues that the novel is a "birth myth" in which Shelley comes to terms with her guilt for causing her mother's death as well as for failing as a parent. Hoeveler, "Frankenstein, feminism, and literary theory" (CC), 46–47; Mellor, 40–51. In Moers' view, it is a story "about what happens when a man tries to have a baby without a woman ... [Frankenstein] is profoundly concerned with natural as opposed to unnatural modes of production and reproduction". Mellor, 40. Victor Frankenstein's failure as a "parent" in the novel has been read as an expression of the anxieties which accompany pregnancy, giving birth, and particularly maternity. Mellor, 41. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar argue in their seminal book The Madwoman in the Attic (1979) that in Frankenstein in particular, Shelley responded to the masculine literary tradition represented by John Milton's Paradise Lost. In their interpretation, Shelley reaffirms this masculine tradition, including the misogyny inherent in it, but at the same time "conceal[s] fantasies of equality that occasionally erupt in monstrous images of rage". Gilbert and Gubar, 220; see also, Hoeveler, "Frankenstein, feminism, and literary theory" (CC), 47–48; see also, 52–53. Mary Poovey reads the first edition of Frankenstein as part of a larger pattern in Shelley's writing, which begins with literary self-assertion and ends with conventional femininity. Poovey, 115–16, 126–27. Poovey suggests that Frankenstein's multiple narratives enable Shelley to split her artistic persona: she can "express and efface herself at the same time". Poovey, 131; see also Hoeveler, "Frankenstein, feminism, and literary theory" (CC), 48–49. Shelley's fear of self-assertion is reflected in the fate of Frankenstein, who is punished for his egotism by losing all his domestic ties. Poovey, 124–25. Feminist critics often focus on how authorship itself, particularly female authorship, is represented in and through Shelley's novels. Hoeveler, "Frankenstein, feminism, and literary theory" (CC), 49; Myers, "The Female Author", 160–72. As Shelley scholar Anne K. Mellor explains, Shelley uses the Gothic style not only to explore repressed female sexual desire Mellor, 55–56. but also as way to "censor her own speech in Frankenstein". Mellor, 57. According to Poovey and Mellor, Shelley did not want to promote her own authorial persona and felt deeply inadequate as a writer, and "this shame contributed to the generation of her fictional images of abnormality, perversion, and destruction". Mellor, 56–57. Shelley's writings focus on the role of the family in society and women's role within that family. She celebrates the "feminine affections and compassion" associated with the family and suggests that civil society will fail without them. Mellor, 117. Shelley was "profoundly committed to an ethic of cooperation, mutual dependence, and self-sacrifice". Mellor, 125. In Lodore, for example, the central story follows the fortunes of the wife and daughter of the title character, Lord Lodore, who is killed in a duel at the end of the first volume, leaving a trail of legal, financial, and familial obstacles for the two "heroines" to negotiate. The novel is engaged with political and ideological issues, particularly the education and social role of women. Vargo, Introduction to Lodore, 21, 32. It dissects a patriarchal culture that separated the sexes and pressured women into dependence on men. In the view of Shelley scholar Betty T. Bennett, "the novel proposes egalitarian educational paradigms for women and men, which would bring social justice as well as the spiritual and intellectual means by which to meet the challenges life invariably brings". Bennett, An Introduction, 92, 96. However, Falkner is the only one of Mary Shelley's novels in which the heroine's agenda triumphs. Ellis, "Falkner and other fictions" (CC), 152–53; O'Sullivan, "A New Cassandra" (OMS), 154. The novel’s resolution proposes that when female values triumph over violent and destructive masculinity, men will be freed to express the "compassion, sympathy, and generosity" of their better natures. Ellis, "Falkner and other fictions" (CC), 159–61. The frontispiece to the 1831 Frankenstein by Theodor von Holst, one of the first two illustrations for the novel Browne, Max. "Theodor Richard Edward von Holst". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. (subscription required) Retrieved on 20 April 2008. Enlightenment and Romanticism Frankenstein, like much Gothic fiction of the period, mixes a visceral and alienating subject matter with speculative and thought-provoking themes. Spark, 154. Rather than focusing on the twists and turns of the plot, however, the novel foregrounds the mental and moral struggles of the protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, and Shelley imbues the text with her own brand of politicised Romanticism, one that criticised the individualism and egotism of traditional Romanticism. Mellor, "Making a 'monster'" (CC), 14; Blumberg, 54; Mellor, 70. Victor Frankenstein is like Satan in Paradise Lost, and Prometheus: he rebels against tradition; he creates life; and he shapes his own destiny. These traits are not portrayed positively; as Blumberg writes, "his relentless ambition is a self-delusion, clothed as quest for truth". Blumberg, 47; see also Mellor, 77–79. He must abandon his family to fulfill his ambition. Blumberg, 47; see also 86–87 for a similar discussion of Castruccio in Valperga; Mellor, 152. Mary Shelley believed in the Enlightenment idea that people could improve society through the responsible exercise of political power, but she feared that the irresponsible exercise of power would lead to chaos. Bennett, An Introduction, 36–42. In practice, her works largely criticise the way 18th-century thinkers such as her parents believed such change could be brought about. The creature in Frankenstein, for example, reads books associated with radical ideals but the education he gains from them is ultimately useless. Blumberg, 21. Shelley's works reveal her as less optimistic than Godwin and Wollstonecraft; she lacks faith in Godwin's theory that humanity could eventually be perfected. Blumberg, 37, 46, 48; Mellor, 70–71, 79. As literary scholar Kari Lokke writes, The Last Man, more so than Frankenstein, "in its refusal to place humanity at the center of the universe, its questioning of our privileged position in relation to nature ... constitutes a profound and prophetic challenge to Western humanism." Lokke, "The Last Man" (CC), 116; see also Mellor, 157. Specifically, Mary Shelley's allusions to what radicals believed was a failed revolution in France and the Godwinian, Wollstonecraftian, and Burkean responses to it, challenge "Enlightenment faith in the inevitability of progress through collective efforts". Lokke, "The Last Man" (CC), 128; see also Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 197–98. As in Frankenstein, Shelley "offers a profoundly disenchanted commentary on the age of revolution, which ends in a total rejection of the progressive ideals of her own generation". Clemit, Godwinian Novel, 198; see also 204–5. Not only does she reject these Enlightenment political ideals, but she also rejects the Romantic notion that the poetic or literary imagination can offer an alternative. Paley, "Apocalypse without Millennium" (OMS), 111–21; Mellor, 159. Politics Critics have until recently cited Lodore and Falkner as evidence of increasing conservatism in Mary Shelley's later works. In 1984, Mary Poovey influentially identified the retreat of Mary Shelley’s reformist politics into the "separate sphere" of the domestic. Sites, "Utopian Domesticity", 82. Poovey suggested that Mary Shelley wrote Falkner to resolve her conflicted response to her father's combination of libertarian radicalism and stern insistence on social decorum. Poovey, 161. Mellor largely agreed, arguing that "Mary Shelley grounded her alternative political ideology on the metaphor of the peaceful, loving, bourgeois family. She thereby implicitly endorsed a conservative vision of gradual evolutionary reform." Mellor, 86. This vision allowed women to participate in the public sphere but it inherited the inequalities inherent in the bourgeois family. Mellor, 87. However, in the last decade or so this view has been challenged. For example, Bennett claims that Mary Shelley's works reveal a consistent commitment to Romantic idealism and political reform Bennett, An Introduction, 121. and Jane Blumberg's study of Shelley's early novels argues that her career cannot be easily divided into radical and conservative halves. She contends that "Shelley was never a passionate radical like her husband and her later lifestyle was not abruptly assumed nor was it a betrayal. She was in fact challenging the political and literary influences of her circle in her first work." Blumberg, 32. In this reading, Shelley's early works are interpreted as a challenge to Godwin and Percy Bysshe Shelley's radicalism. Victor Frankenstein's "thoughtless rejection of family", for example, is seen as evidence of Shelley's constant concern for the domestic. Blumberg, 54. Short stories Shelley frequently wrote stories to accompany prepared illustrations for gift books, such as this one, which accompanied "Transformation" in the 1830 Keepsake. Hofkosh, "Disfiguring Economies" (OMS), 207, 213. In the 1820s and 1830s, Mary Shelley frequently wrote short stories for gift books or annuals, including sixteen for The Keepsake, which was aimed at middle-class women and bound in silk, with gilt-edged pages. Sussman, "Stories for The Keepsake" (CC), 163; Hofkosh, "Disfiguring Economies" (OMS), 205. Mary Shelley's work in this genre has been described as that of a "hack writer" and "wordy and pedestrian". Qtd. in Sussman, "Stories for The Keepsake" (CC), 163. However, critic Charlotte Sussman points out that other leading writers of the day, such as the Romantic poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, also took advantage of this profitable market. She explains that "the annuals were a major mode of literary production in the 1820s and 1830s", with The Keepsake the most successful. Sussman, "Stories for The Keepsake" (CC), 163–65. Many of Shelley's stories are set in places or times far removed from early 19th-century Britain, such as Greece and the reign of Henry IV of France. Shelley was particularly interested in "the fragility of individual identity" and often depicted "the way a person's role in the world can be cataclysmically altered either by an internal emotional upheaval, or by some supernatural occurrence that mirrors an internal schism". Sussman, "Stories for The Keepsake" (CC), 167. In her stories, female identity is tied to a woman's short-lived value in the marriage market while male identity can be sustained and transformed through the use of money. Sussman, "Stories for The Keepsake" (CC), 167, 176; Hofkosh, "Disfiguring Economies", (OMS), 207. Although Mary Shelley wrote twenty-one short stories for the annuals between 1823 and 1839, she always saw herself, above all, as a novelist. She wrote to Leigh Hunt, "I write bad articles which help to make me miserable—but I am going to plunge into a novel and hope that its clear water will wash off the mud of the magazines." Bennett, An Introduction, 72. Travelogues When they ran off to France in the summer of 1814, Mary Godwin and Percy Shelley began a joint journal, Seymour, 187. which they published in 1817 under the title History of a Six Weeks' Tour, adding four letters, two by each of them, based on their visit to Geneva in 1816, along with Percy Shelley's poem "Mont Blanc". The work celebrates youthful love and political idealism and consciously follows the example of Mary Wollstonecraft and others who had combined travelling with writing. Moskal, "Travel writing" (CC), 242. The perspective of the History is philosophical and reformist rather than that of a conventional travelogue; in particular, it addresses the effects of politics and war on France. Bennett, An Introduction, 24–29. The letters the couple wrote on the second journey confront the "great and extraordinary events" of the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo after his "Hundred Days" return in 1815. They also explore the sublimity of Lake Geneva and Mont Blanc as well as the revolutionary legacy of the philosopher and novelist Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Moskal, "Travel writing" (CC), 244; Clemit, "Legacies of Godwin and Wollstonecraft" (CC), 30. Mary Shelley's last full-length book, written in the form of letters and published in 1844, was Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840, 1842 and 1843, which recorded her travels with her son Percy Florence and his university friends. In Rambles, Shelley follows the tradition of Mary Wollstonecraft's Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark and her own A History of a Six Weeks' Tour in mapping her personal and political landscape through the discourse of sensibility and sympathy. Bennett, An Introduction, 114–15, 118; Orr, "Mary Shelley's Rambles "; Schor, "Mary Shelley in Transit" (OMS), 239. For Shelley, building sympathetic connections between people is the way to build civil society and to increase knowledge: "knowledge, to enlighten and free the mind from clinging deadening prejudices—a wider circle of sympathy with our fellow-creatures;—these are the uses of travel". Qtd. in Schor, "Mary Shelley in Transit" (OMS), 239. Between observations on scenery, culture, and "the people, especially in a political point of view", Bennett, An Introduction, 117. she uses the travelogue form to explore her roles as a widow and mother and to reflect on revolutionary nationalism in Italy. Moskal, "Travel writing", 247–50; Orr, "Mary Shelley's Rambles ". Mary Shelley donated the £60 fee for Rambles to the exiled Italian revolutionary Ferdinand Gatteschi, whose essay on the Carbonari rebels she included in the book. (Orr, "Mary Shelley's Rambles ") She also records her "pilgrimage" to scenes associated with Percy Shelley. Moskal, "Travel writing" (CC), 247–50; Bennett, An Introduction, 115. According to critic Clarissa Orr, Mary Shelley's adoption of a persona of philosophical motherhood gives Rambles the unity of a prose poem, with "death and memory as central themes". Orr, "Mary Shelley's Rambles ". At the same time, Shelley makes an egalitarian case against monarchy, class distinctions, slavery, and war. Bennett, An Introduction, 117–18. Biographies Between 1832 and 1839, Mary Shelley wrote many biographies of notable Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French men and a few women for Dionysius Lardner's Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men. These formed part of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia, one of the best of many such series produced in the 1820s and 1830s in response to growing middle-class demand for self-education. Nora Crook, "General Editor's Introduction", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xix; see also Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 227. Until the republication of these essays in 2002, their significance within her body of work was not appreciated. Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 227–28. However, "precise attribution of all the biographical essays" in these volumes "is very difficult", according to Kucich. In the view of literary scholar Greg Kucich, they reveal Mary Shelley's "prodigious research across several centuries and in multiple languages", her gift for biographical narrative, and her interest in the "emerging forms of feminist historiography". Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 228. Shelley wrote in a biographical style popularized by the 18th-century critic Samuel Johnson in his Lives of the Poets (1779–81), combining secondary sources, memoir and anecdote, and authorial evaluation. Nora Crook, "General Editor's Introduction", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xxvii; Tilar J. Mazzeo, "Introduction by the editor of Italian Lives", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xli. She records details of each writer's life and character, quotes their writing in the original as well as in translation, and ends with a critical assessment of their achievement. Lisa Vargo, "Editor's Introduction Spanish and Portuguese Lives", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives and other Writings, Vol. 2, xxii. For Shelley, biographical writing was supposed to, in her words, "form as it were a school in which to study the philosophy of history", Qtd. in Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 228. and to teach "lessons". Most frequently and importantly, these lessons consisted of criticisms of male-dominated institutions such as primogeniture. Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 236. Shelley emphasises domesticity, romance, family, sympathy, and compassion in the lives of her subjects. Her conviction that such forces could improve society connects her biographical approach with that of other early feminist historians such as Mary Hays and Anna Jameson. Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 230–31, 233, 237; Nora Crook, "General Editor's Introduction", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xxviii; Clarissa Campbell Orr, "Editor's Introduction French Lives", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 2, lii. Unlike her novels, most of which had an original print run of several hundred copies, the Lives had a print run of about 4,000 for each volume: thus, according to Kucich, Mary Shelley's "use of biography to forward the social agenda of women's historiography became one of her most influential political interventions". Kucich, "Biographer" (CC), 235; see Nora Crook, "General Editor's Introduction", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xxv for the exact number; Tilar J. Mazzeo, "Introduction by the editor of Italian Lives", Mary Shelley's Literary Lives, Vol. 1, xli. Editorial work Soon after Percy Shelley’s death, Mary Shelley determined to write his biography. In a letter of 17 November 1822, she announced: "I shall write his life—& thus occupy myself in the only manner from which I can derive consolation." Quoted in Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 205. However, her father-in-law, Sir Timothy Shelley, effectively banned her from doing so. Spark, 105–6. Sir Timothy Shelley made his allowance to Mary (on behalf of Percy Florence) dependent on her not putting the Shelley name in print. Mary began her fostering of Percy's poetic reputation in 1824 with the publication of his Posthumous Poems. In 1839, while she was working on the Lives, she prepared a new edition of his poetry, which became, in the words of literary scholar Susan Wolfson, "the canonizing event" in the history of her husband's reputation. Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 193, 209 n12; Bennett, An Introduction, 112; Fraistat, "Shelley Left and Right", Shelley's Prose and Poetry, 645. The following year, Mary Shelley edited a volume of her husband's essays, letters, translations, and fragments, and throughout the 1830s, she introduced his poetry to a wider audience by publishing assorted works in the annual The Keepsake. Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 193. Evading Sir Timothy's ban on a biography, Mary Shelley often included in these editions her own annotations and reflections on her husband's life and work. Bennett, An Introduction, 111–12. "I am to justify his ways," she had declared in 1824; "I am to make him beloved to all posterity." Qtd. in Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 193. It was this goal, argues Blumberg, that led her to present Percy's work to the public in the "most popular form possible". Blumberg, 162. To tailor his works for a Victorian audience, she cast Percy Shelley as a lyrical rather than a political poet. Fraistat, "Shelley Left and Right", Shelley's Prose and Poetry, 645–46; see also Seymour, 466; Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 195, 203; Favret, "Sympathy and Irony" (OMS), 19, 22. As Mary Favret writes, "the disembodied Percy identifies the spirit of poetry itself". Favret, "Sympathy and Irony" (OMS), 28. Mary glossed Percy's political radicalism as a form of sentimentalism, arguing that his republicanism arose from sympathy for those who were suffering. Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 194; Fraistat, "Shelley Left and Right", Shelley's Prose and Poetry, 647, Favret, "Sympathy and Irony" (OMS), 18, 29. She inserted romantic anecdotes of his benevolence, domesticity, and love of the natural world. Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 203. Portraying herself as Percy's "practical muse", she also noted how she had suggested revisions as he wrote. Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 198. Despite the emotions stirred by this task, Mary Shelley arguably proved herself in many respects a professional and scholarly editor. Bennett, Introduction to Selected Letters, xxiii – xxiv. Working from Percy's messy, sometimes indecipherable, notebooks, she attempted to form a chronology for his writings, and she included poems, such as Epipsychidion, addressed to Emilia Viviani, which she would rather have left out. Seymour, 466; Blumberg, 160–61, 169 –70. She was forced, however, into several compromises, and, as Blumberg notes, "modern critics have found fault with the edition and claim variously that she miscopied, misinterpreted, purposely obscured, and attempted to turn the poet into something he was not". Blumberg, 156. According to Wolfson, Donald Reiman, a modern editor of Percy Bysshe Shelley's works, still refers to Mary Shelley's editions, while acknowledging that her editing style belongs "to an age of editing when the aim was not to establish accurate texts and scholarly apparatus but to present a full record of a writer's career for the general reader". Wolfson, "Editorial Privilege" (OMS), 68, n. 34. In principle, Mary Shelley believed in publishing every last word of her husband's work; Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 199; Spark, 130. but she found herself obliged to omit certain passages, either by pressure from her publisher, Edward Moxon, or in deference to public propriety. Bennett, An Introduction, 112; Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 209 n16. For example, she removed the atheistic passages from Queen Mab for the first edition. After she restored them in the second edition, Moxon was prosecuted and convicted of blasphemous libel, though he escaped punishment. Seymour, 467–68; Blumberg, 165–66. Mary Shelley's omissions provoked criticism, often stinging, from members of Percy Shelley's former circle, Spark, 130–31; Seymour, 467–68. and reviewers accused her of, among other things, indiscriminate inclusions. Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 210 n26. Her notes have nevertheless remained an essential source for the study of Percy Shelley's work. As Bennett explains, "biographers and critics agree that Mary Shelley's commitment to bring Shelley the notice she believed his works merited was the single, major force that established Shelley's reputation during a period when he almost certainly would have faded from public view". Bennett, "Finding Mary Shelley", 300–301; see also Wolfson, "Mary Shelley, editor" (CC), 198; Bennett, An Introduction, 110. Reputation Engraving by George Stodart after a monument of Mary and Percy Shelley by Henry Weekes (1853) In her own lifetime, Mary Shelley was taken seriously as a writer, though reviewers often missed her writings' political edge. After her death, however, she was chiefly remembered as the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley and as the author of Frankenstein. Mellor, xi, 39. In fact, in the introduction to her letters published in 1945, editor Frederick Jones wrote, "a collection of the present size could not be justified by the general quality of the letters or by Mary Shelley's importance as a writer. It is as the wife of [Percy Bysshe Shelley] that she excites our interest." Qtd. in Blumberg, 2. This attitude had not disappeared by 1980 when Betty T. Bennett published the first volume of Mary Shelley's complete letters. As she explains, "the fact is that until recent years scholars have generally regarded Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley as a result: William Godwin's and Mary Wollstonecraft's daughter who became Shelley's Pygmalion." Bennett, "Finding Mary Shelley", 291. It was not until Emily Sunstein's Mary Shelley: Romance and Reality in 1989 that a full-length scholarly biography was published. "Introduction" (OMS), 5. The attempts of Mary Shelley's son and daughter-in-law to "Victorianise" her memory by censoring biographical documents contributed to a perception of Mary Shelley as a more conventional, less reformist figure than her works suggest. Her own timid omissions from Percy Shelley's works and her quiet avoidance of public controversy in her later years added to this impression. Commentary by Hogg, Trelawny, and other admirers of Percy Shelley also tended to downplay Mary Shelley's radicalism. Trelawny's Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author (1878) praised Percy Shelley at the expense of Mary, questioning her intelligence and even her authorship of Frankenstein. Seymour, 550. Lady Shelley, Percy Florence's wife, responded in part by presenting a severely edited collection of letters she had inherited, published privately as Shelley and Mary in 1882. Bennett, An Introduction, ix – xi, 120–21; Schor, Introduction to Cambridge Companion, 1–5; Seymour, 548–61. From Frankenstein'''s first theatrical adaptation in 1823 to the cinematic adaptations of the twentieth century, including the first cinematic version in 1910 and now-famous versions such as James Whale's 1931 Frankenstein, Mel Brooks' 1974 Young Frankenstein, and Kenneth Branagh's 1994 Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, many audiences first encounter the work of Mary Shelley through adaptation. Schor, "Frankenstein and film" (CC). Over the course of the nineteenth century, Mary Shelley came to be seen as a one-novel author at best, rather than as the professional writer she was; most of her works have remained out of print until the last thirty years, obstructing a larger view of her achievement. Bennett, "Finding Mary Shelley", 292–93. In recent decades, the republication of almost all her writing has stimulated a new recognition of its value. Her habit of intensive reading and study, revealed in her journals and letters and reflected in her works, is now better appreciated. Bennett, "Finding Mary Shelley", 298–99. Shelley's conception of herself as an author has also been recognized; after Percy's death, she wrote of her authorial ambitions: "I think that I can maintain myself, and there is something inspiriting in the idea." Qtd. in Bennett, "Finding Mary Shelley", 298. Scholars now consider Mary Shelley to be a major Romantic figure, significant for her literary achievement and her political voice as a woman and a liberal. Bennett, An Introduction, ix – xi, 120–21; Schor, Introduction to Cambridge Companion, 1–5; Seymour, 548–61. Selected list of works History of Six Weeks' Tour through a Part of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Holland, with Letters Descriptive of a Sail round the Lake of Geneva, and of the Glaciers of Chamouni (1817) Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818) Mathilda (1819) Valperga; or, The Life and Adventures of Castruccio, Prince of Lucca (1823) Posthumous Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1824) The Last Man (1826) The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck (1830) Lodore (1835) Falkner (1837) The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley (1839) Contributions to Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men (1835–39), part of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840, 1842, and 1843 (1844) Collections of Mary Shelley's papers are housed in Lord Abinger's Shelley Collection on deposit at the Bodleian Library, the New York Public Library (particularly The Carl H. Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and His Circle), the Huntington Library, the British Library, and in the John Murray Collection. See also Godwin-Shelley family tree Map of 1814 and 1816 European journeys Map of 1840s European journeys Notes References All essays from The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley are marked with a "(CC)" and those from The Other Mary Shelley with an "(OMS)". Bibliography Primary sources Shelley, Mary. Collected Tales and Stories. Ed. Charles E. Robinson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976. ISBN 0801817064. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus. Ed. Susan J. Wolfson. New York: Pearson Longman, 2007. ISBN 0321399536. Shelley, Mary. The Journals of Mary Shelley, 1814–44. Ed. Paula R. Feldman and Diana Scott-Kilvert. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. ISBN 0801850886. Shelley, Mary. The Last Man. Ed. Morton D. Paley. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 1998. ISBN 0192838652. Shelley, Mary. Lodore. Ed. Lisa Vargo. Ontario: Broadview Press, 1997. ISBN 1551110776. Shelley, Mary. Mary Shelley's Literary Lives and Other Writings. 4 vols. Ed. Tilar J. Mazzeo. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2002. ISBN 1851967168. Shelley, Mary. Mathilda. Ed. Elizabeth Nitchie. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959. Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 16 February 2008. Shelley, Mary. Matilda; with Mary and Maria, by Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Janet Todd. London: Penguin, 1992. ISBN 0140433716. Shelley, Mary, ed. The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley. London: Edward Moxon, 1840. Google Books. Retrieved on 6 April 2008. Shelley, Mary. Selected Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. Ed. Betty T. Bennett. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. ISBN 0801848865. Shelley, Mary. Valperga; or, The Life and Adventures of Castruccio, Prince of Lucca. Ed. Michael Rossington. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 2000. ISBN 0192832891. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Shelley's Poetry and Prose. Eds. Donald H. Reiman and Neil Fraistat. 2nd ed. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2002. ISBN 0393977528. Secondary sources Bennett, Betty T. "Finding Mary Shelley in her Letters". Romantic Revisions. Ed. Robert Brinkley and Keith Hanley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 052138074X. Bennett, Betty T., ed. Mary Shelley in her Times. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. ISBN 0801877334. Bennett, Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. ISBN 080185976X. Bennett, Betty T. "The Political Philosophy of Mary Shelley's Historical Novels: Valperga and Perkin Warbeck". The Evidence of the Imagination. Ed. Donald H. Reiman, Michael C. Jaye, and Betty T. Bennett. New York: New York University Press, 1978. ISBN 0814773729. Bieri, James. Percy Bysshe Shelley, a Biography: Exile of Unfulfilled Renown, 1816–1822. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2005. ISBN 0874138930. Blumberg, Jane. Mary Shelley's Early Novels: "This Child of Imagination and Misery". Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1993. ISBN 0877453977. Brewer, William D. "William Godwin, Chivalry, and Mary Shelley's The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck". Papers on Language and Literature 35.2 (Spring 1999): 187–205. Rpt. on bnet.com. Retrieved on 20 February 2008. Bunnell, Charlene E. "All the World's a Stage": Dramatic Sensibility in Mary Shelley's Novels. New York: Routledge, 2002. ISBN 0415938635. Carlson, J. A. England's First Family of Writers: Mary Wollstonecraft, William Godwin, Mary Shelley. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. ISBN 080188618X. Clemit, Pamela. "From The Fields of Fancy to Matilda." Mary Shelley in her Times. Ed. Betty T. Bennett. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. ISBN 0801877334. Clemit, Pamela. The Godwinian Novel: The Rational Fictions of Godwin, Brockden Brown, Mary Shelley. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. ISBN 0198112203. Conger, Syndy M., Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea, eds. Iconoclastic Departures: Mary Shelley after "Frankenstein". Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley's Birth. Madison, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997. ISBN 0836836845. Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, ed. Mary Shelley's Fictions: From Frankenstein to Falkner. New York: St. Martin's Press/Palgrave, 2000. ISBN 0333771060. Fisch, Audrey A., Anne K. Mellor, and Esther H. Schorr, eds. The Other Mary Shelley: Beyond "Frankenstein". New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0195077407. Frank, Frederick S. "Mary Shelley's Other Fictions: A Bibliographic Consensus". Iconoclastic Departures: Mary Shelley after "Frankenstein". Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley's Birth. Ed. Syndy M. Conger, Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea. Madison, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997. ISBN 0836836845. Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. 1979. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 0300025963. Gittings, Robert and Jo Manton. Claire Clairmont and the Shelleys. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0198185944. Holmes, Richard. Shelley: The Pursuit. 1974. London: Harper Perennial, 2003. ISBN 0007204582. Jump, Harriet Devine, Pamela Clemit, and Betty T. Bennett, eds. Lives of the Great Romantics III: Godwin, Wollstonecraft & Mary Shelley by Their Contemporaries. London: Pickering & Chatto, 1999. ISBN 1851965122. Levine, George and U. C. Knoepflmacher, eds. The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's novel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. ISBN 0520036123. Mellor, Anne K. Mary Shelley: Her Life, her Fiction, Her Monsters. London: Routledge, 1990. ISBN 0415901472. Myers, Mitzi. "Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin Shelley: The Female Author between Public and Private Spheres." Mary Shelley in her Times. Ed. Betty T. Bennett. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. ISBN 0801877334. Orr, Clarissa Campbell. "Mary Shelley's Rambles in Germany and Italy, the Celebrity Author, and the Undiscovered Country of the Human Heart". Romanticism On the Net 11 (August 1998). Retrieved on 22 February 2008. Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley and Jane Austen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. ISBN 0226675289. Schor, Esther, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521007704. Seymour, Miranda. Mary Shelley. London: John Murray, 2000. ISBN 0719557119. Sites, Melissa. "Re/membering Home: Utopian Domesticity in Mary Shelley's Lodore". A Brighter Morn: The Shelley Circle's Utopian Project. Ed. Darby Lewes. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003. ISBN 0739104721. Smith, Johanna M. "A Critical History of Frankenstein". Frankenstein. Case Studies in Contemporary Criticism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. ISBN 0312227620. Spark, Muriel. Mary Shelley. London: Cardinal, 1987. ISBN 074740138X. St Clair, William. The Godwins and the Shelleys: The Biography of a Family. London: Faber & Faber, 1989. ISBN 0571154220. Sterrenburg, Lee. "The Last Man: Anatomy of Failed Revolutions". Nineteenth Century Fiction 33 (1978): 324–347. Sunstein, Emily W. Mary Shelley: Romance and Reality. 1989. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. ISBN 0801842182. Wake, Ann M Frank. "Women in the Active Voice: Recovering Female History in Mary Shelley's Valperga and Perkin Warbeck". Iconoclastic Departures: Mary Shelley after "Frankenstein". Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley's Birth. Ed. Syndy M. Conger, Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea. Madison, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997. ISBN 0836836845. White, Daniel E. "'The god undeified': Mary Shelley's Valperga, Italy, and the Aesthetic of Desire". Romanticism on the Net'' 6 (May 1997). Retrieved on 22 February 2008. 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1,266 | Jurassic | The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Ma (million years ago) to Ma, that is, from the end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic era, also known as the "Age of Reptiles". The start of the period is marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event. However the end of the Jurassic Period did not witness any major extinction event. The start and end of the period are defined by carefully selected locations; the uncertainty in dating arises from trying to date these horizons. The chronostratigraphic term Jurassic is directly linked to the Swiss Jura Mountains. Alexander von Humboldt (*1769, † 1859) recognised the mainly limestone dominated mountain range of the Swiss Jura Mountains as a separate formation that was not at the time included in the established stratigraphic system defined by Abraham Gottlob Werner (* 1749, † 1817) and named it “Jurakalk” in 1795. Hölder, H. 1964. Jura - Handbuch der stratigraphischen Geologie, IV. Enke-Verlag, 603 pp., 158 figs, 43 tabs; Stuttgart Arkell, W.J. 1956. Jurassic Geology of the World. Oliver & Boyd, 806 pp.; Edinburgh und London. Pieńkowski, G.; Schudack, M.E.; Bosák, P.; Enay, R.; Feldman-Olszewska, A.; Golonka, J.; Gutowski, J.; Herngreen, G.F.W.; Jordan, P.; Krobicki, M.; Lathuiliere, B.; Leinfelder, R.R.; Michalík, J.; Mönnig, E.; Noe-Nygaard, N.; Pálfy, J.; Pint, A.; Rasser, M.W.; Reisdorf, A.G.; Schmid, D.U.; Schweigert, G.; Surlyk, F.; Wetzel, A. & Theo E. Wong, T.E. 2008. Jurassic. In: McCann, T. (ed.): The Geology of Central Europe. Volume 2: Mesozoic and Cenozoic, Geological Society, pp.: 823-922; London. The name “Jura” is derived from the celtic root “jor” which was latinised into “juria”, meaning forest (i.e. “Jura” is forest mountains). Rollier, L. 1903. Das Schweizerische Juragebirge. Sonderabdruck aus dem Geographischen Lexikon der Schweiz, Verlag von Gebr. Attinger, 39 pp; Neuenburg Divisions The Jurassic period of time is usually broken into Early, Middle, and Late Jurassic subdivisions, also known as Lias, Dogger and Malm in Europe. Kazlev, M. Alan (2002) Palaeos website Accessed July. 22, 2008 The corresponding terms for the rocks are Lower, Middle, and Upper Jurassic. The separation of the term Jurassic into three sections goes back to Leopold von Buch (* 1774, † 1853). The faunal stages from youngest to oldest are: Upper/Late Jurassic Tithonian ( ± 4.0 – 145.5 ± 4.0 Ma) Kimmeridgian (155.7 ± 4.0 – 150.8 ± 4.0 Ma) Oxfordian (161.2 ± 4.0 – 155.7 ± 4.0 Ma) Middle Jurassic Callovian (164.7 ± 4.0 – 161.2 ± 4.0 Ma) Bathonian (167.7 ± 3.5 – 164.7 ± 4.0 Ma) Bajocian (171.6 ± 3.0 – 167.7 ± 3.5 Ma) Aalenian (175.6 ± 2.0 – 171.6 ± 3.0 Ma) Lower/Early Jurassic Toarcian (183.0 ± 1.5 – 175.6 ± 2.0 Ma) Pliensbachian (189.6 ± 1.5 – 183.0 ± 1.5 Ma) Sinemurian (196.5 ± 1.0 – 189.6 ± 1.5 Ma) Hettangian (199.6 ± 0.6 – 196.5 ± 1.0 Ma) Paleogeography and tectonics Jurassic limestones and marls (the Matmor Formation) in southern Israel. During the early Jurassic period, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. Late Jurassic The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western Europe, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site and the renowned late Jurassic lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen. Jurassic Period In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. map Though the epicontinental Sundance Sea left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the United States and Canada during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the alluvial deposits of the Morrison Formation. The Jurassic was a time of calcite sea geochemistry in which low-magnesium calcite was the primary inorganic marine precipitate of calcium carbonate. Carbonate hardgrounds were thus very common, along with calcitic ooids, calcitic cements, and invertebrate faunas with dominantly calcitic skeletons (Stanley and Hardie, 1998, 1999). The first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern Cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Monroe and Wicander, 607. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia, and the United Kingdom. Africa Early Jurassic strata are distributed in a similar fashion to Late Triassic beds, with more common outcrops in the south and less common fossil beds which are predominated by tracks to the north. As the Jurassic proceeded, larger and more iconic groups of dinosaurs like sauropods and ornithopods proliferated in Africa. Middle Jurassic strata are neither well represented nor well studied in Africa. Late Jurassic strata are also poorly represented apart from the spectacular Tendeguru fauna in Tanzania. The Late Jurassic life of Tendeguru is very similar to that found in western North America's Morrison Formation. Jacobs, Louis, L. (1997). "African Dinosaurs." Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. Edited by Phillip J. Currie and Kevin Padian. Academic Press. p. 2-4. Fauna Large dinosaurs were dominant during the Jurassic Period. Ichthyosaurus from Liassic oil slates in Holzmaden, southern Germany. Gastropod and attached mytilid bivalves on a Jurassic limestone bedding plane in southern Israel. Gigandipus, a dinosaur footprint in the Lower Jurassic Moenave Formation at the St. George Dinosaur Discovery Site at Johnson Farm, southwestern Utah. Aquatic and marine During the Jurassic, the primary vertebrates living in the seas were fish and marine reptiles. The latter include ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and marine crocodiles, of the families Teleosauridae and Metriorhynchidae. In the invertebrate world, several new groups appeared, including rudists (a reef-forming variety of bivalves) and belemnites. The Jurassic also had diverse encrusting and boring (sclerobiont) communities (see Taylor & Wilson, 2003), and it saw a significant rise in the bioerosion of carbonate shells and hardgrounds. Especially common is the ichnogenus (trace fossil) Gastrochaenolites. During the Jurassic period about four or five of the twelve clades of planktonic organisms that exist in the fossil record either experienced a massive evolutionary radiation or appeared for the first time. Terrestrial On land, large archosaurian reptiles remained dominant. The Jurassic was the golden age of the large herbivorous dinosaurs known as the sauropods—Camarasaurus, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Brachiosaurus, and many others—that roamed the land late in the period; their mainstays were either the prairies of ferns, palm-like cycads and bennettitales, or the higher coniferous growth, according to their adaptations. They were preyed upon by large theropods as for example Ceratosaurus, Megalosaurus, Torvosaurus and Allosaurus. All these belong to the 'lizard hipped' or saurischian branch of the dinosaurs. During the Late Jurassic, the first birds evolved from small coelurosaurian dinosaurs. Ornithischian dinosaurs were less predominant than saurischian dinosaurs, although some like stegosaurs and small ornithopods played important roles as small and medium-to-large (but not sauropod-sized) herbivores. In the air, pterosaurs were common; they ruled the skies, filling many ecological roles now taken by birds. Flora Conifers were common in the Jurassic period. The arid, continental conditions characteristic of the Triassic steadily eased during the Jurassic period, especially at higher latitudes; the warm, humid climate allowed lush jungles to cover much of the landscape. Haines, 2000. Gymnosperms were relatively diverse during the Jurassic period. The Conifers in particular dominated the flora, as during the Triassic; they were the most diverse group and constituted the majority of large trees. Extant conifer families that flourished during the Jurassic included the Araucariaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae, Taxaceae and Taxodiaceae. Behrensmeyer et al., 1992, 349. The extinct Mesozoic conifer family Cheirolepidiaceae dominated low latitude vegetation, as did the shrubby Bennettitales. Behrensmeyer et al., 1992, 352 Cycads were also common, as were ginkgos and Dicksoniaceous tree ferns in the forest. Smaller ferns were probably the dominant undergrowth. Caytoniaceous seed ferns were another group of important plants during this time and are thought to have been shrub to small-tree sized. Behrensmeyer et al., 1992, 353 Ginkgo plants were particularly common in the mid- to high northern latitudes. In the Southern Hemisphere, podocarps were especially successful, while Ginkgos and Czekanowskiales were rare. In the oceans modern coralline algae appeared for the first time. Notes References Behrensmeyer, Anna K., Damuth, J.D., DiMichele, W.A., Potts, R., Sues, H.D. & Wing, S.L. (eds.) (1992), Terrestrial Ecosystems through Time: the Evolutionary Paleoecology of Terrestrial Plants and Animals, University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, ISBN 0-226-04154-9 (cloth), ISBN 0-226-04155-7 (paper) Haines, Tim (2000) Walking with Dinosaurs: A Natural History, New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, Inc., p. 65. ISBN 0-563-38449-2 Kazlev, M. Alan (2002) Palaeos website Accessed Jan. 8, 2006 Mader, Sylvia (2004) Biology, eighth edition Monroe, James S., and Reed Wicander. (1997) The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution, 2nd ed. Belmont: West Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0-314-09577-2 Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm Accessed April 30, 2006. Stanley, S.M. and Hardie, L.A. (1998). "Secular oscillations in the carbonate mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms driven by tectonically forced shifts in seawater chemistry". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 144: 3-19. Stanley, S.M. and Hardie, L.A. (1999). "Hypercalcification; paleontology links plate tectonics and geochemistry to sedimentology". GSA Today 9: 1-7. Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1-103. . External links Examples of Jurassic Fossils Palaeos.com Jurassic fossils in Harbury, Warwickshire | Jurassic |@lemmatized jurassic:46 geologic:1 period:16 system:2 extend:1 million:1 year:1 ago:1 end:3 triassic:6 beginning:2 cretaceous:2 constitute:2 middle:5 mesozoic:4 era:1 also:6 know:3 age:2 reptile:3 start:2 mark:2 major:2 extinction:2 event:2 however:1 witness:1 define:2 carefully:1 select:1 location:1 uncertainty:1 date:2 arises:1 try:1 horizon:1 chronostratigraphic:1 term:3 directly:1 link:3 swiss:2 jura:5 mountain:4 alexander:1 von:3 humboldt:1 recognise:1 mainly:1 limestone:3 dominate:3 range:1 separate:1 formation:5 time:8 include:5 establish:1 stratigraphic:1 abraham:1 gottlob:1 werner:1 name:2 jurakalk:1 hölder:1 h:2 handbuch:1 der:2 stratigraphischen:1 geologie:1 iv:1 enke:1 verlag:2 pp:4 fig:1 tab:1 stuttgart:1 arkell:1 w:4 j:7 geology:3 world:3 oliver:1 boyd:1 edinburgh:1 und:1 london:3 pieńkowski:1 g:4 schudack:1 e:5 bosák:1 p:5 enay:1 r:4 feldman:1 olszewska:1 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1,267 | David_Mamet | David Alan Mamet (born November 30, 1947) is an American author, essayist, playwright, screenwriter and film director. His works are known for their clever, terse, sometimes vulgar dialogue and arcane stylized phrasing, as well as for his exploration of masculinity. He received Tony Award nominations for Glengarry Glen Ross (1984) and Speed-the-Plow (1988). As a screenwriter, he received Oscar nominations for The Verdict (1982) and Wag the Dog (1997). His recent books include The Old Religion (1997), a novel about the lynching of Leo Frank; Five Cities of Refuge: Weekly Reflections on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy (2004), a Torah commentary, with Rabbi Lawrence Kushner; The Wicked Son (2006), a study of Jewish self-hatred and antisemitism; and Bambi vs. Godzilla, a commentary on the movie business. A Broadway revival of his play American Buffalo, starring John Leguizamo, Cedric the Entertainer, and Haley Joel Osment, opened on October 31, 2008. Playbill 19 Aug 2008 Biography Theatre Mamet was born in Chicago, the son of Lenore June (née Silver), a teacher, and Bernard Morris Mamet, an attorney. David Mamet Biography (1947-) One of his first jobs was as a busboy at Chicago's The Second City. He was educated at the Francis W. Parker School and at Goddard College in Plainfield, Vermont. Mamet is a founding member of the Atlantic Theater Company; he first gained acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway plays in 1976, The Duck Variations, Sexual Perversity in Chicago, and American Buffalo. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1984 for Glengarry Glen Ross, which received its first Broadway revival in the summer of 2005. Transition to film Mamet's first produced screenplay was the 1981 production of The Postman Always Rings Twice (directed by Bob Rafelson), based upon James M. Cain's novel. He received an Academy Award nomination one year later for his first script, The Verdict; written in the late 1970s. He also wrote the screenplay for The Untouchables. In 1987, Mamet made his film directing debut with House of Games, starring his then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, and a host of longtime stage associates. He uses friends as actors, Life magazine (Oct. 1987, V. 10 No. 11) especially in one early scene in the movie, which featured Vermont poker playing friends. He is quoted as saying, "It was my first film as a director and I needed support, so I stacked the deck." Two of the four poker buddies included in the film were fellow Goddard College graduates Allen Soule and Bob Silverstein. Mamet remains a prolific writer and director, and has assembled an informal repertory company for his films, including Crouse, William H. Macy, Joe Mantegna, Rebecca Pidgeon, and Ricky Jay, as well as some of the aforementioned poker buddies. Like independent director John Sayles, Mamet funds his own films with the payments he receives for credited and uncredited rewrites of typically big-budget films. For instance, Mamet did a rewrite of the script for Ronin under the pseudonym "Richard Weisz" and turned in an early version of a script for Malcolm X that director Spike Lee rejected. Three of Mamet's own films, House of Games, The Spanish Prisoner, and Heist, have involved the world of con artists. In 2000, Mamet directed but did not write Catastrophe, based on the one-act play by Samuel Beckett, and featuring Harold Pinter and Sir John Gielgud (in his final screen performance). Mamet has published three novels, The Village in 1994, The Old Religion in 1997, and Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources in 2000. He has also written several non-fiction texts, as well as a number of poems and children's stories. Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger at The Huffington Post. The majority of his posts are scans of his own doodles, all political satires laced with humor. His first post chronicled his astonishment that one can communicate on a computer. He has also published a lauded version of the classical Faust story, Faustus, in 2004. However, the play, when staged in San Francisco during the spring of 2004, was not well received by critics. Recently he directed and wrote the mixed martial arts movie Redbelt, about a martial arts instructor tricked into fighting in a professional bout. Television Mamet is also the creator, producer and frequent writer of the television series The Unit, co-produced with Shawn Ryan of The Shield. In 2007, Mamet directed two television commercials for Ford Motor Company. The two 30-second ads featured the Ford Edge and were filmed in Mamet's signature style of fast-paced dialogue and clear, simple imagery. Mamet wrote the "Wasted Weekend" episode of Hill Street Blues that aired in 1987. His then-wife Lindsay Crouse appeared in numerous episodes (including that one) as Officer McBride. His sister Lynn Mamet is a producer and writer for television shows, such as The Unit and Law & Order. BBC Radio In recent years, Mamet has also contributed several dramas to BBC Radio through Jarvis & Ayres Productions, including an adaptation of Glengarry Glen Ross for BBC Radio 3 and new dramas for BBC Radio 4. His most recent work is a comedy, Keep Your Pantheon, or On the Whole I'd Rather Be in Mesopotamia (aired 28 May 2007). "Mamet speak" Mamet's style of writing dialogue, marked by a cynical, street-smart edge, precisely crafted for effect, is so distinctive that it came to be called Mamet speak. A Companion to Twentieth-century American Drama, David Krasner, Blackwell Publishing, 2005, p. 410 He often uses italics and quotation marks to highlight particular words and to draw attention to his characters' frequent manipulation and deceitful use of language. His characters frequently interrupt one another, their sentences trail off unfinished, and their dialogue overlaps. Mamet himself has criticized his (and other writers') tendency to write "pretty" at the expense of sound, logical plots. When asked how he developed his style for writing dialogue, Mamet said, "In my family, in the days prior to television, we liked to while away the evenings by making ourselves miserable, based solely on our ability to speak the language viciously. That's probably where my ability was honed." One classic instance of Mamet's dialogue style can be found in Glengarry Glen Ross, in which two down-on-their-luck real estate salesmen are considering breaking into their employer's office to steal a list of good sales leads. George Aaronow and Dave Moss finagle the meaning of "talk" and "speak," steeped in fraudulent connivance of the language and meaning: Moss No. What do you mean? Have I talked to him about this [Pause] Aaronow Yes. I mean are you actually talking about this, or are we just... Moss No, we're just... Aaronow We're just "talking" about it. Moss We're just speaking about it. [Pause] As an idea. Aaronow As an idea. Moss Yes. Aaronow We're not actually talking about it. Moss No. Aaronow Talking about it as a... Moss No. Aaronow As a robbery. Moss As a "robbery"? No. Mamet dedicated Glengarry Glen Ross to Harold Pinter, who was instrumental in its being first staged at the Royal National Theatre, in 1983, and whom Mamet has acknowledged as an influence on its success, and on his other work. "Landmarks," on Night Waves BBC Radio, March 3, 2005, accessed January 17, 2007. Directing style In On Directing Film, Mamet reiterates the objectivity of filmmaking. He believes meaning is found in juxtaposing cuts, and that when shooting a scene, the director should consistently follow the point of the scene. He doesn't believe film should follow the protagonist or consist of visually beautiful or intriguing shots, but should be simply functional in getting a point across in an essential and necessary way. He wants his films to be shaped by logical ways of creating order from disorder in search of the superobjective. Other endeavors In 1990 Mamet published a 55-page collection of poetry called The Hero Pony. Mamet has also published a series of short plays and monologues. As part of his contributions to The Huffington Post, Mamet has drawn many cartoons about strife in Israel. David Mamet - Politics on The Huffington Post Mamet also appeared as a guest on Episode 312 of the animated Comedy Central program Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist. The episode, "New Phone System," originally aired on March 2, 1997. Writing in The Village Voice, Mamet announced that he was no longer a "brain-dead liberal", but instead believed in free market thinkers David Mamet Leaves the Brain Dead Left by Dinesh D'Souza Personal life Mamet and actress Lindsay Crouse were married from 1977 to 1990, and have two children together, Willa and Zosia. Mamet has been married to actress and singer-songwriter Rebecca Pidgeon since 1991. They have two children, Clara and Noah. Work YearPlaysFilmsBooks1970Lakeboat (revised 1980)1972The Duck Variations, Lone Canoe1974Sexual Perversity in Chicago, Squirrels1975American Buffalo1976Reunion, The Water Engine1977A Life in the Theatre1978Revenge of the Space Pandas, or Binky Rudich and the Two-Speed Clock1979The Woods, The Blue Hour1980Lakeboat (revision)1981The Postman Always Rings Twice1982EdmondThe Verdict1983The Frog Prince1984Glengarry Glen Ross1985The Shawl, Goldberg Street: Short Plays and Monologues1986The Poet & The RentAbout Last Night...1987House of Games (director), The UntouchablesWriting in Restaurants 1988Speed-the-PlowThings Change (director)1989Bobby Gould In HellWe're No Angels1991Homicide (director)1992OleannaHoffa (producer), Glengarry Glen RossOn Directing Film, The Cabin: Reminiscence and Diversions 1994Oleanna (director), Vanya on 42nd StreetThe Village1995The Cryptogram1996American BuffaloMake-Believe Town: Essays and Remembraces, Three Uses of the Knife1997The Old NeighborhoodWag the Dog, The Spanish Prisoner (director), The EdgeThe Old Religion1998Ronin (writer)1999Boston MarriageThe Winslow Boy (director)True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the ActorThe Chinaman (poems)2000Lakeboat, State and Main (director)Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources2001Hannibal, Heist (director)2004FaustusSpartan (director)2005Romance, The Voysey Inheritance (adapted)Edmond2006The Wicked Son: Anti-Semitism, Self-hatred, and the Jews2007Bambi Vs. Godzilla: On the Nature, Purpose, and Practice of the Movie Business2008November, A Waitress in Yellowstone (musical)Redbelt (writer, director), 2009The Prince of Providence (writer) References Further reading External links "Official Broadway Site" Website for the 2008 Broadway Production of American Buffalo starring John Leguizamo, Cedric the Entertainer, and Haley Joel Osment Mamet: Why I Am No Longer a 'Brain-Dead Liberal' (Village Voice) David Mamet Bio at CBS - The Unit David Mamet's writings and cartoons on the Huffington Post'' Interview at salon.com Interview by Cathy Pryor in the London 'Independent on Sunday' Book Review of True and False First-hand account of Mamet reading from Dr. Faustus at the 92nd Street Y Book Review of The Wicked Son Book Review of The Wicked Son by an American academic Book Review of The Wicked Son from the Toronto Star For Everything Mamet | David_Mamet |@lemmatized david:7 alan:1 mamet:42 born:1 november:1 american:6 author:1 essayist:1 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1,268 | Major_League_Baseball_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award | In Major League Baseball, the Rookie of the Year Award is given annually to one player from each league as voted upon by the Baseball Writers Association of America (BBWAA). The award was established in 1940 by the Chicago chapter of the BBWAA who alone selected a rookie of the year. Starting in , all members of the national BBWAA organization voted. Jackie Robinson was awarded the first official Rookie of the Year award. When casting their ballots each BBWAA voter used their own discretion as to who qualified as a rookie until 1957 when they defined the term as someone with less than 75 at-bats or 45 innings pitched in any previous season. This guideline was later amended to 90 at-bats, 45 innings pitched or 45 days on a major league roster before September 1 of the previous year. It was amended to the current standards in 1971 to 130 at-bats, 50 innings pitched or 45 days on the active roster of a major league club (excluding time on the disabled list) before September 1. Since 1980, each voter names three rookies: a first place choice is given five points, a second place choice three points, and a third place one point. The award goes to the player with the most overall points. Prior to that time, each voter cast one ballot for each league. Originally the award was known as the J. Louis Comiskey Memorial Award, after the Chicago White Sox owner of the 1930s. In , in honor of the 40th year since Jackie Robinson broke the baseball color line, it became known as the Jackie Robinson Award. Only two players, both in the American League, have been named Rookie of the Year and MVP in the same year, Fred Lynn in and Ichiro Suzuki in . The only Rookie of the Year to win the Cy Young Award in the same year was Fernando Valenzuela in . Initially, the award was simply called the "Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award." From 1947 to 1948, only one award was given to a single player. Since 1949, the honor has been given to one player in both the National League and American League. The award has come under scrutiny in recent years, as several Japanese players (namely Hideo Nomo in 1995, Kazuhiro Sasaki in 2000, and Suzuki in 2001) with prior experience in Japan have won the award during their first year playing in the United States. While rookies to Major League Baseball, these players were already tested professionals before coming to the United States, leading some baseball writers to question whether they should be considered true rookies. However, the policy remains in place that experience outside the U.S. major leagues does not affect one's status as a rookie. The issue was raised again in 2003, as Hideki Matsui narrowly lost the balloting to Angel Berroa. Robinson, the first recipient of the award, had already played in the Negro Leagues before playing in the major leagues, as did 1950 NL Rookie of the Year Sam Jethroe, who is currently the oldest player, at 32 years of age, to win the award. Key 1BFirst base2BSecond base3BThird baseSSShortstopPPitcherCCatcherOFOutfield Award winners Major Leagues combined (1947–48) YearPlayerTeamPosition DodgersBrooklyn Dodgers 1B BravesBoston Braves SS National and American League winners (1949–present) YearPlayerLeagueTeamPosition 1949 National DodgersBrooklyn Dodgers P 1949 American OriolesSt. Louis Browns OF 1950 National BravesBoston Braves OF 1950 American Red SoxBoston Red Sox 1B 1951 National GiantsNew York Giants OF 1951 American YankeesNew York Yankees 3B 1952 National DodgersBrooklyn Dodgers P 1952 American AthleticsPhiladelphia Athletics P 1953 National DodgersBrooklyn Dodgers 2B 1953 American TigersDetroit Tigers SS 1954 National CardinalsSt. Louis Cardinals OF 1954 American YankeesNew York Yankees P 1955 National CardinalsSt. Louis Cardinals OF 1955 American IndiansCleveland Indians P 1956 National RedsCincinnati Reds OF 1956 American White SoxChicago White Sox SS 1957 National PhilliesPhiladelphia Phillies P 1957 American YankeesNew York Yankees SS 1958 National GiantsSan Francisco Giants 1B 1958 American TwinsWashington Senators OF 1959 National GiantsSan Francisco Giants 1B 1959 American TwinsWashington Senators OF 1960 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers OF 1960 American OriolesBaltimore Orioles SS 1961 National CubsChicago Cubs OF 1961 American Red SoxBoston Red Sox P 1962 National CubsChicago Cubs 2B 1962 American YankeesNew York Yankees SS 1963 National RedsCincinnati Reds 2B 1963 American White SoxChicago White Sox P 1964 National PhilliesPhiladelphia Phillies 3B 1964 American TwinsMinnesota Twins OF 1965 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers 2B 1965 American OriolesBaltimore Orioles OF 1966 National RedsCincinnati Reds 2B 1966 American White SoxChicago White Sox OF 1967 National MetsNew York Mets P 1967 American TwinsMinnesota Twins 2B 1968 National RedsCincinnati Reds C 1968 American YankeesNew York Yankees P 1969 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers 2B 1969 American RoyalsKansas City Royals OF 1970 National NationalsMontreal Expos P 1970 American YankeesNew York Yankees C 1971 National BravesAtlanta Braves C 1971 American IndiansCleveland Indians 1B 1972 National MetsNew York Mets P 1972 American Red SoxBoston Red Sox C 1973 National GiantsSan Francisco Giants OF 1973 American OriolesBaltimore Orioles OF 1974 National CardinalsSt. Louis Cardinals OF 1974 American RangersTexas Rangers 1B 1975 National GiantsSan Francisco Giants P 1975 American Red SoxBoston Red Sox OF 1976 National San Diego Padres P 1976 National Cincinnati Reds P 1976 American TigersDetroit Tigers P 1977 National NationalsMontreal Expos OF 1977 American OriolesBaltimore Orioles DH 1978 National BravesAtlanta Braves 3B 1978 American TigersDetroit Tigers 2B 1979 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers P 1979 American Minnesota Twins 3B 1979 American Toronto Blue Jays SS 1980 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers P 1980 American IndiansCleveland Indians OF 1981 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers P 1981 American YankeesNew York Yankees P 1982 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers 2B 1982 American OriolesBaltimore Orioles SS 1983 National MetsNew York Mets OF 1983 American White SoxChicago White Sox OF 1984 National MetsNew York Mets P 1984 American MarinersSeattle Mariners 1B 1985 National CardinalsSt. Louis Cardinals OF 1985 American Chicago White Sox SS 1986 National CardinalsSt. Louis Cardinals P 1986 American AthleticsOakland Athletics OF 1987 National PadresSan Diego Padres C 1987 American AthleticsOakland Athletics 1B 1988 National RedsCincinnati Reds 3B 1988 American AthleticsOakland Athletics SS 1989} National CubsChicago Cubs OF 1989 American OriolesBaltimore Orioles P 1990 National BravesAtlanta Braves OF 1990 American IndiansCleveland Indians C 1991 National AstrosHouston Astros 1B 1991 American TwinsMinnesota Twins 2B 1992 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers 1B 1992 American BrewersMilwaukee Brewers SS 1993 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers C 1993 American AngelsCalifornia Angels OF 1994 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers OF 1994 American RoyalsKansas City Royals DH 1995 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers P 1995 American TwinsMinnesota Twins OF 1996 National DodgersLos Angeles Dodgers OF 1996 American YankeesNew York Yankees SS 1997 National PhilliesPhiladelphia Phillies 3B 1997 American Red SoxBoston Red Sox SS 1998 National CubsChicago Cubs P 1998 American AthleticsOakland Athletics OF 1999 National RedsCincinnati Reds P 1999 American RoyalsKansas City Royals OF 2000 National BravesAtlanta Braves SS 2000 American MarinersSeattle Mariners P 2001 National CardinalsSt. Louis Cardinals 1B 2001 American MarinersSeattle Mariners OF 2002 National RockiesColorado Rockies P 2002 American Blue JaysToronto Blue Jays 3B 2003 National MarlinsFlorida Marlins P 2003 American RoyalsKansas City Royals SS 2004 National PiratesPittsburgh Pirates OF 2004 American AthleticsOakland Athletics SS 2005 National PhilliesPhiladelphia Phillies 1B 2005 American AthleticsOakland Athletics P 2006 National MarlinsFlorida Marlins SS 2006 American TigersDetroit Tigers P 2007 National BrewersMilwaukee Brewers 3B 2007 American Red SoxBoston Red Sox 2B 2008 NationalCubsChicago Cubs C 2008 AmericanRaysTampa Bay Rays3B References General Inline citations | Major_League_Baseball_Rookie_of_the_Year_Award |@lemmatized major:8 league:15 baseball:6 rookie:12 year:14 award:17 give:4 annually:1 one:6 player:8 vote:2 upon:1 writer:2 association:1 america:1 bbwaa:4 establish:1 chicago:3 chapter:1 alone:1 select:1 starting:1 member:1 national:63 organization:1 jackie:3 robinson:4 first:4 official:1 cast:2 ballot:2 voter:3 use:1 discretion:1 qualify:1 define:1 term:1 someone:1 less:1 bat:3 inning:3 pitch:3 previous:2 season:1 guideline:1 later:1 amend:2 day:2 roster:2 september:2 current:1 standard:1 active:1 club:1 exclude:1 time:2 disabled:1 list:1 since:3 names:1 three:2 place:4 choice:2 five:1 point:4 second:1 third:1 go:1 overall:1 prior:2 originally:1 know:2 j:1 louis:8 comiskey:1 memorial:1 white:10 sox:12 owner:1 honor:2 break:1 color:1 line:1 become:1 two:1 american:63 name:1 mvp:1 fred:1 lynn:1 ichiro:1 suzuki:2 win:3 cy:1 young:1 fernando:1 valenzuela:1 initially:1 simply:1 call:1 single:1 come:2 scrutiny:1 recent:1 several:1 japanese:1 namely:1 hideo:1 nomo:1 kazuhiro:1 sasaki:1 experience:2 japan:1 playing:1 united:2 state:2 already:2 test:1 professional:1 lead:1 question:1 whether:1 consider:1 true:1 however:1 policy:1 remain:1 outside:1 u:1 affect:1 status:1 issue:1 raise:1 hideki:1 matsui:1 narrowly:1 lose:1 balloting:1 angel:2 berroa:1 recipient:1 play:2 negro:1 nl:1 sam:1 jethroe:1 currently:1 old:1 age:1 key:1 basessshortstopppitcherccatcherofoutfield:1 winner:2 combine:1 yearplayerteamposition:1 dodgersbrooklyn:4 dodger:16 bravesboston:2 brave:6 ss:14 present:1 yearplayerleagueteamposition:1 p:31 oriolesst:1 brown:1 red:16 soxboston:6 giantsnew:1 york:13 giant:5 yankeesnew:8 yankee:8 athleticsphiladelphia:1 athletics:7 tigersdetroit:4 tiger:4 cardinalsst:6 cardinal:6 indianscleveland:4 indian:3 redscincinnati:6 soxchicago:4 philliesphiladelphia:4 phillies:4 giantssan:4 francisco:4 twinswashington:2 senator:2 dodgerslos:12 angeles:12 oriolesbaltimore:6 oriole:6 cubschicago:4 cub:5 reds:3 twinsminnesota:4 twin:5 metsnew:4 mets:4 c:8 royalskansas:4 city:4 royal:4 nationalsmontreal:2 expo:2 bravesatlanta:4 indians:1 rangerstexas:1 ranger:1 san:1 diego:2 padre:1 cincinnati:1 dh:2 minnesota:1 toronto:1 blue:3 jay:1 marinersseattle:3 mariner:3 athleticsoakland:6 padressan:1 padres:1 astroshouston:1 astros:1 brewersmilwaukee:2 brewer:2 angelscalifornia:1 rockiescolorado:1 rockies:1 jaystoronto:1 jays:1 marlinsflorida:2 marlin:2 piratespittsburgh:1 pirate:1 nationalcubschicago:1 americanraystampa:1 bay:1 reference:1 general:1 inline:1 citation:1 |@bigram league_baseball:3 jackie_robinson:3 inning_pitch:3 white_sox:6 fred_lynn:1 ichiro_suzuki:1 cy_young:1 fernando_valenzuela:1 red_soxboston:6 soxboston_red:6 red_sox:6 american_yankeesnew:8 yankeesnew_york:8 national_cardinalsst:6 cardinalsst_louis:6 national_redscincinnati:6 national_dodgerslos:12 dodgerslos_angeles:12 angeles_dodger:12 american_oriolesbaltimore:6 oriolesbaltimore_oriole:6 san_diego:1 diego_padre:1 minnesota_twin:1 american_athleticsoakland:6 athleticsoakland_athletics:6 |
1,269 | Geography_of_Alabama | float|Physiographic regions in Alabama Political Regions of Alabama Physical features Extending entirely across the state of Alabama for about south of its northern boundary, and in the middle stretching farther south, is the Cumberland Plateau, or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad tablelands by the dissection of rivers. In the northern part of this plateau, west of Jackson county, there are about of level highlands from 700 to above sea level. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee River, is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to . To the northeast of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from 400 to . In the remainder of this region, the southern portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, extending about from east to west between two valleys, and rising precipitously on the north side above them or above the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the southeast is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountains, and occupies an area within the state of about . This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges, and valleys is northeast and southwest, irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics. In the northeast are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than and gradually decreasing in height toward the southwest, where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep northwest sides, sharp crests and gently sloping southeast sides. Southeast of the Appalachian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together with the northern part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about above sea level. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau. The remainder of the state is occupied by the Coastal Plain. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about , becomes lower and more level toward the southwest, and in the extreme south is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the west-northwest by the Tennessee River and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the southwest. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa River is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa River. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee River in the west, the Alabama River (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the western central, and in the east the Chattahoochee River, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The Tombigbee and Alabama rivers unite near the southwest corner of the state, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior River is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the east. The valleys in the north and northeast are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. Flora and fauna The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. However, the Mobile River system has a high incidence of endemism among freshwater mollusks and biodiversity is high. In Alabama, vast forests of pine constitute the largest proportion of the state's forest growth. There is also an abundance of cypress, hickory, oak, populus, and red cedar trees. In other areas, hemlock growths in the north and southern white cedar in the southwest. Other native trees include ash, hackberry, and holly. In the Gulf Region of the state grow various species of palmetto and palm. In Alabama there are more than 150 shrubs, including mountain laurel and rhododendron. Among cultivated plants are wisteria and camellia. While in the past the state enjoyed a variety of mammals such as bison, elk, bear, and deer, only the white-tailed deer remains abundant. Still fairly common are the Florida panther, bobcat, beaver, muskrat, raccoon, opossum, rabbit, squirrel, red and gray foxes, and most species of weasel. Coypu and armadillo have been introduced to the state and now also common. Alabama’s birds include golden and bald eagles, osprey and other hawks, yellowhammer, and black and white warblers. Game birds include quail, duck, wild turkey, and goose. Freshwater fish such as bream, shad, bass, and sucker are common. Along the Gulf Coast there are seasonal runs of tarpon, pompano, redfish, and bonito. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists as endangered 99 animals, fish, and birds, and 18 plant species. The endangered animals include the Alabama Beach Mouse, Gray Bat, Alabama Red-Bellied Turtle, Fin and Humpback Whales, Bald Eagle, and Wood Stork. American black bear, racking horse, yellowhammer, wild turkey, Atlantic tarpon, largemouth bass, Southern longleaf pine, Eastern tiger swallowtail, Monarch butterfly, Alabama red-bellied turtle, Red Hills salamander, camellia, oak-leaf hydrangea, peach, pecan, and blackberry are Alabama's state symbols. Climate and soil The climate of Alabama is humid subtropical. The heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast, and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 °F (19 °C), the mean for the summer 81 °F (27 °C), and for the winter 52 °F (11 °C); and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59 °F (15 °C), the mean for the summer 75 °F (24 °C), and for the winter 41 °F (5 °C). At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is 66 °F (19 °C), with a winter average of 49 °F (9 °C), and a summer average of 81 °F (27 °C). The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35 °F (2 °C), and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18 °C), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13th of February 1899, when an absolute minimum of -17 °F (-29 °C) was registered at Valley Head. The highest temperature ever recorded was 109 °F (43 °C) in Talladega county in 1902. The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. Hailstorms occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year - they are most common in the summer, but most severe in the spring and fall, when destructive winds and tornadoes occasionally occur. The prevailing winds are from the news. Hurricanes are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive. As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for about 150 miles (240 km) is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the Timber Belt, whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the Black Prairie, which includes some and seventeen counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the Cotton Belt. Between the Cotton Belt and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the Old Land area -- a region of resistant rocks -- whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region is the Cereal Belt, embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations. Wetumpka Meteor Crater Wetumpka is the home of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster." "Wetumpka Impact Crater" Wetumpka Public Library, accessed Aug. 21, 2007. A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown showcase the eroded remains of the five mile (8 km) wide impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") for the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock can be found beneath the surface. "The Wetumpka Astrobleme" by John C. Hall, Alabama Heritage, Fall 1996, Number 42. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as an internationally recognized impact crater. Public lands Alabama includes several types of public use lands. These include four national forests and one national preserve within state borders that provide over 25% of the state's public recreation land. land regions Alabama State Parks Alabama Public Fishing Lakes Alabama Wildlife Management Areas National Monuments Little River Canyon National Preserve Russell Cave National Monument National Forests Conecuh National Forest Talladega National Forest Tuskegee National Forest William B. Bankhead National Forest Wilderness Areas Cheaha Wilderness Dugger Mountain Wilderness Sipsey Wilderness National Scenic Trail Natchez Trace Trail National Recreation Trail Pinhoti National Recreation Trail National Wildlife Refuge Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge See also Alabama Geography of the United States References External links State of Alabama Geological Survey USGS - Tapestry of Time - Alabama Summary of Alabama Park & Recreation Sites Interactive Map of Park & Recreation Sites | Geography_of_Alabama |@lemmatized float:1 physiographic:1 region:17 alabama:27 political:1 physical:1 feature:2 extend:3 entirely:1 across:1 state:20 south:7 northern:3 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1,270 | Molybdenum | Molybdenum (, from the Greek word for the metal "lead"), is a Group 6 chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. The free element, which is a silvery metal, has the eighth-highest melting point of any element. It readily forms hard, stable carbides, and for this reason it is often used in high-strength steel alloys. Molybdenum does not occur as the free metal in nature, but rather in a variety of oxidation states in minerals. Industrially molybdenum compounds are used in high-pressure and temperature resistant greases between metals, as pigments, and catalysts. Molybdenum minerals have long been known, but the element was "discovered" (in the sense of differentiating it as a new entity from minerals salts of other metals) in 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. The metal was first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm. Most of molybdenum's compounds have poor water-solubility, but the molybdate ion (MoO42-) is soluble, and will form if molybdenum-containing minerals are in contact with free oxygen and water. Recent theories suggest that the release of free oxygen by early life was important in removing molybdenum from minerals into a soluble form in the early oceans, where it was available to be used as a catalyst by single-celled organisms. This sequence may have been important in the history of life, because molybdenum-containing enzymes then became the most important catalysts used by some bacteria to break the bond in atmospheric molecular nitrogen, allowing biological nitrogen fixation. This, in turn allowed biologically driven nitrogen-fertilization of the oceans, and thus the development of more complex organisms. Aside from bacterial enzymes involved with nitrogen fixation, about 20 different molybdenum-containing enzymes are known today in animals. Molybdenum is a required element for life in these higher organisms, though not in all bacteria. Characteristics Physical Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 1.8 on the Pauling scale and an atomic mass of 95.9 g/mole. It does not react with oxygen or water at room temperature. At elevated temperatures, molybdenum trioxide is formed in the reaction 2 Mo + 3 O2 → 2MoO3. In its pure metal form, molybdenum is silvery white with a Mohs hardness of 5.5, though it is somewhat more ductile than tungsten. It has a melting point of ; of the naturally occurring metals, only tantalum, osmium, rhenium, and tungsten have higher melting points. Molybdenum burns only at temperatures above . It has the lowest heating expansion of any commercially used metal. Molybdenum has a value of approximately $65,000 per tonne as of 4 May 2007. It maintained a price at or near $10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2002, and reached a high of $103,000 per tonne in June 2005. Occurrence Molybdenum output in 2005 The world's largest producers of molybdenum materials are the United States, Canada, Chile, Russia, and China. Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (CaMoO4), the main commercial source of molybdenum is molybdenite (MoS2). Molybdenum is mined as a principal ore, and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper and tungsten mining. Large mines in Colorado (such as the now inactive Climax mine) and in British Columbia yield molybdenite, while many porphyry copper deposits such as the Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce molybdenum as a byproduct of copper mining. The Knaben mine in southern Norway was opened in 1885, making it the first molybdenum mine. It remained open until 1973. Molybdenum is the 42nd most abundant element in the universe, and the 25th most abundant element in Earth's oceans, with an average of 10.8 mt/km³. The Russian Luna 24 mission discovered a single molybdenum-bearing grain (1 × 0.6 µm) in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium on the Moon. A side product of molybdenum mining is rhenium. As it is always present in small varying quantities in molybdenite, the only commercial source for rhenium is molybdenum mines. Isotopes There are 35 known isotopes of molybdenum ranging in atomic mass from 83 to 117, as well as four metastable nuclear isomers. Seven isotopes occur naturally, with atomic masses of 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100. Of these naturally occurring isotopes, only molybdenum-92 and molybdenum-100 are unstable. All unstable isotopes of molybdenum decay into isotopes of niobium, technetium, and ruthenium. Molybdenum-98 is the most abundant isotope, comprising 24.14% of all molybdenum. Molybdenum-100 has a half-life of approximately 1×1019 y and undergoes double beta decay into ruthenium-100. Molybdenum isotopes with mass numbers from 111 to 117 all have half-lives of approximately .15 μs. As also noted below, the most common isotopic molybdenum application involves molybdenum-99, which is a fission product. It is used as a parent radioisotope to the short-lived gamma-emitting daughter radioisotope technetium-99m, a nuclear isomer which is used in various imaging applications in medicine. Compounds and chemistry Oxidation statesof molybdenum. −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 Molybdenum has several common oxidation states, +2, +3, +4, +5 and +6. The chemistry and the compounds show more similarity to those of tungsten than that of chromium. An example is the instability of molybdenum(III) and tungsten(III) compounds compared to the stability of the chromium(III) compounds. The highest oxidation state is common in the molybdenum(VI) oxide MoO3 while the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide MoS2. Molybdenum(VI) oxide is soluble in alkaline water, forming molybdates ([MoO4]2-). Molybdates are weaker oxidants than chromates, but they show a similar tendency to form complex oxyanions by condensation at lower pH values, such as [Mo7O24]6- and [Mo8O26]4-. Polymolybdates can incorporate other ions into their structure, forming polyoxometalates. The dark blue phosphorus-containing heteropolymolybdate P[Mo12O40]3- is used for the spectroscopic detection of phosphorus. Molybdenum has a broad range of oxidation states, several of which are demonstrated by the various compounds of molybdenum and chlorine: Molybdenum(II) chloride MoCl2 (yellow solid) Molybdenum(III) chloride MoCl3 (dark red solid) Molybdenum(V) chloride MoCl5 (dark green solid) Molybdenum(VI) chloride MoCl6 (brown solid) The structure of the MoCl2 is composed of Mo6Cl84+ clusters with four chloride ions to compensate the charge. Like chromium and some other transition metals molybdenum is able to form quadruple bonds. Mo2(CH3COO)4 is an example for a quadruple bond. This compound can be transformed into the chlorine compound Mo2Cl84-. The oxidation state 0 is possible with carbon monoxide as ligand, such as in molybdenum hexacarbonyl, Mo(CO)6. History Molybdenite (from the Ancient Greek , meaning lead), the principal ore from which molybdenum is now extracted, was previously known as molybdena. Molybdena was confused with and often implemented as though it were graphite. Even when the two ores were distinguishable, molybdena was thought to be a lead ore. In 1754, Bengt Qvist examined the mineral and determined that it did not contain lead. It was not until 1778 that Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele realized molybdena was neither graphite nor lead. He and other chemists then correctly assumed that it was the ore of a distinct new element, named molybdenum for the mineral in which it was discovered. Peter Jacob Hjelm successfully isolated molybdenum using carbon and linseed oil in 1781. For a long time there was no industrial use for molybdenum. The French Schneider Electrics company produced the first steel molybdenum alloy armor plates in 1894. Until World War I most other armor factories also used molybdenum alloys. In World War I, some British tanks were protected by manganese plating, but this proved to be ineffective. The manganese plates were then replaced with molybdenum plating. These allowed for higher speed, greater maneuverability, and, despite being thinner, better protection. The high demand for molybdenum in World War I and World War II and the steep decrease after the wars had a great influence on prices and production of molybdenum. Production The molybdenite is first heated to a temperature of and the sulfide is oxidized into molybdenum(VI) oxide by air: 2MoS2 + 7O2 → 2MoO3 + 4SO2 The oxidized ore is then either heated to to sublimate the oxide, or leached with ammonia which reacts with the molybdenum(VI) oxide to form water-soluble molybdates: MoO3 + 2 NH4OH → (NH4)2(MoO4) + H2O Copper, an impurity in molybdenite, is less soluble in ammonia. To completely remove it from the solution, it is precipitated with hydrogen sulfide. Pure molybdenum is produced by reduction of the oxide with hydrogen, while the molybdenum for steel production is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with addition of iron to produce ferromolybdenum. A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60% molybdenum. Applications The ability of molybdenum to withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or softening makes it useful in applications that involve intense heat, including the manufacture of aircraft parts, electrical contacts, industrial motors, and filaments. Molybdenum is also used in alloys for its high corrosion resistance and weldability. Molybdenum contributes corrosion resistance to type 316 stainless steel by 'gettering' residual carbon, preventing the formation of chromium carbide at grain boundaries. Most high-strength steel alloys are .25% to 8% molybdenum. Despite being used in such small portions, more than 43 million kg of molybdenum is used as an alloying agent each year in stainless steels, tool steels, cast irons, and high-temperature superalloys. Because of its lower density and more stable price, molybdenum is implemented in the place of tungsten. An example is the 'M' series of high-speed steels such as M2, M4, and M42 as substitution for the 'T' series of HSS. Molybdenum can be implemented both as an alloying agent and as a flame-resistant coating for other metals. Although its melting point is , molybdenum rapidly oxidizes at temperatures above , making it better-suited for use in vacuum environments. Molybdenum based alloys have only limited applications. Due to the corrosion resistance against molten zinc, molybdenum and the molybdenum tungsten alloy (70%/30%) are used for piping, stirrers and pump impellers which come into contact with molten zinc. Molybdenum-99 is used as a parent radioisotope to the daughter radioisotope Technetium-99m, which is used in many medical procedures. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is used as a solid lubricant and an extreme pressure (EP) antiwear agent. It forms strong films on metallic surfaces, and is highly resistant to both extreme temperatures and high pressure, and for this reason, it is a common additive to extreme pressure application greases; in case of a catastrophic failure, the thin layer of molybdenum prevents metal-on-metal contact. Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) is used as an adhesive between enamels and metals. Molybdenum powder is used as a fertilizer for some plants, such as cauliflower. Lead molybdate (Wulfenite) co-precipitated with lead chromate and lead sulfate is a bright-orange pigment used with ceramics and plastics. International Molybdenum Association, http://www.moly.imoa.info Also used in NO, NO2, NOx analyzers in power plants for pollution controls. At the element acts as a catalyst for NO2/NOx to form only NO molecules for consistent readings by infrared light. Biological role The most important use of the molybdenum atom in living organisms is as a metal hetero-atom at the active site in certain enzymes. In nitrogen fixation in certain bacteria, the nitrogenase enzyme which is involved in the terminal step of reducing molecular nitrogen, usually contains molybdenum in the active site (though replacement of Mo with iron or vanadium is known). The structure of the catalytic center of the enzyme is similar to that in iron-sulfur proteins, it incorporates a Fe4S3 and MoFe3S3 cluster. In March 2008, researchers reported that they had found strong evidence for the hypothesis that a scarcity of molybdenum in the Earth's early oceans was a limiting factor in the further evolution of eukaryotic life (which includes all plants and animals) as eukaryotes cannot fix nitrogen and must acquire it from prokaryotic bacteria. The scarcity of molybdenum resulted from the relative lack of oxygen in the early ocean. Oxygen dissolved in seawater is the primary mechanism for dissolving molybdenum from minerals on the sea bottom. Molybdenum containing cofactor molybdopterin Though molybdenum forms compounds with various organic molecules, including carbohydrates and amino acids, it is transported throughout the human body as MoO42-. Molybdenum is present in approximately 20 enzymes in animals, including aldehyde oxidase, sulfite oxidase and xanthine oxidase. In some animals, the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, a process of purine catabolism, is catalyzed by xanthine oxidase, a molybdenum-containing enzyme. The activity of xanthine oxidase is directly proportional to the amount of molybdenum in the body. However, an extremely high concentration of molybdenum reverses the trend, and can act as an inhibitor in both purine catabolism and other processes. Molybdenum concentrations also affect protein synthesis, metabolism, and growth. These enzymes in plants and animals catalyze the reaction of oxygen in small molecules, as part of the regulation of nitrogen-, sulfur- and carbon cycles. In a human body, there is approximately 9.3 mg of molybdenum, comprising .00001% of the total body mass. It occurs in higher concentrations in the liver and kidneys, and in lower concentrations in the vertebrae. Molybdenum is also present within human tooth enamel and may help prevent the decaying thereof. Pork, lamb, and beef liver each have approximately 1.5 parts per million of molybdenum. Other significant dietary sources include green beans, eggs, sunflower seeds, wheat flour, lentils, and cereal grain. The average daily intake of molybdenum varies between 120 µg and 240 µg but strongly depending on the molybdenum content of the food. Acute toxicity has not been seen in humans, and the toxicity depends strongly on the chemical state. Studies on rats show a median lethal dose (LD50) as low as 180 mg/kg for some Mo compounds. Although human toxicity data is unavailable, animal studies have shown that chronic ingestion of more than 10 mg/kg of molybdenum can cause diarrhea, growth retardation, sterility, low birth weight, and gout, as well as affecting the lungs, kidneys, and liver. Molybdenum deficiency is not usually seen in healthy people. Sodium tungstate is a competitive inhibitor of molybdenum. Dietary tungsten reduces the concentration of molybdenum in tissues. Dietary deficiency in molybdenum from low soil concentration has been associated with increased rates of esophageal cancer in a geographical band from northern China to Iran. Compared to the United States, which has a greater supply of molybdenum in the soil, those living in these areas have a 16 times greater risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Copper-molybdenum antagonism High levels of molybdenum can interfere with the body's uptake of copper, producing copper deficiency. Molybdenum prevents plasma proteins from binding to copper, and it also increases the amount of copper that is excreted in urine. Ruminants that consume high amounts of molybdenum develop symptoms including diarrhea, stunted growth, anemia, and achromotrichia (loss of hair pigment). These symptoms can be alleviated by the administration of more copper into the system, both in dietary form and by injection. The condition can be aggravated by excess sulfur. Precautions Molybdenum dusts and fumes, as can be generated by mining or metalworking, can be toxic, especially if ingested (including dust trapped in the sinuses and later swallowed). Low levels of prolonged exposure can cause irritation to the eyes and skin. The direct inhalation or ingestion of molybdenum and its oxides should also be avoided. OSHA regulations specify the maximum permissible molybdenum exposure in an 8-hour day to be 5 mg/m³. Chronic exposure to 60 to 600 mg Mo/m³ can cause symptoms including fatigue, headaches, and joint pains. References External links WebElements.com — Molybdenum International Molybdenum Association — Main page | Molybdenum |@lemmatized molybdenum:113 greek:2 word:1 metal:16 lead:8 group:1 chemical:2 element:9 symbol:1 mo:6 atomic:4 number:2 free:4 silvery:2 eighth:1 high:18 melt:4 point:4 readily:1 form:15 hard:1 stable:2 carbide:2 reason:2 often:2 use:24 strength:2 steel:8 alloy:7 occur:4 nature:1 rather:1 variety:1 oxidation:7 state:8 mineral:9 industrially:1 compound:12 pressure:4 temperature:9 resistant:3 grease:2 pigment:3 catalyst:4 long:2 know:4 discover:3 sense:1 differentiate:1 new:2 entity:1 salt:1 carl:2 wilhelm:2 scheele:2 first:4 isolate:1 peter:2 jacob:2 hjelm:2 poor:1 water:5 solubility:1 molybdate:2 ion:3 soluble:5 containing:3 contact:4 oxygen:6 recent:1 theory:1 suggest:1 release:1 early:4 life:6 important:4 remove:2 ocean:5 available:1 single:2 celled:1 organism:4 sequence:1 may:3 history:2 contain:5 enzyme:9 become:1 bacteria:4 break:1 bond:3 atmospheric:1 molecular:2 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1,271 | Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing | Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) — essentially identical to Coded OFDM (COFDM) and Discrete multi-tone modulation (DMT) — is a frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme utilized as a digital multi-carrier modulation method. A large number of closely-spaced orthogonal sub-carriers are used to carry data. The data is divided into several parallel data streams or channels, one for each sub-carrier. Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase shift keying) at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to conventional single-carrier modulation schemes in the same bandwidth. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television and audio broadcasting, wireless networking and broadband internet access. The primary advantage of OFDM over single-carrier schemes is its ability to cope with severe channel conditions — for example, attenuation of high frequencies in a long copper wire, narrowband interference and frequency-selective fading due to multipath — without complex equalization filters. Channel equalization is simplified because OFDM may be viewed as using many slowly-modulated narrowband signals rather than one rapidly-modulated wideband signal. The low symbol rate makes the use of a guard interval between symbols affordable, making it possible to handle time-spreading and eliminate intersymbol interference (ISI). This mechanism also facilitates the design of single-frequency networks, where several adjacent transmitters send the same signal simultaneously at the same frequency, as the signals from multiple distant transmitters may be combined constructively, rather than interfering as would typically occur in a traditional single-carrier system. Example of applications The following list is a summary of existing OFDM based standards and products. For further details, see the Usage section in the end of the article. Cable ADSL and VDSL broadband access via POTS copper wiring. Power line communication (PLC). Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) home networking. ITU-T G.hn, a standard which provides high-speed local area networking over existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables) Wireless The wireless LAN radio interfaces IEEE 802.11a, g, n and HIPERLAN/2. The digital radio systems DAB/EUREKA 147, DAB+, Digital Radio Mondiale, HD Radio, T-DMB and ISDB-TSB. The terrestrial digital TV system DVB-T. The terrestrial mobile TV systems DVB-H, T-DMB, ISDB-T and MediaFLO forward link. The cellular communication systems Flash-OFDM The mobile broadband 3GPP Long Term Evolution air interface named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA) The Wireless MAN / Fixed broadband wireless access (BWA) standard IEEE 802.16 (or WiMAX). The Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) standards IEEE 802.20, IEEE 802.16e (Mobile WiMAX) and WiBro. The wireless Personal Area Network (PAN) Ultra wideband (UWB) IEEE 802.15.3a implementation suggested by WiMedia Alliance. Key features The advantages and disadvantages listed below are further discussed in the Characteristics and principles of operation section. Summary of advantages Can easily adapt to severe channel conditions without complex equalization Robust against narrow-band co-channel interference Robust against Intersymbol interference (ISI) and fading caused by multipath propagation High spectral efficiency Efficient implementation using FFT Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors Tuned sub-channel receiver filters are not required (unlike conventional FDM) Facilitates Single Frequency Networks, i.e. transmitter macrodiversity. Summary of disadvantages Sensitive to Doppler shift. Sensitive to frequency synchronization problems. High peak-to-average-power ratio (PAPR), requiring linear transmitter circuitry, which suffers from poor power efficiency. Loss of efficiency caused by Cyclic prefix/Guard interval. Characteristics and principles of operation Orthogonality In OFDM, the sub-carrier frequencies are chosen so that the sub-carriers are orthogonal to each other, meaning that cross-talk between the sub-channels is eliminated and inter-carrier guard bands are not required. This greatly simplifies the design of both the transmitter and the receiver; unlike conventional FDM, a separate filter for each sub-channel is not required. The orthogonality requires that the sub-carrier spacing is Δf = k/(TU) Hertz, where TU seconds is the useful symbol duration (the receiver side window size), and k is a positive integer, typically equal to 1. Therefore, with N sub-carriers, the total passband bandwidth will be B ≈ N·Δf (Hz). The orthogonality also allows high spectral efficiency, with a total symbol rate near the Nyquist rate. Almost the whole available frequency band can be utilized. OFDM generally has a nearly 'white' spectrum, giving it benign electromagnetic interference properties with respect to other co-channel users. OFDM requires very accurate frequency synchronization between the receiver and the transmitter; with frequency deviation the sub-carriers will no longer be orthogonal, causing inter-carrier interference (ICI), i.e. cross-talk between the sub-carriers. Frequency offsets are typically caused by mismatched transmitter and receiver oscillators, or by Doppler shift due to movement. While Doppler shift alone may be compensated for by the receiver, the situation is worsened when combined with multipath, as reflections will appear at various frequency offsets, which is much harder to correct. This effect typically worsens as speed increases Robertson, P. Kaiser, S. "The effects of Doppler spreads in OFDM(A) mobile radio systems", Vehicular Technology Conference, 1999. VTC 1999 - Fall. IEEE VTS. Link , and is an important factor limiting the use of OFDM in high-speed vehicles. Several techniques for ICI suppression are suggested, but they may increase the receiver complexity. Implementation using the FFT algorithm The orthogonality allows for efficient modulator and demodulator implementation using the FFT algorithm on the receiver side, and inverse FFT on the sender side. Although the principles and some of the benefits have been known since the 1960s, OFDM is popular for wideband communications today by way of low-cost digital signal processing components that can efficiently calculate the FFT. Guard interval for elimination of inter-symbol interference One key principle of OFDM is that since low symbol rate modulation schemes (i.e. where the symbols are relatively long compared to the channel time characteristics) suffer less from intersymbol interference caused by multipath propagation, it is advantageous to transmit a number of low-rate streams in parallel instead of a single high-rate stream. Since the duration of each symbol is long, it is feasible to insert a guard interval between the OFDM symbols, thus eliminating the intersymbol interference. The guard interval also eliminates the need for a pulse-shaping filter, and it reduces the sensitivity to time synchronization problems. A simple example: If one sends a million symbols per second using conventional single-carrier modulation over a wireless channel, then the duration of each symbol would be one microsecond or less. This imposes severe constraints on synchronization and necessitates the removal of multipath interference. If the same million symbols per second are spread among one thousand sub-channels, the duration of each symbol can be longer by a factor of a thousand, i.e. one millisecond, for orthogonality with approximately the same bandwidth. Assume that a guard interval of 1/8 of the symbol length is inserted between each symbol. Intersymbol interference can be avoided if the multipath time-spreading (the time between the reception of the first and the last echo) is shorter than the guard interval, i.e. 125 microseconds. This corresponds to a maximum difference of 37.5 kilometers between the lengths of the paths. The cyclic prefix, which is transmitted during the guard interval, consists of the end of the OFDM symbol copied into the guard interval, and the guard interval is transmitted followed by the OFDM symbol. The reason that the guard interval consists of a copy of the end of the OFDM symbol is so that the receiver will integrate over an integer number of sinusoid cycles for each of the multipaths when it performs OFDM demodulation with the FFT. Simplified equalization The effects of frequency-selective channel conditions, for example fading caused by multipath propagation, can be considered as constant (flat) over an OFDM sub-channel if the sub-channel is sufficiently narrow-banded, i.e. if the number of sub-channels is sufficiently large. This makes equalization far simpler at the receiver in OFDM in comparison to conventional single-carrier modulation. The equalizer only has to multiply each detected sub-carrier (each Fourier coefficient) by a constant complex number, or a rarely changed value. Our example: The OFDM equalization in the above numerical example would require complex multiplications per OFDM symbol, i.e. one million multiplications per second, at the receiver. The FFT algorithm requires complex-valued multiplications per OFDM symbol, i.e. 10 million multiplications per second, at both the receiver and transmitter side. This should be compared with the corresponding one million symbols/second single-carrier modulation case mentioned in the example, where the equalization of 125 microseconds time-spreading using a FIR filter would require 125 multiplications per symbol, i.e. 125 million multiplications per second. Some of the sub-carriers in some of the OFDM symbols may carry pilot signals for measurement of the channel conditions "Coleri, S. Ergen, M. Puri, A. Bahai, A., Channel estimation techniques based on pilot arrangement in OFDM systems. IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Sep 2002. "Link Hoeher, P. Kaiser, S. Robertson, P. "Two-dimensional pilot-symbol-aided channel estimation by Wienerfiltering". IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, ICASSP-97, 1997. Link , i.e. the equalizer gain and phase shift for each sub-carrier. Pilot signals and training symbols may also be used for time synchronization (to avoid inter-symbol interference, ISI) and frequency synchronization (to avoid inter-carrier interference, ICI, caused by Doppler shift). If differential modulation such as DPSK or DQPSK is applied to each sub-carrier, equalization can be completely omitted, since these non-coherent schemes are insensitive to slowly changing amplitude and phase distortion. Channel coding and interleaving OFDM is invariably used in conjunction with channel coding (forward error correction), and almost always uses frequency and/or time interleaving. Frequency (subcarrier) interleaving increases resistance to frequency-selective channel conditions such as fading. For example, when a part of the channel bandwidth is faded, frequency interleaving ensures that the bit errors that would result from those subcarriers in the faded part of the bandwidth are spread out in the bit-stream rather than being concentrated. Similarly, time interleaving ensures that bits that are originally close together in the bit-stream are transmitted far apart in time, thus mitigating against severe fading as would happen when travelling at high speed. However, time interleaving is of little benefit in slowly fading channels, such as for stationary reception, and frequency interleaving offers little to no benefit for narrowband channels that suffer from flat-fading (where the whole channel bandwidth is faded at the same time). The reason why interleaving is used on OFDM is to attempt to spread the errors out in the bit-stream that is presented to the error correction decoder, because when such decoders are presented with a high concentration of errors the decoder is unable to correct all the bit errors, and a burst of uncorrected errors occurs. A common type of error correction coding used with OFDM-based systems is convolutional coding, which is often concatenated with Reed-Solomon coding. Convolutional coding is used as the inner code and Reed-Solomon coding is used for the outer code — usually with additional interleaving (on top of the time and frequency interleaving mentioned above) in between the two layers of coding. The reason why this combination of error correction coding is used is that the Viterbi decoder used for convolutional decoding produces short errors bursts when there is a high concentration of errors, and Reed-Solomon codes are inherently well-suited to correcting bursts of errors. Newer systems, however, usually now adopt the near-optimal types of error correction coding that use the turbo decoding principle, where the decoder iterates towards the desired solution. Examples of such error correction coding types include turbo codes and LDPC codes. These codes only perform close to the Shannon limit for the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel, however, and some systems that have adopted these codes have concatenated them with either Reed-Solomon (for example on the MediaFLO system) or BCH codes (on the DVB-S2 system) to improve performance further over the wireless channel. Adaptive transmission The resilience to severe channel conditions can be further enhanced if information about the channel is sent over a return-channel. Based on this feedback information, adaptive modulation, channel coding and power allocation may be applied across all sub-carriers, or individually to each sub-carrier. In the latter case, if a particular range of frequencies suffers from interference or attenuation, the carriers within that range can be disabled or made to run slower by applying more robust modulation or error coding to those sub-carriers. The term discrete multitone modulation (DMT) denotes OFDM based communication systems that adapt the transmission to the channel conditions individually for each sub-carrier, by means of so called bit-loading. Examples are ADSL and VDSL. The upstream and downstream speeds can be varied by allocating either more or fewer carriers for each purpose. Some forms of Rate-adaptive DSL use this feature in real time, so that the bitrate is adapted to the co-channel interference and bandwidth is allocated to whichever subscriber that needs it most. OFDM extended with multiple access OFDM in its primary form is considered as a digital modulation technique, and not a multi-user channel access technique, since it is utilized for transferring one bit stream over one communication channel using one sequence of OFDM symbols. However, OFDM can be combined with multiple access using time, frequency or coding separation of the users. In Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA), frequency-division multiple access is achieved by assigning different OFDM sub-channels to different users. OFDMA supports differentiated quality-of-service by assigning different number of sub-carriers to different users in a similar fashion as in CDMA, and thus complex packet scheduling or media access control schemes can be avoided. OFDMA is used in: the mobility mode of the IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN standard, commonly referred to as WiMAX, the IEEE 802.20 mobile Wireless MAN standard, commonly referred to as MBWA, the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) fourth generation mobile broadband standard downlink. The radio interface was formerly named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA). the now defunct Qualcomm/3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) project, intended as a successor of CDMA2000, but replaced by LTE. OFDMA is also a candidate access method for the IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks (WRAN). The project aims at designing the first cognitive radio based standard operating in the VHF-low UHF spectrum (TV spectrum). In Multi-carrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA), also known as OFDM-CDMA, OFDM is combined with CDMA spread spectrum communication for coding separation of the users. Co-channel interference can be mitigated against, meaning that manual fixed channel allocation (FCA) frequency planning is simplified, or complex dynamic channel allocation (DCA) schemes are avoided. Space diversity In OFDM based wide area broadcasting, receivers can benefit from receiving signals from several spatially-dispersed transmitters simultaneously, since transmitters will only destructively interfere with each other on a limited number of sub-carriers, whereas in general they will actually reinforce coverage over a wide area. This is very beneficial in many countries, as it permits the operation of national single-frequency networks (SFNs), where many transmitters send the same signal simultaneously over the same channel frequency. SFNs utilise the available spectrum more effectively than conventional multi-frequency broadcast networks (MFN), where program content is replicated on different carrier frequencies. SFNs also result in a diversity gain in receivers situated midway between the transmitters. The coverage area is increased and the outage probability decreased in comparison to an MFN, due to increased received signal strength averaged over all sub-carriers. Although the guard interval only contains redundant data, which means that it reduces the capacity, some OFDM-based systems, such as some of the broadcasting systems, deliberately use a long guard interval in order to allow the transmitters to be spaced farther apart in an SFN, and longer guard intervals allow larger SFN cell-sizes. A rule of thumb for the maximum distance between transmitters in an SFN is equal to the distance a signal travels during the guard interval — for instance, a guard interval of 200 microseconds would allow transmitters to be spaced 60 km apart. Single-frequency networks is a form of transmitter macrodiversity. The concept can be further utilized in Dynamic single-frequency networks (DSFN), where the SFN grouping is changed from timeslot to timeslot. OFDM may be combined with other forms of space diversity, for example antenna arrays and MIMO channels. This is done in the IEEE802.11n Wireless LAN standard. Linear transmitter power amplifier An OFDM signal exhibits a high peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) because the independent phases of the sub-carriers mean that they will often combine constructively. Handling this high PAPR requires: a high-resolution digital-to-analog converter (DAC) in the transmitter a high-resolution analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in the receiver a linear signal chain. Any non-linearity in the signal chain will cause intermodulation distortion that raises the noise floor may cause inter-carrier interference generates out-of-band spurious radiation. The linearity requirement is demanding, especially for transmitter RF output circuitry where amplifiers are often designed to be non-linear in order to minimise power consumption. In practical OFDM systems a small amount of peak clipping is allowed to limit the PAPR in a judicious tradeoff against the above consequences. However, the transmitter output filter which is required to reduce out-of-band spurs to legal levels has the effect of restoring peak levels that were clipped, so clipping is not an effective way to reduce PAPR. Although the spectral efficiency of OFDM is attractive for both terrestrial and space communications, the high PAPR requirements have so far limited OFDM applications to terrestrial systems. Idealized system model This section describes a simple idealized OFDM system model suitable for a time-invariant AWGN channel. Transmitter An OFDM carrier signal is the sum of a number of orthogonal sub-carriers, with baseband data on each sub-carrier being independently modulated commonly using some type of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). This composite baseband signal is typically used to modulate a main RF carrier. is a serial stream of binary digits. By inverse multiplexing, these are first demultiplexed into parallel streams, and each one mapped to a (possibly complex) symbol stream using some modulation constellation (QAM, PSK, etc.). Note that the constellations may be different, so some streams may carry a higher bit-rate than others. An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex time-domain samples. These samples are then quadrature-mixed to passband in the standard way. The real and imaginary components are first converted to the analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters (DACs); the analogue signals are then used to modulate cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency, , respectively. These signals are then summed to give the transmission signal, . Receiver The receiver picks up the signal , which is then quadrature-mixed down to baseband using cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. This also creates signals centered on , so low-pass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are then sampled and digitised using analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the frequency domain. This returns parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary stream using an appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re-combined into a serial stream, , which is an estimate of the original binary stream at the transmitter. Mathematical description If sub-carriers are used, and each sub-carrier is modulated using alternative symbols, the OFDM symbol alphabet consists of combined symbols. The low-pass equivalent OFDM signal is expressed as: where are the data symbols, is the number of sub-carriers, and is the OFDM symbol time. The sub-carrier spacing of makes them orthogonal over each symbol period; this property is expressed as: where denotes the complex conjugate operator and is the Kronecker delta. To avoid intersymbol interference in multipath fading channels, a guard interval of length is inserted prior to the OFDM block. During this interval, a cyclic prefix is transmitted such that the signal in the interval equals the signal in the interval . The OFDM signal with cyclic prefix is thus: The low-pass signal above can be either real or complex-valued. Real-valued low-pass equivalent signals are typically transmitted at baseband—wireline applications such as DSL use this approach. For wireless applications, the low-pass signal is typically complex-valued; in which case, the transmitted signal is up-converted to a carrier frequency . In general, the transmitted signal can be represented as: Usage OFDM system comparison table Key features of some common OFDM based systems are presented in the following table. Standard name DAB Eureka 147 DVB-T DVB-H DMB-T/H IEEE 802.11a Ratified year 1995 1997 2004 2006 1999 Frequency range oftoday's equipment(MHz) 174 - 2401452 - 1492 470 - 862174 - 230 470 - 862 470 – 862 4915 - 5825 Channel spacing B(MHz) 1.712 8, 7, 6, 8, 7, 6 & 5 8 20 Number of subcarriers N 192, 384, 768 or 1536 2K mode: 17058K mode: 6817 1705, 3409, 6817 1 (single-carrier)3780 (multi-carrier) 52 Subcarrier modulation scheme DQPSK QPSK 4QAM is equivalent to QPSK , 16QAM or 64QAM QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM 4QAM, 4QAM-NR, NR refers to Nordstrom-Robinson code 16QAM, 32QAM and 64QAM. BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM or 64QAM Useful symbol length TU(μs) 2K mode: 2248K mode: 896 224, 448, 896 500 (multi-carrier)3.2 Additional guard interval TG(Fraction of TU)1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/321/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/321/4, 1/6, 1/91/4 Subcarrier spacingΔf = 1/(TU) ≈ B/N(Hz)2K mode: 44648K mode: 1116 4464, 2232, 1116 8 M (single-carrier)2000 (multi-carrier) 312.5K Net bit rate R(Mbit/s) 0.576 - 1.152 4.98 - 31.67(typically 24) 3.7 - 23.8 4.81 - 32.49 6 - 54 Link spectral efficiency R/B(bit/s/Hz) 0.34 - 0.67 0.62 - 4.0 0.62 - 4.0 0.60 - 4.1 0.30 - 2.7 Inner FEC Conv coding with code rates 1/4, 3/8 or 1/2 Conv coding with code rates 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6 or 7/8 Conv coding with code rates 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6 or 7/8 LDPC with code rates 0.4, 0.6 or 0.8 Conv coding with code rates 1/2, 2/3 or 3/4 Outer FEC (if any) None RS(204,188,t=8) RS(204,188,t=8) + MPE-FEC BCH code (762,752) Maximum travelling speed(km/h) 200 - 600 53 - 185depends on transmission frequency Time interleaving depth(ms) 385 0.6 - 3.5 0.6 - 3.5 200 - 500 Adaptive transmission(if any) None None Multiple access method(if any) None None Typical source coding 192 kbit/sMPEG2 Audiolayer 2 2 - 18 Mbit/sStandard - HDTVH.264 or MPEG2 Not defined(MPEG-2 or H.264 w/MP2) ADSL OFDM is used in ADSL connections that follow the G.DMT (ITU G.992.1) standard, in which existing copper wires are used to achieve high-speed data connections. Long copper wires suffer from attenuation at high frequencies. The fact that OFDM can cope with this frequency selective attenuation and with narrow-band interference are the main reasons it is frequently used in applications such as ADSL modems. However, DSL cannot be used on every copper pair; interference may become significant if more than 25% of phone lines coming into a central office are used for DSL. For experimental amateur radio applications, users have even hooked up commercial off-the-shelf ADSL equipment to radio transceivers which simply shift the bands used to the radio frequencies the user has licensed. Powerline Technology OFDM is used by many powerline devices to extend Ethernet connections to other rooms in a home through its power wiring. Adaptive modulation is particularly important with such a noisy channel as electrical wiring. The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables) is based on a PHY layer that specifies OFDM with Adaptive modulation and a Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) FEC code. Wireless local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks (MAN) OFDM is also now being used in some wireless LAN and MAN applications, including IEEE 802.11a/g (and the defunct European alternative HIPERLAN/2) and WiMAX. IEEE 802.11a, operating in the 5 GHz band, specifies airside data rates ranging from 6 to 54 Mbit/s. Four different modulation schemes are used: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, and 64-QAM, along with a number of convolutional encoding schemes. This allows the system to adapt to the optimum data rate vs. error rate for the current conditions. Clearwire, a wireless Internet Service Provider who provides access to metropolitan areas across the United States, utilizes OFDM in both their current 2.5 GHz network and the planned expansion of their WiMax network. Wireless personal area networks (PAN) OFDM is also now being used in the WiMedia / Ecma-368 standard for high-speed wireless personal area networks in the 3.1-10.6 GHz ultrawideband spectrum. See www.wimedia.com. Terrestrial digital radio and television broadcasting Much of Europe and Asia has adopted OFDM for terrestrial broadcasting of digital television (DVB-T, DVB-H and T-DMB) and radio (EUREKA 147 DAB, Digital Radio Mondiale, HD Radio and T-DMB). DVB-T By Directive of the European Commission, all television services transmitted to viewers in the European Community must use a transmission system that has been standardized by a recognized European standardization body, DIRECTIVE 95/47/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the use of standards for the transmission of television signals and such a standard has been developed and codified by the DVB Project, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding and modulation for digital terrestrial television. ETSI Standard: EN 300 744 V1.5.1 (2004-11). Customarily referred to as DVB-T, the standard calls for the exclusive use of COFDM for modulation. DVB-T is now widely used in Europe and elsewhere for terrestrial digital TV. SDARS The ground segments of the SDARS systems used by XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio are transmitted using COFDM. http://www.commsdesign.com/article/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=12805708 Agere gets Sirius about satellite radio design COFDM vs. VSB The question of the relative technical merits of COFDM versus 8VSB has been a subject of some controversy, especially between Europe and USA. The United States has rejected several proposals to adopt COFDM for its digital television services, and has instead opted for 8VSB (vestigial sideband modulation) operation. One of the major benefits provided by COFDM is that it renders radio broadcasts relatively immune to multipath distortion and signal fading due to atmospheric conditions or passing aircraft. Proponents of COFDM argue that it resists multipath far better than 8VSB. Early 8VSB DTV (digital television) receivers often had difficulty receiving a signal in urban environments. However, newer 8VSB receivers are far better at dealing with multipath, hence the difference in performance may diminish with advances in demodulator design. Moreover, 8VSB modulation requires less power to transmit a signal the same distance, i.e., the received carrier-to-noise threshold is lower for the same bit error rate. In less-populated areas, 8VSB may have an advantage because of this. In urban areas, however, COFDM is believed to offer better reception than 8VSB. In practice, it may be impossible to settle this debate without empirical history. One difficulty in fully assessing the two systems' relative performance in multipath environments is that the spatial distribution of multipath cannot be modeled well. Due to the chaotic nature of multipath, the process is non-stationary, both temporally and spatially, in the stochastic sense. Thus, the probability distribution of impaired receiving locations is not tractable. Digital radio COFDM is also used for other radio standards, for digital audio broadcasting (DAB), the standard for digital audio broadcasting at VHF frequencies, and also for Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), the standard for digital broadcasting at shortwave and mediumwave frequencies (below 30 MHz). The USA again uses an alternate standard, a proprietary system developed by iBiquity dubbed "HD Radio". However, it uses COFDM as the underlying broadcast technology to add digital audio to AM (medium wave) and FM broadcasts. Both Digital Radio Mondiale and HD Radio are classified as in-band on-channel systems, unlike Eureka 147 (DAB: Digital audio broadcasting) which uses separate VHF or UHF frequency bands instead. BST-OFDM used in ISDB The BST-OFDM (Band Segmented Transmission Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) system proposed for Japan — in the ISDB-T, ISDB-TSB and ISDB-C broadcasting systems — improves upon COFDM by exploiting the fact that some OFDM carriers may be modulated differently from others within the same multiplex. Some forms of COFDM already offer this kind of hierarchical modulation, though BST-OFDM is intended to make it more flexible. The 6 MHz television channel may therefore be "segmented", with different segments being modulated differently and used for different services. It is possible, for example, to send an audio service on a segment that includes a segment comprised of a number of carriers, a data service on another segment and a television service on yet another segment - all within the same 6 MHz television channel. Furthermore, these may be modulated with different parameters so that, for example, the audio and data services could be optimized for mobile reception, while the television service is optimized for stationary reception in a high-multipath environment. Ultra-wideband UWB (ultra-wideband) wireless personal area network technology may also utilise OFDM, such as in Multiband OFDM (MB-OFDM). This UWB specification is advocated by the WiMedia Alliance (formerly by both the Multiband OFDM Alliance {MBOA} and the WiMedia Alliance, but the two have now merged), and is one of the competing UWB radio interfaces. Flash-OFDM Flash-OFDM (Fast Low-latency Access with Seamless Handoff Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing), which is also referred to as F-OFDM, is a system that is based on OFDM and specifies also higher protocol layers. It has been developed and is marketed by Flarion. Flash-OFDM has generated interest as a packet-switched cellular bearer, where it would compete with GSM and 3G networks. As an example, 450 MHz frequency bands previously used by NMT-450 and C-Net C450 (both 1G analogue networks, now mostly decommissioned) in Europe are being licensed to Flash-OFDM operators. In Finland the license holder Digita has begun deployment of a nationwide "@450" wireless network, operational in parts of the country since April 2007 and planned coverage of all of Finland in 2009. T-Mobile Slovakia offers Flash-OFDM connections with a maximum downstream speed of 5.3 Mbit/s, and a maximum upstream spead of 1.8 Mbit/s, with a coverage of over 70 percent of Slovak population. T-Mobile Germany uses Flash-OFDM to backhaul Wi-Fi HotSpots on the Deutsche Bahn's ICE high speed trains. American wireless carrier Sprint Nextel had stated plans for field testing wireless broadband network technologies including Flash-OFDM for their 4G offering, for deployment using their nationwide 2.5GHz licences. Sprint subsequently decided to deploy the mobile version of WiMAX, which is based on SOFDMA (Scalable Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) technology. Citizens Telephone Cooperative launched a Flash-OFDM service to subscribers in parts of Virginia in March, 2006. The maximum speed available is 1.5 Mbit/s. http://www.citizens.coop/aboutus/newsreleases/TrulyMobileWireless.pdf Digiweb Ltd. launched a mobile broadband network using FLASH-OFDM technology at 872 MHz in July 2007 in Ireland and also will be launching in Norway. Voice handsets are not yet available as of November 2007. The deployment is live in a small area north of Dublin only. Butler Networks is currently trialing FLASH-OFDM technology in Denmark at 872 MHz. In The Netherlands, KPN-telecom will start a pilot around July 2007. History 1957: Kineplex, multi-carrier HF modem (R.R. Mosier & R.G. Clabaugh) 1966: Chang, Bell Labs: OFDM paper Chang, R. W. (1966). Synthesis of band-limited orthogonal signals for multi-channel data transmission, Bell System Technical Journal 46, 1775-1796. and 1971: Weinstein & Ebert proposed use of FFT and guard interval 1985: Cimini described use of OFDM for mobile communications 1985: Telebit Trailblazer Modem introduced incorporating a 512 carrier Packet Ensemble Protocol 1987: Alard & Lasalle: COFDM for digital broadcasting September 1988: TH-CSF LER, first experimental Digital TV link in OFDM, Paris area 1989: OFDM international patent application PCT/FR 89/00546, filed in the name of THOMSON-CSF, Fouche, de Couasnon, Travert, Monnier and all.http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?WO=1990/04893 October 1990: TH-CSF LER, first OFDM equipment field test, 34 Mbit/s in an 8 MHz channel, experiments in Paris area December 1990: TH-CSF LER, first OFDM test bed comparison with VSB in Princeton USA September 1992: TH-CSF LER, second generation equipment field test, 70 Mbit/s in an 8 MHz channel, twin polarisations. Wuppertal, Germany October 1992: TH-CSF LER, second generation field test and test bed with BBC, near London, UK 1993: TH-CSF show in Montreux SW, 4 TV channel and one HDTV channel in a single 8 MHz channel 1993: Morris: Experimental 150Mbit/s OFDM wireless LAN 1994: , Method and apparatus for multiple access between transceivers in wireless communications using OFDM spread spectrum 1995: ETSI Digital Audio Broadcasting standard EUreka: first OFDM based standard 1997: ETSI DVB-T standard 1998: Magic WAND project demonstrates OFDM modems for wireless LAN 1999: IEEE 802.11a wireless LAN standard (Wi-Fi) 2000: Proprietary fixed wireless access (V-OFDM, Flash-OFDM, etc.) 2002: IEEE 802.11g standard for wireless LAN 2004: IEEE 802.16-2004 standard for wireless MAN (WiMAX) 2004: ETSI DVB-H standard 2004: Candidate for IEEE 802.15.3a standard for wireless PAN (MB-OFDM) 2004: Candidate for IEEE 802.11n standard for next generation wireless LAN 2005: OFDMA is candidate for the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) air interface E-UTRA downlink. 2007: The first complete LTE air interface implementation was demonstrated, including OFDM-MIMO, SC-FDMA and multi-user MIMO uplink. Nortel 3G World Congress Press Release References See also Cyclic prefix Modem ATSC Standards DVB-T DRM Telebit Paul Baran External links Numerous useful links and resources for OFDM - WCSP Group - University of South Florida (USF) WiMAX Forum, WiMAX, the framework standard for 4G mobile personal broadband Flarion Technologies, the inventor of FLASH-OFDM QUALCOMM, parent company of Flarion Technologies Stott, 1997 Technical presentation by J H Stott of the BBC's R&D division, delivered at the 20 International Television Symposium in 1997; this URL accessed 24 January 2006. Page on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing at http://www.iss.rwth-aachen.de/Projekte/Theo/OFDM/node6.html accessed on 24 September 2007. Siemens demos 360 Mbit/s wireless 1994 US Patent 5,282,222 for wireless data transmission - The patent "tree" rooted on this patent has upwards of 20000 nodes and leaves references. 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1,272 | James_Cameron | James Francis Cameron (born August 16, 1954) is an Academy Award-winning Canadian director, producer and screenwriter. He has written and directed films as disparate as Aliens and Titanic. To date, his directorial efforts have grossed approximately US$1.1 billion domestically, unadjusted for inflation. http://boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?id=jamescameron.htm After a string of landmark feature films, Cameron turned his focus to documentary filmmaking and the co-development of the digital 3-D Fusion Camera System. He is currently working on a return to feature filmmaking with the science fiction film Avatar, which will make use of the Fusion Camera System technology. Avatar is scheduled for release in December 2009. http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=avatar.htm Background Cameron was born in Kapuskasing, Ontario, Canada, the son of Shirley, an artist and nurse, and Phillip Cameron, an electrical engineer. James Cameron Biography (1954-). Film Reference.com. He grew up in Chippawa, Ontario and attended Stamford Collegiate in Niagara Falls, and his family moved to Fullerton, California in 1971. While he studied physics and English at California State University, Fullerton, Cameron used every opportunity to visit the film archive of UCLA. To the surprise of many people, although Cameron had a large educational background in the natural sciences, he chose a philosophy major from The University of Toronto in 1973. Cameron says of his time there that he was, "completely self taught in special effects. I'd go down to the USC library and pull any theses that graduate students had written about optical printing, or front screen projection, or dye transfers, anything that related to film technology…if they'd let me photocopy it, I would. If not, I'd make notes." After dropping out, he worked several jobs such as truck driving and wrote when he had time. James Cameron Biography by FilmMakers Magazine After seeing the film Star Wars in 1977, Cameron quit his job as a truck driver to enter the film industry. The Force Is With Them: The Legacy of Star Wars, 2004. When Cameron read Syd Field's book Screenplay, it occurred to him that integrating science and art were possible and he wrote a ten minute science fiction script with two friends, entitled Xenogenesis. They raised money and rented a camera, lenses, the film stocks, studio and shot it in 35 mm. To understand how to operate the camera, they dismantled it and spent the first half-day of the shoot trying to figure out how to get it running. Early career As Cameron continued educating himself in techniques, he started as a miniature model maker at Roger Corman Studios. Making fast, low-budget productions enabled Cameron to pick up the pace efficiently and effectively, soon becoming an art director in the sci-fi movie Battle Beyond the Stars (1980), and he did special effects work design and direction on John Carpenter's Escape from New York (1981). He consulted on the design of Android (1981), and acted as production designer on Galaxy of Terror (1981). Cameron was hired as the special effects director for the sequel of Piranha, entitled Piranha II: The Spawning in 1981. However, the director left the project and Cameron was hired by Italian producer Assonitis to take over, giving him his first directorial job. He worked with producer Roger Corman. The interior scenes were filmed in Rome, Italy while the underwater diving sequences were shot at Grand Cayman Island. The movie was to be produced on Jamaica, but when Cameron arrived at the studio, he discovered his crew was comprised primarily of Italians who spoke no English and the project was under financed. Under duress, Cameron says he had a nightmare about an invisible robot hit man sent from the future to kill him, giving him the idea for The Terminator, which would later catapult his filming career. Major films The Terminator (1984) After completing a screenplay for The Terminator, Cameron decided to sell it so that he could direct the movie. However, the production companies he contacted, while expressing interest in the project, were unwilling to let a first-time director make the movie. Finally, Cameron found a company called Hemdale Pictures, which was willing to let him direct. His soon-to-be-wife, Gale Anne Hurd, who had started her own production company, Pacific Western Productions, had previously worked with Cameron in Roger Corman's company and agreed to buy Cameron's screenplay for one dollar, on the condition that Cameron direct the film. Hurd was signed on as producer, and Cameron finally got his first break as director. Orion Pictures would distribute the film. Initially, for the role of the Terminator, Cameron wanted someone who wasn't exceptionally muscular, and who could "blend into" a normal crowd. Lance Henriksen, who had starred in Piranha II: The Spawning, was considered for the titular role, but when Arnold Schwarzenegger and Cameron first met over lunch to discuss Schwarzenegger playing the role of Kyle Reese, both came to the conclusion that the cyborg villain would be the more compelling role for the Austrian bodybuilder; Henriksen got the smaller part of LAPD detective Hal Vukovich and the role of Kyle Reese went to Michael Biehn. In addition, Linda Hamilton first appeared in this film in her iconic role of Sarah Connor, and later married Cameron. The Terminator was a box office hit, breaking expectations by Orion Pictures executives that the film would be regarded as no more than a sci-fi film, and only last a week in theaters. The film was low-budget ($6.5 million), but it earned over $78 million worldwide. Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985) During the early 1980s, Cameron wrote three screenplays simultaneously: The Terminator, Aliens, and the first draft of Rambo: First Blood Part II. While Cameron would continue with The Terminator and with Aliens, Sylvester Stallone eventually took over the script of Rambo: First Blood Part II, creating a final draft which differed radically from Cameron's initial version. Cameron was credited for his screenplay in the film's final credits. Biography Aliens (1986) The producing team behind Aliens, James Cameron and Gale Ann Hurd. Cameron next began the sequel to Alien, the 1979 film by Ridley Scott. Cameron would name the sequel Aliens, and would again cast Sigourney Weaver in the iconic role of Ellen Ripley. According to Cameron, the crew on Aliens was hostile to him, regarding him as a poor substitute for Ridley Scott. Cameron sought to show them The Terminator but the majority of the crew refused and remained skeptical of his direction throughout production. Despite this and other off screen problems (such as clashing with an uncooperative camera man and having to replace one of the lead actors - Michael Biehn of Terminator took James Remar's place as Corporal Hicks), Aliens became a box office success, and Sigourney Weaver received a nomination for Best Actress during the 1986 Academy Awards. In addition, the film and its lead actress made the cover of Time Magazine as a result of its breakthrough feminist themes about women in combat. Following the phenomenal success of the film, Cameron now had more freedom to make whatever project he wanted. The Abyss (1989) Cameron's next project stemmed from an idea that had come up during a high school biology class. The story of oil-rig workers who discover otherworldly underwater creatures became the basis of Cameron's screenplay for The Abyss, which cast Ed Harris, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio and Michael Biehn. Initially budgeted at $41 million U.S. (though the production ran considerably overbudget), it was considered to be one of the most expensive films of its time, and required cutting-edge effects technology. Because much of the film takes place underwater and the technology wasn't advanced enough to digitally create an underwater environment, Cameron chose to shoot much of the movie "reel-for-real", at depths of up to . For creation of the sets, the containment building of an unfinished nuclear power plant was converted, and two huge tanks were utilized. The main tank was filled with of water, and the second with . There, the cast and crew would reside for much of the shooting. The Abyss opened on August 9, 1989 with $9.3 million in 2nd place at the boxoffice behind Parenthood. Boxofficemojo.com It ultimately earned $54.5 million domestically, $35.5 million in foreign markets and a mostly lukewarm response from critics. Cameron would later release a special edition version of the film in spring of 1993, restoring deleted scenes, including the film's climax as it had been originally conceived. The film was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Visual Effects, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Sound. It won for Best Visual Effects. After the release of The Abyss, Cameron founded his own production company called Lightstorm Entertainment, which produced all of his subsequent films. Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) After the success of The Terminator, there had always been talks about a sequel to continue the story of Sarah Connor and her struggle against machines from the future. Although Cameron had come up with a core idea for the sequel, and Schwarzenegger expressed interest in continuing the story, there were still problems regarding who had the rights to the story, as well as the logistics of the special effects needed to make the sequel. Finally, in mid-1990, Mario Kassar of Carolco Pictures secured the rights to the sequel, allowing Cameron to greenlight production of the film, now called Terminator 2: Judgment Day. For the film, Linda Hamilton reprised her iconic role of Sarah Connor. A NEW BODY OF WORK | Linda Hamilton | Cover Story | News + Notes | Entertainment Weekly In addition, Arnold Schwarzenegger also returned in his role as The Terminator, but this time as a protector. Unlike the T-800, who is made of a metal endoskeleton, the new villain of the sequel, called the T-1000, was a more advanced Terminator made of liquid metal, and with polymorphic abilities. The T-1000 would also be much less bulky than the T-800. For the role, Cameron cast Robert Patrick, who was a sharp contrast to Schwarzenegger. Cameron explained, "I wanted someone who was extremely fast and agile. If the T-800 is a human Panzer tank, then the T-1000 is a Porsche." Cameron had originally wanted to incorporate this advanced-model Terminator into the first film, but the special effects at the time were not advanced enough. The ground-breaking effects used in The Abyss to digitally realize the water tentacle convinced Cameron that his liquid metal villain was now possible. TriStar Pictures would distribute the film under a locked release date that was only about one year away from when shooting would begin. The movie, which was co-written by Cameron and his longtime friend, William Wisher, Jr., had to go from screenplay to finished film in just that amount of time. Like Cameron's previous film, it was one of the most expensive films of its era, with a budget of about $100 million. The biggest challenge of the movie was the special effects used in creating the T-1000. Nevertheless, the film was finished on time, and released to theaters on July 3, 1991. Terminator 2, or T2, as it was abbreviated, broke box-office records (including the opening weekend record for an R-rated film), earning over $200 million domestically, and over $300 million overseas, and became the highest-grossing film of that year. It won four Academy Awards: Best Makeup, Best Sound, Best Sound Effects, and Best Visual Effects. James Cameron announced a third Terminator film many times during the 1990s, but without coming out with any finished scripts. Kassar and Vajna purchased the rights to the Terminator franchise from a bankruptcy sale of Carolco's assets. Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines was eventually made and released in July 2003 without Cameron's involvement. Jonathan Mostow directed the film and Schwarzenegger returned as the Terminator. Director James Cameron reunited with the main cast of Terminator 2 to film T2 3-D: Battle Across Time, an attraction at Universal Studios Florida, Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Studios Japan. It was released in 1996 and was a mini-sequel to Terminator 2: Judgment Day. The show is in two parts: a pre-show where a spokesperson talks about Cyberdyne and the main feature which has performers interacting with a 3-D movie. True Lies (1994) Before the release of T2, Schwarzenegger came to Cameron with the idea of making a remake of the French comedy titled La Totale. Titled True Lies, with filming begun after T2s release, the story revolves around a secret-agent spy who leads a double life as a married man, whose wife believes he is a computer salesman. Schwarzenegger would be cast as the secret spy, named Harry Tasker, whose mission in the movie is to investigate and stop a plan by Arab terrorists to use nuclear weapons against the United States. Jamie Lee Curtis would play Schwarzenegger's onscreen wife, with Tom Arnold cast as the secret agent's sidekick. Cameron's Lightstorm Entertainment signed on with Twentieth Century Fox for production of True Lies. Made on a budget of $115 million and released in 1994, the film earned $146 million in North America, and $232 million abroad. Titanic (1997) Cameron expressed interest in the famous sinking of the ship Titanic. He decided to script and film his next project based on this event. The picture revolved around a fictional romance story between two young lovers from different social classes who meet onboard the ship's maiden, and final, voyage. Before production began, he took dives to the bottom of the Atlantic and shot actual footage of the ship underwater, which he would insert into the final film. For the film Titanic, Cameron cast Leonardo DiCaprio, Kate Winslet, and Billy Zane. Cameron's budget for the film reached about $200 million, and it became the most expensive movie ever made. Before its release, the film was widely ridiculed for its expense and protracted production schedule. Released to theaters on December 19, 1997, Titanic opened with $28 million on its first weekend. The film's grosses escalated in the next several weeks. Titanic was one of very few modern, big-budget movies to gross more in their second weekend than their first. Its gross increased from $28.6 million to $35.4 million from week 1 to week 2, an increase of 23.8%, unheard of for a wide release, and a testament to the appeal of the movie. This was especially noteworthy, considering that the film's running time of more than three hours limited the number of showings each theater could schedule. It held the #1 spot on the box-office charts for months, eventually grossing a total of over $600 million domestically and more than $1.8 billion worldwide. Titanic became the highest grossing film of all time. (Adjusting for inflation, the film brought in the sixth-highest domestic (U.S. only) gross of all time.) Box Office Report - All Time Adjusted Box Office by Daniel Garris The CG visuals surrounding the sinking and destruction of the ship were considered spectacular. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/movies/oscars/titanicrecord.htm During the 1998 Academy Awards, the film won a record-tying 11 Oscars; including Best Picture and Best Director. http://www.nytimes.com/1998/03/24/movies/titanic-ties-record-with-11-oscars-including-best-picture.html Spider-Man and Dark Angel (2000–2002) Cameron had initially next planned to do a film of the comic book character Spider-Man, a project developed by Menahem Golan of Cannon Films. Disputes arose focusing on Golan's role in the Carolco project. A screenplay dating back to 1989 exists with Cameron's name appended to it, indicating erroneously he worked with a series of writers on the project (John Brancato, Barry [sic: Barney] Cohen, Joseph Goldmari [sic: "Joseph Goldman", Menahem Golan's pen name] and Ted Newsom), but the script was identical to one presented to Columbia Pictures by Golan in 1988, where the project had been in development (Cameron never worked with these writers at all). Subsequent to the delivery of this script to Carolco, Cameron presented a 45-page Spider-Man screen story to Carolco, which bore substantive similarities to a number of earlier screenplay drafts, particularly one written by Ethan Wiley (writer of House and writer/director of House 2). When Carolco went into bankruptcy, all previous "Spider-Man" scripts were acquired by MGM-UA, including the "Cameron material", i.e., both the multi-author screenplay and the later treatment credited solely to Cameron. MGM in turn sold the material to Columbia Pictures in exchange for Columbia dropping their plans to do an alternative James Bond series based on the Kevin McClory Bond material. Columbia hired David Koepp to adapt Cameron's treatment into a screenplay, and Koepp's first draft is taken often word-for-word from Cameron's story, though later drafts were heavily rewritten by Koepp himself, Scott Rosenberg, Alvin Sargent (husband of producer Laura Ziskin), and (allegedly) Ivan Raimi, brother of director Sam Raimi. Columbia preferred to credit David Koepp solely, and none of the scripts before or after his were ever examined by the Writers Guild of America, East to determine proper credit attribution. Cameron and other writers objected, but Columbia and the WGA prevailed. In its release in 2002, Spider-Man had its screenplay credited solely to Koepp. Who Is Spider-Man? at Hollywood.com Unable to make Spider-Man, Cameron moved to television and created the story of Max Guevara, a new superheroine. Dark Angel was influenced by cyberpunk, biopunk, current superhero genres, and third-wave feminism: After the Sarah Connors and Ellen Ripleys of the eighties, the nineties weren't so kind to the superwoman format --Xena: Warrior Princess excepted. But it's a new millennium now, and while Charlie's Angels and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon are kicking up a storm on movie screens, it's been down to James Cameron to bring empowered female warriors back to television screens. And tellingly, Cameron has done it by mixing the sober feminism of his The Terminator and Aliens characters with the sexed-up Girl Power of a Britney Spears concert. The result is Dark Angel, a weekly action series that's burning up the ratings on America's Fox Network and has recently premiered in the UK. Eyes Only. DarkAngelFan.com. Co-produced with Charles H. Eglee, Dark Angel starred Jessica Alba as Max Guevara, a genetically enhanced transgenic super-soldier created by the super-secretive Manticore organization. It also starred Michael Weatherly as Logan Cale, and noted actor John Savage (of The Deer Hunter) as Colonel Donald Michael Lydecker; the second season finale also guest starred Amy Dumas. While a success in its first season, low ratings in the second led to its cancellation. Cameron himself directed the series finale, a two-hour episode wrapping up many of the series' loose ends. Documentarian and 3-D film advocate (2002–present) Cameron's recent projects have included undersea documentaries on the Bismarck (Expedition: Bismarck, 2002) and the Titanic (Ghosts of the Abyss (2003, in IMAX 3D), and Tony Robinson's Titanic Adventure (2005) Titanic Adventure (2005) (TV) at IMDb ). He was a producer on the 2002 film Solaris, and narrated The Exodus Decoded. Cameron is a leading advocate for stereoscopic digital 3-D films. In a 2003 interview about his IMAX 3D documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, he mentioned that he is "going to do everything in 3D now". James Cameron: part II | Interviews | guardian.co.uk Film He has made similar statements in other interviews. Ghosts of the Abyss and Aliens of the Deep (also an IMAX documentary) were shot in 3-D, as will his next projects, Avatar, The Dive, Sanctum and an adaptation of the manga series Battle Angel Alita. He is currently filming Avatar, his first film since 1997's Titanic. Cameron sees Avatar and Battle Angel Alita as a "three film cycle". 'Titanic' King James Cameron's Big Comeback - Movie News Story | MTV Movie News See Avatar and Battle Angel below. He is co-rewriting the screenplay for a high-definition 3-D live-action deep-sea-diving drama entitled James Cameron's Sanctum, to be produced by himself and directed by Gary Johnstone. Sanctum will have a relatively-low starting budget of about $20 million. In addition, he plans to create a 3-D project about the first trip to Mars. ("I've been very interested in the Humans to Mars movement—the 'Mars Underground'—and I've done a tremendous amount of personal research for a novel, a miniseries, and a 3-D film.") He is on the science team for the 2009 Mars Science Laboratory. MSL Mastcam, MAHLI, MARDI Science Team Cameron announced on February 26, 2007, that he, along with his director, Simcha Jacobovici, have documented the unearthing of the Talpiot Tomb, which is alleged to be the tomb of Jesus. Unearthed in 1980 by Israeli construction workers, the names on the tomb are claimed, by Cameron, to correlate with the names of Jesus and several individuals closely associated with him. Cameron further claims to have DNA tests, archaeological evidence, and Biblical studies to back up his claim. The documentary, named The Lost Tomb of Jesus, was broadcast on the Discovery Channel on March 4, 2007. Marilyn Manson made a music video (with Cameron's 3-D camera) for the first single from the album Eat Me, Drink Me, "Heart-Shaped Glasses (When the Heart Guides the Hand)", and intends to use the technology for Manson's upcoming fantasy horror film Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll. Cameron is a friend of Manson and will be involved with the project. Avatar and Battle Angel (present) In June 2005, director Cameron was announced to be working on a project tentatively titled "Project 880" (now known to be Avatar) in parallel with another project, Battle Angel. Cameron turns to new project Both movies were to be shot in 3D. By December, Cameron stated that he wanted to film Battle Angel first, followed by Avatar. However in February 2006, he switched goals for the two film projects and decided to film Avatar first. He mentioned that if both films are successful, he would be interested in seeing a trilogy being made for both. Avatar, previously known as Project 880, has an estimated budget of over $200 million, is a 3D film currently set for a December 18, 2009 release, and will mark his first feature film since 1997's Titanic. It will be composed almost entirely of computer-generated animation, using a more advanced version of the "performance capture" technique used by director Robert Zemeckis in The Polar Express. James Cameron wrote an 80 page scriptment for Avatar in 1995 and announced in 1996 that he would make the film after completing Titanic. In December 2006, Cameron explained that the delay in producing the film since the 1990s had been to wait until the technology necessary to create his project was advanced enough. The director is planning to create photo-realistic computer-generated characters through motion capture animation technology using his new virtual camera system. Computers Join Actors in Hybrids On Screen - New York Times The film was originally scheduled to be released in May 2009 but was pushed back to December 2009 to allow more time for post production on the complex photorealistic CGI and to give more time for theatres worldwide to install 3D projectors. Fox shifts 'Avatar,' 'Museum' - Entertainment News, Film News, Media - Variety James Cameron will also be writing, producing and directing Battle Angel, a live-action adaptation of the first three volumes of the manga series. Alita will be a CG character performed by an actress. Like Avatar, the film will be a mix of CG and live action. Filming will be made with the new digital 3D system Cameron has developed for Avatar. In January 2005, Cameron mentioned that the delay in making this film initially had been to wait until a sufficient number of theatres had installed 3D projectors. Pre-production on this film has been occurring since at least 2004-05. As with Avatar, the movie will be marketed and distributed by 20th Century Fox worldwide. Cameron is aiming for a PG-13 rating. James Cameron on Battle Angel! - ComingSoon.net Laeta Kalogridis wrote the original script but Cameron is re-writing the script. James Cameron Takes on Project 880 - ComingSoon.net "The Dive" (future)The Dive''' - James Cameron is set to go back underwater with "The Dive" as he will direct the movie, which is based on the true love story of two divers, Cuban-born Francisco "Pipín" Ferreras and French-born Audrey Mestre. Screenwriter Dana Stevens has been hired to work on the script to "The Dive," with Cameron producing the movie along with his partners Jon Landau and Rae Sanchini. According to The Hollywood Reporter, James Cameron purchased the rights to Francisco Ferreras' life story as well as a story from Sports Illustrated on Ferreras. Online news reports in 2002 quoted actress Eliza Dushku as saying there was going to be a sequel on "True Lies" reuniting the original cast and writer/director James Cameron. Cameron originally planned on making "True Lies 2" for sometime in 2002 (according to Moviehole.net) - but put his plans on hold once the 9/11 terrorist attacks, claiming that "in this day and age, terrorism isn't funny." Awards Cameron received the Bradbury Award from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1991—but, being primarily thought of as a genre filmmaker, he did not receive any major mainstream filmmaking awards prior to Titanic. With Titanic, Cameron received the Academy Awards for Best Editing (shared with Conrad Buff and Richard A. Harris), Best Picture (shared with Jon Landau), and Best Director. He also won a Golden Globe for best director for the film. In recognition of his contributions to underwater filming and remote vehicle technology, the University of Southampton awarded Cameron the honorary degree of Doctor of the University. Cameron received his degree in person at the graduation ceremony in July, 2004. On June 3, 2008, it was announced that he would be inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. Recurring cast members Cameron often casts certain actors more than once in his films. Cameron has consistently worked with Bill Paxton (who also narrated Ghosts of the Abyss), Michael Biehn, Lance Henriksen (who also narrated Expedition: Bismarck), and Jenette Goldstein. In addition to starring in the Terminator films, Arnold Schwarzenegger also starred in True Lies. In February 2007, Sigourney Weaver was cast for Cameron's upcoming film Avatar after having worked with him on Aliens as lead actress. Actor Piranha II: The Spawning (1981) The Terminator (1984) Aliens (1986) The Abyss (1989) Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) True Lies (1994) Titanic (1997) Avatar (2009) Bill Paxton Michael Biehn ()* Linda Hamilton Lance Henriksen Jenette Goldstein Arnold Schwarzenegger Sigourney Weaver * his reprised role of Reese was cut from the theatrical release, but restored in the DVD's Special Edition Version. Recurring themes Throughout Cameron's career, several of his films have had recurring themes and subtexts. These include: the prospects of nuclear holocaust (the Skynet takeover scenario from both Terminator films and a proposed "solution" in Aliens), attempts to reconcile humanity with technology (as seen in Aliens and Terminator 2: Judgment Day), two protagonists who face impossible odds and work together to achieve their goals, strong female characters (Sarah Connor and Ellen Ripley being the most famous) and an undercurrent of feminism this was also present with Jamie Lee Curtis character in True Lies and Kate Winslet role in Titanic where she served as the main protagonist and narrator. While The Abyss dealt with deep sea exploration (shot on a studio set), Cameron himself became an expert in the field of deep sea wreckage exploration exploring the wreckage of Titanic and Bismarck. Children also seem to be a recurring thematic in most Cameron films. John Connor in the Terminator series is first an unborn child who holds the secret to the salvation of humanity and must be protected at all costs. Then in T2, a matured, but still young John Connor is portrayed as a teenage survivalist, possessing the knowledge and skills to live off and exploit the grid...and shoot large caliber weaponry as well as devise tactical battle plans. In True Lies, the daughter of Jamie Lee Curtis and Arnold Schwarzenegger is literally the catalyst for both parents to reconcile with their lying selves. Her character as well is shown to be crafty and devious, stealing her parents money and knowing about their double lives, and, inadvertantly possessing the mettle to be a hero herself. In Aliens, Ripley finds Newt, who is the catalyst that turns a docile, PTSD sufferer into a full blown killing machine. Again, children playing a critical role in Cameron's films. The TV Show Dark Angel was about children that are genetically engineered to be super soldiers. These recurrent themes of children being the future seem to be in a majority of Cameron's films. Filmography Personal life Cameron has been married five times: Sharon Williams (1978–1984), Gale Anne Hurd (1985–1989), Kathryn Bigelow (1989–1991), Linda Hamilton (1997–1999, one daughter), Suzy Amis (2000-, one son, two daughters). Cameron is very distantly related to actress Joanna Cameron who starred as Isis on tv in the 1970s. He has been described by one collaborator, author Orson Scott Card, as selfish and cruel. When asked about working with Cameron on the novelization of The Abyss, Card said the experience was "...hell on wheels. He was very nice to me, because I could afford to walk away. But he made everyone around him miserable, and his unkindness did nothing to improve the film in any way. Nor did it motivate people to work faster or better. And unless he changes his way of working with people, I hope he never directs anything of mine." Author Chat Transcript, Barnes and Noble, August 31, 1999, After working with Cameron on the set of Titanic, Kate Winslet decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned "a lot of money." She admitted Cameron was a nice man, but had too much of a temper. Andrew Gumbel, "The Return of James Cameron", The (London) Independent, Jan 11, 2007 Cameron has a famously explosive temper. In an editorial, the British newspaper The Independent described his directing as tyrannical: "[James Cameron] is a nightmare to work with. Studios have come to fear his habit of straying way over schedule and over budget. He is notorious on set for his uncompromising and dictatorial manner, as well as his flaming temper. " Andrew Gumbel, "The Return of James Cameron", The (London) Independent, Jan 11, 2007 Cameron is a member of the NASA Advisory Council and is working on the project to get cameras on the pending manned Mars mission. Space.com , Science Channel's Mars Rising In late October 2007, Cameron, along with singers Olivia Newton-John and Tanya Tucker, were ordered out of their Malibu homes due to the pending threat of the Witch Fire in Southern California. AppearancesEntourageIn Entourage, Cameron appeared as himself as the director of the film Aquaman. Cameron's involvement in the project attracted Vincent Chase to the title role.The MuseSaturday Night Live'' Quotes "I think the most important thing if you're an aspiring film-maker is to get rid of the 'aspiring'... You shoot it, you put your name on it, you're a film-maker. Everything after that, you're just negotiating your budget." "I love working with 3-D cameras. I don't want to go back to shooting on film. I don't want to go back to shooting in 2-D." "People call me a perfectionist, but I'm not. I'm a rightist. I do something until it's right, and then I move on to the next thing." References External links James Cameron at Northern Stars AmazingCameron.com The Exodus Decoded Bones of Jesus found, Canadian documentary claims | James_Cameron |@lemmatized james:21 francis:1 cameron:126 bear:4 august:3 academy:6 award:10 win:5 canadian:2 director:18 producer:6 screenwriter:2 write:11 direct:10 film:91 disparate:1 alien:16 titanic:21 date:3 directorial:2 effort:1 gross:6 approximately:1 u:3 billion:2 domestically:4 unadjusted:1 inflation:2 http:4 boxofficemojo:3 com:10 people:5 chart:2 id:2 jamescameron:1 htm:3 string:1 landmark:1 feature:4 turn:4 focus:2 documentary:6 filmmaking:3 co:5 development:2 digital:3 fusion:2 camera:9 system:4 currently:3 work:21 return:5 science:9 fiction:3 avatar:19 make:22 use:9 technology:9 schedule:5 release:17 december:6 movie:22 background:2 kapuskasing:1 ontario:2 canada:2 son:2 shirley:1 artist:1 nurse:1 phillip:1 electrical:1 engineer:2 biography:3 reference:2 grow:1 chippawa:1 attend:1 stamford:1 collegiate:1 niagara:1 fall:1 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1,273 | Cayuga_Lake | Cayuga Lake (pronounced or ) is the longest of western New York's glacial Finger Lakes, and is the largest in surface area (marginally larger than Seneca Lake) and second largest in volume. It is just under 40 miles (64 km) long. Its average width is 1.7 miles (2.7 km), and it is 3.5 miles (5.6 km) wide at its widest point near Aurora. It is approximately 435 ft (133 m) deep at its deepest point. Location The lake has one small island near Union Springs, Frontenac Island, which is one of only two islands in all of the Finger Lakes. Ithaca, New York, site of Cornell University and Ithaca College, sits at the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Cornell's alma mater or official school song makes reference to its position "Far Above Cayuga's Waters", while that of Ithaca College references "Cayuga’s shore". Villages and settlements along the east shore of Cayuga Lake include Myers, King Ferry, Aurora, Levanna, Union Springs, and Cayuga. Settlements along the west shore of the lake include Sheldrake, Poplar Beach, and Canoga. Geographical characteristics Cayuga Lake is located at ; 116.4 m above sea level. Its depth, steep east and west sides with shallow north and south ends is typical of the Finger Lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last ice age. Length: 61.4 km Average width: 2.8 km Maximum depth: 132 m Surface area: 172 km² Mean depth: 54.5 m Catchment area: 2,033 km² (37.1% natural forest, 58% active agricultural) Main islands: 1, Frontenac Main outflows: 1 The water level is regulated by the Mud Lock at the north end of the lake. It is connected to Lake Ontario by the Erie Canal and Seneca Lake by the Seneca River. The lake is drawn down as winter approaches to minimize ice damage and to maximize its capacity to store heavy spring runoff. The north end is dominated by shallow mudflats and is an important stopover for migratory birds, where Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge is located. The southern end is also shallow and often freezes during the winter. Human impact Winter view of the southern end of Cayuga Lake The fish population is managed and substantial sport fishing is practiced, including smelt, lake trout and smallmouth bass fishing. Cayuga lake is very popular among recreational boaters. A large state marina and boat launch is located at the southern end of the lake in Ithaca (Allan H. Treman State Marine Park, the largest inland marina in New York). There are two yacht clubs on the western shore: Ithaca Yacht Club a few miles north of Ithaca, and Red Jacket Yacht Club just south of Canoga. There are several other marinas and boat launches scattered along the lake shore. The lake is used both for drinking water and waste disposal, although this is no longer legal and very uncommon. There are also several lake source cooling systems that are in operation on the lake, whereby cooler water is pumped from the depths of the lake, warmed, and circulated in a closed system back to the surface. One of these systems, which is operated by Cornell University and began operation in 2000, was controversial during the planning and building states for potential negative environmental impact; however, all the environmental impact reports and scientific studies have shown that the Cornell lake source cooling system has not yet and will not likely have any measurably significant environmental impact. Furthermore, Cornell's system pumps significantly less warm water back into the lake than others further north which have been operating for decades. In the late 1960s, citizens successfully opposed the construction of a nuclear power plant on the shore of Cayuga Lake. The Role of Experts in a Nuclear Siting Controversy Chain Reaction pp. 262-264. Folklore The lake is the subject of local folklore; a tradition at Wells College in Aurora holds that if the lake completely freezes over, classes are canceled (though for only one day). According to Wells College records, this last happened in 1979. However, other sources suggest that the only time the entire lake froze over in the 20th century was in 1912. Cayuga Lake, like nearby Seneca Lake, is also the site of a phenomenon known as the Guns of the Seneca, mysterious cannon-like booms heard in the surrounding area. Many of these booms may be attributable to bird-scarers, automated cannon-like devices used by farmers to scare birds away from the many vineyards, orchards and crops. There is however no proof of this. See also Taughannock Falls Fall Creek References External links World Lakes Database entry for Cayuga Lake. Cayugalake.org Cayuga Lake Defense Fund Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge Cornell's Lake Source Cooling FAQ Cornell's environmental impact statement for Lake Source Cooling | Cayuga_Lake |@lemmatized cayuga:13 lake:34 pronounced:1 long:3 western:2 new:3 york:3 glacial:1 finger:3 large:5 surface:3 area:4 marginally:1 seneca:5 second:1 volume:1 mile:4 km:5 average:2 width:2 wide:2 point:2 near:2 aurora:3 approximately:1 ft:1 deep:2 location:1 one:4 small:1 island:4 union:2 spring:3 frontenac:2 two:2 ithaca:6 site:2 cornell:7 university:2 college:4 sit:1 southern:4 end:7 alma:1 mater:1 official:1 school:1 song:1 make:1 reference:3 position:1 far:2 water:5 shore:6 village:1 settlement:2 along:3 east:2 include:3 myers:1 king:1 ferry:1 levanna:1 west:2 sheldrake:1 poplar:1 beach:1 canoga:2 geographical:1 characteristic:1 locate:3 sea:1 level:2 depth:4 steep:1 side:1 shallow:3 north:5 south:2 typical:1 lakes:2 carve:1 glacier:1 last:2 ice:2 age:1 length:1 maximum:1 mean:1 catchment:1 natural:1 forest:1 active:1 agricultural:1 main:2 outflow:1 regulate:1 mud:1 lock:1 connect:1 ontario:1 erie:1 canal:1 river:1 draw:1 winter:3 approach:1 minimize:1 damage:1 maximize:1 capacity:1 store:1 heavy:1 runoff:1 dominate:1 mudflats:1 important:1 stopover:1 migratory:1 bird:3 montezuma:2 national:2 wildlife:2 refuge:2 also:4 often:1 freeze:2 human:1 impact:5 view:1 fish:1 population:1 manage:1 substantial:1 sport:1 fishing:2 practice:1 smelt:1 trout:1 smallmouth:1 bass:1 popular:1 among:1 recreational:1 boater:1 state:3 marina:3 boat:2 launch:2 allan:1 h:1 treman:1 marine:1 park:1 inland:1 yacht:3 club:3 red:1 jacket:1 several:2 scatter:1 use:2 drinking:1 waste:1 disposal:1 although:1 legal:1 uncommon:1 source:5 cool:3 system:5 operation:2 whereby:1 cooler:1 pump:2 warm:2 circulate:1 closed:1 back:2 operate:2 begin:1 controversial:1 planning:1 building:1 potential:1 negative:1 environmental:4 however:3 report:1 scientific:1 study:1 show:1 yet:1 likely:1 measurably:1 significant:1 furthermore:1 significantly:1 less:1 others:1 decade:1 late:1 citizen:1 successfully:1 oppose:1 construction:1 nuclear:2 power:1 plant:1 role:1 expert:1 siting:1 controversy:1 chain:1 reaction:1 pp:1 folklore:2 subject:1 local:1 tradition:1 well:2 hold:1 completely:1 class:1 cancel:1 though:1 day:1 accord:1 record:1 happen:1 suggest:1 time:1 entire:1 froze:1 century:1 like:3 nearby:1 phenomenon:1 know:1 gun:1 mysterious:1 cannon:2 boom:2 hear:1 surrounding:1 many:2 may:1 attributable:1 scarer:1 automate:1 device:1 farmer:1 scare:1 away:1 vineyard:1 orchard:1 crop:1 proof:1 see:1 taughannock:1 fall:2 creek:1 external:1 link:1 world:1 database:1 entry:1 cayugalake:1 org:1 defense:1 fund:1 faq:1 statement:1 cooling:1 |@bigram cayuga_lake:10 mile_km:3 alma_mater:1 shore_cayuga:2 finger_lakes:1 erie_canal:1 migratory_bird:1 wildlife_refuge:2 waste_disposal:1 external_link:1 |
