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1,000 | Octal | The octal numeral system, or oct for short, is the base-8 number system, and uses the digits 0 to 7. Numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping consecutive binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right). For example, the binary representation for decimal 74 is 1001010, which groups into 001 001 010 — so the octal representation is 112. In decimal systems each decimal place is a base of 10. For example: In octal numerals each place is a power with base 8. For example: By performing the calculation above in the familiar decimal system we see why 112 in octal is equal to 64+8+2 = 74 in decimal. Octal is sometimes used in computing instead of hexadecimal. Usage By Native Americans The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves . In Europe In 1716 King Charles XII of Sweden asked Emanuel Swedenborg to elaborate a number system based on 64 instead of 10. Swedenborg however argued that for people with less intelligence than the king such a big base would be too difficult and instead proposed 8 as base. In 1718 Swedenborg wrote a manuscript, which has not been published: "En ny rekenkonst som om vexlas wid Thalet 8 i stelle then wanliga wid Thalet 10" ("A new arithmetic (or art of counting) which changes at the Number 8 instead of the usual at the Number 10"). The numbers 1-7 are there denoted by the consonants l, s, n, m, t, f, u (v) and zero by the vowel o. Thus 8 = "lo", 16 = "so", 24 = "no", 64 = "loo", 512 = "looo" etc. Numbers with consecutive consonants are pronounced with vowel sounds between in accordance with a special rule. Donald Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming In fiction The fictional alien felinoid species Kilrathi of the Wing Commander universe count in octal, since their paws have four toes instead of 5. The Octospider species of Rama Revealed and the computer game RAMA use a colour code based on octal system, and its comprehension is a puzzle of the game scenario. The Alterans from Stargate SG-1 use octal, even though they have ten fingers. It's possible that they count the gaps between each finger, ignore the thumb on each hand, or use the thumb as a base-2 counter (as on an abacus) allowing them to count up to 30 (24 in decimal) on their hands. The satirist Tom Lehrer famously remarked in his song parodying new math that "base 8 is just like base 10... if you're missing two fingers." In the first-person shooter Prey, numerical codes to open doors are entered in octal. The Tau race in the Warhammer 40,000 universe use the octal system. In The Beekeeper's Apprentice, Laurie R. King's first Sherlock Holmes pastiche featuring Mary Russell, base eight math played a key role in solving the mystery. In the Star Wars universe, the alien race known as the Hutts counts in base eight, as they only have eight fingers. In computers Octal is sometimes used in computing instead of hexadecimal, perhaps most often in modern times in conjunction with file permissions under Unix systems (see chmod). It has the advantage of not requiring any extra symbols as digits (the hexadecimal system is base-16 and therefore needs six additional symbols beyond 0–9). It is also used for digital displays. At the time when octal originally became widely used in computing, systems such as the ICL 1900 and IBM mainframes employed 24-bit (or 36-bit) words. Octal was an ideal abbreviation of binary for these machines because eight (or twelve) digits could concisely display an entire machine word (each octal digit covering three binary digits). It also cut costs by allowing Nixie tubes, seven-segment displays, and calculators to be used for the operator consoles; where binary displays were too complex to use, decimal displays needed complex hardware to convert radixes, and hexadecimal displays needed to display letters. All modern computing platforms, however, use 16-, 32-, or 64-bit words, with eight bits making up a byte. On such systems three octal digits would be required, with the most significant octal digit inelegantly representing only two binary digits (and in a series the same octal digit would represent one binary digit from the next byte). Hence hexadecimal is more commonly used in programming languages today, since a hexadecimal digit covers four binary digits and all modern computing platforms have machine words that are evenly divisible by four. Some platforms with a power-of-two word size still have instruction subwords that are more easily understood if displayed in octal; this includes the PDP-11. The modern-day ubiquitous x86 architecture belongs to this category as well, but octal is almost never used on this platform. The prefix or suffix customarily used to represent an octal number is "o" (i.e. o73), as binary and hexadecimal are represented by 'b' and 'h' or 'x' respectively, although 'q' is also seen as a way to make it more visually distinct from zero. Sometimes octal numbers are represented by preceding a value with a 0 (e.g. in Python 2.x or JavaScript 1.x - although it is now deprecated in both). Conversion between bases For more information and other bases, see Conversion among bases. Decimal to Octal conversion Method of successive division by 8 To convert integer decimals to octal, divide the original number by the largest possible factor of 8 and successively divide the remainders by successively smaller factors of 8 until the factor is 0. The octal representation is formed by the quotients, written in the order generated by the algorithm. For example, to convert 12510 to octal: 125 / 8^2 = 1 125 − ((8^2)*1) = 61 61 / 8^1 = 7 61 − ((8^1)*7) = 5 Thus: 12510 = 1758 Another example: 900 / 8^3 = 1 900 − ((8^3)*1) = 388 388 / 8^2 = 6 388 − ((8^2)*6) = 4 4 / 8^1 = 0 4 − ((8^1)*0) = 4 4 / 8^0 = 4 Thus: 90010 = 16048 Method of successive multiplication by 8 To convert a decimal fraction to octal, multiply by 8; the integer part of the result is the first digit of the octal fraction. Repeat the process with the fractional part of the result, until it is null or within acceptable error bounds. Example: Convert 0.1640625 to octal: 0.1640625 x 8 = 1.3125 = 1 + 0.3125 0.3125 x 8 = 2.5 = 2 + 0.5 0.5 x 8 = 4.0 = 4 + 0 Thus: 0.164062510 = 0.1248 These two methods can be combined to handle decimal numbers with both integer and fractional parts, using the first on the integer part and the second on the fractional part. Octal to Decimal conversion To convert a number k to decimal, use the formula that defines its base-8 representation: Example: Convert 7648 to decimal: 7648 = 7 x 8² + 6 x 8¹ + 4 x 8° = 448 + 48 + 4 = 50010 For double-digit octal numbers this method amounts to multiplying the lead digit by 8 and adding the second digit to get the total. Example: 658 = 6x8 + 5 = 5310 Octal to Binary Conversion To convert octal to binary, replace each octal digit by its binary representation. Example: Convert 518 to binary: 58 = 1012 18 = 0012 Thus: 518 = 101 0012 Binary to Octal conversion The process is the reverse of previous algorithm. The binary digits are grouped by threes, starting from the decimal point and proceeding to the left and to the right. (Add leading or trailing 0s to fill out the last group of 3 if necessary.) Then replace each trio with the equivalent octal digit. For instance, convert binary 1010111100 to octal: {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" |- align="center" | 001 || 010 || 111 || 100 |- align="center" | 1 || 2 || 7 || 4 |} Thus 10101111002 = 12748 Octal to Hexadecimal conversion The conversion is made in two steps using binary as an intermediate base. Octal is converted to binary and then binary to hexadecimal, grouping digits by fours, which correspond each to a hexadecimal digit. For instance, convert octal 1057 to hexadecimal: To binary: {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" |- align="center" | 1 || 0 || 5 || 7 |- align="center" | 001 || 000 || 101 || 111 |} then to hexadecimal: {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" |- align="center" | 0010 || 0010 || 1111 |- align="center" | 2 || 2 || F |} Thus 10578 = 22F16 Hexadecimal to Octal conversion Reverse the previous algorithm. See also Computer numbering formats Octet, a grouping of eight bits Octal games, a game numbering system used in Combinatorial game theory. References External links Online Converter for Decimal/Octal Numerals (JavaScript, GPL) Online tool to convert ASCII text to Octal numbers Octomatics is a numeral system enabling simple visual calculation in octal. | Octal |@lemmatized octal:45 numeral:6 system:14 oct:1 short:1 base:18 number:14 use:20 digit:22 make:4 binary:21 group:6 consecutive:2 three:4 start:2 right:2 example:9 representation:5 decimal:16 place:2 power:2 perform:1 calculation:2 familiar:1 see:5 equal:1 sometimes:3 compute:4 instead:6 hexadecimal:13 usage:1 native:1 american:1 yuki:1 language:3 california:1 pamean:1 mexico:1 speaker:1 count:5 space:1 finger:6 rather:1 europe:1 king:3 charles:1 xii:1 sweden:1 ask:1 emanuel:1 swedenborg:3 elaborate:1 however:2 argue:1 people:1 less:1 intelligence:1 big:1 would:3 difficult:1 propose:1 write:2 manuscript:1 publish:1 en:1 ny:1 rekenkonst:1 som:1 om:1 vexlas:1 wid:2 thalet:2 stelle:1 wanliga:1 new:2 arithmetic:1 art:2 counting:1 change:1 usual:1 denote:1 consonant:2 l:1 n:1 f:2 u:1 v:1 zero:2 vowel:2 thus:7 lo:1 loo:1 looo:1 etc:1 pronounce:1 sound:1 accordance:1 special:1 rule:1 donald:1 knuth:1 computer:4 programming:1 fiction:1 fictional:1 alien:2 felinoid:1 specie:2 kilrathi:1 wing:1 commander:1 universe:3 since:2 paw:1 four:4 toe:1 octospider:1 rama:2 reveal:1 game:5 colour:1 code:2 comprehension:1 puzzle:1 scenario:1 alterans:1 stargate:1 sg:1 even:1 though:1 ten:1 possible:2 gap:1 ignore:1 thumb:2 hand:2 counter:1 abacus:1 allow:2 satirist:1 tom:1 lehrer:1 famously:1 remark:1 song:1 parody:1 math:2 like:1 miss:1 two:5 first:4 person:1 shooter:1 prey:1 numerical:1 open:1 door:1 enter:1 tau:1 race:2 warhammer:1 beekeeper:1 apprentice:1 laurie:1 r:1 sherlock:1 holmes:1 pastiche:1 feature:1 mary:1 russell:1 eight:6 play:1 key:1 role:1 solve:1 mystery:1 star:1 war:1 know:1 hutts:1 perhaps:1 often:1 modern:4 time:2 conjunction:1 file:1 permission:1 unix:1 chmod:1 advantage:1 require:2 extra:1 symbol:2 therefore:1 need:3 six:1 additional:1 beyond:1 also:4 digital:1 display:8 originally:1 become:1 widely:1 icl:1 ibm:1 mainframe:1 employ:1 bit:5 word:5 ideal:1 abbreviation:1 machine:3 twelve:1 could:1 concisely:1 entire:1 cover:2 cut:1 cost:1 nixie:1 tube:1 seven:1 segment:1 calculator:1 operator:1 console:1 complex:2 hardware:1 convert:13 radix:1 letter:1 computing:1 platform:4 byte:2 significant:1 inelegantly:1 represent:5 series:1 one:1 next:1 hence:1 commonly:1 program:1 today:1 evenly:1 divisible:1 size:1 still:1 instruction:1 subwords:1 easily:1 understood:1 include:1 pdp:1 day:1 ubiquitous:1 architecture:1 belong:1 category:1 well:1 almost:1 never:1 prefix:1 suffix:1 customarily:1 e:2 b:1 h:1 x:9 respectively:1 although:2 q:1 way:1 visually:1 distinct:1 precede:1 value:1 g:1 python:1 javascript:2 deprecate:1 conversion:9 information:1 among:1 method:4 successive:2 division:1 integer:4 divide:2 original:1 large:1 factor:3 successively:2 remainder:1 small:1 form:1 quotient:1 order:1 generate:1 algorithm:3 another:1 multiplication:1 fraction:2 multiply:2 part:5 result:2 repeat:1 process:2 fractional:3 null:1 within:1 acceptable:1 error:1 bound:1 combine:1 handle:1 second:2 k:1 formula:1 define:1 double:1 amount:1 lead:2 add:2 get:1 total:1 replace:2 reverse:2 previous:2 point:1 proceeding:1 left:1 trail:1 fill:1 last:1 necessary:1 trio:1 equivalent:1 instance:2 border:3 cellspacing:3 cellpadding:3 align:6 center:6 step:1 intermediate:1 correspond:1 format:1 octet:1 grouping:1 numbering:1 combinatorial:1 theory:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 online:2 converter:1 gpl:1 tool:1 ascii:1 text:1 octomatics:1 enable:1 simple:1 visual:1 |@bigram decimal_octal:4 emanuel_swedenborg:1 donald_knuth:1 stargate_sg:1 tom_lehrer:1 person_shooter:1 warhammer_universe:1 sherlock_holmes:1 ibm_mainframe:1 octal_digit:6 hexadecimal_digit:2 evenly_divisible:1 prefix_suffix:1 decimal_fraction:1 border_cellspacing:3 cellspacing_cellpadding:3 cellpadding_align:3 align_center:6 octal_hexadecimal:2 external_link:1 |
1,001 | Homer | Homer and His Guide, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825–1905). The scene portrays Homer on Mount Ida, beset by dogs and guided by the goatherder, Glaucus. (The tale is told in Pseudo-Herodotus). Homer (Ancient Greek: , Hómēros) is a legendary ancient Greek epic poet, traditionally said to be the author of the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. The ancient Greeks generally believed that Homer was a historical individual, but modern scholars are skeptical: no reliable biographical information has been handed down from classical antiquity, G. S. Kirk's comment that "Antiquity knew nothing definite about the life and personality of Homer" represents the general consensus (Kirk, The Iliad: a Commentary (Cambridge 1985), v. 1). and the poems themselves manifestly represent the culmination of many centuries of oral story-telling and a well-developed "formulaic" system of poetic composition. According to Martin West, "Homer" is "not the name of a historical poet, but a fictitious or constructed name." The date of Homer's existence was controversial in antiquity and is no less so today. Herodotus said that Homer lived 400 years before his own time, which would place him at around 850 BC; Herodotus 2.53. but other ancient sources gave dates much closer to the supposed time of the Trojan War. The date of the Trojan War was given as 1194–1184 BC by Eratosthenes, who strove to establish a scientific chronology of events and this date is gaining support because of recent archaeological research. For modern scholarship, "the date of Homer" refers to the date of the poems' conception as much as to the lifetime of an individual. The scholarly consensus is that "the Iliad and the Odyssey date from the extreme end of the 9th century BC or from the 8th, the Iliad being anterior to the Odyssey, perhaps by some decades", i.e., somewhat earlier than Hesiod, and that the Iliad is the oldest work of western literature. Over the past few decades, some scholars have argued for a 7th-century date. Those who believe that the Homeric poems developed gradually over a long period of time, however, generally give a later date for the poems: according to Nagy, they only became fixed texts in the 6th century. Alfred Heubeck states that the formative influence of the works of Homer in shaping and influencing the whole development of Greek culture was recognised by many Greeks themselves, who considered him to be their instructor. Life and legends Although "Homer" is a Greek name, attested in Aeolic-speaking areas, nothing definite is known of him; yet rich traditions grew up, or were conserved, purporting to give details of his birthplace and background. Many of them were purely fantastical: the satirist Lucian, in his fabulous True History, makes him out to be a Babylonian called Tigranes, who only assumed the name Homer when taken "hostage" (homeros) by the Greeks. Lucian, Verae Historiae 2.20, cited and tr.Barbara Graziosi‚Inventing Homer:The Early Reception of Epic,’ Cambridge University Press, 2002 p.127 When the Emperor Hadrian asked the Oracle at Delphi who Homer really was, the Pythia proclaimed that he was Ithacan, the son of Epikaste and Telemachus, from the Odyssey. These stories proliferated and were incorporated into a number There were seven in addition to an account of a bardic competition between Homer and Hesiod.F.Stoessl,'Homeros'in Der Kleine Pauly: Lexikon der Antike in fünf Bänden, Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 1979, Bd.2, p.1202 of Lives of Homer compiled from the Alexandrian period onwards. The most common version has Homer born in the Ionian region of Asia Minor, at Smyrna, or on the island of Chios, and dying on the Cycladic island of Ios. Homêreôn was one of the names for a month in the calendar of Ios. H.G. Liddell, R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, rev.ed.Sir Henry Stuart-Jones, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968 ad loc A connection with Smyrna seems to be alluded to in a legend that his original name was "Melesigenes" ("born of Meles", a river which flowed by that city), and of the nymph Kretheis. Internal evidence from the poems gives some support to this connection: familiarity with the topography of this area of Asia Minor's littoral obtrudes in place-names and details, and similes evocative of local scenery: the meadow birds at the mouth of the Caystros (Iliad 2.459ff.), a storm in the Icarian sea (Iliad 2.144ff.), and wind-lore (Iliad 2.394ff: 4.422ff: 9.5), Kirk, op.cit.pp.191f.; G.S.Kirk,The Songs of Homer, Cambridge University Press, 1962 pp.272ff.)) or that women of either Maeonia or Caria stain ivory with scarlet (Iliad 4.142). Barry B. Powell, ‘Did Homer sing at Lefkandi?’, Electronic Antiquity, July 1993, Vol. 1, No. 2. The association with Chios dates back at least to Semonides of Amorgos who cited a famous line in the Iliad (6.146) as by "the man of Chios". Some kind of eponymous bardic guild, known as the Homeridae (sons of Homer), or Homeristae ('Homerizers') Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic, p.307 appears to have existed there, variously tracing descent from an imaginary ancestor of that name, "The probability is that 'Homer' was not the name of a historical Greek poet but the imaginary ancestor of the Homeridai; such guild-names in -idai and -adai are not normally based on the name of an historical person". M.L. West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1997 p. 622. West hazards a conjectural Phoenician prototype for Homer's name, "*benê ômerîm" ("sons of speakers"), id est professional tale-tellers. or vaunting their special function as rhapsodes or "lay-stitchers" specialising in the recitation of Homeric poetry. The poet's name is homophonous with "homêros", meaning, generally, "hostage" (or "surety"), long understood as "he who accompanies; he who is forced to follow", or, in some dialects, "blind". P. Chantraine, dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, Klincksieck, Paris, 1968, vol.2 (3-4) p.797 ad loc. The assonance itself generated many tales relating the person to the functions of a hostage or of a blind man. In regard to the latter, traditions holding that he was blind may have arisen from the meaning of the word both in Ionic, where the verbal form "hómêreuô" has the specialized meaning of "guide the blind", H.G.Liddell, R.Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, rev. ed. Sir Henry Stuart-Jones, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1968 ad loc. and in the Aeolian dialect of Cyme, where homêros was synonymous with standard Greek tuphlós, meaning 'blind'. Pseudo-Herodotus, Vita Homeri1.3 in Thomas W. Allen, Homeri Opera, Tomus V,(1912) 1946 p.194. Cf. Lycophron, Alexandra, l.422 The characterization of Homer as a blind bard goes back to some verses in the Delian Hymn to Apollo, the third of the Homeric Hymns, Homeric Hymns 3:172-3 verses later cited to support this notion by Thucydides. Thucidides, The Peloponnesian War 3:104 The Cumean historian Ephorus held the same view, and the idea gained support in antiquity on the strength of a false etymology deriving his name from ho mê horôn (ὁ μὴ ὁρών: "he who does not see"). Critics have long taken a passage in the Odyssey describing a blind bard, Demodocus, in the court of the Phaeacian king, who recounts stories of Troy to the shipwrecked Odysseus, Odyssey, 8:64ff. as self-referential. Barbara Graziosi,Inventing Homer: The Early Reception of Epic,’ Cambridge University Press, 2002 p.133 Many scholars take the name of the poet to be indicative of a generic function. Gregory Nagy takes it to mean "he who fits (the Song) together". Gregory Nagy, The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1979 pp296-300 "Hómêréô", another related verb, besides signifying "meet", can mean "(sing) in accord/tune". M.L. West (ed.), Hesiod Theogony,Clarendon Press, Oxford 1966 on line 39, p.170 Some argue that "Homer" may have meant "he who puts the voice in tune" with dancing. Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic, ibid., p. Filippo Càssola (ed.) Inni Omerici, Mondadori, Milan, 1975 p. xxxiii Marcello Durante links "Homeros" to an epithet of Zeus as "god of the assemblies" and argues that behind the name lies the echo of an archaic word for "reunion", similar to the later Panegyris, denoting a formal assembly of competing minstrels. Marcello Durante, 'II nome di Omero', in Rendiconti Accademia Lincei, XII, 1957 pp. 94-111 Marcello Durante, Sulla preistoria della tradizione poetica greca,Edizioni dell'Ateneo, Rome 1971 2 vols. vol. 2 pp. 185-204, esp. pp. 194ff. The Ancient Lives depict Homer as a wandering minstrel, much like Thamyris Iliad, 2.595 or Hesiod, who walked as far as Chalkis to sing at the funeral games of Amphidamas. Hesiod, Works and Days, 654-5; Martin P. Nilsson, Homer & Mycenae(12933) University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972 pp. 207ff. We are given the image of a "blind, begging singer who hangs around with little people: shoemakers, fisherman, potters, sailors, elderly men in the gathering places of harbour towns". Joachim Latacz, Homer: His Art and His World, tr. James P. Holoka, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1996, p. 29 The poems themselves give evidence of singers at the courts of the nobility. Scholars are divided as to which category, if any, the court singer or the wandering minstrel, the historic "Homer" belonged. Barbara Graziosi, ibid. esp. p.134 Works attributed to Homer The Greeks of the sixth and early fifth centuries understood by "Homer", generally, "the whole body of heroic tradition as embodied in hexameter verse".<ref>Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic', 4th ed. ibid. p. 93</ref> Thus, in addition to the Iliad and the Odyssey, there are "exceptional" epics which organize their respective themes on a "massive scale". William G. Thalman, Conventions of Form and Thought in Early Greek Greek Epic Poetry, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1984 p. 119 Many other works were credited to Homer in antiquity, including the entire Epic Cycle. The genre included further poems on the Trojan War, such as the Little Iliad, the Nostoi, the Cypria, and the Epigoni, as well as the Theban poems about Oedipus and his sons. Other works, such as the corpus of Homeric Hymns, the comic mini-epic Batrachomyomachia ("The Frog-Mouse War"), and the Margites were also attributed to him, but this is now believed to be unlikely. Two other poems, the Capture of Oechalia and the Phocais were also assigned Homeric authorship, but the question of the identities of the authors of these various texts is even more problematic than that of the authorship of the two major epics. Problems of authorship The idea that Homer was responsible for just the two outstanding epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, only won consensus by 350 BC. Gilbert Murray: The Rise of the Greek Epic, 4th ed. 1934, Oxford University Press reprint 1967 p. 299 While many find it unlikely that both epics were composed by the same person, others argue that the stylistic similarities are too consistent to support the theory of multiple authorship. One view which attempts to bridge the differences holds that the Iliad was composed by "Homer" in his maturity, while the Odyssey was a work of his old age. The Batrachomyomachia, Homeric Hymns and cyclic epics are generally agreed to be later than the Iliad and the Odyssey. Most scholars agree that the Iliad and Odyssey underwent a process of standardisation and refinement out of older material beginning in the 8th century BC. An important role in this standardisation appears to have been played by the Athenian tyrant Hipparchus, who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the Panathenaic festival. Many classicists hold that this reform must have involved the production of a canonical written text. Other scholars still support the idea that Homer was a real person. Since nothing is known about the life of this Homer, the common joke, also recycled in disputes about the authorship of plays ascribed to Shakespeare, has it that the poems "were not written by Homer, but by another man of the same name," . Samuel Butler argued that a young Sicilian woman wrote the Odyssey (but not the Iliad), an idea further pursued by Robert Graves in his novel Homer's Daughter and Andrew Dalby in Rediscovering Homer. Mary Ebbott "Butler's Authoress of the Odyssey: gendered readings of Homer, then and now," (Classics@: Issue 3). Independent of the question of single authorship is the near-universal agreement, after the work of Milman Parry, Adam Parry (ed.) The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1987. that the Homeric poems are dependent on an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets (aoidoi). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the Iliad and Odyssey shows that the poems contain many formulaic phrases typical of extempore epic traditions; even entire verses are at times repeated. Parry and his student Albert Lord pointed out that such elaborate oral tradition, foreign to today's literate cultures, is typical of epic poetry in a predominantly oral cultural milieu, the key words being "oral" and "traditional". Parry started with "traditional": the repetitive chunks of language, he said, were inherited by the singer-poet from his predecessors, and were useful to him in composition. Parry called these repetitive chunks "formulas". Exactly when these poems would have taken on a fixed written form is subject to debate. The traditional solution is the "transcription hypothesis", wherein a non-literate "Homer" dictates his poem to a literate scribe between the 8th and 6th centuries. The Greek alphabet was introduced in the early 8th century, so it is possible that Homer himself was of the first generation of authors who were also literate. The classicist Barry B. Powell suggests that the Greek Alphabet was invented c. 800 BC by one man, probably Homer, in order to write down oral epic poetry "Signs of Meaning" Science 324 p 38 3-April-2009 reviewing Powell's Writing and citing Powell's Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet CUP 1991 . More radical Homerists like Gregory Nagy contend that a canonical text of the Homeric poems as "scripture" did not exist until the Hellenistic period (3rd to 1st century BCE). Homeric studies The study of Homer is one of the oldest topics in scholarship, dating back to antiquity. The aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia. In the last few centuries, they have revolved around the process by which the Homeric poems came into existence and were transmitted down to us—first orally and later in writing. Some of the main trends in modern Homeric scholarship have been, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Analysis and Unitarianism (see Homeric Question), schools of thought which emphasized on the one hand the inconsistencies in, and on the other the artistic unity of, Homer; and in the 20th century and later Oral Theory, the study of the mechanisms and effects of oral transmission, and Neoanalysis, which is the study of the relationship between Homer and other early epic material. Homeric dialect The language used by Homer is an archaic version of Ionic Greek, with admixtures from certain other dialects, such as Aeolic Greek. It later served as the basis of Epic Greek, the language of epic poetry, typically in dactylic hexameter. Homeric style Aristotle remarks in his Poetics that Homer was unique among the poets of his time, focusing on a single, unified theme or action in the epic cycle. Aristotle, Poetics, 1451a 16-29. Cf. Aristotle, "On the Art of Poetry" in T.S. Dorsch (tr.), Aristotle, Horace, Longinus: Classical Literary Criticism, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1965 ch. 8 pp. 42-43 The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer are well articulated by Matthew Arnold:[T]he translator of Homer should above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author:—that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and finally, that he is eminently noble. Matthew Arnold, 'On Translating Homer' (Oxford Lecture, 1861) in Lionel Trilling (ed.) The Portable Matthew Arnold,(1949) Viking Press, New York 1956 pp. 204-228, p. 211 The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of hexameter verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the evolution of the thought, or the grammatical form of the sentence, is guided by the structure of the verse; and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the syntax, the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses, produces a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found when periods are constructed without direct reference to the metre. That Homer possesses this rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults, that is, without becoming either fluctuant or monotonous, is perhaps the best proof of his unequalled poetic skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought and of expression, which characterise him were doubtless qualities of his age, but the author of the Iliad (similar to Voltaire, to whom Arnold happily compares him) must have possessed this gift in a surpassing degree. The Odyssey is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the Iliad. Statue of Homer outside the Bavarian State Library in Munich. Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression, and plainness of thought are not distinguishing qualities of the great epic poets, Virgil, Dante, Dante has Virgil introduce Homer, with a sword in hand, as poeta sovrano (sovereign poet), walking ahead of Horace, Ovid and Lucan. Cf. Inferno IV, 88 and Milton. On the contrary, they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does not belong to that school, and that his poetry is not in any true sense ballad poetry, is furnished by the higher artistic structure of his poems and, as regards style, by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold, the quality of nobleness. It is his noble and powerful style, sustained through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer from all forms of ballad-poetry and popular epic. Like the French epics, such as the Chanson de Roland, Homeric poetry is indigenous and, by the ease of movement and its resultant simplicity, distinguishable from the works of Dante, Milton and Virgil. It is also distinguished from the works of these artists by the comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's poetry, a sense of the greatness of Rome and Italy is the leading motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the considered delicacy of his language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the religion and politics of their time. Even the French epics display sentiments of fear and hatred of the Saracens; but, in Homer's works, the interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion; the war turns on no political events; the capture of Troy lies outside the range of the Iliad; and even the protagonists are not comparable to the chief national heroes of Greece. So far as can be seen, the chief interest in Homer's works is that of human feeling and emotion, and of drama; indeed, his works are often referred to as "dramas". History and the Iliad Greece according to the Iliad. The excavations of Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik in the late 19th century provided initial evidence to scholars that there was a historical basis for the Trojan War. Research into oral epics in Serbo-Croatian and Turkic languages, pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and Lord, began convincing scholars that long poems could be preserved with consistency by oral cultures until they are written down. The decipherment of Linear B in the 1950s by Michael Ventris (and others) convinced many of a linguistic continuity between 13th century BC Mycenaean writings and the poems attributed to Homer. It is probable, therefore, that the story of the Trojan War as reflected in the Homeric poems, derives from a tradition of epic poetry founded on a war which actually took place. It is crucial, however, not to underestimate the creative and transforming power of subsequent tradition: for instance, Achilles, the most important character of the Iliad, is strongly associated with southern Thessaly, but his legendary figure is interwoven into a tale of war whose kings were from the Peloponnese. Tribal wanderings were frequent, and far-flung, ranging over much of Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean. Gilbert Murray, The Rise of the Greek Epic, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1907, pp. 182f., slightly expanded in the 4th. ed.(1934) 1960 pp. 206ff. The epic weaves brilliantly the (scattered remains) of these distinct tribal narratives, exchanged among clan bards, into a monumental tale in which Greeks join collectively to do battle on the distant plains of Troy. Hero cult The Apotheosis of Homer, by Archelaus of Priene. Marble relief, possibly of the 3rd century BC, now in the British Museum. In the Hellenistic period, Homer was the subject of a hero cult in several cities. A shrine, the Homereion, was devoted to him in Alexandria by Ptolemy IV Philopator in the late 3rd century BC. This shrine is described in Aelian's 3rd century work Varia Historia. He describes how Ptolemy "placed in a circle around the statue [of Homer] all the cities who laid claim to Homer" and mentions a painting of the poet by the artist Galaton, which apparently depicted Homer in the aspect of Oceanus as the source of all poetry. A marble relief, found in Italy but thought to have been sculpted in Egypt, depicts the apotheosis of Homer. It shows Ptolemy and his wife or sister Arsinoe III standing beside a seated poet, flanked by figures from the Odyssey and Iliad, with the nine Muses standing above them and a procession of worshippers approaching an altar, believed to represent the Alexandrine Homereion. Apollo, the god of music and poetry, also appears, along with a female figure tentatively identified as Mnemosyne, the mother of the Muses. Zeus, the king of the gods, presides over the proceedings. The relief demonstrates vividly that the Greeks considered Homer not merely a great poet but the divinely-inspired reservoir of all literature. Morgan, Llewelyn, 1999. Patterns of Redemption in Virgil's Georgics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 30. Homereia also stood at Chios, Ephesus, and Smyrna, which were among the city-states that claimed to be his birthplace. Strabo (14.1.37) records a Homeric temple in Smyrna with an ancient xoanon or cult statue of the poet. He also mentions sacrifices carried out to Homer by the inhabitants of Argos, presumably at another Homereion. Zanker, Paul, 1996. The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity, Alan Shapiro, trans. (Berkeley: University of California Press). Transmission and Publication Though evincing many features characteristic of oral poetry, the Iliad and Odyssey were at some point committed to writing. The Greek script, adapted from a Phoenician syllabary around 800 BCE, made possible the notation of the complex rhythms and vowel clusters that make up hexameter verse. Homer's poems appear to have been recorded shortly after the alphabet's invention: an inscription from Ischia in the Bay of Naples, ca. 740 BCE, appears to refer to a text of the Iliad; likewise, illustrations seemingly inspired by the Polyphemus episode in the Odyssey are found on Samos, Mykonos and in Italy in the first quarter of the seventh century BCE. We have little information about the early condition of the Homeric poems, but Alexandrian editors stabilized the text in the second century BCE, from which all modern texts descend. In late antiquity, knowledge of Greek declined in Latin-speaking western Europe and, along with it, knowledge of Homer's poems. It was not until the fifteenth century AD that Homer's work began to be read once more in Italy. By contrast it was continually read and taught in the Greek speaking Eastern Roman Empire where the majority of the classics also survived. The first print edition appeared in 1488. See also Homeric topics Achaeans Achilles Aoidos Ancient accounts of Homer Aristarchus of Samothrace Bibliomancy Catalogue of Ships Cyclic Poets Dactylic hexameter Deception of Zeus Epic Cycle Epic poetry Epithets in Homer Geography of the Odyssey Greek mythology Homeric Greek Homeric nod Homeric Question Homeric scholarship Homer's Ithaca Hector Historicity of the Iliad Ithaca Life of Homer (Pseudo-Herodotus) List of characters in the Iliad Odysseus Peisistratos (Athens) Rhapsode Shield of Achilles Sortes Homerica Tabula Iliaca "Telemachy" Trojan Battle Order Trojan War Trojan War in art and literature Troy Troy VII Venetus A Manuscript Zenodotus of Ephesus Notable Modern Homeric Scholars Richard Bentley Paul Cauer Richard Janko Ioannis Kakridis Adolf Kirchhoff Geoffrey Kirk Karl Lachmann Walter Leaf Albert Lord David Binning Monro Karl Otfried Müller Gilbert Murray Gregory Nagy </div> Gregor Wilhelm Nitzsch Milman Parry Barry B. Powell Heinrich Schliemann William Bedell Stanford Jean-Baptiste Gaspard d'Ansse de Villoison Alan Wace Martin Litchfield West Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff Friedrich August Wolf Christian Werner </div> Notes Selected bibliography Editions (texts in Homeric Greek) Demetrius Chalcondyles editio princeps, Florence, 1488 the Aldine editions (1504 and 1517) Th. Ridel, Strassbourg, ca. 1572, 1588 and 1592. Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807) Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836) Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858) La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig) Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907) W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902) W. Walter Merry and James Riddell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886) Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901) Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford). D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen 1917-1920, Homeri Opera (5 volumes: Iliad = 3rd edition, Odyssey = 2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814528-4, ISBN 0-19-814529-2, ISBN 0-19-814531-4, ISBN 0-19-814532-2, ISBN 0-19-814534-9 H. van Thiel 1991, Homeri Odyssea, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09458-4, 1996, Homeri Ilias, Hildesheim. ISBN 3-487-09459-2 M.L. West 1998-2000, Homeri Ilias (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71431-9, ISBN 3-598-71435-1 P. von der Mühll 1993, Homeri Odyssea, Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-71432-7 Ilias in Wikisource Interlinear translationsThe Iliad of Homer a Parsed Interlinear, Handheldclassics.com (2008) Text ISBN 978-1607252986 English translations This is a partial list of translations into English of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Augustus Taber Murray (1866-1940)Homer: Iliad, 2 vols., revised by William F. Wyatt, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1999).Homer: Odyssey, 2 vols., revised by George E. Dimock, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press (1995). Robert Fitzgerald (1910–1985)The Iliad, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0-374-52905-1The Odyssey, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0-374-52574-9 Robert Fagles (b. 1933)The Iliad, Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0-14-027536-3The Odyssey, Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0-14-026886-3 Stanley Lombardo (b. 1943)Iliad, Hackett Publishing Company (1997) ISBN 0-87220-352-2Odyssey, Hackett Publishing Company (2000) ISBN 0-87220-484-7Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-08-3Odyssey, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-06-7The Essential Homer, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-12-1The Essential Iliad, (Audiobook) Parmenides (2006) ISBN 1-930972-10-5 Samuel Butler (novelist) (1835-1902)The Iliad, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-04-1The Odyssey, Red and Black Publishers (2008) ISBN 978-1-934941-05-8 General works on Homer Pierre Carlier, Homère, Fayard 1999. ISBN 2-213-60381-2 Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Le monde d'Homère, Perrin 2000. ISBN 2-262-01181-8 Jacqueline de Romilly, Homère, Presses Universitaire de France, 5th ed. 2005. ISBN 2-13-054830-X J. Latacz 2004, Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-926308-6; 5th updated and expanded edition, Leipzig 2005 (in Spanish 2003 ISBN 84-233-3487-2, modern Greek 2005 ISBN 960-16-1557-1) Robert Fowler (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Homer, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004. ISBN 0-521-01246-5 I. Morris and B. B. Powell 1997, A New Companion to Homer, Leiden. ISBN 90-04-09989-1 B. B. Powell 2007, "Homer," 2nd edition. Oxford. ISBN 978-1-4051-5325-5 Influential readings and interpretations E. Auerbach 1953, Mimesis, Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 0-691-11336-X M.W. Edwards 1987, Homer, Poet of the Iliad, Baltimore. ISBN 0-8018-3329-9 B. Fenik 1974, Studies in the Odyssey, Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30). M.I. Finley, The World of Odysseus 1954, rev. ed. 1978. I.J.F. de Jong 1987, Narrators and Focalizers, Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-658-0 G. Nagy 1980, "The Best of the Achaeans", Baltimore. ISBN 978-0801860157 CommentariesIliad: P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations, London. ISBN 1-85399-657-2 G. S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985-1993, The Iliad: A Commentary (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-28171-7, ISBN 0-521-28172-5, ISBN 0-521-28173-3, ISBN 0-521-28174-1, ISBN 0-521-31208-6, ISBN 0-521-31209-4 J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002-, Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868-1913) (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3-598-74307-6, ISBN 3-598-74304-1 N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Exeter. ISBN 0-85989-684-6 M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, A Companion to the Iliad, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89855-5Odyssey: A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990-1993, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0-19-814747-3, ISBN 0-19-872144-7, ISBN 0-19-814953-0 P. Jones (ed.) 1988, Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore, Bristol. ISBN 1-85399-038-8 I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-46844-2 Trends in Homeric scholarship "Classical" analysis A. Heubeck 1974, Die homerische Frage, Darmstadt. ISBN 3-534-03864-9 R. Merkelbach 1969, Untersuchungen zur Odyssee (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3-406-03242-7 D. Page 1955, The Homeric Odyssey, Oxford. U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, Die Ilias und Homer, Berlin. F.A. Wolf 1795, Prolegomena ad Homerum, Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN 0-691-10247-3 Neoanalysis M.E. Clark 1986, "Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review," Classical World 79.6: 379-94. J. Griffin 1977, "The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer," Journal of Hellenic Studies 97: 39-53. J.T. Kakridis 1949, Homeric Researches, London. ISBN 0-8240-7757-1 W. Kullmann 1960, Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis), Wiesbaden. ISBN 3-515-00235-9 Rainer Friedrich, Formular Economy in Homer. The Poetics of the Breaches (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007), Pp. 159 (Hermes Einzelschriften, 100). Homer and oral tradition E. Bakker 1997, Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse, Ithaca NY. ISBN 0-8014-3295-2 J.M. Foley 1999, Homer's Traditional Art, University Park PA. ISBN 0-271-01870-4 G.S. Kirk 1976, Homer and the Oral Tradition, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-21309-6 A.B. Lord 1960, The Singer of Tales, Cambridge MA. ISBN 0-674-00283-0 M. Parry 1971, The Making of Homeric Verse, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-520560-X B. B. Powell, 1991, Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet, ISBN 0-521-58907-X Dating the Homeric poems R. Janko 1982, Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns'', Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-23869-2 External links Works by Homer at Project Gutenberg. Collection of Homer-related links Greek lessons based on Homer Clyde Pharr, Homer and the study of Greek Homer SORGLL: Homer, Iliad, Bk I, 1-52; read by Stephen Daitz Racing Odysseus: A College President Becomes a Freshman Again A former college president attended St. John's College and wrote a memoir about his experience reading Homer, rowing Crew, and examining the importance of a liberal arts education in today’s society. be-x-old:Гамэр | Homer |@lemmatized homer:108 guide:4 william:4 adolphe:1 bouguereau:1 scene:1 portray:1 mount:1 ida:1 beset:1 dog:1 goatherder:1 glaucus:1 tale:6 tell:1 pseudo:3 herodotus:5 ancient:7 greek:39 hómēros:1 legendary:2 epic:34 poet:16 traditionally:1 say:3 author:5 poems:3 iliad:49 odyssey:35 generally:5 believe:4 historical:5 individual:2 modern:6 scholar:9 skeptical:1 reliable:1 biographical:1 information:2 hand:3 classical:6 antiquity:9 g:8 kirk:7 comment:1 know:4 nothing:3 definite:2 life:5 personality:1 represent:3 general:2 consensus:3 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1,002 | Demographics_of_Estonia | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Estonia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demography of Estonia. Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands The name "Eesti," or Estonia, could be derived from the word "Aestii," the name given by the ancient Germanic people to the peoples living northeast of the Vistula River. The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 A.D. was the first to mention the "Aestii" people, and early Scandinavians called the land south of the Gulf of Finland Eistland, and the people eistr. Estonian and Finnish are very closely related, belonging to the same Finnic branch of the Finno-Ugric language family. Although closely related, the two languages are not really mutually intelligible, although educated native speakers can read the other language with a greater or lesser degree of understanding. Both Estonian and Finnish are distantly related to the Ugric Hungarian language. Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries and Germany stemming from the strong cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Danish, German and Swedish rule and settlement. This highly literate society places strong emphasis upon education, which is free and compulsory until age 16. The first known book in Estonian was printed in 1525. Written with the Latin alphabet, Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country. One-third of the standard vocabulary is derived from adding suffixes to root words. The oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th century chronicles. During the Soviet era, the Russian language was imposed in parallel to, and often instead of, Estonian in official use. Between 1945 and 1989 the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within currently defined boundaries of Estonia dropped from 96% to 61%, caused primarily by the Soviet program promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, as well as by wartime emigration and Stalin's mass deportations and executions. In the decade following the reconstitution of independence, large scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in 1994 caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 69% in 2006. Modern Estonia is a fairly ethnically heterogeneous country, but this heterogeneity is not a feature of much of the country as the non-Estonian is concentrated in two of Estonia's counties. 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80 percent ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being Hiiumaa, where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of Harju (including the capital city, Tallinn) and Ida-Viru, however, ethnic Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. Russians make up 25.6% of the total population, but account for 36% of the population in Harju county, and 70% of the population in Ida-Viru county. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 1,342,409 (official, January 1, 2007) 1,408,556 (July 2003 estimate) 1,431,471 (July 2000 estimate) 1,376,743 (last census March 31, 2000) 1,356,045 (official, January 1, 2003) Age structure 0-14 years: 15.2% (male 103,367 female 97,587) 15-64 years: 67.6% (male 427,043; female 468,671) 65 years and older: 17.2% (male 75,347; female 152,318) (2006 est.) Population growth rate -0.632% (2008 est.) Births and deaths Births Deaths Birth rate Death rate 1950 20,279 15,817 18.4 14.4 1951 20,730 15,354 18.6 13.7 1952 21,111 15,817 18.7 14.0 1953 20,146 14,420 17.7 12.7 1954 20,909 13,981 18.2 12.2 1955 20,786 13,638 17.9 11.8 1956 19,660 12,748 16.8 10.9 1957 19,509 13,026 16.5 11.0 1958 19,598 12,971 16.4 10.9 1959 19,938 13,130 16.5 10.9 1960 20,187 12,738 16.6 10.5 1961 20,230 13,036 16.5 10.6 1962 19,959 13,495 16.1 10.9 1963 19,275 13,251 15.3 10.5 1964 19,629 12,754 15.4 10.0 1965 18,909 13,520 14.6 10.5 1966 18,629 13,800 14.3 10.6 1967 18,671 13,699 14.2 10.4 1968 19,782 14,225 14.9 10.7 1969 20,781 15,150 15.5 11.3 1970 21,552 15,186 15.8 11.2 1971 22,118 15,038 16.1 10.9 1972 21,757 15,520 15.6 11.1 1973 21,239 15,573 15.1 11.1 1974 21,461 15,393 15.1 10.9 1975 21,360 16,572 14.9 11.6 1976 21,801 17,351 15.1 12.0 1977 21,977 17,094 15.2 11.8 1978 21,842 17,812 15.0 12.2 1979 21,879 18,062 14.9 12.3 1980 22,204 18,199 15.0 12.3 1981 22,937 18,349 15.4 12.3 1982 23,128 17,893 15.4 11.9 1983 24,155 18,190 16.0 12.1 1984 24,234 19,086 16.0 12.6 1985 23,630 19,343 15.5 12.7 1986 24,106 17,986 15.7 11.7 1987 25,086 18,279 16.2 11.8 1988 25,060 18,551 16.0 11.9 1989 24,318 18,536 15.5 11.8 1990 22,304 19,531 14.2 12.4 1991 19,413 19,715 12.4 12.6 1992 18,038 20,126 11.8 13.1 1993 15,253 21,286 10.2 14.2 1994 14,176 22,212 9.7 15.2 1995 13,509 20,828 9.4 14.5 1996 13,242 19,020 9.4 13.4 1997 12,577 18,572 9.0 13.3 1998 12,167 19,445 8.8 14.0 1999 12,425 18,447 9.0 13.4 2000 13,067 18,403 9.5 13.4 2001 12,632 18,516 9.3 13.6 2002 13,001 18,355 9.6 13.5 2003 13,036 18,152 9.6 13.4 2004 13,992 17,685 10.4 13.1 2005 14,350 17,316 10.7 12.9 2006 14,819 17,435 11.0 13.0 2007 15,741 17,548 Net migration rate -3.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and older: 0.5 male(s)/female total population: 0.84 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate 7.73 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 72.04 years male: 66.58 years female: 77.83 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 1.4 children born/woman (2006) Nationality noun: Estonian(s) adjective: Estonian Ethnic groups Estonian 68.6%, Russian 25.6%, Ukrainian 2.1%, Belarusian 1.2%, Finn 0.8%, other 1.6% (2007) The below table was taken from 2000 census. Ethnic nationality total1,370,052Estonian930,219Russian351,178Ukrainian29,012Byelorussian17,241Finnish11,837Tatar2,582Latvian2,330Polish2,193Jewish2,145Lithuanian2,116German1,870Armenian1,444Azerbaijani880Moldavian645Mordvinian562Romany542Chuvash495Georgian430Karelian430Ingrian358Swedish300Mari245Udmurt241Bulgarian204Hungarian172Korean169Bashkir152Greek150Komi138US American133Uzbek132Kazakh127Lezgi121Ossetian116Romanian77Izhorian62English55Hindi55Chechen48Vepsian43Danish38Turkmen36Tajik35Gagauz32Avar30Dutch28Chinese27Italian27Dargwa26French26Kyrgyz26Turkish24Czech21Komi-Permyak20Arab19Norwegian19Canadian18Austrian17Kalmyk17Buryat16Spanish16Kurdish15Lakk15Yakut15Circassian14Kabardian14Persian14Abkhazian13Kumyk10Nogay10Karachay9Pakistani9Vietnamese9Votian9Ingush8Irish8Scottish8Serbian8Swiss8Peruvian7Uighur7Japanese6Karay6Khakass6Kongo6Talysh6Brazilian5Cuban5Livonian5Nenets5Anglo-Australian4Koryak4Mongolian4Saami4Slovak4Tati4Walloon4Yugoslav4Altai3Croatian3Indonesian3Khanty3Mexican3Nanai3Pashto3Rutul3Yoruba3Albanian2Amharic2Assyrian2Bengali2Ecuadorian2Guatemalan2Nepali2New Zealand2Shor2Sinhala2Tabasaran2Uruguayan2Abaza1Adyghian1Aztec1Berber1Bolivian1Breton1Chukchi1Even1Evenki1Gujarati1Hausa1Honduran1Ibo1Macedonian1Mansi1Montenegrin1Quechua1St. Vincent1Temne1Tuvinian1Ukwuani1Welsh1Zulu1Ethnic nationality unknown7,919 Religion According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 16% of Estonian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god", whereas 54% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 26% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force". This, according to the survey, would have made Estonians the most non-religious people in the then 25-member European Union. Historically, however, Estonia used to be a stronghold of Lutheranism due to its strong links to the Nordic countries. Less than a third of the population define themselves as believers, of those the majority are Lutheran, whereas the Russian minority is Eastern Orthodox. Ancient equinoctial traditions are held in high regard. Today, about 32% of the population are members of a church or religious group, thereof: 14.8 % Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church 13.9 % Estonian Orthodox Church ca. 10,000 Muslims ca. 6,000 Baptists ca. 3,500 Roman Catholics There are also a number of smaller Protestant, Jewish, and Buddhist groups. Languages Estonian (official), Russian, Ukrainian, Võro, English, Finnish, German and others. Literacy age 7 and older can read and write total population: 100% (1998 est.) 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1,003 | Editor_war | Editor war is the common name for the rivalry between users of the and Emacs text editors. The rivalry has become a lasting part of hacker culture and the free software community. Many flame wars have been fought between groups insisting that their editor of choice is the paragon of editing perfection, and insulting the others. Most participants in these arguments recognize that it is (largely) tongue-in-cheek. Unlike the related battles over operating systems, programming languages, and even source code indent style, choice of editor usually only affects oneself. Editor wars are usually fought between the devotees of the two most popular editors on Unix-like systems: and emacs. The arguments usually focus on modern implementations of these two editors, the most popular of which are Vim and GNU emacs. Most users of these systems are familiar with both programs to some extent, knowing them well enough to at least do some basic text editing, and therefore feel they are well-placed to make judgment calls as to which is "better". Both editors are extensive and extremely powerful tools, and have rather steep learning curves, so users invest a lot of time in getting to know the editor they use. This necessary time investment, naturally, can result in more opinionated users. Differences between vi and Emacs The most important differences between vi and Emacs are: vi editing retains each permutation of typed keys. This creates a path in the decision tree which unambiguously identifies any command. Emacs commands are a combination of typed keys executed immediately, which leaves the user with the choice of whether or not to use a command. vi is smaller and faster, and (traditionally at least) has limited customization capability. Emacs takes longer to start up and requires more memory. However, it is highly customizable and includes a large number of bells and whistles, as it is essentially a Lisp programming language execution environment which runs a Lisp program designed for text-editing. vi was traditionally used inside of a text-mode console, having no graphical user interface (GUI) (although Vim has one). Whereas Emacs, while initially designed for use on a console, grew a GUI fairly early on. Modern versions of both provide various GUIs. Benefits of vi-like editors Follows a "composition of simple tools" philosophy. Small in size and compatible with the Unix philosophy of "do one thing, and do it well". Avoids featuritis. Faster than Emacs (traditionally at least). Runs on all systems that can implement the standard C library, including UNIX, Linux, DOS, Windows, Mac, BeOS, and POSIX compliant systems. Allows users of the QWERTY keyboard to keep their fingers on the home row, thus requiring less movement to edit. Ubiquitous. Essentially all Unix and Unix-like systems come with vi (or a variant) built-in. Benefits of Emacs "Everything at reach" philosophy. No mode switching (uses metakey chords). Larger set of commands than vi. One of the most ported non-trivial computer programs. It runs on a wide variety of operating systems, including most Unix-like systems (GNU/Linux, the various BSDs, Solaris, AIX, IRIX, Mac OS X, etc.), MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows and OpenVMS. Unix systems, both free and proprietary, frequently provide Emacs bundled with the operating system. Extensible and customizable (Lisp programming language variant - Emacs Lisp), with features that include: Special editing modes for a large number of programming, markup, typesetting languages (Bash, C, Delphi, Java, Lisp, LaTeX, MediaWiki ...). Ability to emulate vi (known as "viper-mode"). A powerful and extensible file manager, integrated debugger, and a large set of tools to work with. Historical remark: Early on, Emacs included a helpful screen explaining how to exit that was presented when the program started. At the time, vi did not provide such a hint, forcing many users who could not figure out how to exit to simply disconnect their terminals. Humor Frequently, at some point in the discussion, someone will point out that ed is the standard text editor. The Church of Emacs, formed by Richard Stallman, is a joke, and while it refers to as the "editor of the beast" (vi-vi-vi being 6-6-6 in Roman numerals) , it does not oppose the use of ; rather, it calls proprietary software an anathema. ("Using a free version of vi is not a sin but a penance." All about Linux: The unabridged selective transcript of Richard M Stallman's talk at the ANU ) It has its own newsgroup, alt.religion.emacs, alt.religion.emacs newsgroup that has posts purporting to support this parody religion. Stallman has jokingly declared himself to be St IGNU−cius, a saint in the Church of Emacs. Saint IGNUcius - Richard Stallman vi supporters have created an opposing Cult of vi, argued by the more hardline Emacs users to be an attempt to "ape their betters". Regarding vi's modal nature, some Emacs users joke that vi has two modes – "beep repeatedly" and "break everything". vi users enjoy joking that Emacs's key-sequences induce carpal tunnel syndrome, or mentioning one of many satirical expansions of the acronym EMACS, such as "Escape Meta Alt Control Shift" (a jab at Emacs's reliance on modifier keys). satirical expansions of EMACS Others have posited that this acronym in fact means "Eight Megabytes And Constantly Swapping" (in a time when that was a great amount of memory) or "EMACS Makes Any Computer Slow" (a recursive acronym like those Stallman uses), in reference to Emacs's high system resource requirements. As a poke at Emacs’ creeping featurism, vi advocates will describe Emacs as “a great operating system, lacking only a decent editor”. A game among UNIX users either to test the depth of an Emacs user's understanding of the editor or to poke fun of the complexity of Emacs involved predicting what would happen if a user held down a modifier key (such as Control or Alt) and typed his own name. There is some additional humor that pokes fun at vi at http://www.dina.kvl.dk/~abraham/religion/vi-tutorial.html. Word War vi Word War vi site is a humorous Defender-like shoot 'em up based on the editor war. Current state of the editor war In the past, many small editors modeled after or derived from Emacs flourished. This was due to the importance of conserving memory with the comparatively minuscule amount available at the time. These days, with a plenitude of memory, many vi-alikes, Vim in particular, have grown in size and code complexity. These vi variants of today, as with the old light Emacs variants, tend to have many of the perceived benefits and drawbacks of the opposing side. Namely, recent versions of Vim can have more extensions and run slower than past versions of Emacs. Moreover, with the large amounts of RAM in modern computers, both vi and Emacs are lightweight compared to large IDEs such as Eclipse, which tend to draw derision from both vi and Emacs users alike. O'Reilly says that its Vim tutorial sells twice as many copies as for Emacs. Editor: vi or emacs? This has been taken by some to suggest that around twice as many individuals prefer Vim over Emacs. However, others suggest this simply means that those who use Emacs do not need additional help. Both Emacs and Vim are distributed with complete documentation, so purchasing a manual isn't necessary for most users. It is also noted that many advanced programmers use either Emacs and Vim or their various offshoots, including Linus Torvalds who uses MicroEMACS. Stifflog: Stiff asks, great programmers answer In addition to vi and emacs workalikes, pico and its free software clone nano and other editors often have their own third-party advocates in the editor wars, though not to the extent of vi and emacs. References The Art of Unix Programming: External links Church of Emacs resources Rules, Sins, Virtues, Gods and more of The Church of Emacs Saint Ignucius — as portrayed by Richard Stallman Vi Lovers Home Page $EDITOR sucks-rules-o-meter measures which editor's activists are more visible on the Web Ed is the standard text editor A transcript of Richard introducing St. IGNUcias and the Church of Emacs | Editor_war |@lemmatized editor:23 war:8 common:1 name:2 rivalry:2 user:15 emacs:45 text:6 become:1 lasting:1 part:1 hacker:1 culture:1 free:4 software:3 community:1 many:9 flame:1 fight:2 group:1 insist:1 choice:3 paragon:1 edit:4 perfection:1 insult:1 others:3 participant:1 argument:2 recognize:1 largely:1 tongue:1 cheek:1 unlike:1 related:1 battle:1 operating:3 system:12 program:6 language:4 even:1 source:1 code:2 indent:1 style:1 usually:3 affect:1 oneself:1 devotee:1 two:3 popular:2 unix:9 like:6 focus:1 modern:3 implementation:1 vim:8 gnu:2 familiar:1 extent:2 know:3 well:4 enough:1 least:3 basic:1 editing:2 therefore:1 feel:1 place:1 make:2 judgment:1 call:2 extensive:1 extremely:1 powerful:2 tool:3 rather:2 steep:1 learn:1 curve:1 users:1 invest:1 lot:1 time:5 get:1 use:10 necessary:2 investment:1 naturally:1 result:1 opinionated:1 difference:2 vi:32 important:1 retain:1 permutation:1 typed:2 key:5 create:2 path:1 decision:1 tree:1 unambiguously:1 identify:1 command:4 combination:1 execute:1 immediately:1 leave:1 whether:1 small:3 faster:1 traditionally:3 limit:1 customization:1 capability:1 take:2 long:1 start:2 require:2 memory:4 however:2 highly:1 customizable:2 include:6 large:6 number:2 bell:1 whistle:1 essentially:2 lisp:5 execution:1 environment:1 run:4 design:2 inside:1 mode:5 console:2 graphical:1 interface:1 gui:3 although:1 one:4 whereas:1 initially:1 grow:2 fairly:1 early:2 version:4 provide:3 various:3 benefit:3 follow:1 composition:1 simple:1 philosophy:3 size:2 compatible:1 thing:1 avoids:1 featuritis:1 fast:1 implement:1 standard:3 c:2 library:1 linux:3 dos:1 window:2 mac:2 beos:1 posix:1 compliant:1 allow:1 qwerty:1 keyboard:1 keep:1 finger:1 home:2 row:1 thus:1 less:1 movement:1 ubiquitous:1 come:1 variant:4 built:1 everything:2 reach:1 switching:1 metakey:1 chord:1 set:2 ported:1 non:1 trivial:1 computer:3 wide:1 variety:1 operate:1 bsds:1 solaris:1 aix:1 irix:1 x:1 etc:1 microsoft:1 openvms:1 proprietary:2 frequently:2 bundle:1 extensible:2 programming:3 feature:1 special:1 markup:1 typeset:1 bash:1 delphi:1 java:1 latex:1 mediawiki:1 ability:1 emulate:1 viper:1 file:1 manager:1 integrate:1 debugger:1 work:1 historical:1 remark:1 helpful:1 screen:1 explain:1 exit:2 present:1 hint:1 force:1 could:1 figure:1 simply:2 disconnect:1 terminal:1 humor:2 point:2 discussion:1 someone:1 ed:2 church:5 form:1 richard:5 stallman:6 joke:3 refer:1 beast:1 roman:1 numeral:1 oppose:3 anathema:1 sin:2 penance:1 unabridged:1 selective:1 transcript:2 talk:1 anu:1 newsgroup:2 alt:4 religion:4 post:1 purport:1 support:1 parody:1 jokingly:1 declare:1 st:2 ignu:1 cius:1 saint:3 ignucius:2 supporter:1 cult:1 argue:1 hardline:1 attempt:1 ape:1 better:1 regard:1 modal:1 nature:1 beep:1 repeatedly:1 break:1 enjoy:1 sequence:1 induce:1 carpal:1 tunnel:1 syndrome:1 mention:1 satirical:2 expansion:2 acronym:3 escape:1 meta:1 control:2 shift:1 jab:1 reliance:1 modifier:2 posit:1 fact:1 mean:2 eight:1 megabyte:1 constantly:1 swap:1 great:3 amount:3 slow:2 recursive:1 us:1 reference:2 high:1 resource:2 requirement:1 poke:3 creep:1 featurism:1 advocate:2 describe:1 lack:1 decent:1 game:1 among:1 either:2 test:1 depth:1 understanding:1 fun:2 complexity:2 involve:1 predict:1 would:1 happen:1 hold:1 type:1 additional:2 http:1 www:1 dina:1 kvl:1 dk:1 abraham:1 tutorial:2 html:1 word:2 site:1 humorous:1 defender:1 shoot:1 em:1 base:1 current:1 state:1 past:2 model:1 derive:1 flourish:1 due:1 importance:1 conserve:1 comparatively:1 minuscule:1 available:1 day:1 plenitude:1 alikes:1 particular:1 today:1 old:1 light:1 tend:2 perceived:1 drawback:1 side:1 namely:1 recent:1 extension:1 moreover:1 ram:1 lightweight:1 compare:1 ides:1 eclipse:1 draw:1 derision:1 alike:1 reilly:1 say:1 sell:1 twice:2 copy:1 suggest:2 around:1 individual:1 prefer:1 need:1 help:1 distribute:1 complete:1 documentation:1 purchase:1 manual:1 also:1 note:1 advance:1 programmer:2 offshoot:1 linus:1 torvalds:1 microemacs:1 stifflog:1 stiff:1 asks:1 answer:1 addition:1 workalikes:1 pico:1 clone:1 nano:1 often:1 third:1 party:1 though:1 art:1 external:1 link:1 rule:2 virtue:1 god:1 portray:1 lovers:1 page:1 suck:1 meter:1 measure:1 activist:1 visible:1 web:1 introduce:1 ignucias:1 |@bigram tongue_cheek:1 gnu_emacs:1 graphical_user:1 user_interface:1 interface_gui:1 posix_compliant:1 qwerty_keyboard:1 unix_unix:1 gnu_linux:1 microsoft_window:1 emacs_lisp:1 richard_stallman:4 newsgroup_alt:1 carpal_tunnel:1 poke_fun:2 http_www:1 linus_torvalds:1 external_link:1 |
1,004 | Artillery | French naval piece of the late 19th century Artillery is a military combat arm which employs any apparatus, machine, an assortment of tools or instruments, a system or systems used as weapons for the discharge of large projectiles in combat as a major contribution of fire power within the overall military capability of an armed force. Artillery is also a system of scientific research and its application towards design, capability and combat use of the above matériel . Over the course of military history the projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, made in a wide variety of shapes, and used different means of inflicting physical damage and casualties to defeat specific types of targets. The engineering designs of the means of delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, and have become some of the most complex technological application today. For much of artillery’s history during the Middle Ages and the Early modern period the artillery pieces on land were moved with the assistance of horse teams. During the more recent Modern era and in the Post-Modern period the artillery piece crew has used wheeled or tracked vehicles as a mode of transportation. Artillery used by naval forces has changed significantly also, with missiles replacing guns in surface combat. The process of firing the artillery piece is called gunnery. The act of discharging the projectile from the weapon is called serving the gun by the gun crew to produce artillery fire, and can be either direct artillery fire, or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which artillery units or formations are used is called artillery support, and may at different periods in history refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground, naval, and even air weapons platform. Although the term also describes soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery weapons, the individuals who operate them are called gunners irrespective of the rank, the gunner being the lowest rank in Artillery Arm. The weapons gunners use, are collectively referred to as ordnance, and individually as an artillery piece, while its projectiles are referred to as munitions, in both cases regardless of the specific type in use. The term is also applied to a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons. The gunners and their ordnance are usually grouped for combat into gun crews, with several such crews combined into a unit of artillery commonly referred to as a battery. Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purpose. During military operations the purpose of Artillery is to support the other Arms in combat through delivery of its munitions onto the target, usually at the request of troops in combat contact or gunners may be expected to come into direct combat contact with the enemy to by delivering either High Explosive munitions to inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris, blast, and burn injuries, or by demolition of enemy positions and piercing of enemy armour. The artillery fire may be directed by an Artillery observer. Military doctrine has played a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of Artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery. The gunners’ increasing proximity to, and participation in direct combat against other combat Arms and attacks by the aircraft made it the introduction of substantial amounts of armour necessary , leading to the development of the tank, and the evolution of armoured warfare. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organisations and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part in is the close quarters combat. Artillery is the third oldest of combat arms, and in many armed forces the gunners exhibit their own pride and a unique set of traditions associated with their service. Etymology The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages. One suggestion is that it comes from the Old French atellier meaning "to arrange", and attillement meaning "equipment". From the 13th century an artillier referred to a builder of any war equipment, and for the next 250 years the sense of the word "artillery" covered all forms of military weapons. Hence the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company an essentially Infantry unit until the 19th century. Another suggestion is that comes from the Italian arte de tirare (art of shooting) coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolo Tartaglia. History Classical antiquity - the age of throwers A Roman Ballista Mechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as "engines of war", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet and the ballista are also referred to by military historians as artillery. see siege engines for more information on pre-gunpowder devices Middle Ages - first gunpowder artillery The first documented record of artillery with gunpowder propellant used on the battlefield was on January 28, 1132 when General Han Shizhong of the Song Dynasty used escalade and Huochong to capture a city in Fujian. These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the madfaa) and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner. In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest. By late 14th AD, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out. The new Ming Dynasty established the "Divine Engine Division" 神机营 - specialized in various types of artillery. Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed. In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, the Ming army used a 3-line method of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation. Between 1593 and 1597, about 300,000 Chinese and Japanese troops fought in Korea and both sides used heavy artillery in land and sea battles. Cannon in the Castle of São Jorge, Lisbon. The first supergun was the Great Turkish Bombard, used by the troops of Mehmed II to capture Constantinople in 1453. It had a 762 mm bore, and fired 680 kg (1500 lb) stones. The Great Turkish Bombard, a very heavy bronze cannon of type used by Turks in the siege of Constantinople, 1453 AD. In 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta. While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known that the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely bombardas, colebratas, and falconetes. In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Moroccans brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta. Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers. Cook, W: Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400-1492. 1993 It is clear that these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery units. French gunner in the 15th century, a 1904 illustration. The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years War and changed the way that battles were fought. In the following year, the English used a gunpowder weapon in a military campaign against the Scottish. However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful. Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated in the battle of Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower. By the end of the 14th century, cannons were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and therefore could not penetrate castle walls. However, a major change occurred between 1420-1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently. Both the English, French, and Burgundians advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost. The cannons during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before. Rogers, C: The Military Revolutions of the Hundred Years War. 1993 These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time. Joan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times. When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1429, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle. In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units. When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle. In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English. At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves. DeVries, K: The Use of Gunpowder Weaponry By and Against Joan or Arc During the Hundred Years War. 1996 As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery. 19th century mortar A bombard, Malbork Castle As small smoothbore tubes these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247. They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannon were always loaded from the muzzles. While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders. A forge-welded Iron Cannon in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu. This cannon was built during the reign of Raghunatha Nayak (1600–1645 AD), and it is said to be one of the largest cannons in the world. Artillery was used by Indian armies predominantly for defending against besieging armies. Early modern period - age of the smoothbores Artillery with Gabion fortification. Bombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh). Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel. A History of Warfare - Keegan, John, Vintage 1993 Bombards were of value mainly in sieges, a famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace and could fire seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps "the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery" when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the walls of Constantinople thereby ending the Byzantine Empire according to Sir Charles Oman. p.70, Holmes Cannons on display at Fort Point. The use of the word "cannon" marks the introduction in the 15th century of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and animal-drawn limber—this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action, rather than being found only in siege and static defences. The reduction in the size of the barrel was due to improvements in both iron technology and gunpowder manufacture, while the development of the trunnion - projections at the side of the cannon as an integral part of the cast - allowed the barrel to be fixed to a more movable base, and also made raising or lowering the barrel much easier. The first land-based mobile weapon is usually credited to Jan Žižka, who deployed his oxen-hauled cannon during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418–1424). However cannons were still large and cumbersome. With the rise of musketry in the 16th century, cannon were largely (though not entirely) displaced from the battlefield—the cannon were too slow and cumbersome to be used and too easily lost to a rapid enemy advance. Polish multiple gun from 16th-17th century The combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations. It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool—a worm—was introduced to remove them. Gustavus Adolphus is identified as the general who made cannon an effective force on the battlefield—pushing the development of much lighter and smaller weapons and deploying them in far greater numbers than previously. But the outcome of battles was still determined by the clash of infantry. Shells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were also developed in the 17th century. The development of specialized pieces—shipboard artillery, howitzers and mortars—was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel ribauldequin, were also built. The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz "Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima" pp. 407-416, Ordway, Vice-Commander of Artillery of the Polish king, Wladyslaw IV ("Great Art of Artillery, the First Part," also known as "The Complete Art of Artillery") was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual. One of the most significant effects of artillery during this period was however somewhat more indirect - by easily reducing to rubble any medieval-type fortification or city wall (some which had stood since Roman times), it abolished millennia of siege-warfare strategies and styles of fortification building. This led, amongst other things, to a frenzy of new bastion-style fortifications to be built all over Europe and in its colonies, but also had a strong integrating effect on emerging nation-states, as kings were able to use their newfound artillery superority to force any local dukes or lords to submit to their will, setting the stage for the absolutist kingdoms to come. Modern era - age of rifled guns The highly effective German 15 cm field howitzers during the First World War Cannons continued to become smaller and lighter—Frederick II of Prussia deployed the first genuine light artillery during the Seven Years War—but until the mid-19th century improvements in metallurgy, chemistry, manufacturing and other sciences did not alter the basic design and operation of a cannon. Artillery continued to gain prominence in the 18th century when Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer introduced the standardization of cannon design. He developed a field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier. Another major change at this time was the development of a flintlock firing mechanism for the cannons. The old method of firing the cannon involved the use of a linstock or match to light a small quantity of powder charge in a touchhole drilled into the breech. This technique was quite faulty because the ignited powder could easily be extinguished by rain and an excess amount of charge could cause the guns to burst. The flintlock mechanism on the other hand only needs to be cocked and when its trigger is pulled the flint of the hammer strikes the frizzen throwing sparks into the pan and detonating the charge at the breech. The trigger can be tied to a lanyard and fired from a safe distance. These changes laid down in 1789 would prove decisive for Napoleon's conquests. Napoleon, himself a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' line as prelude to infantry and cavalry assault and, more often than not, victory. Rifling had been tried on small arms in the 15th century. The machinery to accurately rifle a cannon barrel did not arrive until the 19th. Cavelli, Wahrendorff, and Whitworth all independently produced rifled cannon in the 1840s, but these guns did not see widespread use until the latter stages of the American Civil War—when designs such as the various caliber Rodman guns came to prominence. From the 1860s artillery was forced into a series of rapid technological and operational changes, accelerating through the 1870s and thereafter. The first effective breech-loaders (allowing a gun crew to operate while always behind protective barriers) were developed in the 1880s. The first cannon to contain all 'modern' features is generally considered to be the French 75 of 1897 with its cased ammunition, effective breech-loading, modern sights, self-contained firing mechanism, and hydro-pneumatic recoil dampening. In the 19th century artillery finally made the decisive split between smaller, lighter, and more mobile pieces that stayed with the troops, and much larger weapons deployed to use indirect fire. The second option, using indirect fire, drove the development of the technologies and doctrines that have produced current artillery weapons. To quote McCamley, [By WWII] decades if not centuries of weapons development had settled into maturity on an almost imperceptibly rising plateau; the sciences of ballistics and explosive chemistry had achieved near perfection given the available technology of the age. Arguably the only new developments of note were discarding sabot rounds... and the hollow-charge projectile... both of which were of marginal significance in the Second World War. After the Second World War - age of precision WWI German Field Gun Modern artillery is most obviously distinguished by its large caliber, firing an explosive shell or rocket, and being of such a size and weight as to require a specialized carriage for firing and transport. However, its most important characteristic is the use of indirect fire, whereby the firing equipment is aimed without seeing the target through its sights. Indirect fire emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and was greatly enhanced by the development of predicted fire methods in World War I. Indirect fire uses firing data set on the sights, predicted fire methods ensure that this data is accurate and corrects for variations from the standard conditions for muzzle velocity, temperature, wind and air density. Weapons covered by the term 'modern artillery' include "cannon" artillery such as the howitzer, mortar, field gun and rocket artillery. Certain smaller-caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms. This term also came to include coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships. With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries. The term "artillery" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems, even though some artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles. Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large-caliber projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction. Ammunition Artillery ammunition is diverse. One nuclear weapon is known to have been fired from a gun, with the result of a Hiroshima sized explosion. One of the most important role of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of artillery consumable, their storage and the provision of fuses, detonators and warheads at the point where artillery troops will assemble the charge, projectile, bomb or shell. A round of artillery ammunition comprises four components: 1: The Fuze 2: The Projectile 3: The Propellant 4: The Primer Fuzes The normal artillery spelling is "fuze". Fuzes are the devices that trigger explosion of the artillery ammunition charge. Broadly there are four main types: impact (including graze and delay) mechanical time including airburst proximity sensor airburst electronic time including airburst When used with HE shells, airburst fuzes usually have a combined airburst and impact function. However, until the introduction of electronic proximity fuzes, the airburst function was mostly used with cargo munitions—for example shrapnel, illumination, and smoke. Airburst HE is more lethal than groundburst against many unprotected targets. The larger calibers of anti-aircraft artillery are almost always used airburst. Most artillery fuzes are nose fuzes. However, base fuzes have been used with armour piercing shells and for squash head (HESH or HEP) anti-tank shells. At least one nuclear shell and its non-nuclear spotting version also used a multi-deck mechanical time fuze fitted into its base. Early airburst fuzes used igniferous timers which lasted into the second half of the 20th century. Mechanical time fuzes appeared in the early part of that century. These required a means of powering them. The Thiel mechanism used a spring and escapement (i.e. 'clockwork'), Junghans used centrifugal force and gears, and Dixi used centrifugal force and balls. By the 1990s, electronic time fuzes had been introduced. Proximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-electric or radar. The former was not very successful and seems only to have been used with British anti-aircraft artillery 'unrotated projectiles' (in other words, rockets) in World War 2. The first radar proximity fuzes (called 'VT' for variable time as an obfuscating security measure) were also used for anti-aircraft purposes in World War 2. Their ground use was delayed for fear of the enemy recovering 'blinds' (artillery rounds which failed to detonate) and copying the fuze. The first radar proximity fuzes were designed to detonate at a specified height above the ground, about . These air-bursts are much more lethal against personnel than ground bursts because they deliver a greater proportion of useful fragments and deliver them into terrain where a prone soldier would be protected from ground bursts. However, proximity fuzes can suffer premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds. This led to 'controlled variable time' (CVT) after World War 2. These fuzes have a mechanical timer that switched on the radar about 5 seconds before expected impact. Modern multi-role fuzes usually have selectable height of burst option from 'daisy-cutters' upwards, although these settings can also be used to deal with extremes of soil reflectivity (basically the amount of water). The proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944. They have become known as the U.S. Artillery's "Christmas present", and were much appreciated when they arrived during the Battle of the Bulge. Proximity fuzes were extremely effective against German personnel in the open, and hence were very helpful in breaking up the German attacks. They were also used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles in the Pacific against Kamikaze planes as well as in Britain against V-1 flying bombs. Smithsonian, Electronic proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical (non-proximity) fuzes which they replaced, as time fuzes required an accurate estimate of the round's time of flight to the target and especially of the altitude of the target area. If the target's altitude was incorrectly estimated, the rounds would either strike the ground or burst too high. Delay fuzes are used to allow the round to penetrate into the earth before exploding. This is very effective for attacking earthen bunkers. Similarly, hardened delay fuzes are used against concrete bunkers. Graze fuzes were activated by shell retardation, for example passing through light cover that was insufficiently solid to activate an impact fuze. During World War 2 another method of HE airburst was used. Ricochet fire using delay or graze fuzed shells fired with a flat angle of descent. Projectiles The projectile is the munition or "bullet" fired downrange. This may or may not be an explosive device. Traditionally, projectiles have been classified as "shot" or "shell", the former being solid and the latter having some form of "payload". Shells can also be divided into three configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection. The latter is sometimes called the shrapnel configuration. The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in World War I. Both base and nose ejection are almost always used with airburst fuzes. Bursting shells use various types of fuze depending on the nature of the payload and the tactical need at the time. Payloads have included: Bursting: high-explosive, white phosphorus ("Willie Pete" or "Wilson Picket"), coloured marker, chemical, nuclear devices; high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and canister may be considered special types of bursting shell. Base Ejection: dual purpose improved conventional munitions (DPICM)-bomblet, scatterable mines, illuminating, coloured flare, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff p.266, Browne & Thurbon (foil to jam radars: originally known as "window" p.262, International Aeronautic Federation ) and modern exotics such as electronic payloads and sensor-fuzed munitions. Nose Ejection: shrapnel, flechette, star, incendiary. Projectile stabilization Rifled Traditionally, artillery projectiles have been spin-stabilised, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling. Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a "driving band" (UK) or "rotating band" (U.S.). The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have also been used. Smoothbore/Fin-Stabilized In modern artillery smoothbore tubes have been used mostly by mortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation. The primary benefit over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear and longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling). Rifled/Fin-Stabilized A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization , guidance or gliding. Propellant All forms of artillery require a propellant to propel the projectile at the target. Propellant is always a low explosive, this means it deflagrates instead of detonating, as with high explosives. The shell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very short time by the rapid generation of gas from the burning propellant. This high pressure is achieved by burning the propellant in a contained area, either the chamber of a gun barrel or the combustion chamber of a rocket motor. Until the late 19th century the only available propellant was black powder. Black powder had many disadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low power, requiring large amounts of powder to fire projectiles, and created thick clouds of white smoke that would obscure the targets, betray the positions of guns and make aiming impossible. In 1846 nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was discovered, and the high explosive nitroglycerin was discovered at much the same time. Nitrocellulose was significantly more powerful than black powder, and was smokeless. Early guncotton was unstable however, and burned very fast and hot, leading to greatly increased barrel wear. Widespread introduction of smokeless powder would wait until the advent of the double-base powders, which combine nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin to produce powerful, smokeless, stable propellant. Many other formulations were developed in the following decades, generally trying to find the optimum characteristics of a good artillery propellant; low temperature, high energy, non corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. Broadly, modern gun propellants are divided into three classes: single-base propellants which are mainly or entirely nitrocellulose based, double-base propellants composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, and triple base composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin and Nitroguanidine. Artillery shells fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater range in three ways: rocket assisted projectiles (RAP) enhance and sustain the projectile's velocity by providing additional 'push' from a small rocket motor that is part of the projectile's base. Base bleed uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile to introduce sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the drag. ramjet assisted, similar to rocket assisted but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor. Propelling charges for tube artillery can be provided in one of two ways: either as cartridge bags or in metal cartridge cases. Generally anti-aircraft artillery and smaller caliber (up to 6" or 155 mm) guns use metal cartridge cases that include the round and propellant, similar to a modern rifle cartridge. This simplifies loading and is necessary for very high rates of fire. Bagged propellant allows the amount of powder to be raised or lowered depending on the range to the target. it also makes handling of larger shells easier. Each requires a totally different type of breech to the other. A metal case holds an integral primer to initiate the propellant and provides the gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of the breech, this is called obturation. With bagged charges the breech itself provides obturation and holds the primer. In either case the primer is usually percussion but electrical is also used and laser ignition is emerging. Modern 155 mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to their breech. Battleship Ammunition: 16" artillery shells aboard one of America's Iowa-class battleships. Artillery ammunition has four classifications according to use: Service: ammunition used in live fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone. Also known as "warshot" ammunition. Practice: Ammunition with a non- or minimally-explosive projectile that mimics the characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds for use under training conditions. Practice artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in place of the normal high explosive charge. Dummy: Ammunition with an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propellant; used for training or display. Blank: Ammunition with live primer, greatly reduced propellant charge (typically black powder) and no projectile; used for training, demonstration or ceremonial use. Field artillery system Cyclone of the 320th French Artillery, in Hoogstade, Belgium, 5 September 1917. Because field artillery mostly uses indirect fire the guns have to be part of a system that enables them to attack targets invisible to them in accordance with the combined arms plan. The main functions in the field artillery system are: Communications Command: authority to allocate resources; Target acquisition: detect, identify and deduce the location of targets; Control: authority to decide which targets to attack and allot fire units to the attack; Production of firing data – to deliver fire from a fire unit onto its target; Fire units: guns, launchers or mortars grouped together; Specialist services – produce data to support the production of accurate firing data; Logistic services – to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support. Organisationally and spatially these functions can be arranged in many ways. Since the creation of modern indirect fire different armies have done it differently at different times and in different places. Technology is often a factor but so are military-social issues, the relationships between artillery and other arms, and the criteria by which military capability, efficiency and effectiveness are judged. Cost is also an issue because artillery is expensive due to the large quantities of ammunition that it uses and its level of manpower. Communications underpin the artillery system, they have to be reliable and in real-time to link the various elements. During the 20th century communications used flags, morse code by radio, line and lights, voice and teletype (teleprinter) by line. Radio has included HF, VHF, satellite and radio relay as well as modern tactical trunk systems. In western armies at least radio communications are now usually encrypted. The emergence of mobile and man-portable radios after World War I had a major impact on artillery because it enable fast and mobile operations with observers accompanying the infantry or armoured troops. In World War 2 some armies fitted their self-propelled guns with radios. However, sometimes in the first half of the 20th century hardcopy artillery fire plans and map traces were distributed. Data communications can be especially important for artillery because by using structured messages and defined data types fire control messages can be automatically routed and processed by computers. For example a target acquisition element can send a message with target details which is automatically routed through the tactical and technical fire control elements to deliver firing data to the gun's laying system and the gun automatically laid. As tactical data networks become pervasive they will provide any connected soldier with a means for reporting target information and requesting artillery fire. Command is the authority to allocate resources, typically by assigning artillery formations or units. Terminology and its implications vary widely. However, very broadly, artillery units are assigned in direct support or in general support. Typically, the former mostly provide close support to manoeuvre units while the latter may provide close support and or depth fire, notably counter-battery. Generally, ‘direct support’ also means that the artillery unit provides artillery observation and liaison teams to the supported units. Sometimes direct support units are placed under command of the regiment/brigade they support. General support units may be grouped into artillery formations eg brigades even divisions, or multi-battalion regiments, and usually under command of division, corps or higher HQs. General support units tend to be moved to where they are most required at any particular time. Artillery command may impose priorities and constraints to support their combined arms commander's plans. Target acquisition can take many forms, it is usually observation in real time but may be the product of analysis. Artillery observation teams are the most common means of target acquisition. However, air observers have been use since the beginning of indirect fire and were quickly joined by air photography. Target acquisition may also be by anyone that can get the information into the artillery system. Targets may be visible to forward troops or in depth and invisible to them. Observation equipment can vary widely in its complexity. Unmanned air vehicles are the latest form of air observation, having been first introduced in the early 1960s. The equipment available to observation teams has progressed from just prismatic compass, hand-held or tripod mounted binoculars and sometimes optical range-finders. Special equipment for locating hostile artillery: flash spotting and notably sound ranging appeared in World War 1 the latter has been undergone increasing refinement as technology has improved. These were joined by radar in World War 2. In the mid-1970s several armies started equipping their artillery observation teams with laser rangefinders, ground surveillance radars and night vision devices, these were soon followed by inertial orienting and navigating devices to improve the accuracy of target locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS) provided a smaller and cheaper means of quick and accurate fixation for target acquisition devices. Specialised units with ground surveillance radars, unattended ground sensors or observation patrols operating in depth have also been used. Targets in depth may also be 'acquired' by intelligence processes using various sources and agencies such as HUMINT, SIGINT, ELINT and IMINT. Laser guided shells require laser target designators, usually with observation teams on the ground but UAV installations are possible. Specialised artillery observation vehicles appeared in World War 2 and have greatly increased in sophistication since that time. Control, sometimes called tactical fire control, is primarily concerned with 'targeting' and the allotment of fire units to targets. This is vital when a target is within range of many fire units and the number of fire units needed depends on the nature of the target, and the circumstances and purpose of its engagement. Targeting is concerned with selecting the right weapons in the right quantities to achieve the required effects on the target. Allotment attempts to address the artillery dilemma—important targets are rarely urgent and urgent targets are rarely important. Of course importance is a matter of perspective; what is important to a divisional commander is rarely the same as what is important to an infantry platoon commander. Afghans with two captured artillery field guns in Jaji, 1984. Broadly, there are two situations: fire against opportunity targets and targets whose engagement is planned as part of a particular operation. In the latter situation command assigns fire units to the operation and an overall artillery fire planner makes a plan, possibly delegating resources for some parts of it to other planners. Fire plans may also involve use of non-artillery assets such as mortars and aircraft. Control of fire against opportunity targets is an important differentiator between different types of artillery system. In some armies only designated artillery HQs have the tactical fire control authority to order fire units to engage a target, all ‘calls for fire’ being requests to these HQs. This authority may also extend to deciding the type and quantity of ammunition to be used. In other armies an ‘authorised observer’ (eg artillery observation team or other target acquisition element) can order fire units to engage. In the latter case a battery observation team can order fire to their own battery and may be authorised to order fire to their own battalion and sometimes to many battalions. For example a divisional artillery commander may authorise selected observers to order fire to the entire divisional artillery. When observers or cells are not authorised they can still request fire. Armies that apply forward tactical control generally put the majority of the more senior officers of artillery units forward in command observation posts or with the supported arm. Those that do not use this approach tend to put these officers close to the guns. In either case the observation element usually controls fire in detail against the target, such as adjusting it onto the target, moving it and co-ordinating it with the supported arm as necessary to achieve the required effects. Firing data has to be calculated and is the key to indirect fire, the arrangements for this have varied widely. In the end firing data has two components: quadrant elevation and azimuth, to these may be added the size of propelling charge and the fuze setting. The process to produce firing data this is sometimes called technical fire control. Before computers, some armies set the range on the gun's sights, which mechanically corrected it for the gun's muzzle velocity. For the first few decades of indirect fire, the firing data were often calculated by the observer who then adjusted the fall of shot onto the target. However, the need to engage targets at night, in depth or hit the target with the first rounds quickly led to predicted fire being developed in World War 1. Predicted fire existed alongside the older method. After World War 2 predicted methods were invariably applied but the fall of shot usually needed adjustment because of inaccuracy in locating the target, the proximity of friendly troops or the need to engage a moving target. Target location errors were significantly reduced once laser rangefinders, orientation and navigation devices were issued to observation parties. In predicted fire the basic geospatial data of range, angle of sight and azimuth between a fire unit and its target was produced and corrected for variations from the ‘standard conditions’. These variations included barrel wear, propellant temperature, different projectiles weights that all affected the muzzle velocity, and air temperature, density, wind speed & direction and rotation of the earth that affect the shell in flight. The net effect of variations can also be determined by shooting at an accurately known point, a process called ‘registration’. All these calculations to produce a quadrant elevation (or range) and azimuth were done manually by highly trained soldiers using instruments, tabulated data, data of the moment and approximations until battlefield computers started appearing in the 1960s and ‘70s. While some early calculators copied the manual method (typically substituting polynomials for tabulated data), computers use a different approach. They simulate a shell's trajectory by 'flying' it in short steps and applying data about the conditions affecting the trajectory at each step. This simulation is repeated until it produces a quadrant elevation and azimuth that lands the shell within the required 'closing' distance of the target co-ordinates. NATO has a standard ballistic model for computer calculations and has expanded the scope of this into the NATO Armaments Ballistic Kernel (NABK). Technical fire control has been performed in various places, but mostly in firing batteries. However, in the 1930s the French moved it to battalion level and combined it with some tactical fire control. This was copied by the US. Nevertheless most armies seemed to have retained it within firing batteries and some duplicated the technical fire control teams in a battery to give operational resilience and tactical flexibility. Computers reduced the number of men needed and enabled decentralisation of technical fire control to autonomous sub-battery fire units such as platoons, troops or sections, although some armies had sometimes done this with their manual methods. Computation on the gun or launcher, integrated with their laying system, is also possible. MLRS led the way in this. A fire unit is the smallest artillery or mortar element, consisting of one or more weapon systems, capable of being employed to execute a fire assigned by a tactical fire controller. Generally it is a battery, but sub-divided batteries are quite common, and in some armies very common. On occasions a battery of 6 guns has been 6 fire units. Fire units may or may not occupy separate positions. Geographically dispersed fire units may or may not have an integral capability for technical fire control. Specialist services provide data need for predicted fire. Increasingly, they are provided from within firing units. These services include: Survey: accurate fixation and orientation of the guns, historically this involved specialists within field artillery units and specialist units. In some armies mapping and amp supply has also been an artillery responsibility. Survey is also essential for some target acquisition devices. Traditional survey methods of measurement and calculation have been replaced by inertial orientation and navigators and GPS. Meteorological data: historically these were usually divisional level specialist teams but advances in technology mean they are now increasingly part of artillery units. Calibration: periodically establishing the "normal" muzzle velocity of each gun as it wears. Originally this involved special facilities and army level teams. Measurement using Doppler radar, introduced in the 1950s, started to simplify arrangements. Some armies now have a muzzle velocity measuring radar permanently fitted to every gun. Logistic services, supply of artillery ammunition has always been a major component of military logistics. Up until World War 1 some armies made artillery responsible for all forward ammunition supply because the load of small arms ammunition was trivial compared to artillery. Different armies use different approaches to ammunition supply, which can vary with the nature of operations. Differences include where the logistic service transfers artillery ammunition to artillery, the amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are held at unit or battery level. A key difference is whether supply is ‘push’ or ‘pull’. In the former the ‘pipeline’ keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate. In the latter units fire as tactically necessary and replenish to maintain or reach their authorised holding (which can vary), so the logistic system has to be able to cope with surge and slack. Artillery has always been equipment intensive and for centuries artillery provided its own artificers to maintain and repair their equipment. Most armies now place these services in specialist branches with specialist repair elements in batteries and units. Classification of artillery Artillery types can be categorised in several ways, for example by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by role or by organizational arrangements. Types of ordnance The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles. Types of artillery: German Army PzH 2000 self-propellered artillery Field artillery: mobile weapons used to support armies in the field. Subcategories include: infantry support guns: directly support infantry units (mostly obsolete). mountain guns: lightweight weapons that can be moved through difficult terrain. howitzers: capable of high angle fire. gun howitzers: capable of high or low angle fire with a long barrel. mortars: larger towed or self-propelled weapons that fire projectiles at an angle of over 45 degrees to the horizontal.(not usually considered field artillery) rocket artillery: alternative propulsion. Motorized artillery: towed by Artillery tractors. Self-propelled artillery: typically guns, mortars or gun howitzers mounted on a vehicle. Naval artillery: guns mounted on warships and used either against other ships or in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the battleship, bristling with guns of up to , mounted on the Japanese battleship Yamato, but the advent of airpower and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete. The correct term for an individual piece of naval artillery is a 'naval rifle'. Coastal artillery: Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (e.g. the Atlantic Wall in WW II) or harbor. Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery used to be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Modern coastal artillery (e.g., Russia's "Bereg" system) is often self propelled, (allowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fully integrated, meaning that each battery has all of the support systems that it requires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.) organic to its unit. Anti-aircraft artillery: weapons, usually mobile, designed for attacking aircraft from the ground. Some guns were suitable for dual-role anti-aircraft and field (anti-tank) use. The WWII German 88 mm gun was a famous example. Naval guns are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role. Typically the length of a cannon barrel is greater than 25 times its caliber (inner diameter). Naval piece of artillery, early 19th century Howitzers are relatively shorter. Capable of both high- and low-angle fire, they are most often employed in an indirect-fire role, capable of operating in defilade. Typically, the length of a howitzer barrel is between 15 and 25 times its caliber. Mortars are smaller, low-velocity, high-angle weapons capable of only high-trajectory fire at a relatively short range. Typically the length of a mortar barrel is less than 15 times its caliber. Modern field artillery can also be split into two other categories: towed and self-propelled. As the name suggests, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually a jeep or truck, to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Self-propelled howitzers are permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and are thus capable of moving quickly from one firing position to another, both to support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire. There are also mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in which the vehicle cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection. Types of use Organizational types Australian gunners, wearing gas masks, operate a howitzer during World War I. At the beginning of the modern artillery period, the late 19th century, many armies had three main types of artillery, in some case they were sub-branches within the artillery branch in others they were separate branches or corps. There were also other types excluding the armament fitted to warships: Horse artillery, first formed as regular units in late 18th century, with the role of supporting cavalry, they were distinguished by the entire crew being mounted. Field or "foot" artillery, the main artillery arm of the field army, using either guns, howitzers or mortars. In World War II this branch again started using rockets and later surface to surface missiles. Fortress or garrison artillery, manned a nation's fixed defences using guns, howitzers or mortars, either on land or coastal frontiers. Some had deployable elements to provide heavy artillery to the field army. In some nations coast defence artillery was a naval responsibility. Mountain artillery, a few nations treated mountain artillery as a separate branch, in others it was a speciality in another artillery branch. They used light guns or howitzers, usually designed for pack animal transport and easily broken down into small easily handled loads Naval artillery, some nations carried pack artillery on some warships, these were used and manhandled by naval (or marine) landing parties. At times, part of a ship's armament would be unshipped and mated to makeshift carriages and limbers for actions ashore, for example during the Second Boer War, during the First World War the guns from the stricken SMS Königsberg formed the main artillery strength of the German forces in East Africa. Firing of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin, (1772 – 1851) After World War I many nations merged these different artillery branches, in some cases keeping some as sub-branches. Naval artillery disappeared apart from that belonging to marines. However, two new branches of artillery emerged during that war and its aftermath, both used specialised guns (and a few rockets) and used direct not indirect fire, in the 1950s and '60s both started to make extensive use of missiles: Anti-tank artillery, also under various organisational arrangements but typically either field artillery or a specialist branch and additional elements integral to infantry, etc, units. However, in most armies field and anti-aircraft artillery also had at least a secondary anti-tank role. After World War 2 anti-tank in Western armies became mostly the responsibility of infantry and armoured branches and ceased to be an artillery matter, with some exceptions. Anti-aircraft artillery, under various organisational arrangements including being part of artillery, a separate corps, even a separate service or being split between army for the field and airforce for home defence. In some cases infantry and the new armoured corps also operated their own integral light anti-aircraft artillery. Home defence anti-aircraft artillery often used fixed as well as mobile mountings. Some anti-aircraft guns could also be used as field or anti-tank artillery, providing they had suitable sights. However, the general switch by artillery to indirect fire before and during World War I led to a reaction in some armies. The result was accompanying or infantry guns. These were usually small, short range guns, that could be easily man-handled and used mostly for direct fire but some could use indirect fire. Some were operated by the artillery branch but under command of the supported unit. In World War II they were joined by self-propelled assault guns, although other armies adopted infantry or close support tanks in armoured branch units for the same purpose, subsequently tanks generally took on the accompanying role. Equipment types Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution handling a cannon The three main types of artillery 'gun' are guns, howitzers and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm had become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti-aircraft and coastal guns. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern 'howitzers' have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent 'guns' of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterised by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. A British 60-pounder () gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°, and up to about 70° is normal for modern ones. They also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi-charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of 'gun' or 'howitzer'. By the 1960s, most equipments had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi-charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simple, the modern mortar originated in World War 1 and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterised by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, generally firing at an elevation angle greater that 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a 'baseplate' on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognised typifying characteristics for artillery. First the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called 'QF' or 'quickfiring' by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called 'BL" or 'breech loading' by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Basically modern equipment can either be towed or self-propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War 2 in some armies, but others were fully mechanised with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armoured vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In an SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War 1, but did not really develop until World War 2. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armour and carry little or no ammunition. Armoured SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armoured SPs were mostly a 'casemate' configuration, in essence an open top armoured box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armoured SPs have a full enclosed armoured turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilisers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self-propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re-assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armoured trains as 'fighting vehicles' armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s. Caliber categories A third form of artillery typing is to classify it as 'light', 'medium', 'heavy' and various other terms. It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed. Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons—field guns, mortars, anti-aircraft guns and coast guns. Modern operations Two French Army Giat GCT 155mm (155mm AUF1) Self-propelled Guns, 40th Regiment d' Artillerie, with IFOR markings are parked at Hekon base, near Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina, in support of Operation Joint Endeavor. Artillery is used in a variety of roles depending on its type and caliber. The general role of artillery is to provide fire support—"the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, neutralize or suppress the enemy". This NATO definition, of course, makes artillery a supporting arm although not all NATO armies agree with this logic. The italicised terms are NATO's. AAP-6(2006) NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions. Unlike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies still call them) and mortars are suitable for delivering close supporting fire. However, they are all suitable for providing deep supporting fire although the limited range of many mortars tends to exclude them from the role. Their control arrangements and limited range also mean that mortars are most suited to direct supporting fire. Guns are used either for this or general supporting fire while rockets are mostly used for the latter. However, lighter rockets may be used for direct fire support. These rules of thumb apply to NATO armies. Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually an integral part of infantry and, in some armies, armor units. This means they generally don't have to concentrate their fire so their shorter range is not a disadvantage. Some armies also consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive than artillery, but this is a function of the control arrangements and not the case in all armies. However, mortars have always been used by artillery units and remain with them in many armies, including a few in NATO. In NATO armies artillery is usually assigned a tactical mission that establishes its relationship and responsibilities to the formation or units it is assigned to. It seems that not all NATO nations use the terms and outside NATO others are probably used. The standard terms are: direct support, general support, general support reinforcing and reinforcing. These tactical missions are in the context of the command authority: operational command, operational control, tactical command or tactical control. In NATO direct support generally means that the directly supporting artillery unit provides observers and liaison to the manoeuvre troops being supported, typically an artillery battalion or equivalent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to the brigade's battalions. However, some armies achieve this by placing the assigned artillery units under command of the directly supported formation. Nevertheless, the batteries' fire can be concentrated onto a single target, as can the fire of units in range and with the other tactical missions. Application of fire A 155 mm artillery shell fired by a United States 11th Marine Regiment M-198 howitzer There are several dimensions to this subject. The first is the notion that fire may be against an opportunity target or may be prearranged. It the latter it may be either on-call or scheduled. Prearranged targets may be part of a fire plan. Fire may be either observed or unobserved, if the former it may be adjusted, if the latter then it has to be predicted. Observation of adjusted fire may be directly by a forward observer or indirectly via some other target acquisition system. NATO also recognises several different types of fire support for tactical purposes: Counterbattery fire: delivered for the purpose of destroying or neutralizing the enemy's fire support system. Counterpreparation fire: intensive prearranged fire delivered when the imminence of the enemy attack is discovered. Covering fire: used to protect troops when they are within range of enemy small arms. Defensive fire: delivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action. Final Protective Fire: an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas. Harassing fire: a random number of shells are fired at random intervals, without any pattern to it that the enemy can predict. This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by the constantly imposed stress, threat of losses and inability of enemy forces to relax or sleep, lowers their morale. Interdiction fire: placed on an area or point to prevent the enemy from using the area or point. Preparation fire: delivered before an attack to weaken the enemy position. These purposes have existed for most of the 20th century, although their definitions have evolved and will continue to do so, lack of suppression in counterbattery is an omission. Broadly they can be defined as either: Deep supporting fire: directed at objectives not in the immediate vicinity of own force, for neutralizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering with enemy command, supply, communications and observation; or Close supporting fire: placed on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of their proximity present the most immediate and serious threat to the supported unit. USMC M-198 firing outside of Fallujah, Iraq in 2004 Two other NATO terms also need definition: Neutralization fire: delivered to render a target temporarily ineffective or unusable; and Suppression fire: that degrades the performance of a target below the level needed to fulfill its mission. Suppression is usually only effective for the duration of the fire. The tactical purposes also include various "mission verbs", a rapidly expanding subject with the modern concept of "effects based operations". Targeting is the process of selecting target and matching the appropriate response to them taking account of operational requirements and capabilities. It requires consideration of the type of fire support required and the extent of coordination with the supported arm. It involves decisions about: what effects are required, eg neutralization or suppression; the proximity of and risks to own troops or non-combatants; what types of munitions, including their fuzing, are to be used and in what quantities; when the targets should be attacked and possibly for how long; what methods should be used, eg converged or distributed, whether adjustment is permissible or surprise essential, the need for special procedures such as precision or danger close how many fire units are needed and which ones they should be from those that are available (in range, with the required munitions type and quantity, not allotted to another target, have the most suitable line of fire if there is a risk to own troops or non-combatants); The targeting process is the key aspect of tactical fire control. Depending on the circumstances and national procedures it may all be undertaken in one place or may be distributed. In armies practicing control from the front, most of the process may be undertaken by a forward observer or other target acquirer. This is particularly the case for a smaller target requiring only a few fire units. The extent to which the process is formal or informal and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement also varies widely armies and other circumstances. Surprise may be essential or irrelevant. It depends on what effects are required and whether or not the target is likely to move or quickly improve its protective posture. During World War 2 UK researchers concluded that for impact fuzed munitions the relative risk were as follows: men standing - 1 men lying - 1/3 men firing from trenches - 1/15–1/50 men crouching in trenches - 1/25–1/100 Airburst munitions significantly increase the relative risk for lying men, etc. Historically most casualties occur in the first 10–15 seconds of fire, i.e. the time needed to react and improve protective posture, however, this is less relevant if airburst is used. There are several ways of making best use of this brief window of maximum vulnerability: ordering the guns to fire together, either by executive order or by a "fire at" time. The disadvantage is that if the fire is concentrated from many dispersed fire units then there will be different times of flight and the first rounds will be spread in time. To some extent a large concentration offsets the problem because it may mean that only one round is required from each gun and most of these could arrive in the 15 second window. burst fire, a rate of fire to deliver three rounds from each gun within 10 or 15 seconds, this reduces the number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means they may be less dispersed and have less variation in their times of flight. Smaller caliber guns, such as 105 mm, have always been able to deliver three rounds in 15 seconds, larger calibers firing fixed rounds could also do it but it wasn't until the 1970s that a multi-charge 155 mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained the capability. multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI). time on target, fire units fire at the time less their time of flight, this works well with prearranged scheduled fire but is less satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means delaying the delivery of fire by selecting a 'safe' time that all or most fire units can achieve. It can be used with both the previous two methods. Counter-battery fire Counter-battery fire is a type of mission assigned to military artillery forces, which are tasked with locating and firing upon enemy artillery. Typically, enemy artillery would be detected when they fire, and a counter-battery fire mission must proceed as quickly as possible before the enemy artillery battery finishes their salvo and relocates. Originally, counter-battery fire relied on ground or air-based artillery observers noticing the source of the artillery fire (due to muzzle flashes, smoke, spotting the artillery pieces, etc.) and calculating firing solutions to strike back at them. Artillery spotting, along with reconnaissance, was one of the major roles for aircraft in warfare (see World War I). Modern counter-battery fire relies on counter-battery radar, which calculate the source of incoming artillery shells very accurately and quickly—so quickly, in fact, that return fire can sometimes begin before the first enemy shell or rocket has landed. The development of fast and accurate counter-battery fire has led to the concept of shoot-and-scoot and concentration on the development of highly mobile artillery pieces (typically self-propelled guns like the US M109 Paladin, the South African G6 Howitzer or Soviet 2S1 Gvozdika, or rocket artillery like the Soviet Katyusha or the multi-national M270 MLRS). The idea is to fire and then move before any counter-battery fire can land on the original position. The task of destroying enemy artillery batteries can also fall to attack aircraft, but unless they are already on patrol overhead, they are usually not quick enough to save friendly forces from damage. More often, ground-based counter-battery fire would suppress the enemy battery/batteries and force them to move, while aircraft would follow up later with a strike to destroy the rest of the enemy artillery. Field artillery team Right|Calling in and Adjusting Artillery Fire on a Target Modern field artillery (Post-World War I) has three distinct parts: the forward observer (or FO), the fire direction center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves. The forward observer observes the target using tools such as binoculars, laser rangefinders, designators and call back fire missions on his radio, or relays the data through a portable computer via an encrypted digital radio connection protected from jamming by computerized frequency hopping. The FO can communicate directly with the battery FDC, of which there is one per each battery of 4–8 guns. Otherwise the several FOs communicate with a higher FDC such as at a Battalion level, and the higher FDC prioritizes the targets and allocates fires to individual batteries as needed to engage the targets that are spotted by the FOs or to perform preplanned fires. The Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, the direction to the target, and the quadrant elevation to be fired at to reach the target, what gun will fire any rounds needed for adjusting on the target, and the number of rounds to be fired on the target by each gun once the target has been accurately located—to the guns. Traditionally this data is relayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to the guns, followed by orders specifying the type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and the elevation needed to reach the target, and the method of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE). However in more advanced artillery units, this data is relayed through a digital radio link. Other parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes. Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy. Time on Target A technique called Time on Target was developed by the U.S. Army during World War 2. This technique uses a precise determination of the time of flight from each firing battery to the target area. When a Time on Target (TOT) is designated each battery that will join in firing on that target subtracts the time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire. Individual firing batteries train to fire their rounds as close to simultaneously as possible. When each firing battery fires their rounds at their individual time to fire every round will reach the target area nearly simultaneously. This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires. MRSI This is a modern version of the earlier "time on target" concept in which fire from different weapons was timed to arrive on target at the same time. It is possible for modern computer-controlled artillery to fire more than one volley at a target and have all the shells arrive simultaneously, which is called MRSI (Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact). This is because there is more than one trajectory for the rounds to fly to any given target—typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and if you can vary the amount of propellant with each shell, you can create multiple trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target and so if the shells are fired on these trajectories for the first volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and then after the correct pause more volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, the shells will all arrive at the same time. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional volleys along the same trajectory, anybody at the target point will have a certain amount of time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to run away or take cover between volleys. In addition, if guns in more than one location are firing on one target, with careful timing it can be arranged for all their shells to land at the same time for the same reason. Examples of MRSI guns are South Africa's Denel G6-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least 25 km away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least 17 km away) and Slovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA model 2000. The Archer project (Developed by BAE-Systems in Sweden), a 155 mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis claiming to be able to deliver up to 7 shells on target simultaneously from the same gun. The 120 mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, developed in Finland, is capable of 7 + 7 shells MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now canceled) was slated to have MRSI capability. MRSI was a stunt popular at artillery demonstrations in the 1960s. With its increased risk of a mistake (needing a range to the target that gives time for several rounds to be fired and only useful against a few types of target in an era where PPD fuzes are becoming standard), whether MRSI is still merely a stunt or has real tactical value over other methods is debatable. Air burst The destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This can be accomplished either through time fuzes or proximity fuzes. Time fuzes use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay. Unfortunately, this technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuze can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it. Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process. These embody a miniature, weak radar transmitter in the fuze to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it. The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell. This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover. Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open. This is even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position. See also Siege engine Shell (projectile) Field artillery Artillery battery Self-propelled artillery Field artillery team - How NATO military units call in artillery fire List of artillery Field Artillery in the American Civil War Paris Gun Nuclear artillery Harry S. Truman a "redleg" in World War I Henry Shrapnel - Inventor of "shrapnel shell" Gerald Bull, Project Babylon New artillery theories, concepts, methods and systems Combustion Light Gas Gun Light Gas Gun Advanced Gun System Railgun Citations and notes References TM 9-2300 Holmes, Richard, The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations that Changed the Course of History, Viking Press 1988 McCamley, N. J., Disasters Underground, Pen & Sword Military (2004) Maj Gen AGL McNaughton The Development of Artillery in the Great War, Canadian Defence Quarterly Vol 6 No 2, January 1929 Ordway, Frederick I., History of Astronautics Symposium: Mar Del Plata, Argentina, October 1969, Technology and Culture, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Jul., 1970) Browne, J. P. R., & Thurbon, M. T., Electronic Warfare, Brassey's Defence Publishing, London, 1998 International Aeronautic Federation, Interavia, p. 262, v.32, 1977 (Jan-Jun), Jane's Information Group, London Further reading Hogg, Oliver Frederick Gillilan, Artillery: Its Origin, Heyday and Decline (Hamden, 1970) Bailey, J.B.A., Field Artillery and Firepower (Naval Institute Press, 2003) External links Portsmouth Action Field Gun Pictures and Video Naval Weapons of the World Cannon Artillery - The Voice Of Freedom's Thunder Modern Artillery Video: Inside one of Missouri’s 16" gun room, about 1955. (Windows Media File) Evans, Nigel F. (2001-2007) "British Artillery in World War 2" Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars Artillery of Napoleon's Imperial Guard French artillery and its ammunition. 14th to the end of the 19th century be-x-old:Артылерыя | Artillery |@lemmatized french:14 naval:15 piece:14 late:8 century:36 artillery:246 military:19 combat:18 arm:21 employ:4 apparatus:1 machine:1 assortment:1 tool:3 instrument:2 system:30 use:141 weapon:38 discharge:2 large:24 projectile:36 major:6 contribution:1 fire:213 power:6 within:9 overall:2 capability:8 force:20 also:57 scientific:1 research:1 application:4 towards:1 design:18 matériel:1 course:4 history:8 manufacture:3 wide:3 variety:3 material:2 make:20 shape:1 different:20 mean:22 inflict:2 physical:1 damage:2 casualty:3 defeat:2 specific:2 type:36 target:96 engineering:3 delivery:3 likewise:1 change:9 significantly:6 time:58 become:11 complex:1 technological:2 today:2 much:11 middle:4 age:8 early:12 modern:36 period:9 land:12 move:12 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1,005 | Abu_Zubaydah | Abu Zubaydah (; born 12 March 1971 as Zayn al-Abidin Muhammad Husayn) is currently in U.S. custody in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, as a detainee in the war on Terror. Zubaydah's name is often transliterated as Abu Zubaidah, Abu Zubeida, or Abu Zoubeida. Born Zein al-Abideen Mohamed Hussein (Arabic: زين العابدين محمد حسين), he is also known by over thirty-five aliases. Biography and His Early Years in Afghanistan Born in Saudi Arabia, Abu Zubaydah moved to the West Bank as a teenager where he joined in Palestinian demonstrations against the Israelis. Mayer, Jane, "The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned Into a War on American Ideals", 2008. p. 140 Abu Zubaydah moved to Afghanistan in 1991 to assist the mujahideen in their fight against the Afghan and Soviet Communists. Peter Finn and Joby Warrick, Detainee's Harsh Treatment Foiled No Plots The Washington Post, March 29, 2009 In 1992, while fighting for the mujahideen Abu Zubaydah was injured from a mortar shell blast which left shrapnel in his head and caused severe memory loss, as well as the loss of his ability to speak for over one year. Dan Eggen and Walter Pincus, FBI, CIA Debate Significance of Terror Suspect: Agencies Also Disagree On Interrogation Methods The Washington Post, Dec. 18, 2007 Ron Suskind, The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America's Pursuit of Its Enemies Since 9/11 Simon & Schuster, 2006 Abu Zubaydah eventually became involved in the jihad training camp known as the Khalden Camp. The Khalden Camp has been described by the U.S. Government as an al-Qaeda training facility -- an assertion that has been utilized as evidence of Abu Zubaydah's, and over 50 other Guatanamo detainees' alleged connection to al-Qaeda. This allegation has been contested, however, by multiple detainees, the 9/11 Commission Report, and Brynjar Lia, head of the international terrorism and global jihadism at the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment. Khalid Sulaymanjaydh Al Hubayshi Unclassified Verbatim Combatant Status Review Tribunal Transcript, Pgs. 65-73 Department of Defense Noor Uthamn Muhammed Unclassified Verbatim Combatant Status Review Tribunal, Pg. 15, Department of Defense 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States July 22, 2006 Brynjar Lia, Architect of Global Jihad: The Life of Al-Qaida Strategist Abu Mus'ab al-Suri pg. 242-243, Columbia University Press, 2008 Abu Zubaydah testified in his Combatant Status Review Tribunal that the Khalden Camp was at such odds with al-Qaeda and Bin Laden that is was closed by the Taliban in 2001, at the request of al-Qaeda. This account was corroborated by two other detainees, Noor Uthman Muhammed, who was alleged by the U.S. Government to have been the emir, or leader, of the Khalden Camp, and a close friend of Abu Zubaydah, Khalid Sulayman Jaydh Al Hubayshi. Brynjar Lia also states in his book that there was an ideological conflict between the leaders of the Khalden Camp on one side, and the Taliban and al-Qaeda on the other. Abu Zubaydah, Khalid Sulayman Jaydh Al Hubayshi, and Noor Uthman Muhammed confirmed this divide in their CSRT testimony. Of the 57 detainees the U.S. Government has associated with the Khalden Camp, 27 have been released, including Abu Zubaydah's good friend Khalid Sulayman Jaydh Al Hubayshi. New York Times Guantanamo Docket Pre-9/11 Terrorism Allegations By 1999, the U.S. Government was attempting to run surveillance on Abu Zubaydah. Pak leadership under Sharif offered to try to capture Osama The Press Trust of India Ltd. Through Asia Pulse. March 28, 2004 (Access My Library Link, requires free membership) By March 2000, United States officials were reporting that Abu Zubaydah was a "senior bin Laden official", the "former head of Egypt-based Islamic Jihad", a "trusted aide" to bin Laden with "growing power", who had "played a key role in the East Africa embassy attacks." David A. Vise and Lorraine Adams, Bin Laden Weakened, Officials Say The Washington Post. March 11, 2000 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) Internationally Abu Zubaydah was convicted in absentia by a Jordanian court for his alleged role in plots to bomb U.S. and Israeli targets in Jordan. Jamal Halaby, Arabs of Terror Linked to bin Laden AP News Online (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) A senior Middle East security official stated Abu Zubaydah had directed the Jordanian cell and was part of “bin Laden’s inner circle." Trainees in Terror The Seattle Times, Sunday, March 5, 2000 In August, 2001 a classified FBI report entitled “Bin Laden determined to strike in U.S.”, which would not become public until much later, stated that the foiled millennium bomber, Ahmed Ressam, had confessed that Abu Zubaydah had not only encouraged him to blow up the Los Angeles airport, but had facilitated his mission. Transcript: Bin Laden determined to Strike in US CNN.com, Saturday April 10, 2004 The report also claims Abu Zubaydah was planning his own attack on the U.S. An unclassified FBI report also stated that Ahmed Ressam attempted to buy a laptop for Abu Zubaydah. Elaine Ganley, Terror Plot Took Typical Path AP Online, December 19, 2001 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) Despite all of these supposed connections, when Ahmed Ressam went to trial in December 2001 federal prosecutors did not attempt to link him to Abu Zubaydah. Capture and Detention It is unclear how the Government found Abu Zubaydah. U.S. officials claimed he was tracked down after making a phone call to al-Qaeda leaders in Yemen. Ted Bridis U.S. Will Seek Death Penalty In Spy Case The Columbian, April 20, 2002 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) However, this has been questioned by a C.I.A. official who stated that the U.S. paid $10 million to the Pakistani government, who had in turn bribed the information on his whereabouts from a local driver who knew of a caravan of tall men wearing burqas traveling towards Faisalbad. Jane Meyer, The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned Into a War on American Ideals Doubleday Publishing, July 15, 2008 Also, Saudi Arabian officials claimed Abu Zubaydah was captured after intelligence gleaned during an interrogation by their GSS. Nowaf Obaid, The Saudis’ Fight Too: We’re on the same side in the war on terror The Washington Post, December 26, 2002 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) However, it would be reported in 2008 that Deuce Martinez, a C.I.A. analyst had played an integral role in narrowing down Abu Zubaydah’s supposed hideouts to the 14 targeted by the joint raids. Scott Shane, Inside a 9/11 mastermind’s interrogation New York Times, June 22, 2008 Abu Zubaydah was turned over to the CIA Dan Froomkin, Bush’s Exhibit A for Torture The Washington Post December 18, 2007 Dana Priest, CIA Holds Terror Suspects in Secret Prisons The Washington Post, November 2, 2005 which flew in a doctor from Johns Hopkins University to ensure he would not succumb to his wounds during transit out of Pakistan. On March 28, 2002, CIA and FBI agents, in conjunction with Pakistani intelligence services, raided several safe houses in Pakistan looking for terrorists and members of al-Qaeda. Andy Worthington The Guantanamo Files Pluto Press, 2007 Tim McGirk, Anatomy of a Raid TIME Magazine, April 8, 2002 John Burns, A NATION CHALLENGED: THE FUGITIVES, In Pakistan’s Interior, A Troubling Victory in Hunt for Al Qaeda New York Times, April 14, 2002 Anti-terror raids yield bonanza for U.S. intelligence Seattle Times, April 2, 2002 Abu Zubaydah was apprehended from one of the targeted safe houses in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Arun Kumar, US imposes sanctions on four Lashkar-e-Toiba leaders Hindustan Times, May 28, 2008 During his apprehension he was shot in the thigh, the testicle, and the stomach with rounds from an AK-47 assault rifle. Brian Ross, CIA- Abu Zubaydah: Interview with John Kiriakou: Transcript ABC News, December 10, 2007 J.J. Green, Former CIA Officer: Waterboarding is Wrong, but it Worked WTOPnews.com, March 20, 2008 President George Bush, Speech September 6, 2009 He was taken by the CIA to a Pakistani hospital nearby and treated for his wounds where the doctor who attended him admitted to John Kiriakou, the co-leader of the CIA group that apprehended Abu Zubaydah, that he had never before seen a patient survive such severe wounds. A search of the safehouse turned up his personal 10,000 page diary, in which he recorded his thoughts in seemingly split personalities of a young boy, old man and himself. While in CIA custody he was transferred to CIA operated prisons in Pakistan, Thailand, Afghanistan, Poland, and Northern Africa. Dick Marty, Secret detentions and illegal transfers of detainees involving Council of Europe member states: Second report Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, June 7, 2007 Brian Ross and Richard Esposito, EXCLUSIVE: Sources Tell ABC News Top Al Qaeda Figures Held in Secret CIA Prisons ABC News, December 5, 2005 CIA Shuffled Prisoners Out of Poland Global Pulse December 5, 2005 Jason Burke, Secret World of U.S. Jails Observer, June 13, 2004 Enforced Disappearance, Illegal Interstate Transfer, and Other Human Rights Abuses Involving the UK Overseas Territories: Executive Summary Reprieve In September 2006, President George W. Bush gave a speech in which he stated that Abu Zubaydah and eleven other high value detainees had been transferred to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba and would be tried by military commissions. U.S. Government Media Accounts of Abu Zubaydah Following His Capture After Abu Zubaydah's capture, officials from the U.S. Government spoke out publicly about Abu Zubaydah's value as a source of intelligence and his supposed role in al-Qaeda. However, as would later be reported in 2009, the U.S. Government's depiction of Abu Zubaydah was overly inflated and he was, as Justice Department Officials stated, "[t]he above ground support... To make him the mastermind of anything is ridiculous", a "personnel clerk", Scott Shane, Divisions Arose on Rough Tactics for Qaead Figure The New York Times, April 17, 2009 a "logistics chief", Transcript of Representative John Conyers Jr. Hearing on C.I.A.’s Destruction of Tapes Political/Congressional Transcript Wire, December 20, 2007 (Access My Library Link, requires free membership) and a travel agent." In 2002, following his capture, a former State Department director of counter-terrorism, Michael Sheehan, said he saw Abu Zubzaydah as being “sinister” and that “[t]here is evidence that he is a planner and a manager as well. I think he’s a major player.” Report: Insider May Testitfy On Zubaydah April 2, 2002 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) John B. Bellinger III declared Abu Zubaydah “extremely dangerous” and a planner of 9/11 in a June 2007 briefing on Guantanamo Bay. United States Helsinki Commission Briefing Transcript Political/Congressional Transcript Wire, June 22, 2007 (Access My Library Link, requires free membership) A former station chief for the CIA, Bob Grenier, claimed he “spent two and a half years of [his] life casing Abu Zubaydah” and claims Abu Zubaydah was a trainer, a recruiter, understood bomb-making, was a forger, a logistician, and someone who made things happen, and made “al-Qaeda function.” Transcript of Video News Story on Guantanamo Bay with Kelli Arena Reporting CNN, September 24, 2006 (Access My Library Link, requires free membership) On April 2, 2002 then Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, stated in a Department of Defense press briefing “I don’t think there’s any doubt but a man named Abu Zubaydah is a close associate of UBL’s, and if not the number two, very close to the number two person in the organization. I think that’s well established.” Department of Defense News Briefing April 2, 2002 (Access My Library Link, requires free membership) Mr. Rumsfeld also stated Abu Zubadaydah was “a very senior al Qaeda official who has been intimately involved in a range of activities for the al Qaeda.” Gerry Gilmore Rumsfeld Confirms Capture of Senior Al Qaeda Leader Department of Defense, April 2, 2002 On April 3, 2002 in another press conference, Mr. Rumsfeld stated the United States was responsible for Abu Zubaydah’s detention. Donald Rumsfeld News Transcript Department of Defense, April 3, 2002 Mr. Rumsfeld declared Abu Zubaydah was a “very senior al Qaeda operative.” During this same two week period in April 2002, White House spokesman Ari Fleischer described Abu Zubaydah as a “key terrorist recruiter and operational planner and member of Osama bin Laden’s inner circle.” Profile: Abu Zubaydah BBC News, April 2, 2002 He further claimed the capture of AZ was a “very serious blow” to al-Qaeda and that one of al-Qaeda's “many tentacles" was "cut off.” World: United States Western Mail, April 3, 2002 Finally, on April 9, 2002 President George W. Bush declared in a speech at the Connecticut Republican Committee Luncheon that Abu Zubaydah was “one of the top operatives plotting and planning death and destruction on the United States.” George W. Bush Remarks by the President at Connecticut Republican Committee Luncheon White House website, April 9, 2002 He also stated in a speech at the Virginia Military Institute, on April 17, 2002 that Abu Zubaydah was “one of al-Qaeda’s top leaders” who was “spending a lot of time as one of the top operating officials of al Qaeda, plotting and planning murder.” George W. Bush’s Remarks at the Virginia Military Institute, April 17, 2002 In June 6, 2002 during his address to the nation, President Bush stated Abu Zubaydah was “al Qaeda’s chief of operations.” George W. Bush, Remarks by the President in Address to the Nation White House website, June 6, 2002 Come October 2002 George W. Bush stated in a speech at a dinner for Thaddeus McCotter that “Abu Zubaydah was one of the top three leaders” in al-Qaeda. George W. Bush Remarks by the President at Thaddeus McCotter for Congress Dinner White House website, October 14, 2002 Numerous anonymous U.S. officials have also made allegations against Abu Zubaydah in the press, including: He was a “senior bin Laden official” and the “former head of Egypt-based Islamic Jihad.” He “played a key role in the East Africa embassy attacks.” He was listed as a “trusted aide” to bin Laden with “growing power.” Western officials believed al-Qaeda may have been under the control of Abu Zubaydah. Massimo Calabresi and Romesh Ratnesar, Can we stop the next attack? CNN News, March 4, 2002 Abu Zubaydah was an aide of bin Laden who ran training camps in Afghanistan and “coordinated terror cells in Europe and North America.” Abu Zubaydah was a “key terrorist recruiter, operational planner, and member of Osama Bin Laden’s inner cicrcle.” Who’s Who in al-Qaeda? BBC News Abu Zubaydah was “bin Laden’s CEO”, Nick Schou One Degree of Separation Orange County Weekly, October 11, 2001 “a central figure in Al Qaeda”, Marlise Simons A NATION CHALLENGED: FRANCE; Ninth Man Held in Suspected Plot Against Paris Embassy New York Times, October 4, 2001 and a “bin Laden lieutenant.” AP Top News at 8 p.m. EDT Associated Press, October 5, 2001 Abu Zubaydah is Bin Laden’s “travel planner.” Bin Laden Videos Suggest Location The Cincinnati Post, December 5, 2001 Abu Zubaydah is one of bin Laden’s “confidants.” Eric Schmitt and Erik Eckholm A NATION CHALLENGED: THE HUNTED; U.S. Takes Custody of a Qaeda Trainer Seized by Pakistan New York Times, January 6, 2002 Abu Zubaydah is “one of a handful of men entrusted with running the terrorism network in the event of Osama bin Laden’s death or capture.” Philip Shenon A NATION CHALLENGED: BALKAN TRAIL; U.S. Labels an Arab Captive a Planner of Qaeda Attacks New York Times, January 23, 2002 Abu Zubaydah was a senior bin Laden lieutenant who was believed “to be organizing al Qaida resources to carry out attacks on American targets.” Global Impact News Alert. U.S. Seeks New Head of Al Qaida Anti-American Operations United Press International, February 15, 2002 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) Abu Zubaydah was the fourth ranking member of al Qaida behind Bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and Muhamed Atef. Abu Zubaydah was the “successor as chief of operations for al Qaida” after Muhamed Atef’s death. Abu Zubaydah knows the identities of “thousands” of terrorists that passed through al Qaida training camps in Afghanistan. Abu Zubaydah briefed Richard Reid, the shoe-bomber. Profile: Abu Zubaydah BBC News, April 2, 2002 Abu Zubaydah was one of bin Laden’s top planners of terrorist operations who knew of al Qaida plots and cells. BANK TERROR ATTACK FEAR; Warning issued after interview Birmingham Evening Mail, April 20, 2002 Abu Zubaydah was captured after he made a cell phone call to al-Qaeda leaders in Yemen. Abu Zubaydah stated al-Qaeda knew how to smuggle a dirty-bomb into the United States. Al-Qaeda claims ‘dirty bomb’ know-how BBC News, April 23, 2002 Abu Zubaydah’s information was further proof al-Qaeda was attempting to acquire weapons of mass destruction. Abu Zubaydah is the “connection between bin Laden and many of al-Qaida’s operational cells.” John J. Lumpkin Al-Qaida Captive Talks Of Terror AP News, April 24, 2002 Abu Zubaydah is linked to plots to detonate apartment buildings. NY terror alert came from bin Laden aide USA Today, May 23, 2002 Abu Zubaydah confirmed the fourth September 11 flight, UA 93, was intended to hit the White House. Bush Faces Dissent on European Trip CNN News Transcripts, May 23, 2002 Bush: ‘No war plans on my desk’ for Iraq CNN.com, May 23, 2002 (His claim is contradicted by Khalid Sheikh Mohamed and Ramzi Bin al Shibh though, who stated UA 93 was on its way to the capitol, not the White House.) John J. Lumpkin Many Al-Qaida Chiefs Remain Unreachable The Cincinnati Post, December 27, 2002 Osama bin Laden wrote a handwritten note to Abu Zubaydah in December, 2001. CNN American Morning With Paula Zahn CNN.com, July 1, 2002 The letter allegedly tells Abu Zubaydah to continue fighting the United States if bin Laden passes away. Travel Watch ONE News, July 1, 2002 Abu Zubaydah told U.S. officials that Iraq and al-Qaeda were linked in the training of people on chemical weapons. Ron Hutcheson and James Kuhnhenn Iraq deal with Congress nears, Bush says Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, September 26, 2002 (The officials noted there was no independent verification of this claim.) Despite all of these allegations the U.S. Government has not officially charged Abu Zubaydah with any crimes. Department of Defense Military Commissions Cases Website, April 30, 2009 Abu Zubaydah's Value as a Source of Intelligence When Abu Zubaydah was captured, the Bush Administration believed he was an unparalleled source of intelligence on al-Qaeda and terrorism plots. Abu Zubaydah was touted as the biggest catch of the War on Terror until the capture of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. Alleged 9-11 Mastermind Nabbed CBS News, March 1, 2003 Immediately after Abu Zubaydah’s capture the director of the FBI stated Abu Zubzaydah’s capture would help deter future attacks. NEWS SUMMARY: Arrest May Deter Attacks New York Times, April 4, 2002 Also, White House spokesman Ari Fleischer stated Abu Zubaydah could provide a treasure-trove of information about al-Qaeda. Donald Rumsfeld echoed these sentiments claiming Abu Zubaydah was “a man who knows of additional attacks”, who has “trained people to do this”, and was a big fish who had a fountain of knowledge. An anonymous U.S. official claimed Abu Zubaydah was an incredible source of information claiming “One Abu Zubaydah is worth a ton of guys at Gitmo.” Terrorism Notebook. More attacks have been prevented, officials say Seattle Times, January 11, 2003 In February 2008, C.I.A. director Michael Hayden admitted that he believed information gleaned from Abu Zubaydah’s interrogation “led to reliable information”, that Abu Zubaydah was a “prolific producer” of information, Jeff Bliss and Tony Capaccio, Iraq Group May Attack Outside Nation, McConnell Says Bloomberg.com, February 5, 2008 and that roughly 25 percent of the information on al Qaeda that came from human sources originated from Abu Zubaydah. Richard Esposito and Jason Ryan ''CIA Chief: We Waterboarded. ABC News, February 5, 2008 Hayden stated Abu Zubaydah was one of three individuals “best positioned to know about impending terrorist atrocities.” The White House’s Perverse Argument: Opinion Watch The Washington Post, February 7, 2008 In April, 2002 after being briefed on Abu Zubaydah’s interrogations, Porter J. Goss, the Chairman of the House Intelligence Committee said “[t]he Abu Zubaydah story is a good one, with more to come.” Philip Shenon MIDEAST TURMOIL: INTELLIGENCE; Officials Say Qaeda Suspect Has Given Useful Information New York Times, April 26, 2002 Richard C. Shelby described Abu Zubaydah as someone who was “carefully trained in techniques of disinformation.” Nancy Pelosi, the senior Democrat on the House Intelligence Committee would describe Abu Zubaydah as being “very skilled at avoiding interrogation. He is an agent of disinformation.” Amanda Ripley A look at the evolution of a terrorist-attack warning: one part truth, one part rumor and one part fear CNN.com, May 27, 2002 While Abu Zubaydah would provide important intelligence on the War on Terror, his value as an intel source was greatly inflated, much like his role in the global terror network, as noted below. Exploitation of Abu Zubaydah's Value President Bush personally used Abu Zubaydah’s perceived “value” as a detainee to justify the use of the CIA's harsher interrogation techniques George W. Bush September 2006 Speech September 2006 as well as Abu Zubaydah’s detention in secret C.I.A. prisons around the world, Bush Concedes CIA Held Suspects in Secret Prisons NPR, September 6, 2006 such as Thailand, Raymond Bonner THREATS AND RESPONSES: SOUTHEAST ASIA; Thailand Tiptoes in Step With the American Antiterror Effort New York Times, June 8, 2003 Poland, Report: Europeans knew of CIA secret prisons USA Today, June 8, 2007 Elaine Ganley CIA ran secret prisons in Poland and Romania, EU investigator says Seattle Times, June 8, 2007 and Diego Garcia. Lawmakers to examine claims Indian Ocean island used in secret prison network International Herald Tribune, October 19, 2007 In a speech in 2006, President Bush claimed that Abu Zubaydah initially revealed useful intelligence, including information that allegedly helped foil a terrorist attack on American soil, but that Abu Zubaydah became uncooperative. It was only then, he reported, that an “alternative set of procedures” was used on Abu Zubaydah in order to gain valuable intelligence and were “safe and lawful.” He also stated that Abu Zubaydah had received training in how to resist interrogation, and thus more aggressive techniques were mandated. These claims directly conflict with the reports of the original F.B.I. agents tasked with interrogating Abu Zubaydah who had been receiving crucial pieces of information from him without the use of harsher techniques, as well as other government officials. Abu Zubaydah New York Times, April 20, 2009 The President further asserted in his speech that after the harsher interrogation techniques were applied, Abu Zubaydah renewed his cooperation and provided information that helped capture an alleged planner of the September 11th attacks, Ramzi bin al Shibh, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the alleged mastermind behind the September 11th attacks. It has been revealed that the information Abu Zubaydah gave on these two terrorists had already been gleaned by U.S. intelligence months before Abu Zubaydah’s capture. Mark Mazetti Questions Raised About Bush’s Primary Claims in Defense of Secret Detention System New York Times, September 8, 2006 Despite the contentions that Abu Zubaydah’s confessions may not have been accurate, President Bush reiterated the value of Abu Zubaydah’s information when he signed an executive order in July 2007 allowing harsh interrogation tactics “limited in public only by a vaguely worded ban on cruel and inhuman treatment.” Katherine Shrader Bush Alters Rules for CIA Interrogations San Francisco Chronicle, July 20, 2007 President Bush would also later veto an intelligence funding bill which included a provision to restrict harsher interrogation techniques, including waterboarding. Bush vetoes move to outlaw waterboarding ABC News Australia, March 9, 2008 The Iraq War The U.S. Government used questionable intel from Abu Zubaydah in order to justify the invasion of Iraq. U.S. officials stated that the allegations that Iraq and al-Qaeda were linked in the training of people on chemical weapons came from Abu Zubaydah. Bush Says He and Congress Will Band Together on Iraq; Capitol Hill Still Sour Knight Ridder/Tribune Business News, September 27, 2002 (Access My Library Link, requires free membership) The officials noted there was no independent verification of his claims. The U.S. Government included statements made by Abu Zubaydah in regards to al Qaeda’s ability to obtain a dirty bomb in its attempts to show a link between Iraq and al Qaeda. Fritz Umbach Bush’s bogus document dump The Salon, April 13, 2006 According to a Senate Intelligence Committee report Abu Zubaydah also “indicated that he had heard that an important al Qaeda associate, Abu Musab al Zarqawi, and others had good relationships with Iraqi intelligence.” Stephen F. Hayes The Rice Stuff? The Daily Standard, October 20, 2004 However, in June, 2003 Abu Zubaydah and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed were reported as stating there was no link between Saddam Hussein and al Qaeda. John Diamond and Bill Nichols CIA in spotlight over reports leading to war June 8, 2003 James Risen THREATS AND RESPONSES: C.I.A.; Captives Deny Qaeda Worked With Baghdad New York Times, June 9, 2003 The Military Commissions Act President Bush also asked Congress in a speech in September 2006 to formulate special rules in order to try Abu Zubaydah via military commission in Guantanamo Bay. Warren Richey ‘Alternative’ CIA tactics complicate Padilla case Christian Science Monitor, September 15, 2006 In fact, in late April 2002 less than one month after Abu Zubaydah’s capture, Justice Department officials stated Abu Zubaydah “is a near-ideal candidate for a tribunal trial.” Neail A. Lewis A NATION CHALLENGED: THE DETAINEES; U.S. Is Seeking Basis to Charge War Detainees New York Times, April 21, 2002 However, only several months later US Officials acknowledged there was “no rush” to try Abu Zubaydah via military commission. Frank Davies U.S. readies tribunals for terrorism trials The Miami Herald, December 26, 2002 In September 2006, President Bush stated in an interview that if Congress could pass a “good bill” out of the Senate in regards to setting up a military commission system, then Abu Zubaydah “is going to go on trial.” Wolf Blitzer Interview of George W. Bush CNN, September 20, 2006 The U.S. Government has yet to try Abu Zubaydah by military commission, article 3 court, or in any other capacity. The Bush Administration's Domestic Spying Program In addition to justifying the use of presently illegal torture techniques, the Bush administration used Abu Zubaydah’s capture as justification to accelerate its domestic spying program to allow quick action on the phone numbers and addresses seized during Abu Zubaydah’s capture. James Risen and Eric Lichtblau Bush altered rules on spying International Herald Tribune, December 17, 2005 Inexplicably the NSA expanded its surveillance beyond the numbers seized during Abu Zubaydah’s capture. Aziz Huq Who’s watching whom? League of Women Voters, October 1, 2006 The spying program would later be revamped in order to make it legal. The FBI Interrogation of Abu Zubaydah: Pre-CIA Following Abu Zubaydah’s capture he was interrogated by FBI agents Ali Soufan and Steve Gaudin. Ali Soufan My Tortured Decision New York Times, April 22, 2009 Michael Isikoff We Could Have Done This the Right Way Newsweek, April 25, 2009 The interrogation followed standard FBI protocol and involved cleaning and dressing Abu Zubaydah’s wounds. David Johnston At a Secret Interrogation, Dispute Flared Over Tactics New York Times, September 10, 2006 A Review of the FBI’s Involvement and Observations of Detainee Interrogation in Guantanamo Bay, Afghanistan, and Iraq Department of Justice: Office of the Inspector General, May 2008 Ali Soufan stated in a Newsweek article in April, 2009 "We kept him alive... It wasn't easy, he couldn't drink, he had a fever. I was holding ice to his lips." The agents attempted to convince Abu Zubaydah that they knew of his activities in languages he understood; English and Arabic. Both agents believed they were making good progress in gathering intelligence from Abu Zubayda: He disclosed Khalid Sheihkh Muhamed’s alias, “Mukhtar,” as well as other details of the attacks on New York and Washington D.C. Peter Grier Detainee treatment: new details Christian Science Monitor, May 23, 2008 Abu Zubaydah also revealed the identity of Jose Padilla to the FBI agents. Mark Mazzetti "Inquiry Begins Into Destruction of Tapes" New York Times, December 9, 2007 FBI and CIA Clash Over Interrogation Tactics Within a matter of days a CIA interrogation team began participating in Abu Zubaydah’s interrogation. The CIA team included CIA contractor and former Air Force psychologist James Mitchell. Amy Goodman The Dark Side: Jane Mayer on the Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned Into a War on American Ideals, Interview Transcript Democracy Now, July 18, 2008 Within days James Mitchell took over the interrogations from Soufan and Gaudin. Mitchell ignored Soufan's previously successful strategy and ordered that Abu Zubaydah answer questions or face a gradual increase in aggressive techniques. Soufan asked Mitchell whether he had ever interrogated anyone, to which Mitchell replied that he hadn't, but "Science is science. This is a behavioral issue" and suggested Soufan was the inexperienced one at the facility. Mitchell strongly believed in his interrogation methods and applied them to Abu Zubaydah. Mitchell believed that Abu Zubaydah must be treated “like a dog in a cage.” He stated the interrogation “was like an experiment, when you apply electric shocks to a caged dog, after a while, he’s so diminished, he can’t resist.” Soufan was so engraged at the tactics being contemplated by the CIA that he challenged a CIA agent's authority to go through with them, shouting "We're the United States of America, and we don't do that kind of thing." The CIA agent told him in April 2002 that the tactics were approved by the "highest levels" in Washington, and even stated that the approvals "are coming from [Alberto] Gonzales." FBI agents Ali Soufan and Steve Gaudin were replaced, but were allowed to stay on and observe the CIA’s interrogation. Ali Soufan was alarmed by the CIA’s interrogation tactics. He reported to his FBI superiors that the CIA’s interrogation constituted “borderline torture.” He was particularly concerned about a coffin-like box he discovered that had been built by the CIA interrogation team. He was so angry he called the FBI Assistant Director for counterterrorism, Pasquale D'Amaro and shouted "I swear to God, I'm going to arrest these guys!" Michael Isikoff, Mark Hosenball and Michael Hirsh Aggressive interrogation techniques of terror suspects is under scrutiny Newsweek, December 17, 2007 After Soufan’s complaints to the FBI Counterterrorism Assistant Director Pasquale D’Amuro were communicated to the CIA, both FBI agents were ordered to leave the facility immediately by FBI Director Robert Mueller. Mark