1,274 | Prince_Eugene_of_Savoy | This article refers to the Austrian Habsburg military leader; for the stepson of Napoleon Bonaparte, see Eugène de Beauharnais. François-Eugène, Prince of Savoy-Carignan (18 October 1663 – 21 April 1736), The Encyclopædia Britannica puts the death of Eugene on 24 April. This is incorrect. was one of the most prominent and successful military commanders in European history. Born in Paris to aristocratic Savoyard parents, Eugene grew up around the French court of King Louis XIV. He was initially prepared for a career in the church, but by the age of 19 he had determined on a military career. Rejected by Louis XIV for service in the French army, Eugene moved to Austria, and transferred his loyalty to the Habsburg Monarchy. Spanning six decades, Eugene served three Habsburg emperors – Leopold I, Joseph I, and Charles VI. Eugene first saw action against the Ottoman Turks at the Siege of Vienna in 1683 and the subsequent War of the Holy League, before serving in the Nine Years' War alongside his cousin, the Duke of Savoy. However, the Prince's fame was secured with his crushing victory against the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta in 1697. Eugene enhanced his standing during the War of the Spanish Succession where his partnership with the Duke of Marlborough secured victories against the French on the fields of Blenheim, Oudenarde and Malplaquet; he gained further success as Imperial commander in northern Italy, most notably at Turin in 1706. Renewed hostilities against the Ottomans in the Austro-Turkish War of (1716–18) consolidated his reputation with victories at the battles of Petrovaradin, and Belgrade. Throughout the late 1720s Eugene's influence and skilful diplomacy managed to secure the Emperor powerful allies in his dynastic struggles with the Bourbon powers; but physically and mentally fragile in his later years, Eugene enjoyed less success as commander-in-chief of the army during his final conflict, the War of the Polish Succession. Nevertheless, in Austria, Eugene's reputation remains unrivalled. Although opinions differ as to his character, there is no dispute over his great achievements: Eugene helped to save the Habsburg Empire from French conquest; he broke the westward thrust of the Ottomans, liberating central Europe after a century and a half of Turkish occupation; and he was one of the greatest patrons of the arts, whose building legacy can still be seen in Vienna today. Eugene died in his sleep at his home on 21 April 1736 aged 72. Early life (1663–99) Hôtel Soissons Genealogy of Prince Eugene. Prince Eugene was born in the Hôtel Soissons in Paris on 18 October 1663. Although he was a subject of King Louis XIV, Eugene's parents came from Italian families: his mother, Olympia Mancini, was one of Cardinal Mazarin's nieces whom he had brought to Paris from Rome in 1647 to further his, and to a lesser extent, their ambitions. The Mancinis were raised at the Palais Royal along with the young Louis XIV, with whom Olympia formed an intimate relationship. Yet to her great disappointment her chance to become queen passed by, and in 1657 Olympia married Eugene Maurice, Prince of Savoy-Carignan, later Comte de Soissons. Together they had had five sons (Eugene being the youngest), and three daughters, but neither parent spent much time with the children: his father, a brave, unglamorous soldier in the French army spent much of his time away campaigning, whilst Olympia's passion for court intrigue meant the children received little attention from their mother. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, pp. 9–10 The King remained strongly attached to Olympia, so much so that many believed them to be lovers; Somerset: The Affair of the Poisons: Murder, Infanticide and Satanism at the Court of Louis XIV, p. 252 but her scheming eventually led to her demise. After falling out of favour at court, Olympia turned to Catherine Deshayes (known as La Voisin), and the arts of black magic and astrology; but it was a fatal relationship. Embroiled in the affaire des poisons, suspicions now abounded of her involvement in her husband's premature death in 1673, and even implicated in a plot to kill the King himself. Whatever the truth, Olympia, rather than face trial, subsequently fled France for Brussels in January 1680, leaving Eugene in the care of his father's mother, Marie de Bourbon, Princess of Carignan, and her daughter, the Margravine of Baden, mother of Prince Louis of Baden. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 9 From the age of ten, Eugene had been brought up for a career in the church; a personal choice of the King, basing the decision on the young Prince's poor physique and bearing. Certainly, Eugene's appearance was not impressive – "He was never good looking …" wrote the Duchess of Orleans, "It is true that his eyes are not ugly, but his nose ruins his face; he has two large teeth which are visible at all times." Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 9 In February 1683, to the surprise of his family, Eugene declared his intention of joining the army. Now 19 years old, Eugene applied directly to Louis XIV for command of a company in French service, but the King – who had shown no compassion for Olympia's children since her disgrace – refused him out of hand. "The request was modest, not so the petitioner," he remarked. "No one else ever presumed to stare me out so insolently." Heer: The Holy Roman Empire, p. 228. This was a clear infringement of taboo which Louis could not tolerate. Other reasons are also speculated. Louvois, Louis' secretary of State for War, detested Eugene's mother after she had rejected a proposed marriage between her daughter and his son. Denied a military career in France, Eugene decided to seek service abroad. One of Eugene's brothers, Louis Julius, had entered Imperial service the previous year, but he had been immediately killed fighting the Ottoman Turks in 1683. When news of his death reached Paris, Eugene decided to flee to Austria in the hope of taking over his brother's command. It was not an unnatural decision: his cousin, Louis of Baden, was already a leading general in the Imperial army, as was a more distant cousin, Maximilian Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaria. On the night of 26 July 1683, Eugene left Paris and headed east. Heer states Eugene's departure date was 21 July. Extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1683. The Siege of Vienna (14 July–12 September) was the high water mark of Ottoman ambition in the west. Great Turkish War By May 1683 the Ottoman threat to Emperor Leopold I's capital Vienna was very real. The Grand Vizier, Kara Mustafa Pasha – encouraged by Imre Thököly's Magyar rebellion – had invaded with between 100,000–200,000 men; Childs: Warfare in the Seventeenth Century, p. 133. Childs puts the number at 100,000; John Wolf, as high as 200,000. within two months, they were beneath the walls of the Habsburg capital. With the 'Turks at the gates', the Emperor fled for the safe refuge of Passau on the Danube, a more distant and secure part of his dominion. Stoye: The Siege of Vienna, p. 114 It was at Leopold's camp where Eugene arrived in mid-August. Although Eugene was not Austrian, he did have Habsburg antecedence. His grandfather, Thomas Francis, founder of the Carignan line of the House of Savoy, was the son of Catherine – a daughter of Philip II of Spain – and the great-grandson of the Emperor Charles V. But of more immediate consequence to Leopold was the fact that Eugene was the second cousin of Victor Amadeus, the Duke of Savoy; a connection that the Emperor hoped might prove useful in any future confrontation with France. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 12 These ties, together with his ascetic manner and appearance (a positive advantage to him at the sombre court of Leopold),<ref>Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 467</ref> ensured the refugee from the hated French king a warm welcome at Passau, and a position in Imperial service. Eugene was in no doubt where his new allegiance lay – " … I will devote all my strength, all my courage, and if need be, my last drop of blood, to the service of your Imperial Majesty." Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 13 This loyalty was immediately put to the test. By September, the Imperial forces under the Duke of Lorraine, together with a powerful Polish army under King Sobieski, were poised to strike the Sultan's army investing Vienna. On the morning of 12 September, the Christian forces drew up in line of battle on the south-eastern slopes of the Wiener Wald, looking down on the massed enemy camp. After a day-long struggle, the Battle of Vienna resulted in the lifting of the 60-day siege, and the Sultan's forces routed and in retreat. Serving under Baden, Eugene distinguished himself in the battle, earning commendation from Lorraine and the Emperor; he later received the nomination for the colonelcy of the Dragoon Regiment Kufstein. MacMunn: Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough, p. 32 Holy League Recapture of Buda castle in 1686 by Gyula Benczúr. Eugene can be seen on the white horse centre-left. In March 1684, Leopold I formed the Holy League with Poland and Venice to counter the Ottoman threat. For the next two years, Eugene continued to distinguish himself on campaign against the Turks, and established himself as a dedicated, professional soldier; by the end of 1685, still only 22 years old, he was made a Major-General. However, little is known of Eugene's life during these early campaigns. Contemporary observers make only passing comments of his actions, and his own surviving correspondence, largely to his cousin Victor Amadeus, are typically reticent about his own feelings and experiences. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 22 Nevertheless, it is clear that Baden was impressed with Eugene's qualities – "This young man will, with time, occupy the place of those whom the world regards as great leaders of armies." MacMunn: Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough, p. 35 In June 1686, the Duke of Lorraine besieged Buda, the centre of the Ottoman occupation in Hungary. After resisting for 78 days, the city fell on 2 September, and Turkish resistance collapsed throughout Hungary as far as Transylvania and Serbia. Further success followed in 1687 where, commanding a cavalry brigade, Eugene made an important contribution to the victory at the Battle of Mohács on 12 August. Such was the scale of their defeat the Ottoman army mutinied, a revolt which spread to Constantinople – the Grand Vizier was executed, and Sultan Mehmed IV deposed. Once again Eugene's courage earned him recognition from his superiors who granted him the honour of personally conveying the news of victory to the Emperor in Vienna. MacMunn: Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough, p. 39. Leopold responded with a gift of a portrait of himself set in a diamond encrusted frame For his services Eugene was promoted to Lieutenant-General in November 1687; he was also beginning to gain wider recognition. King Charles II of Spain bestowed upon him the Order of the Golden Fleece, whilst his cousin, Amadeus, provided him with money and two profitable abbeys in Piedmont. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 27 However, Eugene's military career suffered a temporary setback in 1688 when, on 6 September, the Prince suffered a severe wound to his knee by a musket ball during the Siege of Belgrade. It was not until January 1689 that he could return to active service. Interlude in the west: Nine Years' War Just as Belgrade was falling to Imperial forces under Max Emmanuel in the east, French troops in the west were crossing the Rhine into the Holy Roman Empire. Louis XIV had hoped that a show of force would lead to a quick resolution to his dynastic and territorial disputes with the princes of the Empire along his eastern border, but Louis' intimidatory moves only strengthened German resolve. In May 1689 Leopold I and the Dutch signed the Grand Alliance aimed at repelling French aggression. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, pp. 192–193 The Nine Years' War was professionally and personally frustrating for the Prince. Eugene was present at the Siege of Mainz before transferring to Piedmont, after Amadeus had joined the Grand Alliance in 1690. Promoted to general of cavalry, he arrived in Turin with his friend the Prince of Commercy; but it proved an inauspicious start. Against Eugene's advice, Amadeus insisted on engaging the French at Staffarda, and suffered a serious defeat – only Eugene's handling of the Savoyard cavalry in retreat saved his cousin from disaster. Eugene remained unimpressed with the men and their commanders throughout the war in Italy. "The enemy would long ago have been beaten," he wrote to Vienna, "if everyone had done their duty." Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 32 So contemptuous was he of the Imperial commander, Count Caraffa, he threatened to leave Imperial service. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 33 In Vienna Eugene's attitude was dismissed as the arrogance of a young upstart, but so impressed was the Emperor by his passion for the Imperial cause he promoted him to Field-Marshal in 1693. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 34. His promotion, however, had as much to do with the lack of good Imperial commanders, as much as Eugene's proven ability thus far. There were more than 20 other Field-Marshals in Imperial service at that time. When Caraffa's replacement, Count Caprara, was himself transferred in 1694, it seemed that Eugene's chance for command, and decisive action, had finally arrived. Amadeus, however, doubtful of victory and now more fearful of Habsburg influence in Italy than he was of French, had begun secret dealings with Louis XIV aimed at extricating himself from the war. By 1696 the deal was done, and Amadeus transferred his troops, and his loyalty, to the enemy. Eugene was never to trust his cousin again; although he continued to pay due reverence to the Duke as head of his own family, their relationship would forever remain strained. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 37 Military honours in Italy undoubtedly belonged to the French commander Marshal Catinat, but Eugene, the one Allied general determined on action and decisive results, did well to emerge from the Nine Years' War with an enhanced reputation. With the signing of the Treaty of Ryswick in September/October 1697, the desultory war in the west was finally brought to an inconclusive end, and Leopold I could once again devote all his martial energies into defeating the Ottoman Turks in the east. Zenta The distractions of the war against Louis XIV had enabled the Turks to recapture Belgrade and reinvade Hungary. On the advice of the President of the Imperial War Council, Rüdiger Starhemberg, Eugene was eventually offered supreme command of Imperial forces to face the threat from the new Sultan, Mustafa II. Spielman: Leopold I of Austria, p. 165 This was Eugene's first truly independent command – no longer need he suffer under the excessively cautious generalship of Caprara and Caraffa, or be thwarted by the deviations of Amadeus; but on joining his army he found it in a state of 'indescribable misery'. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 43 Confident and self-assured, the Prince of Savoy (ably assisted by Commercy) set about restoring order and discipline. Spielman: Leopold I of Austria, p. 166 Eugene at the Battle of Zenta (detail). Oil by Ferencz Eisenhut. Newly inspired, Eugene's army intercepted the Ottoman Turks crossing the River Tisza at Zenta on 11 September 1697. Because the Imperial forces had arrived in front of the enemy late in the day – the Turkish cavalry had already crossed the river – Eugene, despite instructions from Vienna not to engage the enemy, decided to attack immediately. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.ii, p. 455 The Austrian general formed his army into a crescent to attack the Turkish entrenchments. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.ii, p. 456 The vigour of the assault wrought terror and confusion amongst the enemy, and for the loss of some 500 men, Eugene inflicted over 30,000 casualties, annihilating the Turkish army. Although the Ottomans lacked western organisation and training, the Savoyard Prince had revealed his tactical skill, his capacity for bold decision, and his ability to inspire his men to excel in battle against a dangerous foe. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 43 Zenta turned Eugene into a European hero, and with victory came reward. Land in Hungary, given him by the Emperor, yielded a good income, enabling the Prince to cultivate his newly-acquired tastes in art and architecture (see below); but for all his new-found wealth and property, he was, nevertheless, without personal ties or family commitments. Of his four brothers, only one was still alive at this time. His fourth brother, Emmanuel, had died aged 14 in 1676; his third, Louis Julius (already mentioned) had died on active service in 1683, and his second brother, Philippe, died of smallpox in 1693. Eugene's remaining brother, Louis Thomas – ostracized for incurring the displeasure of Louis XIV – travelled Europe in search of a career, before arriving in Vienna in 1699. With Eugene's help, Louis found employment in the Imperial army, only to be killed in action against the French in 1702. Of Eugene's sisters, the youngest had died in childhood. The other two, Marie Jeanne-Baptiste and Louise Philiberte, led dissolute lives. Expelled from France, Marie joined her mother in Brussels before eloping with a renegade priest to Geneva with whom she lived unhappily until her premature death in 1705. Of Louise little is known after her early salacious life in Paris, but in due course she lived for a time in a convent in Savoy before her death in 1722. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, pp. 50–51 The Battle of Zenta proved to be the decisive victory in the long war against the Turks, but Leopold I's interests now turned west to Spain and the imminent death of Charles II, inducing the Emperor to terminate the conflict with the Turks and sign of the Treaty of Karlowitz on 26 January 1699. Coxe. History of Austria, vol.ii. p. 457 Mid life (1700–20) War of the Spanish Succession Prince Eugene crossing the Alps, 1701. With the death of the infirm and childless King Charles II of Spain on 1 November 1700, the succession of the Spanish throne and subsequent control over her empire once again embroiled Europe in war – the War of the Spanish Succession. On his deathbed Charles II had bequeathed the entire Spanish inheritance to Louis XIV's grandson, Philip, duc d'Anjou. This threatened to unite the Spanish and French kingdoms under the House of Bourbon – something unacceptable to England, the Dutch Republic, and Leopold I, who had himself a claim to the Spanish throne. Wolf: The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715, p. 59 From the beginning the Emperor had refused to accept the will of Charles II, and he did not wait for England and the Dutch Republic to begin hostilities. Before a new Grand Alliance could be concluded, Leopold I prepared to send an expedition to seize the Spanish lands in Italy. Eugene crossed the Alps with some 32,000 men in May/June 1701. After a series of brilliant manoeuvres the Imperial commander defeated Catinat at the Battle of Carpi on 9 July. "I have warned you that you are dealing with an enterprising young prince," wrote Louis XIV to his commander, "he does not tie himself down to the rules of war." McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 60 On 1 September Eugene gained further success against Catinat's successor, Marshal Villeroi, at the Battle of Chiari, in a clash as destructive as any in the Italian theatre. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.ii, p. 483 But as so often throughout his career, the Prince faced war on two fronts – the enemy in the field, and the government in Vienna. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 67 Starved of supplies, money and men, Eugene was forced into unconventional means against the vastly superior enemy. During a daring raid on Cremona on the night of 31 January/1 February 1702, Eugene captured the French commander-in-chief, yet the coup was less successful than hoped: Cremona remained in French hands, and Marshal Vendôme, whose talents far exceeded Villeroi's, became the theatre's new commander. Villeroi's capture caused a sensation in Europe, and had a galvanising effect on English public opinion. "The surprise at Cremona," wrote the diarist John Evelyn, "… was the greate discourse of this weeke", but appeals for succour from Vienna remained unheeded, forcing Eugene to seek battle and gain a 'lucky hitt'. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 64 The resulting Battle of Luzzara on 15 August proved inconclusive. Although Eugene's forces inflicted double the number of casualties on the French, the battle settled little except to deter Vendôme trying an all-out assault on Imperial forces that year, enabling Eugene to hold on south of the Alps. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 276 With his army rotting away, and personally grieving for his long standing friend Prince Commercy who had died at Luzzara, Eugene returned to Vienna in January 1703. Spielman: Leopold I of Austria, p. 188 President of the Imperial War Council Eugene's European reputation was growing (Cremona and Luzzara had been celebrated as victories throughout the Allied capitals), yet because of the condition and morale of his troops the 1702 campaign had not been a success. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 66. Eugene was in no doubt the blame lay with Leopold and his ministry, namely Henry Mansfeld and Gotthard Salaburg. Austria itself was now facing the direct threat of invasion from across the border in Bavaria where the state's Elector, Maximilian Emanuel, had declared for the Bourbons in August the previous year. Meanwhile in Hungary a small-scale revolt had broken out in May and was fast gaining momentum. With the monarchy at the point of complete financial breakdown Leopold I was at last persuaded to change the government. At the end of June 1703, Gundaker Starhemberg replaced Gotthard Salaburg as President of the Treasury, and Prince Eugene succeeded Henry Mansfeld as the new President of the Imperial War Council (Hofkriegsratspräsident). Spielman: Leopold I of Austria, p. 189 As head of the war council Eugene was now part of the Emperor's inner circle, and the first president since Montecuccoli to remain an active commander. Immediate steps were taken to improve efficiency within the army: encouragement and, where possible, money, was sent to the commanders in the field; promotion and honours were distributed according to service rather than influence; and discipline improved. But the Austrian monarchy faced severe peril on several fronts in 1703: by June Marshal Villars had reinforced the Elector of Bavaria on the Danube thus posing a direct threat to Vienna, whilst Vendôme remained at the head a large army in northern Italy opposing Guido Starhemberg's weak Imperial force. Of equal alarm was Francis II Rákóczi's revolt which, by the end of the year, had reached as far as Moravia and Lower Austria. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 73 Joint victor at Blenheim Dissention between Villars and the Elector of Bavaria had prevented an assault on Vienna in 1703, but in the Courts of Versailles and Madrid ministers confidently anticipated the city's fall. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 124 The Imperial ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, had pressed for Anglo-Dutch assistance on the Danube as early as February 1703, but the crisis in southern Europe seemed remote from the Court of St. James's where colonial and commercial considerations were more to the fore of men's minds. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 125 Only a handful a statesmen in England or the Dutch Republic realised the true implications of Austria's peril; foremost amongst these was the English Captain-General, the Duke of Marlborough. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 126 Eugene at Blenheim (detail) by August Querfurt. By early 1704, Marlborough had resolved to march south and rescue Vienna, personally requesting the presence of Eugene on campaign so as to have "a supporter of his zeal and experience". Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, vol.ii, p. 731 The Allied commanders met for the first time at the small village of Mundelsheim on 10 June and immediately formed a close rapport – the two men becoming, in the words of Thomas Lediard, 'Twin constellations in glory'. Lediard: The Life of John, Duke of Marlborough vol.i, p. 199 This professional and personal bond ensured mutual support on the battlefield, enabling many successes during the Spanish Succession war. The first of these victories, and perhaps the most celebrated, came at the culmination of the 1704 campaign on 13 August at the Battle of Blenheim. Eugene had commanded the right wing of the Allied army, holding the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin's superior forces, whilst the English commander-in-chief broke through Marshal Tallard's centre. Inflicting over 30,000 casualties the battle proved decisive: Vienna was saved and Bavaria was knocked out of the war. Both Allied commanders were full of praise for each other's performance; Eugene's holding operation, and his pressure for action leading up to the battle proved crucial for the Allied success. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 87 In Europe Blenheim is regarded as much a victory for Eugene as it is for Marlborough, a sentiment echoed by Sir Winston Churchill (Marlborough's biographer) who pays tribute to – "the glory of Prince Eugene, whose fire and spirit had exhorted the wonderful exertions of his troops." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, vol.ii, p. 865 France now faced the real danger of invasion, but Leopold I in Vienna was still under severe strain: Rákóczi's revolt was a major threat; and Guido Starhemberg and Victor Amadeus (who had once again switched loyalties and rejoined the Grand Alliance in 1703) had been unable to halt the French under Vendôme in northern Italy – only Amadeus' capital, Turin, held on. Turin and Toulon Eugene returned to Italy in April 1705, but his attempts to move west towards Turin were thwarted by Vendôme's skilful manoeuvres. Lacking boats and bridging materials, and with desertion and sickness rife within his army, the outnumbered Imperial commander was helpless. Leopold I's assurances of money and men had proved illusory, but desperate appeals from Amadeus and criticism from Vienna goaded the Prince into action, resulting in the Imperialists' bloody defeat at the Battle of Cassano on 16 August. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 15 However, with the accession of Joseph I to the Imperial throne in May 1705, Eugene at last began to receive the personal backing he desired. Joseph I proved to be a strong supporter of Eugene's supremacy in military affairs; he was the most effective emperor the Prince served and the one he was happiest under. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 94 Promising support, Joseph I persuaded Eugene to return to Italy and restore Habsburg honour. Eugene's march to relieve the Siege of Turin 1706. The Imperial commander arrived in theatre in mid-April 1706, just in time to organise an orderly retreat of what was left of Count Reventlow's inferior army following Vendôme's victory at the Battle of Calcinato on 19 April. Vendôme now prepared to defend the lines along the river Adige, determined to keep Eugene cooped up in the Alps in the east whilst the Marquis de la Feuillade threatened Turin. However, feigning attacks along the Adige Eugene descended south across the river Po in mid-July, outmanoeuvring the French commander and gaining a favourable position from which he could at last move west towards Piedmont and relieve Savoy's capital. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 17 (See map on left). Events elsewhere were now to have major consequences for the war in Italy. With Villeroi's crushing defeat by Marlborough at the Battle of Ramillies on 23 May, Louis XIV recalled Vendôme north to take command of French forces in Flanders. It was a transfer that Saint-Simon considered something of a deliverance for the French commander who was " … now beginning to feel the unlikelihood of success [in Italy] … for Prince Eugene, with the reinforcements The Duke of Marlborough had supplied Eugene with 10,000 reinforcements, as well as a loan of £250,000. that had joined him after the Battle of Calcinato, had entirely changed the outlook in that theatre of the war." Saint-Simon. Memoirs, p. 303 The duc de Orléans, under the direction of Marsin, replaced Vendôme, but indecision and disorder in the French camp led to their undoing. After uniting his forces with the Duke of Savoy at Villa Stelloni in early September, Eugene attacked, overwhelmed, and decisively defeated the French forces besieging Turin on 7 September; subsequently, Louis XIV's army was forced from northern Italy and the whole of the Po valley fell under Allied control. Eugene had gained a victory as signal as his colleague had at Ramillies – "It is impossible for me to express the joy it has given me;" wrote Marlborough, "for I not only esteem but I really love the prince." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 2, vol. iii, p. 182. Eugene took little interest in Milan: he never returned after 1707. The Imperial victory in Italy marked the beginning of 150 years of Austrian rule in Lombardy, and earned Eugene the Governorship of Milan, but the following year was to prove a disappointment for the Prince and the Grand Alliance as a whole. The Emperor and Eugene (whose main goal after Turin was to take Naples and Sicily from Philip duc d'Anjou's supporters), reluctantly agreed to Marlborough's plan for an attack on Toulon – the seat of French naval power in the Mediterranean. However, disunion between the Allied commanders – the Duke of Savoy, Eugene, and the English Admiral Shovell – doomed the Toulon enterprise to failure. Although Eugene favoured some sort of attack on France's south-eastern border, it was clear he felt the expedition impractical, and had shown none of the "alacrity which he had displayed on other occasions." Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 28 Substantial French reinforcements finally brought an end to the venture, and on 22 August 1707, the Imperial army began its retirement. The subsequent capture of Susa could not compensate for the total collapse of the Toulon expedition, and with it any hope of an Allied war-winning blow that year. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 199 Oudenarde and Malplaquet Prince Eugene at Oudenarde (detail) by Jan van Huchtenburg. Huchtenburg had long been employed by Eugene to depict his battle scenes. At the beginning of 1708 Eugene successfully evaded calls for him to take charge in Spain (in the end Guido Starhemberg was sent), thus enabling him to take command of the Imperial army on the Moselle and once again unite with Marlborough in the Spanish Netherlands. Eugene's army was made up almost entirely of Germans paid for by Britain and the Dutch. Eugene (without his army) arrived at the Allied camp at Assche west of Brussels in early July providing a welcome boost to morale after the early Allied losses of Bruges and Ghent. " … our affairs improved through God's support and Eugene's aid, "wrote the Prussian General Natzmer, "whose timely arrival raised the spirits of the army again and consoled us." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 2, vol. iii, p. 350 Heartened by the Prince's confidence, the Allied commanders devised a bold plan to engage the French army under Vendôme and the duc de Burgundy as it prepared to besiege Oudenarde. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 319 The ensuing battle on 11 July was a resounding success for the Allies which Marlborough – although in overall command – considered a joint achievement, " … Prince Eugene and I," wrote the Duke, "shall never differ about our share of the laurels." Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 162 Prince Eugene by Jacob van Schuppen. Marlborough now favoured a bold advance along the coast to bypass the major French fortresses, but fearful of unprotected supply-lines the Dutch and Eugene favoured a more cautious approach. Marlborough acquiesced and resolved upon the siege of Vauban's great fortress, Lille. Whilst Marlborough commanded the covering force, Eugene oversaw the siege of the town which surrendered on 22 October; however, it was not until 10 December that the resolute Marshal Boufflers yielded the citadel. Yet for all the difficulties of the siege (Eugene was badly wounded above his left eye by a musket ball, and even survived an attempt to poison him), the campaign of 1708 had been a remarkable success. The French were driven out of almost all the Spanish Netherlands: "He who has not seen this," wrote Eugene, "has seen nothing." McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 117: When King Louis XIV heard about Eugene's wound, he remarked, "I certainly don't want Prince Eugene to die but I should not be sorry if his wound stopped him taking any further part in the campaign." The recent defeats, together with the severe winter of 1708–09, had caused extreme famine and privation in France; but the conditions demanded by the Allies during the subsequent peace talks (principally that Louis XIV should use his own troops to force Philip V off the Spanish throne), were completely unacceptable to the French. Lamenting the collapse of the negotiations, and aware of the vagaries of war, Eugene wrote to the Emperor in mid-June 1709, "There can be no doubt that the next battle will be the biggest and bloodiest that has yet been fought." Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 171 After the fall of Tournai on 3 September Chandler p. 249. Coxe says the citadel fell on 4 September. Chandler describes the siege as one of the hardest fought and least pleasant of modern history. This time, Marlborough conducted the siege whilst Eugene commanded the covering force. the Allied generals turned their attention towards Mons. Marshal Villars, recently joined by Boufflers, moved his army southwest of the town and began to fortify his position. Marlborough and Eugene favoured an engagement before Villars could render his position impregnable; but they also agreed to wait for reinforcements from Tournai which did not arrive until the following night, thus giving the French further opportunity to prepare their defences. Notwithstanding the difficulties of the attack, however, the Allied generals did not shrink from their original determination. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 58 The subsequent Battle of Malplaquet, fought on 11 September 1709, was the bloodiest engagement of the War of the Spanish Succession. On the left flank, the Prince of Orange led his Dutch infantry in desperate charges only to have it cut to pieces; on the other flank, Eugene attacked and suffered almost as severely. But sustained pressure on his extremities forced Villars to weaken his centre, thus enabling Marlborough to breakthrough and claim victory. Villars was unable to save Mons, which subsequently capitulated on 21 October, but his resolute defence at Malplaquet – inflicting up to 25% casualties on the Allies – may have saved France from destruction. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 335 Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt Charles VI (1685-1740), by Johann Gottfried Auerbach. While archduke he had been the Allied candidate for the Spanish throne as 'Charles III'. Eugene served Charles for the last 25 years of his life. By the close of 1710 Marlborough and Eugene had cleared the whole of France's protective ring of fortresses; yet there had been no glorious battlefield victory, and this was to be the last year that the two Allied commanders would work together. Following the death of Joseph I on 17 April 1711, his brother Charles, the pretender to the Spanish throne, became emperor. In England the new Tory government declared their unwillingness to see Charles VI also become King of Spain, a sentiment shared by the Dutch and Germans. In January 1712 Eugene arrived in England hoping to divert the government away from its peace policy, but Queen Anne and her ministers remained resolute. He had also arrived too late to save the Duke of Marlborough who, seen by the Tories as the main obstacle to peace, had already been dismissed. Yet the Austrians made some progress – in 1711 the Hungarian revolt finally came to end. Although Eugene would have preferred to crush the rebels Joseph I had offered lenient conditions, leading the Treaty of Szatmár on 30 April. Lynn gives the signing date as 1 May Hoping to influence public opinion in England and force the French into making substantial concessions, Eugene prepared for a major campaign. However, on 21 May 1712 – when the Tories felt they had secured favourable terms from their private negotiations with the French – the Duke of Ormonde (Marlborough's successor) received the so-called 'restraining orders' forbidding him to take part in any military action. Wolf: The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715, p. 89. Although the Tory ministers did not inform Eugene of the restraining orders, they did inform Marshal Villars. In October 1712 the Tory government even communicated to the French what they knew of Eugene's war plans. Although Eugene took the fortress of Le Quesnoy in early July before besieging Valenciennes and Landrecies, Marshal Villars, taking advantage of Allied disunity, outmanoeuvred Eugene and defeated the Earl of Albermarle's Dutch garrison at Denain on 24 July. The French followed the victory by seizing the main Allied base at Marchiennes before reversing their earlier losses at Douai, Le Quesnoy and Bouchain. In one summer the whole forward Allied position laboriously built up over the years to act as the springboard into France had been precipitously abandoned. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, pp. 352–354 With the death of his close friend and political ally, Count Wratislaw, Eugene became undisputed 'first minister' in Vienna and took the lead in pressing Charles VI towards peace, but last minute demands at the Utrecht conference proved a step too far for the Emperor and his ministers. The Treaty of Utrecht was signed on 12 April 1713. Last minute demands for the cession of Luxembourg to the Elector of Bavaria, as well as the restoration of Bavaria, the withdrawal of Imperialists from Mantua and the immediate formal recognition of Philip V as King of Spain, were too much for Charles VI. Reluctantly, Eugene prepared for another campaign, but lacking finance and supplies, his prospects in 1713 were poor. Positioning himself on the Rhine, and with vastly superior numbers, Villars was able to keep Eugene guessing as to his true intent. Through successful feints and stratagems, Landau fell to the French commander in August, followed in November by Freiburg. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 357 With Austrian finances exhausted and the German states reluctant to continue the war, Charles VI was compelled to enter into negotiations. Eugene and Villars (who had been old friends since the Turkish campaigns of the 1680s) initiated talks on 26 November. Eugene proved an astute negotiator, and gained favourable terms by the Treaty of Rastatt signed on 7 March 1714. Despite the failed campaign in 1713 the Austrian prince was able to declare that, "in spite of the military superiority of our enemies and the defection of our Allies, the conditions of peace will be more advantageous and more glorious than those we would have obtained at Utrecht." Austro-Turkish War Turkish military ambitions had revived after 1711. With their victory over Peter I of Russia it soon became clear that the Turks intended to attack Hungary. In 1714 Sultan Ahmed III broke the Peace of Karlowitz, declared war on the Venetians, conquered the Morea, and laid siege to Corfu. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 100 After the Porte rejected an offer of mediation Charles VI despatched Eugene to Hungary at the head of a relatively small, but professional army. Of all Eugene's wars this was the one in which he exercised most direct control; it was also a war which, for the most part, Austria fought and won on her own. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 160 By early August 1716 the Ottoman Turks, some 120,000 men under the sultan's son-in-law, the Grand Vizier Damat Ali Pasha, were marching from Belgrade towards Eugene's position at Petrovaradin. After resisting calls for caution and forgoing a council of war, the Prince decided to attack immediately on the morning of 5 August with over 60,000 men. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 223. McKay states 70,000; David Chandler in The Art of War in the age of Marlborough, states 63,000. The Turkish janissaries had some initial success, but after an Imperial cavalry attack on their flank, Ali Pasha's forces fell into confusion. As many as 30,000 Turks may have been killed in the chaos, including the Grand Vizier who had personally entered the mêlée. Eugene proceeded to take the Banat fortress of Temesvár in mid-October 1716 (thus ending 164 years of Turkish rule), before turning his attention to the next year's campaign and to what he considered the main goal of the war, Belgrade. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 163 Eugene of Savoy during the Battle of Belgrade (1717) by Johann Gottfried Auerbach. Situated at the confluence of the Rivers Danube and Save, Belgrade held a garrison of 30,000 men under Mustapha Pasha. The siege progressed steadily, but by the first days of August 1717 a huge Turkish field army under Halil Pasha (150,000–200,000 strong) had arrived on the plateau east of the city to relieve the garrison. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 102 News spread through Europe of the imminent destruction of the Imperial army, yet Eugene had no intention of lifting the siege. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 165 With his men suffering from dysentery, and continuous bombardment from the plateau, Eugene, aware that a decisive victory alone could extricate his army, decided to attack the relief force. On the morning of 16 August, 40,000 Imperial troops marched through the fog, caught the Turks unawares, and routed Halil Pasha's army; a week later Belgrade surrendered effectively bringing an end to the war. The victory was the crowning point of Eugene's military career and had confirmed him as the leading European general; his ability to snatch victory at the moment of defeat had shown the Prince at his best. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 166 Quadruple Alliance Prince Eugene at the Siege of Belgrade. Artist unknown. Pope Clement XI honoured him with the gift of a papal hat and bejewelled sword for his victories and his service to Christendom. Whilst Eugene fought the Turks in the east, unresolved issues following the Utrecht/Rastatt settlements led to hostilities between the Emperor and Philip V of Spain in the west. Charles VI had refused to recognise Philip as the Spanish king; in return Philip V had refused to renounce his claims to Naples, Milan, and the Netherlands, which had transferred to the house of Austria following the Spanish Succession War. Philip V was roused by his influential wife, Elizabeth Farnese, daughter of the Duke of Parma, who personally held dynastic claims in the name of her son Don Charles to the duchies of Tuscany and Parma. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, vol.iii p. 106 Representatives from a newly-formed Anglo-French alliance – determined on European peace for their own dynastic securities – called on both parties to recognise each other's sovereignty, but Philip V remained intractable. On 22 August 1717, Philip's chief minister, Alberoni, effected the invasion of Austrian Sardinia in what seemed like the beginning of the reconquest of Spain's former Italian empire. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 170 Eugene returned to Vienna from his recent victory at Belgrade (before the conclusion of the Turkish war) determined to prevent an escalation of the conflict, complaining that, "two wars cannot be waged with one army"; McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 170. only reluctantly did the Prince release some troops from the Balkans for the Italian campaign. Rejecting all diplomatic overtures, Philip V unleashed another assault in June 1718, this time against Savoyard Sicily as a preliminary to attacking the Italian mainland. Realising that only the British fleet could prevent further Spanish landings, and that pro-Spanish groups in France might push the regent Orléans into war against Austria, Charles VI had no option but to sign the Quadruple Alliance on 2 August 1718, and renounce his claim to Spain. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii, p. 108 Philip V and Elizabeth, however, remained resolute. Although Eugene could have gone south after the signing of the Treaty of Passarowitz brought an end to the Turkish war, he chose instead to conduct operations from Vienna; but Austria's military effort in Sicily proved derisory – Eugene's chosen commanders, Zum Jungen, and later Count Mercy, performed poorly. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 172. Isolated Spanish troops held on around Palermo till the end of 1719, whilst no expedition could even be attempted on Sardinia. It was only from pressure exerted by the French army advancing into the Basque provinces of northern Spain in April 1719, and the British Navy's attacks on the Spanish fleet and shipping, that compelled Philip V and Elizabeth to dismiss Alberoni and join the Quadruple Alliance on 25 January 1720. Nevertheless, the Spanish attacks had strained Charles's government, causing tension between the Emperor and his Spanish Council The Spanish Council consisted of Spaniards and Italians who had followed Charles VI from Spain after the Spanish Succession war. The most senior member of the council and an implacable enemy of Eugene was the Archbishop of Valencia, Antonio Folch de Cardona; but the most important members were Count Stella and the Marquis Ramon de Rialp. The council controlled Charles VI's lands in Italy. on the one hand, and the conference, The conference discussed foreign policy and was usually held in one of Eugene's palaces. headed by Eugene, on the other. Despite Charles VI's own personal ambitions in the Mediterranean it was clear to the Emperor that Eugene had put the safeguarding of his conquests in Hungary before everything else and that military failure in Sicily also had to rest on Eugene. Consequently the Prince's influence over the Emperor declined considerably. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 177 Later life (1721–36) Governor-General of the Netherlands Eugene had become governor of the Netherlands – now the Austrian Netherlands – in June 1716, but he was an absent ruler, directing policy from Vienna through his chosen representative the Marquis de Prié. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 180. Eugene was reluctant to leave his palaces and friends: it would probably have meant his resignation from his chief interest, the war council. De Prié proved unpopular with the local population and the guilds who, following the Barrier Treaty of 1715, were obliged to meet the financial demands of the administration and the Dutch barrier garrisons; with Eugene's backing and encouragement civil disturbances in Antwerp and Brussels were forcibly suppressed. After displeasing the Emperor over his initial opposition to the formation of the Ostend Company, de Prié also lost the support of the native nobility from within his own council of state in Brussels, particularly from the Marquis de Mérode-Westerloo. One of Eugene's former favourites, General Bonneval, also joined the nobles in opposition to de Prié, further undermining the Prince. When de Prié's position became untenable Eugene felt compelled to resign his post as governor on 16 November 1724. As compensation Charles VI conferred on him the honorary position as vicar-general of Italy, worth 140,000 gulden a year, and an estate at Siebenbrunn in Lower Austria said to be worth double that amount. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 186. De Prié stood down in the spring of 1725 to avoid dismissal. But his resignation distressed him, and to compound his concerns Eugene caught a severe bout of influenza that Christmas, marking the beginning of permanent bronchitis and acute infections every winter for the remaining twelve years of his life. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 187 Eugene's Stadtpalais, Himmelpfortgasse, Vienna, where Eugene conducted most of his business. Cold war The 1720s saw rapidly changing alliances between the European powers, and almost constant diplomatic confrontation, largely over unsolved issues regarding the Quadruple Alliance. Charles VI was determined to hold on to his Spanish titles (infuriating France and Britain as much as Philip V), and was refusing to remove the remaining legal obstacles to Don Charles' eventual succession to the duchies of Parma and Tuscany. Yet in a surprise move Spain and Austria moved closer with the signing of the Treaty of Vienna in April/May 1725. Philip V and Elizabeth approached Austria to exploit Charles VI's isolation, and his differences with the Maritime Powers over the Ostend Company. They intended to conclude marriage alliances for their two sons to the Emperor's daughters, aiming to bring their children control of Habsburg hereditary lands and most of Italy. In response Britain, France, and Prussia, joined together in the Alliance of Hanover to counter the danger to Europe of an Austro-Spanish hegemony. Hatton: George I, pp. 274–275: Sweden, Denmark, and the Dutch Republic signed the Treaty of Hanover in 1727. For the next three years there was continual danger of war between the western powers and the Austro-Spanish bloc. From 1726 Eugene gradually began to regain his political influence. With his many contacts throughout Europe Eugene, backed by Schönborn the Imperial vice-chancellor, managed to secure powerful allies and strengthen the Emperor's position. In August 1726 Russia acceded to the Austro-Spanish alliance; Frederick William of Prussia followed suit in October by defecting from the Allies and signing a mutual defensive treaty with the Emperor. Coxe: History of the House of Austria, vol.iii p. 139. The Allies failed to support Frederick William's claims to Jülich-Berg. However, concluding that the best way to secure her son's succession to Parma and Tuscany now lay with Britain and France, Elizabeth Farnese abandoned the Austro-Spanish alliance in 1729 with the signing of the Treaty of Seville. Following Eugene's determined lead to resist all pressure, Charles VI sent troops into Italy to prevent the entry of Spanish garrisons into the contested duchies. By the beginning of 1730, therefore, Eugene, who had remained bellicose throughout the whole period, was again in control of Austrian policy. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 219 A change to the ministry in Britain now led to a new re-alignment. Concerned that war with Austria would only benefit the Bourbon powers, Robert Walpole forced the belligerent Secretary of State Charles Townshend to resign, and moved to reform the Anglo-Austrian alliance, leading to the signing of the Second Treaty of Vienna on 16 March 1731. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, pp. 221–222 Eugene had been the Austrian minister most responsible for the alliance, believing once again it would provide security against France and Spain. The treaty compelled Charles VI to sacrifice the Ostend Company (a rival to the English and Dutch trading companies) and accept, unequivocally, the accession of Don Charles to Parma and Tuscany. In return King George II as King of Great Britain and Elector of Hanover guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, the inheritance rights of the Emperor's daughters. It was largely through Eugene's diplomacy that in January 1732 the Imperial diet also guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction which, together with the Treaties with Britain, Russia, and Prussia, marked the culmination of Eugene's diplomacy. But the Treaty of Vienna had infuriated the court of King Louis XV: the French had been ignored and the Pragmatic Sanction, which would increase Habsburg influence, guaranteed. The Emperor also intended his daughter and heiress, Maria Theresa, to marry Francis Stephen of Lorraine, which would present an unacceptable threat on France's border. By the beginning of 1733 the French army was ready for war: all that was needed was the excuse. McKay & Scott: The Rise of the Great Powers: 1648–1815, pp. 136–137 War of the Polish Succession Prince Eugene by Johann Kupetzky. Shown here in late middle age. In 1733 the Polish King and Elector of Saxony, Augustus the Strong, died. There were two candidates for his successor: first, Stanislaus Leszczyński, the father-in-law of Louis XV; second, the Elector of Saxony's son, Augustus, supported by Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The Polish succession had afforded Louis XV's chief minister, Fleury, the opportunity to attack Austria and take Lorraine from Francis Stephen. In order to gain Spanish support, France backed the succession of Elizabeth Farnese's sons to further Italian lands. Eugene entered the War of the Polish Succession as President of the Imperial War Council and commander-in-chief of the army, but he was severely handicapped by the quality of his troops and the shortage of funds; now in his seventies, the Prince was also burdened by rapidly declining physical and mental powers. France declared war on Austria on 10 October 1733, but without the funds from the Maritime Powers – who, despite the Vienna treaty, remained neutral throughout the war – Austria could not hire the necessary troops to wage an offensive campaign. "The danger to the monarchy," wrote Eugene to the Emperor in October, "cannot be exaggerated". Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 278 By the end of the year Franco-Spanish forces had seized Lorraine and Milan; by early 1734 Spanish troops had taken Sicily. Eugene took command on the Rhine in April 1734, but vastly outnumbered, he was forced onto the defensive. In June Eugene set out to relieve Philippsburg, yet his former drive and energy was now gone. Accompanying Eugene was a young Frederick the Great, sent by his father to learn the art of war. Frederick gained considerable knowledge from Eugene, recalling in later life his great debt to his Austrian mentor, but the Prussian prince was aghast at Eugene's condition, writing later, "his body was still there but his soul had gone." McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 239 Eugene conducted another cautious campaign in 1735, once again pursuing a sensible defensive strategy on limited resources. However, his short-term memory was by now practically non-existent, and his political influence disappeared completely – Gundaker Starhemberg and John Bartenstein now dominated the conference in his place. Fortunately for the Emperor, though, Fleury was determined to limit the war in its scope and prevent a renewal of the Grand Alliance, and in October 1735, he granted generous peace preliminaries to the Emperor. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 240 Death During the last 20 years of his life Eugene had a relationship with one woman, Eleonora Batthyány. There was one reference to another woman before Batthyány. The Swedish minister in Vienna makes reference to Countess Maria Thürheim. There is, however, no evidence for or against this suggestion. Much of their acquaintance remains speculative (Eugene never mentions her in any of his surviving letters), but although they lived apart most foreign diplomats were convinced that Eleonora was his mistress. Eugene and Eleonora were constant companions, meeting for dinner, receptions and card games almost every day till his death. Eugene's other friends such as the papal nuncio, Passionei, made up for the family he still lacked. For his only surviving nephew, Emmanuel, the son of his brother Louis Thomas, Eugene arranged a marriage with one of the daughters of Prince Liechenstein, but Emmanuel died of smallpox in 1729. With the death of Emmanuel's son in 1734, there were no close male relatives left to succeed the Prince. His closest relative, therefore, was Louis Thomas's unmarried daughter, Princess Victoria of Savoy-Carignan, whom Eugene had never met and, as he had heard nothing but bad of her, made no effort to do so. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 203 Eugene returned to Vienna from the War of the Polish Succession in October 1735, weak and feeble; when Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen married in February 1736, Eugene was too ill to attend. After playing cards at Countess Batthyány's on the evening of 20 April, he returned to his bed at the Stadtpalais. When his servants arrived to wake him the next morning, 21 April 1736, Prince Eugene was found dead after choking from phlegm in his throat; presumably after suffering from pneumonia. Eugene's heart was buried with those of others of his family in Turin. His remains were carried in a long procession to St. Stephen's Cathedral, where the body was interred in the Kreuzkapelle. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 243 Patron of the arts Portrait of Prince Eugene depicting his love of books. Artist: Jacob van Schuppen. Eugene's rewards for his victories, his share of booty, his revenues from his abbeys in Savoy, and a steady income from his Imperial offices and governorships, enabled him to contribute to the landscape of baroque architecture. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 189. Eugene's presidency of the Imperial War Council was probably worth 100,000 gulden a year, whilst his governorships of Milan and the Netherlands were likely to have brought in 150,000 gulden annually. Eugene spent most of his life in Vienna at his Winter Palace, the Stadtpalais, built by Fischer von Erlach. The palace acted as his official residence and home, but for reasons that remain speculative, the Prince's association with Fischer ended before the palace was complete, favouring instead Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt as his chief architect. There is no indication of a quarrel with Erlach, just a desired change in style. Hildebrandt had accompanied Eugene in Italy as his siege engineer in 1695-96 and made Imperial court engineer in 1701. Eugene first employed Hildebrandt to finish the Stadtpalais before commissioning him to prepare plans for a palace on his Danubian island at Ráckeve. Began in 1701 the single-story building took twenty years to complete; yet, probably because of the Rákóczi revolt, the Prince seems to have visited it only once, after the Siege of Belgrade in 1717. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 193 Upper Belvedere, Vienna Of more importance was the grandiose complex of the two Belvedere palaces in Vienna. The single-storey Lower Belvedere, with its exotic gardens and zoo, was completed in 1716. The Upper Belvedere, completed between 1720 and 1722, is a more substantial building; with sparkling white stucco walls and copper roof, it became a wonder of Europe. Eugene and Hildebrandt also converted an existing structure on his Marchfeld estate into a country seat, the Schlosshof, situated between the Rivers Danube and Morava. Eugene had purchased this land in 1726. The building, completed in 1729, was far less elaborate than his other projects but it was strong enough to serve as a fortress in case of need. Eugene spent much of his spare time there in his last years accommodating large hunting parties. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 195. Maria Theresa brought the Schlosshof in 1755. In the years following the Peace of Rastatt Eugene became acquainted with a large number of scholarly men. Given his position and responsiveness, they were keen to meet him: few could exists without patronage and this was probably the main reason for Gottfried Leibniz's association with him in 1714. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 199. The leading German philosopher got to know the Prince during his visit to Vienna in 1714, trying to persuade Charles VI to found an Academy of Science. Eugene also befriended the French writer Jean-Baptiste Rousseau who, by 1716, was receiving financial support from Eugene. Rousseau stayed on attached to the Prince's household, probably helping in the library, until he left for the Netherlands in 1722. Rousseau had not been long in the Netherlands before he joined the conspiracy to remove Eugene from the post of Governor General. Another acquaintance, Montesquieu, already famous for his Persian Letters when he arrived in Vienna in 1728, favourably recalled his time spent at the Prince's table. Nevertheless, Eugene had no literary pretensions of his own, and was not tempted – like de Saxe or Villars – to write his memoirs or books on the art of war. He did, however, become a collector on the grandest scale: his picture galleries were filled with 16th and 17th century Italian, Dutch and Flemish art; Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 256. Amongst the list of artists who worked for Eugene was the Italian, Giuseppe Maria Crespi. his library at the Stadtpalais crammed with over 15,000 books, 237 manuscripts as well as a huge collection of prints (of particular interest were books on natural history and geography). "It is hardly believable," wrote Rousseau, "that a man who carries on his shoulders the burden of almost all the affairs of Europe … should find as much time to read as though he had nothing else to do." Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 259 At Eugene's death his possessions and estates, except those in Hungary which the crown reclaimed, went to his niece, Princess Victoria, who at once decided to sell everything. The artwork was bought by Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia. Eugene's library, prints and drawings were purchased by the Emperor in 1737 and have since passed into Austrian national collections. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 243 Assessment Eugene's monument in Heldenplatz, Vienna, by Anton Dominik Fernkorn. Napoleon Bonaparte considered Eugene one of the seven greatest commanders of history. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. xi. The others were Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Gustavus Aldolphus, Turenne, and Frederick the Great. Although later military critics have disagreed with that assessment, Eugene was undoubtedly the greatest Austrian general. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 246–247 He was no military innovator, but he had the ability to make an inadequate system work. He was equally adept as organizer, strategist and tactician, believing in the primacy of battle and his ability to seize the opportune moment to launch a successful attack. "The important thing," wrote de Saxe in Reveries on the Art of War, "is to see the opportunity and to know how to use it. Prince Eugene possessed this quality which is the greatest in the art of war and which is the test of the most elevated genius." Saxe, Maurice de. Reveries on the Art of War, p. 119 Eugene was a disciplinarian – when ordinary soldiers disobeyed orders he was prepared to shoot them himself – but he rejected blind brutality, writing, "… you should only be harsh when, as often happens, kindness proves useless." McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, pp. 228–232 On the battlefield Eugene demanded courage in his subordinates, and expected his men to fight where and when he wanted; his criteria for promotion were based primarily on obedience to orders and courage on the battlefield rather than social position. On the whole his men responded because he was willing to push himself as hard as them. However, his position as President of the Imperial War Council proved less successful. Following the long period of peace after the Austro-Turkish War, the idea of creating a separate field army or providing garrison troops with effective training for them to be turned into such an army quickly, was never considered by Eugene. By the time of the War of the Polish Succession, therefore, the Austrians were outclassed by a better prepared French force. For this, Eugene was largely to blame – in his view (unlike the drilling and manoeuvres carried out by the Prussians under Frederick William) the time to create actual fighting men was when war came. But although Frederick the Great had been struck by the muddle during the Polish war, and by the vision of Eugene as an example of the appalling decrepitude which could overtake military men, he later ameliorated these harsh judgements. "If I understand anything of my trade," commented Frederick in 1758, "especially in the more difficult aspects, I owe that advantage to Prince Eugene. From him I learnt to hold grand objectives constantly in view, and direct all my resources to those ends." Duffy: Frederick the Great: A Military Life, p. 17 To historian Christopher Duffy, it was this awareness of the 'grand strategy' that was Eugene's legacy to Frederick. To his responsibilities Eugene attached his own personal values – physical courage, loyalty to his sovereign, honesty, and self-control in all things, and he expected these qualities from his commanders. Eugene's approach was dictatorial, but he was willing to co-operate with someone he regarded as his equal, such as Baden or Marlborough. The result was an austere figure, inspiring respect and admiration rather than affection. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 248 The huge equestrian statue in the centre of Vienna commemorates Eugene's achievements. Inscribed on one side, 'To the wise counsellor of three Emperors', and on the other, 'To the glorious conqueror of Austria's enemies'. Image gallery See also Several ships have been named in Eugene's honour: Prinz Eugen. A commemorative coin (20 euro Baroque commemorative coin) using the effigy of Prince Eugene as the main motif was issued in 11 September 2002. World War II SS division: Prinz Eugen Division. Notes References Primary Lediard, Thomas. The Life of John, Duke of Marlborough vol.i, 1743 Saint-Simon. Memoirs: 1691-1709 vol.i. Prion Books Ltd., 1999. ISBN 1-85375-352-1 Saxe, Maurice de. Reveries on the Art of War. Dover Publications Inc., 2007. ISBN 0-486-46150-5 Secondary Chandler, David G. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. Spellmount Limited, 1990. ISBN 0-946771-42-1 Chandler, David G. Marlborough as Military Commander. Spellmount Ltd., 2003. ISBN 1-86227-195-X Childs, John. Warfare in the Seventeenth Century. Cassell, 2003. ISBN 0-304-36373-1 Churchill, Winston. Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, vols. i & ii. University of Chicago Press, 2002. ISBN 0-226-10633-0 Churchill, Winston. Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 2, vols. iii & iv. University of Chicago Press, 2002. ISBN 0-226-10635-7 Coxe, William. History of the House of Austria, vols.ii & iii. Henry G. Bohn, 1864 Duffy, Christopher. Frederick the Great: A Military Life. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985. ISBN 0-7100-9649-6 Hatton, Ragnhild. George I. Yale University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-300-08883-3 Heer, Friedrich. The Holy Roman Empire (trans. George Weidenfield & Nicolson). Phoenix Press, 2002. ISBN 1-84212-600-8 Henderson, Nicholas. Prince Eugen of Savoy. Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1966. ISBN 1-84212-597-4 Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. Longman, 1999. ISBN 0-582-05629-2 MacMunn, George. Prince Eugene: Twin Marshal with Marlborough. Sampson Low, Marston & CO., Ltd., 1933. McKay, Derek. Prince Eugene of Savoy. Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1977. ISBN 0-50087-007-1 McKay, Derek & Scott, H. M. The Rise of the Great Powers: 1648–1815. Longman, 1984. ISBN 0-582-48554-1 Somerset, Anne. The Affair of the Poisons: Murder, Infanticide and Satanism at the Court of Louis XIV. Phoenix, 2004. ISBN 0-753-81784-5 Spielman, John P. Leopold I of Austria. Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1977. ISBN 0-500-87005-5 Stoye, John. The Siege of Vienna. Berlinn Ltd., 2000. ISBN 1-84341-037-0 Wolf, John B. The Emergence of the Great Powers: 1685–1715.'' Harper & Row, 1962. 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1,275 | Audio_signal_processing | Audio signal processing, sometimes referred to as audio processing, is the intentional alteration of auditory signals, or sound. As audio signals may be electronically represented in either digital or analog format, signal processing may occur in either domain. Analog processors operate directly on the electrical signal, while digital processors operate mathematically on the binary representation of that signal. Human hearing extends from approximately to , determined both by physiology of the human hearing system and by human psychology. These properties are analysed within the field of psychoacoustics. History of audio processing Audio processing was necessary for early radio broadcasting -- as there were many problems with studio to transmitter links. Analog signals An analog representation is usually electrical; a voltage level represents the air pressure waveform of the sound. Digital signals A digital representation expresses the pressure wave-form as a sequence of symbols, usually binary numbers. This permits signal processing using digital circuits such as microprocessors and computers. Although such a conversion can be prone to loss, most modern audio systems use this approach as the techniques of digital signal processing are much more powerful and efficient than analog domain signal processing. In order to convert the continuous-time analog signal to a discrete-time digital representation, it must be sampled and quantized. Sampling is the division of the signal into discrete intervals at which analog voltage readings will be taken. Quantization is the conversion of the instantaneous analog voltage into a binary representation. Electronically, these functions are performed by an analog-to-digital converter. The length of the sampling interval determines the maximum frequency that can be encoded. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a signal can be exactly reconstructed from its samples if the sampling frequency is greater than twice the highest frequency of the signal. Because the human ear cannot perceive frequencies above approximately (strongly depends on the age of the listener), the sampling rate has to be above . Commercial CDs are recorded at . The bit resolution used during the quantization process determines the minimum voltage that can be digitally represented, and thus the digital signal's dynamic range. As the dynamic range of an audio signal is, by definition, limited by noise, the resolution need only be high enough to capture signals above the noise floor. Application areas Processing methods and application areas include storage, level compression, data compression, transmission, enhancement (e.g., equalization, filtering, noise cancellation, echo or reverb removal or addition, etc.) Audio Broadcasting Audio broadcasting (be it for television or audio broadcasting) is perhaps the biggest market segment (and user area) for audio processing products -- globally. Traditionally the most important audio processing (in audio broadcasting) takes place just before the transmitter. Studio audio processing is limited in the modern era due to digital audio systems (mixers, routers) being pervasive in the studio. In audio broadcasting, the audio processor must prevent overmodulation, and minimize it when it occurs maximize overall loudness compensate for non-linear transmitters, more common with medium wave and shortwave broadcasting References | Audio_signal_processing |@lemmatized audio:17 signal:18 processing:11 sometimes:1 refer:1 intentional:1 alteration:1 auditory:1 sound:2 may:2 electronically:2 represent:3 either:2 digital:10 analog:9 format:1 occur:2 domain:2 processor:3 operate:2 directly:1 electrical:2 mathematically:1 binary:3 representation:5 human:4 hear:1 extends:1 approximately:2 determine:2 physiology:1 hearing:1 system:3 psychology:1 property:1 analyse:1 within:1 field:1 psychoacoustics:1 history:1 necessary:1 early:1 radio:1 broadcasting:7 many:1 problem:1 studio:3 transmitter:3 link:1 usually:2 voltage:4 level:2 air:1 pressure:2 waveform:1 express:1 wave:2 form:1 sequence:1 symbol:1 number:1 permit:1 use:3 circuit:1 microprocessor:1 computer:1 although:1 conversion:2 prone:1 loss:1 modern:2 approach:1 technique:1 much:1 powerful:1 efficient:1 order:1 convert:1 continuous:1 time:2 discrete:2 must:2 sample:4 quantize:1 sampling:3 division:1 interval:2 reading:1 take:2 quantization:2 instantaneous:1 function:1 perform:1 converter:1 length:1 determines:1 maximum:1 frequency:4 encode:1 nyquist:1 shannon:1 theorem:1 state:1 exactly:1 reconstruct:1 great:1 twice:1 high:2 ear:1 cannot:1 perceive:1 strongly:1 depend:1 age:1 listener:1 rate:1 commercial:1 cd:1 record:1 bit:1 resolution:2 process:2 minimum:1 digitally:1 thus:1 dynamic:2 range:2 definition:1 limit:2 noise:3 need:1 enough:1 capture:1 floor:1 application:2 area:3 method:1 include:1 storage:1 compression:2 data:1 transmission:1 enhancement:1 e:1 g:1 equalization:1 filtering:1 cancellation:1 echo:1 reverb:1 removal:1 addition:1 etc:1 television:1 perhaps:1 big:1 market:1 segment:1 user:1 product:1 globally:1 traditionally:1 important:1 place:1 era:1 due:1 mixer:1 router:1 pervasive:1 prevent:1 overmodulation:1 minimize:1 maximize:1 overall:1 loudness:1 compensate:1 non:1 linear:1 common:1 medium:1 shortwave:1 reference:1 |@bigram signal_processing:5 digital_converter:1 |
1,276 | Cheddar | Cheddar has several meanings: Cheddar, a village in England Cheddar Complex, a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest Cheddar Gorge, the largest gorge in the UK Cheddar Man, the 7150 years old remains of a human male found in Cheddar Gorge Cheddar Reservoir, an artificial water reservoir Cheddar Valley line, an old railway line Cheddar Wood, a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest Cheddar cheese, originally produced in Cheddar Manufacturing of Cheddar cheese Tillamook Cheddar, produced in Oregon Cheddar Valley, a brand name for a cider Cheddars, a brand of biscuit Cheddar's Casual Cafe, a Texas-based chain of dining restaurants Better Cheddars, a brand of baked snack cracker | Cheddar |@lemmatized cheddar:17 several:1 meaning:1 village:1 england:1 complex:1 biological:2 site:2 special:2 scientific:2 interest:2 gorge:3 large:1 uk:1 man:1 year:1 old:2 remains:1 human:1 male:1 find:1 reservoir:2 artificial:1 water:1 valley:2 line:2 railway:1 wood:1 cheese:2 originally:1 produce:2 manufacturing:1 tillamook:1 oregon:1 brand:3 name:1 cider:1 biscuit:1 casual:1 cafe:1 texas:1 base:1 chain:1 din:1 restaurant:1 well:1 baked:1 snack:1 cracker:1 |@bigram cheddar_cheese:2 |