Mazzetti Bush Aides Linked to Talks on Interrogations New York Times, September 24, 2008 Ali Soufan left, but Steve Gaudin stayed an additional few weeks and continued to participate in the interrogation. Shortly thereafter Pasquale D'Amaro met with officials from the Department of Justice as well as the Attorney General Office’s Criminal Division concerning the FBI’s participation in CIA interrogations of terrorism suspects. During this meeting D’Amuro learned that the CIA had requested an opinion from the Department of Justice regarding the proposed use of certain types of interrogation techniques. D’Amuro met with FBI director Robert Mueller III and told him the FBI should not participate in interrogations using harsh techniques because FBI protocol prohibited agents from being involved. Robert Mueller III agreed with D’Amuro and ordered all FBI agents to stop participating in any interrogations where the CIA used harsh interrogation techniques. Walter Pincus Pakistan Is Threatened, Intelligence Chief Says The Washington Post, February 6, 2008 In 2008, a report by the Justice Department’s Inspector General alleged the FBI complained repeatedly beginning in 2002 about harsh CIA tactics. Top FBI officials apparently debated for six months after Abu Zubaydah’s capture as to what to do, before formally severing ties with any CIA interrogations where harsh tactics were used. Eric Lichtblau and Scott Shane FBI clashed with CIA and military over interrogation tactics International Herald Tribune, May 20, 2008 The CIA Interrogation of Abu Zubaydah The CIA interrogation strategies were based on work done by James Elmer Mitchell and Bruce Jessen in the Air Force's Survival Evasion Resistance Escape (SERE) program. Brian Ross, Matthew Cole, and Joseph Rhee The CIA's $1000 a Day Specialists on Waterboarding, Interrogations ABC News, April 30, 2009 Report: Two Psychologists Responsible for Devising CIA Torture Program Fox News, April 30, 2009 Katherine Eban Rorschach and Awe Vanity Fair, July 17, 2007 Joby Warrick and Peter Finn Harsh Tactics Readied Before Their Approval The Washington Post, April 22, 2009 The CIA contracted with the two psychologists to develop alternative, harsh interrogation techniques. However, neither of the two psychologists had any experience in conducting interrogations. Katherine Eban, Torture Memos Link Lawyers and Psychologists Vanity Fair, April 17, 2009 Air Force Reserve Colonel Steve Kleinman stated that the CIA "chose two clinical psychologists who had no intelligence background whatsoever, who had never conducted an interrogation... to do something that had never been proven in the real world." Associates of Mitchell and Jessen were skeptical of their methods and believed they did not possess any data about the impact of SERE training on the human psyche. The CIA came to learn that Mitchell and Jessen's expertise in waterboarding was probably "misrepresented" and thus, there was no reason to believe it was medically safe or effective. Despite these shortcomings of experience and know-how, the two psychologists boasted of being paid $1000 a day plus expenses, tax-free by the CIA for their work. The SERE program, which Mitchell and Jessen would reverse engineer, was originally designed to be defensive in nature and was used to train pilots and other soldiers on how to resist harsh interrogation techniques and torture were they to fall into enemy hands. The program subjected trainees to torture techniques such as “waterboarding . . . sleep deprivation, isolation, exposure to extreme temperatures, enclosure in tiny spaces, bombardment with agonizing sounds at extremely damaging decibel levels, and religious and sexual humiliation.” United States’ “Disappeared” CIA Long-term “Ghost Detainees” Human Rights Watch, October 2004 Under CIA supervision, Miller and Jessen adapted SERE into an offensive program designed to train CIA agents on how to use the harsh interrogation techniques to gather information from terrorist detainees. In fact, all of the tactics listed above would later be reported in the International Committee of the Red Cross Report on Fourteen High Value Detainees in CIA Custody as having been used on Abu Zubaydah. International Committee of the Red Cross Report on the Treatment of Fourteen "High Value Detainees" in CIA Custody International Committee of the Red Cross, February 2007 Derek Summerfield Fighting “terrorism” with torture: torture is a form of terrorism: there are no justifications for it British Medical Journal, April 12, 2003 The psychologists relied heavily on experiments done by American psychologist Martin Seligman in the 1970s known as “learned helplessness.” In these experiments caged dogs were electrocuted in a random way in order to completely break their will to resist. Mitchell and Jessen applied this idea to Abu Zubaydah during his interrogation. Many of the interrogation techniques used in the SERE program, including waterboarding, cold cell, long-time standing, and sleep deprivation were previously considered illegal under U.S. and international law and treaties at the time of Abu Zubaydah’s capture. Walter Pincus, Waterboarding Historically Controversial The Washington Post, October 5, 2006 In fact, the United States had prosecuted Japanese military officials after World War II and American soldiers after the Vietnam War for waterboarding and as recently as 1983. Since 1930, the United States had defined sleep deprivation as an illegal form of torture. Many other techniques developed by the CIA constitute inhuman and degrading treatment and torture under the United Nations Convention against Torture and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Top U.S. Officials Approve Enhanced Interrogation Techniques In the Spring of 2002, immediately following Abu Zubaydah’s capture, top US Government officials including Dick Cheney, Colin Powell, George Tenet, Condoleeza Rice, Donald Rumsfeld, and John Ashcroft discussed at length whether or not the CIA could legally use harsh techniques against Abu Zubaydah. Bush aware of advisers’ interrogation talks ABC News, April 11, 2008 Condoleeza Rice specifically mentioned the SERE program during the meeting stating “I recall being told that U.S. military personnel were subjected to training to certain physical and psychological interrogation techniques…” In addition, in 2002 and 2003, several Democratic congressional leaders were briefed on the proposed “enhanced interrogation techniques.” Joby Warrick and Dan Eggen Hill Briefed on Waterboarding in 2002 The Washington Post, December 9, 2007 These congressional leaders included Nancy Pelosi, the future Speaker of the House, and Representative Jane Harman. Congressional officials have stated that the attitude in the briefings ranged from “quiet acquiescence, if not downright support.” Senator Bob Graham, who CIA records claim was present at the briefings, has stated that he was not briefed on waterboarding in 2002 and that CIA attendance records clash with his personal journal. CIA Chief Rebuts Pelosi's Charges The Washington Post, May 15, 2009 Harman was the only congressional leader to object to the tactics being proposed. Report: Top Members of Congress Were OK With Waterboarding in 2002 Fox News, December 9, 2007 It is of note that in a 2007 report by investigator Dick Marty on secret CIA prisons, the phrase “enhanced interrogations” was stated to be a euphemism for “torture.” Molly Moore Report Gives Details on CIA Prisons The Washington Post, June 9, 2007 The documents show that top U.S. Officials were intimately involved in the discussion and approval of the harsher interrogation techniques used on Abu Zubaydah. Condoleeza Rice ultimately told the CIA the harsher interrogation tactics were acceptable, As Bush Adviser, Rice Gave OK to Waterboard Fox News, April 22, 2009 Senate Report: Rice, Cheney OK'd CIA use of waterboarding CNN, April 23, 2009 and Dick Cheney stated "I signed off on it; so did others." Jason Leopold Cheney Admits He 'Signed Off' on Waterboarding of Three Guantanamo Prisoners Atlantic Free Press, December 29, 2008 During the discussions John Ashcroft is reported as saying “Why are we talking about this in the White House? History will not judge this kindly.” At least one advisor to Condoleeza Rice, Philip Zelikow, opposed the new, harsher interrogation techniques. Rachel Maddow Interview of Philip Zelikow, Transcript MSNBC, April 23, 2009 Upon reading the August 1, 2002 memo which justified the torture, Zelikow authored his own memo contesting the Justice Department's conclusions, since he believed they were legally incorrect. The Bush Administration attempted to collect all of the copies of Zelikow's memo and destroy them, although it is still unclear why. The Torture Memos In 2009, President Obama released four Justice Department memos which outlined the procedures CIA operatives wished to use on Abu Zubaydah. Ewen MacAskill Obama releases Bush torture memos The Guardian, April 16, 2009 Mark Mazetti and Scott Shane Interrogation Memos Detail Harsh Tactics by the C.I.A. New York Times, April 16, 2009 Jon Swaine Barack Obama releases torture memos: details of techniques used by CIA The Telegraph, April 17, 2009 August 1, 2002 Memo In August 2002, the Department of Justice’s Office of Legal Counsel, Jay Bybee and John Yoo drafted the first Torture Memo. Previously Secret Torture Memo Released CNN.com, July 24, 2008 The purpose of the memo was to gain approval for harsh interrogation tactics to be used on Abu Zubaydah. C.I.A. Interrogations New York Times, April 28, 2009 Although some believe the harsh tactics were already in effect before the memo granting authority to use them was written. Alberto Gonzales would later testify before Congress that the opinion was sought after the detention of Abu Zubaydah. Zachary Coile Gonzales unflappable in 6 hours of testimony Bush nominee says torture will not be tolerated San Francisco Chronicle, January 7, 2005 Questions by C.I.A. officers over which tactics could be used on Abu Zubaydah had spurred the torture memo’s existence David Johnston and James Risen The Reach Of War: The Interrogations; Aides Say Memo Backed Coercion Already In Use New York Times, June 27, 2004 , which is reflected in the language of the memo; "You have asked for this advice in the course of conducting interrogations of Abu Zubaydah." Jay Bybee and John Yoo Memorandum for John Rizzo Acting General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency: Interrogation of al Qaeda Operative U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, August 1, 2002 The memo's author, John Yoo, acknowledged the memo was the basis for Abu Zubaydah’s interrogation. Jeffrey Rosen Conscience of a Conservative New York Times, September 9, 2007 Yoo even told an interviewer “there was an urgency to decide so that valuable intelligence could be acquired from Abu Zubaydah, before further attacks could occur.” The memo contemplated ten techniques the interrogators wanted to use: "(1) attention grasp, (2) walling, (3) facial hold, (4) facial slap (insult slap), (5) cramped confinement, (6) wall standing, (7) stress positions, (8) sleep deprivation, (9) insects placed in a confinement box, and (10) the waterboard.” Many of the techniques were, until then, generally considered illegal. Many other techniques developed by the CIA constituted inhumane and degrading treatment and torture under the United Nations Convention against Torture and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The memo was drafted weeks after prohibited techniques had already been used on Abu Zubaydah Alex Koppelman Ashcroft suggests CIA sought legal approval after torture began Salon, July 17, 2008 and was used to provide after-the-fact legal support for harsh interrogation techniques. Regardless, the techniques were only to be used on an "as-needed basis and that not all of these techniques will necessarily be used.” The techniques were to be used in an escalating fashion, but the "repetition will not be substantial because the techniques generally lose their effectiveness after several repetitions" and that substantial repetition was assured not to occur. However, Abu Zubaydah would eventually be waterboarded 83 times in the same month the memo was drafted. Steven Bradbury Memoradnum for John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency Re: Application of United States Obligations Under Article 16 of the Convention Against Torture to Certain Techniques that May Be Used in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, May 30, 2005 Michael Scherer and Bobby Ghosh How Waterboarding Got Out of Control Time Magazine, April 20, 2009 Scott Shane Waterboarding Used 266 Times on 2 Suspects New York Times, April 19, 2009 According to a psychological evaluation conducted of Abu Zubaydah upon his capture, the memo alleges that Abu Zubaydah: Quickly rose from very low level mujahedin to third or fourth man in al Qaeda Served as Usama Bin Laden’s senior lieutenant Managed a network of training camps Was instrumental in the training of operatives for al Qaeda, the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and other terrorist elements inside Pakistan and Afghanistan Acted as the Deputy Camp Commander for al Qaeda training camp in Afghanistan, personally approving entry and graduation of all trainees during 1999-2000 Approved all individuals going in and out of Afghanistan to the training camps from 1996-1999 No one went in and out of Peshawar, Pakistan without his knowledge and approval Acted as al Qaeda’s coordinator of external contacts and foreign communications Acted as al Qaeda’s counter-intelligence officer and had been trusted to find spies within the organization Was involved in every major terrorist operation carried out by al Qaeda Was a planner for the Millennium plot to attack U.S. and Israeli targets during the Millennium celebrations in Jordan Served as a planner for the Paris Embassy plot in 2001 Was one of the planners of 9/11 Engaged in planning future terrorist attacks against U.S. interests Wrote al Qaeda’s manual on resistance techniques Due in part to these allegations, the Bush administration approved the use of enhanced interrogation techniques against Abu Zubaydah, and subsequently other high-value detainees. The Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel drafted a subsequent memo less than a year later authorizing military interrogators to use much of the same techniques the CIA was authorized to use. Mark Mazzetti ’03 Memo Approved Harsh Interrogations New York Times, April 2, 2008 However, both memoranda were eventually rescinded by the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel. May 10, 2005 Memo Another subsequent memo addressed the legality of additional interrogation techniques such as nudity, dietary manipulation, abdominal slap, water dousing, and water flicking. Steven Bradbury Memorandum for John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legal Counsel Re: Application of 18 U.S.C. Sections 2340-2340A to Certain Techniques That May Be Used in the Interrogation of a High Value al Qaeda Detainee Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, May 10, 2005 It also expanded on the techniques of walling, stress positions, and sleep deprivation, allowing for an additional stress position and extended sleep deprivation up to 180 consecutive hours. The memo also outlined the amount of waterboarding applications a detainee could be subjected to. The waterboard can only be used with a given detainee during one 30-day period. During that 30-day period the waterboard can be used no more than 5 days. In any given day that waterboarding occurs interrogators may use no more than two “sessions”, with a “session” defined as the time that the detainee is strapped to the board, and that a session can last no more than 2 hours. During any session no more than six applications of water of 10 seconds or more can be used. The total cumulative time of all water applications in a 24 hour period may not exceed 12 minutes. This meant the detainee could only be subjected to 60 waterboarding sessions of 10 seconds or longer per 30 day period. The memo also reported that the Department of Justice, Inspector General report noted that [T]he waterboard technique… was different from the technique described in the DoJ opinion and used in the SERE training. The difference was in the manner in which the detainee’s breathing was obstructed. At the SERE school and in the DoJ opinion the subject’s airflow is disrupted by the firm application of a damp cloth over the air passage; the interrogator applies a small amount of water to the cloth in a controlled manner. By contrast, the Agency interrogator… applied large volumes of water to a cloth that covered the detainee’s mouth and nose. One of the psychologists/interrogators acknowledged that the Agency’s use of the technique is different from that used in SERE training because it is ‘for real’ and is ‘more poignant and convincing.’” The Inspector General further reported that “OMS contends that the expertise of the SERE psychologist/interrogator on the waterboard was probably misrepresented at the time, as the SERE waterboard experience is so different from the subsequent Agency usage as to make it almost irrelevant. Consequently, according to OMS, there was no a priori reason to believe that applying the waterboard with the frequency and intensity with which it was used by the psychologist/interrogators was either efficacious or medically safe. The Inspector General also noted that the use of waterboarding was discontinued in every armed services branch except the Navy SERE training "because of its dramatic effect on the students who were subjects." The CIA Office of Medical Services contradicted this conclusion, however, stating that “[w]hile SERE trainers believe that trainees are unable to maintain psychological resistance to the waterboard our experience was otherwise. Some subjects unquestionably can withstand a large number of applications, with no immediately discernible cumulative impact beyond their strong aversion to the experience.” The memo also noted that at a Senate Judiciary Committee hear, Douglas Johnson, Executive Director of the Center for Victims of Torture, testified that some U.S. military personnel who have undergone waterboard training have apparently stated “that it’s taken them 15 years of therapy to get over it", although his claim has not substantiated. Despite the conflicting information the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel approved all of the tactics listed above. May 10, 2005 Memo (Combined Interrogation Techniques) Another memo penned on May 10, 2005 authorized the use of the above outlined individual techniques in conjunction with one another, but stressed the importance of constant vigilance on the part of medical observers to ensure the techniques did not cause "severe physical or mental pain." Steven Bradbury Memorandum For John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency Re: Application of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2340-2340A to the Combined Use of Certain Techniques in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, May 10, 2005 May 30, 2005 Memo The final memo mentioned Abu Zubaydah several times and claimed that due to the increased interrogation techniques Zubaydah also "provided significant information on two operatives, [including] Jose Padilla[,] who planned to build and detonate a 'dirty bomb' in the Washington DC area." This claim is heavily disputed, however, by Ali Soufan the FBI interrogator who first interrogated Abu Zubaydah following his capture, and other intelligence officials. In fact, the memo noted that not all of the waterboarding sessions were necessary for Abu Zubaydah, since the on-scene interrogation team determined he had stopped producing actionable intelligence. The memo reads: This is not to say that the interrogation program has worked perfectly. According to the IG Report, the CIA, at least initially, could not always distinguish detainees who had information but were successfully resisting interrogation from those who did not actually have the information. See IG Report at 83-85. On at least one occasion, this may have resulted in what might be deemed in retrospect to have been the unnecessary use of enhanced techniques. On that occasion, although the on-scene interrogation team judged Abu Zubaydah to be compliant, elements within CIA Headquarters still believed he was withholding information. See id at 84. At the direction of CIA Headquarters interrogators therefore used the waterboard one more time on Zubaydah. The Torture of Abu Zubaydah Abu Zubaydah's treatment at the hands of the CIA has been called torture by Ali Soufan, the FBI interrogator who witnessed part of Abu Zubaydah's CIA interrogation, various U.S. officials including President Obama, and by the International Committee of the Red Cross. The techniques designed by James Mitchell, Bruce Jessen, and the CIA were designed to exploit the idea of learned helplessness and make Abu Zubaydah completely psychologically and physically dependent on his captors. In order to achieve this end, the CIA subjected Abu Zubaydah to various forms of increasingly harsh interrogation techniques including temperature extremes, music played at debilitating volumes, and sexual humiliation. Abu Zubaydah was also subjected to beatings, isolation, waterboarding, long-time standing, continuous cramped confinement, and sleep deprivation. Scott Shane Book Cites Secret Red Cross Report of C.I.A. Torture of Qaeda Captives New York Times, July 11, 2008 Jane Meyer The Black Sites: A rare look inside C.I.A.’s secret interrogation program The New Yorker, August 13, 2007 Scott Horton Six Questions for Jane Meyer, Author of The Dark Side Harper's Magazine, July 14, 2008 During Abu Zubaydah's interrogation President Bush learned he was on painkillers for the wounds he suffered during his capture and was therefore difficult to get information from. Paul Koring New book slams Bush’s black ops Globe and Mail, January 4, 2006 President Bush exclaimed to then C.I.A. director George Tenet “[w]ho authorized putting him on pain medication?” It would later be reported that Abu Zubaydah was denied painkillers during his interrogation. Impunity for the Architects of Illegal Policy Human Rights Watch, 2005 Serrin Turner and Stephen J. Schullhoffer The Secrecy Problem in Terrorism Trials Brennan Center for Justice 2005 Eun Young Choi Veritas, Not Vengeance: An Examination of the Evidentiary Rules for Military Commissions in the War Against Terrorism 42 Harvard Civil Rights Civil Liberties Law Review, 2007 Charles H. Brower II The Lives of Animals, the Lives of Prisoners, and the Revelations of Abu Ghraib 37 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 2004 A. John Radsan Symposium on Reexamining the Law of War: The Collision Between Common Article Three and The Central Intelligence Agency 56 Catholic University Law Review, 2007 Tommy Harnden Gloves off, the screws go on 9/11 suspect The Age, March 6, 2003 Raymond Bonner, Don Van Natta Jr, and Amy Waldman THREATS AND RESPONSES: INTERROGATIONS; Questioning Terror Suspects In a Dark and Surreal World New York Times, March 9, 2003 At least one detainee claims to have seen pictures of the injuries caused to Abu Zubaydah during his torture. Ibrahim Zeidan Summarized transcripts Department of Defense During his own Combatant Status Review Tribunal, in 2004, Ibrahim Mahdy Achmed Zeidan told his Tribunal that, during their interrogation, some captives had been shown pictures they were told were the scars left on Abu Zubaydah by his interrogation. Q: You told us about a man named Abu Zubaydah and how he said false things about you. You mentioned he was tortured to say those things. Can you tell us more about that and how you know that happened? A: In his statement he never said he was tortured, that's impossible. We know from the American interrogators, not only me, but also a lot of other detainees on this island know that he was subject to a lot of torture. There was a picture of him, I didn't see it, and someone else did showing the signs of torture on his body. Another detainee saw an article in a magazine, I don't remember which one, he read that American interrogators said he was under psychological pressure and was in a special holding place. International Committee of the Red Cross Report The International Committee of the Red Cross concluded a report on the treatment of 14 high-value detainees in February 2007. The report would be made public April 7, 2009. Full ICRC Report Further Underscores Extent of Torture And Abuse By U.S. Officials ACLU, April 4, 2007 The report is composed of interviews with the detainees, although the ICRC stated "[t]he ICRC wishes to underscore that the consistency of the detailed allegations provided separately by each of the fourteen [detainees] adds particular weight to the information provided". The ICRC outlined twelve interrogation techniques suffocation by water (waterboarding), prolonged stress standing position, beatings by use of a collar, beating and kicking, confinement in a box, prolonged nudity, sleep deprivation, exposure to cold temperature, prolonged shackling, threats of ill-treatment, forced shaving, and deprivation/restricted provision of solid food. Of the 12 interrogation techniques, only Abu Zubaydah was subjected to all of them. Not even Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was subject to as many. Abu Zubaydah was the only one of the fourteen detainees to be put into close confinement. This would be corroborated, in part, by one of the Torture Memos written by the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel, which noted "[i]n OMS's view, however, cramped confinement "ha[s] not proved particularly effective" because it provides "a safehaven offering respite from interrogation."" In Abu Zubaydah's case, however, this is debatable since the smaller of the close confinement boxes caused his wound to reopen and begin to bleed again. He was placed in two boxes, a 'large' one in which he could stand upright, and a much smaller one, in which he had to crouch down. Waterboarding Abu Zubaydah was one of three high value detainees to be waterboarded. Originally the Government's position was that Abu Zubaydah had only been waterboarded once. Tanya Nolan Former CIA Agent Reveals Use of ‘Waterboarding’ in Interrogations The World Today, December 12, 2007 Ray McGovern Destruction of CIA Tapes Can’t Hide Barbaric U.S. Torture Methods AlterNet, December 13, 2007 Lauer Stirs Scandal Over How Water Boarding Saved Lives Media Research Center, December 12, 2007 Ex-CIA Agent: Waterboarding ‘Saved Lives’ CNNPolitics.com, December 11, 2007 Even before the May 30, 2005 Torture Memo surfaced, Government officials familiar with Abu Zubaydah's detention questioned this account of events. In fact, intelligence sources claimed as early as 2008 that Abu Zubaydah had been waterboarded no less than ten times in the span of one week. In reality, Abu Zubaydah was waterboarded 83 times within the month of August, 2002, which happens to be the same month waterboarding was approved for use on him. Taking on Torture Los Angeles Times, April 27, 2009 Many believe the 83 sessions violated the May 10, 2005 Torture Memo which stated no more than 60 applications of water could be conducted in a 30 day period. However, the May 10th Memo only restricts waterboarding to 60 applications of "ten seconds or more." A U.S. official with knowledge of the interrogation program reported to Fox News that many of the applications "lasted 'a matter of seconds'" and it was these less than ten second applications "that created the huge numbers." He further stated that "[a]ll of those individual pours were scrupulously counted by the CIA, according to the memos, to abide by the procedures set up for the waterboardings." Joseph Abrams Despite Reports, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Was Not Waterboarded 183 Times Fox News, April 28, 2009 Several people who have subjected themselves to controlled waterboarding have stated that it is torture. Josh White Waterboarding Is Torture, Says Ex-Navy Instructor The Washington Post, November 9, 2007 Richard E. Mezo Why It Was Called ‘Water Torture’ The Washington Post, February 10, 2008 Alfred McCoy The U.S. has a History of Using Torture History News Network, December 4, 2006 Malcolm Wrightson Nance, an instructor at the Navy’s SERE school in California testified before congress that waterboarding “is an overwhelming experience that induces horror and triggers frantic survival instincts. As the event unfolded, I was fully conscious of what was happening: I was being tortured.” Nance further testified that waterboarding is “[N]ot simulated anything. It’s slow motion suffocation with enough time to contemplate the inevitability of blackout and expiration.” Richard E. Mezo, who was waterboarded during training to become a Navy flight crewmember described waterboarding as an act that is “indeed torture” which is “real drowning that simulates death.” The experience was so horrific, Mezo stated that “Pulling out my fingernails or even cutting off a finger would have been preferable.” Henri Alleg, who was waterboarded by the French during the Algerian War, wrote that “a terrible agony, that of death itself, took possession of me.” Abu Zubaydah said of his experience: I struggled against the straps, trying to breathe, but it was hopeless. I thought I was going to die. During his waterboarding Abu Zubaydah lost control of his bladder and would later admit to the ICRC that "[s]ince then I still lose control of my urine when under stress." Some politicians and administration officials, including Richard Armitage, the former Deputy Secretary of State, Mike McConnell, the former National Intelligence Directorate, Tom Ridge, the former Homeland Security Secretary, and former Republican Presidential Candidate John McCain, have also declared it unequivocal torture. Senator John McCain stated “It is not a complicated procedure. It is torture.” U.S. Government Worries About Abu Zubaydah In 2004 media coverage of Abu Zubaydah began listing him as a “disappeared” prisoner claiming he had no access to the International Red Cross. Reed Brody Prisoners who disappear International Herald Tribune, October 12, 2004 In February 2005, U.S. officials claim the CIA was growing uncomfortable keeping Abu Zubaydah in indefinite custody. Douglas Jehl, David Johnston, and Neil A. Lewis CIA called uncomfortable with role on war prisoners Holding terror suspects raises concerns International Herald Tribune, February 16, 2005 Less than 18 months later Abu Zubaydah and the other high value detainees who had been in secret C.I.A. custody were transferred to Guantanamo Bay. Barton Gellman The Shadow War, In a Surprising New Light Washington Post, June 20, 2006 After his transfer the CIA denied access to Abu Zubaydah even to the Department of Justice's Inspector General who was investigating the United States' treatment of its detainee. Emma Schwartz Justice Dept. Inspector General Claims CIA Hampered its Investigation US News & World Report, May 20, 2008 According to U.S. officials quoted in Ron Suskind’s book, President Bush allegedly told C.I.A. director George Tenet “I said [Abu Zubaydah] was important. You’re not going to let me lose face on this, are you?” Tenet replied “No sir, Mr. President.” Abu Zubaydah's Intel The purpose for justifying the harsh interrogation techniques was to gather crucial, actionable intelligence from the person the government believed to be a high ranking al-Qaeda operative. The value of Abu Zubaydah's intelligence has been hotly contested, however. Reliable Intel Abu Zubaydah disclosed to the United States government the nickname of 9/11 mastermind Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Muhktar, U.S.: Kuwaiti man was key player in 9/11 CNN.com, June 6, 2002 We tortured an insane man Salon, September 7, 2006 during his interrogation, as well as the identity of Jose Padilla, the man alleged to have been planning to explode a 'dirty bomb' in the Washington D.C. area. The U.S. government alleges this occurred only after the enhanced interrogation techniques were applied to him. Notably, however, it has been reported that Paul Wolfowitz, the former Deputy Secretary of Defense admitted there was no actual plot to detonate a dirty bomb. Andy Worthington Abu Zubaydah: The Futility of Torture and A Trail of Broken Lives March 30, 2009 In fact, Jose Padilla was never charged with a plot to detonate a 'dirty bomb.' Profile: Jose Padilla BBC News, August 16, 2007 This claim is deeply contested, however, by Ali Soufan, Abu Zubaydah's original interrogator, as well as other intelligence officials. Office of the Director of National Intelligence: Summary of the High Value Terrorist Detainee Program The Washington Post Daniel Coleman a retired FBI official involved in his interrogation, commented that, after the CIA's use of coercive methods "I don't have confidence in anything he says, because once you go down that road, everything you say is tainted. He was talking before they did that to him, but they didn't believe him. The problem is they didn't realize he didn't know all that much." According to the 9/11 Commission Report the CIA had identified Mohammed's nickname in August 2001. [http://www.9-11commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf The 9/11 Commission Report According to the 9/11 Commission Report, "The final piece of the puzzle arrived at the CIA's Bin Ladin unit on August 28 in a cable reporting that KSM's nickname was Mukhtar. No one made the connection to the reports about Mukhtar that had been circulated in the spring. This connection might also have underscored concern about the June reporting that KSM was recruiting terrorists to travel, including to the United States." The commission found that the agency failed to connect the information with previous intelligence identifying Mukhtar as an al-Qaeda associate plotting terrorist attacks, and identified that failure as one of the crucial missed opportunities before Sept. 11. Dan Eggen and Dafna Linzer Secret World of Detainees Grows More Public The Washington Post, September 7, 2006 Furthermore, Ron Suskind wrote in his book, The One Percent Doctrine, that a tipster led the CIA directly to Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and subsequently collected a $25 million reward. Intelligence sources told the Washington Post that Suskind's description of Mohammed's capture was correct, but that Abu Zubaydah also provided information that was helpful to the arrest. Ali Soufan states that the assertion that traditional, rapport building interrogation methods were not working, and therefore harsher interrogation tactics were necessary to obtain actionable intelligence, was incorrect. He further alleged that the claim Abu Zubaydah only revealed actionable intelligence after the harsher interrogation techniques were applied is also incorrect. Ali Soufan said It is inaccurate, however, to say that Abu Zubaydah had been uncooperative. Along with another F.B.I. agent, and with several C.I.A. officers present, I questioned him from March to June 2002, before the harsh techniques were introduced later in August. Under traditional interrogation methods, he provided us with important actionable intelligence. We discovered, for example, that Khalid Shaikh Mohammed was the mastermind of the 9/11 attacks. Abu Zubaydah also told us about Jose Padilla, the so-called dirty bomber. This experience fit what I had found throughout my counterterrorism career: traditional interrogation techniques are successful in identifying operatives, uncovering plots and saving lives. He also wrote in an op-ed in the New York Times Defenders of these techniques have claimed that they got Abu Zubaydah to give up information leading to the capture of Ramzi bin al-Shibh, a top aide to Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, and Mr. Padilla. This is false. The information that led to Mr. Shibh’s capture came primarily from a different terrorist operative who was interviewed using traditional methods. As for Mr. Padilla, the dates just don’t add up: the harsh techniques were approved in the memo of August 2002, Mr. Padilla had been arrested that May. Soufan is also quoted as saying "I was in the middle of this, and it's not true that these [aggressive] techniques were effective," he says. "We were able to get the information about Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in a couple of days. We didn't have to do any of this [torture]. We could have done this the right way." Questionable Intel During his interrogation under harsher techniques Abu Zubaydah confessed to a universe of alleged plots and plans, many of which would turn out to be dead ends. 9/11 Commission Report A sample page of footnotes from the 9/11 Commission shows the degree to which it relied on Zubaydah's statements Zubaydah's interrogations are cited frequently in the 9/11 Commission Report, although he is the sole person to make many of the claims. Human Rights Watch noted that "The 9/11 Commission report refers to the intelligence reports of seven interrogation sessions with Zubayda, dating from February 2002 to April 2004." Based on Abu Zubaydah's confessions during these seven interrogation sessions the 9/11 Commission Report alleged that: Abu Zubaydah wrote in his diary in late 1992 that he was getting ready to go to an al Qaeda military camp. “Perhaps later I will tell you about the Qa’ida and Bin Ladin group.” Abu Zubaydah was a “sympathetic peer” of Osama bin Laden. Abu Zubaydah was reportedly complimentary of Khalid Sheikh Muhammed’s leadership abilities giving praise for his ability to incorporate the improvements suggest by others. Abu Zubaydah allegedly played a key role in facilitating the travel of al Qaeda operatives, along with Khalid Sheikh Muhammed. Abu Zubaydah was planning to attack Israel in 2001. The Algerian Six The U.S. Government alleged that six Algerian men living in Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzagovina were associated with Abu Zubaydah and a plan to bomb the U.S. Embassy in Sarajevo. Craig Whitlock At Guantanamo, Caught in a Legal Trap The Washington Post, August 21, 2006 Marc Perelman From Sarajevo to Guantanamo: The Strange Case of the Algerian Six Mother Jones, December 4, 2007 The United States chargé d'affaires reportedly told the prime minister of Bosnia that the U.S. would withdraw its personnel and cut diplomatic relations if Bosnia did not arrest and investigate the Algerian Six. The Algerian Six were arrested by Bosnian authorities within the week, were investigated fully, and tried for the alleged plot to bomb the U.S. and British Embassies in Sarajevo. All six men were released by the Supreme Court of Bosnia for lack of evidence against them. The Human Rights Chamber of the Bosnian Judiciary explicitly ruled that the government must take all steps to prevent their forcible deportation, as well. However, upon leaving the courthouse they were apprehended by U.S. officials and taken to Guantanamo Bay. Wolfgang Petritsch, the international community’s top official in Bosnia at the time remembers being told by Bosnian leaders that the U.S. applied a lot of pressure on Bosnia to be allowed to take the Algerian Six to Guantanamo. In fact, Wolfgang states that the U.S. conveyed to him they would remove their support for an international mission he was leading if Bosnia didn’t comply. The United States Government’s case rested on their assertion that one of the six men, Bensayah Belkacem had Abu Zubaydah’s cell phone number Katrina Kratovac Bosnia’s top human rights court rules handover of Algerians illegal AP Worldstream, October 11, 2002 Bosnian suspected of role in Spain attacks to turn himself in USA Today. March 14, 2004 and had spoken with him over 70 times. Boudella Al Hajj Combatant Status Review Tribunal Verbatim Transcript Department of Defense However, the Bosnian government could not corroborate the story. Outsourcing Torture The New Yorker, February 14, 2005 Since the capture of the six men by the United States, the Bosnian government has argued for their release from Guantanamo Bay. The U.S. government eventually removed the charge against the men that they were planning on blowing up the British embassy as well as the United States’ and in November 2008, Judge Richard J. Leon of the Federal District Court in Washington DC ruled all of the men except Bensayah Belkacem were being held illegally at Guantanamo, and should be released “forthwith.” William Glaberson Judge Declares Five Detainees Held Illegally New York Times, November 20, 2008 Three of the men have been released, although three of them are still being held in Guantanamo Bay despite Judge Leon's order. Boudella Al Hajj Guantanamo Docket File New York Times, May 2, 2009 Mustafa Ait Idr Guantanamo Docket File New York Times, May 2, 2009 Mohammed Nechel Guantanamo Docket File New York Times, May 2, 2009 Plot to Bomb the Radisson Hotel In November 1999, Abu Zubaydah supposedly told Khadr Abu Hoshar over the telephone that “The time for training is over.” Khadr Abu Hoshar was staying in Jordan at the time and was arrested along with 15 others for an alleged plot to bomb the Radisson Hotel and other sites in Jordan. Abu Hoshar supposedly helped ferry recruits from Turkey, Syria, and Jordan to Afghanistan for training with Abu Zubaydah’s assistance. Another of the 16 men arrested supposedly trained at “Abu Zubaydah’s Khaldan camp.” During the plot the men supposedly sent reports back to Abu Zubaydah, who approved their plan. Abu Zubaydah supposedly helped Abu Hoshar send four of the men back to Afghanistan for further training. One of the men, Raed Hijazi allegedly swore the bayat to Bin Laden in front of Abu Zubaydah. The Millenium Plot In April 2001, Ahmed Ressam was convicted of plotting to detonate a bomb at the Los Angeles International Airport. Amhed Ressam’s Millennium Plot PBS Ahmed Ressam's Testimony at Mokhtar Haouari's Trial PBS He had been captured with a car full of explosives while crossing into the United States through Washington State. Ahmed Ressam had previously trained at the Khalden camp before coming to the United States to undertake his mission. Abu Zubaydah admits in his CSRT testimony that he recommended to the leader of Khalden Camp that Ahmed Ressam be allowed to train there. Abu Zubaydah further testified that he facilitated Ahmed Ressam’s travel to the camp as well as to Algeria once Ressam’s training was complete. The U.S. Government alleges, in Abu Zubaydah’s summary of evidence, that Ahmed Ressam identified Abu Zubaydah as the leader of the Khalden camp and an associate of Usama Bin Laden “equal to and not subordinate to UBL.” Abu Zubaydah Summary of Evidence Department of Defense The U.S. Government further alleges that Ahmed Ressam stated that Abu Zubaydah had “known of Ahmed Ressam’s operation, although not specifically the date and exact target” and that Abu Zubaydah wanted Ressam to acquire “fraudulently-obtained Canadian passports” for himself and five others, in order to facilitate their travel into the United States to “possibly bomb several cities.” Abu Zubaydah admits he attempted to procure Canadian passports for Ahmed Ressam and other trainees, but not for "terrorist-related activities.”