1,277 | Graffiti | Spanish inscription at El Morro National Monument, 1605, with later graffiti Graffiti (singular: graffito; the plural is used as a mass noun) is the name for images or lettering scratched, scrawled, painted or marked in any manner on property. Graffiti is sometimes regarded as a form of art and other times regarded as unsightly damage or unwanted. Graffiti is any type of public markings that may appear in the forms of simple written words to elaborate wall paintings. Graffiti has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire . In modern times, spray paint and markers have become the most commonly used materials. In most countries, defacing property with graffiti without the property owner's consent is considered vandalism, which is punishable by law. Sometimes graffiti is employed to communicate social and political messages. To some, it is an art form worthy of display in galleries and exhibitions; to others it is merely vandalism. Graffiti has since evolved into a pop culture existence often related to underground hip hop music and break dancing creating a lifestyle that remains hidden from the general public. Powderbomb. "Mistery Interview." Powderbomb. 1 Mar. 2009 <http://www.powderbomb.com/mistery2.htm>. Graffiti is used as a gang signal to mark territory or to serve as an indicator or "tag" for gang-related activity. The controversies that surround graffiti continue to create disagreement amongst city officials/ law enforcement and graffitists looking to display their work in public locations. There are many different types and styles of graffiti and it is a rapidly developing artform whose value is highly contested, being reviled by many authorities while also subject to protection, sometimes within the same jurisdiction. Etymology Graffiti and graffito are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). "Graffiti" is applied in art history to works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "graffito," which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into it. In ancient times graffiti was carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The Greek infinitive γράφειν - graphein - meaning "to write," is from the same root. History The term graffiti referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, etc., found on the walls of ancient sepulchers or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Usage of the word has evolved to include any graphics applied to surfaces in a manner that constitutes vandalism. The earliest forms of graffiti date back to 30,000 BCE in the form of prehistoric cave paintings and pictographs using tools such as animal bones and pigments Stowers, George C. "Graffiti Art: An Essay Concerning The Recognition of Some Forms of Graffiti As Art." HipHop-Network. 1 Mar. 2009 <http://www.hiphop-network.com/articles/graffitiarticles/graffitiart.asp>. . These illustrations were often placed in ceremonial and sacred locations inside of the caves. The images drawn on the walls showed scenes of animal wildlife and hunting expeditions in most circumstances. This form of graffiti is subject to disagreement considering it is likely that members of prehistoric society endorsed the creation of these illustrations. The only known source of the Safaitic language, a form of proto-Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the 1st century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first known example of "modern style" graffiti survives in the ancient Greek city of Ephesus (in modern-day Turkey). Local guides say it is an advertisement for prostitution.Located near a mosaic and stone walkway, the graffiti shows a handprint that vaguely resembles a heart, along with a footprint and a number. This is believed to indicate that a brothel was nearby, with the handprint symbolizing payment. Ancient Pompeii graffito caricature of a politician. The ancient Romans carved graffiti on walls and monuments, examples of which also survive in Egypt. Graffiti in the classical world had different connotations than it carries in today’s society concerning content. Ancient graffiti displayed phrases of love declarations, political rhetoric, and simple words of thought compared to toady's popular messages of social and political ideals Ancelet, Jeanine. "The history of graffiti." UCL - London's Global University. 2006. 20 Apr. 2009 <http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museumstudies/websites06/ancelet/thehistoryofgraffiti.htm>. . The eruption of Vesuvius preserved graffiti in Pompeii, including Latin curses, magic spells, declarations of love, alphabets, political slogans and famous literary quotes, providing insight into ancient Roman street life. One inscription gives the address of a woman named Novellia Primigenia of Nuceria, a prostitute, apparently of great beauty, whose services were much in demand. Another shows a phallus accompanied by the text, 'mansueta tene': "Handle with care". Disappointed love also found its way onto walls in antiquity: Quisquis amat. veniat. Veneri volo frangere costasfustibus et lumbos debilitare deae. Si potest illa mihi tenerum pertundere pectus quit ego non possim caput illae frangere fuste? Whoever loves, go to hell. I want to break Venus's ribswith a club and deform her hips. If she can break my tender heartwhy can't I hit her over the head? -CIL IV, 1284. The satirical Alexamenos graffito is believed to be the earliest known representation of Jesus. Historic forms of graffiti have helped gain understanding into the lifestyles and languages of past cultures. Errors in spelling and grammar in this graffiti offer insight into the degree of literacy in Roman times and provide clues on the pronunciation of spoken Latin. Examples are CIL IV, 7838: Vettium Firmum / aed[ilem] quactiliar[ii] [sic] rog[ant]. Here, "qu" is pronounced "co." The 83 pieces of graffiti found at CIL IV, 4706-85 are evidence of the ability to read and write at levels of society where literacy might not be expected. The graffiti appear on a peristyle which was being remodeled at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius by the architect Crescens. The graffiti was left by both the foreman and his workers. The brothel at CIL VII, 12, 18-20 contains over 120 pieces of graffiti, some of which were the work of the prostitutes and their clients. The gladiatorial academy at CIL IV, 4397 was scrawled with graffiti left by the gladiator Celadus Crescens (Suspirium puellarum Celadus thraex: "Celadus the Thracian makes the girls sigh.") Another piece from Pompeii, written on a tavern wall about the owner of the establishment and his questionable wine: Landlord, may your lies malignBring destruction on your head! You yourself drink unmixed wine,Water sell your guests instead. Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History, p.48-49. Simon & Schuster, New York. ISBN 0684801647. It was not only the Greeks and Romans that produced graffiti: the Mayan site of Tikal in Guatemala also contains ancient examples. Viking graffiti survive in Rome and at Newgrange Mound in Ireland, and a Varangian scratched his name (Halvdan) in runes on a banister in the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople.These early forms of graffiti have contributed to the understanding of lifestyles and languages of past cultures. Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandanavaian church walls. Tacherons on Romanesque churches When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names British Archaeology, June 1999 The Atlantic Monthly, April 97. and returned with the grottesche style of decoration. There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Signature Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail. Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece. p. 76, Classical Archaeology of Greece: Experiences of the Discipline, Michael Shanks, London, New York: Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0415085217. Modern graffiti Engraving of Kilroy on the WWII Memorial in Washington DC. A soldier in Italy (1943–1944) Graffiti is often seen as having become intertwined with hip hop culture and the myriad of international styles derived from New York City Subway graffiti (see below). However, there are many other instances of notable graffiti this century. Graffiti has long appeared on railroad boxcars and subways. The one with the longest history, dating back to the 1920s and continuing into the present day, is [www.youtube.com/watch?v=HgSRiJjmnYYBozo Texino]. During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and its filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives". Ross Russell. Bird Lives!: The High Life And Hard Times Of Charlie (yardbird) Parker Da Capo Press. In the sixties American graffiti proclaiming that "Yossarian lives!", was briefly popular, a reference to the protagonist of Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22. The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchist, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") expressed in painted graffiti, poster art, and stencil art. In the U.S. at the time other political phrases (such as "Free Huey" about Black Panther Huey Newton) became briefly popular as graffiti in limited areas, only to be forgotten. A popular graffito of the 1970s was the legend "Dick Nixon Before He Dicks You," reflecting the hostility of the youth culture to that U.S. president. Rock and roll graffiti is a significant sub genre. A famous graffito of the 20th century was the inscription in the London subway reading "Clapton is God". The phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington Underground station in the autumn of 1967. The graffiti was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall. Graffiti also became associated with the anti-establishment punk rock movement beginning in the 1970s. Bands such as Black Flag and Crass (and their followers) widely stenciled their names and logos, while many punk night clubs, squats and hangouts are famous for their graffiti. In the late 1980s the upside down Martini glass that was the tag for punk band Missing Foundation was the most ubiquitous graffito in lower Manhattan, and copied by hard core punk fans throughout the U.S. and West Germany. http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=user.viewProfile&friendID=61945507 Graffiti as an element of hip hop An aerosol paint can, common tool for modern graffitiIn America around the late 1960s, graffiti was used as a form of expression by political activists, and also by gangs such as the Savage Skulls, La Familia, and Savage Nomads to mark territory. Towards the end of the 1960s, the signatures—tags—of Philadelphia graffiti writers Cornbread, Cool Earl and Topcat 126 started to appear. Peter Shapiro, Rough Guide to Hip Hop, 2nd. ed., London: Rough Guides, 2007. . Cornbread is often cited as one of the earliest writer of modern graffiti http://fiftyonefiftyone.com/2007/04/cornbread-graffiti-legend.html . Around 1970-71, the centre of graffiti innovation moved to New York City where writers following in the wake of TAKI 183 and Tracy 168 would add their street number to their nickname, "bomb" a train with their work, and let the subway take it—and their fame, if it was impressive, or simply pervasive, enough—"all city". Bubble lettering held sway initially among writers from the Bronx, though the elaborate writing Tracy 168 dubbed "wildstyle" would come to define the art. David Toop, Rap Attack, 3rd ed., London: Serpent's Tail, 2000. The early trendsetters were joined in the 70s by artists like Dondi, Zephyr and Lady Pink. Graffiti is one of the four main elements of hip hop culture (along with rapping, DJing, and break dancing). Hager, Steven. Hip Hop: The Illustrated History of Break Dancing, Rap Music, and Graffiti. St Martin's Press, 1984 (out of print). The relationship between graffiti and hip hop culture arises both from early graffiti artists practicing other aspects of hip hop, and its being practiced in areas where other elements of hip hop were evolving as art forms. By the mid-eighties, the form would move from the street to the art world. Jean-Michel Basquiat would abandon his SAMO tag for art galleries, and even street art's connections to hip hop would loosen. Occasional hip hop paeans to graffiti could still be heard throughout the nineties, however, in tracks like the Artifacts' "Wrong Side of Da Tracks" and Company Flow's "Lune TNS". Origins Early modernist graffiti can be dated back to box cars in the early 1920s yet the graffiti movement seen in today’s contemporary world really originated through the minds of political activists and gang members of the 1960s Abel, Ernest L., and Barbara E. Buckley. “The Handwriting on the Wall: Toward Sociology and Psychology of Graffiti”. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977. . The “pioneering era” of graffiti took place during the years 1969 through 1974. This time period was a time of change in popularity and style. New York City became the new hub (formally Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) of graffiti tags and images. Graffiti artists during this time period sought to put as many markings up as possible around the city. This was the ultimate goal of exposure. Soon after the migration from Philadelphia to NYC, the city produced one of the first graffiti artists to gain media attention in New York, TAKI 183. TAKI 183 was a youth from Washington Heights, Manhattan who worked as a foot messenger. His tag is a mixture of his name Demetrius (Demetraki), TAKI, and his street number, 183rd. Being a foot messenger, he was constantly on the subway and began to put up his tags along his travels. This spawned a 1971 article in the New York Times titled "'Taki 183' Spawns Pen Pals". Julio 204 is also credited as an early writer, though not recognized at the time outside of the graffiti subculture. Other notable names from that time are: Stay High 149, PHASE 2, Stitch 1, Joe 182, Junior 161 and Cay 161. Barbara 62 and Eva 62 were also important early graffiti artists in New York, and are the first women to become known for writing graffiti. Also taking place during this era was the movement from outside on the city streets to the subways. Graffiti also saw its first seeds of competition around this time. The goal of most artists at this point was "getting up": having as many tags and bombs in as many places as possible. Artists began to break into subway yards in order to hit as many trains as they could with a lower risk, often creating larger elaborate pieces of art along the subway car sides. This is when the act of bombing was said to be officially established. Example of a graffiti "tag" By 1971 tags began to take on their signature calligraphic appearance because, due to the huge number of artists, each graffiti artist needed a way to distinguish themselves. Aside from the growing complexity and creativity, tags also began to grow in size and scale – for example, many artists had begun to increase letter size and line thickness, as well as outlining their tags. This gave birth to the so-called 'masterpiece' or 'piece' in 1972. Super Kool 223 is credited as being the first to do these pieces. "Style Writing From The Underground, (R)evolutions of Aerosol Linguistic." Stampa Alternativa in Association with IGTimes, 1996, ISBN : 88-7226-318-2. "Freight Train Graffiti", Roger Gastman, Ian Sattler, Darin Rowland. Harry N Abrams Inc, 2006. ISBN 9780810992498. http://www.subwayoutlaws.com/history/history.htm The use of designs such as polka dots, crosshatches, and checkers became increasingly popular. Spray paint use increased dramatically around this time as artists began to expand their work. "Top-to-bottoms", works which span the entire height of a subway car, made their first appearance around this time as well. The overall creativity and artistic maturation of this time period did not go unnoticed by the mainstream – Hugo Martinez founded the United Graffiti Artists (UGA) in 1972. UGA consisted of many top graffiti artists of the time, and aimed to present graffiti in an art gallery setting. By 1974, graffiti artists had begun to incorporate the use of scenery and cartoon characters into their work. TF5 (The Fabulous Five), was a crew which was known for their elaborately designed whole cars http://www.at149st.com/tf5.html Mid 1970s By the mid 1970s time, most standards had been set in graffiti writing and culture. The heaviest "bombing" in U.S. history took place in this period, partially because of the economic restraints on New York City, which limited its ability to combat this art form with graffiti removal programs or transit maintenance. Also during this time, "top-to-bottoms" evolved to take up entire subway cars. Most note-worthy of this era proved to be the forming of the "throw-up", which are more complex than simple "tagging," but not as intricate as a "piece". Not long after their introduction, throw-ups led to races to see who could do the largest number of throw-ups in the least amount of time. Graffiti writing was becoming very competitive and artists strove to go "all-city," or to have their names seen in all five boroughs of NYC. Eventually, the standards which had been set in the early 70s began to become stagnant. These changes in attitude led many artists into the 1980s with a desire to expand and change. Modern graffiti on train The late 1970s and early 1980s brought a new wave of creativity to the scene. As the influence of graffiti grew beyond the Bronx, a graffiti movement began with the encouragement of Friendly Freddie. Fab 5 Freddy (Fred Brathwaite) is another popular graffiti figure of this time, who started in a Brooklyn "wall-writing group." He notes how differences in spray technique and letters between Upper Manhattan and Brooklyn began to merge in the late 70s: "out of that came 'Wild Style'." Fab 5 Freddy quote in: Lippard, Lucy. Mixed Blessings: Art in Multicultural America. New York: The New Press, 1990. Fab 5 Freddy is often credited with helping to spread the influence of graffiti and rap music beyond its early foundations in the Bronx, and making links the the mostly white downtown art and music scenes. It was around this time that the established art world started becoming receptive to the graffiti culture for the first time since Hugo Martinez’s Razor Gallery in the early 1970s. It was also, however, the last wave of true bombing before the Transit Authority made graffiti eradication a priority. The MTA (Metro Transit Authority) began to repair yard fences, and remove graffiti consistently, battling the surge of graffiti artists. With the MTA combating the artists by removing their work it often led many artists to quit in frustration, as their work was constantly being removed. Spread of graffiti culture In 1979, graffiti artist Lee Quinones and Fab 5 Freddy were given a gallery opening in Rome by art dealer Claudio Bruni. For many outside of New York, it was their first encounter with the art form. Fab 5 Freddy's friendship with Debbie Harry influenced Blondie's single "Rapture" (Chrysalis, 1981), the video of which featured Jean-Michel Basquiat of the SAMO© Graffiti, and offered many their first glimpse of a depiction of elements of graffiti in hip hop culture. More important here was Charlie Ahearn's independently released fiction film Wild Style (Wild Style, 1982), and the early PBS documentary Style Wars (1983). Hit songs such as "The Message" and "Planet Rock" and their accompanying music videos (both 1982) contributed to a growing interest outside New York in all aspects of hip hop.Style Wars depicted not only famous graffiti artists such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne and Zephyr, but also reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip hop culture by incorporating famous early break dancing groups such as Rock Steady Crew into the film which also features a solely rap soundtrack. Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Labonte, Paul. All City: The book about taking space. Toronto. ECW Press. 2003 Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983. David Hershkovits, "London Rocks, Paris Burns and the B-Boys Break a Leg", Sunday News Magazine, April 3, 1983. Hollywood also paid attention, consulting writers like PHASE 2 as it depicted the culture and gave it international exposure in movies like Beat Street (Orion, 1984). This period also saw the emergence of the new stencil graffiti genre. Some of the first examples were created ca 1981 by graffiti artist Blek le Rat in Paris; by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photograher Rennie Ellis Ellis, Rennie, The All New Australian Graffiti (Sun Books, Melbourne, 1985) ISBN 0 7251 0484 8 . New York decline Storefront grafitti of a restaurant between the World Trade Center and Chinatown, in New York City. Just as the culture was spreading outside New York and overseas, the cultural aspect of graffiti in New York was said to be deteriorating almost to the point of extinction. The rapid decline in writing was due to several factors. The streets became more dangerous due to the burgeoning crack epidemic, legislation was underway to make penalties for graffiti artists more severe, and restrictions on paint sale and display made racking (stealing) materials difficult. Above all, the MTA greatly increased their anti-graffiti budget. Many favored painting sites became heavily guarded, yards were patrolled, newer and better fences were erected, and buffing of pieces was strong, heavy, and consistent. As a result of subways being harder to paint, more writers went into the streets, which is now, along with commuter trains and box cars, the most prevalent form of writing. Many graffiti artists, however, chose to see the new problems as a challenge rather than a reason to quit. A downside to these challenges was that the artists became very territorial of good writing spots, and strength and unity in numbers became increasingly important. This was probably the most violent era in graffiti history—artists who chose to go out alone were often beaten and robbed of their supplies. Some of the mentionable graffiti artists from this era were Blade, Dondi, Min 1,Quik,Seen and Skeme. This was stated to be the end for the casual NYC subway graffiti artists, and the years to follow would be populated by only what some consider the most "die hard" artists. People often found that making graffiti around their local areas was an easy way to get caught so they traveled to different areas. New York 1985–1989 The years between 1985 and 1989 became known as the "die hard" era. A last shot for the graffiti artists of this time was in the form of subway cars destined for the scrap yard. With the increased security, the culture had taken a step back. The previous elaborate "burners" on the outside of cars were now marred with simplistic marker tags which often soaked through the paint. By mid-1986 the MTA and the CTA were winning their "war on graffiti," and the population of active graffiti artists diminished. As the population of artists lowered so did the violence associated with graffiti crews and "bombing." Roof tops also were being the new billboards for some 80's writers. Some notable graffiti artists of this era were Cope2, Claw Money, Sane Smith http://www.at149st.com/smith.html , Zephyr and T Kid. New York Clean Train Movement era The current era in graffiti is characterized by a majority of graffiti artists moving from subway or train cars to "street galleries." The Clean Train Movement started in May, 1989, when New York attempted to remove all of the subway cars found with graffiti on them out of the transit system. Because of this, many graffiti artists had to resort to new ways to express themselves. Much controversy arose among the streets debating whether graffiti should be considered an actual form of art. Prior to the Clean Train Movement, the streets were largely left untouched not only in New York, but in other major American cities as well. After the transit company began diligently cleaning their trains, graffiti burst onto the streets of America to an un-expecting un-appreciative public. City officials elsewhere in the country smugly assumed that gang graffiti were a blight limited largely to the Big Apple No more. The stylized smears born in the South Bronx have spread across the country, covering buildings, bridges and highways in every urban center. From Philadelphia to Santa Barbara, Calif., the annual costs of cleaning up after the underground artists are soaring into the billions. Beaty, Jonathon ; Cray, Dan. "Zap You've Been Tagged". Time Magazine. 10 September, 1990. prgrph.2 During this period many graffiti artists had taken to displaying their works in galleries and owning their own studios. This practice started in the early 1980s with artists such as Jean-Michel Basquiat, who started out tagging locations with his signature SAMO (Same Old Shit), and Keith Haring, who was also able to take his art into studio spaces. In some cases, graffiti artists had achieved such elaborate graffiti (especially those done in memory of a deceased person) on storefront gates that shopkeepers have hesitated to cover them up. In the Bronx after the death of rapper Big Pun, several murals dedicated to his life done by TATS CRU appeared virtually overnight; similar outpourings occurred after the deaths of The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac Shakur, Big L, and Jam Master Jay. Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture An example of crossover between video game culture and graffiti culture found on the Berlin Wall With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." However due to illegalities some of the "street artists" were arrested and charged with vandalism, and IBM was fined more than $120,000 for punitive and clean-up costs. In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by TATS CRU in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles and Miami in order to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle or a rocking horse." Along with the commercial growth has come the rise of video games also depicting graffiti, usually in a positive aspect – for example, the Jet Set Radio series (2000-2003) tells the story of a group of teens fighting the oppression of a totalitarian police force that attempts to limit the graffiti artists' freedom of speech. In plotlines mirroring the negative reaction of non-commercial artists to the commercialization of the artform by companies like IBM (and, later, Sony itself) the Rakugaki Ōkoku series (2003-2005) for Sony's PlayStation 2 revolves around an anonymous hero and his magically imbued-with-life graffiti creations as they struggle against an evil king who only allows art to be produced which can benefit him. Following the original roots of modern graffiti as a political force came another game title, Marc Eckō's Getting Up: Contents Under Pressure (2006), featuring a story line involving fighting against a corrupt city and its oppression of free speech, as in the Jet Set Radio series. Other games which feature graffiti include Bomb the World (2004), an online graffiti simulation created by graffiti artist Klark Kent where users can virtually paint trains at 20 locations worldwide, and Super Mario Sunshine (2002), in which the hero, Mario must clean the city of graffiti left by the villain, Bowser Jr. in a plotline which evokes the successes of the Anti-Graffiti Task Force of New York's Mayor Rudolph Giuliani (a manifestation of "broken window theory") or those of the "Graffiti Blasters" of Chicago's Mayor Richard M. Daley. A graffiti depiction of the 1978 game Space Invaders A graffiti depiction of pop star Michael Jackson Numerous other non-graffiti-centric video games allow the player to produce graffiti (such as the Half-Life series, the Tony Hawk's series, The Urbz: Sims in the City, Rolling and Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas). Many other titles contain in-game depictions of graffiti (such as The Darkness, Double Dragon 3: The Rosetta Stone, NetHack, Samurai Champloo: Sidetracked, The World Ends With You, The Warriors, Just Cause, Portal, various examples of Virtual Graffiti, etc.). There also exist a host of games where the term "graffiti" is used as a synonym for "drawing" (such as Yahoo! Graffiti, Graffiti, etc.). Marc Ecko, an urban clothing designer, has been an advocate of graffiti as an art form during this period, stating that "Graffiti is without question the most powerful art movement in recent history and has been a driving inspiration throughout my career." Keith Haring was another well-known graffiti artist who brought Pop Art and graffiti to the commercial mainstream. In the 1980s, Haring opened his first Pop Shop: a store that offered everyone access to his works—which until then could only be found spray-painted on city walls. Pop Shop offered commodities like bags and t-shirts. Haring explained that, "The Pop Shop makes my work accessible. It's about participation on a big level, the point was that we didn't want to produce things that would cheapen the art. In other words, this was still art as statement". Graffiti has become a common stepping stone for many members of both the art and design community in north america and abroad. Within the United States Graffiti Artists such as Mike Giant, Pursue, Rime, Noah and countless others have made careers in skateboard, apparel and shoe design for companies such as DC Shoes, Adidas, Rebel8 Osiris or Circa Ganz, Nicolas. "Graffiti World". New York. Abrams. 2004 Meanwhile there are many others such as DZINE, Daze, Blade, The Mac that have made the switch to gallery artists often times not even using their initial medium, spray paint. Ganz, Nicolas. "Graffiti World". New York. Abrams. 2004 But perhaps the greatest example of graffiti artists infiltrating mainstream pop culture is by the French crew, 123Klan. 123Klan founded as a graffiti crew in 1989 by Scien and Klor, have gradually turned their hands to illustration and design while still maintaining their graffiti practice and style. In doing so they have designed and produced, logos and illustrations, shoes, and fashion for the likes of Nike, Adidas, Lamborghini, Coca Cola, Stussy, Sony, Nasdaq and more. The culmination of all of these influences can be seen clearly in the graffiti meets video games and hip hop mash-up of a television series created by Mic Neumann known around the world as Kung Faux, which features sampled cuts of classic kung fu movies infused with graffiti illustrations, video game special fx, hip hop music, and even dubbed voice overs from such graffiti artists as ESPO aka Steve Powers (artist), KAWS, STASH, & Futura 2000, as well as break dancing legend Crazy Legs (dancer), and hip hop pioneers Afrika Bambaataa, Biz Markie, & Queen Latifah. Global developments South America Artful graffiti in Olinda, BrazilThere is a significant graffiti tradition in South America most especially in Brazil. Within Brazil, Sao Paulo is generally considered to be the current centre of inspiration for many graffiti artists worldwide. Tristan Manco Sao Paulo pics on flikr.com Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich graffiti scene...[earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration." Manco, Tristan. Lost Art & Caleb Neelon, Graffiti Brazil. London: Thames and Hudson, 2005, 7. Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities." Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of Sao Paulo today and 1970s New York." Manco, 9 The "sprawling metropolis," of Sao Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti;" Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment...[and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples," Manco, 8 and to "Brazil's chronic poverty," Manco, 10 as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture." In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently." Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised," that is South American graffiti art. Middle East Graffiti in Tehran, Iran. Poetry Graffiti in Tel Aviv, Israel http://www.flickr.com/photos/benqish/2248325960 yo ur name rolls ar ound on my tongue Graffiti in the Middle East is slowly emerging, with pockets of taggers operating in the various 'Emirates' of the United Arab Emirates, in Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photo coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine PingMag has interviewed A1one and featured photos of his work. Uleshka, "A1one: 1st generation Graffiti in Iran", PingMag, 19 January 2005. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many graffiti artists in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF, from Los Angeles, and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen graffitied around Israel. Methods and Production The modern day graffiti artist can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece Ganz, Nicolas. "Graffiti World". New York. Abrams. 2004. . Spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one necessity for graffiti . From this commodity come different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of visual graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and come in virtually every color. Stencil graffiti, originating in the early 1980s, is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) in order to form an overall design or image "Stencil graffiti tutorial - Learn to design graffiti stencils | onelegout.com." Choose language | Drupal. Stencil Revolution. 17 Apr. 2009 <http://www.onelegout.com/stencil_tutorial.html>. . The stencil is then placed on the canvas gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface. This method of graffiti is popular amongst artists because of its swift technique that requires very little time. Time is always a factor with graffiti due to the constant threat of getting caught by law enforcement. Modern experimentation Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes as new media for graffiti writers. The Italian artist Kaso is pursuing regenerative graffiti through experimentation with abstract shapes and deliberate modification of previous graffiti artworks. Yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification. Characteristics of common graffiti See also Graffiti terminology A variety of different graffiti styles can be found in this London, Ontario alleyway. Some of the most common styles of graffiti have their own names. A "tag" is the most basic writing of an artist's name in either spray paint or marker. A graffiti writer's tag is his or her personalized signature. "Tagging" is often the example given when opponents of graffiti refer to vandalism, as they use it to label all acts of graffiti writing (it is by far the most common form of graffiti). Tags can contain subtle and sometimes cryptic messages, and might incorporate the artist's initials or other letters. As well as the graffiti name, some artists include the year that they completed that tag next to the name, for example "Tox" an artist from London, becomes Tox03, Tox04, etc. John Tsombikos claimed subsequent to his arrest that his "Borf" tag campaign, which gained recognition for its prevalence in Washington, D.C., was in memory of a deceased friend. Graffiti on a wall inside the Pembroke housing projects in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. This "tag" claims that the gang is "G.K.B." - Gangsta Killa Blood, and they are 110% Blood. Another form is the "throw-up," also known as a "fill-in," which is normally painted very quickly with two or three colors, sacrificing aesthetics for speed. Throw-ups can also be outlined on a surface with one color. A "piece" is a more elaborate representation of the artist's name, incorporating more stylized "block" or "bubble" letters, using three or more colors. This of course is more time consuming and increases the likelihood of the artist getting caught. A "blockbuster" is a large piece done simply to cover a large area solidly with two contrasting colours, sometimes with the whole purpose of blocking other "writers" from painting on the same wall. An example of stencil graffiti, a very common modern graffiti style, in Moncton, Canada A more complex style is "wildstyle", a form of graffiti involving interlocking letters, arrows, and connecting points. These pieces are often harder to read by non-graffiti artists as the letters merge into one another in an often undecipherable manner. A "roller" is a "fill-in" that intentionally takes up an entire wall, sometimes with the whole purpose of blocking other "writers" from painting on the same wall. Some artists also use stickers as a quick way to "get-up". While critics from within graffiti culture consider this lazy and a form of cheating, stickers can be quite detailed in their own right, and are often used in conjunction with other materials. Sticker tags are commonly done on blank postage stickers, or indeed anything with an adhesive side to it. Many graffiti artists believe that doing blockbusters or even complex wildstyles involves too great an investment of time to justify the practice. Doing wildstyle can take (depending on experience and size) three hours to several days. Another graffiti artist can go over that piece in a matter of minutes with a bubble fill-in. This was exemplified by the writer "CAP" in the documentary Style Wars, who, other writers complain, ruins pieces with his quick throw ups. This became known as "capping" and is often done when there is "beef", conflict between writers. Uses |Stencils by John Fekner: Charlotte Street Stencils, South Bronx, New York, 1980. Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Scandinavian Institute of Comparative Vandalism in 1961. Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or in the achievement of a political goal. The murals of Belfast and of Los Angeles offer another example of official recognition. In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically and/or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by Graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR. Unique utilization of graffiti used here as a method of expressing sexual orientation. Montclair, California. Many artists involved with Graffiti also are concerned with the similar activity of Stencilling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognised while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffiti artist Mathangi Arulpragasam a.k.a. M.I.A. has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun," and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, having herself become a muse for other graffiti artists/painters worldwide in cities including Seville. Graffiti artist John Fekner, called "caption writer to the urban environment, adman for the opposition" by writer Lucy Lippard Lippard, Lucy, All Fired Up, Village Voice, December 2-8, 1981 , was involved in direct art interventions within New York City's decaying urban environment in the mid-seventies through the eighties. Fekner is known for his word installations targeting social and political issues, stenciled on buildings throughout New York. Anonymous Artists Graffiti artists constantly have the looming threat of facing consequences for displaying their graffiti. Many choose to protect their identities and reputation by remaining anonymous. Banksy is the world’s most notorious and popular street artist who continues to remain faceless in today’s society Banksy. Wall and Piece. New York: Random House UK, 2005. . He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England but his work can be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork can be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, though he has painted pictures around the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions have also taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy’s art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art while city officials and law enforcement have deemed all work by Banksy to be vandalism and property destruction. Many members of Bristol’s communities feel that Banksy’s graffiti reduces property value and encourages rogue behavior. Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public Shaer, Matthew. "Pixnit Was Here." The Boston Globe 3 Jan. 2007. 1 Mar. 2009 <http://www.boston.com/ae/theater_arts/articles/2007/01/03/pixnit_was_here/>. . Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy’s anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts . Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do so as well. “One of the pieces was left up above Steve’s Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome”- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston. Radical and political Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist and anti-consumerist messages around the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names as 'De Zoot', 'Vendex' and 'Dr Rat'. SFT: Ny dokumentär reder ut graffitins punkiga rötter. Dr Rat died in 1981 of an overdose at the age of 20 and was somewhat of an underground hero. Kroonjuwelen To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there already was a vibrant graffiti culture. The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchist, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the millenarian and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers. The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints for a variety of reasons—but primarily because is it difficult for the police to apprehend and for the courts to sentence or even convict a person for a protest that is as fleeting and less intrusive than marching in the streets. In some communities, such impermanent works survive longer than works created with permanent paints because the community views the work in the same vein as that of the civil protestor who marches in the street—such protest are impermanent but effective nevertheless. In some areas where a number of artist share the impermance ideal, there grows an informal competition. That is, the length of time that a work escapes destruction is related to the amount of respect the work garners in the community. A crude work that deserves little respect would invariably be removed immediately. The most talented artist might have works last for days. Artists whose primary object is to assert control over property—and not primarily to create of an expressive work of art, political or otherwise—resist switching to impermanent paints. Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences forced onto them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each others' practices. Anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers, for example, did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery. On top of the political aspect of graffiti as a movement, political groups and individuals may also use graffiti as a tool to spread their point of view. This practice, due to its illegality, has generally become favoured by groups excluded from the political mainstream (e.g. far-left or far-right groups) who justify their activity by pointing out that they do not have the money – or sometimes the desire – to buy advertising to get their message across, and that a "ruling class" or "establishment" control the mainstream press, systematically excluding the radical/alternative point of view. This type of graffiti can seem crude; for example fascist supporters often scrawl swastikas and other Nazi images. One innovative form of graffiti that emerged in the UK in the 1970s was devised by the Money Liberation Front (MLF), essentially a loose affiliation of underground press writers such as the poet and playwright Heathcote Williams and magazine editor and playwright Jay Jeff Jones. They initiated the use of paper currency as a medium for counterculture propaganda, overprinting banknotes, usually with a John Bull printing set. Although short lived the MLF was representative of London’s Ladbroke Grove centered alternative and literary community of the period. The area was also a scene of considerable anti-establishment and humorous street graffiti much of it also produced by Williams. Both sides of the conflict in Northern Ireland produce political graffiti. As well as slogans, Northern Irish political graffiti include large wall paintings, referred to as murals. Along with the flying of flags and the painting of kerb stones, the murals serve a territorial purpose, often associated with gang use. Artists paint them mostly on house gables or on the Peace Lines, high walls that separate different communities. The murals often develop over an extended period and tend to stylisation, with a strong symbolic or iconographic content. Loyalist murals often refer to historical events dating from the war between James II and William III in the late 17th century, whereas Republican murals usually refer to the more recent troubles. Territorial graffiti serves as marking ground to display tags and logos that differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological Ley, David, and Roman Cybriwsky. "Urban Graffiti as Territorial Markers." Dec. 1974. JSTOR. University of Arizona Library, Tucson. 14 Mar. 2009 <http://www.jstor.org/>. . As a means of legal and or illegal advertising Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. In NYC, Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies like Cola, McDonalds, Toyota, and MTV. In the U.K. Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes of cross referencing would promote their store. Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces in order to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product. Shepard Fairey, the artist behind the now iconic Barack Obama "HOPE" poster, rose to fame after his "Andre the Giant Has a Posse" sticker campaign, in which Fairey's art was plastered in cities all across the America. Fans of the Charlie Keeper novel have used stencil graffiti images of dragons and stylised story titles as a means to promote and support the rise of the story. Many graffiti artists see legal advertising as no more than 'paid for and legalised graffiti' and have risen against mainstream adverts. The graffiti research lab crew have gone on to target several prominent adverts in New York as a means of making a statement against this criteria. Decorative and high art Graffiti by Miss Van and Ciou in Barcelona A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early '80s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffiti artists, including Crash, Daze and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in Time Out Magazine, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti. Terrance Lindall, an artist and executive director of the Williamsburg Art and Historic Center, said regarding graffiti and the exhibition: "Graffiti is revolutionary, in my opinion," he says, "and any revolution might be considered a crime. People who are oppressed or suppressed need an outlet, so they write on walls—it’s free." In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within visual art. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788-2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners. Bernard Smith, Terry Smith and Christopher Heathcote, Australian Painting 1788-2000, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2001, chapter 17. See also Christopher Heathcote, Discovering Graffiti, Art Monthly Australia (Canberra), September 2000, pp. 4–8. Artistic graffiti is a modern day offspring of traditional graffiti that has elevated itself from just scrawling words or phrases on a wall, to a complex artistic form of personal expression http://www.graffiti.org/faq/tobin.html Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris - A clear acceptance of the art form into the French artworld. http://www.rfi.fr/actuen/articles/112/article_3517.asp http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/30/arts/design/30arts-TOASTINGGRAF_BRF.html Government responses North America Graffiti advocates perceive graffiti as a method of reclaiming public space or to display one's art form, their opponents regard it as an unwanted nuisance, or as expensive vandalism requiring repair of the vandalized property. Graffiti can be viewed as a "quality of life" issue, and its detractors suggest that the presence of graffiti contributes to a general sense of squalor and a heightened fear of crime. In 1984, the Philadelphia Anti-Graffiti Network (PAGN) was created to combat the city's growing concerns about gang-related graffiti. PAGN led to the creation of the Mural Arts Program, which replaced often hit spots with elaborate, commissioned murals that were protected by a city ordinance, increasing fines and penalties for anyone caught defacing a mural. The Philadelphia Subway line also features a long standing example of the art form by way of the broad and spring garden stop, along the broad & ridge (to 8th and market) line. Which while still existing, has long been quarantined, and has featured tags and murals that have existed for upwards of 15years. Advocates of the "broken window theory" believe that this sense of decay encourages further vandalism and promotes an environment leading to offenses that are more serious. Former New York City mayor Ed Koch's vigorous subscription to the broken window theory promoted an aggressive anti-graffiti campaign in New York in the early eighties, resulting in "the buff"; a chemical wash for trains that dissolved the paint off. New York City has adopted a strenuous zero tolerance policy ever since. However, throughout the world, authorities often, though not always, treat graffiti as a minor nuisance crime, though with widely varying penalties. Roof tops became the mainstream after the trains died out. In 1995 Mayor Rudolph Giuliani of New York set up the Anti-Graffiti Task Force, a multi-agency initiative to combat the perceived problem of graffiti vandals in New York City. This began a crackdown on "quality of life crimes" throughout the city, and one of the largest anti-graffiti campaigns in U.S. history. That same year Title 10-117 of the New York Administrative Code banned the sale of aerosol spray-paint cans to children under 18. The law also requires that merchants who sell spray-paint must lock it in a case or display cans behind a counter, out of reach of potential shoplifters. Violations of the city's anti-graffiti law carry fines of $350 per count. Famous NYC graffiti artist Zephyr wrote an opposing viewpoint to this law. On January 1, 2006, in New York City, legislation created by Councilmember Peter Vallone, Jr. attempted to make it illegal for a person under the age of 21 to possess spray-paint or permanent markers. The law prompted outrage by fashion and media mogul Marc Ecko who sued Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Councilmember Vallone on behalf of art students and legitimate graffiti artists. On May 1, 2006, Judge George B. Daniels granted the plaintiffs' request for a preliminary injunction against the recent amendments to the anti-graffiti legislation, effectively prohibiting (on May 4) the New York City Police Department from enforcing the restrictions. A similar measure was proposed in New Castle County, Delaware in April 2006 and was passed into law as a county ordinance in May 2006. Chicago's mayor, Richard M. Daley created the "Graffiti Blasters" to eliminate graffiti and gang-related vandalism. The bureau advertises free cleanup within 24 hours of a phone call. The bureau uses paints (common to the city's 'color scheme') and baking-soda based solvents to remove some varieties of graffiti. In 1992, an ordinance was passed in Chicago that bans the sale and possession of spray paint, and certain types of etching equipment and markers. The law falls under Chapter 8-4: Public Peace & Welfare, Section 100: Vagrancy. The specific law (8-4-130) makes graffiti an offense with a fine of no less than $500 per incident, surpassing the penalty for public drunkenness, peddling, or disruption of a religious service. In 2005, the city of Pittsburgh implemented a custom database-driven graffiti tracking system to build and enhance evidence for prosecution of graffiti artist suspects by linking tags to instances of graffiti. One of the first suspects to be identified by the system as being responsible for significant graffiti vandalism was Daniel Joseph Montano. He was dubbed "The King of Graffiti" for having tagged close to 200 buildings in the city. Europe Graffiti removal in Berlin In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group damaged two prehistoric paintings of Bisons in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archaeology. Ash Astronaut Cosmonaut, Berlin 2007 In September 2006, the European Parliament issued the European Commission to create urban environment policies in order to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animals' excrement and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life. Thematic strategy on the urban environment — European Parliament resolution on the thematic strategy on the urban environment (2006/2061(INI)) The Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed 'cool' or 'edgy' image. To back the campaign, 123 MPs (including Prime Minister Tony Blair) signed a charter which stated: Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem. However, in the last couple of years the British graffiti scene has been struck by self-titled 'art terrorist' Banksy, who has revolutionized the style of UK graffiti (bringing to the forefront stencils to aid the speed of painting) as well as the content; making his work largely satirical of the sociological state of cities, or the political climate of war, often using monkeys and rats as motifs. In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property isn't damaged. 'Approved' graffiti at Stroud, Gloucestershire, England. In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffiti artists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from 18 months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime. Some councils, like that at Stroud, Gloucestershire provide approved areas round the town where graffiti artists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the 'spray and run.' BBC Gloucestershire Australia In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffiti artists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the University to tag, advertise, poster and create "art". Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing. Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some Local Government Areas around Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such gangs as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners. Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of Local Governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to $26,000 AUS and two years in prison. The fine for carrying a spray that you cannot give a legal reason for carrying is $550 AUS. Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street are as a major attraction. Everything including; Sticker Art, Poster, Stencil Art and Wheatpasting can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As you move further away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it. New Zealand In February 2008 New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from $NZ200 to $NZ2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 where a middle aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter. Asia In China, graffiti began with Mao Zedong in the 1920s who used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanise the country's communist revolution. Mao holds the record for the longest piece of graffiti, which contains 4000 characters criticising his teachers and the state of Chinese society. BBC NEWS | In pictures: Graffiti artists in Beijing, Graffiti tradition Graffiti is still in its infancy in developing countries such as Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan. Graffiti made the news in 1993, over an incident in Singapore involving several expensive cars found spray-painted. The police arrested a student from Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty for vandalizing the car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Singapore Vandalism Act, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of 3,500 Singaporean dollars (US $2,233 or GB £1,450), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on May 5, 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six lashes of the cane, but the then President of Singapore Ong Teng Cheong agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes. Documentaries and films 80 Blocks from Tiffany's (1979), A rare glimpse into late '70s New York towards the end of the infamous South Bronx Gangs. The documentary shows many sides of the mainly Puerto Rican community of the South Bronx including. reformed gang members, current gang members, the police, and the community leaders who try and reach out to them. Stations of the Elevated (1980), the earliest documentary about subway graffiti in New York City, with music by Charles Mingus Wild Style (1983), a drama about hip hop and graffiti culture in New York City Style Wars (1983), an early documentary on hip hop culture, made in New York City Quality of Life (2004) a graffiti drama shot in the Mission District of San Francisco, starring/co-written by a retired graffiti writer. Piece by Piece (2005), a feature length documentary on the history of San Francisco graffiti from the early 1980s until the present day. Infamy (2005), A feature-length documentary about graffiti culture as told through the experiences of six well-known graffiti writers and a graffiti buffer. NEXT: A Primer on Urban Painting (2005), a documentary about global graffiti culture RASH (film) (2005), a feature documentary about Melbourne, Australia and the artists who make it a living host for illegal artwork called street art. Bomb the System (2006), a drama about a crew of graffiti artists in modern day New York City BOMB IT (2007), a graffiti and street art documentary filmed on 5 continents. Jisoe (2007), a glimpse into the life of a Melbourne (AUS) graffiti writer. Shows the audience an example of graffiti in struggling Melbourne areas See also Graffiti abatement Graffiti terminology Kilroy was here Kotwica Spray paint art Stencil Street art Turk 182 Vandalism Visual pollution Yarn bombing References External links Art Crimes, leading contemporary Graffiti-related web site. Art of graffiti Faith of Graffiti blog. 149st Writers Bench: Old School New York City Graffiti ekosystem Ancient Graffiti of Saudi Arabia A TIME Archives Collection of Graffiti's progression Street-Archive - Documenting the street! World Wide Graffiti Gallery - Est. 1997 Canned Goods - Providing interviews with graffiti artists worldwide Belarusian graffiti Big Art Mob - a user-created pictorial map of graffiti and street art across the United Kingdom Gráfica Real - Interview with French graffiti crew 123Klan Gráfica Real - Interview with Russian graffiti crew Sicksystems World Graffiti - Features photos of graffiti from around the world Fales Library of NYU Guide to the Fashion Moda Archive- the archive of an artist group that included Daze, Keith Haring, and Spank The Fales Library Guide to the Martin Wong Papers- contains sketchbooks and ephemera related to Wild Style "Orion Giret, Defacement of Art as Art" - a defense of vandalising public art, in Purple Magazine. | Graffiti |@lemmatized spanish:1 inscription:5 el:1 morro:1 national:2 monument:3 late:9 graffiti:346 singular:1 graffito:8 plural:1 use:41 mass:1 noun:1 name:17 image:14 letter:8 scratch:8 scrawl:4 paint:42 mark:5 manner:3 property:12 sometimes:8 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1,278 | Commodore_1570 | The Commodore 1570 was a 5¼" floppy disk drive for the Commodore 128 home/personal computer. It was a single-sided, 170KB version of the double-sided Commodore 1571, released as a stopgap measure when Commodore International was unable to provide large enough quantities of 1571s due to a shortage of double-sided drive mechanisms. Like the 1571, it could read and write both GCR and MFM disk formats. The 1570 utilized a 1571 logic board in a cream-colored Commodore 1541 case with a drive mechanism similar to the 1541 except that it was equipped with track zero detection. Like the 1571, its built-in DOS provided a data burst mode for transferring data to the C128 computer at a faster speed than a 1541. Its ROM also contained some DOS bug fixes that didn't appear in the 1571 until much later. The 1570 could read and write all single-sided CP/M format disks that the 1571 could access. Although the 1570 was compatible with the Commodore 64, the C64 wasn't capable of taking advantage of the drive's higher-speed operation, and when used with the C64 it was little more than a pricier 1541. Also, many early buyers of the C128 chose to temporarily make do with a 1541 drive, perhaps owned as part of a previous C64 setup, until the 1571 became more widely available. | Commodore_1570 |@lemmatized commodore:6 floppy:1 disk:3 drive:5 home:1 personal:1 computer:2 single:2 side:4 version:1 double:2 release:1 stopgap:1 measure:1 international:1 unable:1 provide:2 large:1 enough:1 quantity:1 due:1 shortage:1 mechanism:2 like:2 could:3 read:2 write:2 gcr:1 mfm:1 format:2 utilize:1 logic:1 board:1 cream:1 color:1 case:1 similar:1 except:1 equip:1 track:1 zero:1 detection:1 build:1 data:2 burst:1 mode:1 transfer:1 fast:1 speed:2 rom:1 also:2 contain:1 bug:1 fix:1 appear:1 much:1 later:1 cp:1 access:1 although:1 compatible:1 capable:1 take:1 advantage:1 higher:1 operation:1 use:1 little:1 pricier:1 many:1 early:1 buyer:1 choose:1 temporarily:1 make:1 perhaps:1 part:1 previous:1 setup:1 become:1 widely:1 available:1 |@bigram floppy_disk:1 bug_fix:1 |
1,279 | Constitution_of_Chile | __NOTOC__The current Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile, approved by Chilean voters in a tightly controlled plebiscite on September 11 1980, under the presidency of Augusto Pinochet, effective March 11 1981 and amended July 30 1989, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003 and 2005, replaced the earlier constitution of 1925. In its original permanent dispositions, it gave the President of the Republic a large amount of power; however, some of these dispositions, such as the power of dissolving the Lower Chamber of Congress and serving eight year terms with possibility of reelection, were modified or eliminated after 1990, when the country regained its democracy and the Congress was reestablished. It created some new institutions, such as the Constitutional Tribunal and the controversial National Security Council (COSENA). In its temporary dispositions, the document ordered the transition from the former military government, with Augusto Pinochet as President of the Republic, and the Legislative Power of the Military Junta (formed by the heads of the Navy, Air force, National Police, and a representative of the Army, the head of the Army being president of the republic), to a civil one, with a time frame of eight years, during which the Legislative Power would still be the Military Junta. It set the first eight year presidential term for Pinochet, with a plebiscite in the eighth year, in which only one candidate, nominated by the Junta, would be accepted or not. The candidate, as expected, was Pinochet himself. While the steps to follow in the case of a triumph of the "yes" option, which the document obviously anticipated, were clearly delineated, the steps for the "no" triumph were less so, but still clear enough that no serious doubt emerged when the "no" option actually was victorious in the 1988 plebiscite. After the plebiscite, several modifications to the Constitution were agreed and subjected to referendum, among them a simplification on the mechanism of future modification. In 2005 over 50 reforms were approved, which eliminated some of the remaining undemocratic areas of the text, such as the existence of non-elected Senators (appointed senators, or senators for life) and the inability of the President to remove the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. These reforms led the President to controversially declare Chile's transition to democracy as complete. However, the anti-terrorist measures of it remained in force. Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile of 1980 Timeline of Constitutions Reglamento para el arreglo de la Autoridad Ejecutiva Provisoria de Chile 1811 Reglamento Constitucional 1812 Reglamento para el gobierno Provisorio 1814 Constitución de 1818 Constitución de 1822 Constitución de 1823 Ensayo Federal de 1826 Constitución de 1828 Constitución de 1833 Constitución de 1925 Constitución de 1980 References Brief review of Chile's constitutional history - Chile's Library of Congress (in Spanish) See also Chilean transition to democracy External links 2005 recasting of the 1980 Constitution (PDF version) (Spanish original) Official translation of the original 1980 Constitution (PDF file) Text of Chilean constitutions - Library of Congress of Chile (Spanish original) "Untying the knot" (The Economist) | Constitution_of_Chile |@lemmatized current:1 political:2 constitution:8 republic:5 chile:7 approve:2 chilean:3 voter:1 tightly:1 control:1 plebiscite:4 september:1 presidency:1 augusto:2 pinochet:4 effective:1 march:1 amend:1 july:1 replace:1 early:1 original:4 permanent:1 disposition:3 give:1 president:5 large:1 amount:1 power:4 however:2 dissolve:1 low:1 chamber:1 congress:4 serve:1 eight:3 year:4 term:2 possibility:1 reelection:1 modify:1 eliminate:2 country:1 regain:1 democracy:3 reestablish:1 create:1 new:1 institution:1 constitutional:2 tribunal:1 controversial:1 national:2 security:1 council:1 cosena:1 temporary:1 document:2 order:1 transition:3 former:1 military:3 government:1 legislative:2 junta:3 form:1 head:2 navy:1 air:1 force:3 police:1 representative:1 army:2 civil:1 one:2 time:1 frame:1 would:2 still:2 set:1 first:1 presidential:1 eighth:1 candidate:2 nominate:1 accept:1 expect:1 step:2 follow:1 case:1 triumph:2 yes:1 option:2 obviously:1 anticipate:1 clearly:1 delineate:1 less:1 clear:1 enough:1 serious:1 doubt:1 emerge:1 actually:1 victorious:1 several:1 modification:2 agree:1 subject:1 referendum:1 among:1 simplification:1 mechanism:1 future:1 reform:2 remain:2 undemocratic:1 area:1 text:2 existence:1 non:1 elect:1 senator:3 appoint:1 life:1 inability:1 remove:1 commander:1 chief:1 armed:1 lead:1 controversially:1 declare:1 complete:1 anti:1 terrorist:1 measure:1 timeline:1 reglamento:3 para:2 el:2 arreglo:1 de:10 la:1 autoridad:1 ejecutiva:1 provisoria:1 constitucional:1 gobierno:1 provisorio:1 constitución:7 ensayo:1 federal:1 reference:1 brief:1 review:1 history:1 library:2 spanish:3 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 recasting:1 pdf:2 version:1 official:1 translation:1 file:1 untie:1 knot:1 economist:1 |@bigram augusto_pinochet:2 clearly_delineate:1 commander_chief:1 constitución_de:7 external_link:1 |
1,280 | North_Pole | An Azimuthal projection showing the Arctic Ocean and the North Pole. North Pole scenery The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole is, subject to the caveats explained below, defined as the point in the northern hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets the Earth's surface. It should not be confused with the North Magnetic Pole. The North Pole is the northernmost point on Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of True North. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value. While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amidst waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, have constructed a number of manned drifting stations, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Recently, scientists have predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free by 2050 due to Arctic shrinkage. "What is Global Warming?", climatecrisis.net More pessimistically, it was claimed by some scientists that the Arctic ice-cap might temporarily disappear in mid 2008, a prediction which did not come to pass. Expert: Arctic polar cap may disappear this summer_English_Xinhua North Pole could be ice-free this summer, scientists say, CNN, June 27, 2008 On December 15, 2008, the Canadian science TV series Daily Planet reported that scientists now predict the ice cap could melt away by 2014. Daily Planet, Discovery Channel Canada, December 15, 2008 edition. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 metres (13,980 ft). Russian sub plants flag at North Pole, Reuters, Aug 2, 2007 The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km (440 mi) away, though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly further north. Precise definition See also: Polar motion. The Earth's axis of rotation – and hence the position of the North Pole – was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might "wobble" slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent "variation of latitude", as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth's surface, by a range of a few meters. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the 8 month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the Earth's axis and the Earth's surface, at any given moment, is called the "instantaneous pole", but because of the "wobble" this cannot be used as a definition of a fixed North Pole (or South Pole) when metre-scale precision is required. It is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevations or orography) to fixed landforms. Of course, given continental drift and the rising and falling of land due to volcanoes, erosion and so on, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System. The North Pole of this system now defines geographic North for precision work, and it does not quite coincide with the rotation axis. Expeditions See also: Arctic exploration, Farthest North, List of Arctic expeditions and List of firsts Pre-1900 As early as the sixteenth century, many eminent people believed (correctly) that the North Pole was in a sea, which in the nineteenth century was called the Polynia or Open Polar Sea. John K. Wright Geographical Review, Vol. 43, No. 3. (Jul., 1953), pp. 338-365 "The Open Polar Sea" It was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, already commonly used in the cold northern latitudes. One of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, an American attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, ended in disaster. An 1879–1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George Washington DeLong also ended tragically when their ship, the USS Jeanette, was crushed by ice. Over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost. In April 1895 the Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen and Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen struck out for the Pole on skis after leaving Nansen's icebound ship Fram. The pair reached latitude 86°14′ North before they were forced to turn back. In 1897 Swedish engineer Salomon August Andrée and two companions tried to reach the North Pole in the hydrogen balloon Örnen ("Eagle"), but were stranded 300 km north of Kvitøya, the northeasternmost part of the Svalbard Archipelago, and perished on this lonely island. In 1930 the remains of this expedition were found by the Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition. The Italian explorer Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi and Captain Umberto Cagni of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) sailed the converted whaler Stella Polare from Norway in 1899. On March 11, 1900 Cagni led a party over the ice and reached latitude 86° 34’ on April 25, setting a new record by beating Nansen's result of 1895 by 35 to 40 kilometres. Cagni barely managed to return back to the camp, remaining there until June 23. On August 16 the Stella Polare left Rudolf Island heading south and the expedition returned to Norway. 1900–1940 The American explorer Frederick Albert Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole on April 21, 1908 with two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim is not widely accepted. Henderson, B. (2005) True North W W Norton & Company ISBN 0 393 32738 8 The conquest of the North Pole was for many years credited to American Navy engineer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached the Pole on April 6, 1909, accompanied by American Matthew Henson and four Inuit men named Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah, and Ooqueah. However, Peary's claim remains controversial. The party that accompanied Peary on the final stage of the journey included no one who was trained in navigation and could independently confirm his own navigational work, which some claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the Pole. The distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support party turned back seem incredible to many people, almost three times that which he had accomplished up to that point. Peary's account of a journey to the Pole and back while traveling along the direct line – the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints that he was facing – is contradicted by Henson's account of tortuous detours to avoid pressure ridges and open leads. The British explorer Wally Herbert, initially a supporter of Peary, researched Peary's records in 1989 and concluded that they must have been falsified and that Peary had not reached the Pole Obituary, The Independent June 16, 2007 . Support for Peary came again in 2005, however, when the British explorer Tom Avery and four companions recreated the outward portion of Peary's journey with replica wooden sleds and Canadian Eskimo Dog teams, reaching the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours – nearly five hours faster than Peary. Avery writes on his web site that "The admiration and respect which I hold for Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and the four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has grown enormously since we set out from Cape Columbia. Having now seen for myself how he travelled across the pack ice, I am more convinced than ever that Peary did indeed discover the North Pole." Tom Avery website, retrieved May 2007 However, the conditions faced by Avery were very different from those facing Peary. The first claimed flight over the Pole was made on May 9, 1926 by US naval officer Richard E. Byrd and pilot Floyd Bennett in a Fokker tri-motor aircraft. Although verified at the time by the US Navy and a committee of the National Geographic Society, this claim has since been disputed. The North Pole Flight of Richard E. Byrd: An Overview of the Controversy, Byrd Polar Research Center of The Ohio State University The first undisputed sighting of the Pole was on May 12 1926 by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his American sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth from the airship Norge. Norge, though Norwegian owned, was designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard and crossed the icecap to Alaska. Nobile, along with several scientists and crew from the Norge, overflew the Pole a second time on May 24 1928 in the airship Italia. The Italia crashed on its return from the Pole, with the loss of half the crew. 1940–2000 In May 1945 an RAF Lancaster of the Aries expedition became the first Commonwealth aircraft to overfly the North Geographic and North Magnetic Poles. The plane was piloted by David Cecil McKinley of the Royal Air Force. It carried an 11-man crew, with Kenneth C. Maclure of the Royal Canadian Air Force in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honoured with a spot in the Canadian Aviation Hall Of Fame. The Aries Flights Of 1945, Hugh A. Halliday, Legion Magazine Discounting Peary's disputed claim, the first men to set foot at the North Pole were, according to some sources, a Soviet Union party. These are variously described as including Pavel Gordiyenko (or Geordiyenko) and three Guinness Book of Records, 1998 edition or five Concise Chronology of Approaches to the Poles, R. K. Headland, DIO Vol. 4 No. 3 others, or Aleksandr Kuznetsov and 23 others, Concise chronology of approach to the poles, Scott Polar Research Institute who landed a plane (or planes) there on April 23 1948. According to Antarctica.org, three Li-2 planes landed, carrying a total of seven men. Antarctica.org On May 3, 1952, U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William P. Benedict, along with scientist Albert P. Crary, landed a modified C-47 Skytrain at the North Pole. Some sources consider this (rather than the Soviet mission) to be the first ever landing at the Pole. Aviation History Facts, U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission The United States Navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN-571) crossed the North Pole on August 3, 1958, and on March 17, 1959, the USS Skate (SSN-578) surfaced at the Pole, becoming the first naval vessel to do so. Setting aside Peary's claim, the first confirmed surface conquest of the North Pole was that of Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean Luc Bombardier, who traveled over the ice by snowmobile and arrived on April 19, 1968. The United States Air Force independently confirmed their position. On April 6 1969, Sir Wally Herbert and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the British Trans-Arctic Expedition became the first men to reach the North Pole on foot (albeit with the aid of dog teams and air drops). They continued on to complete the first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean – and by its longest axis, Barrow, Alaska to Svalbard – a feat that has never been repeated. Obituary of Sir Wally Herbert, Times Online, 13 June, 2007 Obituary of Sir Wally Herbert, Guardian Unlimited, 15 June 2007 Because of suggestions of Plaisted's use of air transport, some sources classify Herbert's expedition as the first confirmed to reach the North Pole over the ice surface by any means. northpolewomen.com On August 17, 1977, the Soviet nuclear powered icebreaker Arktika completed the first surface vessel journey to the North Pole. In 1982 Sir Ranulph Fiennes and Charles Burton became the first people to cross the Arctic Ocean in a single season. They departed from Cape Crozier, Ellesmere Island, on 17 February 1982 and arrived at the geographic North Pole on 10 April 1982. They travelled on foot and skidoo. From the Pole, they travelled south towards Svalbard but, due to the unstable nature of the ice, ended their crossing at the ice edge after drifting south on an ice floe for 99 days. They were eventually able to walk to their expedition ship "MV Benjamin Bowring" and boarded it on 4 August 1982 at position 80:31N 00:59W. As a result of this journey, which formed a section of the three-year Transglobe Expedition 1979–1982, Fiennes and Burton became the first people to complete a circumnavigation of the world via both North and South Poles, by surface travel alone. This achievement remains unchallenged to this day. 21st century USS Charlotte (SSN-766)|USS Charlotte at the North Pole in 2005 In recent years, journeys to the North Pole by air (landing by helicopter or on a runway prepared on the ice) or by icebreaker have become relatively routine, and are even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies. In 2005, the United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN-766) surfaced through 155 cm (61 inches) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there. USS Charlotte Achieves Milestone During Under-Ice Transit, Navy NewsStand website, retrieved May 2007 On April 23, 2007, retired professional nurse Barbara Hillary completed a dog sled trip to the North Pole. She is the first African-American woman to have done so. CNN interview (2009/05/18) of first African-American woman to reach the North Pole In April 2007, Dutch performance artist Guido van der Werve performed a work of art at the North Pole. By standing exactly on the Pole for 24 hours and turning slowly clockwise (the earth is turning counterclockwise), just by following his own shadow, Van der Werve literally did not turn with the world for one day. This performance is called: 'nummer negen [Dutch for Number Nine], the day I didn't turn with the world'. Van der Werve time-lapsed the 24 hours to 9 minutes. Website of the artist In July 2007, British endurance swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh completed a 1 km swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the effects of climate change, took place in clear water that had opened up between the ice floes. Swimmer rises to Arctic challenge, BBC news, 15 July 2007 His later attempt to paddle a kayak to the North Pole in late 2008, following the erroneous prediction of clear water to the Pole, was stymied when his expedition found itself stuck in thick ice after only three days. The expedition was then abandoned. A 2007 episode of the BBC motoring show Top Gear, in which the presenters were described as journeying to the "North Pole", was in fact an expedition to the 1996 position of the North Magnetic Pole. BBC Top Gear Production Notes (Polar Special) 2007 descent to North Pole seabed On August 2 2007, a Russian VASU made the first ever manned descent to the ocean bottom at the North Pole, to a depth of 4.3 km, as part of a research programme in support of Russia's 2001 territorial claim to a large swathe of the Arctic Ocean. The descent took place in two MIR submersibles and was led by Soviet and Russian polar explorer Arthur Chilingarov. In a symbolic act, the Russian flag was placed on the seabed at the exact position of the Pole. Press release of the AARI, July 9 2007 Russia plants flag under N Pole, BBC News, 2 August 2007 News video of Russian descent to North Pole seabed BBC News video of Russian descent to North Pole seabed The expedition is the latest in a decades-long series of moves by Russia intended to show that it is the dominant influence in the Arctic. Russia’s North Pole Obsession, The New York Times, August 2, 2007 The warming Arctic climate and summer retreat of sea ice there has suddenly turned the attention of countries from China to the United States toward the top of the world, where resources and shipping routes may soon be exploitable. The Big Melt, The New York Times, October 2005 Day and night See also Midnight sun and Polar night At the North Pole, the Sun is permanently above the horizon during the summer months and permanently below the horizon during the winter months. Sunrise is just before the vernal equinox (around March 19); the Sun then takes three months to reach its highest point of about 23½° elevation at the summer solstice (around June 21), after which time it begins to sink, reaching sunset just after the autumnal equinox (around September 24). When the sun is visible in the polar sky, it appears to move in a clockwise circle above the horizon. This circle gradually rises from near the horizon just after the vernal equinox to its maximum elevation (in degrees) above the horizon at summer solstice and then sinks back toward the horizon before sinking below it at the autumnal equinox. A civil twilight period of about two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, and an astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset. These effects are caused by a combination of the Earth's axial tilt and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the Earth's axial tilt, as well as its angle relative to the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, remains very nearly constant over the course of a year (both change very slowly over long time periods). At northern midsummer the North Pole is facing towards the Sun to its maximum extent. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the Sun, the North Pole gradually turns away from the Sun until at midwinter it is facing away from the Sun to its maximum extent. A similar sequence is observed at the South Pole, with a six-month time difference. Time In most places on Earth, local time is roughly synchronized to the position of the sun in the sky. Thus, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest. This method fails at the North Pole where the sun is continuously in the sky for six months. There is no permanent human presence at the North Pole, and no particular time zone has been assigned. Polar expeditions may use any time zone that is convenient, such as GMT, or the time zone of the country they departed from. Climate Arctic shrinkages of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to the 1979-2000 average. The North Pole is significantly warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude in a continental land mass. Winter (January) temperatures at the North Pole can range from about −43 °C (−45 °F) to −26 °C (−15 °F), perhaps averaging around −34 °C (−30 °F). Summer temperatures (June, July and August) average around the freezing point (0 °C, 32 °F). "Science question of the week", Goddard Space Center The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around two or three meters thick, Beyond "Polar Express": Fast Facts on the Real North Pole, National Geographic News though there is considerable variation and occasionally the movement of floes exposes clear water. The Top of the World: Is the North Pole Turning to Water?, John L. Daly Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. "Arctic ice thickness drops by up to 19 per cent", Daily Telegraph, 28 October 2008 Many attribute this decrease to global warming, though this conclusion is disputed by some. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer months. Arctic sea ice "faces rapid melt", BBC news story, December 2006 This may have significant commercial implications; see "Territorial Claims", below. Flora and fauna Polar bears are believed rarely to travel beyond about 82° North owing to the scarcity of food, though tracks have been seen in the vicinity of the North Pole, and a 2006 expedition reported sighting a polar bear just one mile (1.6 km) from the Pole. Polar Bear - Population & Distribution, WWF, January 2007 Explorers' Blog, Greenpeace Project Thin Ice, 1 Jul 2006 The ringed seal has also been seen at the Pole, and Arctic foxes have been observed less than 60 km away at 89°40′ N. Ringed seal makes its home on the ice, Antti Halkka The Arctic Fox, Magnus Tannerfeldt Birds seen at or very near the Pole include the Snow Bunting, Northern Fulmar and Black-legged Kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the fact that birds tend to follow ships and expeditions. FARTHEST NORTH POLAR BEAR (Ursus maritimus) Fish have been seen in the waters at the North Pole, but these are probably few in number. A member of the Russian team that descended to the North Pole seabed in August 2007 reported seeing no sea creatures living there. Russia plants flag under N Pole, BBC News, 2 August 2007 Territorial claims to the North Pole and Arctic regions Under international law, no country currently owns the North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The five surrounding Arctic states, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark (via Greenland), and the United States (via Alaska), are limited to a Exclusive Economic Zone around their coasts, and the area beyond that is administered by the International Seabed Authority. Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has a ten year period to make claims to extend its 200 mile zone. Norway (ratified the convention in 1996 http://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/status2007.pdf ), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) have all launched projects to base claims that certain Arctic sectors should belong to their territories. The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons, by Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007 Cultural associations In some Western cultures, the geographic North Pole is the residence of Santa Claus. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 to the North Pole (referring to Santa's traditional exclamation of "Ho-ho-ho!"). "Canada Post Launches 24th Annual Santa Letter-writing Program", Canada Post press release, November 15, 2006 This seemingly mundane fact actually reflects an age-old esoteric mythology of Hyperborea that posits the North Pole, the otherworldly world-axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings (see Joscelyn Godwin, Arktos: The Polar Myth). The popular figure of the pole-dwelling Santa Claus thus functions as an esoteric archetype of spiritual purity and transcendence (). As Henry Corbin has documented, the North Pole plays a key part in the cultural worldview of esoteric Sufism and Iranian mysticism. "The Orient sought by the mystic, the Orient that cannot be located on our maps, is in the direction of the north, beyond the north." Corbin, The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism, trans. N. Pearson, 1978 The Pole is also identified with a mysterious mountain in the Arctic Ocean, called Mount Qaf (cf. Rupes Nigra), whose ascent, like Dante's climbing of the Mountain of Purgatory, represents the pilgrim's progress through spiritual states. ibid., p. 44 In Iranian theosophy, the heavenly Pole, the focal point of the spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to draw beings to its "palaces ablaze with immaterial matter." ibid., p. 11 See also South Pole Arctic exploration Polaris List of firsts Inuit Circumpolar Council Arctic Council Circumpolar arctic Biome North Pole, Alaska Global warming Santa Claus References External links Arctic Council The Northern Forum North Pole Web Cam The short Arctic summer of 2004 The puzzling Arctic summer of 2003 FAQ on the Arctic and the North Pole Polar Controversies Still Rage article by Roderick Eime Magnetic Poles locations since 1600 Download the KMZ file. For Google Earth Users. The Polar Race a biennial race to the 1996 certified position of the Magnetic North Pole The Polar Challenge an annual race to the Magnetic North Pole Daylight, Darkness and Changing of the Seasons at the North Pole Video of scientists on sea ice at the North Pole as it begins to crack underfoot Experts warn North Pole will be 'ice free' by 2040 Goudarzi, Sara, "Meltdown: Ice Cracks at North Pole". Sept 2006, LiveScience, <Web Link>, Accessed 29 January 2007. "The North Pole Was Here: Puzzles and Perils at the Top of the World (first chapter)" Video of the Nuclear Icebreaker Yamal visiting the North Pole in 2001 Polar Discovery: North Pole Observatory Expedition be-x-old:Паўночны полюс | North_Pole |@lemmatized azimuthal:1 projection:1 show:4 arctic:33 ocean:10 north:96 pole:118 scenery:1 also:10 know:1 geographic:8 terrestrial:2 subject:1 caveat:1 explain:1 define:5 point:9 northern:6 hemisphere:1 earth:18 axis:7 rotation:4 meet:1 surface:11 confuse:1 magnetic:6 northernmost:1 lie:4 diametrically:1 opposite:1 south:12 geodetic:1 latitude:7 well:2 direction:4 true:2 line:2 longitude:3 converge:1 degree:2 value:1 continental:3 land:9 mass:2 locate:2 middle:2 amidst:1 water:6 almost:2 permanently:3 cover:1 constantly:1 shift:1 sea:12 ice:30 make:5 impractical:1 construct:2 permanent:3 station:2 unlike:1 however:4 soviet:5 union:3 later:1 russia:8 number:3 manned:1 drift:3 pass:2 close:1 recently:1 scientist:7 predict:5 may:13 become:7 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1,281 | Jamaica_Defence_Force | Personnel of the Jamaica Defence Force in dress uniform, during a light rain, at Palisadeos Air Port, Kingston. Roundel of Jamaica Defence Force Air Wing The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the overall name given to the combined military forces of Jamaica. The JDF is based upon the British military model with organisation, training, weapons and traditions closely aligned with Commonwealth Realm countries. Once chosen officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending upon which arm of service they are slated for. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at JDF Training Depot Newcastle. As on the British model NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for specialty training in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. History Soldiers from the JDF during the Tradewinds 2002 Field Training Exercise, on the island of Antigua. The JDF is directly descended from the British West India Regiment formed during the colonial era. The West India Regiment was used extensively by the British in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in WWII. The West India Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation. The dissolution of the Federation resulted in the establishment of the JDF. The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit. The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard element is divided between sea-going crews and support crews. It conducts maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence-related operations. The support battalion contains a Military Police platoon as well as vehicle, armourers and supply units. The 1st Engineer Regiment provides military engineering support to the JDF. The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF commander, command staff as well as intelligence, judge advocate office, administrative and procurement sections. In recent years the JDF has been called upon to assist the nation's police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high-crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This move has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens. Major Units of the Jamaica Defence Force Jamaican Defence Force soldier with a sergeant of the Bermuda Regiment Headquarters, Jamaica Defence Force (HQ JDF) - divided into the Operations Branch and Adjutant Quartermaster's Branch, this is the main command of the entire JDF. Headquarters, Jamaica Defence Force Intelligence Unit (HQ JDF Int)- provides intelligence to the JDF and The Jamaica Constabulary Force. (Despite its name this is not a sub-unit of JDF HQ, as it was given full unit status in 1983 and is headed by a Lt. Colonel.) 1st Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment (1JR) - raised in 1962, one of the two light infantry battalions comprising the main formation of the JDF. 2nd Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment (2JR) - raised in 1979, second of the two light infantry battalions comprising the main formation of the JDF. 3rd Battalion, The Jamaica Regiment (National Reserve) (3JR) (NR) - this is a volunteer infantry battalion. 1 Engineer Regiment (JDF) - this unit provides engineering support to all units of the JDF. Support and Services Battalion (Sp Svcs Bn)- this unit provides logistic and administrative support, and is divided into the following units: Administration Unit (AU) Supply Unit (JDF SD) Training Depot (JDF Trg Depot) Workshop (JDF W) Transport Unit (TU) Provost Unit (PU) JDF Air Wing (JDF AW) - this provides air support for the infantry, and surveillance and maritime patrol, which is used in anti-drug missions. JDF Coast Guard (JDFCG) - this is the naval arm of the JDF, and has responsibility for maritime law enforcement and maritime safety. Past Chiefs of Staff of The Jamaica Defence Force (1962 - 2007) 1962 - 1965 Brigadier Paul Edwin Crook, CBE, DSO 1965 - 1973 Brigadier David Hartman Smith, CVO, OBE, ED 1973 Brigadier Dunstan Fitzgerald Robinson, CD, OBE, ED 1973 - 1979 Major-General Rudolph Edward George Green, CD, OStJ 1979 - 1990 Major-General Robert James Neish, CD, AFC 1990 - 1998 Rear-Admiral Peter Lorenzo Brady, CD, CVO, MMM 1998 - 2002 Major-General John I Simmonds, CVO, OD 2002 - 2007 Rear-Admiral Hardley M Lewin, CD, ADC, JP, psc (n) 2007 Major-General Stewart Emerson St Leonard Saunders, ADC, MSc, JP, psc In December 2007 the title of Chief of Staff was replaced by Chief of Defence Staff and filled by incumbent. Chiefs of Defence Staff of The Jamaica Defence Force (2008 onwards) 2008 - Major-General Stewart Emerson St Leonard Saunders, ADC, MSc, JP, psc Bands The JDF also supports two military bands; Jamaica Military Band - this is the band that is descended from the band of the West India Regiment, and was formed in February 1927. It is one of only two units in the world (the other being the Band of the Barbados Regiment) that wears the uniform of the zouaves. Jamaica Regiment Band - this band was originally formed as the Band of the West India Regiment formed in 1959 as the military force of the Federation of the West Indies. With the Federation's break up and the independence of Jamaica, it became the Band of the 1st Battalion, Jamaica Regiment. It gained its current name with the formation of the 2nd Battalion in 1979. JDF Coast Guard Ships in Active Service Name of Ship Length Max speed Crew/Capacity Class HMJS Cornwall 42.8 m 26 knots 12 + 4 County HMJS Middlesex 42.8 m 26 knots 12 + 4 County HMJS Surrey 42.8 m 26 knots 12 + 4 County HMJS Paul Bogle 32.3 m 30 knots 17 Hero HMJS Fort Charles 35.3 m 32 knots 16 Fort Retired Ships of the JDF Coast Guard HMJS Yoruba HMJS Coromante HMJS Mandingo HMJS Discovery Bay HMJS Holland Bay HMJS Manatee Bay JDF Air Wing This is a list of currently-active military aircraft in use: ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Bell 407 || / || Support Helicopter || 407|| 4 |----- | Bell 412 || / || Support Helicopter || 412EP || 3 || 2nd Flight |----- | Britten Norman Islander || || Light Transport || BN-2A || 1 || 1st Flight |----- | Cessna 210 || || Light Transport || 210M || 1 || 1st Flight |----- | Diamond DA40 || || Trainer || DA40-F || 2 || Jamaica Military Training School |----- | Bell 206 || / || Trainer || 206 || 1 || Jamaica Military Training School |----- | Eurocopter Squirrel || || Support Helicopter || AS355N || 4 || 3rd Flight |} Ranks of the Jamaica Defence Force Commissioned Officers JDF Coast Guard Other Units Rear Admiral Major General Commodore Brigadier Captain (N) Colonel Commander Lieutenant Colonel Lieutenant Commander Major Lieutenant (sg) Captain Lieutenant (jg) Lieutenant Sub Lieutenant 2nd Lieutenant Enlisted Ranks JDF Coast Guard Other Units Master Chief Petty Officer I Warrant Officer 1 Master Chief Petty Officer II Warrant Officer Class 2 Chief Petty Officer Colour / Staff Sergeant Petty Officer Sergeant Leading Seaman Corporal Able Seaman Lance Corporal Ordinary Seaman Private References Jamaica Defence Force Senior Officers Biography Ships of the Jamaica Defence Force Coast Guard Jamaica Defence Force Aircraft Jamaica Defence Force History Jamaica Gleaner - Change of Guard Land Forces of Britain, The Empire and Commonwealth External links Jamaica Defence Force website | Jamaica_Defence_Force |@lemmatized personnel:1 jamaica:29 defence:19 force:21 dress:1 uniform:2 light:5 rain:1 palisadeos:1 air:8 port:1 kingston:2 roundel:1 wing:6 jdf:39 overall:1 name:4 give:4 combined:1 military:11 base:1 upon:3 british:5 model:2 organisation:2 training:10 weapon:1 tradition:1 closely:1 align:7 commonwealth:2 realm:1 country:1 chosen:1 officer:10 candidate:1 send:1 one:4 several:2 canadian:1 basic:2 course:1 depend:1 arm:2 service:4 slat:1 enlisted:1 soldier:3 depot:3 newcastle:1 ncos:1 level:1 professional:1 rise:2 rank:3 additional:1 school:3 available:1 specialty:1 canada:1 united:2 state:1 kingdom:1 history:2 tradewinds:1 field:1 exercise:1 island:1 antigua:1 directly:1 descend:2 west:7 india:5 regiment:16 form:4 colonial:2 era:1 use:3 extensively:1 police:3 empire:2 unit:22 heritage:1 include:2 early:2 militia:1 infantry:8 volunteer:3 wwi:1 reorganise:1 jamaican:2 wwii:1 reform:1 part:1 indies:1 federation:4 dissolution:1 result:1 establishment:1 comprise:3 reserve:4 corp:1 coast:8 guard:9 fleet:1 support:15 engineering:3 contain:3 national:3 battalion:11 divide:4 three:1 flight:5 element:1 sea:1 go:1 crew:3 conduct:2 maritime:5 safety:2 law:2 enforcement:2 well:4 related:1 operation:2 platoon:1 vehicle:1 armourer:1 supply:2 engineer:2 provide:5 headquarters:3 commander:3 command:2 staff:6 intelligence:3 judge:1 advocate:1 office:1 administrative:2 procurement:1 section:1 recent:1 year:1 call:2 assist:1 nation:1 constabulary:2 jcf:3 fight:1 drug:2 smuggling:1 crime:2 rate:2 high:2 murder:1 world:2 actively:1 armed:1 patrol:2 area:1 know:1 gang:1 neighbourhood:1 vocal:1 controversy:1 role:1 opposition:1 leader:1 edward:2 seaga:1 merger:1 move:1 garner:1 either:1 among:1 majority:1 citizen:1 major:8 sergeant:3 bermuda:1 hq:3 branch:2 adjutant:1 quartermaster:1 main:3 entire:1 int:1 despite:1 sub:2 full:1 status:1 head:1 lt:1 colonel:3 raise:2 two:4 formation:3 second:1 nr:1 sp:1 svcs:1 bn:2 logistic:1 follow:1 administration:1 au:1 sd:1 trg:1 workshop:1 w:1 transport:3 tu:1 provost:1 pu:1 aw:1 surveillance:1 anti:1 mission:1 jdfcg:1 naval:1 responsibility:1 past:1 chief:7 brigadier:4 paul:2 edwin:1 crook:1 cbe:1 dso:1 david:1 hartman:1 smith:1 cvo:3 obe:2 ed:2 dunstan:1 fitzgerald:1 robinson:1 cd:5 general:6 rudolph:1 george:1 green:1 ostj:1 robert:1 james:1 neish:1 afc:1 rear:3 admiral:3 peter:1 lorenzo:1 brady:1 mmm:1 john:1 simmonds:1 od:1 hardley:1 lewin:1 adc:3 jp:3 psc:3 n:2 stewart:2 emerson:2 st:2 leonard:2 saunders:2 msc:2 december:1 title:1 replace:1 fill:1 incumbent:1 onwards:1 band:10 also:1 february:1 barbados:1 wear:1 zouaves:1 originally:1 indie:1 break:1 independence:1 become:1 gain:1 current:1 ship:4 active:2 length:1 max:1 speed:1 capacity:1 class:2 hmjs:11 cornwall:1 knot:5 county:3 middlesex:1 surrey:1 bogle:1 hero:1 fort:2 charles:1 retire:1 yoruba:1 coromante:1 mandingo:1 discovery:1 bay:3 holland:1 manatee:1 list:1 currently:1 aircraft:3 style:6 text:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 note:1 bell:3 helicopter:3 britten:1 norman:1 islander:1 cessna:1 diamond:1 trainer:2 f:1 eurocopter:1 squirrel:1 commission:1 commodore:1 captain:2 lieutenant:7 sg:1 jg:1 enlist:1 master:2 petty:4 warrant:2 ii:1 colour:1 lead:1 seaman:3 corporal:2 able:1 lance:1 ordinary:1 private:1 reference:1 senior:1 biography:1 gleaner:1 change:1 land:1 britain:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 |@bigram commonwealth_realm:1 enlisted_soldier:1 west_indies:1 indies_federation:1 infantry_regiment:2 drug_smuggling:1 lt_colonel:1 infantry_battalion:3 maritime_patrol:1 chief_staff:2 rear_admiral:3 west_indie:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 britten_norman:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 lance_corporal:1 external_link:1 |