. Abu Zubaydah denies ever having participated in the planning of the Millennium Plot or encouraging Ahmed Ressam to attack American targets or civilians. The U.S. Government has not produced any further evidence of Abu Zubaydah’s alleged role in the Millennium Plot, nor was this connection even mentioned in Ahmed Ressam's criminal trial. Ressam Case Documents, Accessed via PACER, December 2008 In fact, Ressam's confessions were only brought up during his sentencing in an attempt to mitigate the sentence he would receive. Saudi and Kuwaiti Bank Records Not Searched When Zubaydah was captured, he was carrying two bank cards (similar to American ATM cards), one from a bank in Kuwait and the other from a bank in Saudi Arabia. According to James Risen: The discovery of Abu Zubaydah's cards provided some of the most tantalizing physical evidence ever uncovered related to al Qaeda. The cards had the potential to help investigators understand the financial structure behind al Qaeda, and perhaps even the 9/11 plot itself.... The cards had the potential to be keys that could unlock some of al Qaeda's darkest secrets. The cards "could give us entrée right into who was funding al Qaeda, no link analysis needed," said one American source. "You could track money right from the financiers to a top al Qaeda figure." But something very odd happened .... There is little evidence that an aggressive investigation of the cards was ever conducted. Two American sources familiar with the matter say that they don't believe the government's top experts on terrorism financing have ever thoroughly probed the transactions in Abu Zubaydah's accounts or vigorously pursued the origins of the funds. It is not clear whether an investigation of the cards simply fell through the cracks, or whether they were ignored because no one wanted to know the answers about connections between al Qaeda and important figures in the Middle East -- particularly in Saudi Arabia. James Risen State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration New York: Free Press, 2006 [ISBN 0-7432-7066-5] One of Risen's sources chalks up the failure to investigate the cards to incompetence rather than foul play: "The cards were sent back to Washington and were never fully exploited. I think nobody ever looked at them because of incompetence." When American investigators finally did get around to looking into the cards, they worked with "a Muslim financier with a questionable past, and with connections to the Afghan Taliban, al Qaeda, and Saudi intelligence." He reported back that "Saudi intelligence officials had seized all of the records related to the card from the Saudi financial institution in question; the records then disappeared. There was no longer any way to trace the money that had gone into the account. The timing of the reported seizure of records by Saudi intelligence closely coincided with the timing of Abu Zubaydah's capture..." Various Allegations Abu Zubaydah's confessions led to various allegations against him, and more notably direct and swift government response in several instances. The value of his confessions has been challenged, however. A former intelligence official stated "[w]e spent millions of dollars chasing false alarms," and "sent hundreds of CIA and FBI investigators scurrying in pursuit of phantoms. Ron Suskind, the author of The One Percent Doctrine, told Wolf Blitzer during an interview, "I show in the book exactly the useful information he provided, and at the same time I show that essentially what happened is we tortured an insane man and jumped screaming at every word he uttered, most of them which were nonsense." Transcript for THE SITUATION ROOM with Wolf Blitzer CNN, June 20, 2006 In fact, as early as May, 2002, officials stated they doubted the veracity of AZ’s warnings. FBI denies issuing terror alert TIME article links latest warning to Zubaydah probe CNN.com, May 12, 2002 , and by August 2002, on-scene CIA interrogators were already reporting to CIA Headquarters that Abu Zubaydah had no more actionable intelligence. Indeed, according to former senior government officials who closely followed the interrogations, despite all of Abu Zubaydah's confessions, not a single plot was foiled. Among his confessions, Abu Zubaydah confessed al Qaeda planned on blowing up “soft targets” such as apartment buildings, supermarkets, and shopping malls. Abu Zubaydah Warns Again CNN.com, May 13, 2002 He also confessed to plots against banks in the Northeastern United States, BANK TERROR ATTACK FEAR; Warning issued after interview Birmingham Evening Mail, April 20, 2002 (Highbeam News Database Link, free membership required) John Lumpkin Jose Padilla was Abu Zubaydah’s project, officials say, but Abu Zubaydah’s information helped lead to his capture AP Worldstream, June 11, 2002 and New York monuments such as the Brooklyn Bridge and the Statue of Liberty. However, AZ’s warnings about the Statute of Liberty and the Brooklynn Bridge were “the statute in the water” and the “bridge in that movie” (referring to Godzilla). Greg Smith, Michelle McPhee, and Richard Sissk HOW OSAMA’S RAT PUT CITY ON ALERT He pulled the strings for global terror Daily News, May 26, 2002 Abu Zubaydah also supposedly warned of a nerve gas attack on a major U.S. subway system sometime around July 4. Compilation of Times Wires; FBI says nerve gas attack on U.S. subway possible St. Petersburg Times, June 12, 2002 In addition, an unnamed U.S. official claimed Abu Zubaydah stated al-Qaeda knew how to smuggle a dirty-bomb into the United States. Al-Qaeda claims ‘dirty bomb’ know-how BBC News, April 23, 2002 The official said Zubaydah’s information was further proof al-Qaeda was attempting to acquire weapons of mass destruction. However, a memo by Michael H. Mobbs filed in Ahmed Ressam’s terrorism case stated Abu Zubaydah recanted his confession that al-Qaeda was planning on building a dirty bomb to be detonated in the United States. Investigators sift through deceptions Topeka Capital-Journal, Associated Press, August 2002 Abu Zubaydah supposedly revealed that Omar al-Faruq was planning attacks on U.S. embassies and other facilities to coincide with the anniversary of September 11 Barbara Mae Dacanay Report reveals Al Qaida plans Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, Gulf News, September 18, 2002 in Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan, Vietnam and Cambodia. Jan Angilella Newsweek: Al Qaeda Newsweek, October 13, 2002 Abu Zubaydah supposedly divulged an al Qaeda plot to detonate a jacket full of explosives on a civilian air-liner. He went so far as to say that the planners had used their own metal and explosive detectors to figure out how to successfully accomplish the mission. It is alleged that Abu Zubaydah used a website to “plan the Sept. 11 attacks”, communicate with the hijackers, and download 2,300 encrypted messages between May 2000 and September 9, 2001. Jack Kelley Militants wire Web with links to jihad USA Today, July 10, 2002 Government officials allege Abu Zubaydah confirmed the fourth September 11 flight, UA 93, was intended to hit the White House. His information is contradicted by Khalid Sheikh Mohamed and Ramzi Binalshibh though, who apparently stated UA 93 was on its way to the capitol, not the White House. A tape alleged to be bin Laden’s voice was supposedly played for Abu Zubaydah in the hopes he will identify Osama bin Laden. AZ allegedly identified USL and said it was a clear signal for impending attack. Henry Schuster Is it the voice of bin Laden? CNN.com, November 14, 2002 Abu Zubaydah's Mental Health Some people contest Abu Zubaydah's mental health. Ron Suskind noted in his book, The One Percent Doctrine, that Zubaydah turned out to be mentally ill, keeping a diary "in the voice of three people: Hani 1, Hani 2, and Hani 3" -- a boy, a young man and a middle-aged alter ego. Abu Zubaydah's diaries spanned ten years and recorded in numbing detail "what he ate, or wore, or trifling things [people] said." Dan Coleman, then the FBI's top al-Qaeda analyst, told a senior bureau official, "This guy is insane, certifiable, split personality." According to Suskind, this judgment was "echoed at the top of CIA and was, of course, briefed to the President and Vice President." Dan Coleman, the FBI's senior expert on al Qaeda, echoed many of Suskind's sentiments in an interview with the Washington Post. Coleman stated Zubaydah was a "safehouse keeper" with mental problems, who "claimed to know more about al-Qaeda and its inner workings than he really did." Abu Zubaydah's co-counsel, Joseph Margulies, wrote in an OpEd in the LA Times that: Partly as a result of injuries he suffered while he was fighting the communists in Afghanistan, partly as a result of how those injuries were exacerbated by the CIA and partly as a result of his extended isolation, Abu Zubaydah's mental grasp is slipping away. Today, he suffers blinding headaches and has permanent brain damage. He has an excruciating sensitivity to sounds, hearing what others do not. The slightest noise drives him nearly insane. In the last two years alone, he has experienced about 200 seizures. Already, he cannot picture his mother's face or recall his father's name. Gradually, his past, like his future, eludes him. Joseph Margulies Abu Zubaydah's suffering Los Angeles Times, April 30, 2009 U.S. Officials Defend Interrogation Techniques Dennis C. Blair, President Obama's new director of national intelligence wrote in a memo to his staff in April 2009 that "high value information came from interrogations in which [enhanced interrogation] methods were used." Scott Shane Interrogations' Effectiveness May Prove Elusive New York Times, April 22, 2009 Former Vice-President, Dick Cheney claims there are memos in existence which show the success of the enhanced interrogation techniques. Cheney Calls for Release of Memos Showing Results of Interrogation Efforts April 20, 2009 Cheney stated I haven't talked about it, but I know specifically of reports that I read, that I saw, that lay out what we learned through the interrogation process and what the consequences were for the country I've now formally asked the CIA to take steps to declassify those memos so we can lay them out there and the American people have a chance to see what we obtained and what we learned and how good the intelligence was. Additionally, four successive CIA directors echoed these sentiments, with the most recent Michael V. Hayden stating that he believed the methods "got the maximum amount of information" from prisoners, specifically Abu Zubaydah. As noted, however, the belief that enhanced interrogation techniques were necessary to get actionable intel from Abu Zubaydah has been heavily contested. John McLaughlin, former acting CIA director, stated in 2006 "I totally disagree with the view that the capture of Abu Zubaydah was unimportant. Abu Zubaydah was woven through all of the intelligence prior to 9/11 that signaled a major attack was coming, and his capture yielded a great deal of important information." In his memoir, former CIA Director George Tenet writes: A published report in 2006 contended that Abu Zubaydah was mentally unstable and that the administration had overstated his importance. Baloney. Abu Zubaydah had been at the crossroads of many al-Qa'ida operations and was in position to - and did - share critical information with his interrogators. Apparently, the source of the rumor that Abu Zubaydah was unbalanced was his personal diary, in which he adopted various personas. From that shaky perch, some junior Freudians leapt to the conclusion that Zubaydah had multiple personalities. In fact, Agency psychiatrists eventually determined that in his diary he was using a sophisticated literary device to express himself. And, boy, did he express himself. George Tenet At the Center of the Storm: My years at the CIA HarperCollins, April 30, 2007 The Government's Attempt to Erase Abu Zubaydah From History Top officials in the U.S. government refused to believe Abu Zubaydah was not the operative they believed him to be. The May 30, 2005 Department of Justice memo noted that while on-scene interrogators believed Abu Zubaydah no longer had any information to disclose, CIA Headquarters ordered additional waterboarding. The interrogators believed the waterboarding was "unnecessary." Additionally, the Bush White House and CIA officials couldn't believe Abu Zubaydah didn't have additional information. One official stated the pressure from upper levels of government was "tremendous," and that "[t]hey couldn't stand the idea that there wasn't anything new." The offical said, "[t]hey'd say, 'You aren't working hard enough.' There was both a disbelief in what he was saying and also a desire for retribution - a feeling that 'He's going to talk, and if he doesn't talk, we'll do whatever.'" While it is unclear why the U.S. Government did it, in 2008 Abu Zubaydah's name was expunged from the charge sheets of multiple detainees being tried by Military Commission. Additionally, the CIA destroyed 90 video tapes of Abu Zubaydah's interrogations despite numerous court orders, and official requests for their production. Charge Sheet Discrepancies In 2005, the U.S. Government charged several detainees at Guantanamo Bay and ordered them to stand trial in Military Commission Tribunals. Department of Defense Website: Archived Charge Sheets Department of Defense Of the ten detainees charged, four of them, Binyam Mohamed, Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi, Sufyian Barhoumi, and Jabrad Said bin Al-Qahtani referenced Abu Zubaydah in their charge sheets. Jabran Said bin Al-Qahtani 2005 Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi 2005 Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website Sufyian Barhoumi 2005 Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website Binyam Mohamed 2005 Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website Three of the four detainees, Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi, Sufyian Barhoumi, and Jabran Said bin Al-Qahtani, had identical 2005 charge sheets and referenced Abu Zubaydah in six different paragraphs. The fourth detainee, Binyam Mohamed, referenced Abu Zubaydah five times. In 2006, before the U.S. Government could hold a trial of the four detainees in a Military Commission Tribunal, the Supreme Court struck down the Tribunals as unconstitutional in Hamdan v. Bush. Joseph Margulies Guantanamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power Simon & Schuster, 2007] Suzanne Goldenberg Supreme Court Rejects Bush Terror Powers The Guardian, June 30, 2006 The U.S. Government responded by amending the tribunals, although they were forced to recharge Binyam Mohamed, Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi, Sufyian Barhoumi, and Jabran Said bin Al-Qahtani in 2008. Department of Defense Military Commissions Website Department of Defense The new 2008 charge sheets contained almost identical charges against each of the four detainees, as were found in their 2005 charge sheets. Jabran Said bin Al-Qahtani 2008 Sworn Charges Department of Defense Website Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi’s 2008 Sworn Charges Department of Defense Website Sufyian Barhoumi’s 2008 Sworn Charges Department of Defense Website Binyam Mohamed 2008 Sworn Charges Department of Defense Website However, Abu Zubaydah’s name was entirely removed from each detainee’s charge sheet. On October 21, 2008, all charges were dropped against the four men. Jane Sutton U.S. drops charges against 5 Guantanamo captives Reuters, October 21, 2008 In addition, the alleged emir of Khalden Camp, Noor Uthman Muhammed, was charged in 2008 with conspiring with Abu Zubaydah against the United States. However, the charges against Noor Uthman Muhammed were also completely dropped on October 21, 2008. Noor Uthman Muhammed's Military Commissions Page is no longer working. Noor Uthamn Muhammed Charge Sheets Department of Defense Website Abu Zubaydah’s name is also not mentioned in any other detainee’s charge sheets, not even Khalid Sheikh Mohamed, the admitted mastermind of the 9/11 attacks. Ed Pilkington 'I was responsible for 9/11, from A to Z' - a confession from Guantánamo Bay The Guardian, March 15, 2007 The U.S. Government has also failed to charge Abu Zubadyah, even though they have charged other high ranking al-Qaeda members, such as Khalid Sheikh Mohamed, who has been in custody less time than Abu Zubaydah. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website In 2009, however, the U.S. Government recharged two of the men, Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi and Jabran Said bin Al-Qahtani. Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi 2009 Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website Jabran Said bin Al-Qahtani 2009 Charge Sheet Department of Defense Website Sufyian Barhoumi has not been recharged. Sufyian Barhoumi Military Commissions Page Department of Defense Website The 2009 charge sheet of al Sharbi reincorporates Abu Zubaydah in three paragraphs, while the 2009 charge sheet of Al-Qahtani reincorporated Abu Zubaydah in four paragraphs. Unlike the 2005 charge sheets, which are archived on the Department of Defense website, Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi's 2008 Charge Sheet has been removed from his page. Ghassan Abdullah al Sharbi Military Commissions Page Department of Defense Website Binyam Mohamed was released from Guantanamo Bay on February 20, 2009 despite his alleged connections to Abu Zubaydah, and thus has been removed from the Department of Defense Military Commissions Page. Profile: Binyam Mohamed BBC News, February 23, 2009 CIA Destroys Abu Zubaydah's Interrogation Tapes Starting in 2002 and around the time of Abu Zubaydah's capture the CIA began videotaping hundreds of hours of detainees’ interrogations, including Abu Zubaydah’s. Scott Shane and Mark Mazetti CIA Tapes Lived and Died to Save Image New York Times, December 30, 2007 Dan Eggen and Joby Warrick CIA Destroyed Videos Showing Interrogations The Washington Post, December 7, 2007 CIA TAPES: INVESTIGATE FULLY Seattle Post-Intelligencer, January 2, 2008 (Highbeam News Database Link, requires free membership) Video cameras recorded Abu Zubaydah twenty-four hours a day during his detention in 2002. Kevin Whitelaw Abu Zubaydah’s Health Prompted CIA Videos: Suspect had been shot multiple times during operation to capture him U.S. News & World Report, December 12, 2007 Mark Denbeaux Captured on Tape: Interrogation and Videotaping of Detainees in Guantanamo Bay Seton Hall University, February 14, 2008 The vast majority of the footage contained in the tapes was of Abu Zubaydah. The CIA stopped taping Abu Zubaydah after he had been waterboarded. Several motives were given for recording the tapes. Originally the CIA claim it taped the interrogations to prevent agents from a wrongful death suit if Abu Zubaydah happened to succumb to the injuries he suffered in his apprehension, However, during his testimony, Michael Hayden the director of the CIA asserted that the continued existence of the tapes represented a threat -- to the CIA personnel involved. Pamela Hess Hayden Says CIA Videotapes Destroyed The Washington Post, December 7, 2007 He asserted that if the tapes were leaked they might cause the CIA personnel to be identified and targeted for retaliation. However, the tapes were only destroyed once CIA officials determined that written summaries of detainees answers would suffice for intelligence gathering purpose, leading some to hypothesize the videos were made to preserve the confessions of the interrogated detainees. Several requests for the videotapes were made by judges, government organizations, and non-governmental organizations. The ACLU requested copies of the tapes under a Freedom of Information Act, but was rebuffed by the CIA. ACLU, NYCLU Ask Court to Hold CIA in Contempt New York Civil Liberties Union, December 12, 2007 The ACLU would later file legal action against the CIA wherein New York District Court Judge Alvin K. Hellerstein stated he was “disappointed” the agency destroyed the tapes and believes the court was “gulled.” Alan Feuer Judge May Question C.I.A. Agents About Tapes New York Times, February 17, 2008 The 9/11 Commission Report was denied the tapes existed by the CIA. Thomas H. Kean and Lee H. Hamilton Stonewalled by the C.I.A. New York Times, January 2, 2008 In November 2005, during a pending Guantanamo case, U.S. District Court Judges Gladys Kessler, Richard W. Roberts, and Henry H. Kennedy ordered the preservation of the CIA’s interrogation tapes as evidence for the cases before it. CIA Destroyed Interrogation Videotapes Despite Court Orders FOX News, December 12, 2007 In addition,the Judge presiding our Zacarias Moussaoui’s criminal case, Leonie M. Brinkema, had also requested the tapes only to be told they did not exist. Mark Mazzetti and Scott Shane C.I.A. Destroyed Tapes as Judge Sought Interrogation Data New York Times, February 7, 2008 The CIA was advised by top lawyers at the White House and the Justice Department not to destroy the interrogation tapes. Mark Mazzetti and David Johnston Inquiry Begins Into Destruction of Tapes New York Times, December 9, 2007 Michael Hayden, the Director of Central Intelligence, sent a letter to CIA staff, briefing them on the tape's destruction. David Welna Congress Calls for Hearings About CIA Tapes NPR, December 7, 2007 Hayden asserted that key members of Congress had been briefed on the existence of the tapes, and the plans for their destruction. United States Senator Jay Rockefeller, the chair of the Senate Intelligence Committee, disputed Hayden's assertion, saying that he only learned of the tapes in 2006, a year after their destruction. Jane Harman, the ranking Democrat on the House Intelligence Committee, who was one of just four senior members of Congress who was briefed on the existence of the tapes, acknowledged being briefed. Harman responded to Hayden's assertions by stating she had objected, in writing, to the tapes' destruction, and that it would "put the CIA under a cloud of suspicion." Representative Jane Harman Warned Against CIA Tape Destruction in 2003 Letter Fox News, January 3, 2008 David Johnston An Inquiry Seen as Payback in a Rivalry New York Times, January 4, 2008 However, the CIA did not comply with any of the advice or the 17 orders from various judges and courts and destroyed the tapes. Scott Shane Prosecutor to Review Official Handling of C.I.A. Tapes New York Times, February 10, 2008 The Department of Justice is now investigating the CIA’s destruction of the tapes and has appointed John Durham as the special prosecutor for the case. Donna Leinwand Criminal probe opened over CIA videotapes USA Today, January 2, 2008 International Cases Involving Abu Zubaydah Several individuals being held or tried internationally, who have been connected by the U.S. Government to Abu Zubaydah, have had their charges dropped, been released, or received other relief from their handlers. Abousofian Abdelrazik was alleged by the State Department to be closely associated with Abu Zubaydah. Brad Foss State Department moves against Sudanese-Canadian for alleged terror ties The America’s Intelligence Wire, July 26, 2006 In 2008, Canada asked the United Nations to remove Abousfian Abdelrazik from its terrorism watch-list. Paul Koring Ottawa wants terrorism suspect taken off watch list Globe and Mail, February 5, 2008 Another Canadian case, that of Mohamed Harkat was supposedly more closely related to Abu Zubaydah. Abu Zubaydah supposedly knew Mohamed Harkat “since the early 90’s” Peter Cheney Bin Laden lieutenant identified suspect in Canada The Globe and Mail, December 18, 2002 and claimed Harkat ran a guest house in Pakistan. Court upholds Harkat’s security certificate CTV News, March 22, 2005 Mohamed Harkat’s attorney sought access to Abu Zubaydah for testimony relating to Harkat’s trial, but the US refused to respond to his requests. Lawyer for accused terrorist seeks access to Guantanamo detainee Edmonton Sun, August 26, 2007 In Harkat’s Canadian trial, however, Abu Zubaydah’s claims were not part of the charges brought against Harkat. Colin Freeze, Tu Thanh Ha, and Omar El Akkad Secret files against terror suspects revealed Globe and Mail, February 23, 2008 After CIA director Michael Hayden’s public admittance of Zubaydah’s waterboarding, Canadian officials deleted all references to Zubaydah’s statements in its public dossier. The Bryant Park Project Canada Takes a Stand Against Alleged U.S. Torture National Public Radio, March 7, 2008 A spokesman for the Canadian Security Intelligence Service stated “The CSIS director has stated publicly that torture is morally repugnant and not particularly reliable. CSIS does not knowingly use information which has been obtained through torture.” Canada Won’t Use “Waterboard” Evidence The NPR News Blog, March 6, 2008 Mohamed Harkat was released on bail by Canadian authorities. Canada court OKs release of al Qaeda Suspect Reuters, Swiss Info, June 9, 2006 Terrorism suspect released on bail Dose Canada, May 24, 2006 References External links The Final 9/11 Commission Report Committee on Armed Services United States Senate: Inquiry Into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody Jay Bybee and John Yoo Memorandum for John Rizzo Acting General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency: Interrogation of al Qaeda Operative U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, August 1, 2002 Steven Bradbury Memorandum for John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Legal Counsel Re: Application of 18 U.S.C. Sections 2340-2340A to Certain Techniques That May Be Used in the Interrogation of a High Value al Qaeda Detainee Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, May 10, 2005 Steven Bradbury Memorandum For John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency Re: Application of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2340-2340A to the Combined Use of Certain Techniques in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, May 10, 2005 Steven Bradbury Memoradnum for John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency Re: Application of United States Obligations Under Article 16 of the Convention Against Torture to Certain Techniques that May Be Used in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, May 30, 2005 U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Inspector General: A Review of the FBI's Involvement in and Observations of Detainee Interrogations in Guantanamo Bay, Afghanistan, and Iraq Department of Justice, Office of Inspector General, May 2008 | Abu_Zubaydah |@lemmatized abu:284 zubaydah:283 bear:3 march:20 zayn:1 al:120 abidin:1 muhammad:1 husayn:1 currently:1 u:94 custody:9 guantanamo:28 bay:15 cuba:2 detainee:59 war:23 terror:27 name:7 often:1 transliterate:1 zubaidah:1 zubeida:1 zoubeida:1 zein:1 abideen:1 mohamed:16 hussein:2 arabic:2 زين:1 العابدين:1 محمد:1 حسين:1 also:37 know:23 thirty:1 five:4 alias:2 biography:1 early:4 year:9 afghanistan:13 saudi:10 arabia:3 move:4 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1,006 | Northrop_F-5 | The Northrop F-5A/B Freedom Fighter and F-5E/F Tiger II are part of a family of widely used light supersonic fighter aircraft, designed and built by Northrop in the United States, beginning in 1960s. Hundreds remain in service in air forces around the world in the early 21st Century, and the type has also been the basis for a number of other aircraft. The F-5 started life as a privately-funded light fighter program by Northrop in the 1950s. The first generation F-5A Freedom Fighter entered service in the 1960s. Over 800 were produced through 1972 for U.S. allies during the Cold War. The USAF had no need for a light fighter, but it did specify a requirement for a supersonic trainer and procured about 1,200 of a derivative airframe for this purpose, the T-38 Talon. The improved second-generation F-5E Tiger II was also primarily used by American Cold War allies and, in limited quantities, served in US military aviation as a training and aggressor aircraft; Tiger II production amounted to 1,400 of all versions, with production ending in 1987. Many F-5s continuing in service into the 1990s and 2000s have undergone a wide variety of upgrade programs to keep pace with the changing combat environment. The F-5 was also developed into a dedicated reconnaissance version, the RF-5 Tigereye. The F-5N/F variants remain in service with the United States Navy as an adversary trainer. Design and development Northrop designed the F-5 (company designation N-156) to be a low-cost, low-maintenance fighter, but found there was little market for such a craft. It was designed around a pair of an afterburning version of the General Electric J85 engine which was originally designed to power the tiny McDonnell ADM-20 Quail decoy, then carried by the B-52 bomber. This requirement created a very small engine with a very high thrust-to-weight ratio. The U.S. Army expressed interest in it for ground support, but operating fixed-wing aircraft was a task largely taken over by the U.S. Air Force. The Air Force would neither agree to operate the N-156 nor to allow the Army to operate fixed-wing combat aircraft (a situation repeated with the C-7 Caribou). When the Military Assistance Program under the Kennedy Administration needed a low-cost fighter for distribution to less-developed nations, the N-156F was at the top of the pile, and subsequently became the F-5A. It was named under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system which included a re-set of the fighter number series (the General Dynamics F-111 was the highest sequentially numbered P/F- aircraft to enter service under the old number sequence). F-5E and F-5F Tiger II In 1970 Northrop won a competition for an improved International Fighter Aircraft (IFA) to replace the F-5A. The resultant aircraft, initially known as F-5A-21, subsequently became the F-5E. It was lengthened and enlarged, with increased wing area and more sophisticated avionics, initially with an Emerson Electric AN/APQ-153 radar (the F-5A and B had no radar). Various specific avionics fits could be accommodated at customer request. A two-seat combat-capable trainer, the F-5F, was offered. Unlike the gunless F-5B, it retained a single M39 cannon in the nose, albeit with a reduced ammunition capacity (the F-5E was equipped with two M39 cannon, one on either side of the nose). The F-5F was armed with Emerson AN/APQ-157 radar, which is a derivative of the AN/APQ-153 radar, with dual control and display systems to accommodate the two-men crew, and the radar has the same range of AN/APQ-153, around 10 nm. A reconnaissance version, the RF-5E Tigereye, with a sensor package in the nose displacing the radar and one cannon, was also offered. The latest radar upgrade included the Emerson AN/APG-69, which was the successor of AN/APQ-159, incorporating mapping capability, however, most nations chose not to upgrade due to financial reasons, and the radar only saw very limited service in USAF aggressor squadrons and Swiss air force. The F-5E eventually received the official name Tiger II. The F-5E experienced numerous upgrades in its service life, with the most significant one being adopting a new planar array radar, Emerson AN/APQ-159 with a range of 20 nmi to replace the original AN/APQ-153. Similar radar upgrades were also proposed for F-5F, with the derivative of AN/APQ-159, the AN/APQ-167, to replace the AN/APQ-157, but was never carried out. Northrop built 792 F-5Es, 140 F-5Fs and 12 RF-5Es. More were built under license overseas: 56 F-5Es and -Fs plus 5 RF-5Es were manufactured in Malaysia, which plans to sell the aircraft after upgrading them; 90 F-5Es and -Fs in Switzerland, which currently leases some to Austria to bridge the gap between the retirement of the Saab Draken fleet and the delivery of new Eurofighter jets; 68 in South Korea, and 308 in Taiwan. The F-5 proved to be a successful combat aircraft for US allies, but had only limited combat service with the US Air Force in Vietnam. The two-seat F-5B actually preceded the F-5A and was actually a fighter development of the T-38 Talon supersonic trainer. The design would evolve into the Northrop YF-17, which lost out to the YF-16 in US air Force competition for a lightweight fighter but was eventually developed into the McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F/A-18 Hornet. Upgrades Thai F-5T Tigris upgrade with new avionics and DASH helmet NASA F-5E modified for DARPA sonic boom tests Various F-5 versions remain in service with many nations. Singapore has approximately 49 modernized and re-designated F-5S (single-seat) and F-5T (two-seat) aircraft. Upgrades include new FIAR Grifo-F X-band radar from Galileo Avionica (similar in performance to the AN/APG-69), updated cockpits with multi-function displays, and compatibility with the AIM-120 AMRAAM and RAFAEL Python air-to-air missiles. Similar programs have been carried out in Chile and Brazil with the help of Elbit. The Chilean upgrade, called the F-5 Plus, incorporated a new Elta 2032 radar and other improvements. The Brazilian program, whose product is called the F-5M (Modernized), is armed with Python V coupled to the DASH helmet-mounted cue system, and new GRIFO radar, cockpit displays and navigation electronics. The Brazilian F-5M is also equipped with the Israeli Derby missile and can operate in a BVR environment. In the Cruzex 2006 multinational war games, a Brazilian F-5 made simulated kills on two French Air Force Dassault Mirage 2000N aircraft, which were supported by an E-3 Sentry and escorted by other two Mirage 2000C. This result was achieved by using the Derby and the information relayed by datalink from an AEW&C plane, the Embraer R-99, fitted with the Erieye AESA radar. FAB buys Derby. DefesaNet. Retrieved September 11, 2007. Another upgrade programs have been carried out in Royal Thai Air Force by Israel being called the F-5T Tigris, armed with Python III and 4 (with the Dash helmet-mounted cueing system). Unlike other F-5s which have undergone updates, the RTAF aircraft cannot use BVR missiles. One NASA F-5E was given a modified fuselage shape for its employment in the Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstration program carried out by DARPA. It is preserved in the Valiant Air Command Museum at Titusville, Florida. Operational history United States New Jersey Air National Guard F-4 Phantom II aircraft flying in close formation with a Norwegian Air Force F-5A Freedom Fighter aircraft during an exercise in 1982 VNAF F-5C Bien Hoa Air Base, 1971 The first contract for the production F-5A was issued in 1962, the first overseas order coming from the Royal Norwegian Air Force in February 1964. 636 F-5As were built before production ended in 1972. These were accompanied by 200 two-seat F-5B aircraft. These were operational trainers, lacking the nose-mounted cannon but otherwise combat-capable. In October 1965 the USAF began a five-month combat evaluation of the F-5A titled Skoshi Tiger. Twelve aircraft were delivered for trials to the 4503rd Tactical Fighter Wing and redesignated as the F-5C. They performed combat duty in Vietnam, flying more than 3,500 sorties from the 3rd Tactical Fighter Wing at Bien Hoa in South Vietnam. Two aircraft were lost in combat. Though declared a success, the program was more a political gesture than a serious consideration of the type for U.S. service. From April 1966 the aircraft continued operations as 10th Fighter Commando Squadron with their number boosted to seventeen aircraft. (Following Skoshi Tiger the Philippine Air Force acquired F-5A and B models in 1965, putting twenty-three into service. These aircraft, along with remanufactured F-8 Crusaders, eventually replaced the F-86 Sabre in the air defense and ground attack roles.) In June 1967 the 10th FCS's surviving aircraft were turned over to the air force of South Vietnam, which previously had only A-37 Dragonfly and A-1 Skyraider attack aircraft. This new VNAF squadron was titled the 522nd. The president of Vietnam had originally asked for F-4 Phantoms used by the Americans, but the VNAF flew primarily ground support as the communist forces employed no opposing aircraft over South Vietnam, MiG or otherwise. Ironically, when Bien Hoa was later overrun by Communist forces, several of the aircraft were captured and used operationally by the NVAF, in particular against Khmer Rouge. In view of the performance, agility and size of the F-5, it might have appeared to be a good match against the similar MiG-21 in air combat; however, US doctrine was to use heavy, faster, and longer-range aircraft like the F-105 Thunderchief and F-4 Phantom II over North Vietnam. Several of the F-5s left over from the Vietnam war were sent to Poland and Russia, for advanced study of US aviation technology, Photo of a Northrop F-5E Tiger II in Kraków, Poland a gift of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. while others were decommissioned and put on display at museums in Vietnam. Although the United States does not use the F-5 in a front line role, it was adopted for an opposing forces (OPFOR) "aggressor" for dissimilar training role because of its small size and performance similarities to the Soviet MiG-21. The F-5E saw service with the US Air Force from 1975 until 1990, serving in the 64th Aggressor Squadron and 65th Aggressor Squadron at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, and with the 527th Aggressor Squadron at Alconbury RAF Base in the UK and the 26th Aggressor Squadron at Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines. The Marines purchased ex-USAF models in 1989 to replace their F-21s, which served with VMFT-401 at Marine Corps Air Station Yuma. The U.S. Navy used the F-5E extensively at the Naval Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN) when it was located at NAS Miramar, California. When TOPGUN relocated to become part of the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center at NAS Fallon, Nevada, the command divested itself of the F-5. Relying on VC-13, redesignated VFC-13, to employ the F-5 as an adversary aircraft. Former adversary squadrons such as VF-43 at NAS Oceana, VF-45 at NAS Key West, VF-126 at NAS Miramar, and VFA-127 at NAS Lemoore have also operated the F-5 along with other aircraft types in support of Dissimilar Air Combat Training (DACT). The U.S. Navy F-5 fleet continues to be modernized with 36 low-hour F-5E/Fs purchased from Switzerland in 2006. These were updated as F-5N/Fs with modernized avionics and other improved systems. Currently, the only U.S. Navy units flying the F-5 are VFC-13 at NAS Fallon, Nevada and VFC-111 at NAS Key West, Florida. F-5N/F Adversary aircraft fact file, US Navy. Iran The Imperial Iranian Air Force received extensive US equipment in the 1960s and 1970s. Iran received its first 11 F-5A and two F-5Bs in February 1965 which were then declared operational in June 1965. Ultimately, Iran received 104 F-5A and 23 F-5Bs by 1972. From January 1974 with the first squadron of 28 F-5Fs, Iran received a total of 166 F-5E/F and 15 additional RF-5Es with deliveries ending in 1976. While receiving the F-5E and F, Iran started selling its F-5A and Bs to other countries including Ethiopia, Turkey, Greece and South Vietnam; by 1976, they were all sold apart from some F-5Bs retained for training. After the revolution, the new Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force was partially successful keeping Western fighters in service during the war with Iraq in the 1980s and the simple F-5 had a good service readiness until late in the war. Initially Iran took spare parts from foreign sources, later it was able to have its new aircraft industry keep the aircraft flying. F-5 During the war with Iraq, IRIAF F-5s were heavily involved, flying air-to-air and air-to-ground sorties. Iranian F-5s took part in many air combats with Iraqi MiG-21, MiG-23, MiG-25, Su-20/22, Mirage F-1 and Super Etendards scoring many victories but alternately suffering many losses. However the exact combat record is not known with many different claims from Iraqi, Iranian and even Western and Russian sources. Also, it appears that many IRIAF pilots were victims of their own unstable regime - in many cases, they were imprisoned and executed by the Iranian government itself, often on vague charges. Adding to the haze surrounding the F-5's combat record is that many of the IRIAF's confirmed air-to-air kills were, for political reasons, attributed to the Revolutionary Guards. Nonetheless there are reports that an F-5E, piloted by Major Yadollah Javadpour, managed to shoot down a MiG-25. From a general standpoint, during the first years of service, Iranian F-5 fighter aircraft had the advantage in missile technology, using advanced versions of the IR seeking Sidewinder, later lost with deliveries of new missiles and fighters to Iraq. Iraq Air Force equipment Today, Iran produces an indigenous aircraft titled the "Saegeh" which is built on the same platform as the F5. Ethiopia Ethiopia received 10 F-5A, 2 F-5B, from USA starting in 1966. In addition to these, Ethiopia had a training squadron equipped with at least 8 T33A. Later in 1970, Iran transferred at least 3 F-5As and Bs to Ethiopia. In 1975, another agreement was reached with USA to deliver a number of military aircrafts including 14 F-5E and 3 F-5F and so later in the same year 8 F-5E were transferred while the other were embargoed and delivered to a USAF aggressor Squadron due to changed political situation. The USA withdrew its personnel and cut diplomatic relations too. Ethipioan officers contracted a number of Israelis to maintain American equipment. The Ethiopian F-5 fighters saw combat action against Somali forces and air force during the Ogaden War (1977-1978). The main Somali fighter aircraft was the MiG-21MF delivered in the 1970s supported by MiG-17 delivered in the 1960s by the Soviet Union. Ethiopian F-5E were used to gain air superiority because they could use the AIM-9B air to air missile, while the F-5A were kept for air interdiction and air strike and F-86 for close air support. During this period Ethiopian F-5E were on training against Ethiopian F-5A and F-86 (simulating Somali MiG-21 and MiG-17). On 17 July 1977, 2 Ethiopian F-5 were on combat air patrol near Harer, when 4 Somali MiG-21MF were detected nearby. In the engagement, 2 MiG-21 were shot down while the other two had a mid-air collision while avoiding a AIM-9B missile. The nationality of the F-5 pilots (Israeli or Ethiopian) is disputed. The better trained Ethiopian Air Force F-5 pilots swiftly gained air superiority over the Somali Air Force, shooting down a number of aircraft, while other Somali aircraft were lost to air defense and to incidents. However at least three F-5 were shot down by air defense during attacks against supply bases in western Somalia. Saudi Arabia During the Gulf War, Saudi F-5s flew close air support and aerial interdiction missions against Iraqi units in Kuwait. One RSAF F-5 was lost to ground fire on February 13, 1991. In Saudi Arabian service, approximately 20 Tigers have been lost to various causes over the years. Variants Single-seat versions RTAF F-5 and USAF F-15 in the background N-156F Single-seat fighter prototype. Only three aircraft were built. YF-5A The three prototypes were given the US Air Force designation YF-5A. F-5A Single-seat fighter version of the F-5A. F-5A (G) Single-seat fighter version of the F-5A for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. XF-5A This designation was given to one aircraft used for static tests. A-9Designation of Spanish built F-5A which served in the Ejército del Aire F-5C Skoshi Tiger 12 F-5A Freedom Fighters, were tested by the US Air Force for four and a half months in Vietnam. F-5E Tiger II Single-seat fighter version. F-5E Tiger III Upgraded version of the F-5E in use by the Chilean Air Force. F-5G The temporary designation given to the F-20A Tigershark. F-5N Ex-Swiss Air Force F-5Es used by the US Navy as "aggressor" aircraft, intended to replace high-time USN/USMC F-5Es in the adversary role, and see service through to 2015. F-5S Upgraded version of the F-5E in use by the Republic of Singapore Air Force, equipped with the Galileo Avionica's FIAR Grifo-F X-band radar and are capable of firing the AIM-120 AMRAAM. F-5T Tigris Upgraded version of the F-5E of Royal Thai Air Force by Israel. F-5EM Upgraded version of the F-5E of Brazilian Air Force. Reconnaissance versions RF-5A Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5A fighter. RF-5A (G) Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5A fighter for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. RF-5E Tigereye Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5E fighter. The RF-5E Tigereye was exported to Saudi Arabia, Iran and Malaysia. RF-5E Tigergazer Upgraded single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5E. The Tigergazer is now in service with Taiwan. RF-5S Tigereye Single-seat reconnaissance version of the F-5S for the Republic of Singapore Air Force. AR-9Spanish recon aircra Two-seat versions Chilean F-5F Tiger II just after delivery (1977). A civilian F-5B (restored to include a U.S. Air Force paint scheme) flies a low pass down Runway 30 at the Mojave Spaceport F-5-21 Temporarily designation given to the YF-5B. YF-5B One F-5B was fitted with a 5,000 lbf (2,268 kgf) General Electric J85-GE-21 engine, and used as a prototype for the F-5E Tiger II. F-5B Two-seat fighter version for the Republic of Korea Air Force. F-5B(G) Two-seat trainer version of the F-5B for the Royal Norwegian Air Force. F-5D Unbuilt trainer version. F-5F Tiger II Two-seat trainer version of F-5E Tiger II. F-5F Tiger III Upgraded trainer version of the F-5F in use by the Chilean Air Force. F-5T Upgraded F-5F in use by the Republic of Singapore Air Force. F-5FM Upgraded trainer version of the F-5F for the Brazilian Air Force. Foreign variants A Canadian Forces Air Command's CF-116 Licensed versions CF-5 Fighter versions for the Canadian Forces Air Command built under license by Canadair. Its Canadian designation is CF-116. NF-5A Single-seat fighter version of the CF-5A for the Royal Netherlands Air Force. 