1,282 | Mennonite | The Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496–1561), through his writings articulated, and thereby, formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The teachings of the Mennonites were founded on both the mission and ministry of Jesus Christ, which they held to with great conviction despite persecution by the various Catholic and Reformist states. Rather than fight, the majority survived by fleeing to neighboring "states" where ruling families were tolerant of their radical belief in adult baptism. Over the years, Mennonites have become known as one of the historic peace churches given their commitment to nonviolence. There are about 1.5 million Mennonites worldwide as of 2006. 2006 Mennonite & Brethren in Christ World Membership - Mennonite World Conference Mennonite congregations worldwide embody the full scope of Mennonite practice from old fashioned 'plain' people to those who are indistinguishable in dress and appearance from the general population. The largest populations of Mennonites are in the United States, Canada and Democratic Republic of Congo, but Mennonites can also be found in tight-knit communities in at least 51 countries on six continents or scattered amongst the populace of those countries. There are also a significant number of Mennonites scattered throughout China. There are German Mennonite colonies in Mexico, Paraguay, Paraguay's Mennonites resent 'fast buck' outsiders Bolivia, Bolivian Reforms Raise Anxiety on Mennonite Frontier, New York Times Belize, Brazil and Argentina and there remains a small congregation in the Netherlands where Menno was born. The Mennonite Disaster Service, based in North America, provides both immediate and long-term responses to hurricanes, floods, and other disasters. The Mennonite Central Committee provides disaster relief around the world alongside their long-term international development programs. Other programs offer a variety of relief efforts and services throughout the world. In the last few decades some Mennonite groups have also become more actively involved with peace and social justice issues, helping to found Christian Peacemaker Teams and Mennonite Conciliation Service. Radical Reformation Ulrich Zwingli The early history of the Mennonites starts with the Anabaptists in the German and Dutch-speaking parts of central Europe. The German term is "Täufer" (that is, Baptists). These forerunners of modern Mennonites were part of the broad reaction against the practices and theology of the Roman Catholic Church known as the Protestant Reformation. Its most distinguishing feature is the rejection of infant baptism, an act that had both religious and political meaning since almost every infant born in Western Europe was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church. Other significant theological views of the Mennonites developed in opposition to Roman Catholic views or to the views of other Protestant reformers like Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli. Some of the followers of Zwingli's Reformed church felt that requiring church membership beginning at birth was inconsistent with the New Testament example. They felt that the church should be completely removed from government (the proto-free church tradition), and that people should join only once they were willing to publicly acknowledge that they believed in Jesus and wanted to live in accordance with his teachings. At a small meeting on January 21, 1525, Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, and George Blaurock, along with twelve others, baptized each other. This meeting marks the beginning of the Anabaptist movement. In the spirit of the times, many radical groups followed, preaching any number of ideas about hierarchy, the state, eschatology, and sexual license, running from utter abandon to extreme chastity. These movements are together referred to as the Radical Reformation. Many government and religious leaders, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, considered voluntary church membership to be dangerous — the concern of some deepened by reports of the Münster Rebellion, led by a violent sect of Anabaptists. They joined forces to fight the movement, using methods such as persecution, banishment, torture, and sometimes executing them as heretics. Despite heavy efforts of the state churches, the movement spread slowly around Western Europe, primarily along the Rhine. Many of the earliest Anabaptist leaders were killed in an attempt to purge Europe of the new sect. By 1530, most of the founding leaders had been killed for refusing to renounce their beliefs. Many believed that God did not condone killing or the use of force for any reason and were therefore unwilling to fight for their lives. These pacifist branches often survived by seeking refuge in neutral cities or nations, such as Strasbourg. Their safety, however, was often tenuous, as a shift in alliances or an invasion could mean resumed persecution. Other groups of Anabaptists, such as the Batenburgers, were eventually destroyed by their very willingness to fight. This played a large part in the evolution of Anabaptist theology. Menno Simons In the early days of the Anabaptist movement, Menno Simons, a Catholic priest in the Netherlands, heard of the movement and started to rethink his Catholic faith. He questioned the doctrine of transubstantiation, but was reluctant to leave the Roman Catholic Church. His thinking was influenced by the death of his brother, who, as a member of an Anabaptist group, was killed when he and his companions were attacked and refused to defend themselves. In 1536, at the age of 40, Simons left the Roman Catholic Church. Soon thereafter he became a leader within the Anabaptist movement. He would become a hunted man with a price on his head for the rest of his life. His name became associated with scattered groups of nonviolent Anabaptists he helped to organize and consolidate. Fragmentation and variation During the sixteenth century, the Mennonites and other Anabaptists were relentlessly persecuted. By the seventeenth century, some of them joined the state church in Switzerland, and persuaded the authorities to relent in their attacks. The Mennonites outside the state church were divided on whether to remain in communion with their brothers within the state church, and this led to a split. Those against remaining in communion with them became known as the Amish, after their founder Jacob Amman. Those who remained in communion with them retained the name Mennonite. This period of persecution has had a significant impact on Mennonite identity. Martyrs Mirror, published in 1660, documents much of the persecution of Anabaptists and their predecessors. Today, the book is still the most important book besides the Bible for many Mennonites and Amish, in particular for the Swiss-South German branch of Mennonitism. Persecution was still going on until 1710 in various parts of Switzerland. Other disagreements over the years have led to other splits; sometimes the reasons were theological, sometimes practical, sometimes geographical. For instance, near the beginning of the twentieth century, there were some members in the Amish church who wanted to begin having Sunday Schools and evangelize. Unable to persuade the rest of the Amish, they separated and formed the Conservative Mennonite Conference. Mennonites in Canada and other countries typically have independent denominations because of the practical considerations of distance and, in some cases, language. The first recorded account of this group is in a written order by Countess Anne, who ruled a small province in central Europe. The presence of some small groups of violent Anabaptists was causing political and religious turmoil in her state, so she decreed that all Anabaptists were to be driven from her state. The order made an exception though, for the non-violent branch known at that time as the Menists. This order set the precedent that was to be repeated many times throughout history, where a political ruler would allow the Menists or Mennonites into his/her state because they were honest, hardworking and peaceful. However, inevitably, their presence would upset the powerful state churches, princes would renege on exemptions for military service, or a new monarch would take power, and the Mennonites would once again be forced to flee for their lives, usually leaving everything but their families behind. Often, another monarch in another state would grant them welcome, at least for a while. Mennonite churches blended into city architecture to avoid offending the religious sensibilities of the majority. Doopsgezinde Gemeente, Amsterdam. While Mennonites in Colonial America were enjoying a large degree of religious freedom, their counterparts in Europe were in the same situation they always had been. Their well-being still depended on a ruling monarch, who would often extend an invitation only when there was poor soil that no one else could farm; the exception to this rule being in The Netherlands, where the Mennonites (nl: Doopsgezinden) enjoyed a relatively high degree of tolerance. The Mennonites would reclaim this land through hard work and good sense, in exchange for exemption from mandatory military service. However, once the land was arable again, this arrangement would often change, and the persecution would begin again. Because the land still needed to be tended, the ruler would not drive out the Mennonites but would actually pass laws to force them to stay, while at the same time severely limiting their freedom. Mennonites had to build their churches facing onto back streets or alleys, and they were forbidden from announcing the beginning of services with the sound of a bell. In addition, high taxes were enacted in exchange for both continuing the military service exemption, and to keep the states' best farmers from leaving. In some cases, the entire congregation would give up their belongings to pay the tax to be allowed to leave. If a member or family could not afford the tax, it was often paid by others in the group. A strong emphasis on "community" was developed under these circumstances and continues to be typical of Mennonite churches. As a result of frequently being required to give up many possessions in order to retain individual freedoms, these Mennonites learned to live very simply. This was reflected both in the home and at church, where their dress and their buildings were plain. Even the music at church, which was usually simple German chorales, was performed a cappella. This style of music serves as a reminder to many Mennonites of their simple lives, as well as their history as a persecuted people. Some branches of Mennonites have retained this "plain" lifestyle into modern times. Jacob Amman and the Amish In 1693 Jacob Amman led an effort to reform the Mennonite church: to include shunning (social avoidance of baptised members who left the church), to hold communion more often, and other differences. When the discussions fell through, Jacob and his followers split from the Mennonite church. Amman's followers became known as the Amish. The acrimony between the two groups was so severe that they reportedly refused to talk to each other when they found themselves together on the same boat sailing to America. Russian Mennonites In 1768 Catherine the Great of Russia acquired a great deal of land north of the Black Sea (in the present-day Ukraine) following a war with the Turks. Russian government officials invited those Mennonites living in Prussia to come farm the cold, tough soil of the Russian steppes in exchange for religious freedom and military exemption. Over the years the Mennonite farmers were very successful. By the beginning of the 20th century they owned large agricultural estates and were even successful as industrial entrepreneurs in the cities. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War (1917-1921) all of these farms (whose owners were called Kulaks) and enterprises were expropriated. Beyond expropriation, Mennonites suffered severe persecution during the course of the Civil War, at the hands of both the Bolsheviks and, particularly, the anarchists of Nestor Makhno who saw Mennonites as privileged foreigners of the upper class and targeted them. Hundreds of Mennonite men, women and children were murdered in these attacks. After the war people who openly followed religion were in many cases imprisoned. This led to a wave of Russian Mennonite emigration to the Americas (U.S., Canada and Paraguay). When the German army invaded the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941, many in the Mennonite community saw them as liberators from the communist regime under which they had suffered. When the tide of war turned, many of the Mennonites fled with the German army back to Germany where they were accepted as "Volksdeutsche". After the war the remainder of the Mennonite community emigrated or, (because, as the Soviets saw it, they had "collectively collaborated" with the Germans) was forcefully relocated to Siberia and Kazakhstan, and many were sent to the Gulag. Many German-Russian Mennonites who lived further to the East (not Western Russia) were deported to Siberia before the German army's invasion, and were also often placed in labor camps. In the 1990s the Russian government gave these people the opportunity to emigrate. The Russian Mennonite immigrants in Germany outnumber the pre-1989 community of Mennonites in Germany by 3 to 1. North America Persecution and the search for employment forced Mennonites out of the Netherlands eastward to Germany in the 17th century. As Quaker evangelists moved into Germany they received a sympathetic audience among the larger of these Dutch-Mennonite congregations around Krefeld, Altona-Hamburg, Gronau and Emden. Smith p.139 It was among this group of Quakers and Mennonites, living under ongoing discrimination, that William Penn solicited settlers for his new colony. The first permanent settlement of Mennonites in the American Colonies consisted of one Mennonite family and twelve Mennonite-Quaker Smith p.360. Smith uses Mennonite-Quaker to refer to Quakers who were formerly Mennonite and retained distinctive Mennonite beliefs and practices. families of Dutch extraction who arrived from Krefeld, Germany, in 1683 and settled in Germantown, Pennsylvania. Among these early settlers was William Rittenhouse, a lay minister and owner of the first American paper mill. Jacob Gottschalk was the first bishop of this Germantown congregation. This early group of Mennonites and Mennonite-Quakers wrote the first formal protest against slavery in the United States. The treatise was addressed to slave-holding Quakers in an effort to persuade them to change their ways. See A Minute Against Slavery, Addressed to Germantown Monthly Meeting, 1688 for text of the meetings message. In the eighteenth century, 100,000 Germans from the Palatinate, collectively known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, emigrated to Pennsylvania. Of these, around 2,500 were Mennonites and 500 Amish. Pannabacker p. 7. This group settled farther west than the first group, choosing less expensive land in the Lancaster, Pennsylvania, area. A member of this second group, Christopher Dock, authored Pedagogy, the first American monograph on education. Today, Mennonites also reside in Kishacoquillas Valley (also known as Big Valley), a valley in Huntingdon and Mifflin counties, also in Pennsylvania. During the Colonial period, Mennonites were distinguished from other Pennsylvania Germans in three ways: Pannabacker p. 12. their opposition to the American Revolutionary War, resistance to public education, and disapproval of religious revivalism. Contributions of Mennonites during this period include the idea of separation of church and state and opposition to slavery. From 1812 to 1860, another wave of immigrants settled farther west in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri. These Swiss-German speaking Mennonites, along with Amish, came from Switzerland and the Alsace-Lorraine area. Mennonite Church logo The Swiss-German Mennonites that emigrated to North America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries settled first in Pennsylvania, then across the Midwestern states (initially Ohio, Indiana, and Kansas) are the root to the former Mennonite Church denomination (MC), colloquially called the "Old Mennonite Church". This denomination had offices in Elkhart, Indiana, and was the most populous Mennonite denomination before merging with the General Conference Mennonite Church (GCMC) in 2002. General Conference Mennonite Church logo The General Conference Mennonite Church was an association of Mennonite congregations based in North America beginning in 1860. The conference was formed in 1860 when congregations in Iowa invited North American Mennonites to join together in order to pursue common goals such as education and mission work. The conference was especially attractive to recent Mennonite and Amish immigrants to North America and expanded considerably when thousands of Russian Mennonites arrived in North America starting in the 1870s. Conference offices were located in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and North Newton, Kansas. The conference supported a seminary and several colleges. It became the second largest Mennonite denomination with 64,431 members in 410 congregations in Canada, the United States and South America in the 1990s. Horsch, p. 16 After decades of increasingly closer cooperation with the Mennonite Church, the two groups voted to merge in 1995 and completed reorganization into Mennonite Church Canada in 2000 and Mennonite Church USA in 2002. Mennonites in Canada were automatically exempt from any type of service during World War I by provisions of the Order in Council of 1873. During World War II, Mennonite conscientious objectors were given the options of noncombatant military service, serving in the medical or dental corps under military control or working in parks and on roads under civilian supervision. Over 95% chose the latter and were placed in Alternative Service camps. Gingerich p. 420. Initially the men worked on road building, forestry and firefighting projects. After May 1943, as a labour shortage developed within the nation, men were shifted into agriculture, education and industry. The 10,700 Canadian objectors were mostly Mennonites (63%) and Doukhobors (20%). Krahn, pp. 76-78. Mennonite conscientious objector Harry Lantz distributes rat poison for typhus control in Gulfport, Mississippi (1946). In the United States, Civilian Public Service (CPS) provided an alternative to military service during World War II. From 1941 to 1947, 4,665 Mennonites, Amish and Brethren in Christ Gingerich p. 452. were among nearly 12,000 conscientious objectors who performed work of national importance in 152 CPS camps throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. The draftees worked in areas such as soil conservation, forestry, fire fighting, agriculture, social services and mental health. The CPS men served without wages and minimal support from the federal government. The cost of maintaining the CPS camps and providing for the needs of the men was the responsibility of their congregations and families. Mennonite Central Committee coordinated the operation of the Mennonite camps. CPS men served longer than regular draftees, not being released until well past the end of the war. Initially skeptical of the program, government agencies learned to appreciate the men's service and requested more workers from the program. CPS made significant contributions to forest fire prevention, erosion and flood control, medical science and reform of the mental health system. Schisms Prior to migration to America, Anabaptists in Europe were divided between those of Dutch and Swiss-German background. However, both Dutch and Swiss groups took their name from Menno Simons who led the Dutch group. A trickle of Dutch Mennonites began the migration to America in 1683, followed by a much larger migration of Swiss-German Mennonites beginning in 1707. After immigration to America, many of the early Mennonites split from the main body of North American Mennonites and formed their own separate and distinct churches, a process that began in 1785 with the formation of the orthodox Reformed Mennonite Church and is ongoing today. Many of these churches were formed as a response to deep disagreements about theology, doctrine, and church discipline as evolution both inside and outside the Mennonite faith occurred. Many of the 'modern' churches descended from those groups that abandoned traditional Mennonite practices. Today, the groups that have held to the traditional interpretations of Mennonite doctrine are increasing at a more rapid rate than those groups that have rejected these standards. However, the moderate denominations are still by far the largest and continue to grow at a steady rate. These historical schisms have had an influence on creating the distinct Mennonite denominations that exist today. Such divisions continue to go on today as one group claims its version of the Mennonite faith and splits from the parent denomination or church, sometimes using mild or severe shunning to show its disapproval of other Mennonite groups. One recent and widely reported example of this is the expulsion of the Germantown Mennonite Church in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from the Franconia Conference and later the Mennonite Church USA denomination for welcoming LGBT people as church members. Schools Several Mennonites groups have their own private or parochial schools. Conservative groups, like the Holdeman, have not only their own schools, but their own curriculum and teaching staff (usually, but not exclusively, young unmarried women). Controversy in Quebec Quebec does not allow these parochial schools as the Quebec government imposes its curriculum on all schools (public and private), while private schools may only add optional material to the compulsory curriculum but may not replace it. The Quebec curriculum is unacceptable Forced Education in Homosexuality and Evolution Leads to Exodus of Mennonites from Quebec to the parents of the only Mennonite school in the province. They have said they will leave Quebec after the Education Ministry has threatened legal actions would be taken and the Youth Protection services might become involved if the children were not to register with the Education Ministry and either home school, using the Government approved material, or attend a "sanctioned" school. The local population and its mayor support Townsfolk sad to see Mennonites move away the local Mennonites. The Evangelical Fellowship of Canada has also written to the Quebec government to express its concerns http://www.christianity.ca/news/national/2007/09.000.html about this situation. This story has received quite a large echo in circles defending religious freedom, so much so that the Becket Fund placed Quebec on its weekly report of threatened religious traditions IRFN (Aug. 21-28): Austrian Politician Proposes Ban on Mosques, Minarets . Latest reports indicate that several Mennonites families have already left Quebec to protect their children globeandmail.com . Sexual, marriage, and family mores The Mennonite church has no formal celibate religious order similar to monasticism, but recognizes the legitimacy of and honors both the single state and the sanctity of marriage of its members. Single persons are expected to be chaste, and marriage is held to be a lifelong, monogamous, faithful covenant between a man and a woman. Divorce is discouraged, and it is believed that the "hardness of the heart" of people is the ultimate cause of divorce. Some Mennonite churches have disciplined members who have unilaterally divorced their spouses outside of cases of sexual unfaithfulness or acute abuse. Until approximately the 1960s or 1970s, before the more widespread urbanization of the Mennonite demographic, divorce was, in fact, quite rare. In recent times, divorce is more common, and also carries less stigma, particularly in cases where abuse was apparent. Traditionally, very modest dress was expected (apparent mostly in women's apparel), particularly in conservative Mennonite circles, but again, as the Mennonite population became urbanized and more integrated into the wider culture, this visible difference has disappeared outside of conservative Mennonite groups. Some of these expelled congregations were dually affiliated with the Mennonite Church and the General Conference Mennonite Church, the latter of which did not act to expel the same congregations. When these two Mennonite denominations formally completed their merger in 2002 to become the new Mennonite Church USA and Mennonite Church Canada denominations, it was still not clear, in all cases, whether or not the congregations that were expelled from one denomination, yet included in the other, are considered to be "inside" or "outside" of the new merged denomination. Also, some Mennonite conferences have chosen to maintain such "disciplined" congregations as "associate" or "affiliate" congregations in the conferences, rather than to expel such congregations. In virtually every case, a dialogue continues between the disciplined congregations and the denomination, as well as their current or former conferences. Religious Tolerance.org: The Mennonite Churches and Homosexuality Currently, the Brethren Mennonite Council for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender interests is engaged in working to change views about homosexuality within Mennonite and Brethren churches, as well as to provide support for LGBT people within the Anabaptist tradition. The Mennonite church in the Netherlands (Doopsgezinde Kerk) was the first Dutch church to have a female pastor — Anna Zernike, authorized in 1911. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online: Mankes-Zernike, Anna (1887-1972) Theology Mennonite theology emphasizes the primacy of the teachings of Jesus as recorded in New Testament scripture. They hold in common the ideal of a religious community based on New Testament models and imbued with the spirit of the Sermon on the Mount. Their core beliefs deriving from Anabaptist traditions are: The authority of Scripture and the Holy Spirit. Salvation through faith in Jesus Christ Believer's baptism understood as threefold: Baptism by the spirit (internal change of heart), baptism by water (public demonstration of witness), and baptism by blood (martyrdom and asceticism or the practice of strict self-denial as a measure of personal and especially spiritual discipline). Discipleship understood as an outward sign of an inward change. Discipline in the church, informed by New Testament teaching, particularly of Jesus (for example ). Some Mennonite churches practice the Meidung (shunning). The Lord's Supper understood as a memorial rather than as a sacrament or Christian rite, ideally shared by baptized believers within the unity and discipline of the church. In connection with the Lord's Supper, some Mennonites practice feet washing as continuing outer sign of humility within the church. Feet washing was not originally an Anabaptist practice. Pilgram Marpeck before 1556 included it, and it became widespread in the late 1500s and the 1600s. Today it is practiced by some as a memorial sacrament, in memory of Christ washing the feet of his disciples as recorded in the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of John. One of the earliest expressions of their faith was the Schleitheim Confession, adopted on February 24, 1527. Its seven articles covered: Believer's baptism The Ban (excommunication) Breaking of bread (Communion) Separation from and shunning of the abomination (the Roman Catholic Church and other "worldly" groups and practices) Pastors in the church Renunciation of the sword (nonresistance, nonviolence and pacifism) Renunciation of the oath (swearing as proof of truth) The Dordrecht Confession of Faith was adopted on April 21, 1632, by Dutch Mennonites, by Alsatian Mennonites in 1660, and by North American Mennonites in 1725. There is no official creed or catechism of which acceptance is required by congregations or members. However, there are structures and traditions taught as in the Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective of Mennonite Church Canada and Mennonite Church USA. Worship, doctrine, and tradition There is a wide scope of worship, doctrine and traditions among Mennonites today. This section shows the main types of Mennonites as seen from North America. It is far from a specific study of all Mennonite classifications worldwide but it does show a somewhat representative sample of the complicated classifications within the Mennonite faith worldwide. Moderate Mennonites include the largest denominations, the Mennonite Brethren and the Mennonite Church. In most forms of worship and practice they differ very little from other Protestant congregations. There is no special form of dress and no restrictions on use of technology. Worship styles vary greatly between different congregations. There is no formal liturgy; services typically consist of singing, scripture reading, prayer and a sermon. Some churches prefer hymns and choirs; others make use of contemporary Christian music with electronic instruments. Mennonite congregations are self-supporting and appoint their own ministers. There is no requirement for ministers to be approved by the denomination, and sometimes ministers from other denominations will be appointed. A small sum, based on membership numbers, is paid to the denomination, which is used to support central functions such as publication of newsletters and interactions with other denominations and other countries. The distinguishing characteristics of moderate Mennonite churches tend to be ones of emphasis rather than rule. There is an emphasis on peace, on community and service. However, members do not live in community — they participate in the general community as 'salt and light' to the world (Matt 5:13,14). The main elements of Menno Simons' doctrine are retained, but in a moderated form. Banning is rarely practiced and would in any event have much less effect than those denominations where community is more tight-knit. Excommunication can occur, and was notably applied by the Mennonite Brethren to members who joined the military during the Second World War. Service in the military is generally not permitted, but service in the legal profession or law enforcement is acceptable. Outreach and help to the wider community at home and abroad is encouraged. Mennonite Central Committee is a leader in foreign aid provision. The Reformed Mennonite Church, with members in the United States and Canada, represents the first division in the original North American Mennonite body. Called the First Keepers of the Old Way by author Stephen Scott, the Reformed Mennonite Church formed in the very early 19th century. Reformed Mennonites see themselves as true followers of Menno Simons' teachings and of the teachings of the New Testament. They have no church rules, but they rely solely on the Bible as their guide. They insist on strict separation from all other forms of worship and dress in conservative plain garb that preserves eighteenth century Mennonite details. However, they refrain from forcing their Mennonite faith on their children, allow their children to attend public schools, and have permitted the use of automobiles. They are notable for being the church of Milton S. Hershey's mother and famous for the long and bitter ban of Robert Bear, a Pennsylvania farmer who rebelled against what he saw as dishonesty and disunity in the leadership. Holdeman Mennonites were founded from a schism in 1859, the Church of God in Christ, Mennonite church has about 19,000 members worldwide. They are known as Holdeman Mennonites after their founder. They emphasize evangelical conversion, strict church discipline and shunning of the excommunicated. They stay separate from other Mennonite groups because of their emphasis on the one-true church doctrine and their use of strict shunning against their own excommunicated members. Old Order Mennonites cover many distinct groups. Some groups use horse and buggies for transportation and speak German while others drive cars and speak English. What most Old Orders share in common is conservative doctrine, dress, and traditions, common roots in nineteenth and early twentieth century schisms, and a refusal to participate in politics and other so-called 'sins of the world'. Most Old Order groups also school their children in Mennonite-operated schools. Mennonite Horse and Carriage Horse and Buggy Old Order Mennonites came from the main series of Old Order schisms that began in 1872 and ended in 1901 as conservative Mennonites fought the radical changes that the influence of nineteenth century American revivalism had on Mennonite worship. Most Horse and Buggy Old Order Mennonites allow the use of tractors for farming, although some groups insist on steel-wheeled tractors to prevent tractors from being used for road transportation. Like the Stauffer or Pike Mennonites, they stress separation from the world, excommunicate and wear plain clothes. Unlike the Stauffer or Pike Mennonites their form of the Ban is less severe because the ex-communicant is not shunned, therefore is not excluded from the family table, shunned by a spouse or cutoff from business dealings. Automobile Old Order Mennonites also evolved from the main series of Old Order schisms from 1872-1901. They often share the same meeting houses with, and adhere to almost identical forms of Old Order worship as their Horse and Buggy Old Order brethren with whom they parted ways in the early 1900s. Although this group began using cars in 1927, the cars were required to be plain and painted black. The largest group of Automobile Old Orders are still known today as 'Black Bumper' Mennonites because some members still paint their chrome bumpers black. Stauffer Mennonites or Pike Mennonites represent the first and most conservative form of Horse and Buggy Mennonites. They were founded in 1845, following conflicts about how to discipline child and spousal abuse by a few Mennonite church members. They almost immediately began to split into separate churches themselves. Today these groups are among the most conservative of all Swiss Mennonites outside the Amish. They stress strict separation from "the world", adhere to "strict withdrawal from and shunning of apostate and separated members", forbid and limit cars and technology, and wear plain clothing. They are now considered to be part of the larger less-conservative Horse and Buggy Old Order Mennonite group which formed from later schisms. Conservative Mennonites are generally considered those Mennonites who maintain somewhat conservative dress, although carefully accepting other technology. They are not a unified group and are divided into various independent conferences and fellowships such as the Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church conference. Despite the rapid changes that precipitated the Old Order schisms in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, most Mennonites in the United States and Canada retained a core of traditional beliefs based on literal interpretation of the New Testament Scriptures as well as more external 'Plain' practices into the beginning of the twentieth century. However, disagreements in the United States and Canada between conservative and progressive (i.e. less emphasis on literal interpretation of scriptures) leaders began in the first half of the twentieth century and continue to some extent today. Following WWII, a conservative movement emerged from scattered separatist groups as a reaction to the Mennonite Churches drifting away from the churches historical traditions. 'Plain' became passe as open criticisms of traditional beliefs and practices broke out in the 1950s and 1960s. The first conservative withdrawals from the progressive group began in the 1950s. These withdrawals continue to the present day in what is now the growing Conservative Movement formed from Mennonite schisms and/or from combinations with progressive Amish groups. Other Conservative Mennonite groups descend from the former Amish-Mennonite churches, who split from the Old Order Amish in the latter part of the nineteenth century like the Wisler Mennonites. There are also other Conservative Mennonite churches that descend from more recent groups that have left the Amish. Progressive Mennonite churches allow homosexual members to worship as church members and have been banned from membership in some cases in the moderate groups as result. The Germantown Mennonite Church in Germantown, Pennsylvania is one example of such a progressive Mennonite church. http://www.cnn.com/us/9711/05/gay.mennonite/ Progressive Mennonite Churches place a great emphasis on the Mennonite tradition's teachings on peace and non-violence. Membership Mennonite children selling peanuts near Lamanai in Belize. In 2006, there were 1,478,540 Mennonites in 65 countries. The United States had the highest number of Mennonites with 368,280 members, followed by Democratic Republic of Congo with 216,268 members. The third largest concentration of Mennonites was in India with 146,095 members, while the fourth largest population was in Canada with 131,384 members. Europe, the birthplace of Mennonites, had 52,222 members. Africa has the highest membership growth rate by far with 10%-12% rise every year, particularly in Ethiopia. Growth in Mennonite membership is slow but steady in North America, the Asia/Pacific region, and the South/Central America and Caribbean region. Europe has seen a slow and accelerating decline in Mennonite membership since about 1980. Some churches in North America have begun profiling potential members and with some success have targeted inner city minorities in their recruitment efforts. Growth in the traditional churches is outpacing growth in the moderate churches. Organization: Worldwide The most basic unit of organization among Mennonites is the church. There are hundreds or thousands of Mennonite churches, many of which are separate from all others. Some churches are members of regional or area conferences. Some, but far from all, regional or area conferences are members of larger national or world conferences. Thus, there is no single authorized organization that includes all Mennonite churches worldwide. Instead, there is a host of separate churches along with a myriad of separate conferences with no particular responsibility to any other group. Independent churches can contain as few as 50 members or as many as 20,000 members. Similar size differences occur among separate conferences. Worship, church discipline and lifestyles vary widely between progressive, moderate, conservative, Old Order and orthodox Mennonites in a vast panoply of distinct, independent, and widely dispersed classifications. For these reasons, no single group of Mennonites anywhere can credibly claim to represent, speak for, or lead all Mennonites worldwide. The twelve largest Mennonite groups are: Mennonite Brethren (300,000 members on 6 continents worldwide) Meserete Kristos Church in Ethiopia (120,600 members;126,000 more followers attending alike churches) Mennonite Weekly Review, 2004-10-12, Ethiopian church strives to keep spiritual fires alive Mennonite Church USA with 114,000 members in the United States Brethren in Christ with 100,000 US and worldwide members Communauté Mennonite au Congo (87,000). Kanisa La Mennonite Tanzania with 50,000 members in 240 congregations Deutsche Mennonitengemeinden with 40,000 members in Germany Mennonite Church Canada with 35,000 members in Canada Conservative Mennonites with 30,000 members in over 500 US churches (2008 CLP church directory). Does not include Beachy Amish listed below. Church of God in Christ, Mennonite with 16,000 members in 240 US churches and 2000 members in 13 other countries (1995 data) Conservative Mennonite Conference, 11,000 members in the North America, plus 34,000 affiliate members in 8 countries worldwide. Beachy Amish Mennonite, with 10,000 US members (159 congregations) plus many international locations. The Mennonite World Conference is a global community of 95 Mennonite and Brethren in Christ Mennonite national Churches from 51 countries on six continents. It exists to "facilitate community between Anabaptist-related churches worldwide, and relate to other Christian world communions and organizations", but it is not a 'governing body' of any kind. It is a voluntary community of faith whose decisions are not binding on member churches. The member churches of Mennonite World Conference include the Mennonite Brethren, the Mennonite Church USA, and the Mennonite Church Canada, with a combined total membership of at least 400,000, or about 30% of Mennonites worldwide. Organization: North America Alexanderwohl Mennonite Church in rural Goessel, Kansas In 2003, there were about 323,000 Mennonites in the United States. United States and Worldwide Mennonite Membership Statistics (source Mennonite Church USA) About 110,000 were members of Mennonite Church USA churches, about 26,000 were members of Mennonite Brethren churches, and about 40,000 (2008 CLP church directory) were members of conservative churches. It is not known how many old order Mennonites there are. (That leaves about 147,000 Mennonites unaccounted for in other United States' churches). Other sources list 236,084 total United States Mennonites. Total membership in Mennonite Church USA denominations decreased from about 133,000, before the merger in 1998, to about 114,000 after the merger in 2003. The Mennonite Church USA has begun profiling potential members and has been successful at recruiting inner-city minorities into the church in several large cities in the United States. Significant growth in the conservative churches seems to be occurring by itself in the already existing communities. In Canada, in 2003 there were around 130,000 Mennonites. About 37,000 of those were members of Mennonite Church Canada churches and about another 35,000 of those were members of Mennonite Brethren churches. About 5,000 belonged to conservative Old Order Mennonite churches, or other ultra-conservative and orthodox churches. (That leaves about 55,000 Mennonites unaccounted for in other Canadian churches). As of 2003, there were an estimated 80,000 Old Colony Mennonites in Mexico. These Mennonites descend from a mass migration in the 1920s of roughly 6,000 Old Colony Mennonites from the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. In 1921, a Canadian Mennonite delegation arriving in Mexico received a privilegium, a promise of non-interference, from the Mexican government. This guarantee of many freedoms was the impetus that created the two original Old Colony settlements near Patos(Nuevo Ideal), Durango, and Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online: Old Colony Mennonites See also Anabaptism Amish Goshen College Guy Hershberger Hutterites Mennonite Central Committee Mennonite Church Canada Mennonite denominations Mennonites in France John Howard Yoder Schleitheim Confession Shunning Excommunication Simple living Eastern Mennonite Missions Virginia Mennonite Missions Mennonite settlements of Altai Germans of Paraguay Mennonites in Mexico Mennonites in Belize Ten Thousand Villages Hans Reist Mennonite Disaster Service Notes References Gingerich, Melvin (1949), Service for Peace, A History of Mennonite Civilian Public Service, Mennonite Central Committee. Horsch, James E. (Ed.) (1999), Mennonite Directory, Herald Press. ISBN 0-8361-9454-3 Krahn, Cornelius, Gingerich, Melvin & Harms, Orlando (Eds.) (1955). The Mennonite Encyclopedia, Volume I, pp. 76–78. Mennoniite Publishing House. Mennonite & Brethren in Christ World Directory 2003. Available On-line at http://www.mwc-cmm.org/Directory/index.htm Pannabecker, Samuel Floyd (1975), Open Doors: A History of the General Conference Mennonite Church, Faith and Life Press. ISBN 0-87303-636-0 Scott, Stephen (1995), An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups, Good Books, ISBN 1-56148-101-7 Smith, C. Henry (1981), Smith's Story of the Mennonites Fifth Edition, Faith and Life Press. ISBN 0-87303-060-5 External links Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online (GAMEO) Quaqua Society -- Road to Wisconsin v. 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1,283 | Eusebius_of_Nicomedia | Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) was a bishop of Berytus (modern-day Beirut) in Phoenicia, then of Nicomedia where the imperial court resided in Bithynia, and finally of Constantinople from 338 up to his death. Influence in the Imperial family and the Imperial court Distantly related to the imperial family of Constantine, he not only owed his removal from an insignificant to the most important episcopal see to his influence at court, but the great power he wielded in the Church was derived from that source. In fact, during his time in the Imperial court, the Eastern court and the major positions in the Eastern Church were held by Arians or Arian sympathizers. Drake, "Constantine and the Bishops", pp.395. With the exception of a short period of eclipse, he enjoyed the complete confidence both of Constantine and Constantius II and was the tutor of the later Emperor Julian the Apostate; and it was he who baptized Constantine the Great in May, 337. Also during his time in the Imperial court, Arianism became more popular with the Royal family. Ellingsen, "Reclaiming Our Roots: An Inclusive Introduction to Church History, Vol. I, The Late First Century to the Eve of the Reformation", pp.121. . It can be logically surmised that Eusebius had a huge hand in the acceptance of Arianism in the Constantinian household. The Arian influence grew so strong during his tenure in the Imperial court that it wasn't until the end of the Constantinian dynasty and the appointment of Theodosius I that Arianism lost its influence in the Empire. Young, "From Nicaea to Chalcedon", pp.92. . It was of particular interest that Eusebius was nearly persecuted because of his close relationship to the Emperor Licinius while serving as Bishop of Nicomedia during Licinius' reign. Relations with Arius Like Arius, he was a pupil of Lucian of Antioch, and it is probable that he held the same views as Arius from the very beginning; he was also one of Arius' most fervent supporters who encouraged Arius. Jones, "Constantine and the Conversion of Europe", pp.121. It was also because of this relationship that he was the first person whom Arius contacted after the latter was excommunicated from Alexandria by Alexander. Young, "From Nicaea to Chalcedon", pp.59. . Apparently, Arius and Eusebius were close enough and Eusebius powerful enough that Arius was able to put his theology down in writing. Young, "From Nicaea to Chalcedon", pp.61. He afterward modified his ideas somewhat, or perhaps he only yielded to the pressure of circumstances; but he was, if not the teacher, at all events the leader and organizer, of the Arian party. At the First Council of Nicaea, 325, he signed the Confession, but only after a long and desperate opposition in which he "subscribe with hand only, not heart" Amidon, "The Church History of Rufinus of Aquileia: Books 10 and 11", 10.5. according to ancient sources. It was a huge blow to the Arian party since it was surmised that the participants in the First Council of Nicaea were evenly split between non-Arians and Arians. Lim, "Public Disputation, power, and social order in late antiquity", pp.183. His defense of Arius angered the emperor, and a few months after the council he was sent into exile due to his continual contacts with Arius and the exiles. Drake, "Constantine and the Bishops", pp.259. After the lapse of three years, he succeeded in regaining the imperial favor by convincing Constantine that Arius and his views do not conflict with the Nicene Creed. Roldanus, "The Church in the Age of Constantine: the Theological Challenges", pp.82. After his return in 329 he brought the whole machinery of the state government into action in order to impose his views upon the Church. Political and Religious career Eusebius was more of a politician than anything else, and a skilled one. Upon his return, he regained the lost ground resulted from the First Council of Nicaea, established alliances with other groups such as the Meletians and expelled many opponents. He was described by modern historians as an "ambitious intriguer" Roldanus, "The Church in the Age of Constantine: The Theological Challenges", pp.78. and a "consummate political player". Drake, "Constantine and the Bishops", pp.395. He was also described by ancient sources as a high-handed person who was also aggressive in his dealings. Amidon, "The Church History of Rufinus of Aquileia: Books 10 and 11", 10.12. ; he also used his allies to spy on his opponents. He was able to dislodge and exile three key Arian opponents who espoused the First Council of Nicaea: Eustathius of Antioch in 330, Athanasius of Alexandria in 335 and Marcellus of Ancyra in 336. This was no small feat since Athanasius was regarded as a "man of God" by Constantine. Roldanus, "The Church in the Age of Constantine: the Theological Challenges", pp.84. and both Eustathius and Athanasius held top positions in the church. Another major feat was his appointment as the Patriarch of Constantinople by expelling Paul I of Constantinople; Paul would eventually return as Patriarch after Eusebius' death. Even outside the empire, Eusebius had great influence. He brought Ulfilas into the Arian priesthood and sent the latter to convert the heathen Goths. Eusebius baptised Constantine the Great in his villa in Nicomedia, on May 22, 337 just before the death of the Emperor. Death and aftermath He died at the height of his power in the year 342. Drake, "Constantine and the Bishops", pp.393. He was so influential that even after his death, Constantius II heeded his and Eudoxus of Constantinople's advice to attempt to convert the Roman Empire to Arianism by creating Arian Councils and official Arian Doctrines. Guitton, "Great Heresies and Church Councils", pp.86. It was because of Eusebius that "On the whole, Constantine and his successors made life pretty miserable for Church leaders committed to the Nicene decision and its Trinitarian formula." Ellingsen, "Reclaiming Our Roots: An Inclusive Introduction to Church History, Vol. I, The Late First Century to the Eve of the Reformation", pp.119. Eusebius of Nicomedia is not to be confused with his contemporary Eusebius of Caesarea, the author of a well-known early book of Church History. Notes References External links Correspondence of Eusebiusof Nicomedia: Arius to Eusebius Eusebius to Arius Eusebius to Paulinus of Tyre Eusebius to the Council of Nicaea Constantine on Eusebius' deposition Eusebius' confession of faith | Eusebius_of_Nicomedia |@lemmatized eusebius:18 nicomedia:6 die:2 bishop:6 berytus:1 modern:2 day:1 beirut:1 phoenicia:1 imperial:8 court:7 reside:1 bithynia:1 finally:1 constantinople:4 death:5 influence:5 family:3 distantly:1 relate:1 constantine:16 owe:1 removal:1 insignificant:1 important:1 episcopal:1 see:1 great:5 power:3 wield:1 church:14 derive:1 source:3 fact:1 time:2 eastern:2 major:2 position:2 hold:3 arians:3 arian:8 sympathizer:1 drake:4 pp:15 exception:1 short:1 period:1 eclipse:1 enjoy:1 complete:1 confidence:1 constantius:2 ii:2 tutor:1 late:4 emperor:4 julian:1 apostate:1 baptize:1 may:2 also:6 arianism:4 become:1 popular:1 royal:1 ellingsen:2 reclaim:2 root:2 inclusive:2 introduction:2 history:5 vol:2 first:7 century:2 eve:2 reformation:2 logically:1 surmise:2 huge:2 hand:3 acceptance:1 constantinian:2 household:1 grow:1 strong:1 tenure:1 end:1 dynasty:1 appointment:2 theodosius:1 lose:2 empire:3 young:3 nicaea:8 chalcedon:3 particular:1 interest:1 nearly:1 persecute:1 close:2 relationship:2 licinius:2 serve:1 reign:1 relation:1 arius:13 like:1 pupil:1 lucian:1 antioch:2 probable:1 view:3 beginning:1 one:2 fervent:1 supporter:1 encourage:1 jones:1 conversion:1 europe:1 person:2 contact:2 latter:2 excommunicate:1 alexandria:2 alexander:1 apparently:1 enough:2 powerful:1 able:2 put:1 theology:1 writing:1 afterward:1 modify:1 idea:1 somewhat:1 perhaps:1 yield:1 pressure:1 circumstance:1 teacher:1 event:1 leader:2 organizer:1 party:2 council:8 sign:1 confession:2 long:1 desperate:1 opposition:1 subscribe:1 heart:1 amidon:2 rufinus:2 aquileia:2 book:3 accord:1 ancient:2 blow:1 since:2 participant:1 evenly:1 split:1 non:1 lim:1 public:1 disputation:1 social:1 order:2 antiquity:1 defense:1 anger:1 month:1 send:2 exile:3 due:1 continual:1 lapse:1 three:2 year:2 succeed:1 regain:2 favor:1 convince:1 conflict:1 nicene:2 creed:1 roldanus:3 age:3 theological:3 challenge:3 return:3 bring:2 whole:2 machinery:1 state:1 government:1 action:1 impose:1 upon:2 political:2 religious:1 career:1 politician:1 anything:1 else:1 skilled:1 ground:1 result:1 establish:1 alliance:1 group:1 meletians:1 expel:2 many:1 opponent:3 describe:2 historian:1 ambitious:1 intriguer:1 consummate:1 player:1 high:1 aggressive:1 dealing:1 use:1 ally:1 spy:1 dislodge:1 key:1 espouse:1 eustathius:2 athanasius:3 marcellus:1 ancyra:1 small:1 feat:2 regard:1 man:1 god:1 top:1 another:1 patriarch:2 paul:2 would:1 eventually:1 even:2 outside:1 ulfilas:1 priesthood:1 convert:2 heathen:1 goth:1 baptise:1 villa:1 aftermath:1 height:1 influential:1 heed:1 eudoxus:1 advice:1 attempt:1 roman:1 create:1 official:1 doctrine:1 guitton:1 heresy:1 successor:1 make:1 life:1 pretty:1 miserable:1 commit:1 decision:1 trinitarian:1 formula:1 confuse:1 contemporary:1 caesarea:1 author:1 well:1 know:1 early:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 correspondence:1 eusebiusof:1 paulinus:1 tyre:1 deposition:1 faith:1 |@bigram eusebius_nicomedia:2 distantly_relate:1 julian_apostate:1 arius_eusebius:3 council_nicaea:5 nicene_creed:1 anything_else:1 eustathius_antioch:1 athanasius_alexandria:1 marcellus_ancyra:1 patriarch_constantinople:1 eusebius_caesarea:1 external_link:1 constantine_eusebius:1 |
1,284 | Least_common_multiple | In arithmetic and number theory, the least common multiple or lowest common multiple (lcm) or smallest common multiple of two integers a and b is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple both of a and of b. Since it is a multiple, it can be divided by a and b without a remainder. If either a or b is 0, so that there is no such positive integer, then lcm(a, b) is defined to be zero. The definition is sometimes generalized for more than two integers: The lowest common multiple of integers a1, ..., an is the smallest positive integer that is a multiple of a1, ..., an. Example Multiples of 4 are: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, ... (add 4 to each to get the next). Multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, 72, 78, ... (add 6 to each to get the next). Common multiples of 4 and 6 are numbers that these two lists share in common: 12, 24, 36, 48, .... The least common multiple of 4 and 6 is therefore 12. Applications When adding, subtracting, or comparing vulgar fractions, it is useful to find the least common multiple of the denominators, often called the lowest common denominator, because each of the fractions can be expressed as a fraction with this denominator. For instance, where the denominator 42 was used because it is the least common multiple of 21 and 6. Computing the least common multiple Reduction to greatest common divisor The following formula reduces the problem of computing the least common multiple to the problem of computing the greatest common divisor (GCD): There are fast algorithms for computing the GCD that do not require the numbers to be factored, such as the Euclidean algorithm. To return to the example above, Because gcd(a, b) is a divisor of both a and b, it's more efficient to compute the LCM by dividing before multiplying: This reduces the size of one input for both the division and the multiplication, and reduces the required storage needed for intermediate results. Done this way, the previous example becomes: Finding least common multiples by prime factorization The unique factorization theorem says that every positive integer number greater than 1 can be written in only one way as a product of prime numbers. The prime numbers can be considered as the atomic elements which, when combined together, make up a composite number. For example: Here we have the composite number 90 made up of one atom of the prime number 2, two atoms of the prime number 3 and one atom of the prime number 5. This knowledge can be used to find the lcm of a set of numbers. Example: Find the value of lcm(8,9,21). First, factor out each number and express it as a product of prime number powers. The lcm will be the product of multiplying the highest power in each prime factor category together. Out of the 4 prime factor categories 2, 3, 5, and 7, the highest powers from each are 23, 32, 50, and 71. Thus, This method is not as efficient as reducing to the greatest common divisor, since there is no known general efficient algorithm for integer factorization, but is useful in illustrating concepts. This method can be illustrated using a Venn diagram as follows. Find the prime factorization of each of the two numbers. Put the prime factors into a Venn diagram with one circle for each of the two numbers, and all factors they share in common in the intersection. To find the LCM, just multiply all of the prime numbers in the diagram. Here is an example: 48 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3, 180 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5, and what they share in common is two "2"s and a "3": Least common multiple = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 = 720 Greatest common divisor = 2 × 2 × 3 = 12 This also works for the greatest common divisor (GCD), except that instead of multiplying all of the numbers in the Venn diagram, one multiplies only the prime factors that are in the intersection. Thus the GCD of 48 and 180 is 2 × 2 × 3 = 12. A third method This method works as easily for finding the LCM of several integers. Let there be a finite sequence of positive integers X = (x1, x2, ..., xn), n > 1. The algorithm proceeds in steps as follows: on each step m it examines and updates the sequence X(m) = (x1(m), x2(m), ..., xn(m)), X(1) = X. The purpose of the examination is to pick up the least (perhaps, one of many) element of the sequence X(m). Assuming xk0(m) is the selected element, the sequence X(m+1) is defined as xk(m+1) = xk(m), k ≠ k0 xk0(m+1) = xk0(m) + xk0. In other words, the least element is increased by the corresponding x whereas the rest of the elements pass from X(m) to X(m+1) unchanged. The algorithm stops when all elements in sequence X(m) are equal. Their common value L is exactly LCM(X). (For a proof and an interactive simulation see reference below, Algorithm for Computing the LCM.) A method using a table This method works for any number of factors. You begin by listing all of the numbers vertically in a table like this (We can try 4, 7, 12, 21, and 42): 4 7 12 21 42 The process begins by dividing all of the factors by 2. If any of them divide evenly, write 2 at the top of the table and the result of division by 2 of each factor in the space to the right of each factor and below the 2. If they do not divide evenly, just rewrite the number again. If 2 does not divide evenly into any of the numbers, try 3. x 2 4 2 7 7 12 6 21 21 42 21 Now, check if 2 divides again x 2 2 4 2 1 7 7 7 12 6 3 21 21 21 42 21 21 Once 2 no longer divides, divide by 3. If 3 no longer divides, try 5 and 7. keep going until all of the numbers have been reduced to 1. x 2 2 3 7 4 2 1 1 1 7 7 7 7 1 12 6 3 1 1 21 21 21 7 1 42 21 21 7 1 Now, multiply the numbers on the top and you have the LCM. In this case, it is 2 × 2 × 3 × 7 = 84. This is a variation on Euclid's algorithm, as common factors are essentially divided out along the way of dividing all of the numbers at once by each successive factor. You will get to the LCM the quickest if you use prime numbers and start from the lowest prime, 2. The lcm in commutative rings The least common multiple can be defined generally over commutative rings as follows: Let a and b be elements of a commutative ring R. A common multiple of a and b is an element m of R such that both a and b divide m (i.e. there exist elements x and y of R such that ax = m and by = m). A least common multiple of a and b is a common multiple that is minimal in the sense that for any other common multiple n of a and b, m divides n. In general, two elements in a commutative ring can have no least common multiple or more than one. However, any two least common multiples of the same pair of elements are associates. In a unique factorization domain, any two elements have a least common multiple. In a principal ideal domain, the least common multiple of a and b can be characterised as a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by a and b (the intersection of a collection of ideals is always an ideal). In principal ideal domains, one can even talk about the least common multiple of arbitrary collections of elements: it is a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by the elements of the collection. See also Greatest common divisor Anomalous cancellation Chebyshev function External links Online LCM calculator Online lcm calculator Online LCM calculator Online LCM and GCD calculator - displays also fractions of given numbers LCM Quiz Algorithm for Computing the LCM Least Common Multiple from Wolfram MathWorld | Least_common_multiple |@lemmatized arithmetic:1 number:27 theory:1 least:18 common:35 multiple:28 low:4 lcm:19 small:3 two:10 integer:10 b:14 positive:5 since:2 divide:14 without:1 remainder:1 either:1 define:3 zero:1 definition:1 sometimes:1 generalize:1 example:6 add:3 get:3 next:2 list:2 share:3 therefore:1 application:1 subtract:1 compare:1 vulgar:1 fraction:4 useful:2 find:6 denominator:4 often:1 call:1 express:2 instance:1 use:5 compute:7 reduction:1 greatest:1 divisor:7 following:1 formula:1 reduce:5 problem:2 great:6 gcd:6 fast:1 algorithm:8 require:1 factor:13 euclidean:1 return:1 efficient:3 multiplying:1 size:1 one:9 input:1 division:2 multiplication:1 required:1 storage:1 need:1 intermediate:1 result:2 way:3 previous:1 becomes:1 finding:1 prime:15 factorization:5 unique:2 theorem:1 say:1 every:1 write:2 product:3 consider:1 atomic:1 element:14 combine:1 together:2 make:2 composite:2 atom:3 knowledge:1 set:1 value:2 first:1 power:3 multiply:5 high:2 category:2 thus:2 method:6 known:1 general:2 illustrate:2 concept:1 venn:3 diagram:4 follow:3 put:1 circle:1 intersection:5 also:3 work:3 except:1 instead:1 third:1 easily:1 several:1 let:2 finite:1 sequence:5 x:15 xn:2 n:3 proceeds:1 step:2 examine:1 update:1 purpose:1 examination:1 pick:1 perhaps:1 many:1 assume:1 selected:1 xk:2 k:1 word:1 increase:1 corresponding:1 whereas:1 rest:1 pass:1 unchanged:1 stop:1 equal:1 l:1 exactly:1 proof:1 interactive:1 simulation:1 see:2 reference:1 table:3 begin:2 vertically:1 like:1 try:3 process:1 evenly:3 top:2 space:1 right:1 rewrite:1 check:1 long:2 keep:1 go:1 case:1 variation:1 euclid:1 essentially:1 along:1 successive:1 quick:1 start:1 commutative:4 ring:4 generally:1 r:3 e:1 exist:1 ax:1 minimal:1 sense:1 however:1 pair:1 associate:1 domain:3 principal:2 ideal:6 characterise:1 generator:2 generate:2 collection:3 always:1 even:1 talk:1 arbitrary:1 anomalous:1 cancellation:1 chebyshev:1 function:1 external:1 link:1 online:4 calculator:4 display:1 give:1 quiz:1 wolfram:1 mathworld:1 |@bigram add_subtract:1 vulgar_fraction:1 fraction_denominator:1 common_divisor:6 divisor_gcd:2 euclidean_algorithm:1 prime_factorization:2 unique_factorization:2 integer_factorization:1 venn_diagram:3 xk_xk:1 euclid_algorithm:1 commutative_ring:4 factorization_domain:1 external_link:1 wolfram_mathworld:1 |
1,285 | Christian_Doppler | Christian Andreas Doppler (29 November 1803 – 17 March 1853) was an Austrian mathematician and physicist. He is most famous for what is now called the Doppler effect, which is the apparent change in frequency and wavelength of a wave as perceived by an observer moving relative to the wave's source. Life and work Christian Doppler was born in Salzburg, Austria, the son of a stone-mason. Doppler could not work in his father's business because of his generally weak physical condition. After completing high school Doppler studied astronomy and mathematics in Vienna and Salzburg and started to work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech Technical University), where he was appointed professor for mathematics and physics in 1841. (Note: At that time, the present Czech Republic was part of the Austrian Empire.) Only a year later, at the age of 39, Doppler published his most notable work, "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). An English translation, and the original German version, of Doppler's work is found in — This book also contains Eden's study of Doppler's full name. Eden believed that it was "Christian Andreas Doppler". In this work, Doppler postulated his principle (later coined the Doppler effect) that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer, and he tried to use this concept for explaining the colour of binary stars. The Doppler effect of sound was verified by Buys Ballot in 1845. In Doppler's time in Prague as a professor he published over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy. Doppler's research in Prague was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of March 1848, when he fled to Vienna. There he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Vienna in 1850. During his time there, Doppler, along with Franz Unger, played an influential role in the development of young Gregor Mendel, known as the founding father of genetics, who was a student at the University of Vienna from 1851 to 1853. Doppler died on 17 March 1853 at age 49 from a pulmonary disease in Venice (also at that time part of the Austrian Empire). His tomb is just inside the entrance of the Venetian island cemetery of San Michele. See also List of Austrian scientists List of Austrians List of asteroids named after people References Further reading Schuster, Peter M. (2005). Moving the Stars — Christian Doppler: His Life, His Works and Principle, and the World After. Pöllauberg, Austria: Living Edition. ISBN 3-901585-05-2 (translated by Lily Wilmes; Webpage of the author) Hoffmann, Robert (2007). The Life of an (almost) Unknown Person. Christian Doppler’s Youth in Salzburg and Vienna. In: Ewald Hiebl, Maurizio Musso (Eds.), Christian Doppler – Life and Work. Principle an Applications. Proceedings of the Commemorative Symposia in Salzburg, Salzburg, Prague, Vienna, Venice. Pöllauberg/Austria, Hainault/UK, Atascadero/USA, pages 33 – 46. External links | Christian_Doppler |@lemmatized christian:6 andreas:2 doppler:19 november:1 march:3 austrian:5 mathematician:1 physicist:1 famous:1 call:1 effect:3 apparent:1 change:1 frequency:2 wavelength:1 wave:3 perceive:1 observer:2 move:2 relative:2 source:2 life:4 work:8 bear:1 salzburg:5 austria:3 son:1 stone:1 mason:1 could:1 father:2 business:1 generally:1 weak:1 physical:1 condition:1 complete:1 high:1 school:1 study:2 astronomy:2 mathematics:3 vienna:6 start:1 prague:4 polytechnic:1 czech:2 technical:1 university:3 appoint:2 professor:2 physic:3 note:1 time:4 present:1 republic:1 part:2 empire:2 year:1 later:2 age:2 publish:2 notable:1 über:1 da:1 farbige:1 licht:1 der:1 doppelsterne:1 und:1 einiger:1 anderer:1 gestirne:1 de:1 himmels:1 coloured:1 light:1 binary:2 star:4 heaven:1 english:1 translation:1 original:1 german:1 version:1 find:1 book:1 also:3 contain:1 eden:2 full:1 name:2 believe:1 postulate:1 principle:3 coin:1 observed:1 depend:1 speed:1 try:1 use:1 concept:1 explain:1 colour:1 sound:1 verify:1 buy:1 ballot:1 article:1 research:1 interrupt:1 revolutionary:1 incident:1 flee:1 head:1 institute:1 experimental:1 along:1 franz:1 unger:1 play:1 influential:1 role:1 development:1 young:1 gregor:1 mendel:1 know:1 found:1 genetics:1 student:1 die:1 pulmonary:1 disease:1 venice:2 tomb:1 inside:1 entrance:1 venetian:1 island:1 cemetery:1 san:1 michele:1 see:1 list:3 scientist:1 asteroid:1 people:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 schuster:1 peter:1 world:1 pöllauberg:2 living:1 edition:1 isbn:1 translate:1 lily:1 wilmes:1 webpage:1 author:1 hoffmann:1 robert:1 almost:1 unknown:1 person:1 youth:1 ewald:1 hiebl:1 maurizio:1 musso:1 eds:1 application:1 proceeding:1 commemorative:1 symposium:1 hainault:1 uk:1 atascadero:1 usa:1 page:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram salzburg_austria:1 czech_republic:1 über_da:1 gregor_mendel:1 external_link:1 |
1,286 | Game_Boy_line | The entire Game Boy line. From left to right: Game Boy, Play it Loud Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Game Boy Advance SP, Game Boy Advance SP "Mark II" (with brighter, backlight screen) , Game Boy Micro. The line is a line of battery-powered handheld game consoles sold by Nintendo. It is one of the world's best-selling game system lines with a combined 200+ million units sold worldwide. The original Game Boy and Game Boy Color combined sold 118.69 million units worldwide. As of March 31, 2009, all versions of the Game Boy Advance combined have sold 81.47 million units. History Nintendo's Game Boy handheld was first released in 1989. The gaming device was the brainchild of long-time Nintendo employee Gunpei Yokoi, who was the person behind the Ultra Hand, an expanding arm toy created and produced by Nintendo in 1970, long before Nintendo would enter the video game market. Yokoi was also responsible for the Game & Watch series of handhelds when Nintendo made the move from toys to video games. When Yokoi designed the original Game Boy, he knew that, to be successful, the system needed to be small, light, inexpensive, and durable, as well as have a varied, recognizable library of games upon its release. By following this simple mantra, the Game Boy line managed to gain a vast following despite technically superior alternatives which would have color graphics instead. This is also apparent in the name (conceived by Shigesato Itoi), which connotes a smaller "sidekick" companion to Nintendo's consoles. Game Boy continues its success to this day and many at Nintendo have dedicated the handheld in Yokoi's memory. Game Boy celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2004, which nearly coincided with the 20-year anniversary to the original Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). To celebrate, Nintendo released the Classic NES Series and an NES-themed color scheme for the Game Boy Advance SP. Nintendo president Satoru Iwata had this to say in 2006 on the rumored demise of the Game Boy brand: "No, it's not true after all. What we are repeatedly saying is that for whichever platform, we are always conducting research and development for the new system, be it the Game Boy, or new console or whatever. And what we just told the reporter was that in thinking about the current situation where we are enjoying great sales with the DS and that we are now trying to launch the Wii, it's unthinkable for us to launch any new platform for the handheld system, including the new version of the GBA... Perhaps they misunderstood a part of this story, but as far as the handheld market is concerned [right now] we really want to focus on more sales of the DS; that's all." Game Boy The original Game Boy The original Game Boy was first released in Japan on April 21, 1989. Based around a Z80 processor, it has a black and green reflective LCD screen, an eight-way directional pad, two action buttons (A and B), and Start and Select buttons. It plays games from ROM-based media contained in small plastic detachable units called cartridges (sometimes called carts or Game Paks). The killer game that pushed the Game Boy into the upper reaches of success was Tetris. Tetris was widely popular, and on the handheld format could be played anywhere. It came packaged with the Game Boy, and broadened its reach; adults and kids alike were buying Game Boys in order to play Tetris. Releasing Tetris on the Game Boy was selected as #4 on GameSpy's "25 Smartest Moments in Gaming". The original Game Boy was the first cartridge-based system that supported more than four players at one time (via the link port). In fact, it has been shown that the system could support 16 simultaneous players at once. However, this feature was only supported in Faceball 2000. A Manchester United-branded Game Boy Play It Loud! In Nintendo released several Game Boy models with colored cases, advertising them in the "Play It Loud!" campaign. Specifications for this unit remain exactly the same as the original Game Boy, including the monochromatic screen. This new line of colored Game Boys would set a precedent for later Nintendo handhelds; the Game Boy Pocket, the Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance (including the SP and Micro), Nintendo DS, Nintendo DS Lite and Nintendo DSi all feature different colored units. Play It Loud! units were manufactured in red, yellow, green, black, blue, white, and clear cases. A very rare, limited edition Manchester United Game Boy is red, with the logos of the team emblazoned on it was released simultaneously with the Play it Loud! handhelds in the United Kingdom. The Play It Loud's screens also have a darker border than the normal Game Boy and a replacement is hard to come by. Game Boy Pocket Green Game Boy Pocket In Nintendo released the Game Boy Pocket: a smaller, lighter unit that requires fewer batteries. It has space for two AAA batteries, which provide about 10 hours of game play. This was made in China. The Pocket has a smaller link port, which requires an adapter to link with the older Game Boy. The port design is used on all subsequent Game Boy models, excluding the Game Boy Micro. The screen was changed to a true black-and-white display, rather than the "pea soup" monochromatic display of the original Game Boy. The first version did not have an LED to show battery levels. This was soon added due to public demand, along with new Game Boy Pocket units of different colors, some of them new to the Game Boy line. There were several limited-edition Game Boy Pockets including a metallic Ice Blue unit and a pink model exclusive to Japan. The Game Boy Pocket was not a new software platform however and played the same software as the original Game Boy model. Game Boy Light Game Boy Light The Game Boy Light came out in , but only in Japan. The Light is only slightly bigger than the Game Boy Pocket and features an Electroluminescent backlight for low-light conditions. It uses 2 AA batteries, which gave it approximately 20 hours with the light off and 12 with it on. The 2 regular versions came in Silver and Gold. There is an Astro Boy edition with a clear case with an Astro Boy picture on it. There is a Tezuka Osamu World shop edition with a clear red case and a picture of his characters. There is a Pokémon Center Tokyo version in Pikachu: The Movie yellow color. It was the only handheld Nintendo produced with an integrated backlight until the release of the Game Boy Advance SP in 2003. Game Boy Color Game Boy Color First released in Japan on October 21, 1998, the Game Boy Color (abbreviated as GBC) added a color screen to a form factor slightly larger than the Game Boy Pocket. It also has double the processor speed, three times as much memory, Game Boy has 8 KiB of RAM and 8 KiB of VRAM. Game Boy Color has 32 KiB of RAM and 16 KiB of VRAM. and an infrared communications port. Technologically, it was likened to the 8-bit NES video game console from the 1980s. A major component of the Game Boy Color is its near-universal backward compatibility (that is, a Game Boy Color is able to read older Game Boy cartridges and even play them in a selectable color palette) (The only Black & White Game Boy game known incompatible is Road Rash). This backwards compatibility became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors. Some games written specifically for the Game Boy Color can be played on older model Game Boys, whereas others cannot (see the Cartridges section for more about this). Game Boy Advance Game Boy Advance In Japan, on March 21, 2001, Nintendo released a significant upgrade to the Game Boy line. The Game Boy Advance (also referred to as GBA) featured a 32 bit 16.8 MHz ARM. It included a Z80 processor for backward compatibility to Game Boy and Game Boy Color games, and had a larger, higher resolution screen. Controls were slightly modified with the addition of "L" and "R" shoulder buttons. The system was technically likened to the SNES and showed its power with successful ports of SNES titles such as Super Mario World and Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island. There were also new titles in popular SNES series, such as Mario Kart Super Circuit and F-Zero: Maximum Velocity, and a variety of original titles. A widely-criticized drawback of the Game Boy Advance is that the screen is not backlit, making viewing difficult in some conditions. The Game Paks for the GBA are roughly half the length of original Game Boy cartridges, and so older Game Paks would stick out of the top of the unit. When playing older games, the GBA provides the option to play the game at the standard equal square resolution of the original screen or the option to stretch it over the wider GBA screen. Game Boy Advance SP Game Boy Advance SP First released in Japan February 14, 2003, the Game Boy Advance SP — Nintendo model AGS-001 — resolved several problems with the original Game Boy Advance model. It featured a new smaller clamshell design with a flip-up screen, a switchable internal frontlight, a rechargeable battery, and the omission of the headphone jack, which requires a special adapter to be purchased separately. In some regions owners of the original Game Boy Advance received a special limited offer to trade their old models into Nintendo and merely pay the difference on the Advance SP. In mid September 2005, Nintendo released a significantly improved SP model, unofficially dubbed the "Mark II" or GBA SP +, in North America, and officially Nintendo model number AGS-101, that featured a high quality backlit screen instead of a frontlit, similar to the Game Boy Micro screen but larger. Game Boy Micro Game Boy Micro The third form of Game Boy Advance system, the Game Boy Micro is four inches wide (10 cm), two inches tall (5 cm), and weighs 2.8 ounces (80g). By far the smallest Game Boy created, it is approximately the same dimensions as an original NES controller pad. Its screen is approximately 2/3 the size of the SP and GBA screens while maintaining the same resolution (240×160 pixels) but is now a higher quality (than original SP, not improved SP) backlit display with adjustable brightness. In the United States and Canada, included with the system are two additional faceplates which can be swapped to give the system a new look; Nintendo of America sells additional faceplates on its online store. In Europe, the Game Boy Micro comes with a single faceplate. The Game Boy Micro is unable to play any original Game Boy or Game Boy Color games, only playing Game Boy Advance titles (with the exception of the nintendo e-Reader, discontinued in America, but still available in Japan). Accessories The Game Boy, as with many other consoles, has had a number of both first-party and unlicensed third-party accessories, such as Action Replays, released. Cartridges Each video game is stored on a plastic cartridge (or "Game Pak", as they are officially referred to). All cartridges, excluding those for Game Boy Advance, measure 5.8 by 6.5 cm. The cartridge provides the code and game data to the console's CPU. Some cartridges include a small battery with SRAM, flash memory chip, or EEPROM which allows game data to be saved when the console is turned off. If the battery dies in a cartridge, then the save data will be lost, however it is possible to replace the battery with a new battery. To do this the cartridge must be unscrewed, opened up, and the old battery removed and replaced. This may require desoldering the dead battery and soldering the replacement in place. Before 2003, Nintendo used round, flat watch batteries for saving information on the cartridges. These batteries were replaced in newer cartridges because they could only live for a certain amount of time. The cartridge is inserted into the console cartridge slot. If the cartridge is removed while the power is on, and the Game Boy does not automatically reset, the game freezes; the Game Boy may exhibit unexpected behavior, such as rows of zeros appearing on the screen, the sound remaining at the same pitch as was emitted the instant the game was pulled out, saved data may be corrupted, and hardware may be damaged. This applies to most video game consoles that use cartridges. The original Game Boy power switch was designed to prevent the player from being able to remove the cartridge while the power is on. Cartridges intended only for Game Boy Color (and not for the original Game Boy) lack the "notch" for the locking mechanism present in the top of the original cartridges, preventing insertion into an original Game Boy. Even if this is bypassed by using a Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, or Super Game Boy, the game will not run, and an image on the screen will inform the user that the game is only compatible with Game Boy Color systems. Game Boy Advance cartridges used a similar physical lock-out feature. Notches were located at the base of the cartridge's two back corners. One of these notches was placed as to avoid pressing a switch inside the cartridge slot. When an older Game Boy or Game Boy Color game was inserted into the cartridge slot, the switch would be pressed down and the Game Boy Advance would start in Game Boy Color mode, while a Game Boy Advance cartridge would not touch the switch and the system would start in Game Boy Advance mode. The Nintendo DS replaced the switch with a solid piece of plastic that would allow Game Boy Advance cartridges to be inserted into Slot 2, but would prevent an older Game Boy cartridge from being inserted fully into the slot. Game Boy cartridges, displaying the Wario Land series; the furthest to the right is a Game Boy Advance cartridge. Excluding game-specific variations, there are four types of cartridges compatible with Game Boy systems: Grey cartridges are compatible with all Game Boy systems, excluding Game Boy Micro. All original Game Boy games are of this type. Some of these cartridges are in alternative colors, such as red or blue for Pokémon Red and Blue, and yellow for the Donkey Kong Land series. The games on these cartridges are programmed in black and white; Game Boy Color and later systems provide selectable palettes for these systems. Some grey cartridges that were released between 1994 and 1998 have Super Game Boy enhancements. Black cartridges are compatible with all Game Boy systems, excluding Game Boy Micro. Although the games on these cartridges are programmed in color, they can be played in monochrome on Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light and Super Game Boy. Examples of black-cartridge games are Pokémon Yellow: Special Pikachu Edition, Pokémon Gold and Silver (however, the actual colors of these three cartridges are yellow, gold, and silver, respectively). Games such as Wario Land II, The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX, and Tetris DX were full-color re-releases of gray-cartridge games with additional content. About one quarter of Game Boy Color releases were black-cartridge games. Some black cartridges have Super Game Boy enhancements. Clear cartridges are compatible with Game Boy Color and later systems, excluding Game Boy Micro. Some games (such as Pokémon Crystal) were released in specially colored cartridges, as had been done before, but the new colors remained translucent. About three quarters of Game Boy Color releases were clear-cartridge games. Some clear cartridges have built-in features, including rumble features (Perfect Dark) and tilt sensors (Kirby Tilt 'n' Tumble). These cartridges are a slightly different shape from the earlier varieties, and would obstruct the latch if inserted into the original Game Boy. Advance cartridges are half the size of all earlier cartridges and are compatible with Game Boy Advance and later systems. Some cartridges are colored to resemble the game (usually for the Pokémon series; Pokémon Emerald, for example, being a clear emerald green). They are also compatible with Nintendo DS (but see the Popularity section for limitations). Some Advance cartridges have built-in features, including rumble features (Drill Dozer), tilt sensors (WarioWare: Twisted!, Yoshi Topsy-Turvy) and solar sensors (Boktai). Popularity Thousands of games are available for the Game Boy, which can be attributed in part to its sales in the amount of millions, a well-documented design, and a typically short development cycle. The Nintendo DS and Nintendo DS Lite are able to play the large library of Game Boy Advance games (though the Nintendo DSi redesign does not feature a GBA port). However, it does not have a GBA game link connector, and so cannot play multiplayer GBA games (except for the few that are multiplayer on a single GBA) or link to the Nintendo GameCube. The DS is not backward-compatible at all with Game Paks for the original Game Boy or the Game Boy Color, because it lacks a Z80 processor. Other uses Numerous musical acts have appropriated the Game Boy as a musical instrument (Game Boy music), using software such as nanoloop or Little Sound DJ. Notably: pixelh8, 6955, Bit Shifter, Bubblyfish, Covox, Cow'P, dot.matrix, FirestARTer, Game Boy Music Club, Gameboyzz Orchestra, Glomag, Goto80, Lo-bat, Bud Melvin, Nullsleep, OMAC, Role Model, Saitone, Uoki-Toki etc. See also List of games for the original Game Boy List of Game Boy Color games List of Game Boy Advance games List of Game Boy colors and styles Player's Choice List of Super Game Boy games Nintendo DS References External links Official website | Game_Boy_line |@lemmatized entire:1 game:196 boy:148 line:9 leave:1 right:3 play:20 loud:6 pocket:13 light:11 color:37 advance:31 sp:14 mark:2 ii:3 brighter:1 backlight:3 screen:17 micro:12 battery:14 powered:1 handheld:7 console:9 sell:5 nintendo:33 one:4 world:4 best:1 selling:1 system:20 combined:1 million:4 unit:11 worldwide:2 original:25 combine:2 march:2 version:5 history:1 first:7 release:19 gaming:1 device:1 brainchild:1 long:2 time:4 employee:1 gunpei:1 yokoi:4 person:1 behind:1 ultra:1 hand:1 expand:1 arm:2 toy:2 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1,287 | IBM_mainframe | SAS 8 on an IBM mainframe, seen here via one of its user interfaces, classic 3270 emulation. IBM mainframes, though perceived as synonymous with mainframe computers in general due to their marketshare, are now technically and specifically IBM's line of business computers that can all trace their design evolution to the IBM System/360. First and second generation From 1952 into the late 1960s, IBM manufactured and marketed several large computer models, known as the IBM 700/7000 series. The first-generation 700s were based on vacuum tubes, while the later, second-generation 7000s used transistors. These machines established IBM's dominance in electronic data processing. IBM had two model categories: one (701, 704, 709, 7090, 7040) for engineering and scientific use, and one (702, 705, 7080, 7070, 7010) for commercial or data processing use. The two categories, scientific and commercial, generally used common peripherals but had completely different instruction sets, and there were incompatibilities even within each category. IBM initially sold its computers without any software, expecting customers to write their own; programs were manually initiated, one at a time. Later, IBM provided compilers for the newly developed higher-level programming languages Fortran and COBOL. The first operating systems for IBM computers were written by IBM customers who did not wish to have their very expensive machines ($2M USD in the mid-1950s) sitting idle while operators set up jobs manually, and so they wanted a mechanism for maintaining a queue of jobs. It is generally thought that the first operating system used for real work was GM-NAA I/O, produced by General Motors' Research division in 1956. A Brief History of Linux IBM enhanced one of GM-NAA I/O's successors and provided it to customers under the name IBSYS. IBM 7090/94 IBSYS Operating System As software became more complex and important, the cost of supporting it on so many different designs became burdensome, and this was one of the factors which led IBM to develop System/360 and its operating systems. Chuck Boyer, The 360 Revolution The second generation (transistor-based) products were a mainstay of IBM's business and IBM continued to make them for several years after the introduction of the System/360. (Some IBM 7094s remained in service into the 1980s.) Smaller machines Prior to System/360, IBM also sold computers smaller in scale that were not considered mainframes, though they were still bulky and expensive by modern standards. These included: IBM 650 (vacuum tube logic, decimal architecture, business and scientific) IBM RAMAC 305 (vacuum tube logic, first computer with disk storage; see: Early IBM disk storage) IBM 1400 series (business data processing; very successful and many 1400 peripherals were used with the 360s) IBM 1620 (decimal architecture, engineering, scientific, and education) IBM had difficulty getting customers to upgrade from the smaller machines to the mainframes because so much software had to be rewritten. The 7010 was introduced in 1962 as a mainframe-sized 1410. The later Systems 360 and 370 could emulate the 1400 machines. A desk size machine with a different instruction set, the IBM 1130, was released concurrent with the System/360 to address the 1620s niche. It used the same EBCDIC character encoding as the 360 and was mostly programmed in Fortran, which was relatively easy to adapt to larger machines when necessary. Midrange computer is a designation used by IBM for a class of computer systems which fall in between mainframes and microcomputers. IBM System/360 All that changed with the announcement of the System/360 (S/360) in April, 1964 IBM Archives: System/360 Announcement . The System/360 was a single series of compatible models for both commercial and scientific use. The number "360" suggested a "360 degree," or "all-around" computer system. System/360 incorporated features which had previously been present on only either the commercial line (such as decimal arithmetic and byte addressing) or the technical line (such as floating point arithmetic). Some of the arithmetic units and addressing features were optional on some models of the System/360. However, models were upward compatible and most were also downward compatible. The System/360 was also the first computer in wide use to include dedicated hardware provisions for the use of operating systems. Among these were supervisor and application mode programs and instructions, as well as built-in memory protection facilities. Hardware memory protection was provided to protect the operating system from the user programs (tasks) and the user tasks from each other. The new machine also had a larger address space than the older mainframes, 24 bits vs. a typical 18 bits. The smaller models in the System/360 line (e.g. the 360/30) were intended to replace the 1400 series while providing an easier upgrade path to the larger 360s. To smooth the transition from second generation to the new line, IBM used the 360's microprogramming capability to emulate the more popular older models. Thus 360/30s with this added cost feature could run 1401 programs and the larger 360/65s could run 7094 programs. To run old programs, the 360 had to be halted and restarted in emulation mode. Many customers kept using their old software and one of the features of the later System/370 was the ability to switch to emulation mode and back under operating system control. Operating systems for the System/360 family and its successors included OS/360 (with PCP, MFT, and MVT), BOS, TOS, DOS, and SVS. The original OS/360 and early MVS and VM/CMS versions did not include a copyright literal in the object code and therefore not protected by U.S. Copyright Laws and are available for free use. The System/360 later evolved into the System/370, the System/390, the zSeries, the System z9, and today's System z10. Today's Systems Processor units The different processors on a current IBM mainframes are: CP, Central Processor: general-purpose processor IFL, Integrated Facility for Linux: dedicated to Linux OSes (optionally under z/VM) ICF, Integrated Coupling Facility: designed to support Parallel Sysplex operations SAP, System Assist Processor: designed to handle various system accounting, management, and I/O channel operations zAAP, System z9 Application Assist Processor: currently limited to run only Java and XML processing zIIP, System z9 Integrated Information Processor: dedicated to run specific workloads including DB2, XML, and IPSec There are other supporting processors typically installed inside mainframes such as cryptographic accelerators (CryptoExpress), the OSA-Express networking processor, and FICON Express disk I/O processors. Mainframes in General Operating Systems The primary operating systems in use on current IBM mainframes include z/OS (which followed MVS and OS/390), z/VM (previously VM/CMS), z/VSE, z/TPF, and Linux on System z. A few systems run MUSIC/SP and UTS (Mainframe UNIX). There are software-based emulators for the System/370, System/390, zSeries, and System z9 hardware, including FLEX-ES and the freely available Hercules emulator which runs under Linux and Microsoft Windows. In October, 2008, Sine Nomine Associates introduced OpenSolaris on System z. Middleware Current IBM mainframes run all the major enterprise transaction processing environments and databases, including CICS, IMS, WebSphere Application Server, DB2, and Oracle. In many cases these software subsystems can run on more than one mainframe operating system. See also List of IBM products Amdahl Corporation IBM midrange computer References External links Official IBM mainframe page (zSeries/z9) The Raised Floor - IBM Mainframe Computer Ops in the 1980s video Further Reading Prasad, Nallur and Savit, Jeffrey (1994). IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. 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1,288 | Minivan | Renault Espace I (1984) Fiat Ulysse (1994) Dodge Grand Caravan, Generation III Lloyd LT 600, a vintage minivan A minivan, multi-purpose vehicle (abbreviated MPV), people-carrier, people-mover or multi-utility vehicle (shortened MUV) is a type of automobile similar in shape to a van that is designed for personal use. Minivans are taller than a sedan, hatchback or a station wagon, and are designed for maximum interior room. The term The term "minivan"was coined in North America, deriving from the fact that these vehicles were considerably smaller and more streamlined than traditional North American passenger vans, such as the Ford E-Series. Other terms are used in other English-speaking countries. In Europe and India, "multi-purpose vehicle" (MPV) describes the general vehicle type without reference to its size. These are described with a word before the acronym: a "mini MPV" is derived from a supermini, a "compact MPV" is based on a small family car and a "large MPV" has about the same size as a large family car. In Asia, "multi-utility vehicle" (MUV) has more or less the same meaning as MPV. "People-carrier" and "people mover" describe both large MPVs and minibuses, but not smaller models. Characteristics Overview Minivans are usually between tall, which is around taller than a sedan, hatchback or a station wagon. The engine is mounted very close to the front edge of the car, and its elements are grouped higher than in other car types to minimize front overhang length. The rear overhang may be both short like a hatchback or long like in station wagons, changing the boot vs seat balance – the first option is more common in smaller minivans and the second in large minivans Facelifted SWB Pontiac Montana Seats Seats are located higher than in lower cars with a higher H-point, giving passengers seat more upright, posture and leaving more room for the legs. Some people find this seating position uncomfortable and prefer lower automobiles, while the disabled, the elderly or people with little flexibility may benefit from the lack of need to "sit down" when entering the car. Larger minivans usually feature three seat rows, with two or three seats each: 2-3-2, 2-2-3 or 2-3-3 (front to rear) are the most common seating configurations. Smaller minivans tend to have two seat rows, with a traditional 2-3 configuration. There are some exceptions, like the Honda FR-V, Fiat Multipla and Mercedes-Benz R-Class which are six seaters (3-3 in the first two cases and 2-2-2 in the latter). Minivans may have seats, either benches or individual seats, that are designed to be relocated, removed, folded partially (on-floor) or folded completely under-floor — allowing variable seating capacity and cargo room. Chassis and drivetrain In contrast to vans, sport utility vehicles (SUV) and many crossover SUVs, most current minivans are front-wheel drive. The main advantage is somewhat better traction than rear-wheel drive vehicles under slippery conditions like rain, snow and ice. This configuration also allows more inner area along the floor, due to the absence of the driveshaft hump. With rear seats removed, the cargo area in large minivans can hold a 4x8 ft sheet of drywall or plywood flat. Four-wheel drive was also introduced to minivans in North America with the Toyota Van Wagon 4WD and the Volkswagen Vanagon Syncro. Full-time all-wheel drive was introduced to North American minivans in the 1990 Ford Aerostar with the E-4WD option, and in 1991 with the introduction of the Toyota Previa All-Trac. The Toyota Van 4WD remains the only minivan offered for sale in the North American market with selective 4WD. Most modern minivans feature unibody architecture, which offers superior crashworthiness and a more comfortable ride than a body-on-frame chassis, and is typically lighter. The Chevrolet Astro / GMC Safari was the last body-on-frame rear-wheel drive minivan but is now discontinued. In the United States, in order to be governed by more lenient safety and emissions regulations, minivans are classified as light trucks. Unlike their European counterparts, manual transmissions have disappeared due to lack of demand; 1995 was the last year for a manual transmission in the Ford Aerostar and Chrysler minivans and GM had discontinued the manual transmission in the Chevrolet Astro and GMC Safari some time before. Doors Door configuration for Minivans are highly variable. Access to the rear interior may be through one or two sliding or outswing rear side doors. Early minivans featured one rear side sliding door on the passenger's side, similar to full-sized passenger vans in the early 80's. Many current minivan feature rear doors on both sides; swinging doors are the norm for European and Japanese minivans, while most American models feature sliding doors. Some models featuring power sliding doors. Segments Minivans can be roughly classified in three or four segments: large, compact, mini and sometimes micro. Models of all segments are present in Europe, the Americas and parts of Asia. Large minivans are those above 4600 mm (180 in) long. Nearly every minivan sold in the United States belongs to this segment, so they are simply called minivans there. The first European MPV also belonged to this segment, and later similar models were named likewise until smaller models appeared; now these models are called "large MPVs". Examples are the Dodge Caravan, Honda Odyssey, Ford Galaxy and Eurovan. Ford C-Max (2007) Renault Scenic I (1996) Compact MPVs have a length of between . Such models enjoyed some popularity in the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s, for example the Mitsubishi Expo and Nissan Axxess. In 1996, the Renault Scénic was released in Europe and its success made mainstream automakers produce them in large quantities, usually based on small family car platforms and with both two and three-row seats. As of 2007, the only compact minivans available in the United States are the Mazda5 and Kia Rondo. Mini MPVs are under 4100 mm (160 in) long, and were introduced in the early 2000s. These models are based on supermini platforms and have different styles depending on markets: Japanese models are more boxy while Europeans have the bonnet and windshield almost parallel. Examples of mini MPVs are the Opel Meriva, Renault Modus, Fiat Idea, Toyota bB and Nissan Cube. Tall city cars and kei cars like the Hyundai Atos, Chevrolet Matiz, Chery QQ and Suzuki Wagon R have also been called mini MPVs or "microvans" because of their increased height over traditional hatchbacks. Others believe they are too similar in design with other small cars, so they should be described as the same kind of cars. Early minivans models may be smaller than modern models, but still fit into the child subsegment; the first-generation Renault Espace introduced in 1984 would be classified nowadays as a compact MPV, but later generations grew in size and the Espace is now considered a large MPV. Indeed, it is expected that the next-generation Espace will be smaller in size than the current model. History Apart from the visionary Stout Scarab (1935), the most important predecessors of minivans were compact vans. In 1950, the Volkswagen Type 2 adapted a bus-shaped body to the compact Volkswagen Beetle. It placed the driver above the front wheels, sitting behind a flat nose, with the engine mounted at the rear. The two hinged side doors were opposite to the driver's side, with none on the driver's side, Fiat built a similar vehicle based on the fiat 600 with the same engine and door layout. Japanese and American manufacturers responded with compact vans since the 1960s. Usually based on front-engined compact cars with a FMR layout, the engine was mounted behind or under the front seat with a flat, vertical nose. Examples include the Ford Econoline, Chevrolet Van, Suzuki Carry, Toyota Hiace and Subaru Sambar. When Volkswagen introduced a sliding side door on their van in 1968, it then had all the features that would later come to define a minivan: compact length, three rows of forward-facing seats, station wagon-style top-hinged tailgate/liftgate, sliding side door, passenger car base. As the American vehicles such as the Econoline evolved into larger full-sized vans, the term minivan came to use in North America, when Toyota and Chrysler launched their respective smaller minivan products for the 1984 model year. It is interesting that this could be seen as a Detroit response to the "Baby-Boomlet" when the Baby-Boom children were starting to have children. The Toyota Van and Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager featured very different structural designs: the Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager had a FF layout and unibody construction, while the Toyota Van Wagon featured a FMR layout and was built on a body-on-frame chassis. The Chevrolet Astro / GMC Safari and Ford Aerostar / Mercury Vanster were introduced for the 1985 model year with FR layout. A European minivan design was conceived in the late 1970s by the Rootes Group in partnership with the French automaker Matra (which was also affiliated with Simca, the former French subsidiary of the Chrysler Corporation, sold in 1977 to the PSA Group). The Matra design was originally intended to be sold as a Talbot and be a replacement for the Talbot-Matra Rancho. Early prototypes were designed to use Simca parts and a grille like the Simca 1307. Matra took their idea to Peugeot, who thought it too expensive and risky, so the project was then presented to Renault, becoming the Renault Espace introduced in 1984. The Renault had traditional hinged car doors on both sides. Chrysler had also been developing a minivan based on the Chrysler K platform, releasing the boxy Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager earlier than the Espace, in 1983. Since no one disputes that the Renault Espace is a minivan, despite its door configuration, this raises the question of whether the 1956 Fiat 600 Multipla was actually the first minivan. Alternatively, the Lloyd LT500/LT600, introduced in 1952 could be considered the first minivan. Minivans by market North America Shortly after their arrival, the Chrysler minivans competed against the truck-based front-engine, rear drive Chevrolet Astro, GMC Safari (based on a reworked 1st generation S-10 platform), and Ford Aerostar (based on a reworked 1st-generation Ranger platform). Utilizing the transverse-mounted engine, front-wheel drive, uni-body construction and "one-box" design, the Chrysler minivans offered better fuel-economy, traction, size, and driving characteristics. Nissan and Mitsubishi also introduced minivans to North America; but like the Toyota Van Wagon, they had poor rear drive traction, had a bouncy ride due to the short wheelbase, and one had to exit the vehicle to walk from the front seats to the back seats. 1989 brought Japan's first attempt at a North American-style minivan, with the Mazda MPV, featuring a swing-out door with roll-down windows — and was the first Japanese minivan with a front engine. It did not have the utility, traction, or cargo room of other minivans. General Motors introduced the Chevrolet Lumina APV, Oldsmobile Silhouette, and Pontiac Trans Sport in 1990. These minivans were their first front-wheel drive minivans; built on a reworked version of GM's 1980's A-platform — with composite plastic body panels, a cab-forward nose, steeply raked windshields, and deep dashboards. That same year, Toyota introduced the Previa. The Toyota Previa had a four-cylinder engine located under the floor of the vehicle, mounted nearly flat on its side, rather than straight up and down like in its predecessor. This allowed passengers to pass from the front seats to the back without exiting the vehicle. Ford and Nissan introduced models in 1993 with front-wheel drive, the Mercury Villager and Nissan Quest respectively. These minivans were competitive with their car-based chassis and V6 engines. Ford introduced a slightly larger front-wheel drive minivan (based on a reworked version of the 1980s Taurus platform) called the Windstar in 1994. In 1995 Honda introduced the Odyssey, based on the Honda Accord, and featuring outswing doors with roll-down middle windows, and a rear seat that folded away into the floor. In 2000, the Chrysler Town & Country and Dodge Caravan continued as the best selling minivans in North America. The second-best selling minivan was the Honda Odyssey, and the third was the Toyota Sienna. According to Autodata, in 2006 Chrysler, Honda, and Toyota comprised 72% of the United States minivan market. General Motors and Ford made up 17%, Kia Sedona and Hyundai Entourage sales made up 5%, and the Nissan Quest was 3%. By 2008, most North American minivans had adopted the size and configuration of the long-wheelbase Chrysler vans, with Chrysler dropping their shorter models as well. In 2008, only the Kia Sedona and Chevrolet Uplander offer both short- and long-wheelbase configurations. In 2008, Volkswagen debuted the Routan, a rebadged variant of the Chrysler RT platform minivans. Engines During the 1980s, North American minivans were slow and under-powered when compared with sport utility vehicles, but had more fuel-efficient four-cylinder engines. Such vehicles could also have poor performance, as manual transmissions were rare in minivans, and often had higher rates of problems than larger engines. Some minivans were notorious for having problems with their transaxles, as they are substantially heavier than the sedans their powertrains were originally designed for. With the shift in the 1990s towards heavier, long-wheelbase models and light towing, V6 engines became more common; some automakers dropped their four-cylinder engines from their lineup. The Chevrolet Astro, the last surviving truck-based mid-size van, was popular for towing applications because of its frame and up to 4.3-liter V6, with some owners installing their own V8 engines. SEAT Altea XL Renault Espace IV (2002) Renault Scenic II (2003) Europe Apart from the Chrysler Minivans, the Renault did not have any direct rival during the 1980s. Other mainstream automakers began to develop multi-purpose vehicles designed with European tastes in mind. PSA Peugeot Citroën and the Fiat Group founded a joint-venture, Sevel, and released in 1994 the eurovan under the nameplates Citroën Evasion, Peugoet 806, Fiat Ulysse and Lancia Zeta. The Ford and the Volkswagen Group JV Auto-Europa similarly co-developed models on a common chassis and built them in a shared-plant in Setúbal, Portugal. The Ford Galaxy (platform code VX-62, and Volkswagen Sharan, and later SEAT Alhambra, became available in 1995 and were almost identical in design with only different front ends, rear ends and dashboards. While the VW/Ford model was relatively large, with a length of , the Espace and the eurovan were around shorter and would be considered today as compact MPVs. All of them were available as seven-seaters and the seats could be folded and removed. These models would be later called "large MPVs". The trend towards compact MPVs began in 1996 with the launch of the Renault Scénic and Opel Zafira. Compact MPVs were cars with tall bodies but based on the chassis and engines of a small family car (in the case of the Scénic, the Renault Mégane). The runaway success of the Scénic saw the car spawn a multitude of similar vehicles, like the Opel Zafira, the Citroën Xsara Picasso, the Volkswagen Touran, the Ford Focus C-Max, and the Nissan Almera Tino. By the mid-2000s, virtually all mainstream automakers in Europe had a compact MPV in their range. Also in the mid-2000s, automakers began to use MPV-style designs on supermini-based chassis. Examples of mini MPVs them are the Opel Meriva, based on the Corsa, the Renault Modus, derived from the Clio, and the Fiat Idea, derived from the Punto platform. In 2000, the Auto-Europa triplets (Galaxy, Sharan and Alhambra) were heavily face-lifted. More recently, Auto-Europa was dissolved when Ford left VW and Seat to make its own Galaxy sharing many parts with the Ford S-MAX, another MPV. Engines European Minivans (MPVs) are generally powered by four-cylinder engines, originally a mix of petrol and diesel units, but with petrol engines becoming increasingly rare as diesels have improved. V6 engines are rare, due to the increased fuel consumption of larger engines being considered unacceptable with high fuel prices. Asia Honda Elysion In the ASEAN nations, China and India, multi-utility vehicles tend to be smaller than North American minivans and European MPVs. Compact MUVs are more popular than models of other sizes. They also differ in that they need to cope with uneven terrain as opposed to paved highways. Models from local manufacturers are usually based on Japanese designs from Suzuki, Daihatsu and Toyota. Popular models include Toyota Picnic, Toyota Previa, Mazda 8 and Honda StepWGN. MUVs vary widely in configuration: whilst some MUVs might be replicas of European MPVs (such as the European Ford Fusion) or American-style minivans (like the Toyota Innova), in some cases MUVs are similar to SUVs (such as the Chevrolet Tavera). Other examples of MUVs are the Maruti Versa, Isuzu Panther, Toyota Avanza, Hindustan Pushpak, Toyota Qualis and Toyota Innova. See also List of van models Chrysler Minivans Car body styles Mini MPV Compact MPV Crossover SUV Leisure activity vehicle Station wagon References External links About.com Minivans Site Nissan Cube - Official USA Site | Minivan |@lemmatized renault:15 espace:9 fiat:9 ulysse:2 dodge:6 grand:1 caravan:6 generation:6 iii:1 lloyd:2 lt:1 vintage:1 minivan:62 multi:6 purpose:3 vehicle:19 abbreviate:1 mpv:15 people:6 carrier:2 mover:2 utility:6 shorten:1 muv:2 type:4 automobile:2 similar:7 shape:2 van:17 design:14 personal:1 use:5 taller:2 sedan:3 hatchback:4 station:5 wagon:9 maximum:1 interior:2 room:4 term:4 coin:1 north:13 america:7 derive:4 fact:1 considerably:1 small:13 streamlined:1 traditional:4 american:11 passenger:6 ford:18 e:2 series:1 english:1 speaking:1 country:2 europe:5 india:2 describe:4 general:3 without:2 reference:2 size:9 word:1 acronym:1 mini:7 supermini:3 compact:16 base:18 family:4 car:19 large:17 asia:3 less:1 meaning:1 mpvs:14 minibus:1 model:25 characteristic:2 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1,289 | Komondor | The Komondor (Hungarian plural komondorok ) is a large white colored Hungarian breed of livestock guardian dog with a long, corded coat. The Komondor is an old-established powerful dog breed which has a natural guardian instinct to guard livestock and any kinds of proprieties. The Komondor was mentioned for the first time in 1544 in a Hungarian codex. The Komondor breed has been declared one of Hungary’s national treasures, to be preserved and protected from modification. The Puli is another Hungarian sheep dog about half the size of the Komondor, and usually black in color. History The origin of the Komondor is debated. Some believe the Komondor were a dog of the Magyars, while others believe it to be a dog of the Sumerians. According to the most probable explanation, Komondors were brought to Hungary by Cumans, the Turkish speaking, nomadic people who settled Hungary during the 12th and 13th century. The name "quman-dur" means "belonging to the Cumans" or "the dog of the Cumans," distinguishing it from a similar Hungarian sheepdog breed which later merged with the Komondor. The name Komondor is found for the first time written in 1544 in the History of King Astiagis by Kákonyi Péter, in Hungarian. Later in 1673 Amos Comenius mentions the Komondor in one of his works. The unique dreadlock appearance gives a hint of common origin with the Puli and the Bergamasco. There might also be a link between the Komondor and the big, white Russian livestock dogs, the South Russian Ovcharka. The dreadlock coat must have developed under a dry and extreme temperature climate as it provides superb protection against cold and hot weather, but is not too comfortable in wet weather. The Komondor is built for livestock guarding. It is big, strong, and armored with a thick coat. The coat provides protection against wild animals and the weather and vegetation, the coat of the dog looks similar to that of a sheep so it can easily blend into a flock and camouflage itself giving it an advantage when predators such as wolves attack. The coat is the trademark of the breed. Today the Komondor is a fairly common breed in Hungary, its country of origin. Many Komondors were killed during World War II and local stories say that this is because when the Germans (and then the Russians) invaded, they had to kill the dog before they could capture a farm or house that it guarded. Description Appearance The Komondor is a large dog (many are over 30 inches tall), making this one of the largest common breeds of dog, or a molosser. The body is covered by a heavy, matted, corded coat. The dogs have robust bodies, strongly muscled, with plenty of bones, long legs and short back, with the tails carried low. The body, seen sideways, forms a prone rectangle. The length of body is slightly longer than the height at the withers, approximately 104% of the height at withers. The Komondor has a broad head with the muzzle slightly shorter than half of the length of the head, with an even and complete scissor bite. Nose and lips are always black. People unfamiliar with the breed are often surprised by how quick and agile the dogs are. The Komondor's appearance is dignified and commands respect. The minimum height of female Komondors is at the withers, with an average height of . The minimum height of male Komondors is with an average height of . No upper height limit is given. Komondor females on average weigh between and Komondor males weigh on average between . Coat Komondor lying down The Komondor's coat is a long, thick, strikingly corded white coat, about 20 – 27 cm long (the heaviest amount of fur in the canine world), which resembles dreadlocks or a mop. The puppy coat is soft and fluffy. However, the coat is wavy and tends to curl as the puppy matures. A fully mature coat is formed naturally from the soft undercoat and the coarser outer coat combining to form tassels, or cords and will take around two years to form. Some help is needed in separating the cords so the dog does not turn into one large matted mess. The length of the cords increases with time as the coat grows. Shedding is very minimal with this breed, contrary to what one might think (once cords are fully formed). The only substantial shedding occurs as a puppy before the dreadlocks fully form. The Komondor is born with only a white coat, unlike the similar-looking Puli, which can be white, black, or sometimes grayish. However, a working Komondor's coat may be discolored by the elements, and may appear off-white if not washed regularly. Traditionally the coat protected the Komondor from wolves' bites, as the bites were not able to penetrate the thick coat. Temperament Komondor The Komondor's temperament is like that of most livestock guarding dogs; it is calm and steady when things are normal, but in case of trouble, the dog will fearlessly defend its charges. It was bred to think and act independently and make decisions on his own. It is affectionate with its family, and gentle with the children and friends of the family. Although wary of strangers, they can accept them when it is clear that no harm is meant, but is instinctively very protective of its family, home and possessions. The Komondor is good with other family pets but is intolerant to trespassers and teasing, and is not a good dog for city life. The dog is vigilant, will rest in the daytime, keeping an eye on the surroundings, but at night is constantly moving, patrolling the place, moving up and down around the whole area. The dogs usually knock down intruders and keep them down until the owner arrives. Hungarian Komondor breeders used to say that an intruder may be allowed to enter the property guarded by a Komondor, but he will not be allowed to come out again. Uses The breed has a natural guardian instinct and ability to guard livestock. An athletic dog, the Komondor is fast and powerful and will leap at a predator to drive it off or knock it down. It can be used successfully to guard sheep against wolves or bears. The Komondor is one breed of LGD which has seen a vast increase in use as a guardian of sheep and goats in the United States to protect against predators such as coyotes, cougars, bears, and other predators. Training Due to the Komondor's size, power, speed and temperament, a lack of obedience training, which should start from a young age (4 - 8 months), can result in danger to others. Komondors generally take well to training if started early. A Komondor can become obstinate when bored, so it is imperative that training sessions be upbeat and happy. Praise is a must, as are consistent and humane corrections. Once a Komondor gets away with unfriendly or hostile behavior, it will always think such behavior is appropriate. Therefore, consistent corrections even with a young puppy are necessary to ensure a well-adjusted adult. Socialization is also extremely important. The Komondor should be exposed to new situations, people and other dogs as a puppy. Because it is a natural guard dog, a Komondor that is not properly socialized may react in an excessively aggressive manner when confronted with a new situation or person. Given the proper environment and care, a Komondor is a responsible, loving dog. They are devoted and calm without being sluggish. As in any breed, there is quite a range of personalities, so your needs should be outlined clearly to your breeder. An experienced breeder can try to identify that personality which would be happier as an independent livestock dog, or that which wants more to please and would make a good obedience dog or family pet. Adolescence can be marked by changes in a Komondor's temperament, eating habits, trainability and general attitude. Many Komondors are "late bloomers," not fully mature until nearly three years of age. Health Komondors do not suffer many hereditary problems. Perhaps because the breed has descended from centuries of hardy working stock, Komondors have few genetically linked problems. In particular, there is no evidence of the retinal eye problems found in other breeds, nor is there dwarfism or hereditary blood disorders. Hip dysplasia As in all large breeds (and some small ones) there is some hip dysplasia, though the incidence is about 10% of all radiographs submitted, according to statistical studies of the OFA. Eyes There are two eye disorders found in the breed. Entropion is indicated by the curling inwards of either the upper or lower eyelid. This lid deformity causes the lashes to rub against the cornea causing lacerations and infections. More recently, juvenile cataracts have been documented. The Canine Eye Registration Foundation, CERF, located at Purdue University, evaluates eye exams and assigns a CERF number to it if the dog's eyes are free from genetic problems. Bloat There is some indication of bloat, a life-threatening condition. The incidence of bloat is no greater than with any other large breeds. To possibly help to avoid bloat do not feed soon before or after any exercise. Parasites External parasites can be a problem due to the heavy coat. As with any long-haired dog, a skin check should be part of a regular grooming routine. If fleas or ticks are found, aggressive measures are in order. Shampoos and powders work well, but great care should be observed as it is easy to miss a spot where the fleas can hide. Owners should check anti-flea and tick preparations carefully as the Komondor can be extremely sensitive to some of these products. It is recommended to spot-test the coat before dipping as some flea dips have been known to discolor the white coat. Flea collars can also discolor the hair beneath them, so look for a white or transparent one. Ears Ear care should also be routine. As Komondors have ears which prevent air circulation, it is especially necessary to keep them clean and hair-free. Some ear canals are more hairy than others, but commercial powders, cleansing fluids and plucking of the hair can greatly reduce infections. Feet Thick hair grows between the pads of the feet which also requires maintenance. This hair can pick up burrs, or become a source of irritation and infection when wet. For the health and comfort of the dog, this hair should be cut out with an electric clipper or scissors to keep mats from forming between the foot pads. Vaccinations As in all breeds one should be careful that a Komondor have the proper vaccines against rabies, distemper, canine parvovirus, etc. Dogs should also be checked periodically for worms and other internal parasites. Like all stock guard dogs Komondors are usually extremely sensitive to anesthetics. These drugs should always be administered to effect, never by weight. References External links Komondor Club of America Middle Atlantic States Komondor Club The Komondor Club Komondor pictures See also Puli | Komondor |@lemmatized komondor:53 hungarian:7 plural:1 komondorok:1 large:6 white:8 color:2 breed:19 livestock:7 guardian:4 dog:30 long:6 cord:7 coat:22 old:1 establish:1 powerful:2 natural:3 instinct:2 guard:8 kind:1 propriety:1 mention:2 first:2 time:3 codex:1 declare:1 one:9 hungary:4 national:1 treasure:1 preserve:1 protect:3 modification:1 pul:3 another:1 sheep:4 half:2 size:2 usually:3 black:3 history:2 origin:3 debate:1 believe:2 magyar:1 others:3 sumerian:1 accord:2 probable:1 explanation:1 bring:1 cumans:3 turkish:1 speaking:1 nomadic:1 people:3 settle:1 century:2 name:2 quman:1 dur:1 mean:2 belong:1 distinguish:1 similar:3 sheepdog:1 later:2 merge:1 find:4 write:1 king:1 astiagis:1 kákonyi:1 péter:1 amos:1 comenius:1 work:4 unique:1 dreadlock:4 appearance:3 give:4 hint:1 common:3 bergamasco:1 might:2 also:7 link:3 big:2 russian:3 south:1 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soft:2 fluffy:1 however:2 wavy:1 tend:1 curl:1 matures:1 fully:4 mature:2 naturally:1 undercoat:1 coarser:1 outer:1 combine:1 tassel:1 take:2 around:2 two:2 year:2 help:2 need:2 separate:1 turn:1 mess:1 increase:2 grow:1 shed:2 minimal:1 contrary:1 think:3 substantial:1 occurs:1 bear:3 unlike:1 sometimes:1 grayish:1 may:4 discolor:3 element:1 appear:1 wash:1 regularly:1 traditionally:1 able:1 penetrate:1 temperament:4 like:2 calm:2 steady:1 thing:1 normal:1 case:1 trouble:1 fearlessly:1 defend:1 charge:1 act:1 independently:1 decision:1 affectionate:1 family:5 gentle:1 child:1 friend:1 although:1 wary:1 stranger:1 accept:1 clear:1 harm:1 instinctively:1 protective:1 home:1 possession:1 good:3 pet:2 intolerant:1 trespasser:1 teasing:1 city:1 life:2 vigilant:1 rest:1 daytime:1 keep:4 eye:7 surroundings:1 night:1 constantly:1 move:2 patrol:1 place:1 whole:1 area:1 knock:2 intruder:2 owner:2 arrive:1 breeder:3 use:4 allow:2 enter:1 property:1 come:1 ability:1 athletic:1 fast:1 leap:1 drive:1 successfully:1 lgd:1 vast:1 goat:1 united:1 state:2 coyote:1 cougar:1 train:3 due:2 power:1 speed:1 lack:1 obedience:2 training:1 start:2 young:2 age:2 month:1 result:1 danger:1 generally:1 well:3 early:1 become:2 obstinate:1 bore:1 imperative:1 session:1 upbeat:1 happy:2 praise:1 consistent:2 humane:1 correction:2 get:1 away:1 unfriendly:1 hostile:1 behavior:2 appropriate:1 therefore:1 necessary:2 ensure:1 adjust:1 adult:1 socialization:1 extremely:3 important:1 expose:1 new:2 situation:2 properly:1 socialize:1 react:1 excessively:1 aggressive:2 manner:1 confront:1 person:1 proper:2 environment:1 care:3 responsible:1 loving:1 devote:1 without:1 sluggish:1 quite:1 range:1 personality:2 outline:1 clearly:1 experienced:1 try:1 identify:1 would:2 independent:1 want:1 please:1 adolescence:1 mark:1 change:1 eat:1 habit:1 trainability:1 general:1 attitude:1 late:1 bloomer:1 nearly:1 three:1 health:2 suffer:1 hereditary:2 problem:5 perhaps:1 descend:1 hardy:1 stock:2 genetically:1 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1,290 | Battleship | The firepower of a battleship demonstrated by (ca. 1984). A battleship is a large, heavily armored warship with a main battery consisting of the largest calibre of guns. Battleships were larger, better armed, and better armored than cruisers and destroyers. Battleship design continually evolved to incorporate and adapt technological advances to maintain an edge. The word battleship was coined around 1794 and is a shortened form of line-of-battle ship, the dominant wooden warship during the Age of Sail. "battleship" The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 4 April 2000 The term came into formal use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship, Stoll, J. Steaming in the Dark?, Journal of Conflict Resolution Vol. 36 No. 2, Jun 1992 now referred to as pre-dreadnought battleships. In 1906, the launch of HMS Dreadnought heralded a revolution in battleship design. Following battleship designs that were influenced by the HMS Dreadnought were referred to as "dreadnoughts". Battleships were a potent symbol of naval dominance and national might, and for decades the battleship was a major factor in both diplomacy and military strategy. Sondhaus, L. Naval Warfare 1815–1914, ISBN 0-415-21478-5 The global arms race in battleship construction in the early 20th century was one of the causes of World War I, which saw a clash of huge battle fleets at the Battle of Jutland. The Naval Treaties of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships but did not end the evolution of design. Both the Allies and the Axis Powers deployed battleships of old construction and new during World War II. Nevertheless, some historians and naval theorists question the value of the battleship. The Battle of Tsushima (1905) was the only decisive clash between steel battleship fleets, and apart from the indecisive Battle of Jutland (1916), there were few great battleship clashes. Despite their great firepower and protection, battleships were increasingly vulnerable to much smaller, cheaper ordnance and craft: initially the torpedo and the naval mine, and later aircraft and the guided missile. Lenton, H. T.: Krigsfartyg efter 1860 The growing range of naval engagement led to the aircraft carrier replacing the battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into the Cold War only for fire support purposes. The last battleships were removed from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in March 2006. "Battleship" in Naval Vessel Register. United States Navy. Retrieved 24 May 2008. Ships of the line A ship of the line was a large, unarmoured wooden sailing ship on which was mounted a battery of up to 120 smoothbore guns and carronades. The ship of the line was a gradual evolution of a basic design that dates back to the 1400s, and, apart from growing in size, it changed little between the adoption of line of battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship's heyday in the 1830s. From 1794, the alternative term 'line of battle ship' was contracted (informally at first) to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'. Le Napoléon (1850), the first steam battleship The sheer number of guns fired broadside meant that a sailing battleship could wreck any wooden vessel, smashing its hull and masts and killing its crew. However, the effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards, and the battle tactics of sailing ships depended entirely on the wind. The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. Steam power was gradually introduced to the navy in the first half of the 19th century, initially for small craft and later for frigates. The French Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Le Napoléon in 1850 "Napoleon (90 guns), the first purpose-designed screw line of battleships", Steam, Steel and Shellfire, Conway's History of the Ship (p39) —the first true steam battleship. "Hastened to completion Le Napoleon was launched on 16 May 1850, to become the world's first true steam battleship", Steam, Steel and Shellfire, Conway's History of the Ship (p39) Napoleon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of , regardless of the wind conditions: a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships. France and the United Kingdom were the only two countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships, although several other navies made some use of a mixture of screw battleships and paddle-steamer frigates. These included Russia, Turkey, Sweden, Naples, Prussia, Denmark and Austria. Ironclads The French La Gloire (1859), the first ocean–going ironclad warship. The adoption of steam power was only one of a number of technological advances which revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad: powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive shells. Explosive shells Wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to solid shot, as shown in the 1866 battle of Lissa, where the old Austrian steam battleship Kaiser ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironclad and took a pounding of several 300 pound shots at point blank range. Despite losing her bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day. Wilson, H. W.: Ironclads in Action - Vol 1, London, 1898, p. 240 By contrast, guns which fired explosive or incendiary shells were a major threat to wooden ships, and these weapons became widespread in the 1840s. In the Crimean War, the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed a flotilla of wooden Turkish ships with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853. Later in the war, French ironclad floating batteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn. Lambert, Andrew: Battleships in Transition, pp. 92–96 Iron armor and construction (1860), the Royal Navy's first ocean–going iron hulled warship. The development of high-explosive shells made the use of iron armor plate on warships necessary. In 1859 France launched La Gloire, the first ocean-going ironclad warship. She had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerations. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most of her journeys, La Gloire was fitted with a propeller, and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor. Gibbons, Tony: The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships, pp. 28–29 Gloire prompted further innovation from the Royal Navy, anxious to prevent France from gaining a technological lead. The superior armored frigate Warrior followed La Gloire by only fourteen months, and both nations embarked on a program of building new ironclads and converting existing screw ships of the line to armored frigates. Gibbons, pp. 30–31 Within two years, Italy, Austria, Spain and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships, and by the time of the famous clash of the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships. The French Redoutable (1876), the first battleship to use steel as the main building material Gibbons, p. 93 Navies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets (like the USS Monitor), central-batteries or barbettes, or with the ram as the principal weapon. As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs. By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood. The French Navy's Redoutable, laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material. Conway Marine, "Steam, Steel and Shellfire" (p. 96) The pre-dreadnought battleship Diagram of (1908), a typical late pre-dreadnought battleship The term "battleship" was officially adopted by the Royal Navy in the re-classification of 1892. By the 1890s, there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs, and the type now known as the 'pre-dreadnought battleship' emerged. These were heavily armored ships, mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets, and without sails. The typical first-class battleship of the pre-dreadnought era displaced 15,000 to 17,000 tons, had a speed of , and an armament of four guns in two turrets fore and aft with a mixed-caliber secondary battery amidships around the superstructure. An early design with superficial similarity to the pre-dreadnought is the British Devastation-class of 1871. Gibbons, Tony: The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships, p. 101 However, it was not until the 1890s that the widespread adoption of steel construction and hardened steel armor meant that a turret-ship could combine heavy armament and protection with high speed and good seakeeping. The slow-firing main guns were the principal weapons for battleship-to-battleship combat. The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles. Against major ships, it was thought a 'hail of fire' from quick-firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure, and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers. Smaller guns (12-pounders and smaller) were reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats. War at Sea in the Ironclad Age, Richard Hill, ISBN 0-304-35273-X The beginning of the pre-dreadnought era coincided with an attempt by Britain to re-assert her naval dominance. For many years previously, Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted. Expensive naval projects were criticised by political leaders of all inclinations. However, in 1888 a war scare with France and the build-up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction, and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships. The principle that Britain's navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established. This policy was designed to deter France and Russia from building more battleships, but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s. In the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany. The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorised a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power. Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened. In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together. By 1897, Britain's lead was far smaller due to competition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan. Kennedy, p. 209 Turkey, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors. Preston, Anthony: Jane's Fighting Ships of World War II Pre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad. Turrets, armor plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and torpedo tubes were introduced. A small number of designs, including the American Kearsarge and Virginia classes, experimented with all or part of the 8-inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12-inch primary. Results were poor: recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8-inch battery being completely unusable, and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations. Even though such innovative designs saved weight (a key reason for their inception), they proved too cumbersome in practice. Preston, Anthony. (1972) Battleships of World War I, New York City: Galahad Books The Dreadnought era In 1906, the revolutionary , created as a result of pressure from Admiral John A. Fisher, made existing battleships obsolete. Combining an 'all-big-gun' armament of ten 12-inch (305 mm) rifles with unprecedented speed and protection, she prompted navies worldwide to re-evaluate their battleship building programmes. While the Japanese had laid down an all-big-gun battleship (Satsuma) in 1904, Gibbons, p. 168 and the concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years, it had yet to be validated in combat. Dreadnought sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power. Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with step changes in armament, armor and propulsion. Ten years after Dreadnoughts commissioning, much more powerful ships, the super-dreadnoughts''', were being built. The origin of Dreadnought Vittorio Cuniberti In the first years of the 20th century, several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns. Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti, the Italian Navy's chief naval architect, articulated the concept of an all-big-gun battleship in 1903. When the Regia Marina did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in Jane's proposing an "ideal" future British battleship, a large armored warship of 17,000 tons, armed solely with a single caliber main battery (twelve 12-inch {305 mm} guns), carrying belt armor, and capable of 24 knots (44 km/h). Cuniberti, Vittorio, "An Ideal Battleship for the British Fleet", All The World's Fighting Ships, 1903, pp.407–409. The Russo-Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the 'all-big-gun' concept. At the Yellow Sea and Tsushima, pre-dreadnoughts exchanged volleys at ranges of 7,600–12,000 yd (7 to 11 km), beyond the range of the secondary batteries. It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the gun over its smaller counterparts, though some historians take the view secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons. In Japan, the two battleships of the 1903-4 Programme were in fact the first to be laid down as all-big-gun designs, with eight 12-inch guns. However, the design had armour which was considered too thin, demanding a substantial redesign. Breyer, Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World, p.331 The financial pressures of the Russo-Japanese War and the short supply of 12-inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant these ships were completed with a mixed 10- and 12-inch armament. The 1903-4 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines. Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, p.159 A preliminary design for the Imperial Japanese Navy's was an "all-big-gun" design. As early as 1904, First Sea Lord Sir John A. "Jackie" Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast, powerful ships with an all-big-gun armament. If Tsushima influenced his thinking, it was to persuade him of the need to standardise on guns. Fisher's concern was submarines and destroyers equipped with torpedoes that outranged battleship guns, making speed imperative for capital ships. Fisher's preferred option was his brainchild, the battlecruiser: lightly armored but heavily armed with eight 12-inch guns and propelled to by steam turbines. It was to prove this revolutionary technology that Dreadnought was designed in January 1905, laid down in October 1905 and sped to completion by 1906. She carried ten 12 inch guns, had an 11-inch armour belt, and was the first large ship powered by turbines. She mounted her guns in five turrets; three on the centerline (one forward, two aft) and two on the wings, giving her at her launch twice the broadside of anything else afloat. She retained a number of 12-pound (3-inch, 76 mm) quick-firing guns for use against destroyers and torpedo-boats. Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head-to-head with any other ship afloat in a gun battle, and conceivably win. Gibbons, pp. 170–171 (1906)Dreadnought was to have been followed by three Invincible-class battlecruisers, their construction delayed to allow lessons from Dreadnought to be used in their design. While Fisher may have intended Dreadnought to be the last Royal Navy battleship, the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy. Although there were some problems with the ship (the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside, and the top of the thickest armour belt lay below the waterline at full load), the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the Bellerophon and St Vincent classes. An American design, , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906, was another of the first dreadnoughts, but she and her sister, , were not launched until 1908. Both used triple-expansion engines and had superior layout of their super-firing main battery, dispensing with Dreadnoughts wing turrets. They thus retained the same broadside, despite having two fewer guns. The dreadnought arms race In 1897, before the revolution in design brought about by HMS Dreadnought, the Royal Navy had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and 50 over Germany. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Paul M. Kennedy, ISBN 0-333-35094-4, p. 209 In 1906, the Royal Navy owned the field with Dreadnought. The new class of ship prompted an arms race with major strategic consequences. Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts to catch up with the United Kingdom. Possession of modern battleships was not only vital to naval power, but also, as with nuclear weapons today, represented a nation's standing in the world. Germany, France, Russia, Italy, Austria, and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; and second-rank powers including Turkey, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards. The First World War, John Keegan, ISBN 0-7126-6645-1, p. 281 World War I The First World War was an anticlimax for the great dreadnought fleets. There was no decisive clash of modern battlefleets to compare with the Battle of Tsushima. The role of battleships was marginal to the great land struggle in France and Russia; and it was equally marginal to the First Battle of the Atlantic, the battle between German submarines and British merchant shipping. By virtue of geography, the Royal Navy could keep the German High Seas Fleet bottled up in the North Sea with relative ease. Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would likely result in a British victory. The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds. The First World War, John Keegan, ISBN 0-7126-6645-1, p. 289 German High Seas Fleet during World War I The first two years of war saw conflict in the North Sea limited to skirmishes by battlecruisers at the Battle of Heligoland Bight and Battle of Dogger Bank and raids on the English coast. In the summer of 1916, a further attempt to draw British ships into battle on German terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the Battle of Jutland: an indecisive engagement. Ireland, Bernard: Jane's War At Sea, pp. 88–95 In the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles. In the Black Sea, engagement between Russian and Turkish battleships was restricted to skirmishes. In the Baltic, action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys, and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian pre-dreadnought was lost. The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade. And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli. The course of the war also illustrated the vulnerability of battleships to cheaper weapons. In September 1914, the potential threat posed to capital ships by German U-boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armoured cruisers by the German submarine U-9 in less than an hour. Sea mines proved a threat the next month, when the recently commissioned British super-dreadnought Audacious struck a mine and sank. By the end of October, the British had changed their strategy and tactics in the North Sea to reduce the risk of U-boat attack. Massie, Robert. Castles of Steel, London, 2005. pp127–145 While the Battle of Jutland was among the last major battleship engagements in history (Tsushima, Battle of Surigao Strait), the German plan for the battle relied on U-boat attacks on the British fleet; and the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers closing on British battleships, causing them to turn away to avoid the threat of torpedo attack. Further near-misses from submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst cruisers led to growing paranoia in the Royal Navy about the vulnerability of battleships. By October 1916, the Royal Navy had essentially abandoned the North Sea, instructing the Grand Fleet not to go south of the Farne Islands unless adequately protected by destroyers. The German High Seas Fleet, for their part, were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic, the fleet stayed in port for the remainder of the war. The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, Paul Kennedy, ISBN 0-333-35094-4, pp. 247–249 Other theatres equally showed the role of small craft in damaging or destroying dreadnoughts. The two Austrian dreadnoughts lost in 1918 were the casualties of torpedo boats and of frogmen. The Allied capital ships lost in Gallipoli were sunk by mines and torpedo, and were torpedoed by U.21; was torpedoed by the Turkish torpedo boat Muavenet. while a Turkish pre-dreadnought was caught in the Dardanelles by a British submarine. The inter-war period For many years, Germany simply had no battleships. The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port; largely because no neutral port could be found, the ships remained in British custody in Scapa Flow, Scotland. The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British. Instead, most of them were scuttled by their German crews on 21 June 1919 just before the signature of the peace treaty. The treaty also limited the German Navy, and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships. Ireland, Bernard: Jane's War At Sea, p. 118 Profile drawing of HMS Nelson commissioned 1927The inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out. Friedman, Norman, U.S. Battleships, pp. 181-2 While the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles, many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war. Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against Great Britain and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan. Kennedy p 277 The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First Geneva Naval Conference (1927), the First London Naval Treaty (1930), the Second Geneva Naval Conference (1932), and finally the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which all set limits on major warships. These treaties became effectively obsolete on 1 September 1939 at the beginning of World War II, but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply. Ireland, Bernard: Jane's War At Sea, pp. 124–126, 139–142 The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched from 1919–1939 than from 1905–1914. The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships. Designs like the projected British N3 battleship, the first American South Dakota-class, and the Japanese Kii-class—all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board. Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships'. Rise of air power Bombing tests which sank SMS Ostfriesland (1909), September, 1921 As early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aeroplanes. Kennedy, op. cit., p. 199 By the end of World War I, aeroplanes had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon. From the Guinness Book of Air Facts and Feats (3rd edition, 1977): "The first air attack using a torpedo dropped by an aeroplane was carried out by Flight Commander Charles H. K. Edmonds, flying a Short 184 seaplane from HMS Ben-My-Chree on 12 August 1915, against a 5,000 ton (5,080 tonne) Turkish supply ship in the Sea of Marmara. Although the enemy ship was hit and sunk, the captain of a British submarine claimed to have fired a torpedo simultaneously and sunk the ship. It was further stated that the British submarine E14 had attacked and immobilised the ship four days earlier. However, on 17 August 1915, another Turkish ship was sunk by a torpedo of whose origin there can be no doubt. On this occasion Flight Commander C. H. Edmonds, flying a Short 184, torpedoed a Turkish steamer a few miles north of the Dardanelles. His formation colleague, Flight Lieutenant G. B. Dacre, was forced to land on the water owing to engine trouble but, seeing an enemy tug close by, taxied up to it and released his torpedo. The tug blew up and sank. Thereafter, Dacre was able to take off and return to the Ben-My-Chree A proposed attack on the German fleet at anchor in 1918 using the Sopwith Cuckoo carrier-borne torpedo-bomber was considered and rejected—but it was not long before such a technique was adopted. In the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps, believing that air forces had rendered navies around the world obsolete, testified in front of Congress that "1,000 bombardment airplanes can be built and operated for about the price of one battleship" and that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship, making for more efficient use of government funds. Boyne, Walter J. "The Spirit of Billy Mitchell". Air Force Magazine, June 1996. This infuriated the U.S. Navy, but Mitchell was nevertheless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers. In 1921, he bombed and sank numerous ships, including the "unsinkable" German World War I battleship Ostfriesland and the American pre-dreadnought . Although Mitchell had required "war-time conditions", the ships sunk were obsolete, stationary, defenseless and had no damage control. The sinking of Ostfriesland was accomplished by violating an agreement that would have allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various munitions: Mitchell's airmen disregarded the rules, and sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack. The stunt made headlines, and Mitchell declared, "No surface vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land bases are able to attack them." While far from conclusive, Mitchell's test was significant because it put proponents of the battleship against naval aviation on the back foot. Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations against Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of the U.S. Navy's nascent aircraft carrier program. Jeffers, H. Paul (2006). Billy Mitchell: The Life, Times, and Battles of America's Prophet of Air Power. Zenith Press. ISBN 0760320802 Rearmament The Royal Navy, United States Navy, and Imperial Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized their World War I-era battleships during the 1930s. Among new features were tower height and stability such that optical rangefinder equipment for gunnery control could be used, deck plating was increased especially around turrets against plunging fire and aerial bombing, anti-aircraft weapons added. Some British ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the "Queen Anne's castle", such as in the Queen Elizabeth and Warspite, which would be used in the new conning towers of the King George V fast battleships. External bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to counteract weight increase and provide underwater protection against mines and torpedoes. The Japanese rebuilt all of their battleships, plus their battlecruisers, with distinctive "pagoda" structures, though the received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new Yamato battleships. Bulges were fitted, including steel tube array to improve both underwater and vertical protection along waterline. The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts, though after Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships such as West Virginia and California were rebuilt to a similar appearance to their Iowa class contemporaries (called tower masts). Radar, which was effective beyond visual contact and was effective in complete darkness or adverse weather conditions, was introduced to supplement optical fire control. Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleship construction did not regain the level of importance which it had held in the years before World War I. The "building holiday" imposed by the naval treaties meant that the building capacity of dockyards worldwide was relatively reduced, and the strategic position had changed. The development of the strategic bomber meant that the navy was no longer the only method of projecting power overseas, and the development of the aircraft carrier meant that battleships had a rival for the resources available for capital ship construction. Vittorio Veneto (1940) In Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmament was abandoned in favour of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and Bismarck-class battleships as commerce raiders. In Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction plans consisted of five ships of the King George V class. It was in the Mediterranean that navies remained most committed to battleship warfare. France intended to build six battleships of the Dunkerque and Richelieu classes, and the Italians two Littorio-class ships. Neither navy built significant aircraft carriers. The U.S. preferred to spend limited funds on aircraft carriers until the South Dakota class. Japan, also prioritising aircraft carriers, nevertheless began work on three mammoth Yamato class ships (although the third, Shinano, was later completed as a carrier) and a planned fourth was cancelled. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish navy consisted of only two small dreadnought battleships, España and Jaime I. España (originally named Alfonso XIII), by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base of El Ferrol, fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936. The crew aboard Jaime I murdered their officers, mutinied, and joined the Republican Navy. Thus each side had one battleship; however, the Republican Navy generally lacked experienced officers. The Spanish battleships mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades, convoy escort duties, and shore bombardment, rarely in direct fighting against other surface units. Gibbons, p.195 In April 1937, España ran onto a mine laid by friendly forces, and sank with little loss of life. In May 1937, Jaime I was damaged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident. The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired. There she was again hit by several aerial bombs. It was then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port, but during the transport she suffered an internal explosion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss. Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the non-intervention blockade. On 29 May 1937, two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship outside Ibiza, causing severe damage and loss of life. retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería, causing much destruction, and the resulting Deutschland incident meant the end of German and Italian support for non-intervention. Greger, René: Schlachtschiffe der Welt, p. 251 World War II leading battleship and cruisers , , and into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945 The German battleship "Schleswig-Holstein"— an obsolete pre-dreadnought—fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte; Gibbons, p. 163 and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship, the . Between those two events, it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role. Battleships played a part in major engagements in Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean theatres; in the Atlantic, the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders. However, clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance. The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines, and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers. In the first year of the war, armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau surprised and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious off western Norway in June 1940. Gibbons, pp. 246-247 This engagement marked the last time a fleet carrier was sunk by surface gunnery. In the Attack on Mers-el-Kébir, British battleships opened fire on the French battleships harboured in Algiers with their own heavy guns, and later pursued fleeing French ships with planes from aircraft carriers. The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its potential against battleships. The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more. The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German commerce-raider . On 7 December 1941 the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. Within a short time five of eight U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking, with the rest damaged. The American aircraft carriers were out to sea, however, and evaded detection. They in turn would take up the fight, eventually turning the tide of the war in the Pacific. The sinking of the British battleship Prince of Wales and her escort, the battlecruiser HMS Repulse, demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover, finally settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921. Both ships were on their way to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese land-based bombers and fighters on 10 December 1941. Axell, Albert: Kamikaze, p. 14 At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific, for instance Coral Sea and Midway, battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles. In later battles in the Pacific, battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti-aircraft defense as escort for the carriers. Even the largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's Yamato class, which carried a main battery of nine 18-inch (46 cm) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon, were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre-war planning. Gibbons, pp. 262-263 The Cold War Operation Crossroads Event Baker explosion After World War II, several navies retained battleships, but it became clear that they were not worth the considerable cost. During the war it had been demonstrated that battleship-on-battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the sinking of the Hood were the exception and not the rule, and that engagement ranges were becoming longer and longer, making heavy gun armament irrelevant. The armor of a battleship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack, and nuclear missiles with a range of or more could be mounted on the Soviet and by the end of the 1950s. The remaining battleships met a variety of ends. and were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946. Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions. The Italian Giulio Cesare was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed Novorossiysk; she was sunk by a German mine in the Black Sea on 29 October 1955. The two Andrea Doria class ships were scrapped in 1956. Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. (technical assistance from Bill Gunston, Antony Preston, & Ian Hogg) Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare (London: Phoebus, 1978), Volume 2, p.114. The French Lorraine was scrapped in 1954, Richelieu in 1968, Fitzsimons, Volume 20, p.2213, "Richelieu". No mention of her sister, Jean Bart. and Jean Bart in 1970. Gardiner, Robert (Ed.); (1980); Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922-1946; ISBN 0 85177 146 7; p. 260 The United Kingdom's four surviving King George V class ships were scrapped in 1957, Fitzsimons, Volume 15, p.1636, "King George V" and Vanguard followed in 1960. Fitzsimons, Volume 23, p.2554, "Vanguard" All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949. Gardiner, pp. 7 and 14 The Soviet Union's Petropavlovsk was scrapped in 1953, Sevastopol in 1957 and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya (back under her original name, Gangut, since 1942) Fitzsimons, Volume 10, p.1086, "Gangut" in 1956-7. Brazil's Minas Gerais was scrapped in Genoa in 1953, Fitzsimons, Volume 17, p.1896, "Minas Gerais" and her sister ship São Paulo sank during a storm in the Atlantic en route to the breakers in Italy in 1951. Argentina kept its two Rivadavia class ships until 1956 and Chile kept Almirante Latorre (formerly HMS Canada) until 1959. Fitzsimons, Volume 1, p.84, "Almirante Latorre" The Turkish battlecruiser Yavuz (formerly Goeben, launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused. Sweden had several small coastal-defense battleships, one of which, Gustav V, survived until 1970. Gardiner, p. 368 The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build a number of new Stalingrad-class battlecruisers were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. The three old German battleships , , and Hessen all met similar ends. Hessen was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed Tsel. She was scrapped in 1960. Schleswig-Holstein was renamed Borodino, and was used as a target ship until 1960. Schlesien, too, was used as a target ship. She was broken up between 1952 and 1957. Gardiner, p. 222 (1944) launches a Tomahawk missile during Operation Desert Storm. The Iowa class battleships gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships. Shipborne artillery support is considered by the U.S. Marine Corps as more accurate, more effective and less expensive than aerial strikes. Radar and computer-controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target. The U.S. recommissioned all four Iowa class battleships for the Korean War and the for the Vietnam War. These were primarily used for shore bombardment, New Jersey firing seven times more rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had in the Second World War. History of World Seapower, Bernard Brett, ISBN 0-603-03723-2, p. 236 As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to build a 600-ship Navy in the 1980s, and in response to the commissioning of Kirov by the Soviet Union, the United States recommissioned all four Iowa class battleships. On several occasions, battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups, or led their own battleship battle group. These were modernized to carry Tomahawk missiles, with New Jersey seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984, while and fired their 16 inch (406 mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles in the Gulf War of 1991. Wisconsin served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Operation Desert Storm and fired a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore based surface-to-surface missiles; Missouri was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles, with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer . Defence power: developments of the decade All four Iowas were decommissioned in the early 1990s, making them the last battleships to see active service. USS Iowa and USS Wisconsin were, until fiscal year 2006, maintained to a standard where they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels, pending the development of a superior fire support vessel. The U.S. Marine Corps believes that the current naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations. The USMC has revised its Naval Surface Gunfire Support requirements, leaving some questions as to whether or not the Zumwalt class destroyer can meet the Marine qualifications. Today The American (1912) is the only preserved example of a Dreadnought-type battleship that dates to the time of the original HMS Dreadnought. With the decommissioning of the last Iowas, no battleships remain in service (including in reserve) with any navy worldwide. A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in dry-dock. The U.S. has a large number of battleships on display: , , , , , , and . Missouri and New Jersey are now museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively. Wisconsin is a museum (at Norfolk, Virginia), and was recently removed from the Naval Vessel Register; however, pending donation, the public can still only tour the deck, since the rest of the ship is closed off for dehumidification. The only other true battleship on display is the Japanese pre-Dreadnought . Battleships in strategy and doctrine Doctrine Battleships were the embodiment of sea power. For Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers, a strong navy was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas. Mahan's theory dictated that the role of the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas. Massie, Robert K. Castles of Steel, London, 2005. ISBN 1-844-134113 While the work of escorting, blockading and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels, the presence of the battleship was a potential threat. (This came to be known as a "fleet in being".) Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships Mahan, A.T., Captain. Influence of Sea Power on History, 1660–1783. (Boston: Little Brown), passim. (which came to be known as the "decisive battle" doctrine in some navies), while guerre de course (developed by the Jeune Ecole) could never succeed. Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship, Kennedy, op. cit., p2, p200, p206 et al. calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible. Mahan's work developed in the late 1880s, and by the end of the 1890s it had a massive international impact, in the end adopted by many major navies (notably the British, American, German, and Japanese). The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races, and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era. A related concept was a "fleet in being": the idea a fleet of battleships could simply by its presence tie down superior enemy resources. This in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a conflict even without a decisive battle. This suggested even for inferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important strategic impact. Tactics While the role of battleships in both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine, the details of battleship deployment were more complex. Unlike the ship-of-the-line, the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines, weapons which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft. The Jeune Ecole school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s recommended the placing of torpedo boats alongside battleships; the boats would hide behind the battleships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes. While this concept was vitiated by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained. By the 1890s the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, small ships designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats. During the First World War and subsequently, battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers. Battleship doctrine emphasised the concentration of the battlegroup. In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent (or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet), battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships beyond horizon range. This was provided by scouting forces; at various stages battlecruisers, cruisers, destroyers, airships, submarines and aircraft were all used. (With the development of radio, direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play, as well, so even shore stations, broadly speaking, joined the battlegroup. It could presage an enemy sortie, or locate an enemy over the horizon. Beesly, Patrick. Room 40 (London : Hamish Hamilton) ) So for most of their history, battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers. The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how, despite this support, the threat of mine and torpedo attack, and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques, Beesly. seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet, the greatest battleship fleet of its time. Strategic and diplomatic impact The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact. Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today, the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation's force projection. Even during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant. In 1946, USS Missouri was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambassador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the Balkan region. In September 1983, when Druze militia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Marine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS New Jersey stopped the firing. Gunfire from New Jersey later killed militia leaders. Value for money Battleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested. As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that the enterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people. Quoted inNet-Centric before its time: The Jeune École and Its Lessons for Today Erik J. Dahl U.S. Naval War College Review, Autumn 2005, Vol. 58, No. 4 The Jeune Ecole school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet. It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports. The ideas of the Jeune Ecole'' were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft were available that allowed similar ideas to be effectively implemented. Dahl, op cit. The determination of powers such as the German Empire to build battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals has been criticised by historians, who emphasise the futility of investment in a battlefleet which has no chance of matching its opponent in an actual battle. According to this view, attempts by a weaker navy to compete head-to-head with a stronger one in battleship construction simply wasted resources which could have been better invested in attacking the enemy's points of weakness. In Germany's case, the British dependence on massive imports of food and raw materials proved to be a near-fatal weakness, once Germany had accepted the political risk of unrestricted submarine warfare against commercial shipping. Although the U-boat offensive in 1917–18 was ultimately defeated, it was successful in causing huge material loss and forcing the Allies to divert vast resources into anti-submarine warfare. This success, though not ultimately decisive, was nevertheless in sharp contrast to the inability of the German battlefleet to challenge the supremacy of Britain's far stronger fleet. See also List of battleships List of battleships by country List of battleship classes List of sunken battleships Arsenal ship Notes References Corbett, Sir Julian. "Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905." (1994). Originally Classified and in two volumnes. ISBN 1-5575-0129-7. 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1,291 | Bactericide | A bactericide or bacteriocide is a substance that kills bacteria and, ideally, nothing else. Bactericides are either disinfectants, antiseptics or antibiotics. Important Functional Groups in a Bactericidal Substance The most used disinfectants are those applying active chlorine (i.e., hypochlorites, chloramines, dichloroisocyanurate and trichloroisocyanurate, wet chlorine, chlorine dioxide etc.), active oxygen (peroxides, such as peracetic acid, potassium persulfate, sodium perborate, sodium percarbonate and urea perhydrate), iodine (iodpovidone (povidone-iodine, Betadine), Lugol's solution, iodine tincture, iodinated nonionic surfactants), concentrated alcohols (mainly ethanol, 1-propanol, called also n-propanol and 2-propanol, called isopropanol and mixtures thereof; further, 2-phenoxyethanol and 1- and 2-phenoxypropanols are used), phenolic substances (such as phenol (also called "carbolic acid"), cresols (called "Lysole" in combination with liquid potassium soaps), halogenated (chlorinated, brominated) phenols, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan, trichlorophenol, tribromophenol, pentachlorophenol, Dibromol and salts thereof), cationic surfactants, such as some quaternary ammonium cations (such as benzalkonium chloride, cetyl trimethylammonium bromide or chloride, didecyldimethylammonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, benzethonium chloride) and others, non-quaternary compounds, such as chlorhexidine, glucoprotamine, octenidine dihydrochloride etc.), strong oxidizers, such as ozone and permanganate solutions; heavy metals and their salts, such as colloidal silver, silver nitrate, mercury chloride, phenylmercury salts, copper sulfate, copper oxide-chloride etc. Heavy metals and their salts are the most toxic, and environment-hazardous bactericides and therefore, their use is strongly oppressed or canceled; further, also properly concentrated strong acids (phosphoric, nitric, sulfuric, amidosulfuric, toluenesulfonic acids) and alkalis (sodium, potassium, calcium hydroxides), such as of pH < 1 or > 13, particularly under elevated temperature (above 60°C), kills bacteria. Bactericidal antiseptics As antiseptics (i.e., germicide agents that can be used on human or animal body, skin, mucoses, wounds and the like), few of the above mentioned disinfectants can be used, under proper conditions (mainly concentration, pH, temperature and toxicity toward man/animal). Among them, important are some properly diluted chlorine preparations (f.e. Daquin's solution, 0.5% sodium or potassium hypochlorite solution, pH-adjusted to pH 7 - 8, or 0.5 - 1% solution of sodium benzenesulfochloramide (chloramine B)), some iodine preparations, such as iodopovidone in various galenics (oinment, solutions, wound plasters), in the past also Lugol's solution, peroxides as urea perhydrate solutions and pH-buffered 0.1 - 0.25% peracetic acid solutions, alcohols with or without antiseptic additives, used mainly for skin antisepsis, weak organic acids such as sorbic acid, benzoic acid, lactic acid and salicylic acid some phenolic compounds, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan and Dibromol, and cation-active compounds, such as 0.05 - 0.5% benzalkonium, 0.5 - 4% chlorhexidine, 0.1 - 2% octenidine solutions. Others are generally not applicable as safe antiseptics, either because of their corrosive or toxic nature. Bactericidal antibiotics Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria; bacteriostatic antibiotics only slow their growth or reproduction. Aminoglycosidic antibiotics are usually considered bactericidal, although they may be bacteriostatic with some organisms. They act by binding irreversibly to 30s ribosomal subunit, reducing translation fidelity leading to inaccurate protein synthesis. The other effect is the inhibition of protein synthesis due to premature separation of the complex between mRNA and ribosomal proteins. The final result is bacterial cell death. Other bactericidal antibiotics include the fluoroquinolones,nitrofurantoin, vancomycin, monobactams, co-trimoxazole, and metronidazole. See also List of antibiotics Microbicide | Bactericide |@lemmatized bactericide:3 bacteriocide:1 substance:3 kill:3 bacteria:3 ideally:1 nothing:1 else:1 either:2 disinfectant:3 antiseptic:5 antibiotic:7 important:2 functional:1 group:1 bactericidal:6 used:1 apply:1 active:3 chlorine:4 e:3 hypochlorite:2 chloramine:2 dichloroisocyanurate:1 trichloroisocyanurate:1 wet:1 dioxide:1 etc:3 oxygen:1 peroxide:2 peracetic:2 acid:10 potassium:4 persulfate:1 sodium:5 perborate:1 percarbonate:1 urea:2 perhydrate:2 iodine:4 iodpovidone:1 povidone:1 betadine:1 lugol:2 solution:10 tincture:1 iodinate:1 nonionic:1 surfactant:2 concentrated:1 alcohol:2 mainly:3 ethanol:1 propanol:3 call:4 also:5 n:1 isopropanol:1 mixture:1 thereof:2 far:2 phenoxyethanol:1 phenoxypropanols:1 use:5 phenolic:2 phenol:2 carbolic:1 cresol:1 lysole:1 combination:1 liquid:1 soap:1 halogenated:1 chlorinate:1 brominate:1 hexachlorophene:2 triclosan:2 trichlorophenol:1 tribromophenol:1 pentachlorophenol:1 dibromol:2 salt:4 cationic:1 quaternary:2 ammonium:1 cation:2 benzalkonium:2 chloride:7 cetyl:1 trimethylammonium:1 bromide:1 didecyldimethylammonium:1 cetylpyridinium:1 benzethonium:1 others:2 non:1 compound:3 chlorhexidine:2 glucoprotamine:1 octenidine:2 dihydrochloride:1 strong:2 oxidizer:1 ozone:1 permanganate:1 heavy:2 metal:2 colloidal:1 silver:2 nitrate:1 mercury:1 phenylmercury:1 copper:2 sulfate:1 oxide:1 toxic:2 environment:1 hazardous:1 therefore:1 strongly:1 oppress:1 cancel:1 properly:2 concentrate:1 phosphoric:1 nitric:1 sulfuric:1 amidosulfuric:1 toluenesulfonic:1 alkali:1 calcium:1 hydroxide:1 ph:5 particularly:1 elevate:1 temperature:2 c:1 germicide:1 agent:1 human:1 animal:2 body:1 skin:2 mucoses:1 wound:2 like:1 mention:1 proper:1 condition:1 concentration:1 toxicity:1 toward:1 man:1 among:1 dilute:1 preparation:2 f:1 daquin:1 adjust:1 benzenesulfochloramide:1 b:1 iodopovidone:1 various:1 galenics:1 oinment:1 plaster:1 past:1 buffer:1 without:1 additive:1 antisepsis:1 weak:1 organic:1 sorbic:1 benzoic:1 lactic:1 salicylic:1 generally:1 applicable:1 safe:1 corrosive:1 nature:1 bacteriostatic:2 slow:1 growth:1 reproduction:1 aminoglycosidic:1 usually:1 consider:1 although:1 may:1 organism:1 act:1 bind:1 irreversibly:1 ribosomal:2 subunit:1 reduce:1 translation:1 fidelity:1 lead:1 inaccurate:1 protein:3 synthesis:2 effect:1 inhibition:1 due:1 premature:1 separation:1 complex:1 mrna:1 final:1 result:1 bacterial:1 cell:1 death:1 include:1 fluoroquinolones:1 nitrofurantoin:1 vancomycin:1 monobactams:1 co:1 trimoxazole:1 metronidazole:1 see:1 list:1 microbicide:1 |@bigram chlorine_chlorine:1 carbolic_acid:1 quaternary_ammonium:1 ammonium_cation:1 sodium_potassium:2 calcium_hydroxide:1 benzoic_acid:1 acid_lactic:1 lactic_acid:1 salicylic_acid:1 ribosomal_subunit:1 |
1,292 | Noun_class | In linguistics, the term noun class refers to a system of categorizing nouns. A noun may belong to a given class because of characteristic features of its referent, such as sex, animacy, shape, but counting a given noun among nouns of such or another class is often clearly conventional. Some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", but others use different definitions for each (see below). Noun classes should not be confused with noun classifiers. Notion In general, there are three main ways by which natural languages categorize nouns into noun classes: according to similarities in their meaning (semantic criterion), by grouping them with other nouns that have similar form (morphology), or through an arbitrary convention. Usually, a combination of the three types of criteria is used, though one is more prevalent. Noun classes form a system of grammatical agreement. The fact that a noun belongs to a given class may imply the presence of: agreement affixes on adjectives, pronouns, numerals etc. which are noun phrase constituents, agreement affixes on the verb, a special form of a pronoun which replaces the noun, an affix on the noun, a class-specific word in the noun phrase (or in some types of noun phrases). Modern English expresses noun classes through the third person singular personal pronouns he (male person), she (female person), and it (object, abstraction, or animal), and their other inflected forms. The choice between the relative pronoun who (persons) and which (non-persons) may also be considered a way of categorizing nouns into noun classes. A few nouns also exhibit vestigial noun classes, such as actress, where the suffix -ess added to actor denotes a female person. This type of noun affixation is not very frequent in English, but quite common in languages which have the true grammatical gender, including most of the Indo-European family, to which English belongs. When noun class is expressed on other parts of speech, besides nouns and pronouns, the language is said to have grammatical gender. In languages without inflectional noun classes, nouns may still be extensively categorized by independent particles called noun classifiers. Common criteria for noun classes Common criteria that define noun classes include: animate vs. inanimate (as in Ojibwe) rational vs. non-rational (as in Tamil) human vs. non-human human vs. animal vs. inanimate male vs. other male human vs. other masculine vs. feminine masculine vs. feminine vs. neuter strong vs. weak augmentative vs. diminutive A more or less discernible correlation between noun class and the shape of the respective object is found in some languages, even in the Indo-European family. Linguistic families Algonquian languages The Ojibwe language and other members of the Algonquian languages distinguish between animate and inanimate classes. Some sources argue that the distinction is between things which are powerful and things which are not. All living things, as well as sacred things and things connected to the Earth are considered powerful and belong to the animate class. Still, the assignment is somewhat arbitrary, as "raspberry" is animate, but "strawberry" is inanimate. Athabaskan languages In Navajo (Southern Athabaskan) nouns are classified according to their animacy, shape, and consistency. Morphologically, however, the distinctions are not expressed on the nouns themselves, but on the verbs of which the nouns are the subject or direct object. For example, in the sentence Shi’éé’ tsásk’eh bikáa’gi dah siłtsooz "My shirt is lying on the bed", the verb siłtsooz "lies" is used because the subject shi’éé’ "my shirt" is a flat, flexible object. In the sentence Siziiz tsásk’eh bikáa’gi dah silá "My belt is lying on the bed", the verb silá "lies" is used because the subject siziiz "my belt" is a slender, flexible object. See Navajo language: Classificatory Verbs for more discussion. Koyukon (Northern Athabaskan) has a more intricate system of classification. Like Navajo, it has classificatory verb stems that classify nouns according to animacy, shape, and consistency. However, in addition to these verb stems, Koyukon verbs have what are called gender prefixes that further classify nouns. That is, Koyukon has two different systems that classify nouns: (a) a classificatory verb system and (b) a gender system. To illustrate, the verb stem -tonh is used for enclosed objects. When -tonh is combined with different gender prefixes, it can result in daaltonh which refers to objects enclosed in boxes or etltonh which refers to objects enclosed in bags. Australian Aboriginal languages The Dyirbal language is well known for its system of four noun classes, which tend to be divided along the following semantic lines: I — animate objects, men II — women, water, fire, violence III — edible fruit and vegetables IV — miscellaneous (includes things not classifiable in the first three) The class usually labeled "feminine", for instance, includes the word for fire and nouns relating to fire, as well as all dangerous creatures and phenomena. This inspired the title of the George Lakoff book Women, Fire and Dangerous Things (ISBN 0-226-46804-6). The Ngangikurrunggurr language has noun classes reserved for canines, and hunting weapons, and the Anindilyakwa language has a noun class for things that reflect light. The Diyari language distinguishes only between female and other objects. Perhaps the most noun classes in any Australian language are found in Yanyuwa, which has 16 noun classes, including nouns associated with food, trees and abstractions, in addition to separate classes for men and masculine things, women and feminine things. In the men's dialect, the classes for men and for masculine things have simplified to a single class, marked the same way as the women's dialect marker reserved exclusively for men. Jean F Kirton. 'Yanyuwa, a dying language'. In Michael J Ray (ed.), Aboriginal language use in the Northern Territory: 5 reports. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1988, p. 1-18. Caucasian languages Some members of the Northwest Caucasian family, and almost all of the Northeast Caucasian languages, manifest noun class. In the Northeast Caucasian family, only Lezgian, Udi, and Aghul do not have noun classes. Some languages have only two classes, while the Bats language has eight. The most widespread system, however, has four classes: male, female, animate beings and certain objects, and finally a class for the remaining nouns. The Andi language has a noun class reserved for insects. Among Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz shows a human male/human female/non-human distinction. Ubykh shows some inflections along the same lines, but only in some instances, and in some of these instances inflection for noun class is not even obligatory. In all Caucasian languages that manifest class, it is not marked on the noun itself but on the dependent verbs, adjectives, pronouns and prepositions. Niger-Congo languages Niger-Congo languages can have ten or more noun classes, defined according to non-sexual criteria. Certain nominal classes are reserved for humans. The Fula language has about 26 noun classes (exact number varies slightly by dialect). According to Steven Pinker, the Kivunjo language has 16 noun classes including classes for precise locations and for general locales, classes for clusters or pairs of objects and classes for the objects that come in pairs or clusters, and classes for abstract qualities. Pinker, Steven (1994) The Language Instinct, William Morrow and Company. Bantu languages According to Carl Meinhof, the Bantu languages have a total of 22 noun classes called nominal classes (this notion was introduced by W.H.J.Bleek). While no single language is known to express all of them, most of them have at least 10 noun classes. For example, by Meinhof's numbering, Shona has 20 classes, Swahili has 15, Sesotho has 18 and Luganda has 17. Specialists in Bantu emphasize that there is a clear difference between genders (such as known from Afro-Asiatic and Indo-European) and nominal classes (such as known from Niger-Congo). Languages with nominal classes divide nouns formally on the base of hyperonomic meanings. The category of nominal class replaces not only the category of gender, but also the categories of number and case. Critics of the Meinhof's approach notice that his numbering system of nominal classes counts singular and plural numbers of the same noun as belonging to separate classes. This seems to them to be inconsistent with the way other languages are traditionally considered, where number is orthogonal to gender (according to the critics, a Meinhof-style analysis would give Ancient Greek 9 genders). If one follows broader linguistic tradition and counts singular and plural as belonging to the same class, then Swahili has 8 or 9 noun classes, Sesotho has 11 and Luganda has 10. The Meinhof numbering tends to be used in scientific works dealing with comparisons of different Bantu languages. For instance, in Swahili the word rafiki ‘friend’ belongs to the class 9 and its "plural form" is marafiki of the class 6, even if most nouns of the 9 class have the plural of the class 10. For this reason, noun classes are often referred to by combining their singular and plural forms, e.g., rafiki would be classified as "9/6", indicating that it takes class 9 in the singular, and class 6 in the plural. However not all Bantu languages have these exceptions. In Luganda each singular class has a corresponding plural class (apart from one class which has no singular–plural distinction; also some plural classes correspond to more than one singular class) and there are no exceptions as there are in Swahili. For this reason Luganda linguists use the orthogonal numbering system when discussing Luganda grammar (other than in the context of Bantu comparative linguistics), giving the 10 traditional noun classes of that language. The distinction between genders and nominal classes is blurred still further by Indo-European languages that have nouns that behave like Swahili's rafiki. Italian, for example, has a group of nouns deriving from Latin neuter nouns that acts as masculine in the singular but feminine in the plural: il braccio/le braccia; l'uovo/le uova. (These nouns are still placed in a neuter gender of their own by some grammarians.) Here is a complete list of nominal classes in Swahili: Class numberPrefixTypical meaning1m-, mw-, mu-singular: persons2wa-, w-plural: persons (a plural counterpart of class 1)3m-, mw-, mu-singular: plants4mi-, my-plural: plants (a plural counterpart of class 3)5ji-, j-, Ø-singular: fruits6ma-, m-plural: fruits (a plural counterpart of class 5, 9, 11, seldom 1)7ki-, ch-singular: things8vi-, vy-plural: things (a plural counterpart of class 7)9n-, ny-, m-, Ø-singular: animals, things10n-, ny-, m-, Ø-plural: animals, things (a plural counterpart of class 9 and 11)11u-, w-, uw-singular: no clear semantics15ku-, kw-verbal nouns16pa-locative meanings: close to something17ku-indefinite locative or directive meaning18mu-, m-locative meanings: inside something "Ø-" means no prefix. Note also that some classes are homonymous (esp. 9 and 10). The Proto-Bantu class 12 disappeared in Swahili, class 13 merged with 7, and 14 with 11. Class prefixes appear also on adjectives and verbs, e.g.: Kitabu kikubwa kinaanguka. (cl.7-book cl.7-big cl.7-PRESENT-fall) ‘The big book falls.’ The class markers which appear on the adjectives and verbs may differ from the noun prefixes: Mtoto wangu alikinunua kitabu. (cl.1-child cl.1-my cl.1-PAST-cl.7-buy cl.7-book) ‘My child bought a book.’ In this example, the verbal prefix a- and the pronominal prefix wa- are in concordance with the noun prefix m-: they all express class 1 despite of their different forms. Zande The Zande language distinguishes four noun classes: CriterionExampleTranslationhuman (male)kumbamanhuman (female)diawifeanimatenyabeastotherbambuhouse There are about 80 inanimate nouns which are in the animate class, including nouns denoting heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects (whistle, ball). Many of the exceptions have a round shape, and some can be explained by the role they play in Zande mythology. Noun classes versus grammatical genders The term gender, as used by some linguists, refers to a noun class system composed with 2, 3, or 4 classes. Genders are, for these linguists, a special instance of noun classes. Not all linguists recognize a distinction between noun-classes and genders, however, and instead use the term "gender" for both. In languages with genders, the gender is a selective category for noun. It means that all nouns must be assigned to a gender, and thus all nouns may be divided into groups, considering their gender. For instance, the Polish word ręcznik ‘towel’ is of inanimate masculine gender, whereas words for male human beings and animals belong to the personal masculine and inanimate masculine genders respectively; encyklopedia ‘encyclopaedia’ is of feminine gender, which includes words for female human beings and animals; and krzesło ‘chair’ is of neuter gender, which includes words for neuter animals and the word 'child'. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_grammar#Grammar The word "gender" derives from Latin genus, which is also the root of genre, and originally meant "kind", so it does not necessarily have a sexual meaning. For instance, in Swedish nouns are either of common or neuter gender; words for both males and females are assigned to common. A language has grammatical gender when changes in the gender of a noun necessarily induce morphological changes in adjectives and other parts of speech (such as verbs) that refer to that noun. For adjective and some other inflecting words, gender is an inflected category. It means that (in languages with genders) adjectives are inflected by genders, or change their forms depending on gender of the noun to which they refer. In yet other words, when a noun belongs to a certain gender, other parts of speech that refer to that noun have to be inflected to be in the same class. These obligatory changes are called gender agreement. In Polish, the adjective which means ‘big, large’ has three forms (in nominative singular), one for masculine, one for feminine, and one for neuter gender: duży ręcznik ‘big towel’, duża encyklopedia ‘big encyclopaedia’, duże krzesło ‘big chair’. Noun classes versus noun classifiers Some languages, such as Japanese, Chinese and the Tai languages, have elaborate systems of particles which classify nouns based on shape and function, but are free morphemes rather than affixes. Because the classes defined by these classifying words are not generally distinguished in other contexts, many if not most linguists take the view that they do not create grammatical genders. List of languages by type of noun classification A global map and discussion is at WALS: Number of Genders. Languages with noun classes all Bantu languages such as Luganda: ten classes called simply Class I to Class X and containing all sorts of arbitrary groupings but often characterised as people, long objects, animals, miscellaneous objects, large objects and liquids, small objects, languages, pejoratives, infinitives, mass nouns Swahili Zulu Bats Dyirbal: Masculine, feminine, vegetal and other. (Some linguists do not regard the noun class system of this language as grammatical gender.) Fula (Fulfulde, Pulaar, Pular) Languages with grammatical genders Constructed languages with noun classes Arahau (20 noun classes) Klingon (being capable of speaking, body part and other) Languages without noun classes or grammatical genders Afrikaans Altaic languages Armenian Azeri Basque Bengali Bislama Bugis Burmese Cebuano Central Yup'ik Chinese Chol English (a trace of the masculine/feminine/neuter distinction of Old English in the personal pronouns "he", "she", "it" and some related pronouns) Esperanto (includes a system of "natural" gendered personal pronouns similar to English, but without other morphological impacts) Estonian Filipino Finnish Georgian Guaraní Hawaiian Hungarian Hurrian Ido Ilocano Indonesian Interlingua Japanese Kannada Khmer Korean Lao Lojban Malagasy Malay Malayalam Makasar Mandar Mande languages Papiamentu Persian Nahuatl Pirahã Quechua Quenya Sindarin Sinhala Sami languages Tamil Telugu Tetum Thai Tlingit Tok Pisin Toki Pona Tulu Turkish Tzotzil Tzeltal Urartian Vietnamese Yoruba See also Animacy Classifier (linguistics) Declension Grammatical agreement Grammatical category Grammatical conjugation Grammatical gender Grammatical number Inflection Redundancy (language) Synthetic language References Inline General Craig, Colette G. (1986). Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Corbett, Greville G. (1991) Gender, Cambridge University Press —A comprehensive study; looks at 200 languages. Corbett, Geville (1994) "Gender and gender systems". En R. Asher (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 1347--1353. Greenberg, J. H. (1978) "How does a language acquire gender markers?". En J. H. Greenberg et al. (eds.) Universals of Human Language, Vol. 4, pp. 47--82. Hockett, Charles F. (1958) A Course in Modern Linguistics, Macmillan. Ibrahim, M. (1973) Grammatical gender. Its origin and development. La Haya: Mouton. Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) "Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques". Función 1. 1-3. Meissner, Antje & Anne Storch (eds.) (2000) Nominal classification in African languages, Institut für Afrikanische Sprachwissenschaften, Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. ISBN 3-89645-014-X. Ohly, R., Kraska-Szlenk, i., Podobińska, Z. (1998) Język suahili. Wydawnictwo Akademickie "Dialog". Warszawa. ISBN 83-86483-87-3 Pinker, Steven (1994) The Language Instinct, William Morrow and Company. Мячина, Е.Н. (1987) Краткий грамматический очерк языка суахили. In: Суахили-русский словарь. Kamusi ya Kiswahili-Kirusi. Москва. "Русский Язык". SIL: Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is a noun class? External links Contini-Morava, Ellen. Noun Classification in Swahili. 1994. 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1,293 | Galaxy_Quest | Galaxy Quest is a 1999 science fiction / comedy film written by David Howard and Robert Gordon and directed by Dean Parisot; starring Tim Allen, Sigourney Weaver, Alan Rickman, Tony Shalhoub, Sam Rockwell, Daryl Mitchell, Missi Pyle and Justin Long in his feature-film debut. The original music score was composed by David Newman. The movie (a parody inspired by the television series Star Trek) is about the washed-up stars of a fictional 1978–1982 TV series called Galaxy Quest. On the show, the actors played the crew of a spaceship, the NSEA Protector and are recruited by aliens who believe that their fictional adventures were real. Portions of the movie were filmed in Goblin Valley State Park, Utah, USA. Galaxy Quest won the 2000 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. Plot In the film's universe, the TV series Galaxy Quest was a highly popular space-drama, until it was canceled after only four seasons. Seventeen years after the series ended, the stars of the show have been reduced to convention appearances and store openings. Only Jason Nesmith (Tim Allen), the egomaniacal star and crew "commander", enjoys the devoted fanbase. His other crew members are less enthusiastic, fed up with being typecast by their roles on the show. At a convention, Jason meets an eccentric group of people claiming to be extraterrestrial beings called "Thermians" led by "Mathesar" (Enrico Colantoni), who ask him to appear in what he assumes to be an amateur episode. Jason humors them, whereupon the Thermians transport him to their spaceship to negotiate with Sarris (Robin Sachs), a reptilian humanoid warlord engaged in a genocidal war against them. Sarris demands the "Omega 13”, a device mentioned (but not used) in Galaxy Quests final episode. Due to a hangover, Jason thinks the situation is fictional and orders them to attack Sarris before asking permission to return home. Jason is sent to Earth through space in a gelatinous "pod", and realizes the ordeal was real. Jason tells his co-stars about it, and they reluctantly join him and return to help the Thermians. The Thermians turn out to be a peaceful, naïve, octopoid alien race whose society had fallen into disarray some time ago. However, they then discovered Earth's TV transmissions and, having no concept of fiction, theatre, or lying, mistake the Galaxy Quest episodes as factual "historical documents". Observing the success of the crew in the show, they then proceed to model their entire society after the show's example, building an actual version of the show's spaceship (the NSEA Protector), using "appearance generators" to make themselves appear humanoid, inventing actual versions of the fictional technologies portrayed in the show, and following the show's inspiring ideology. Thus, the human cast is obliged to assume their television roles in order to survive. Sarris attacks the Protector, and the ensuing fight forces them to flee through a minefield, which damages the ship's reactor powered by a "beryllium sphere". The actors travel to a nearby planet to secure a new sphere, and the crew narrowly escapes being attacked by goblin-like natives, leaving Jason behind at the mercy of a giant rock monster called "Gerignak". He is teleported back aboard the ship by Fred (Tony Shalhoub), but in his absence Sarris has invaded and taken control. Interrogated by Sarris about the Omega 13, Jason reveals the truth about the "historical documents" to him; Sarris understands the truth of the show and orders Jason to tell Mathesar, who is crushed. Sarris returns to his ship while his men remain behind and activate the self-destruct sequence. Using a gambit from the show, the actors escape and proceed to try and rescue the Thermians. To deactivate the self-destruct sequence, which Jason and Gwen (Sigourney Weaver) don't know how to do, Jason contacts Brandon (Justin Long), a Galaxy Quest fanboy who he accidentally traded communicators with at a convention previously. Brandon, excited at the show being "real" as he secretly suspected, guides Jason and Gwen through the Protectors dangerous inner systems to the core's control center and tell them how to shut down the self-destruct sequence. On the way, Jason and Gwen end up underneath the Omega 13 itself: Brandon reveals that according to fan speculation, the Omega 13 may either be a bomb capable of destroying the universe, or a time-machine which can send the user back thirteen seconds. Meanwhile, actor Sir Alexander Dane (Alan Rickman) and a young Thermian named Quellek (Patrick Breen) free the Thermian prisoners, and Fred transports the monster Gerignak onto the ship to attack Sarris' soldiers. Taking back control of the ship, the actors and Thermians engage Sarris' ship in combat and destroy it with mines from the aforementioned minefield, child-pilot Tommy (Daryl Mitchell) having practiced piloting by re-watching old episodes of the show. Celebrating their victory, the actors return to Earth. On the way, Sarris sneaks aboard the ship disguised as Fred and attacks, wounding the crew as the ship nears Earth. Jason activates the Omega 13 and is sent back in time thirteen seconds, long enough to incapacitate Sarris and land the ship safely. With Brandon's help to provide a bearing, the crew lift off from the Protector in a separate craft, leaving the Thermians to pilot the bulk of the ship back to their galaxy. The craft crashes at a Galaxy Quest convention, where the crowds assume it to be part of the show. As the crew emerges from the wreck, Sarris revives and attacks, but Jason finally dispatches him with a blaster pistol. This spectacular display leads to a revival of the Galaxy Quest series, starring all the original cast, in addition to a Thermian named Laliari (Missi Pyle), who chooses to stay as a lover of Fred's, and former redshirt Guy (Sam Rockwell) as a new crew member, "Security Chief 'Roc' Ingersoll". Cast Tim Allen as Jason Nesmith / Commander/Captain Peter Quincy Taggart (both titles are used): The Kirk-like captain of the Protector during the original television run, Nesmith remains the putative leader of the Galaxy Quest crew members as they travel to conventions and strip mall dedications. Initially loving the devoted fans, he overhears a conversation among them calling him a mockery, and re-evaluates his position. As Taggart, and later during his genuine adventures, Nesmith is prone to losing his shirt at the slightest pretext, and is said to have had romantic relations with minor characters who appeared throughout his television career. Alan Rickman as Sir Alexander Dane / Dr. Lazarus of Tev'Meck: The equivalent of Spock (along with some elements of Jean-Luc Picard), Lazarus is a member of an alien species renowned for vast and prudent intellect; he is deeply intelligent and has psionic abilities. Additionally, he has a non-standard weapon and a pretentious catchphrase: "By Grabthar's hammer, by the suns of Warvan, you shall be avenged!". A Royal Shakespearean trained actor, Alexander resents both his catchphrase and being typecast. He is never seen without his prosthesis, even when he is at home; the only scene wherein it is removed is during his distraction of Sarris' people, wherein it is partially torn off. He is the last of the actors to embrace his television role, which all of them must in order to satisfy the Thermians, and only does so when Quellek, a Thermian who idolizes Dr. Lazarus, literally dies in Alexander's hands, whereupon his hero-worship moves Alexander to satisfy it by reciting his catchphrase and attacking Quellek's killer. Sigourney Weaver as Gwen DeMarco / Lieutenant Tawny Madison: The Computer Officer of the Protector, who performs communication duties similar to Uhura. Her job consists largely of repeating what the computer says (much to everyone else's annoyance) and talking with the ship's computer, which (inexplicably) does not take commands from anyone but her. Weaver later compared her role as Tawny to her role as Ripley in the Alien series, describing Tawny as "a stereotypical dumb blonde" who fulfills a useless function in contrast to Ripley's dynamic centrality. It is sometimes implied that Gwen and Jason are romantically interested in each other, though they won't bring themselves to admit this. Tony Shalhoub as Fred Kwan / Tech Sergeant Chen: Chen is in charge of the engine room, and is the operator of the "digital conveyor" (a version of the Star Trek transporter). As Fred, the character panics only once, and that when he is forced to assume the role of Tech Sergeant Chen by the need to save Jason's life; in all other situations, including those threatening himself, he is startlingly calm and blasé. In a deleted scene, he bluffs his way through a question about a technical problem with the ship by stringing along the engineers, getting them to answer the question themselves. He is in love with Laliari. Daryl Mitchell as Tommy Webber / Lieutenant Laredo: A parody of "Boy Wonder"-type characters, similar to Pavel Chekov or Wesley Crusher, who has aged considerably since his role. His role as Laredo is essentially that of a pilot. Actor Corbin Bleu played Tommy at age 9 during the film's introduction, a "recording" of an original episode. Sam Rockwell as Guy Fleegman / Crewman Number 6 / Security Chief "Roc" Ingersoll: Guy begins the story as a "Questerian" (Trekkie) who had a small role as a redshirt in one episode of the series. He spends most of the movie fretting about his imminent demise which he believes is inevitable for minor characters such as he once was, showing a difficulty to separate reality from fiction when in perceived danger. Ironically, he suffers the least damage of any of the actors throughout the flight on the Protector - when Sarris attacks the crew, Guy is seen screaming amidst the carnage unharmed. When the television series is revived, Guy appears as a more prominent character named "Security Chief 'Roc' Ingersol". Enrico Colantoni as Mathesar: Leader of the Thermians. Mathesar is, like all his people, an upright octopoid who appears as a white-skinned, gray-clad, black-haired human, speaks in stiff tones of voice, and lacks any concept of fiction. Robin Sachs as General Roth'h'ar Sarris: The villain of the film. Sarris is a reptilian humanoid who seeks to steal the Omega 13 device from the Thermians. He is said to have already destroyed their home planet and most of their race, being bent on their destruction. Justin Long as Brandon: A devoted Galaxy Quest fan, who is initially brushed aside quite rudely by Jason Nesmith. His encyclopedic knowledge of the show allows him to provide vital assistance to Nesmith and the crew during the film's climax. Missi Pyle as Laliari: The Thermian crew member who falls in love with Fred. Although mostly shown in her human form, she exposes her tentacles when embracing Fred after he successfully implements a clever and impressive plan. Having received the permission of her people, she travels to Earth with Fred and joins him as a cast member of the revived television series given the Earthly name "Jane Doe". Patrick Breen as Quellek: A Thermian who idolizes the Dr. Lazarus character, he assists Alexander but is initially brushed off by him, especially when he tries to repeat Lazarus' catchphrase. He is later killed by one of Sarris' men, and admits to Alexander he considered "Dr. Lazarus" a father to him, motivating Alexander to attack and avenge him. Rainn Wilson as Lahnk: The Thermian requisition officer and a member of the four Thermians sent to recruit Captain Taggart. Reception The film garnered a 70 out of 100 (signifying generally favorable reviews) on Metacritic from 28 reviews. It received a 90% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with 94 out of 104 reviews determined to be positive. The New York Times's Lawrence Van Gelder called it "an amiable comedy that simultaneously manages to spoof these popular futuristic space adventures and replicate the very elements that have made them so durable". Roger Ebert praised the ability of the film to spoof the "illogic of the TV show". The Village Voice offered a lukewarm review, noting that "the many eight-to-11-year-olds in the audience seemed completely enthralled". Reaction quotes from Star Trek actors I had originally not wanted to see Galaxy Quest because I heard that it was making fun of Star Trek and then Jonathan Frakes rang me up and said "You must not miss this movie! See it on a Saturday night in a full theatre". And I did and of course I found it was brilliant. Brilliant. No one laughed louder or longer in the cinema than I did, but the idea that the ship was saved and all of our heroes in that movie were saved simply by the fact that there were fans who did understand the scientific principles on which the ship worked was absolutely wonderful. And it was both funny and also touching in that it paid tribute to the dedication of these fans. — Patrick Stewart BBC Online - Cult - Star Trek - Patrick Stewart - Galaxy Quest I've had flashbacks of Galaxy Quest at the many conventions I've gone to since the movie came out. I thought it was an absolute laugh-a-minute. — Tim Russ STARTREK.COM : Transcript I thought it was very funny, and I thought the audience that they portrayed was totally real, but the actors that they were pretending to be were totally unrecognizable. Certainly I don't know what Tim Allen was doing. He seemed to be the head of a group of actors and for the life of me I was trying to understand who he was imitating. The only one I recognized was the girl playing Nichelle Nichols. — William Shatner STARTREK.COM : Transcript Yes, I have seen Galaxy Quest and no, it's not really like that. — Casey Biggs STARTREK.COM : Transcript (About the film's portrayal of the fandom.) I loved Galaxy Quest. I thought it was brilliant satire, not only of Trek, but of fandom in general. The only thing I wish they had done was cast me in it, and have me play a freaky fanboy who keeps screaming at the actor who played "the kid" about how awful it was that there was a kid on the spaceship. Alas. — Wil Wheaton WIL WHEATON dot NET: Where is my mind?: Tangent I think it's a chillingly realistic documentary [laughs]. The details in it, I recognized every one of them. It is a powerful piece of documentary filmmaking. And I do believe that when we get kidnapped by aliens, it's going to be the genuine, true Star Trek fans who will save the day. ... I was rolling in the aisles. And [star] Tim Allen had that Shatner-esque swagger down pat. And I roared when the shirt came off, and [co-star] Sigourney [Weaver] rolls her eyes and says, 'There goes that shirt again.' ... How often did we hear that on the set? [Laughs.] - George Takei STAR TREK: George Takei Is Ready To Beam Up< Relation to Star Trek Galaxy Quest is an acknowledged homage to Star Trek; therefore a variety of elements in the former correspond to those of the latter. The television program within the film, Galaxy Quest, is set around the starship NSEA Protector, an instrument of the National Space Exploration Administration''': thinly veiled replicas of the USS Enterprise and Starfleet (or the United Federation of Planets) respectively. The theme of imitative aliens was explored in a few Star Trek episodes, including A Piece of the Action and Patterns of Force. This homage even extended to the original marketing of the movie, including a promotional website Travis Latke's Galaxy Quest Vaults intentionally designed to look like a poorly constructed fan website, with "screen captures" and poor HTML coding. References to Star Trek The NTE part of the Protector’s registration number (NTE-3120 as opposed to the Enterprise’s NCC-1701), ostensibly alludes to some sort of similar space federation, but in reality stands for "Not The Enterprise", according to visual effects co-supervisor Bill George in a 2000 interview with Cinefex magazine. Jody Duncan & Estelle Shay, "Trekking into the Klaatu Nebula", Cinefex #81, April 2000 The constant rolling of Taggart corresponds to the rolling of Kirk, starting with the first aired episode "The Man Trap", wherein Kirk rolls between rocks whilst searching for Crater. Usually, as in the case of Star Trek, when there is an explosion, the camera would tilt to one side and the actors would fall to the other, creating the visual effect of the set rolling and the actors reacting (an effect often called the Irwin Allen rock-and-roll by film buffs). The Protectors bridge set was built on hydraulic rams (or 'gimbals'), so when an explosion supposedly occurred, the set would actually (and very suddenly) rock to one side, vibrate wildly, and throw the actors out of their seats. According to interviews on the DVD release of the film, the effect was so real that it actually frightened (and injured) several of the main cast. IMDB trivia The name "Thermians" could possibly be a reference to the Vulcans, as both refer to words associated with hot things. In other media In December 1999 E!, the US entertainment channel featured a mockumentary entitled "Galaxy Quest - 20th Anniversary The Journey Continues" concerning the making of the Galaxy Quest television show Galaxy Quest was novelised by science fiction writer Terry Bisson and this novel stays very close to the plot of the movie. In 2008, IDW Publishing released a comicbook sequel to the movie entitled Galaxy Quest: Global Warning. A Deluxe Edition DVD will be released May 12, 2009. In 'Apogee of Fear', the first science-fiction movie made in space, NASA astronaut Michael Fincke refers to the need to 'fashion weapons out of a rudimentary laithe'. Both Michael_Fincke and fellow NASA Astronaut Greg Chamitoff deliver the line 'Never give up... never surrender.' DVD extras There is a feature on the DVD simulating the Omega 13, by reversing the opening sequence to the main menu. If the Omega 13 feature is selected before watching the movie however, it comes up with an "Access Denied" error. Only by watching the movie in its entirety (or skipping to the end credits and letting them play) will the Omega 13 feature activate. See also Trekkies, a documentary film about Star Trek convention goers. Spaceballs - A parody of the Star Wars trilogy by Mel Brooks. ¡Three Amigos! - Has a plot nearly identical to the one in Galaxy Quest, wherein actors are mistaken for, and wind up becoming, actual heroes (except it takes place in 1916 Mexico) My Name Is Bruce - Has a plot nearly identical to Galaxy Quest, wherein Bruce Campbell is mistaken for, and winds up becoming, an actual heroFree Enterprise - A film where two Trekkies/Trekkers meet William Shatner.Twilight Zone episode Hocus-Pocus and Frisby'' - Story about a habitual liar & boaster who is mistakenly abducted by aliens because they do not understand the concept of a lie. External links Downloadable model of the NSEA Protector Early script Original galaxyquest.com (Travis Latke's Galaxy Quest Vaults) via the Wayback Machine The Questarian Dalton's Galaxy Quest Site Galaxy Quest trivia at the IMDB References | Galaxy_Quest |@lemmatized galaxy:29 quest:28 science:3 fiction:6 comedy:2 film:15 write:1 david:2 howard:1 robert:1 gordon:1 direct:1 dean:1 parisot:1 star:22 tim:6 allen:6 sigourney:4 weaver:5 alan:3 rickman:3 tony:3 shalhoub:3 sam:3 rockwell:3 daryl:3 mitchell:3 missi:3 pyle:3 justin:3 long:4 feature:5 debut:1 original:6 music:1 score:1 compose:1 newman:1 movie:12 parody:3 inspire:2 television:9 series:9 trek:15 washed:1 fictional:4 tv:4 call:6 show:18 actor:18 play:5 crew:13 spaceship:4 nsea:4 protector:12 recruit:2 alien:7 believe:3 adventure:3 real:5 portion:1 goblin:2 valley:1 state:1 park:1 utah:1 usa:1 win:2 hugo:1 award:1 best:1 dramatic:1 presentation:1 plot:4 universe:2 highly:1 popular:2 space:6 drama:1 cancel:1 four:2 season:1 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1,294 | Croatia | Coronation of king Tomislav (modern painting by Oton Iveković) Croatia ( ), officially the Republic of Croatia (Republika Hrvatska ), is a country in Southeastern Europe, at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean Sea. Its capital (and largest city) is Zagreb. Croatia borders Slovenia and Hungary to the north, Serbia to the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the east, Montenegro to the southeast and has a sea border with Italy to the southwest. The Croats arrived in the seventh century in what is Croatia today. They organized the state into two dukedoms. The first king, Tomislav I was crowned in AD 925 and Croatia was elevated into Kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for almost two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Zvonimir. Via "Pacta conventa", Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1526, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand from the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918 Croatia declared independence from Austria-Hungary and joined the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as co-founder. During World War II, Nazis occupied Croatian territory and created the Independent State of Croatia. After the war Croatia became a founding member of Second Yugoslavia. On June 25, 1991 Croatia declared independence and became a sovereign state. Croatia is a member of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the Council of Europe, CEFTA, and is a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council for the 2008–09 term. The country is also a candidate for membership of the European Union. Additionally, Croatia is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean upon its establishment in 2008. History Early history Oton Iveković, The arrival of the Croats at the shores of Adriatic The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Paleolithic have been unearthed in the area of Krapina and Vindija. More recent (late Mousterian) Neanderthal remains have been discovered in Mujina pećina near the coast. In the early Neolithic period, the Starčevo, Vučedol and Hvar cultures were scattered around the region. The Iron Age left traces of the Hallstatt culture (early Illyrians) and the La Tène culture (Celts). Much later the region was settled by Liburnians and Illyrians, and Greek colonies were established on the islands of Vis (by the Dionysius I of Syracuse) and Hvar. In 9 AD the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire. The Emperor Diocletian built a massive palace in Split where he retired from politics in AD 305. Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Modern Library, New York, p. 335 During the 5th century the last Roman Emperor Julius Nepos J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, §4, p. 408. ruled his small empire from Diocletian's Palace before he was killed in AD 480. The early history of Croatia ends with the Avar invasion in the first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to strategically better defending points on the coast, islands and mountains. Today's city of Dubrovnik was founded by the survivors. Kingdom of Croatia Baška tablet, oldest evidence of the glagolitic script The Croats arrived in what is today Croatia in the early 7th century. They organized into two dukedoms; the duchy of Pannonian Croatia in the north and the duchy of Littoral Croatia in the south. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus says that Porga, duke of the Dalmatian Croats, who had been invited into Dalmatia by Byzantium Emperor Heraclius, sent to Heraclius for Christian teachers. At the request of Byzantium Emperor Heraclius, Pope John IV (640-642) sent Christian teachers and missionaries to the Croatian Provinces. De Administrando Imperio, Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos, These missionaries had converted Porga, and also a great many of the clan that was under his immediate authority, to the Catholic faith in 640. For the most part, the Christianization of the settled Croats ended in the 9th century. Both duchies became Frankish vassals in late 8th century, and eventually became independent in the following century. The first native Croatian ruler recognized by the pope was duke Branimir, whom Pope John VIII called dux Croatorum ("duke of Croats") in 879. Stjepan Antoljak, Pregled hrvatske povijesti, Split 1993., str. 43. Duke Tomislav of Littoral Croatia was one of the most prominent members of the House of Trpimirović. He united the Croats of Dalmatia and Pannonia into a single Kingdom in 925. Tomislav rounded off his state from the Adriatic Sea to the Drava River, and from the Raša River in Istria to the Drina River. Under his rule, Croatia became one of the most powerful kingdoms in Medieval Europe. Tomislav defeated the Hungarian invasions of the Arpads in battle and forced them across the Drava River. He also annexed a part of Pannonian Croatia to his Croatian Dalmatia. This included the area between the rivers Drava, Sava and Kupa, so his Duchy bordered with Bulgaria for a period of time. This was the first time that the two Croatian Realms were united, and all Croats were in one state. This crowning was later confirmed by the Byzantium which gave the king crown to Stjepan Držislav Recipiebant enim regie dignitatis insignia ab imperatoribus Constantinopolitanis et dicebantur eorum eparchi siue patritii and pope crown to king Zvonimir. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak during the reign of Kings Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Zvonimir (1075–1089). Croatia in personal union with Hungary Arhitecture of Medieval Croatia, Zadar Following the disappearance of the Croatian ruling dynasty in 1091 Ladislaus I of Hungary the brother of Jelena Lijepa, the last Croatian queen, became the king of Croatia. Croatian nobility of Littoral opposed this crowning, which led to 10 years of war and the recognition of the Hungarian ruler Coloman as the common king for Croatia and Hungary in the treaty of 1102 (often referred to as the Pacta conventa). In return, Coloman promised to maintain Croatia as a separate kingdom, not to settle Croatia with Hungarians, to guarantee Croatia's self-governance under a ban (royal governor), and to respect all the rights, laws and privileges of the Croatian Kingdom. During this union, the Kingdom of Croatia never lost its right to elect their own kings, had the ruling dynasty become extinct. In 1293 and 1403 Kako je Ladislav prodao Dalmaciju Croatia chose its own kings, but in both cases the Kingdom of Hungary declared war and the union was reestablished. For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by parliament and Bans appointed by the Hungarian king. The Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia remained a legally distinct constitutional entity Michigan state university libraries-Steven W. Sowards:25 lectures on modern Balkan history , but the change to a Hungarian king brought about other consequences such as: the introduction of feudalism and the rise of the native noble families such as Frankopan and Šubić. From this period of the personal union, the Congregatio Regni tocius Sclavonie Generalis, the oldest surviving document of Croatian parliament, dated 1273, was produced. History of Croatian parliament on Croatian The later kings sought to restore some of their previously lost influence by giving certain privileges to towns. The first period of personal union between Croatia and Hungary ended in 1526 with the Battle of Mohács and the defeat of Hungarian forces by the Ottomans. After the death of King Louis II, Croatian nobles at Cetingrad assembly decided to choose Habsburgs as the new rulers of the Kingdom of Croatia, under the condition that they provide the troops and finances required to protect Croatia against the Ottoman Empire. History of Croatian parliament on Croatian Milan Kruhek: Cetin, grad izbornog sabora Kraljevine Hrvatske 1527, Karlovačka Županija, 1997, Karlovac Republic of Dubrovnik City of Dubrovnik was established in 7th century Andrew Archibald Paton (1861). Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic; Or Contributions to the Modern History of Hungary and Translvania, Dalmatia and Croatia, Servia and Bulgaria, Brockhaus after Avar and Slavic raiders destroyed the Roman city of Epidaurum. Surviving Roman population had escaped to a small island near the coast where they founded a new settlement. During the Fourth Crusade the city fell under the control of the Republic of Venice which would last until 1358 and Zadar treaty in which Venice, defeated by Croato-Hungarian kingdom, lost control of Dalmatia and Republic of Dubrovnik became a vassal to the kingdom. Through the next 450 years Republic of Dubrovnik would be vassal to the personal union, the Ottomans and the Habsburgs. During this time the republic became rich through trade. The republic became the most important publisher of Croatian literature during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Aside from poets and writers, whose works were important for Croatian-wide development of literature like Marin Držić and Ivan Gundulić, the most famous person from Republic of Dubrovnik was the scientist Ruđer Josip Bošković, who was a member of the Royal Society and the Russian Academy of Sciences. The republic would survive until 1808 when it was annexed by Napoleon. Today the city of Dubrovnik is a famous tourist destination and has been listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list. Ottoman Wars Nikola Šubić Zrinski, great Croatian hero in wars against Ottomans Shortly after the Battle of Mohács, Habsburg unsuccessfully sought to stabilise borders between the Ottomans and the Kingdom of Croatia by creating a captaincy in Bihać. However, in 1529, the Turks swept through the area and captured Buda and besieged Vienna; a movement which brought violence and turmoil to the Croatian border areas (see Ottoman wars in Europe). After the failure of the first military operations, the Kingdom of Croatia was split into civilian and military units in 1553. From the military half, Habsburg created Croatian and Slavonian Krajina and both eventually became parts of the Military Frontier which was directly under the control of Vienna. Ottoman raids on Croatian territory continued until 1593 when the Battle of Sisak, after which borders stabilised for considerable time. The kingdom of that time has become known under the name of Reliquiae reliquiarum olim inclyti Regni Croatiae ("The remains of the remains of once famous Kingdom of Croatia"). The most famous battle of these wars was the Battle of Szigetvár when 2,300 soldiers under the leadership of the Croatian ban Nikola Šubić Zrinski held back for two months 100,000 Ottoman soldiers led by the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, fighting to the last man. Cardinal Richelieu was reported to have called this battle "the battle that saved civilization." Timothy Hughes Rare & Early Newspapers, Item 548456 During the Great Turkish War, Slavonia was restored but the hilly western Bosnia which had been a part of Croatia until the Ottoman conquest remained outside Croatia control and the current borders, which resemble a crescent or a horseshoe, is a remnant of this historical outcome. The southern part of the 'horseshoe' was created with by the Republic of Venice conquest following the Siege of Zara and was influenced by the 17-18th century wars with Ottomans. De jure reason for this Venetian expansion was the decision of the crowned king of Croatia, Ladislas of Naples, to sell his rights on Dalmatia to Venice in 1409 . During more than 2 centuries of Ottoman Wars, Croatia underwent great demographic changes. The Croats have left because of Turks the riverland areas of Gacka, Lika and Krbava, Moslavina in Slavonia and an area of present day north-western Bosnia towards Austria where they remained and the present day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants from these settlers. In place of the escaping Croats, Habsburgs have called on the Ortodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to military service in Croatian and Slavonian Krajina. The first massive coming of the Orthodox Vlachs, which took on a Serbian identity during the first part of the 18th century Evaluating the Slavonian Census of 1698 and then of the Serbs which slowly started to arrive during 16th century, and then majorly during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737-39. The rights and obligations of new populace of the Military frontier were decided with Statuta Valachorum in 1630 [Jean Nouzille:Historie de frontieres:L'Autriche et l'Empire Ottoman, page 263] . National revival National revival in Croatia started in 1813 when the bishop of Zagreb Maksimilijan Vrhovac issued a plea for the collection of "national treasures". In the beginning of the 1830s, a group of young Croatian writers gathered in Zagreb and established the Illyrian movement for national renewal and unity of all South Slavs within the Habsburg Monarchy. The most important focus of Illyrians was the establishment of standard language as a counter-weight to Hungarian, and the promotion of Croatian written literature and official culture. Important members of this movement were Count Janko Drašković who wrote a pamphlet in 1832 which created movement, Ljudevit Gaj who received permission from royal government of Habsburg Monarchy for printing first newspaper in Croatian, Josif Runjanin writer of lyrics for the Croatian national anthem, Vatroslav Lisinski composer of the first Croatian opera "Ljubav i zloba" ("Love and Malice", 1846) and many others. Fearful of first Hungarian and then Habsburg pressure of assimilation Kingdom of Croatia has always refused to change official language which has stayed Latin until middle of 19 century. Only on 2 May 1843 Croatian language has been first time spoken in parliament Govor Ivana Kukuljevića Sakcinskog u Saboru 2 svibnja 1843 and it has become official only because of popularity of Illyrian movement in 1847. Austro-Hungary Croatian answer to Hungarian revolution of 1848 was the declaration of war. Austrian, Croatian and Russian forces together defeated the Hungarian army in 1849 and next 17 years were remembered in Croatia and Hungary as Germanization. Failure of this policy resulted in Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the creation of a new state which was a monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. With this compromise, the only open question of new state was the status of Croatians. The next year Croatian and Hungarian parliament created a constitution for the personal union of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and the Kingdom of Hungary Constitution of Union between Croatia-Slavonia and Hungary . After the Ottoman Empire lost military control over Bosnia and Herzegovina Austro-Hungary abolished Croatian and Slavonian Krajina, and restored territory to Croatia in 1881. During the second half of the 19th century pro-Hungarian political parties played Croats against Serbs with the aim of controlling the parliament. This policy failed in 1906 when Croat-Serbian coalition became the election winner. The newly created political situation did not change until World War I. On 10 July 1856 Nikola Tesla, without question the most famous person from Croatia, a born Serbian, is born in Smiljan which was in Croatian Krajina at the time. Contemporary biographers of Tesla have regarded him as "The Father of Physics", "The man who invented the twentieth century" and "the patron saint of modern electricity." Seifer, "Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla," book synopsis . "Tesla was always proud of his Serbian origin and Croatian homeland." http://www.teslasociety.com/teslavillage.htm Tesla telegram to Vladko Maček Kingdom of Yugoslavia On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Sabor (parliament) declared independence Povijest saborovanja and vested its sovereignty in the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Pressured by Italian army that was entering its territory of the new state from south and west, State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs started expedient negotiations with Kingdom of Serbia and on November 23, 1918 delegation was sent to Belgrade for proclamation of union. From national assembly of State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs delegation received 11 points which need to be fulfilled for creation of future state Naputak Narodnog vijeća SHS delegaciji za pregovore i utanačenje ujedinjenja države SHS s Kraljevinom Srbijom . Most important of these points is the first which refers for the need of a constitution of the new state, that was voted on in parliament with two thirds majority. Eventually, a constitution for centralized state was voted with 50% + 1 vote majority and caused the end of state autonomy. This decision had created public outcry between Croats, which started a political upheaval for the restoration of state autonomy under the leadership of Croatian Peasant Party. The unhealthy political situation in Yugoslavia became much worse after Stjepan Radić, the president of CPP, was killed in Yugoslav parliament in 1928 by Serbian ultra-nationalist Puniša Račić. The ensuing chaotic period ended the next year with the banning of all political parties and proclamation of a Yugoslav king: Alexander dictatorship. The next 4 years Yugoslav regime was described by Albert Einstein as a "horrible brutality which is being practised upon the Croatian People" . Einstein accuses Yugoslavian rulers in savant's murder, New York Times. May 6, 1931. mirror . During dictatorship Vladko Maček next leader of Croatian Peasant Party has ended in prison and he will become free after end of dictatorship when Yugoslav king Alexander was killed in plot that was organized by the Croatian right wing extremist movement Ustaše. Upon Maček's release, the Yugoslav political situation was then restored to situation before Stjepan Radić killings with Croatian demands for autonomy against Yugoslav government decisions in protection of the centralized state. The Croatian question was solved only on August 26, 1939 with Cvetković-Maček Agreement when Croatia received autonomy (and had borders extended) and Maček became Yugoslav vice-prime minister. The ensuing peace that followed, starting in 1939 was short lived when Germany invaded Yugoslavia in 1941. World War II The German invasion lasted little more than ten days, ending with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on April 17. The territory of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a Nazi Germany puppet state Independent State of Croatia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Yugoslavia, Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum called the Independent State of Croatia. In the beginning, they offered state leadership to Ante Pavelić and the Ustaše extremists. Only one day after entering Zagreb, on April 17, 1941, Ante Pavelić proclaimed that all people who offended, or tried to offend against the Croatian nation were guilty of treason — a crime punishable by death. Independent State of Croatia laws on Croatian "Converting" the Orthodox Serbs, December 21, 1941, Friars, besides Priests, participated in forcible conversions. They were no less ruthless than the parish clergy, e.g. Monk Ambrozije Novak, Guardian of the Capucine Monastery in Varazdin, who, after surrounding the village of Mosanica with Ustashi contingents, told the people: "You Serbs are condemned to death, and you can only escape that sentence by accepting Catholicism." Between 500,000-750,000 people (Serbs, Jews, Croats, Roma) were killed under the Independent State of Croatia government (today territory of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum about Jasenovac and Independent State of Croatia Genocide and Resistance in Hitler’s Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941-1943 pp20 . In response to this reign of terror, a massive uprising began on June 22, 1941 with the creation of 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment. The leadership of the Yugoslav partisan movement was in the hands of Croat Josip Broz Tito whose policy of brotherhood and unity would in the end defeat the Chetniks. Socialist Yugoslavia Modern Croatia was founded on AVNOJ anti-fascist partisans' principles during the second world war, and it became a constitutional federal republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Croatian constitution . A Communist dictatorship was established, but due to the Tito-Stalin split economic and personal freedom were better than in the Eastern Bloc. From the 1950s, the Socialist Republic of Croatia enjoyed a autonomy under the rule of the local Communist elite, but in 1967 group of influential Croatian poets and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language. After 1968 the patriotic goals of that document morphed into a generic Croatian movement for more rights for Croatia, greater civil rights and demands for the decentralization of the economy. In the end The Yugoslav leadership interpreted the Croatian Spring as a restoration of Croatian nationalism, dismissed the movement as chauvinistic and arrested most important leaders. In 1974, a new Yugoslav federal constitution was ratified that gave more autonomy to the individual republics, thereby basically fulfilling the main goals of the Croatian Spring. Independent Croatia The circle of nationalistic violence which destroyed Yugoslavia started with Albanian demands in 1981 for Kosovo to be removed from Serbia and become a constituent republic inside Yugoslavia KOSOVO: ONE YEAR AFTER THE RIOTS . Nationalistic sentiments followed for the Yugoslav states with the Serbian SANU Memorandum in 1986 and later with Croatia and Slovenia's response in 1989 after Serbia organized coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro. Under influence of Slobodan Milošević propaganda the importance of who won the first Croatian multi party elections in 50 years was diminished, because allegedly Serbs influenced both Croatian nationalist leader Franjo Tuđman and communist leader Ivica Račan http://www.hercegbosna.org/ostalo/raspad.html Dusan Bilandzic:Hrvatska moderna povijest . The Electoral win of Franjo Tuđman further inflamed the situation in Croatia: Serbs left the Croatian parliament and created the Association of the Municipalities of Northern Dalmatia and Lika in Knin, which was later to become the Republika Srpska Krajina. Of the events of 1990-92 Milan Babić, president of Republika Srpska Krajina, was later to declare that he had been "strongly influenced and misled by Serbian propaganda" ICTY Sentencing Judgement . These events culminated in the full scale Serb rebellion, in 1991 which lasted until Operation Storm (also known as the Oluja), when most of what is known as today's Croatia was established by the Croatian Army. On August 6, 1995, the leadership of the Republika Srpska Krajina gave the order that all Serbs would have to leave Croatia for Bosnia and Herzegovina . During the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian leadership headed by Franjo Tudjman sought to take advantage of the situation and carve up a portion of Bosnia and Herzegovina by sending regular Croatian Army units into the country and manipulating the Bosnian Croat leadership into declaring an independent mini-state called "Herceg Bosna." The actions were a direct result of a deal with Slobodan Milošević made at Karađorđevo in 1991 to divide Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia. The Croatian leadership has since distanced itself from the previous regime's policies and Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina maintain close and friendly relations. Croatia was internationally recognized on January 15, 1992, by the European Union and the United Nations, at a moment where it didn't have full sovereignty over more than 1/3rd of its territory. The first country to recognize Croatia was Iceland on December 19, 1991. Geography Croatia is located between South-Central Europe and Middle Europe. Its shape resembles that of a crescent or a horseshoe, which flanks its neighbours Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. To the north lie Slovenia and Hungary; Italy lies across the Adriatic Sea. Its mainland territory is split in two non-contiguous parts by the short coastline of Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum. Its terrain is diverse, including: plains, lakes and rolling hills in the continental north and northeast (Central Croatia and Slavonia, part of the Pannonian Basin); densely wooded mountains in Lika and Gorski Kotar, part of the Dinaric Alps; rocky coastlines on the Adriatic Sea (Istria, Northern Seacoast and Dalmatia). Phytogeographically, Croatia belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the Central European and Illyrian provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. According to the WWF, the territory of Croatia can be subdivided into three ecoregions: the Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests. The country is famous for its many national parks. Croatia has a mixture of climates. In the north and east it is continental, Mediterranean along the coast and a semi-highland and highland climate in the south-central region. Istra has a temperate climate, while the Palagruža archipelago is home to a subtropical climate. Offshore Croatia consists of over one thousand islands varying in size. The largest islands in Croatia are Cres and Krk which are located in the Adriatic Sea. The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar. Dinara, the eponym of the Dinaric Alps, is the highest peak of Croatia at 1,831 metres above sea level. There are 49 pits deeper than 250 m in Croatia, 14 of them are deeper than 500 m and three deeper than 1000 m (Cave system Lukina jama-Trojama, Slovacka jama and Cave system Velebita). The deepest Croatian pits are mostly found in two regions - Mt. Velebit and Mt. Biokovo. Counties Croatia is divided into 20 counties (županija) and the capital city of Zagreb: Anglicized name Native name </tr> 1 Zagreb Zagrebačka </tr> 2 Krapina-Zagorje Krapinsko-zagorska </tr> 3 Sisak-Moslavina Sisačko-moslavačka </tr> 4 Karlovac Karlovačka </tr> 5 Varaždin Varaždinska </tr> 6 Koprivnica-Križevci Koprivničko-križevačka </tr> 7 Bjelovar-Bilogora Bjelovarsko-bilogorska </tr> 8 Primorje-Gorski Kotar Primorsko-goranska </tr> 9 Lika-Senj Ličko-senjska </tr> 10 Virovitica-Podravina Virovitičko-podravska </tr> 11 Požega-Slavonia Požeško-slavonska </tr> 12 Brod-Posavina Brodsko-posavska </tr> 13 Zadar Zadarska </tr> 14 Osijek-Baranja Osječko-baranjska </tr> 15 Šibenik-Knin Šibensko-kninska </tr> 16 Vukovar-Srijem Vukovarsko-srijemska </tr> 17 Split-Dalmatia Splitsko-dalmatinska </tr> 18 Istria Istarska </tr> 19 Dubrovnik-Neretva Dubrovačko-neretvanska </tr> 20 Međimurje Međimurska </tr> 21 City of Zagreb Grad Zagreb </tr> World Heritage Sites Historical Complex of Split with the Palace of Diocletian (1979) Old City of Dubrovnik (1979) Plitvice Lakes National Park (1979) Episcopal Complex of the Euphrasian Basilica in the Historic Centre of Poreč (1997) Historic City of Trogir (1997) The Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik (2000) The Stari Grad Plain - island of Hvar (2008) Government and politics Since the adoption of the 1990 Constitution, Croatia has been a democracy. Between 1990 and 2000 it had a semi-presidential system, and since 2000 it has a parliamentary system. The President of the Republic (Predsjednik) is the head of state, directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of two terms. In addition to being the commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the Prime minister with the consent of the Parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy. His official residence is Predsjednički dvori. Apart from that he has summer residences on the islands of Vanga (Brijuni islands) and the island of Hvar. The Croatian Parliament (Sabor) is a unicameral legislative body (a second chamber, the "House of Counties", which was set up by the Constitution of 1990, was abolished in 2001). The number of the Sabor's members can vary from 100 to 160; they are all elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The plenary sessions of the Sabor take place from January 15 to July 15, and from September 15 to December 15. The Croatian Government (Vlada) is headed by the Prime minister who has two deputy prime ministers and fourteen ministers in charge of particular sectors of activity. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of the republic. Government's official residence is at Banski dvori. Law Croatia has a three-tiered judicial system, consisting of the Supreme Court, County courts, and Municipal courts. The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding the Constitution. Law enforcement in Croatia is the responsibility of the Croatian police force, which is under the control of the Ministry of the Interior. OSCE Mission to Croatia retrieved May 19, 2007 Police, Croatia retrieved May 19, 2007 In recent years, the force has been undergoing a reform with assistance from international agencies, including the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe since its mission to Croatia began on 18 April 1996. Demographics Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (89.6%),while minority groups include Serbs (4.5%), Bosniaks, Hungarians, Italians, Slovenes, Germans, Czechs, Romani people and others (5.9%).For the most of the 20th century the population of Croatia has been rising from 3,430,270 in 1931 to 4,784,265 in 1991 . The natural growth rate of the population is currently negative with the demographic transition completed in the 1970s. Average life expectancy is 75.1 years, and the literacy rate is 98.1 percent. During recent years Croatian government is pressured each year to add 40% to work permit quotas for foreign workers and in accordance with its immigration policy it is trying to entice emigrants to return . The main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholic 88%, Orthodox 4.4%, other Christian 0.4%, Muslim 1.3%, other and unspecified 0.9%, none 5.2%. During the last decade of the 20th century the population of Croatia has been stagnating because of Croatian War of Independence. During the 1991–95 war, large sections of the population were displaced and emigration increased. In 1991, during the war campaign started by rebel Serb forces more than 80,000 Croats were forced out of their homes or fled the violence . During the final days of the war in 1995, more than 120,000 Serbs , and perhaps as many as 200,000 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4747379.stm , fled Croatia due to a liberation of occupied areas by Croatian forces. Only a small fraction of Serbs and Croats have returned to their homes since 1995, according to the Human Rights Watch. Economy Privatization and the drive toward a market economy had barely begun under the new Croatian Government when war broke out in 1991. As a result of the war, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage, particularly the revenue-rich tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, GDP fell 40.5%. With the end of the war in 1995, tourism and Croatia's economy recovered moderately. However, corruption, cronyism, and a general lack of transparency stymied meaningful economic reform, as well as much-needed foreign investment. Croatia's economy turned the corner in 2000 as tourism rebounded. The economy expanded in 2002, stimulated by a credit boom led by newly privatized and foreign-capitalized banks, some capital investment, most importantly road construction, further growth in tourism, and gains by small and medium-sized private enterprises. The Croatian economy has a stable functioning market economy. International Monetary Fund data shows that Croatian nominal GDP stood at $58.558 billion, or $13,199 per capita, in 2007. The IMF forecast for 2008 is $69.332 billion, or $15,628 per capita. In purchasing power parity terms, total GDP was $78.665 billion in 2007, equivalent to $17,732 per capita. For 2008, it is forecast to be $82.272 billion, or $18,545 per capita. According to Eurostat data, Croatian PPS GDP per capita stood at 57.5 per cent of the EU average in 2007, and is forecast to reach 57.8 per cent in 2008. Real GDP growth in 2007 was 6.0 per cent. The average gross salary of a Croat during the first nine months of 2008 was 7,161 kuna (US$ 1,530) per month In 2007, the International Labour Organization-defined unemployment rate stood at 9.1 per cent, after falling steadily from 14.7 percent in 2002. The registered unemployment rate is higher, though, standing at 13.7 percent in December 2008. In 2007, 7.2 percent of economic output was accounted for by agriculture, 32.8 percent by industry and 60.7 percent by the service sector. According to 2004 data, 2.7 percent of the workforce were employed in agriculture, 32.8 percent by industry and 64.5 in services. The industrial sector is dominated by shipbuilding, food processing and the chemical industry. Tourism is a notable source of income during the summer, with over 11 million foreign tourists in 2008 generating a revenue of €8 billion. Croatia is ranked as the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world. In 2006 Croatia exported goods to the value of $10.4 billion (FOB) ($19.7 billion including service exports). The Croatian state still controls a significant part of the economy, with government spending accounting for as much as 40% of GDP. Some large, state-owned industries, such as the country's shipyards, continue to rely on government subsidies, crowding out investment in education and technology needed to ensure the economy's long-term competitiveness. Of particular concern is the backlogged judiciary system, combined with inefficient public administration, especially issues of land ownership and corruption. Another main problem includes the large and growing national debt which has reached over 34 billion euro or 89.1 per cent of the nations gross domestic product. Analysis: Despite debt, Croatia "not under financial collapse threat" Because of these problems, studies show that the population of Croatia generally has negative expectations of the country's economic future. Gallup Balkan monitor:2008 Summary of findings Croatia has so far weathered the global financial crisis reasonably well, but faces significant challenges in 2009 largely due to an expected downturn in Croatia's top export commodity, tourism. Croatia's external imbalances and high foreign debt present risks as well, as continued access to foreign credit in 2009 may be severely limited. The country has been preparing for membership in the European Union, its most important trading partner. In February 2005, the Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the EU officially came into force. Infrastructure The highlight of Croatia's recent infrastructure developments is its rapidly-growing highway network, of which plans were drawn and work commenced in the 1970s, but was realised only after independence due to the (then) Yugoslav Government plans of road projects of 'national' importance. Croatia has now over 1,200 km of highways connecting Zagreb to most other regions. The best known highways are A1, connecting Zagreb to Split and A3, passing east-west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia. Most highways are tolled, except the Zagreb bypass and sections of A3, A7, B8 and B9. There is also a smaller and more obscure network of expressways connecting to the highways. One of the most used is the B28 expressway, connecting A4 near Zagreb to Bjelovar, but also serving as the main shunpiking alternative to the A3. The Croatian highways network its considered one of very good overall quality and excellent security, winning several EUROTAP awards. Croatia has an extensive rail network, although due to historical circumstances, some regions (notably Istria and even more so Dubrovnik) are not accessible by train without passing through neighbouring countries. Serious investment is needed in the rail network over the coming decades to bring it up to European standards in both speed and operational efficiency. All rail services are operated by Croatian Railways (). The inter-city bus network (operated by private operators) is extensively developed, with higher levels of coverage and timetables than the railways. Croatia has three major international airports, located in Zagreb, Split and Dubrovnik. Other important airports include Zadar, Rijeka (on the island of Krk), Osijek, Bol, Lošinj and Pula. Croatia Airlines is the national airline and flag carrier. An extensive system of ferries, operated by Jadrolinija, serves Croatia's many islands and links coastal cities. Ferry services to Italy are also available. Education Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades. In 2007 a law was passed to increase free but not compulsory education until eighteen years of age. Compulsory education consists of eight grades ( Elementary School ) Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools. Croatia has eight universities, the University of Zagreb, University of Split, University of Rijeka, University of Osijek, University of Zadar, University of Dubrovnik the University of Pula and Dubrovnik International University. The University of Zadar, the first University in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002. The University of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating University in Southeastern Europe. There are also polytechnic and higher education institutions. Culture Croatian culture is the result of a fourteen century-long history which has seen the development of many cities and monuments. The country includes seven World Heritage sites and eight national parks. Croatia is also the birthplace of a number of historical figures. Included among the notable people are three Nobel prize winners and numerous inventors. Some of the world's first fountain pens came from Croatia. Croatia also has a place in the history of clothing as the origin of the necktie (kravata). The country has a long artistic, literary and musical tradition. Also of interest is the diverse nature of Croatian cuisine. Sport Croatia has a reputation of producing gifted athletes in a diverse range of sports. Sports popular in Croatia include football, handball, basketball, water polo and tennis. The Croatian national football team finished third in the 1998 FIFA World Cup and Davor Šuker won the Golden Boot as the top goal scorer. The country failed in its joint bid with Hungary to co-host the 2012 European Championships. The Croatian national handball team were world champions in 2003 and two time Olympic winners in 1996 and 2004. Ivano Balić is considered to be the best handball player in the world. RK Zagreb was a two time European champion and RK Bjelovar won the same championship once. The national basketball team finished third at the 1994 FIBA World Championship, second at the 1992 Summer Olympics and third at EuroBasket 1993 and 1995. Croatian basketball clubs were European champions 5 times: KK Split three times and KK Cibona twice. The third most famous basketball club is KK Zadar. Croatian basketball players such as Drazen Petrovic and Toni Kukoc were amongst the first foreign players to succeed in the NBA in the United States. The Croatian national water polo team are the current world champions. Mladost was a seven time European champion and was awarded the title Best Club of the 20th Century by LEN. Jug and Jadran were both three time European champions. Croatian Davis Cup team won the tournament in 2005. The tennis player Goran Ivanišević is one of the country's most recognisable sportsmen who won the 2001 Men's Singles title at Wimbledon. Some of the other most famous athletes include Janica Kostelić and Ivica Kostelić in skiing, Blanka Vlašić in athletics, Duje Draganja, Sanja Jovanović and Đurđica Bjedov in swimming, Dražen Petrović, Krešimir Ćosić, Toni Kukoč and Dino Rađa in basketball, Matija Ljubek in canoeing, Željko Mavrović and Mate Parlov in boxing, Branko Cikatić and Mirko Filipović, known as "Cro Cop", in kickboxing and mixed martial arts and UFC fighter Goran Reljic in mixed martial arts, Tamara Boroš in table tennis. See also Communications in Croatia Croatian Railways Croatian War of Independence Highways in Croatia Holidays in Croatia International rankings of Croatia Kingdom of Croatia Independent State of Croatia Law enforcement in Croatia List of Croats Military of Croatia Outline of Croatia Protected areas of Croatia Sport in Croatia Tourism in Croatia Transport in Croatia Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia References Further reading Agičić et al., Povijest i zemljopis Hrvatske, priručnik za hrvatske manjinske škole (History and Geography of Croatia, a handbook for Croatian minority schools), Biblioteka Geographica Croatica, 292 pages, Zagreb:2000 (ISBN 953-6235-40-4) Branka Magaš. "Croatia Through History: The Making of a Modern European State" Saqi. November 2007, 680pp. Ivo Banac, The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics Cornell University Press, 1984. Mirjana Kasapović (ed.), Hrvatska politika 1990.-2000. Zagreb: Hrvatska politologija 2001. Pavol Demes and Jörg Forbrig (eds.), Reclaiming Democracy: Civil Society and Electoral Change in Central and Eastern Europe. German Marshall Fund, 2007. ISBN 978-80-969639-0-4 Sharon Fisher, Political Change in Post-Communist Slovakia and Croatia: From Nationalist to Europeanist. 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1,295 | Catalonia | Catalonia (; ; Aranese Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in northeast Spain. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an official population of 7,210,508 (catalan) . It borders France and Andorra to the north, Aragon to the west, the Valencian Community to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east (580 km coastline). Official languages are Catalan, Spanish and Aranese. The capital city is Barcelona. Catalonia is divided into forty-one comarques that are part, in turn, of four provinces: Barcelona, Tarragona, Lleida (historically known as Lérida in Spanish), and Girona (often spelt Gerona in English as it is in Spanish). Its territory corresponds to most of the historical territory of the former Principality of Catalonia. Etymology From the 12th century, this is thought to be the first written document in the Catalan language The name Catalunya (Catalonia) began to be used in the 12th century Enciclopèdia Catalana online: Catalunya ("Geral de Cataluign, Raimundi Catalan and Arnal Catalan appear in 1107/1112") in Catalan in reference to the group of counties that comprised the Marca Hispanica, which gradually became independent from the French. The origin of the term is subject to diverse interpretations. The prevalent theory suggests that Catalunya derives from the term "Land of Castles", La formació de Catalunya having evolved from the term castlà, the ruler of a castle (see castellan). Curiositats sobre Catalunya i el català This theory, therefore, suggests that the term castellà ("Castilian") would have been synonymous. Another theory suggests that Catalunya derives from Gothia, "Land of the Goths", since the Spanish March was one of the places known as Gothia, whence Gothland and Gothlandia theoretically derived, Bulke, Ulrich. (1900). A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic. Longman, Greens and Co. London, UK though critics usually consider it rather simplistic. La Catalogne : son nom et ses limites historiques. Histoire de Rousillon. Yet another theory points to the Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area, and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved to Katelans and then Catalans. El Misteri de la Paraula Cathalunya Climate The Medieval church, Sant Climent in Taüll, which is located at the foothills of the Pyrenees. The quaint town of Cadaqués, a popular tourist destination, is located on the Mediterranean coast. The climate of Catalonia is diverse. The populated areas lying by the coast in Tarragona, Barcelona and Girona feature a Mediterranean climate. The inland part (including the Lleida province and the inner part of Barcelona) show a mostly continental Mediterranean climate. The Pyreneean peaks have a mountain or even Alpine climate at the highest summits. In the Mediterranean area, summers are dry, hot and humid with sea breezes, and the maximum temperature is around 30 °C. Summer is the rainiest season in the Pyreneean valleys with frequent storms. Winter is cool or cold depending on the location. It snows frequently in the Pyrenees, and it occasionally snows at lower altitudes, even by the coastline. Overall, spring and autumn are typically the rainiest seasons. The inland part of Catalonia is hotter and drier in summer. Temperature may reach 35 °C, some days even 40 °C. Nights are cooler there than at the coast with the temperature of around 14° to 16 °C. Fog is not uncommon in valleys and plains, it can be especially resilient and with freezing drizzle episodes during winter by the Segre and other river valleys. Legal status within Spain The Spanish Constitution of 1978 declares that Spain is an indissoluble nation that recognizes and guarantees the right to self-government of the nationalities and regions that constitute it. Constitución Española, Título Preliminar Catalonia, alongside Basque Country and Galicia was set apart from the rest of Spain as a Historical nationality and given the ability to accede to autonomy automatically, which resulted in the 1979 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia. The rest of Spain, in a process spearheaded by Andalusia and completed by 1985, carved itself into 14 additional Autonomous Communities by drafting their own Statutes of Autonomy. After 2003 there has been a round of amendments to the various Statutes of Autonomy (notably, alongside Catalonia's, those of Aragon, the Valencian Community, the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands) Both the 1979 Statute of Autonomy and the current one, approved in 2006, state that Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an autonomous community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law. First article of the Statute of Autonomy of Catalunya The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states the Parliament of Catalonia defined Catalonia as a nation, but that the Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality. The Preamble of the Statute lacks legal value, thus the constitutional status is the same as it was in 1979, which is an Autonomous Community. While this Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and the Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been legally contested by the surrounding Autonomous Communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and the Valencian Community, Admitidos los recursos de Aragón, Valencia y Baleares contra el Estatuto catalán. hoy.es as well as by the Partido Popular. The objections are based on various issues such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the principle of "solidarity between regions" enshrined by the Constitution in fiscal and educational matters. As of November 2008, the Constitutional Court of Spain is assessing the constitutionality of the challenged articles; its binding conclusion is expected in 2008. History Roman amphitheatre in Tarragona Roman aqueduct in Tarragona Counties of the Marca Hispanica Catalan Court Carrer del Bisbe (Bishop Street) in Barcelona's Barri Gòtic Barcelona Cathedral Monastery of Our Lady of Montserrat Santa Maria de Montserrat Palau de la Música Catalana, built between 1905–1908 Like some other parts in the rest of the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Catalonia was colonised by Ancient Greeks, who settled around the Roses area. Both Greeks and Carthaginians (who, in the course of the Second Punic War, briefly ruled the territory) interacted with the main Iberian substratum. After the Carthaginian defeat, it became, along with the rest of Hispania, a part of the Roman Empire, Tarraco being one of the main Roman posts in the Iberian Peninsula It then came under Visigothic rule for four centuries after Rome's collapse. In the eighth century, it came under Moorish al-Andalus control. Still, after the defeat of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi's troops at Tours in 732, the Franks conquered former Visigoth states which had been captured by the Muslims or had become allied with them in what today is the northernmost part of Catalonia. Charlemagne created in 795 which came to be known as the Marca Hispanica, a buffer zone beyond the province of Septimania made up of locally administered separate petty kingdoms which served as a defensive barrier between the Umayyad Moors of Al-Andalus and the Frankish Kingdom. The Catalan culture started to develop in the Middle Ages stemming from a number of these petty kingdoms organised as small counties throughout the northernmost part of Catalonia. The counts of Barcelona were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor then the king of France, to whom they were feudatories (801–987). In 987 the count of Barcelona did not recognize the French king Hugh Capet and his new dynasty which put it effectively out of the Frankish rule. Two years later, in 989, Catalonia declared its independence. Then, in 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona married Queen Petronila of Aragon establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with the Kingdom of Aragon which was to create the Crown of Aragon. It was not until 1258, by means of the Treaty of Corbeil, that the king of France formally relinquished his feudal lordship over the counties of the Principality of Catalonia to the king of Aragon James I, descendant of Ramon Berenguer IV. This Treaty transformed the country's de facto independence into a de jure direct transition from French to Aragonese rule. It also solved a historic incongruence. As part of the Crown of Aragon, Catalonia became a great maritime power, helping to expand the Crown by trade and conquest into the Kingdom of Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and even Sardinia or Sicily. In 1410, King Martin I died without surviving descendants. As a result, by the Pact of Caspe, Ferdinand of Antequera from the Castilian dynasty of Trastamara, received the Crown of Aragon as Ferdinand I of Aragon. His grandson, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella I of Castile in 1469; retrospectively, this is seen as the dawn of the Kingdom of Spain. At that point both Castile and Aragon remained distinct territories, each keeping its own traditional institutions, Parliaments and laws. Political power began to shift away from Aragon toward Castile and, subsequently, from Castile to the Spanish Empire. For an extended period, Catalonia, as part of the former Crown of Aragon, continued to retain its own usages and laws, but these gradually eroded in the course of the transition from feudalism to a modern state, fueled by the kings' struggle to have more centralized territories. Over the next few centuries, Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of local conflicts that led steadily to more centralization of power in Spain, like the Reapers' War (1640–1652). The most significant conflict was the War of the Spanish Succession, which began when Charles II of Spain (the last Spanish Habsburg) died without a successor in 1700. Catalonia, as the other territories which used to form the Crown of Aragon in the Middle Ages, mostly rose up in support of the Habsburg pretender Charles of Austria, while the rest of Spain mostly adhered to the French Bourbon claimant, Philip V. Following the fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714, the 'special status' of the territories belonging to the former Crown of Aragon and its institutions were abolished by the Nueva Planta decrees, under which all its lands were incorporated, as provinces, into a united Spanish administration, as Spain moved towards a centralised government under the new Bourbon dynasty. In the latter half of the 19th century, Catalonia became an industrial center; to this day it remains one of the most industrialised parts of Spain. In the first third of the 20th century, Catalonia gained and lost varying degrees of autonomy several times, receiving its first statute of autonomy during the Second Spanish Republic (1931). This period was marked by political unrest and the preeminence of the Anarchists during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). They were also active throughout the early 20th century, achieving the first eight-hour workday in the world in 1919. After the defeat of the Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) which brought General Francisco Franco to power, his regime suppressed any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, Anarchism, Socialism, Democracy or Communism, such as publishing books on the matter or simply discussing them in open meetings. As part of this suppression the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and in public events was banned. During later stages of the Francoist régime, certain folkoric or religious celebrations in Catalan were resumed and tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media was forbidden, but was permitted from the early 1950s Marc Howard Ross, "Cultural Contestation in Ethnic Conflict", page 139. Cambridge University Press, 2007 in the theatre. Publishing in Catalan continued throughout the dictatorship. The Resurgence of Catalan Earl W. Thomas Hispania, Vol. 45, No. 1 (Mar., 1962), pp. 43-48 doi:10.2307/337523 After Franco's death (1975) and with the adoption of a democratic Spanish constitution (1978), Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy. Today, Catalonia is one of the most economically dynamic regions of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourist destination. Languages Originating in the historic territory of Catalonia, Catalan is one of the three official languages and has enjoyed special status since the approval of the Statute of Autonomy of 1979 which declares it to be the language "proper to Catalonia". Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia (Article 6) The other languages with official status are Spanish, which has official status throughout Spain, and Aranese (a dialect of Gascon Occitan) spoken in the Aran Valley). Under the Franco dictatorship Catalan was, until the 1970s, excluded from the state education system and all other official and public use, including the prohibition of giving children Catalan names. Rural-urban migration originating in other parts of Spain also reduced the social use of the language in urban areas. Lately, a similar sociolinguistic phenomenon has occurred with foreign immigration. In an attempt to reverse this, the re-established self-government institutions of Catalonia embarked on a long term language policy to increase the use of Catalan Multilingualism in Spain: Sociolinguistic and Psycholinguistic Aspects of Linguistic Minority Groups and has, since 1983, enforced laws which attempt to protect, and extend, the use of Catalan. Some groups consider these efforts a way to discourage the use of Spanish, http://medios.mugak.eu/noticias/noticia/150764 Diario El Mundo, Spanish Only http://www.elimparcial.es/contenido/19605.html Diario El Imparcial, Spanish Only http://blogs.periodistadigital.com/ultimahora.php/2006/06/17/llaman_lputo_inmigrante_espanolr_al_padr Diario Periodista Digital, Spanish Only http://blogs.periodistadigital.com/ultimahora.php/2006/02/02/la_justicia_obliga_a_una_escuela_de_bada Diario Periodista Digital, Spanish Only while some others, including the Catalan government Page 13: Catalan Deputy of Education Ernest Maragall declares respect from the Catalan Government to Spanish language and to everyone's rights. Catalan only and the European Union EU takes Basque Country, Galicia, Catalonia and Valencia as examples of bilingualism. consider the policies respectful, The President Montilla promises to look after the use and respect both for Spanish and Catalan languages. or even as an example which "should be disseminated throughout the Union". Report from the European Union in which Catalan immersion is taken as an example which "should be disseminated throughout the Union" (page 18) Today, Catalan is the main language of the Catalan autonomous government and the other public institutions that fall under its jurisdiction. Basic public education is given in Catalan except for two hours per week of Spanish medium instruction. Businesses are required to display all information (e.g. menus, posters) at least in Catalan under penalty of fines; there is no obligation to display this information in either Aranese or Spanish, although there is no restriction on doing so in these or other languages and this is often done, in particular in Spanish. The use of fines was introduced in a 1997 linguistic law Catalonia's linguistic law that aims to increase the use of Catalan. The law ensures that both Catalan and Spanish – being official languages – can be used by the citizens without prejudice in all public and private activities Second article of Catalonia's linguistic law , but primary education can only be taken in Catalan language. Even though the Generalitat usually uses Catalan in its communications and notifications addressed to the general population, citizens can also receive information from the Generalitat in Spanish if they so desire. Ninth article of Catalonia's Linguistic Law According to the most recent linguistic census elaborated by the Government of Catalonia, a plurality claims Catalan as "their own language" (48.8% Catalan compared to 44.3% Spanish), and in most everyday uses, people who use exclusively Catalan or both languages equally are in the majority. 53.4% of citizens declared Spanish as a native language, either exclusively or along with Catalan. IDESCAT 2003 Also, starting with the Statute of Autonomy of 1979, Aranese (a dialect of Gascon) has been official and subject to special protection in the Aran Valley. This small area of 7,000 inhabitants was the only place where a dialect of Occitan has received full official status. Then, on 9 August 2006, when the new Statute came into force, Occitan became official throughout Catalonia. Economy The Catalan economy is distinguished in the Spanish context by a more industrial profile. European Structural Funds in Spain (2000-2006) The distribution of sectors is the following one: Primary sector: 2.8%. Land dedicated to agricultural use is 33%. Secondary sector: 37.2% (compared to Spain's 29%) Tertiary sector: 60% (compared to Spain's 67%) In 2007 the regional GDP of Catalonia was € 202,509 million and per capita GDP was € 24,445 in 2007 CIDEM . In this year, the GDP growth was 3.7%, CIDEM . In the context of the 2008 financial crisis, Catalonia is expected to suffer a recession amounting to almost a 2% contraction of its regional GDP in 2009 Catalonia is the first tourist destination of Spain. The main tourist destinations in Catalonia are the city of Barcelona, the beaches of the Costa Brava at Girona and the Costa Daurada at Tarragona. In the Pyrenees there are several ski resorts. Savings banks have a great implantation in Catalonia. 10 of the 46 Spanish savings banks are Catalan and "La Caixa" is Europe's premier savings bank Ranking of Savings Banks The first private bank originated in Catalonia is Banc Sabadell ranking fourth of the Spanish private banks. Profile of "Banc Sabadell" in Euroinvestor] The stock market of Barcelona, which in 2004 traded almost 205,000 million €, is the second most important of Spain after the Stock market of Madrid and Fira de Barcelona organizes samples and congresses of international character on varied sectors of the economy. The main economic cost for the Catalan families is the purchase of a house. According to data of the Society of Appraisal on the 31 December 2005 Catalonia is, after Madrid, the second most expensive region in Spain for housing: 3,397 €/m² on average(See Spanish property bubble). Politics After Franco's death in 1975 and the adoption of a democratic constitution in Spain in 1978, Catalonia recovered, and extended, the powers granted in the statute of autonomy of 1932 Beginnings of the autonomous regime, 1918-1932 it had lost with the fall of the Second Spanish Republic The republican Government of Catalonia, 1931-1939 at the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939. The historical region has gradually achieved a greater degree of autonomy since 1979. The Generalitat holds exclusive jurisdiction in various matters including culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local governments while it shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government in education, health and justice. Title IV. Powers (articles 110-173)of the 2006 Statute There is significant Catalan nationalist sentiment present in a part of the population of Catalonia, CIS Poll covering, among others, nationalist opinions. which ranges from the desire for independence from Spain expressed by Catalan independentists, to a more generic demand of further autonomy. Law and government of Catalonia Girona The Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia is the fundamental organic law, second only to the Spanish Constitution from which the Statute originates. The Catalan Statute of Autonomy establishes that Catalonia is organized politically through the Generalitat de Catalunya, conformed by the Parliament, the Presidency of the Generalitat, the Government or Executive Council and the other institutions created by the Parliament. The seat of the Executive Council is the city of Barcelona. Since the restoration of the Generalitat through the return of democracy in Spain, the presidents of Catalonia have been Jordi Pujol (1980-2003), Pasqual Maragall (2003-2006) and incumbent José Montilla Aguilera. Catalonia is divided into four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Local governments include comarques (roughly equivalent to counties), as well as smaller forms of municipal administration. Security forces Catalonia has its own police force, the Mossos d'Esquadra, whose origins date back to the eighteenth century. Since 1980 they have been under the command of the Generalitat, and since 1994 they have expanded in number in order to replace the Spain-wide Guardia Civil and Policía Nacional, which report directly to the Homeland Department of Spain. These corps are to retain a certain number of agents within Catalonia to exercise specific functions such as overseeing ports, airports, coasts, international borders, custom offices, the identification of documents and arms control amongst others. Most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions. The legal system is uniform throughout Spain, with the exception of so-called "civil law", which is administered separately within Catalonia. Legislació civil catalana After Navarre and the Basque Country, Catalonia is the Spanish region with the highest degree of autonomy. Demographics The autonomous community of Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² with an official population of 7,354,411 (2008) from which immigrants represent an estimated 12.3%. "Catalunya arriba a set milions d'habitants", Diari El Punt. "Catalans grapple with migrant influx", BBC News. 3 January 2007 The Urban Region of Barcelona includes 3,327,872 people and covers an area of 2.268 km² and about 1.7 million persons live in a radius of 15 km from Barcelona. The metropolitan area of the Urban Region includes cities like l'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Badalona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Cornellà. Apart from Barcelona, there are other important cities, like Tarragona, Sabadell, Lleida, Girona, Mataró. The Metropolitan area of Tarragona includes 675,000 people and is the two area metropolitana of Catalonia In 1900 the population of Catalonia was 1,984,115 people and in 1970 it was 5,107,606. http://www15.gencat.net/pres_catalunya_dades/AppPHP/cat/poblacio.htm That increase was produced due to the demographic boom produced in Spain during the 60s and early 70s and also due to the large-scale internal migration produced from the rural interior of Spain to its industrial cities. In Catalonia that wave of internal migration arrived from several regions of Spain, especially Andalusia, Murcia and Extremadura. Transport Airports Barcelona International Airport (BCN) Barcelona/El Prat de Llobregat {El Prat/Barcelona}; Girona-Costa Brava Airport (GRO) Girona/Gerona{Vilobi d`Onyar}; Reus Airport Reus/Tarragona/Costa Daurada (REU){Contanti/Reus/Tarragona}; Sabadell Airport (QSA){Sabadell SAB)}. Commercial and passenger ports Port of Barcelona Port of Tarragona Port of Palamós Roads see also List of autopistes and autovies in Catalonia There are 12,000 km of roads throughout Catalonia. The principal highway is AP-7 know also as Autopista del Mediterrani. It follows the coast from the French Border to Valencia, located south of Tarragona. The main roads generally radiate from Barcelona. The A-2 and AP-2 connect inland and onward to Madrid. Other major roads are: AP-2 A-2 N-II C-12 A-16 or C-32 C-16 C-17 C-25 A-26 C-32 C-60 Railways Catalonia saw the first railway construction in Iberian Peninsula in 1848, linking Barcelona with Mataró. Given the topography most lines radiate from Barcelona. The city has both suburban and inter-city services. The main east coast line runs through the province connecting with the SNCF (French Railways) at Portbou on the coast. There are two publicly owned railway companies operating in Catalonia: the Catalan FGC and the Spanish national RENFE. High speed AVE (Alta Velocidad Española) services from Madrid currently reach Lleida, Tarragona and Barcelona. The official opening between Barcelona and Madrid took place 20 February 2008. The journey between Barcelona and Madrid now takes about 2 and a half hours. Construction has commenced to extend the high speed line northwards to connect with the French high speed TGV network. This new line passes through Girona and there is a tunnel through the Pyrenees. Some symbols of Catalonia Catalonia has its own representative and distinctive symbols such as: Statute of Catalonia (Article 8) The flag of Catalonia The flag of Catalonia or Senyera (flag in Catalan), is a vexillological symbol based on the coat of arms of the Crown of Aragon, which consists of four red stripes on a golden background. It is an official symbol since the Statute of Catalonia of 1932. The National Day of Catalonia Law 1/1980 where the Parlamient of Catalonia declares that 11th of September is the National Day of Catalonia is on 11 September, and it is commonly called La Diada. It commemorates the 1714 Siege of Barcelona defeat during the War of the Spanish Succession. The national anthem of Catalonia is Els Segadors and was written in its present form by Emili Guanyavents in 1899. The song is official by law from 25 February 1993. Law 1/1993 National Anthem of Catalonia Law 1/1993 in the BOE It is based on the events of 1639 and 1640 when Catalans fought for independence against Philip IV in the so called Catalan Revolt. La Diada de Sant Jordi is widely celebrated in all the towns of Catalonia on 23 April. It is a day where in addition to the exchange of books and roses, Catalans will proudly display their senyeres as a show of national pride. One of the most famous international symbols of Catalonia is FC Barcelona. The area's footballing branch is supported with a passion by the 'cules'. Each season they engage in one of Spanish football's most famous rivalries, the El Clásico with La Liga powerhouse and long-time rivals Real Madrid. UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia: Dalí Museum, Figueres Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, Tarragona Catalan Romanesque Churches at Vall de Boí Poblet Monastery, Poblet, Tarragona province Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, Barcelona Works of Antoni Gaudí: Sagrada Família, Barcelona Parc Güell, Barcelona Palau Güell, Barcelona Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Barcelona Popular culture Gegants and Capgrossos in la Seu d'Urgell festival Castellers are one of the main manifestations of the Catalonian popular culture. The activity consists in constructing human towers by competing colles castelleres (teams). This practice originated in the southern part of Catalonia during the 18th century. The sardana is the most characteristic Catalonian popular dance, other groups also practice Ball de bastons, moixiganga or jota in the southern part. Musically the Havaneres are also characteristic in the marine localities of the Costa Brava specially during the summer months when these songs are sung outdoors accompanied by a cremat of burned rum. As opposed to other parts of Spain, flamenco is not popularly performed, but rather the rumba is a more prevalent dance style. In the greater celebrations other elements of the Catalonian popular culture are usually present: the parades of gegants (giants) and correfocs of devils and firecrackers. Another traditional celebration in Catalonia is La Patum de Berga declared oral and immaterial patrimony of the Humanity by UNESCO in the 25 November 2005. de Berga In addition to the traditional local Catalonian culture, people can enjoy traditions from other parts of Spain as a result of sizeable migration from other regions. Gallery of images See also |Torre Agbar in Barcelona Caga Tió .cat Països Catalans Catalan cuisine Traditions of Catalonia Famous Catalan People History of Catalonia National Day of Catalonia Catalan nationalism Northern Catalonia Principality of Catalonia List of rivers of Catalonia Barcelona Tarragona Lleida Girona Catalan wine Sport in Catalonia References </div> External links The Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia) Xanascat National Network of Youth Hostels of Catalonia Statistical information from Idescat (Catalan Institute of Statistics) Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Institute of Catalan Studies) Lletra. Catalan Literature Online Lletra. espai virtual de literatura catalana Catalan Hyperencyclopaedia: Encyclopedia with information about Catalonia in English A guide to the natural history of Catalonia The Spirit of Catalonia. Digital edition of the 1946 book by Oxford Professor Dr. Josep Trueta, in English. 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1,296 | First_Council_of_the_Lateran | The Council of 1123 is reckoned in the series of Ecumenical councils by the Catholic Church. It was convoked by Pope Callixtus II in December, 1122, immediately after the Concordat of Worms. The Council sought to: (a) bring an end to the practice of the conferring of ecclesiastical benefices by people who were laymen (b) free the election of bishops and abbots from secular influence (c) clarify the separation of spiritual and temporal affairs (d) re-establish the principle that spiritual authority resides solely in the Church (e) abolish the claim of the emperors to influence papal elections. The council convoked by Callistus II was significant in size: three hundred bishops and more than six hundred abbots assembled at Rome in March, 1123; Callistus presided in person. During the Council the decisions of the Concordat of Worms were read and ratified. Various other decisions were promulgated. History leading to the Council The First Lateran Council was called by Pope Callistus II whose reign began February 1, 1119. It demarcated the end of the Investiture controversy which had begun before the time of Pope Gregory VII. The issues had been contentious and had continued with unabated bitterness for almost a century. Guido, as he was called before his elevation to the papacy, was the son of Count William of Burgundy. He was closely connected with nearly all the royal houses of Europe on both sides of his family. He had been named the papal legate to France by Pope Paschal II. During Guido's tenure in this office, Paschal II yielded to the military threats of Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, and was induced to issue the Privilegium in the year 1111. By this document the Church gave up much of what had been claimed and subsequently attained by Pope Gregory VII and his Gregorian Reforms. These concessions did not bring the expected peace but were received with violent reactionary opposition everywhere. Europe had come to expect an end to the Investiture controversy, and was not willing to return to the old days when the Holy Roman Emperor named the pope. The greatest resistance was seen in France and was led by Guido, who still held the office of the papal legate. He had been present in the Lateran Synod of 1112 which had proclaimed the Privilegium of 1111. On his return to France, Guido convoked an assembly of the French and Burgundian bishops at Vienne (1112). There the lay investiture of the clergy (the practice of the king, especially the Holy Roman Emperor naming bishops and the pope)was denounced as heretical. A sentence of excommunication was pronounced against Henry V who had extorted through violence from the pope the concessions documented in the Privilegium. The agreement was deemed to be opposed to the interests of the Church. The decrees from the assembly of Vienne which denounced the Priviegium were sent to Paschal II with a request for confirmation. Pope Paschal II confirmed these which were received in general terms, on October 20, 1112. Hardouin VI, 2, 1916. Guido was later created cardinal by Pope Paschal II. The latter did not seem to have been pleased with Guido’s bold and forward attacks upon Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor. On the death of Paschal II January 21, 1118, Gelasius II was elected pope. He was immediately seized by the Italian allies of Henry V, and on his liberation by the populace fled to Gaeta, where he was crowned. Henry V demanded the confirmation of the "Privilegium" and received no satisfactory reply. He then set about naming Burdinus, the archbishop of Braga as his own pope. This pope assumed the name Gregory VIII, but came to be known as antipope Gregory VIII. Burdinus, had already been deposed and excommunicated because he had crowned Henry V and the Holy Roman Emperor in Rome in 1117. The excommunication of Bardinus was reiterated in Canon 6 of the document produced by Lateran I. Gelasius II promptly excommunicated the antipope Gregory VIII and Henry V. Gelasius was forced to flee under duress from the army of Henry V, and took refuge in the monastery of Cluny, where he died in January, 1119. . On the fourth day after the death of Gelasius II, February I, 1119, owing mainly to the exertions of Cardinal Cuno, Guido was elected pope and assumed the title of Callistus II. He was crowned Pope at Vienne on February 9, 1119. . Because of his close connection with the great royal families of Germany, France, England and Denmark, the papacy of Callistus II was received with much anticipation and celebration throughout Europe. There was a real hope throughout the Continent that the Investiture controversy might be settled once and for all. In the interest of conciliation, even the papal embassy was received by Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at Strasburg. However, it soon became clear that Henry was not willing to concede his presumed and ancient right to name the pope and bishops within his kingdom. Perhaps to demonstrate conciliation or because of political necessity, Henry withdrew his support for antipope Gregory VIII. It was agreed that Henry and Pope Callistus would meet at Mousson. On June 8, 1119, Callistus held a synod at Toulouse to proclaim the disciplinary reforms he had worked to attain in the French Church. In October, 1119, he opened the council at Reims. Louis VI of France and most of the barons of France attended this council along with more than four hundred bishops and abbots. Synod of Vienne, see MANSI, XXI, 175 Synod of Vienne: HARDOUIN, VI, 2, 1752 Synod of Reims, MANSI, XXI, 187 Synod of Reims: HEFELE, Conciliengesch., V, 344 Synod of Reims: HALLER, Die Verhandlungen zu Mouzon (1119) The Pope was also to meet with Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor at Mousson. However, Henry showed up with an army of thirty thousand men. Callistus left Reims for Mousson, but upon learning of the warlike stance of Henry, quickly retreated back to Reims. Here, the Church dealt with issues of simony, concubinage of the clergy. It was clear by now that Henry was in no mood to reconcile and a compromise with him was not to be had. The Conclave at Reims considered the situation and determined to, as an entire Church, to formally excommunicate both Henry V and the antipope Gregory VIII. This occurred on October 30, 1119. While at Reims, Callistus tried to effect a settlement with Henry I of England and his brother Robert. This too, met with failure. Callistus was determined to enter Rome which was occupied by the German forces and the antipope Gregory VIII. There was an uprising by the population which forced Gregory VIII to flee the city. After much political and military intrigue in Rome and the southern Italian states, Gregory VIII was formally deposed and Callistus II was generally recognized as the legitimate Pope in 1121. Having become the established power in Italy, Callistus now returned back the conflict with Henry V over the issue of lay investiture. Henry had been the recipient of great pressure from many of his barons in Germany over his conflict with the pope. Some had entered into open rebellion. Henry was forced by circumstances to seek a peace with Callistus. Initial negotiations were conducted in October, 1121, at Wurzburg. Lambert, the Cardinal of Ostia was dispatched to convoke a synod at Worms, which began on September 8, 1122. By September 23, the Concordat of Worms, also called the Pactum Calixtinum was concluded. On his side, the emperor gave up his claim to investiture with ring and crosier and granted freedom of election to the episcopal sees. The elections of bishops could be witnessed by the emperor or his representatives. Callistus obtained the right to name bishops throughout Germany, but still did not have this power in much of Burgundy and Italy. Concordat of Worms, see MANSI, XXI, 273, 287 Concordat of Worms: JAFFE, Bibl. Rer. Germ., V, 383 Concordat of Worms: MUNCH, Vollstandige Sammlung aller Concordate, I (Leipzig, 1830) Concordat of Worms: NUSSI, Conventiones de Rebus Eccles. (Mainz, 1870) Concordat of Worms: BERNHEIM, Zur Geschichte des Wormser Konkordates (Leipzig, 1878) BRESLAU, Die kaiserliche Ausfertigung des Wormser Konkordates in Mitteil. des Instituts fur Oesterreich. Gesch., 1885 . The First Lateran Council was convoked to confirm the Concordat of Worms. The council was most representative with nearly three hundred bishops and six hundred abbots from every part of Catholic Europe being present. It convened on March 18, 1123. Decrees were also passed directed against simony, concubinage among the clergy, church robbers, forgers of Church documents and reaffirmed indulgences for Crusaders. In the remaining few years of his life, Callistus II attempted to secure the status of the Church as it had existed at the end of the reign of Pope Gregory VII. He reorganized and reformed the churches around Rome, canonized Conrad of Constance, condemned the teaching of Peter de Bruis, confirmed the Bishop Thurston of York against the wishes of Henry I of England, and affirmed the freedom of York from the see of Canterbury. Callistus died December 13, 1124. He was succeeded by Pope Honorius II. Callistus II was a strong figure who brought a relative, if tentative peace between Germany and the Church. The Concordat of Worms and the First Lateran Council changed forever the belief in the divine right of kings to name the pope nad bishops, and reshaped the nature of church and state forever. Biographies by Pandulphus Aletrinus, Aragonius and Bernardus Guidonis (Muratori, Script. Rer. Ital. III, 1, 418 Watterich, “Vitae Rom. Pontif. II, 115, Migne, P. L., CLXIII, 1071 Migne, P. L., CLXIII, 1073-1383 Hardouin Concilia (VI, 2, 1949-1976 D’ Achery Spicilegium, Paris 1723, II, 964; III, 478, 479 Robert, Bullaire du pape Calixte II (Paris, 1891) MAURER, Papst Calixtus II, in 2 parts (Munich, 1886, 1889) MacCaffrey, J. (1908). Pope Callistus II. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Text of the Council Henry IV ceding his rule of the Holy Roman Empire to his son, Henry V. Texts of the First Lateran Council may vary in both wording and numbering of the canons depending on source. In this translation, the precepts of the Concordat of Worms are codified in Canons 2, 4 and 10. CANON I Summary. Ordinations and promotions made for pecuniary considerations are devoid of every dignity. Text. Following the example of the holy fathers and recognize ng the obligation of our office, we absolutely forbid in virtue of the authority of the Apostolic See that anyone be ordained or promoted for money in the Church of God. Has anyone thus secured ordination or promotion in the Church, the rank acquired shall be devoid of every dignity. CANON 2 Summary. Only a priest may be made provost, archpriest, and dean; only a deacon may be archdeacon. Text. No one except a priest shall be promoted to the dignity of provost, archpriest, or deacon; and no one shall be made archdeacon unless he is a deacon. CANON 3 Summary. Priests, deacons, and subdeacons are forbidden to live with women other than such as were permitted by the Nicene Council. Text. We absolutely forbid priests, deacons, and subdeacons to associate with concubines and women, or to live with women other than such as the Nicene Council (canon 3) for reasons of necessity permitted, namely, the mother, sister, or aunt, or any such person concerning whom no suspicion could arise. CANON 4 Summary. Lay persons, no matter how pious they may be, have no authority to dispose of anytfiing that belongs to the Church. Text. In accordance with the decision of Pope Stephen, we declare that lay persons, no matter how devout they may be, have no authority to dispose of anything belonging to the Church, but according to the Apostolic canon the supervision of all ecclesiastical affairs belongs to the bishop, who shall administer them conformably to the will of God. If therefore any prince or other layman shall arrogate to himself the right of disposition, control, or ownership of ecclesiastical goods or properties, let him be judged guilty of sacrilege. CANON 5 Summary. Marriages between blood-relatives are forbidden. Text. We forbid marriages between blood-relatives because they are forbidden by the divine and secular laws. Those who contract such alliances, as also their offspring, the divine laws not only ostracize but declare accursed, while the civil laws brand them as infamous and deprive them of hereditary rights. We, therefore, following the example of our fathers, declare and stigmatize them as infamous. CANON 6 Summary. Ordinations by Burdinus and the bishops consecrated by him are invalid. Text. The ordinations made by the heresiarch Burdinus after his condemnation by the Roman Church, as also those made by the bishops consecrated by him after that point of time, we declare to be invalid. CANON 7 Summary. No one is permitted to arrogate to himself the episcopal authority in matters pertaining to the cura animarum and the bestowal of benefices. Text. No archdeacon, archpriest, provost, or dean shall bestow on another the care of souls or the prebends of a church without the decision or consent of the bishop; indeed, as the sacred canons point out, the care of souls and the disposition of ecclesiastical property are vested in the authority of the bishop. If anyone shall dare act contrary to this and arrogate to himself the power belonging to the bishop, let him be expelled from the Church. CANON 8 Summary. Military persons are forbidden under penalty of anathema to invade or forcibly hold the city of Benevento. Text. Desiring with the grace of God to protect the recognized possessions of the Holy Roman Church, we forbid under pain of anathema any military person to invade or forcibly hold Benevento, the city of St. Peter. If anyone act contrary to this, let him be anathematized. CANON 9 Summary. Those excommunicated by one bishop, may not be restored by others. Text. We absolutely forbid that those who have been excommunicated by their own bishops be received into the communion of the Church by other bishops, abbots, and clerics. Canons 2, 4 and 10 ended the practice of the Holy Roman Emperor naming bishops and the pope. CANON 10 Summary. A bishop consecrated after an uncanonical election shall be deposed. Text. No one shall be consecrated bishop who has not been canonically elected. If anyone dare do this, both the consecrator and the one consecrated shall be deposed without hope of reinstatement. CANON 11 Summary. To those who give aid to the Christians in the Orient is granted the remission of sins, and their families and possessions are taken under the protection of the Roman Church. Text. For effectively crushing the tyranny of the infidels, we grant to those who go to Jerusalem and also to those who give aid toward the defense of the Christians, the remission of their sins and we take under the protection of St. Peter and the Roman Church their homes, their families, and all their belongings, as was already ordained by Pope Urban II. Whoever, therefore, shall dare molest or seize these during the absence of their owners, shall incur excommunication. Those, however, who with a view of going to Jerusalem or to Spain (that is, against the Moors) are known to have attached the cross to their garments and afterward removed it, we command in virtue of our Apostolic authority to replace it and begin the journey within a year from the coming Easter. Otherwise we shall excommunicate them and interdict within their territory all divine service except the baptism of infants and the administration of the last rites to the dying. CANON 12 Summary. The property of the porticani dying without heirs is not to be disposed of in a manner contrary to the wish of the one deceased. Text. With the advice of our brethren and of the entire Curia, as well as with the will and consent of the prefect, we decree the abolition of that evil custom which has hitherto prevailed among the porticani, namely, of disposing, contrary to the wish of the one deceased, of the property of porticani dying without heirs; with this understanding, however, that in future the porticani remain faithful to the Roman Church, to us and to our successors. CANON 13 Summary. If anyone violates the truce of God and after the third admonition does not make satisfaction, he shall be anathematized. Text. If anyone shall violate the truce of God he shall be admonished three times by the bishop to make satisfaction. If he disregards the third admonition the bishop, either with the advice of the metropolitan or with that of two or one of the neighboring bishops, shall pronounce the sentence of anathema against the violator and in writing denounce him to all the bishops. CANON 14 Summary. Laymen are absolutely forbidden to remove offerings from the altars of Roman churches. Text. Following the canons of the holy fathers, we absolutely and under penalty of anathema forbid laymen to remove the offerings from the altars of the churches of St. Peter, of The Savior (Lateran Basilica), of St. Mary Rotund, in a word, from the altars of any of the churches or from the crosses. By our Apostolic authority we forbid also the fortifying of churches and their conversion to profane uses. CANON 15 Summary. Counterfeiters of money shall be excommunicated. Text. Whoever manufactures or knowingly expends counterfeit money, shall be cut off from the communion of the faithful (excommunicated) as one accursed, as an oppressor of the poor and a disturber of the city. CANON 16 Summary. Robbers of pilgrims and of merchants shall be excommunicated. Text. If anyone shall dare attack pilgrims going to Rome to visit the shrines of the Apostles and the oratories of other saints and rob them of the things they have with them, or exact from merchants new imposts and tolls, let him be excommunicated till he has made satisfaction. CANON 17 Summary. Abbots and monks may not have the cura animarum. Text. We forbid abbots and monks to impose public penances, to visit the sick, to administer extreme unction, and to sing public masses. The chrism, holy oil, consecration of altars, and ordination of clerics they shall obtain from the bishops in whose dioceses they reside. CANON 18 Summary. The appointment of priests to churches belongs to the bishops, and without their consent they may not receive tithes and churches from laymen. Text. Priests shall be appointed to parochial churches by the bishops, to whom they shall be responsible f or the care of souls and other matters pertaining to them. They are not permitted to receive tithes and churches from laics without the will and consent of the bishops. If they act otherwise, let them be subject to the canonical penalties. CANON 19 Summary. Taxes paid to bishops by monks since Gregory VII must be continued. Monks may not by prescription acquire the possessions of churches and of bishops. Text. The tax (servitium) which monasteries and their churches have rendered to the bishops since the time of Gregory VII, shall be continued. We absolutely forbid abbots and monks to acquire by prescription after thirty years the possessions of churches and of shops. CANON 20 Summary. Churches and their possessions, as well as the person ans things connected with them, shall remain safe and unmolested. Text. Having in mind the example of our fathers and discharging the duty of our pastoral office, we decree that churches and their possessions, as well as the persons connected with them, namely, clerics and monks and their servants (conversi), also the laborers and the things they use, shall remain safe and unmolested. If anyone shall dare act contrary to this and, recognizing his crime, does not within the space of thirty days make proper amends, let him be cut off from the Church and anathematized. CANON 21 Summary. Clerics in major orders may not marry, and marriages already contracted must be dissolved. Text. We absolutely forbid priests, deacons, subdeacons, and monks to have concubines or to contract marriage. We decree in accordance with the definitions of the sacred canons, that marriages already contracted by such persons must be dissolved, and that the persons be condemned to do penance. CANON 22 Summary. The alienation of possessions of the exarchate of Ravenna is condemned, and the Ordinaries made by the intruders are invalid. Text. The alienation that has been made especially by Otto, Guido, Jerome, and perhaps by Philip of possessions of the exarchate of Ravenna, we condemn. In a general way we declare invalid the alienations in whatever manner made by bishops and abbots whether intruded or canonically elected, and also the ordinations conferred by them whether with the consent of the clergy of the Church or simoniacally. We also absolutely forbid any cleric in any way to alienate his prebend or any ecclesiastical benefice. If he has presumed to do this in the past or shall presume to do so in the future, his action shall be null and he shall be subject to the canonical penalties . Results of the Council Lateran I was the first of four Lateran Councils between the years 1123 - 1215. The first was not very original in its concept, nor one called to meet a pressing theological question. For the most part, Pope Callistus II summoned the council to ratify the various meetings and concords which had been occurring in and around Rome for several years. The most pressing issue was that of the Investiture controversy which had consumed nearly a century of contention and open warfare. At the heart of the question was the ancient right of the Holy Roman Emperor to name the pope as well as bishops and priests. These would be invested with some secular symbol such as a sword or scepter and the spiritual authority represented by a ring, miter and crosier. To an illiterate population, it appeared the bishop or abbot was now the king’s inferior and owed his position to the king. This issue came to the fore in the first part of the eleventh century when Rome and the pope sought autonomy from the Holy Roman Emperor. It had been a central issue in the reign of Pope Gregory VII and his battles with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Bellitto, Christopher M., pp 49-56 “The General Councils: A History of the Twenty-one Church Councils from Nicaea to Vatican II”, Paulist Press, Mahway, N. J. 2002 The issue was never settled. Years of teaching by Roman trained priests and bishops in Germany had led to an educated generation which once and for all, rejected the idea of divine right of kings. It would never hold sway again in Europe, at least with as much conviction as it had prior to Lateran I. Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor died leaving his kingdom in a much weakened condition. The Third Lateran Council and the Fourth Lateran Council are generally considered to be of much greater significance than Lateran I. However, Lateran I marked the first time a general and large Council had been held in the West. All previous Councils had been in the East and dominated by Greek theologians and philosophers. Latourette, K. S. P. 475, 484-85 “A History of Christianity”, Eyre and Spottiswoode Ltd. London, 1955 In the struggle between Stephen of England and Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, the English Church slipped away from the close control the Normans had exercised. Stephen was forced to make many concessions to the Church to gain some element of political control. Historians have largely considered his rule to be a disaster, calling it The Anarchy. Thorndike, L. p. 294 et seq "The History of Medieval Europe, Third Edition", Houghton, Mifflin, 1956 Because of political necessity, the Holy Roman Emperors were restrained from directly naming bishops in the kingdom. In practicality, the process continued to a certain extent. The issue of separation of Church and State was simply recast in a different direction. Of all the Gregorian Reforms which were embodied by Lateran I, celibacy of the clergy was the most successful. Simony was curtailed. As time progressed, secular interference into the politics of the Church was seen to continue, albeit in different ways from that of the Investiture controversy. It has been argued by some historians that the Concordat of Worms and its reiteration by Lateran I were little more that face saving measures by the Church. Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor continued to name bishops within his kingdom. His control over the papacy was definitely abated. Dahlmus J. pp. 225-229, "The Middle Ages, A Popular History", Doubleday and Co., Garden City, New York, 1968 At the time, the Concordat of Worms was proclaimed as a great victory for Henry V inside the Holy Roman Empire. It did serve to constrain much of the most recent warfare in and outside the empire. In the end, Henry V died the monarch of a much diminished kingdom. Gontard, F. pp. 240-241, "The Chair of Peter, A History of the Papacy", Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1964 References Medieval Sourcebook: First Lateran Council: Canons with annotations First Lateran Council See also Concordat of Worms Charter of Liberties | First_Council_of_the_Lateran |@lemmatized council:26 reckon:1 series:1 ecumenical:1 catholic:3 church:46 convoke:5 pope:31 callixtus:1 ii:26 december:2 immediately:2 concordat:14 worm:15 seek:3 bring:3 end:6 practice:3 conferring:1 ecclesiastical:5 benefice:3 people:1 layman:5 b:1 free:1 election:5 bishop:39 abbot:10 secular:4 influence:2 c:1 clarify:1 separation:2 spiritual:3 temporal:1 affair:2 establish:1 principle:1 authority:9 resides:1 solely:1 e:1 abolish:1 claim:3 emperor:17 papal:4 callistus:19 significant:1 size:1 three:3 hundred:5 six:2 assemble:1 rome:8 march:2 preside:1 person:10 decision:4 read:1 ratify:2 various:2 promulgate:1 history:6 lead:3 first:10 lateran:18 call:5 whose:2 reign:3 begin:4 february:3 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1,297 | Military_of_Chad | The Military of Chad consists of the Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, Air Force, and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, Police, and National and Nomadic Guard (GNNT). Currently the main task of the Chadian military is to combat the various rebel forces inside the country. History From independence through the period of the presidency of Félix Malloum (1975-79), the official national army was known as the Chadian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Tchadiennes--FAT). Composed mainly of soldiers from southern Chad, FAT had its roots in the army recruited by France and had military traditions dating back to World War I. FAT lost its status as the legal state army when Malloum's civil and military administration disintegrated in 1979. Although it remained a distinct military body for several years, FAT was eventually reduced to the status of a regional army representing the south. After Habré consolidated his authority and assumed the presidency in 1982, his victorious army, the Armed Forces of the North (Forces Armées du Nord--FAN), became the nucleus of a new national army. The force was officially constituted in January 1983, when the various pro-Habré contingents were merged and renamed FANT. The Military of Chad was dominated by members of Toubou, Zaghawa, Kanembou, Hadjerai, and Massa ethnic groups during the presidency of Hissène Habré. Current Chadian president Idriss Déby, revolted and fled to the Sudan, taking with him many Zaghawa and Hadjerai soldiers in 1989. Chad's armed forces numbered about 36,000 at the end of the Habré regime, but swelled to an estimated 50,000 in the early days of Déby's rule. With French support, a reorganization of the armed forces was initiated early in 1991 with the goal of reducing its numbers and making its ethnic composition reflective of the country as a whole. Neither of these goals was achieved, and the military is still dominated by the Zaghawa. In 2004, the government discovered that many of the soldiers it was paying did not exist and that there were only about 19,000 soldiers in the army, as opposed to the 24,000 that had been previously believed. Government crackdowns against the practice are thought to have been a factor in a failed military mutiny in May 2004. The current conflict, in which the Chadian military is involved, is the civil war against Sudanese-backed rebels. Chad successfully manages to repel the rebel movements, but recently, with some losses (see Battle of N'Djamena (2008)). The army uses its artillery systems and tanks, but well-equipped insurgents have probably managed to destroy over 20 of Chad's 60 tanks, and probably shot down a Mi-24 Hind gunship, which has bombed enemy positions near the border with Sudan. Reuters - Rebels down a Chadian gunship In November 2006 Libya supplied Chad with four Aermacchi SF.260W light attack planes. They are used to strike enemy positions by the Chadian Air Force, but one has been shot down by rebels. siai-marchetti.nl - SF.260 military customers During the last battle of N'Djamena gunships and tanks have been put to good use, pushing armed militia forces back from the Presidential palace. Chadian Army Helicopters, Tanks Battle Rebels Besieging Presidential Palace The battle impacted the highest levels of the army leadership, as Daoud Soumain, its Chief of Staff, was killed. Radio Netherlands Worldwide: Chad rebels kill army chief of staff Spending The CIA World Factbook estimates the military budget of Chad to be 4,2% of GDP as of 2006.. Given the current GDP ($7.095 bln) of the country, military spending is roughly estimated to be $297,990,000. Equipment Small arms FAMAS assault rifle Type 56 assault rifle RPG-7 Vehicles T-55 main battle tank (~40) BTR-80 APC (24) HMMWV Artillery BM-21 - 4 Deagel.com - BM-21 M-46 howitzer - 6, from Bulgaria Deagel.com - M-46 Air defence ZPU-4 FIM-92 Stinger Antitank missiles MILAN BGM-71 TOW See also Chad Air Force Chadian Armed Forces Chadian National Armed Forces Nomad and National Guard References | Military_of_Chad |@lemmatized military:12 chad:10 consists:1 armed:3 force:17 include:1 ground:1 air:4 gendarmerie:1 republican:1 guard:3 rapid:1 intervention:1 police:1 national:5 nomadic:1 gnnt:1 currently:1 main:2 task:1 chadian:9 combat:1 various:2 rebel:7 inside:1 country:3 history:1 independence:1 period:1 presidency:3 félix:1 malloum:2 official:1 army:11 know:1 arm:6 armées:2 tchadiennes:1 fat:4 compose:1 mainly:1 soldier:4 southern:1 root:1 recruit:1 france:1 tradition:1 date:1 back:2 world:2 war:2 lose:1 status:2 legal:1 state:1 civil:2 administration:1 disintegrate:1 although:1 remain:1 distinct:1 body:1 several:1 year:1 eventually:1 reduce:2 regional:1 represent:1 south:1 habré:4 consolidate:1 authority:1 assume:1 victorious:1 north:1 du:1 nord:1 fan:1 become:1 nucleus:1 new:1 officially:1 constitute:1 january:1 pro:1 contingent:1 merge:1 rename:1 fant:1 dominate:2 member:1 toubou:1 zaghawa:3 kanembou:1 hadjerai:2 massa:1 ethnic:2 group:1 hissène:1 current:3 president:1 idriss:1 déby:2 revolt:1 flee:1 sudan:2 take:1 many:2 number:2 end:1 regime:1 swell:1 estimate:3 early:2 day:1 rule:1 french:1 support:1 reorganization:1 initiate:1 goal:2 make:1 composition:1 reflective:1 whole:1 neither:1 achieve:1 still:1 government:2 discover:1 pay:1 exist:1 oppose:1 previously:1 believe:1 crackdown:1 practice:1 think:1 factor:1 failed:1 mutiny:1 may:1 conflict:1 involve:1 sudanese:1 backed:1 successfully:1 manage:2 repel:1 movement:1 recently:1 loss:1 see:2 battle:5 n:2 djamena:2 use:3 artillery:2 system:1 tank:5 well:1 equip:1 insurgent:1 probably:2 destroy:1 shoot:2 mi:1 hind:1 gunship:2 bomb:1 enemy:2 position:2 near:1 border:1 reuters:1 november:1 libya:1 supply:1 four:1 aermacchi:1 sf:2 light:1 attack:1 plane:1 strike:1 one:1 siai:1 marchetti:1 nl:1 customer:1 last:1 gunships:1 put:1 good:1 push:1 militia:1 presidential:2 palace:2 helicopter:1 besiege:1 impact:1 high:1 level:1 leadership:1 daoud:1 soumain:1 chief:2 staff:2 kill:2 radio:1 netherlands:1 worldwide:1 spend:1 cia:1 factbook:1 budget:1 gdp:2 give:1 bln:1 spending:1 roughly:1 equipment:1 small:1 famas:1 assault:2 rifle:2 type:1 rpg:1 vehicle:1 btr:1 apc:1 hmmwv:1 bm:2 deagel:2 com:2 howitzer:1 bulgaria:1 defence:1 zpu:1 fim:1 stinger:1 antitank:1 missile:1 milan:1 bgm:1 tow:1 also:1 nomad:1 reference:1 |@bigram du_nord:1 hissène_habré:1 president_idriss:1 idriss_déby:1 n_djamena:2 mi_hind:1 nl_sf:1 chief_staff:2 assault_rifle:2 btr_apc:1 deagel_com:2 bgm_tow:1 |
1,298 | Hexen_II | Hexen II was a first-person shooter computer game developed by Raven Software from 1996 to 1997, published by id Software and distributed by Activision. It was the third game in the Hexen/Heretic series, and the last in the Serpent Riders trilogy. Using a modified Quake engine, it featured single player and multi player game modes, as well as four character classes to choose from, each with different abilities. These included the offensive Paladin, the defensive Crusader, the spellcasting Necromancer, and the stealthy Assassin. Improvements from Hexen and Quake included destructible environments, mounted weapons, and unique level up abilities. Like its predecessor, Hexen II also used a hub system. These hubs were a number of interconnected levels; changes made in one level had effects in another. The Tome of Power artifact made a return from Heretic. The score was composed by famed musician Sir Kevin Schilder. Plot Thyrion was a world that was enslaved by the Serpent Riders. The two previous games in the series documented the liberation of two other worlds, along with the death of their Serpent Rider overlords. Now, the oldest and most powerful of the three Serpent Rider brothers, Eidolon, must be defeated to free Thyrion. Eidolon was supported by his four generals, who themselves were a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. To confront each general, the player had to travel to four different continents, each possessing a distinct theme (Medieval European for Blackmarsh, Mesoamerican for Mazaera, Ancient Egyptian for Thysis, and Greco-Roman for Septimus). Then, finally, the player returns to Blackmarsh in order to confront Eidolon himself. Gameplay The gameplay of Hexen II is very similar to that of the original Hexen. Instead of three classes, Hexen II features four: Paladin, Crusader, Assassin, and Necromancer, each with their own unique weapons and play style. Hexen II also adds certain RPG elements to the mix. Each character has a series of statistics which increase as they gain experience. This then causes the player character to grow in power as his or her HP and Mana increases. Expansion pack An expansion pack called Hexen II: Portal of Praevus was released in 1998 featuring new levels, new enemies and a new playable character class, The Demoness. It focuses on the attempted resurrection of the three Serpent Riders by the evil wizard Praevus, and takes place in a fifth continent, Tulku, featuring a Sino-Tibetan setting. The expansion featured new quest items, new enemies, and new weapons for the Demoness. She is the only player class to have a ranged starting weapon, whereas all other characters start with melee weapons. It also introduced minor enhancements to the game engine, mostly related to user interface, level scripts, particle effects (rain or snow), and 3D objects. Portal of Praevus also featured a secret (easter egg) skill level, with respawning monsters. The only released patch for the expansion added respawning of certain items (such as health and ammo) in Nightmare mode, so that it would be slightly easier for playing. Siege A modification entitled Siege was created and released by Raven Software in 1998 using updated QuakeWorld architecture, aptly dubbed HexenWorld. The production concept was to eliminate a normal deathmatch environment in favor of a teamplay castle siege. The basic premise was to divide the players into two teams - attackers and defenders - with each side either assaulting or protecting the castle respectively. At the end of the time limit, whichever team controlled the crown was declared victorious. The mod featured appropriate objects used in the single-player portion of the game, namely catapults and ballistae. The classes, however, were drastically altered with new weapons and abilities, reflecting the departure from the normal deathmatch experience presented in HexenWorld. Glide dependence Hexen II, by way of the Quake engine, uses OpenGL for 3D acceleration. However, due to the prevalence of 3dfx hardware at the time of release, the game installs an OpenGL ICD designed specifically for 3dfx's hardware. This driver acts as a wrapper for the proprietary Glide API, and thus is only compatible with 3dfx hardware. Custom OpenGL drivers were also released by PowerVR and Rendition for running Hexen II with their respective (and also now defunct) products. However, users with modern video cards can bypass the proprietary driver limitation by simply removing the "opengl32.dll" file from the Hexen II directory. This forces the game to use the OpenGL library already installed on the system. Source code release Following the tradition from Hexen and Heretic, Raven released the source code to Hexen II in 2000. This time the source was released under the GNU General Public License, allowing source ports to be made to different platforms like Linux and the Sega Dreamcast. References External links Official website from id Software Official Hexen II FAQ | Hexen_II |@lemmatized hexen:15 ii:11 first:1 person:1 shooter:1 computer:1 game:8 develop:1 raven:3 software:4 publish:1 id:2 distribute:1 activision:1 third:1 heretic:3 series:3 last:1 serpent:5 rider:5 trilogy:1 use:6 modified:1 quake:3 engine:3 feature:7 single:2 player:8 multi:1 mode:2 well:1 four:5 character:5 class:5 choose:1 different:3 ability:3 include:2 offensive:1 paladin:2 defensive:1 crusader:2 spellcasting:1 necromancer:2 stealthy:1 assassin:2 improvement:1 destructible:1 environment:2 mount:1 weapon:6 unique:2 level:6 like:2 predecessor:1 also:6 hub:2 system:2 number:1 interconnected:1 change:1 make:3 one:1 effect:2 another:1 tome:1 power:2 artifact:1 return:2 score:1 compose:1 famed:1 musician:1 sir:1 kevin:1 schilder:1 plot:1 thyrion:2 world:2 enslave:1 two:3 previous:1 document:1 liberation:1 along:1 death:1 overlord:1 old:1 powerful:1 three:3 brother:1 eidolon:3 must:1 defeat:1 free:1 support:1 general:3 reference:2 horseman:1 apocalypse:1 confront:2 travel:1 continent:2 possess:1 distinct:1 theme:1 medieval:1 european:1 blackmarsh:2 mesoamerican:1 mazaera:1 ancient:1 egyptian:1 thysis:1 greco:1 roman:1 septimus:1 finally:1 order:1 gameplay:2 similar:1 original:1 instead:1 play:2 style:1 add:2 certain:2 rpg:1 element:1 mix:1 statistic:1 increase:2 gain:1 experience:2 cause:1 grow:1 hp:1 mana:1 expansion:4 pack:2 call:1 portal:2 praevus:3 release:8 new:7 enemy:2 playable:1 demoness:2 focus:1 attempted:1 resurrection:1 evil:1 wizard:1 take:1 place:1 fifth:1 tulku:1 sino:1 tibetan:1 setting:1 quest:1 item:2 range:1 starting:1 whereas:1 start:1 melee:1 introduce:1 minor:1 enhancement:1 mostly:1 relate:1 user:2 interface:1 script:1 particle:1 rain:1 snow:1 object:2 secret:1 easter:1 egg:1 skill:1 respawning:2 monster:1 patch:1 health:1 ammo:1 nightmare:1 would:1 slightly:1 easy:1 siege:3 modification:1 entitle:1 create:1 update:1 quakeworld:1 architecture:1 aptly:1 dub:1 hexenworld:2 production:1 concept:1 eliminate:1 normal:2 deathmatch:2 favor:1 teamplay:1 castle:2 basic:1 premise:1 divide:1 team:2 attacker:1 defender:1 side:1 either:1 assault:1 protect:1 respectively:1 end:1 time:3 limit:1 whichever:1 control:1 crown:1 declare:1 victorious:1 mod:1 appropriate:1 portion:1 namely:1 catapult:1 ballista:1 however:3 drastically:1 alter:1 reflect:1 departure:1 present:1 glide:2 dependence:1 way:1 opengl:4 acceleration:1 due:1 prevalence:1 hardware:3 install:1 icd:1 design:1 specifically:1 driver:3 act:1 wrapper:1 proprietary:2 api:1 thus:1 compatible:1 custom:1 powervr:1 rendition:1 run:1 respective:1 defunct:1 product:1 modern:1 video:1 card:1 bypass:1 limitation:1 simply:1 remove:1 dll:1 file:1 directory:1 force:1 library:1 already:1 instal:1 source:4 code:2 follow:1 tradition:1 gnu:1 public:1 license:1 allow:1 port:1 platform:1 linux:1 sega:1 dreamcast:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 website:1 faq:1 |@bigram person_shooter:1 serpent_rider:5 horseman_apocalypse:1 greco_roman:1 playable_character:1 sino_tibetan:1 user_interface:1 easter_egg:1 sega_dreamcast:1 external_link:1 |
1,299 | Gram-negative_bacteria | Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria (pink-red rods). Gram-negative bacteria are those bacteria that do not retain crystal violet dye in the Gram staining protocol.<ref name=Baron>{{cite book | author = Salton MJR, Kim KS | title = Structure. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.)| edition = 4th | publisher = Univ of Texas Medical Branch | year = 1996 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.289 | isbn = 0-9631172-1-1 }}</ref> In a Gram stain test, a counterstain (commonly safranin) is added after the crystal violet, coloring all Gram-negative bacteria with a red or pink color. The test itself is useful in classifying two distinct types of bacteria based on the structural differences of their cell walls. On the other hand, Gram-positive bacteria will retain the crystal violet dye when washed in a decolorizing solution. Many species of Gram-negative bacteria are pathogenic, meaning that they can cause disease in a host organism. This pathogenic capability is usually associated with certain components of Gram-negative cell walls, in particular the lipopolysaccharide (also known as LPS or endotoxin) layer. In humans, LPS triggers an innate immune response characterized by cytokine production and immune system activation. Inflammation is a common result of cytokine (from the Greek cyto=cell, kinesis=movement) production, which can also produce host toxicity. When treated as a clade, the term "negibacteria" is sometimes used. Characteristics Structure of gram-negative cell wall Gram-positive- and negative bacteria are chiefly differentiated by their cell wall structure. The following characteristics are displayed by Gram-negative bacteria: Cytoplasmic membrane Thin peptidoglycan layer (which is present in much higher levels in Gram-positive bacteria) Outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide (LPS, which consists of lipid A, core polysaccharide, and O antigen) outside the peptidoglycan layer Porins exist in the outer membrane, which act like pores for particular molecules There is a space between the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane called the periplasmic space The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane, rather than the peptidoglycan If present, flagella have four supporting rings instead of two No teichoic acids or lipoteichoic acids are present Lipoproteins are attached to the polysaccharide backbone. Most do not sporulate (Coxiella burnetti, which produces spore-like structures, is a notable exception) Example species The proteobacteria are a major group of Gram-negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella,and other Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, Moraxella, Helicobacter, Stenotrophomonas, Bdellovibrio, acetic acid bacteria, Legionella and alpha-proteobacteria as Wolbachia and many others. Other notable groups of Gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, green sulfur and green non-sulfur bacteria. Medically relevant Gram-negative cocci include three organisms, which cause a sexually transmitted disease (Neisseria gonorrhoeae), a meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis), and respiratory symptoms (Moraxella catarrhalis). Medically relevant Gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them primarily cause respiratory problems (Hemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), primarily urinary problems (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, Enterobacter cloacae, Serratia marcescens), and primarily gastrointestinal problems (Helicobacter pylori, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella typhi). Gram-negative bacteria associated with nosocomial infections include Acinetobacter baumannii'', which cause bacteremia, secondary meningitis, and ventilator-associated pneumonia in intensive care units of hospital establishments. Medical treatment One of the several unique characteristics of Gram-negative bacteria is the structure of the outer membrane. The outer leaflet of the membrane comprises a complex lipopolysaccharide whose lipid portion acts as an endotoxin. If endotoxin enters the circulatory system it causes a toxic reaction with the sufferer having a high temperature and respiration rate and a low blood pressure. This may lead to endotoxic shock, which may be fatal. This outer membrane protects the bacteria from several antibiotics, dyes, and detergents which would normally damage the inner membrane or cell wall (peptidoglycan). The outer membrane provides these bacteria with resistance to lysozyme and penicillin. Fortunately, alternative medicinal treatments such as lysozyme with EDTA, and the antibiotic ampicillin have been developed to combat the protective outer membrane of some pathogenic Gram-negative organisms. Other drugs can be used, namely chloramphenicol, streptomycin, and nalidixic acid. See also Gram-positive bacteria Braun's lipoprotein Gram-indeterminate bacteria References Notes External links 3D structures of proteins from inner membranes of Gram-negative bacteria | Gram-negative_bacteria |@lemmatized gram:22 negative:16 pseudomonas:3 aeruginosa:2 bacteria:21 pink:2 red:2 rod:1 retain:2 crystal:3 violet:3 dye:3 stain:2 protocol:1 ref:2 name:1 baron:3 cite:1 book:2 author:1 salton:1 mjr:1 kim:1 k:1 title:1 structure:6 medical:3 microbiology:1 et:1 al:1 eds:1 edition:1 publisher:1 univ:1 texas:1 branch:1 year:1 url:1 http:1 www:1 ncbi:1 nlm:1 nih:1 gov:1 bv:1 fcgi:1 rid:1 mmed:1 section:1 isbn:1 test:2 counterstain:1 commonly:1 safranin:1 add:1 color:2 useful:1 classify:1 two:2 distinct:1 type:1 base:1 structural:1 difference:1 cell:7 wall:5 hand:1 positive:4 wash:1 decolorizing:1 solution:1 many:2 specie:2 pathogenic:3 mean:1 cause:5 disease:2 host:2 organism:3 capability:1 usually:1 associate:3 certain:1 component:1 particular:2 lipopolysaccharide:3 also:3 know:1 lp:2 endotoxin:3 layer:5 human:1 lps:1 trigger:1 innate:1 immune:2 response:1 characterize:1 cytokine:2 production:2 system:2 activation:1 inflammation:1 common:1 result:1 greek:1 cyto:1 kinesis:1 movement:1 produce:2 toxicity:1 treat:1 clade:1 term:1 negibacteria:1 sometimes:1 use:2 characteristic:3 chiefly:1 differentiate:1 following:1 display:1 cytoplasmic:1 membrane:12 thin:1 peptidoglycan:5 present:3 much:1 high:2 level:1 outer:7 contain:1 consist:1 lipid:2 core:1 polysaccharide:2 antigen:1 outside:1 porins:1 exist:1 act:2 like:2 pore:1 molecule:1 space:2 secondary:2 call:1 periplasmic:1 directly:1 attach:2 rather:1 flagellum:1 four:1 support:1 ring:1 instead:1 teichoic:1 acid:4 lipoteichoic:1 lipoprotein:2 backbone:1 sporulate:1 coxiella:1 burnetti:1 spore:1 notable:2 exception:1 example:1 species:1 proteobacteria:2 major:1 group:2 include:5 escherichia:2 coli:2 salmonella:3 shigella:1 enterobacteriaceae:1 moraxella:2 helicobacter:2 stenotrophomonas:1 bdellovibrio:1 acetic:1 legionella:2 alpha:1 wolbachia:1 others:1 cyanobacteria:1 spirochaete:1 green:2 sulfur:2 non:1 medically:2 relevant:2 cocci:1 three:1 sexually:1 transmit:1 neisseria:2 gonorrhoeae:1 meningitis:2 meningitidis:1 respiratory:2 symptom:1 catarrhalis:1 bacillus:1 multitude:1 primarily:3 problem:3 hemophilus:1 influenzae:1 klebsiella:1 pneumoniae:1 pneumophila:1 urinary:1 proteus:1 mirabilis:1 enterobacter:1 cloaca:1 serratia:1 marcescens:1 gastrointestinal:1 pylorus:1 enteritidis:1 typhi:1 nosocomial:1 infection:1 acinetobacter:1 baumannii:1 bacteremia:1 ventilator:1 pneumonia:1 intensive:1 care:1 unit:1 hospital:1 establishment:1 treatment:2 one:1 several:2 unique:1 leaflet:1 comprise:1 complex:1 whose:1 portion:1 enters:1 circulatory:1 toxic:1 reaction:1 sufferer:1 temperature:1 respiration:1 rate:1 low:1 blood:1 pressure:1 may:2 lead:1 endotoxic:1 shock:1 fatal:1 protect:1 antibiotic:2 detergent:1 would:1 normally:1 damage:1 inner:2 provide:1 resistance:1 lysozyme:2 penicillin:1 fortunately:1 alternative:1 medicinal:1 edta:1 ampicillin:1 develop:1 combat:1 protective:1 drug:1 namely:1 chloramphenicol:1 streptomycin:1 nalidixic:1 see:1 braun:1 indeterminate:1 reference:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 protein:1 |@bigram gram_negative:15 pseudomonas_aeruginosa:2 crystal_violet:3 gram_stain:2 et_al:1 http_www:1 www_ncbi:1 ncbi_nlm:1 nlm_nih:1 nih_gov:1 gram_positive:4 innate_immune:1 immune_response:1 outer_membrane:7 escherichia_coli:2 acetic_acid:1 sexually_transmit:1 external_link:1 |
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