75 built. NF-5B Two-seat training version of the CF-5D for the Royal Netherlands Air force. 30 built. SF-5A Single-seat fighter version of the F-5A for the Spanish Air Force. Built under licence in Spain by CASA. SRF-5A Single-seat reconnaissance version of the RF-5A for the Spanish Air force. Built under license in Spain By CASA. SF-5B Two-seat training version of the F-5B for the Spanish Air Force. Built under license in Spain by CASA. VF-5A Single-seat version of the CF-5A for the Venezuelan Air Force. This designation was given to some Canadair CF-116s which were sold to the Venezuelan Air Force. VF-5D Two-seat training version of the CF-5D for the Venezuelan Air Force. KF-5E F-5E built in South Korea for Republic of Korea Air Force. First introduction Time : September, 1982. KF-5F F-5F built in South Korea for Republic of Korea Air Force. First introduction Time : September, 1982. Unlicensed versions Imperial Iranian Air Force Golden Crown F-5E Azarakhsh F-5E built in Iran with unknown modifications and a mid wing. Azarakhsh (Lightning), GlobalSecurity.org Sa'eqeh F-5E modified in Iran with canted, twin vertical stabilizers. Derivatives F-20 Tigershark Northrop attempted to develop an advanced version of the F-5E, originally designated F-5G, as an export competitor for the F-16 Fighting Falcon. The F-5G was later redesignated the F-20 Tigershark. It received favorable reviews as a less expensive but capable alternative to early-block variants of the F-16 (and superior to the similarly never-purchased export variant F-16/79), but it never had the appeal of the much newer fighter design even at a lower cost. Operators Operators of Northrop F-5 Tiger Honduran F-5E Tiger preparing for takeoff Kenya Air Force F-5E Tiger II and an USAF C-5 Galaxy in the background Mexican Air Force F-5 jets On loan from Switzerland Brazilian Air Force - Operating 56 F-5Es. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-2,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Chilean Air Force: The 16 F-5E Tigre IIIs are going to be replaced in 2009 by 16 F-16 MLU T5. Chile to increase F-16 fleet Indonesian Air Force: All 16 F-5Es have been retired since late 2005 but are in reserve in case of future use. Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force: 60 or 75 F-5E and F operational; 140 originally delivered Unknown numbers of HESA Saeqeh and HESA Azarakhsh fighters derived from the F-5 design Royal Jordanian Air Force In July 2008, it was reported that Kenya will spend 1.5 billion KSh to buy 15 former Jordanian Air Force F-5, 13 F-5E and 2 F-5F Kenyan military aviation OrBat (plus training and spare parts). They will be added or eventually replace the current F-5 fleet Operating 8 F-5 E and 2 F-5 F Mexican military aviation OrBat Royal Norwegian Air Force Pakistan Air Force : On loan from the Royal Jordanian Air Force during a conflict against India. Paraguayan Air Force: In 1996 Taiwan announced the donation of 10 F-5E and 2 F-5F to the FAP. The donation never materialized because the Paraguayan government in 1998 preferred more Bell UH-1H helicopters instead. Taiwan donated 10 UH-1H between 1996 and 2003. Republic of China Air Force: First received the F-5A and B in 1965. From 1973 to 1986, Taiwan produced 308 F-5E and Fs under license. Later batches have F-20 style flattened nose and enlarged LERX. Joe Baugher. Northrop F-5E/F in Service with Taiwan Royal Saudi Air Force Republic of Singapore Air Force Republic of Korea Air Force Spanish Air Force, as advanced trainers Swiss Air Force Royal Thai Air Force: Older F-5A/B & F-5E/F slated for retirement in 2011, to be replaced by the JAS 39 Gripen. Upgraded F-5T Tigris will continue to serve on for the foreseeable future. Swiss Air Force F-5E Tiger II of the Patrouille Suisse aerobatics team arriving at RIAT 2008, England. NF-5B of the Turkish Stars aerobatic team at RIAT 2008, England. Turkish Air Force: More than 200 F-5A/Bs and NF-5A/Bs were bought from various countries. Between 40 and 50 of them were upgraded to F-5/2000 standard during the 2000s. In total, 50 NF-5A and 25 NF-5B remain operational. Turkish military aviation OrBat United States Marine Corps United States Navy Vietnam People's Air Force (several captured ex-VNAF planes) Former operators Hellenic Air Force Royal Malaysian Air Force Royal Netherlands Air Force Philippine Air Force 1967 22 F-5A (single seat) 8 F-5B (two seater), retired from service in 2006. 2 F-5Bs are for upgrade. Vietnam Air Force United States Air Force Specifications (F-5E Tiger II) An orthographically projected diagram of the F-5 Freedom Fighter. Popular culture Prior to the scene of the very famous line "I love the smell of napalm in the morning" in the 1979 classic movie Apocalypse Now, 4 F-5 fighters were shown dropping napalm on a battlefield. These aircraft belonged to the Philippine Air Force which provided not only the F-5s, but also the UH-1H helicopters, for the film. The aircraft were portrayed as American in the film. Top Gun (1986) features a number of F-5Es and F-5Fs in latex wash-off paint as the fictional MiG-28s that battle against US Navy F-14 Tomcats. See also References Notes Bibliography Crosby, Francis. Fighter Aircraft. London: Lorenz Books, 2002. ISBN 0-7548-0990-0. Dorr, Robert F. and Donald David. Fighters of the United States Air Force. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1990. ISBN 0-60055-094-X. Eden, Paul, ed. "Northrop F-5 family". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. Amber Books, 2004. ISBN 1904687849. Johnsen, Frederick A. Northrop F-5/F-20/T-38. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2006. ISBN 1-58007-094-9. Pace, Steve. X-Fighters: USAF Experimental and Prototype Fighters, XP-59 to YF-23. Oscela, Wisconsin: Motorbooks International, 1991. ISBN 0-87938-540-5. Scutts, Jerry. Northrop F-5/F-20. London: Ian Allan, 1986. ISBN 0-71101-576-7. Shaw, Robbie. F-5: Warplane for the World. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks, 1990. ISBN 0-87938-487-5. External links USN Fact File on F-5N/F Adversary aircraft F-5 page at the National Museum of the United States Air Force F-5 Series Reference at Cybermodeler.com F-5E Marine Corps Adversary trainer exhibit aircraft, Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum | Northrop_F-5 |@lemmatized northrop:14 f:236 b:9 freedom:5 fighter:41 tiger:22 ii:16 part:5 family:2 widely:1 use:20 light:3 supersonic:3 aircraft:47 design:8 build:14 united:10 state:10 begin:2 hundred:1 remain:4 service:21 air:109 force:85 around:3 world:2 early:2 century:1 type:3 also:10 basis:1 number:9 started:1 life:2 privately:1 fund:1 program:8 first:9 generation:2 enter:2 produce:3 u:21 ally:3 cold:2 war:9 usaf:8 need:2 specify:1 requirement:2 trainer:12 procure:1 derivative:4 airframe:1 purpose:1 talon:2 improved:2 second:1 primarily:2 american:4 limited:3 quantity:1 serve:5 military:7 aviation:6 training:7 aggressor:9 production:4 amount:1 version:38 end:3 many:9 continue:4 undergo:1 wide:1 variety:1 upgrade:14 keep:4 pace:2 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1,007 | Centrifugal_force_(rotating_reference_frame) | In classical mechanics, centrifugal force is an outward force associated with curved motion, that is, rotation about some (possibly not stationary) center. Centrifugal force is one of several so-called pseudo-forces (also known as inertial forces), so named because, unlike fundamental forces, they do not originate in interactions with other bodies situated in the environment of the particle upon which they act. Instead, centrifugal force originates in the curved motion of the frame of reference within which observations are made. Derivation Next, a formal mathematical expression for centrifugal force is derived by comparing the form of Newton's second law in an inertial frame with its form in a frame rotating about a fixed axis. Newton's law of motion for a particle of mass m can be written in vector form as where F is the vector sum of the physical forces applied to the particle and a is the absolute acceleration By "absolute" is meant as seen in any inertial frame of reference; for example "absolute acceleration" or "absolute derivative". of the particle, given by: where r is the position vector of the particle. The differentiations are performed in terms of an inertial reference frame. In a rotating frame of reference, a body appears to move differently due to the rotation of the frame. Consequently, the time derivatives of its position will appear different as well. As shown in Rotating reference frame, for any vector Q depending upon time, its time derivative [dQ/dt] evaluated in terms of a reference frame with a coincident origin but rotating with the absolute angular velocity Ω The vector Ω has magnitude Ω equal to the rate of rotation and is directed along the axis of rotation according to the right-hand rule is related to the absolute derivative dQ/dt by: where × denotes the vector cross product and square brackets […] denote evaluation in the rotating frame of reference. As a particular example, it follows that the absolute acceleration of the particle can be written as (for more detail, see Rotating frame of reference): From the viewpoint of the rotating frame, where an observer sees merely the acceleration relative to the rotating frame, the first term on the right hand side appears to be the absolute acceleration. Of course, using this first term alone in Newton's law will lead to incorrect prediction of the trajectory and, to obtain agreement, the observer in the rotating frame is forced to add additional force terms on the force-side of Newton's law. When these forces are added, the equation of motion has the form: which, from a formal mathematical standpoint, is the same result as simply moving the extra acceleration terms to the left hand side (the force side) of the equation. From the viewpoint of the rotating frame, however, the terms on the force side all result from forces really experienced as forces. See cartoon: XKCD demonstrates the life and death importance of centrifugal force. The last term on the force side is commonly called the centrifugal force. It points directly away from the axis of rotation of the rotating reference frame, with magnitude . Notice that for a non-rotating frame the centrifugal force is zero. The disappearance of centrifugal force in an inertial frame of reference is shared by all fictitious forces. Advantages of rotating frames Of course, living on Earth one is automatically in a rotating frame of reference, and it is not an option. However, even from the abstract stance of solving problems in mechanics, a rotating reference frame can have advantages over an inertial reference frame. Sometimes the calculations are simpler (an example is inertial circles), and sometimes the intuitive picture coincides more closely with the rotational frame (an example is sedimentation in a centrifuge). By treating the extra acceleration terms due to the rotation of the frame as if they were forces, subtracting them from the physical forces, it's possible to treat the second time derivative of position (relative to the rotating frame) as if it was the absolute acceleration. Thus the analysis using Newton's law can proceed as if the reference frame was inertial, provided the fictitious force terms are included in the sum of forces. For example, centrifugal force is used in the FAA pilot's manual in describing turns. Other examples are such systems as planets, centrifuges, carousels, turning cars, spinning buckets, and rotating space stations. Regarding the advantages of rotating frames from the viewpoint of meteorology, Ryder says: Centrifugal force and absolute rotation Figure 1: The interface of two immiscible liquids rotating around a vertical axis is an upward-opening circular paraboloid. Can absolute rotation be detected? In other words, can one decide whether an observed object is rotating or if it is you, the observer that is rotating? Newton suggested two experiments that could resolve this problem. One is the effect of centrifugal force upon the shape of the surface of water rotating in a bucket. Newton suggested the shape of the surface of the water indicates the presence or absence of absolute rotation relative to the fixed stars: a concave surface indicates rotation of the water (see Bucket argument). Newton also proposed another experiment for this purpose using the tension in a cord joining two spheres rotating about their center of gravity: non-zero tension in the string indicates rotation of the spheres (see Rotating spheres). The concavity of the surface of rotating water in a bucket can be explained in a simple, approximate fashion using the concept of potential energy, described next. Alternative approaches are found in Bucket argument. In a reference frame uniformly rotating at angular rate Ω, the fictitious centrifugal force is conservative and has a potential energy of the form: where r is the radius from the axis of rotation. This result can be verified by taking the gradient of the potential to obtain the radially outward force: The meaning of the potential energy is that movement of a test body from a larger radius to a smaller radius involves doing work against the centrifugal force. The potential energy is useful, for example, in understanding the concavity of the water surface in a rotating bucket. Notice that at equilibrium the surface adopts a shape such that an element of volume at any location on its surface has the same potential energy as at any other. That being so, no element of water on the surface has any incentive to move position, because all positions are equivalent in energy. That is, equilibrium is attained. On the other hand, were surface regions with lower energy available, the water occupying surface locations of higher potential energy would move to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid. We might imagine deliberately upsetting this equilibrium situation by somehow momentarily altering the surface shape of the water to make it different from an equal-energy surface. This change in shape would not be stable, and the water would not stay in our artificially contrived shape, but engage in a transient exploration of many shapes until non-ideal frictional forces introduced by sloshing, either against the sides of the bucket or by the non-ideal nature of the liquid, killed the oscillations and the water settled down to the equilibrium shape. To see the principle of an equal-energy surface at work, imagine gradually increasing the rate of rotation of the bucket from zero. The water surface is flat at first, and clearly a surface of equal potential energy because all points on the surface are at the same height in the gravitational field acting upon the water. At some small angular rate of rotation, however, an element of surface water can achieve lower potential energy by moving outward under the influence of the centrifugal force. Because water is incompressible and must remain within the confines of the bucket, this outward movement increases the depth of water at the larger radius, increasing the height of the surface at larger radius, and lowering it at smaller radius. The surface of the water becomes slightly concave, with the consequence that the potential energy of the water at the greater radius is increased by the work done against gravity to achieve the greater height. As the height of water increases, movement toward the periphery becomes no longer advantageous, because the reduction in potential energy from working with the centrifugal force is balanced against the increase in energy working against gravity. Thus, at a given angular rate of rotation, a concave surface represents the stable situation, and the more rapid the rotation, the more concave this surface. If rotation is arrested, the energy stored in fashioning the concave surface must be dissipated, for example through friction, before an equilibrium flat surface is restored. To implement a surface of constant potential energy quantitatively, let the height of the water be : then the potential energy per unit mass contributed by gravity is and the total potential energy per unit mass on the surface is with the background energy level independent of r. (Note: this formula for the potential energy of the water assumes the water co-rotates with the frame of reference. If, as actually is the case, the water does not quite rotate at the same rate as the frame, its energy will be somewhat different.) In a static situation (no motion of the fluid in the rotating frame), this energy is constant independent of position r. Requiring the energy to be constant, we obtain the parabolic form: where h(0) is the height at r = 0 (the axis). See Figure 1. The principle of operation of the centrifuge also can be simply understood in terms of this expression for the potential energy, which shows that it is favorable energetically when the volume far from the axis of rotation is occupied by the heavier substance. Notice that this analysis based upon centrifugal potential energy requires the presence of a centrifugal force. This force is needed in a co-rotating frame of reference (one that rotates with the water) because the water appears stationary in this frame. Thus, observers looking at the stationary water need the centrifugal force to explain why the water surface is concave and not flat. In short, rotating water has a concave surface: if the surface you see is concave, and the water does not seem to you to be rotating, then you are rotating with the water. Equivalently, if you need a centrifugal force to explain what you see, then you are rotating. Newton's conclusion was that rotation is absolute. Examples Below several examples illustrate both the inertial and rotating frames of reference, and the role of centrifugal force and its relation to Coriolis force in rotating frameworks. For more examples see Fictitious force, rotating bucket and rotating spheres. Whirling table Figure 2: The "whirling table". The rod is made to rotate about the axis and (from the bead's viewpoint) the centrifugal force acting on the sliding bead is balanced by the weight attached by a cord over two pulleys. Figure 2 shows a simplified version of an apparatus for studying centrifugal force called the "whirling table". The apparatus consists of a rod that can be whirled about an axis, causing a bead to slide on the rod under the influence of centrifugal force. A cord ties a weight to the sliding bead. By observing how the equilibrium balancing distance varies with the weight and the speed of rotation, the centrifugal force can be measured as a function of the rate of rotation and the distance of the bead from the center of rotation. From the viewpoint of an inertial frame of reference, equilibrium results when the bead is positioned to select the particular circular orbit for which the weight provides the correct centripetal force. As a lab experiment, it seems arbitrary whether to deal with centripetal force or centrifugal force. From the bead's standpoint, however, centrifugal force is real and is pushing the bead. Skywriter 180px |FIgure 3: Skywriter. (Image from NASA ASRS) What is the viewpoint of an airplane pilot engaged in skywriting? The plane's path is the smoky trail left behind, and progress can be registered as the distance s from the start of the trail to the plane's present position. The speed of the plane is v = ds / dt and the curvature of the path is measured by the osculating circle of radius ρ that is tangent to the path. For the inertial observer watching from the ground, the plane at any instant is executing circular motion about its (instantaneous) center of curvature, and so is subject to a centripetal force v2 / ρ acting radially inward toward this center of curvature. To maintain trajectory, this centripetal force is provided by banking the airplane, generating a lift that provides this centripetal force. According to the pilot, however, the plane is stationary, but subject to a centrifugal force outward from the instantaneous center of curvature with a magnitude v2 / ρ. To maintain trajectory, this centrifugal force is combated by banking the airplane, generating a lift to counteract the centrifugal force, thereby maintaining the plane in its equilibrium motionless position. As seen by the inertial observer, the plane also may accelerate along its path (dv / dt = d2s / dt2 > 0). For the pilot this acceleration introduces another fictitious force: the Euler force. For a detailed analysis, see Mechanics of planar particle motion. Flatness of galaxies and oblateness of planets Using the possible ω of the Universe as a fitting parameter one can deduce from the flatness of our galaxy whether the Universe is rotating. The flatness of our galaxy depends on how fast it rotates. If we, the inhabitants of the galaxy, interpret its observed rotation as entirely its own, we ignore a possible centrifugal force due to the rotation of the Universe, and so predict an incorrect flatness. If we are smart enough to consider this possibility, we can include the rate of rotation of the Universe in our flatness calculation, include the centrifugal force as a force in our inventory of forces, and by adjusting this ω to fit the observed flatness we can deduce how fast the Universe is rotating. The inference is, in fact, that the Universe has rotated at most fifty times in the time since its birth. In a similar fashion, if we did not know the Earth rotates about its axis, we could infer this rotation from the centrifugal force needed to account for its observed bulging at its equator. The actual extent of oblateness in response to a centrifugal force requires an understanding of the make-up of the planet, not only today but during its formation. In general terms, the issue of whether one is in a rotating or an inertial frame can be determined by the need (or lack of need) for centrifugal force, as suggested by Newton in the rotating bucket problem and in the rotating spheres examples. For example, in the rotating spheres example, the tension in the cord between two rotating spheres is indicative of the centripetal force required by their rotation, but in a co-rotating frame this tension is used to determine the rate of rotation of the frame. See and The banked turn Riding a car around a curve, we take a personal view that we are at rest in the car, and should be undisturbed in our seats. Nonetheless, we feel sideways force applied to us from the seats and doors and a need to lean to one side. To explain the situation, we propose a centrifugal force that is acting upon us and must be combated. Interestingly, we find this discomfort is reduced when the curve is banked, tipping the car inward toward the center of the curve. A different point of view is that of the highway designer. The designer views the car as executing curved motion and therefore requiring an inward centripetal force to impel the car around the turn. By banking the curve, the force exerted upon the car in a direction normal to the road surface has a horizontal component that provides this centripetal force. That means the car tires no longer need to apply a sideways force to the car, but only a force perpendicular to the road. By choosing the angle of bank to match the car's speed around the curve, the car seat transmits only a perpendicular force to the passengers, and the passengers no longer feel a need to lean nor feel a sideways push by the car seats or doors. Rotating frame Figure 4: Object stationary in inertial frame S' appears to circle clockwise in a counterclockwise rotating frame S. Top panel: In inertial (stationary) frame S' , frame S is rotating counterclockwise at angular rate Ω, and occupies successive positions at times t0, t1, and t2. Stationary object does not move, of course. Center panel: Positions of the stationary object as it appears in S at the times t0, t1, and t2. The object appears to move clockwise in S. Bottom panel: Assembly of the positions in center panel to construct the orbit of the stationary object as seen by S. Radius vectors from the origin of moving frame S to the object at times t0, t1, t2 are R0, R1, R2; these vectors all have magnitude equal to the radius of the circle R. At time t0, the object has a velocity v0 in frame S, but this velocity turns with motion of the object to remain tangential to its orbit at all times. It has been mentioned that to deal with motion in a rotating frame of reference, one alternative to a solution based upon translating everything into an inertial frame instead is to apply Newton's laws of motion in the rotating frame by adding pseudo-forces, and then working directly in the rotating frame. Next is a simple example of this method. Figure 4 illustrates that a body that is stationary relative to the non-rotating inertial frame S' appears to be rotating when viewed from the rotating frame S, which is rotating at angular rate Ω. Therefore, application of Newton's laws to what looks like circular motion in the rotating frame S at a radius R, requires an inward centripetal force of −m Ω2 R to account for the apparent circular motion. According to observers in S, this centripetal force in the rotating frame is provided as a net force that is the sum of the radially outward centrifugal pseudo force m Ω2 R and the Coriolis force −2m Ω × vrot. To evaluate the Coriolis force, we need the velocity as seen in the rotating frame, vrot. According to the formulas in the Derivation section, this velocity is given by −Ω × R. The vector cross product of the two orthogonal vectors Ω and R is a vector of magnitude equal to the product of their magnitudes, namely Ω R = vrot, and with direction given by the right-hand rule, in this case found by aligning the thumb with Ω, the index finger with R, and the middle finger normal to these two fingers points in the direction of −vrot. Hence, the Coriolis force (in this example) is inward, in the opposite direction to the centrifugal force, and has the value −2m Ω2 R. The combination of the centrifugal and Coriolis force is then m Ω2 R−2m Ω2 R = −m Ω2 R, exactly the centripetal force required by Newton's laws for circular motion. For further examples and discussion, see Taylor. Dropping ball Figure 5: A ball moving vertically along the axis of rotation in an inertial frame appears to spiral downward in the rotating frame. The right panel shows a downward view in the rotating frame. The rate of rotation |Ω| = ω is assumed constant in time. Figure 6: Vector cross product used to determine the Coriolis force. The vector Ω represents the rotation of the frame at angular rate ω; the vector v shows the velocity tangential to the circular motion as seen in the rotating frame. The vector Ω × v is found using the right-hand rule for vector cross products. It is related to the negative of the Coriolis force (the Coriolis force is −2 m Ω × v). Figure 5 shows a ball dropping vertically (parallel to the axis of rotation Ω of the rotating frame). For simplicity, suppose it moves downward at a fixed speed in the inertial frame, occupying successively the vertically aligned positions numbered one, two, three. In the rotating frame it appears to spiral downward, and the right side of Figure 5 shows a top view of the circular trajectory of the ball in the rotating frame. Because it drops vertically at a constant speed, from this top view in the rotating frame the ball appears to move at a constant speed around its circular track. A description of the motion in the two frames is next. Inertial frame In the inertial frame the ball drops vertically at constant speed. It does not change direction, so the inertial observer says the acceleration is zero and there is no force acting upon the ball. Uniformly rotating frame In the rotating frame the ball drops vertically at a constant speed, so there is no vertical component of force upon the ball. However, in the horizontal plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation, the ball executes uniform circular motion as seen in the right panel of Figure 5. Applying Newton's law of motion, the rotating observer concludes that the ball must be subject to an inward force in order to follow a circular path. Therefore, the rotating observer believes the ball is subject to a force pointing radially inward toward the axis of rotation. According to the analysis of uniform circular motion with a unit vector in the outward radial direction, and where Ω is the angular rate of rotation, m is the mass of the ball, and R is the radius of the spiral in the horizontal plane. Because there is no apparent source for such a force (hence the label "fictitious"), the rotating observer concludes it is just "a fact of life" in the rotating world that there exists an inward force with this behavior. Inasmuch as the rotating observer already knows there is a ubiquitous outward centrifugal force in the rotating world, how can there be an inward force? The answer is the Coriolis force: the component of velocity tangential to the circular motion seen in the right panel of Figure 5 activates the Coriolis force, which cancels the centrifugal force and goes a step further to provide precisely the centripetal force demanded by the calculations of the rotating observer. Some details of evaluation of the Coriolis force are shown in Figure 6. The Coriolis force is found to be (using the cross-product expansion): Combining this force with the centrifugal force: as required for the necessary centripetal force to maintain circular motion. Because the Coriolis force and centrifugal forces combine to provide the centripetal force the rotating observer requires for the observed circular motion, the rotating observer does not need to apply any additional force to the object, in complete agreement with the inertial observer, who also says there is no force needed. One way to express the result: the fictitious forces look after the "fictitious" situation, so the ball needs no help to travel the perceived trajectory: all observers agree that nothing needs to be done to make the ball follow its path. Parachutist Figure 7: A parachutist moving vertically parallel to the axis of rotation in a rotating frame appears to spiral downward in the inertial frame. The parachutist begins the drop with a horizontal component of velocity the same as the target site. The left panel shows a downward view in the inertial frame. The rate of rotation |Ω| = ω is assumed constant in time. To show a different frame of reference, let's revisit the dropping ball example in Figure 5 from the viewpoint of a parachutist falling at constant speed to Earth (the rotating platform). The parachutist aims to land upon the point on the rotating ground directly below the drop-off point. Figure 7 shows the vertical path of descent seen in the rotating frame. The parachutist drops at constant speed, occupying successively the vertically aligned positions one, two, three. In the stationary frame, let us suppose the parachutist jumps from a helicopter hovering over the destination site on the rotating ground below, and therefore traveling at the same speed as the target below. The parachutist starts with the necessary speed tangential to his path (ωR) to track the destination site. If the parachutist is to land on target, the parachute must spiral downward on the path shown in Figure 7. The stationary observer sees a uniform circular motion of the parachutist when the motion is projected downward, as in the left panel of Figure 7. That is, in the horizontal plane, the stationary observer sees a centripetal force at work, -m ω2 R, as is necessary to achieve the circular path. The parachutist needs a thruster to provide this force. Without thrust, the parachutist follows the dashed vertical path in the left panel of Figure 7, obeying Newton's law of inertia. The stationary observer and the observer on the rotating ground agree that there is no vertical force involved: the parachutist travels vertically at constant speed. However, the observer on the ground sees the parachutist simply drop vertically from the helicopter to the ground, following the vertically aligned positions one, two, three. There is no force necessary. So how come the parachutist needs a thruster? The ground observer has this view: there is always a centrifugal force in the rotating world. Without a thruster, the parachutist would be carried away by this centrifugal force and land far off the mark. From the parachutist's viewpoint, trying to keep the target directly below, the same appears true: a steady thrust radially inward is necessary, just to hold a position directly above target. Unlike the dropping ball case, where the fictitious forces conspired to produce no need for external agency, in this case they require intervention to achieve the trajectory. The basic rule is: if the inertial observer says a situation demands action or does not, the fictitious forces of the rotational frame will lead the rotational observer to the same conclusions, albeit by a different sequence. Notice that there is no Coriolis force in this discussion, because the parachutist has zero horizontal velocity from the viewpoint of the rotating ground observer. Planetary motion Centrifugal force arises in the analysis of orbital motion and, more generally, of motion in a central-force field – in the case of a two-body problem, it is easy to convert to an equivalent one-body problem with force directed to or from an origin, and motion in a plane, so we consider only that. The symmetry of a central force lends itself to a description in polar coordinates. The dynamics of a mass, m, expressed using Newton's second law of motion (F = ma), becomes in polar coordinates: where is the force accelerating the object and the "hat" variables are unit direction vectors ( points in the centrifugal or outward direction, and is orthogonal to it). In the case of a central force, relative to the origin of the polar coordinate system, can be replaced by , meaning the entire force is the component in the radial direction. An inward force of gravity would therefore correspond to a negative-valued F(r). The components of F = ma along the radial direction therefore reduce to in which the term proportional to the square of the rate of rotation appears on the acceleration side as a "centripetal acceleration", that is, a negative acceleration term in the direction. In the special case of a planet in circular orbit around its star, for example, where is zero, the centripetal acceleration alone is the entire acceleration of the planet, curving its path toward the sun under the force of gravity, the negative F(r). As pointed out by Taylor, for example, it is sometimes convenient to work in a co-rotating frame, that is, one rotating with the object so that the angular rate of the frame, , equals the of the object in the inertial frame. In such a frame, the observed is zero and alone is treated as the acceleration – so in the equation of motion, the term is “reincarnated on the force side of the equation (with opposite signs, of course) as the centrifugal force mΩ2r in the radial equation”: This quote is from . The "reincarnation" on the force side of the equation is necessary because, without this force term, observers in the rotating frame would find they could not predict the motion correctly. They would have an incorrect radial equation. where the term is known as the centrifugal force. The centrifugal force term in this equation is called a "fictitious force", "apparent force", or "pseudo force", as its value varies with the rate of rotation of the frame of reference. When the centrifugal force term is expressed in terms of parameters of the rotating frame, replacing with , it can be seen that it is the same centrifugal force previously derived for rotating reference frames. Because of the absence of a net force in the azimuthal direction, conservation of angular momentum allows the radial component of this equation to be expressed solely with respect to the radial coordinate, r, and the angular momentum , yielding the radial equation (a "fictitious one-dimensional problem" with only an r dimension): . The term is again the centrifugal force, a force component induced by the rotating frame of reference. The equations of motion for r that result from this equation for the rotating 2D frame are the same that would arise from a particle in a fictitious one-dimensional scenario under the influence of the force in the equation above. If F(r) represents gravity, it is a negative term proportional to 1/r2, so the net acceleration in r in the rotating frame depends on a difference of reciprocal square and reciprocal cube terms, which are in balance in a circular orbit but otherwise typically not. This equation of motion is similar to one originally proposed by Leibniz. Given r, the rate of rotation is easy to infer from the constant angular momentum L, so a 2D solution can be easily reconstructed from a 1D solution of this equation. When the angular velocity of this co-rotating frame is not constant, that is, for non-circular orbits, other fictitious forces – the Coriolis force and the Euler force – will arise, but can be ignored since they will cancel each other, yielding a net zero acceleration transverse to the moving radial vector, as required by the starting assumption that the vector co-rotates with the planet. In the special case of circular orbits, in order for the radial distance to remain constant the outward centrifugal force must cancel the inward force of gravity; for other orbit shapes, these forces will not cancel, so r will not be constant. Development of the modern conception of centrifugal force Early scientific ideas about centrifugal force were based upon intuitive perception, and circular motion was considered somehow more "natural" than straight line motion. According to Domenico Meli: "For Huygens and Newton centrifugal force was the result of a curvilinear motion of a body; hence it was located in nature, in the object of investigation. According to a more recent formulation of classical mechanics, centrifugal force depends on the choice of how phenomena can be conveniently represented. Hence it is not located in nature, but is the result of a choice by the observer. In the first case a mathematical formulation mirrors centrifugal force; in the second it creates it." The Relativization of Centrifugal Force Author(s): Domenico Bertoloni Meli Source: Isis, Vol. 81, No. 1, (Mar., 1990), pp. 23-43 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society. Gottfried Leibniz conceived of centrifugal force as a real outward force which is induced by the circulation of the body upon which the force acts. Leibniz showed that the centrifugal force obeys the inverse cube law. . Leibniz's method is used nowadays to solve the planetary orbital problem. The outward inverse cube law centrifugal force appears in a second order differential equation in the radial length alongside the inward inverse square law of gravity. The solution to this equation is a conic section which can be either a hyperbola, a parabola, or an ellipse. There is evidence that Sir Isaac Newton originally conceived of a similar approach to centrifuagl force as Leibniz. However, he seems to have changed his position at some point. In later years, Newton conceived of centrifugal force as being an equal and opposite reaction to centripetal force. see here. REF --> The modern conception of centrifugal force appears to have its origins in Christiaan Huygens' paper De Vi Centrifuga, written in 1659. It has been suggested that the idea of circular motion as caused by a single force was introduced to Newton by Robert Hooke. Newton described the role of centrifugal force upon the height of the oceans near the equator in the Principia: The effect of centrifugal force in countering gravity, as in this behavior of the tides, has led centrifugal force sometimes to be called "false gravity" or "imitation gravity" or "quasi-gravity". Role in developing the idea of inertial frames A continuing theme in classical mechanics has been the role of "absolute space". In the rotating bucket experiment Newton observed the shape of the surface of water in a bucket as the bucket was spun on a rope. At first the water is flat, then, as it acquires the same rotation as the bucket, it becomes parabolic. This shape is a consequence of centrifugal force, see subsection Potential energy above. Newton took this change as evidence that one could detect motion relative to "absolute space" experimentally, in this instance by looking at the shape of the surface of the water. Later scientists found this view unwarranted: they pointed out (as did Newton) that the laws of mechanics were the same for all observers that differed only by uniform translation; that is, all observers that differed in motion only by a constant velocity. Hence, the "fixed stars" or "absolute space" was not preferred, but only one of a set of frames related by Galilean transformations. The inadequacy of the notion of "absolute space" in Newtonian mechanics is spelled out by Blagojević: Ultimately this notion of the transformation properties of physical laws between frames played a more and more central role. The idea of transformation properties of physical laws under various transformations is a central topic in modern physics, related to such basic concepts as conservation laws like conservation of energy and momentum through Noether's theorem. See, for example, , and and It was noted that accelerating frames exhibited "fictitious forces" like the centrifugal force. These forces did not behave under transformation like other forces, providing a means of distinguishing them. This peculiarity of these forces led to the names inertial forces, pseudo-forces or fictitious forces. In particular, fictitious forces did not appear at all in some frames: those frames differing from that of the fixed stars by only a constant velocity. In short, a frame tied to the "fixed stars" is merely a member of the class of "inertial frames", and absolute space is an unnecessary and logically untenable concept. The preferred, or "inertial frames", were identifiable by the absence of fictitious forces. The idea of an inertial frame was extended further in the special theory of relativity. This theory posited that all physical laws should appear of the same form in inertial frames, not just the laws of mechanics. In particular, Maxwell's equations should apply in all frames. Because Maxwell's equations implied the same speed of light in the vacuum of free space for all inertial frames, inertial frames now were found to be related not by Galilean transformations, but by Poincaré transformations, of which a subset is the Lorentz transformations. That posit led to many ramifications, including Lorentz contractions and relativity of simultaneity. Einstein succeeded, through many clever thought experiments, in showing that these apparently odd ramifications in fact had very natural explanation upon looking at just how measurements and clocks actually were used. That is, these ideas flowed from operational definitions of measurement coupled with the experimental confirmation of the constancy of the speed of light. Later the general theory of relativity further generalized the idea of frame independence of the laws of physics, and abolished the special position of inertial frames, at the cost of introducing curved space-time. Following an analogy with centrifugal force (sometimes called "artificial gravity" or "false gravity"), gravity itself became a fictitious force, as enunciated in the principle of equivalence. In short, centrifugal force played a key early role in establishing the set of inertial frames of reference and the significance of fictitious forces, even aiding in the development of general relativity. Applications The operations of numerous common rotating mechanical systems are most easily conceptualized in terms of centrifugal force. For example: A centrifugal governor regulates the speed of an engine by using spinning masses that move radially, adjusting the throttle, as the engine changes speed. In the reference frame of the spinning masses, centrifugal force causes the radial movement. A centrifugal clutch is used in small engine-powered devices such as chain saws, go-karts and model helicopters. It allows the engine to start and idle without driving the device but automatically and smoothly engages the drive as the engine speed rises. Inertial drum brake ascenders used in rock climbing and the inertia reels used in many automobile seat belts operate on the same principle. Centrifugal forces can be used to generate artificial gravity, as in proposed designs for rotating space stations. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite will study the effects of Mars-level gravity on mice with gravity simulated in this way. Spin casting and centrifugal casting are production methods that uses centrifugal force to disperse liquid metal or plastic throughout the negative space of a mold. Centrifuges are used in science and industry to separate substances. In the reference frame spinning with the centrifuge, the centrifugal force induces a hydrostatic pressure gradient in fluid-filled tubes oriented perpendicular to the axis of rotation, giving rise to large buoyant forces which push low-density particles inward. Elements or particles denser than the fluid move outward under the influence of the centrifugal force. This is effectively Archimedes' principle as generated by centrifugal force as opposed to being generated by gravity. Some amusement park rides make use of centrifugal forces. For instance, a Gravitron’s spin forces riders against a wall and allows riders to be elevated above the machine’s floor in defiance of Earth’s gravity. Nevertheless, all of these systems can also be described without requiring the concept of centrifugal force, in terms of motions and forces in an inertial frame, at the cost of taking somewhat more care in the consideration of forces and motions within the system. See also Mechanics of planar particle motion Calculating relative centrifugal force Circular motion Coriolis force Coriolis effect (perception) Centripetal force Equivalence principle Bucket argument Euler force Folk physics Rotational motion Reactive centrifugal force Lamm equation Frame of reference Inertial frame of reference Fictitious force Lagrangian point Orthogonal coordinates Frenet-Serret formulas Statics Kinetics (physics) Kinematics Applied mechanics Analytical mechanics Dynamics (physics) Classical mechanics D'Alembert's principle Centrifuge Clairaut's theorem Notes and references Further reading Newton's description in Principia Centrifugal reaction force - Columbia electronic encyclopedia M. Alonso and E.J. Finn, Fundamental university physics, Addison-Wesley Centripetal force vs. Centrifugal force - from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City School District Centrifugal force acts inwards near a black hole Centrifugal force at the HyperPhysics concepts site A list of interesting links Part of a high school course on astronomy, Newtonian mechanics and spaceflight by David P. Stern External links h2g2 'The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy' Motion over a flat surface Java physlet by Brian Fiedler (from School of Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma) illustrating fictitious forces. The physlet shows both the perspective as seen from a rotating and from a non-rotating point of view. Motion over a parabolic surface Java physlet by Brian Fiedler (from School of Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma) illustrating fictitious forces. The physlet shows both the perspective as seen from a rotating and as seen from a non-rotating point of view. Animation clip showing scenes as viewed from both an inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces at MathPages What is a centrifuge? John Baez: Does centrifugal force hold the Moon up? 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1,008 | Girl_group | A girl group is a popular music act featuring several young female singers who generally harmonize together. Girl groups emerged in the late 1950s as groups of young singers teamed up with behind-the-scenes songwriters and music producers to create hit singles, often featuring glossy production values and backing by top studio musicians. In later eras the girl group template would be applied to disco, R&B, and country- based formats as well as pop music. History During the Music Hall/Vaudeville era, all-girl singing groups were mainly novelty acts singing nonsense songs in silly voices. One of the first major exceptions was the Boswell Sisters, who became one of the most popular singing groups from 1930 to 1936, with over twenty hits. The Boswells were noted for their artistry, and often played their own instruments and performed their own arrangements. The Andrews Sisters started (1937) as a Boswell tribute band, filling the vacuum left after that group's demise. The Andrews Sisters remained hugely popular through the 1940s and 1950s as recording and performing stars, until the rise of early rock and roll made their tight-harmony, big band-derived style obsolete. 1950s and 1960s Among the earliest acts categorizable as a "girl group" are The Chantels, whose 1958 hit "Maybe" had many of the earmarks of what would become the classic girl-group sound: looser harmonies mixing elements of pop and rhythm and blues, an identifiable lead vocal within a harmony arrangement, and subject matter centered around young love. As rock and roll began to quickly grow in popularity, dozens of groups tried their luck, often teaming up with established songwriters and record producers. The Shirelles, who had had some minor R&B hits, hooked up with Brill Building songwriters, notably Gerry Goffin and Carole King, who wrote "Will You Love Me Tomorrow" for them. The song became a number one pop hit in early 1961, and is widely recognized as establishing the prototypical girl-group style. Other songwriters and producers quickly recognized the potential of this new approach, and recruited existing acts (or, in some cases, created them anew) to record their songs in a girl-group style. Phil Spector recruited The Crystals, The Blossoms, and The Ronettes, while Goffin and King handled much of the output of The Cookies. Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller would likewise foster The Dixie Cups, The Shangri-Las, and The Exciters. Other important girl group songwriters included Ellie Greenwich, Jeff Barry, Cynthia Weil and Barry Mann. The Motown label also masterminded several major girl groups, beginning with The Marvelettes and later with Martha and the Vandellas and The Supremes. By the mid to late 1960s, in the face of the British Invasion and the increasing popularity of rock music, the popularity of girl groups began to wane. During this time, only a few all-female groups, such as The Supremes and Martha and the Vandellas (both Motown), made the transition to an earthier, soulful sound and success. The influence of the girl-group sound would continue to be heard even as the rock era progressed; particularly through The Beatles, who would cover several girl-group hits including "Chains" (The Cookies), "Please Mr. Postman" (The Marvelettes), "Baby It's You", and "Boys" (both originally recorded by The Shirelles) and vice-versa as with The Supremes album, A Bit of Liverpool. High-end production Besides harmony singing, girl group songs of the time were characterized by high-end production and dramatic arrangements, and producers were often as important to the recordings as the artists themselves. Spector was the most famous and influential producer of the era. His Wall of Sound production featured a thick layer of instrumentation (drums, guitar, bass, a horn section and often something more exotic, such as Glockenspiel or vibraphone). Amidst the musical accompaniment, there was a lead vocal, often deliberately girlish in tone, singing deceptively simple, naïve lyrics which artfully and eloquently expressed the emotions of teenagers of the time. An example would be The Ronettes' "Be My Baby," which doubles as both a charming love song and, implicitly, a portrayal of adolescent sexual mores. Many groups, such as the Shangri-Las, used productions inspired by Spector, even if Spector himself did not work on their records. Others, including some New York City-based groups like The Chiffons, used more conventional pop music arrangements, while the Motown groups used typical driving Motown arrangements of the period. The high-production, harmony-heavy sound of girl groups was so well-established and proved so popular that many individual singers adopted the "girl-group sound." Lesley Gore and Little Eva were solo artists, but are often considered part of the girl group genre. Other groups, such as Ruby and the Romantics and The Essex, had the "girl-group sound," even though they were not composed entirely of females. The sound was also a key element of many of the "Beach Party" type movies of the same era, many starring Annette Funicello. Fashion Fashion became a key aspect of the girl group phenomenon, especially as the acts began to be invited to appear on variety television programs and musical revues. Despite their often-humble backgrounds, the girl groups wore the latest and most stylish dresses (often in matching sets) and set styles for hair and clothing. Crossing ethnic and cultural boundaries Although the most popular girl groups of the 1960s were primarily of young black women, their success and popularity crossed all ethnic and cultural boundaries, even during periods of racial tension. (A few white girl groups, including The Angels and The Paris Sisters, had hits that were basically indistinguishable in style and sound from their black counterparts.) Even when the content of the songs bordered on the risqué, the well-dressed, well-mannered young women in these groups found acceptance in suburban America, subtly changing attitudes and spearheading the crossover successes of many black musical acts to come. 1970s to mid 1980s Patti LaBelle and The Bluebelles was a US 1960s girl group which had moderate success performing soulful pop typical of the era. In the early 70s manager Vicki Wickham helped remake their image, renaming the group Labelle and pushing them in the direction of Glam rock. http://www.baywindows.com/index.php?ch=arts&sc=music&sc2=news&sc3=&id=82622 Labelle were the first girl group to eschew matching outfits and identical choreography, instead wearing extravagant spacesuits and feathered headdresses. http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20081110/news_1c10labelle.html http://www.timeout.com/chicago/articles/music/70370/the-ball-of-labelle The group would finally score a major hit in 1975, with "Lady Marmalade," one of the first disco songs to top the charts. From the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s, a profusion of successful disco/pop dance female groups were formed in continental Europe: Luv', Babe, Dolly Dots, Maywood, Doris D. & The Pins, Snoopy, Star Sisters, Mai Tai from the Netherlands, Silver Convention and Arabesque from Germany, and Baccara from Spain. In the United States, the 1980s saw the emergence of girl groups such as The Go-Go's, The Bangles and Pointer Sisters. The latter charted several hits in the 1980s, including "Jump (for My Love)" and "I'm So Excited". In the United Kingdom the New Wave/pop group Bananarama had an extensive number of Top 40 singles around the world in the 1980s and 1990s. Their most famous international hit, "Venus," hit #1 in the United States (a feat they didn't achieve in their homeland). In 1988, they entered the Guinness Book of World Records as the most successful all-female group in history, a title they held for over a decade. Late 1980s and the 1990s In the late 1980s and early 1990s in the United States, Exposé, Sweet Sensation, The Cover Girls, Jade, and Seduction all enjoyed commercial success with the growth of Freestyle, a Latin- or R&B-oriented dance sound. Many of the girl groups of the 1990s returned to a manufactured pop style, marketed as clean-cut and aimed at young, predominantly female audiences. A prime example of this was the US vocal trio, Wilson Phillips. In Canada, West End Girls achieved minor hits on the Canadian charts. Former Bananarama member Siobhan Fahey created an edgy alternative group, Shakespears Sister, whose single "Stay" stayed at #1 in the UK for eight weeks (the longest run by any girl group) and made the top 5 in the US. In the UK, the R&B act Eternal scored a string of hits both within the U.K and internationally as well as having three multi-platinum selling albums. One of the most successful American R&B girl groups of the early 1990s was vocal quartet En Vogue. According to Billboard magazine, they were the eighteenth most successful act of the 1990s. Irish girl group B*Witched enjoyed chart success with four #1 singles in the UK. Cleopatra scored hits both in the UK and the US. They had their own television sitcom and were signed by Madonna. The All Saints became one of the most successful British pop groups of the 1990s with five #1 hits in the UK and two multi-platinum albums. Their second single, "Never Ever", is their biggest hit, topping the charts in UK and Australia. In the 1990s, TLC also experienced high popularity in the US. Their sophomore album, Crazy Sexy Cool is the best selling hip hop and female R&B group album of all time in the US with shipments of 15 million copies. It is also one of the few R&B albums to receive a diamond status. Billboard ranks them as one of the best musical trios of all time. Another R&B girl group SWV also became one of the big selling female groups in the US to come out of the 1990s. Spice Girls had nine #1 singles in the UK and US, including "Wannabe", "2 Become 1" and "Spice Up Your Life". With sold-out concerts, advertisements, merchandise and a film, Spice Girls became the most commercially successful British girl group. They were one of the biggest selling female group of the 1990s, and one of best-selling female groups in modern music history. Their first album, Spice is the best-selling album of the all time by a female group, with 23 million sales worldwide. Rollings Stone Magazine. Spice selling some 23 million copies worldwide. Biography Spice Girls. Worldwide sales for Spice BBC Timeline | Sales for Spice In total, Spice Girls sold in excess of 55 million records worldwide. BBC News. 55 millions record Worldwide for Spice Girls People. Spice Girls: 55 millions Sales for Spice Girls Since the late 1990s, as J-Pop has become more popular outside its native Japan (thanks largely to the Internet), Japanese girl groups such as Speed, Zone and Morning Musume have achieved a degree of cult status within certain communities and social groups, especially those associated with Japanophilia. Speed sold a total of 20 million copies alone in Japan in just three years before disbanding. In the UK, Sugababes formed in 1998, and have been named the most successful all-female act of the 21st century in the UK. They have achieved 7 #1 singles and sales of more than 5 million albums in the UK alone. 2000s Girl group UC3 sing "The Star-Spangled Banner" for U.S. troops in Afghanistan In the early 2000s, popular girl groups included California-based Dream, the Swedish quartet Play, the popular Chinese girl group S.H.E and the UK/U.S. quintet No Secrets. Bands like The Raveonettes, The Pipettes, Miss Derringer and the Detroit Cobras incorporate the sound of early-1960s girl groups. The reality TV show Popstars produced some short-lived girl groups: in Australia, Bardot, in the US, Eden's Crush, in Argentina, Bandana, and in Canada, Sugar Jones. In Germany, Popstars produced the girl groups No Angels, Monrose and Preluders. In France, the show produced the girl groups L5 and Diadems. However, in the UK, Popstars: the Rivals, Girls Aloud was formed in late 2002 and is still recording and performing together as a group to this day to widespread acclaim and success they are the only girlband to have 20 consecutive top 10 hits including 4 number ones, they are the decade's most successful girl group in the UK, selling over 10 million in 6 years. Girls Aloud at Chart Statistics . Over 10 years of professional existence, Destiny's Child retired under the name. The group released four studio albums that spawned a record of number-one singles; they sold 100 million records across the world—etching the recognition as The top-selling female vocal group of all time. Pussycat Dolls, an all-American girl group, gathered worldwide success with their #1 hit "Don't Cha" and songs such as "Stickwitu", "Beep", "When I Grow Up (Pussycat Dolls song)" and "Jai Ho (You Are My Destiny)". In 2008, the creator of Pussycat Dolls, Robin Antin, created a new reality show in which women compete to become members of a new R&B/pop girl group Girlicious. Another creation of Antin is Paradiso Girls, the European version of Pussycat Dolls. In Germany, Soccx formed with five members from the US. They released the singles "From Dusk till Dawn" and "Scream Out Loud". In Korea, girl groups such as Baby V.O.X, Fin.K.L, S.E.S, Wonder Girls, and Girls' Generation led the K-pop boom in East Asia and contributed to Korean Wave (also known as Hallyu). Meanwhile, in Japan, J-pop groups Zone continued to be popular well into the first decade of the 21st century while Morning Musume evolved into the "flagship group" of the all-female vocalist collective Hello! Project. The Cheetah Girls, a girl group spawned by three successful TV movies on Disney Channel, released two platinum-selling soundtracks. The group's 2006 tour was the most successful in Disney Channel history, and a year later, they released their studio debut album TCG, which debuted in the top 50 on the Billboard charts. In 2005, Diddy formed Danity Kane in the MTV reality show, Making the Band 3. Their first album debuted at #1 on the main charts and went platinum. Danity Kane released their second studio album Welcome to the Dollhouse which also debuted at #1 on the main charts. Danity Kane is the first girl group in history to have both their debut and sophomore album make it onto the US Billboard 200 albums chart at #1 in the first week of release. In 2007, Robin Antin formed the sister group to The Pussycat Dolls called Girlicious. Formed on the hit reality TV show Pussycat Dolls Present: Girlicious their album peaked at #2 on the Canadian Top 100 certifies gold. They toured with the The Backstreet Boys and have made three music videos for their songs Like Me, Stupid Sh** and Baby Doll. They finished touring with the Backstreet Boys in September and also finished their second tour alongside Danny Fernandes. They released their deluxe edition album on December 16, 2008 then certified platium. See also List of best-selling girl groups All female band References External links | Girl_group |@lemmatized girl:61 group:76 popular:9 music:10 act:9 feature:3 several:4 young:6 female:15 singer:3 generally:1 harmonize:1 together:2 emerge:1 late:7 team:2 behind:1 scene:1 songwriter:5 producer:5 create:4 hit:19 single:9 often:9 glossy:1 production:6 value:1 backing:1 top:9 studio:4 musician:1 later:3 eras:1 template:1 would:7 apply:1 disco:3 r:9 b:10 country:1 base:3 format:1 well:6 pop:13 history:5 hall:1 vaudeville:1 era:5 sing:4 mainly:1 novelty:1 nonsense:1 song:10 silly:1 voice:1 one:13 first:8 major:3 exception:1 boswell:3 sister:8 become:10 singing:2 twenty:1 note:1 artistry:1 play:2 instrument:1 perform:4 arrangement:5 andrews:2 start:1 tribute:1 band:5 fill:1 vacuum:1 leave:1 demise:1 remain:1 hugely:1 recording:2 star:4 rise:1 early:8 rock:5 roll:2 make:6 tight:1 harmony:5 big:4 derive:1 style:6 obsolete:1 among:1 categorizable:1 chantels:1 whose:2 maybe:1 many:7 earmark:1 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1,009 | Doraemon | is a Japanese manga series created by Fujiko F. Fujio (the pen name of Hiroshi Fujimoto) which later became an anime series and Asian franchise. The series is about a robotic cat named Doraemon, who travels back in time from the 22nd century to aid a schoolboy, . The series first appeared in December 1969, when it was published simultaneously in six different magazines. In total, 1,344 stories were created in the original series, which are published by Shogakukan under the manga brand, extending to forty-five volumes. The volumes are collected in the Takaoka Central Library in Toyama, Japan. Fujio was born in Toyama. A majority of Doraemon episodes are comedies with moral lessons regarding values such as integrity, perseverance, courage, family and respect for elders. Several noteworthy environmental issues are often visited, including homeless animals, endangered species, deforestation, and pollution. Topics such as dinosaurs, the flat earth theory, wormhole traveling, Gulliver's Travels, and the history of Japan are often covered. Doraemon was awarded the first Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga in 1982, and the first Osamu Tezuka Culture Award in 1997. In March 2008, Japan's Foreign Ministry appointed Doraemon as the nation's first "anime ambassador." Yamaguchi, Mari. "Doraemon appointed Japan's first ever cartoon ambassador," China Post, March 20, 2008. Ministry spokesman explained the novel decision as an attempt to help people in other countries to understand Japanese anime better and to deepen their interest in Japanese culture." "Doraemon named 'anime ambassador'," Japan Today. March 15, 2008. The Foreign Ministry action confirms that Doraemon has come to be considered a Japanese cultural icon. In 2002, the anime character was acclaimed as an Asian Hero in a special feature survey conducted by Time Asia magazine Iyer, Pico. "The Cuddliest Hero in Asia." Time (Asia). . History In December 1969, the Doraemon manga appeared simultaneously in six different children's monthly magazines. The magazines were titled by the year of children's studies, which included Yoiko (good children), Yōchien (nursery school), and Shogaku Ichinensei (first grade of primary school) to Shogaku Yonnensei (fourth grade of primary school). By 1973, the series began to appear in two more magazines, Shogaku Gonensei (fifth grade of primary school) and Shogaku Rokunensei (sixth grade of primary school). The stories featured in each of the magazines were different, meaning the author was originally creating more than six stories each month. In 1977, CoroCoro Comic was launched as a magazine of Doraemon. Original manga based on the Doraemon movies were also released in CoroCoro Comic. The stories which are preserved under the Tentōmushi brand are the stories found in these magazines. Since the debut of Doraemon in 1969, the stories have been selectively collected into forty-five books published from 1974 to 1996, which had a circulation of over 80 million in 1992. In addition, Doraemon has appeared in a variety of manga series by Shōgakukan. In 2005, Shōgakukan published a series of five more manga volumes under the title Doraemon+ (Doraemon Plus), which were not found in the forty-five Tentōmushi pipi volumes. Many other series have since been produced, some not from official supplies. Plot summary The first appearance of Doraemon, who came via the time machine. Doraemon is sent back in time by Nobita Nobi's great-great grandson Sewashi to improve Nobita's circumstances so that his descendants may enjoy a better future. In the original timeline, Nobita experienced nothing but misery and misfortune throughout his life. As a result of this, Nobita's failures in school and subsequently, his career, have left his family line beset with financial problems. In order to alter history and better the Nobi family's fortunes, Sewashi sent him a robot called Doraemon. Doraemon has a pocket from which he produces many gadgets, medicines, and tools from the future. The pocket is called yojigen-pocket, or 4-dimensional pocket. Although he can hear perfectly well, Doraemon has no ears: his robotic ears were eaten by a mouse, giving him a series-long phobia of the creatures. The stories are formulaic, usually focused on the everyday struggles of fourth grader Nobita, the protagonist of the story. In a typical chapter, Nobita comes home crying about a problem he faces in school and/or the local neighborhood. After hearing him out, Doraemon always offers helpful advice to his problem(s), but that's never enough for Nobita, who is consistently looking for the "quick, easy" way out (which offers insight to the viewers as to why Nobita's life turned out the way it did). Finally, after Nobita's pleading and/or goading, Doraemon produces a futuristic gadget out of his aforementioned pouch to help Nobita fix his problem, enact revenge, or flaunt to his friends. Nobita usually goes too far, despite Doraemon's best intentions and warnings, and gets into deeper trouble than before. Sometimes, Nobita's friends (usually Suneo or Jaian) steal the gadgets and end up misusing them. However, by the end of the story, there is usually retribution to the characters who end up misusing them, and a moral is taught. Series finale rumors There are three current and often quoted urban legends that started spreading in late 1980s of an ending to the Doraemon series. The first and the most optimistic ending was made public by Nobuo Sato several years ago. Doraemon's battery power ran out, and Nobita was given a choice between replacing the battery inside a frozen Doraemon, which would cause it to reset and lose all memory, or await a competent robotics technician who would be able to resurrect the cat-robot one day. Nobita swore that very day to work hard in school, graduate with honours, and become that robotics technician. He successfully resurrected Doraemon in the future as a robotics professor, became successful as an AI developer, and thus lived happily ever after, thus relieving his progeny of the financial burdens that caused Doraemon to be sent to his space-time in the first place. A dōjin manga for this ending was made by a "Tajima T Yasue" in 2005, and it sold 13,000 copies before Shogakukan halted its publication. Tajima apologized to Shogakukan in 2007 and paid an undisclosed amount of money for settlement. 「ドラえもん」最終話、勝手に出版した男性が謝罪, asahi.com . The second, more pessimistic ending suggests that Nobita Nobi is suffering from autism and that all the characters (including Doraemon) are simply his delusion. The idea that Nobita was a sick and dying little boy who imagined the entire series on his sickbed to help him ease his pain and depression no doubt angered quite a lot of fans. Many Japanese fans staged a protest outside the headquarters of the publisher of the series after learning about this suggestion. The publisher had to issue a public statement that this is not true. (This ending actually correlates to the ending for the series St. Elsewhere, which ended in 1988.) The third ending suggests that Nobita fell and hit his head on a rock. He fell into a deep coma, and eventually into a semi-vegetative state. To raise money for an operation to save Nobita, Doraemon sold all the tools and devices in his four-dimensional pocket. However, the operation failed. Doraemon sold all his tools except for one used as a last resort. He used it to enable Nobita to go wherever he wanted, whichever time or era he wished to go. In the end, the very place Nobita wanted to go was heaven. The plausibility of these issues was discussed here and it was concluded that there is no ending to Doraemon. (Japanese) There are three official endings to Doraemon that were made. Doraemon was discontinued in two media because readers were advancing in grades and an ending was believed to be needed. These two are not reprinted. In the March 1971 issue of the magazine Shogaku 4-nensei : Due to the fact that visitors from the future were causing too much trouble, the government in the 22nd Century passed a bill to ban time-travelling altogether, meaning Doraemon would have to return to his time era. He leaves Nobita. In the March 1972 issue of the magazine Shogaku 4-nensei: Doraemon, for some reason, had to go back to the future but fakes a mechanical problem so that Nobita would let him go. Nobita believes him and promises to wait until Doraemon gets well. Realizing that Nobita can handle his departure, Doraemon tells the truth and Nobita accepts. Doraemon returns to the future. The third ending was actually meant to be the official ending due to low TV ratings and the Fujiko Fujio duo was busy with other works. But Doraemon did not leave their minds and restarted from next month's issue. In 1981, this episode was made into anime (called "Doraemon Comes Back"), and in 1998, this was released as an anime movie. In the March 1973 issue of the magazine Shogaku 4-nensei, Nobita again returns home after losing a fight against Gian. Doraemon then explains that he has to return. Nobita tries to have Doraemon stay but after talking it over with his parents, he accepts Doraemon's departure. They take a last walk in the park. After they split up, Nobita encounters Gian and gets into a fight again. After a long duel with Nobita trying to win at all costs so that Doraemon can leave without worries, Gian gave up (which gave Nobita the win) because no matter what, Nobita refuses to stay down. Doraemon finds Nobita passed out with a bloody mouth and takes him home. Sitting beside sleeping Nobita and after a moment of thought, Doraemon returns to the future. (It is also found at the last chapter of the manga Book 6). The animated version is completely similar but lengthened. Nobita finds a box the shape of Doraemon in his drawer. The next day, which happens to be April Fool's Day, Nobita is jeered at by Suneo and Gian, the latter tricking him about Doraemon's return. He happily runs home and asked his mother whether Doraemon came back and finds out the truth. Nobita couldn't stand it and opens the box. Inside of it was a bottle of liquid. He hears Doraemon's voice explaining that the potion is called Uso 800 (Lies 800) it is used to make all untruths the drinker says true. Nobita uses it to play a few tricks on Gian and Suneo, like first taking cover then say that the weather sure is good, which becomes a lie and it started to rain heavily before he said it is raining heavily and the rain stopped. Gian and Suneo was scared away after a few tricks and when Nobita mentioned what is happening. Nobita was very happy at first but quickly loses interest in the absence of Doraemon. As he walks home, due to his earlier questioning if Doraemon returned or not, his mother asked him if he could find Doraemon, he unwittingly said, in great disappointment, the truth about Doraemon never coming back, just like what Doraemon told Nobita before his departure. Since the potion was still in effect, when he arrives his room he finds Doraemon there, and they have a happy reunion, but due to the effects of the potion, all his greets and joyful words have to be spoken in the opposite way like I am so unhappy that we can never be together again.. The extended ending from the animated series was eventually adapted to the first story of Book 7 in the manga series, with a few changes (i.e. Instead of hearing Doraemon's voice explaining the use of the potion, he finds a card inside the box describing the use of the potion). When the Fujiko Fujio duo broke up in 1987, the very idea of an official ending to the series was never discussed. Since Fujiko F. died in 1996 before any decisions were reached, any "endings" of Doraemon are fan fiction. However, it is apparent from many episodes and movies where Nobita travels to the future that in the end he does marry Shizuka, leads a happy life and separates with Doraemon, although Nobita and his friends fondly remember him. All About Doraemon the robotic cat (Chinese) Characters The only main female character is , who serves as a semi-romantic girlfriend of Nobita, but otherwise a supporting, minor character. Nobita's main human friends include Gian, a known bully, and Suneo, a gloating spoiled wealthy kid. There are many recurring supporting characters, such as Dekisugi, Nobita's parents, his school teacher, his descendants from the future, and Doraemon's sister, Dorami. Episodes Dōgu Doraemon can take out various devices known as from his fourth-dimensional pocket. Some of the gadgets are based on real Japanese household devices with fanciful twists, but most are completely science fiction (although some may be based on folklore or religious stories). Thousands of dōgu have been featured in Doraemon. Some have placed the number of dōgu at approximately 4,500. Other appearances Doraemon is a cultural phenomenon in Japan and can be seen in many places. For example, Doraemon is used as a promotional character by , by a moving company, and by Cocos, a restaurant chain. Doraemon also appears in appeals for charity, the "Doraemon Fund". Doraemon toys and novelties are also often found in Japan, with literally thousands of items for sale. Doraemon, Nobita, and the other characters also appear in various educational manga. Doraemon is also mentioned in several anime and manga by other mangakas. Doraemon is referenced in the current Blue Man Group show running in Tokyo. The Blue Men play a short snippet of the show's theme song, and one dons Doraemon's beanie. The Japanese guitar company, ESP Guitars, makes a Doraemon shaped guitar. There are nearly 50 Japanese-only video games ranging from Action Adventure, to RPG games, that began with the Emerson's Arcadia 2001 system. For a complete list of these games see List of Doraemon media. The music video for the single "From a distance" off of the "bicycles and tricycles" album by ambient house act, The Orb revolves around Doraemon. Popularity Doraemon is a term of common knowledge in Japan. Newspapers also regularly make references to Doraemon and his pocket as a something with the ability to satisfy all wishes. Other characters in the series are also referenced frequently on TV shows with similar looking casts. Some magazines have used the analogy that America is the Takeshi of the world and Japan is his little brother Suneo. Doraemon was awarded the first Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga in 1982, and the first Osamu Tezuka Culture Award in 1997. Anime Television series After a brief and unpopular animated series in 1973 by Nippon Television, Doraemon remained fairly exclusive in manga form until 1979 when a newly formed animation studio, Shin-Ei Animation (Now owned by TV Asahi) produced an anime series of Doraemon. This series became incredibly popular, and ended with 1,049 episodes on March 25, 2005. Celebrating Doraemon'''s anniversary, a new Doraemon series produced by Studio Pierrot began airing on TV Asahi on April 15, 2005 with new voice actors and staff, and updated character designs. Foreign channels that air Doraemon Feature films In 1980, Toho released the first of a series of annual feature length animated films based on the lengthly special volumes published annually. The films are more action-adventure oriented and unlike the anime and manga, some based on the stories in the volumes. They have more of a shōnen demographic, taking the familiar characters of Doraemon and placing them in a variety of exotic and perilous settings. Nobita and his friends have visited the age of the dinosaurs, the far reaches of the galaxy, the heart of darkest Africa (where they encountered a race of sentient bipedal dogs), the depths of the ocean, and a world of magic. Some of the films are based on legends such as Atlantis, and on literary works such as Journey to the West and Arabian Nights. Some films also have serious themes, especially on environmental topics and the use of technology. The most recent Doraemon film, The New Record of Nobita: Spaceblazer, was released March 7, 2009. Voice actors From 1979 to April 2005, the same five voice actors provided the main voices in Doraemon. However, they retired in April 2005 partially due to the 25th anniversary of the Doraemon television series. On March 13, 2005, TV Asahi announced the new voice actors for the five main characters: Announcement by TV Asahi Character Voice actor for April 1979 - March 2005 Voice actor for March 2005 - Present Doraemon Nobuyo Ōyama Wasabi Mizuta Nobita Noriko Ohara Shizuka Michiko Nomura Yumi Kakazu Jaian Kazuya Tatekabe Suneo Kaneta Kimotsuki Tomokazu Seki Dorami Keiko Yokozawa Chiaki Dekisugi Nobita's Mama Sachiko Chijimatsu Kotono Mitsuishi Nobita's Papa Yasunori Matsumoto Sewashi Sachi Matsumoto Sensei Ryōichi Tanaka Wataru Takagi Kaminari Takeshi Watabe Katsuhisa Hōki Shizuka's Mother Ai Orikasa Suneo's Mother Minami Takayama Suneo's Father Hideyuki Tanaka Jaian's Mother Kazuyo Aoki Jaiko Kazuyo Aoki Vanilla Yamazaki Nobita - Hiroko Maruyama (stand-in for Ohara, July 23, 1979 ~ July 28, 1979) Suneo - Naoki Tatsuta (stand-in for Kimotsuki, November 15, 1985 ~ December 6, 1985) Nobita's Papa - Masayuki Katō (Start ~ October 2, 1992) Sensei - Ritsuo Sawa → Osamu Katou → Kazuhiko Inoue (Start ~ September 1981) Kaminari - Shingo Kanemoto (February 8, 1985 (character debut) ~ September 14, 1990) Shizuka's Mother - Keiko Yokozawa (Start ~ August 1981) Suneo's Mother - Yoshino Ōtori (Start ~ March 8, 1991) NTV Cast Character Voice actor Doraemon Kousei Tomita (episodes 1 ~ 13)Masako Nozawa Nobita Shizuka Masako Ebisu Jaian Kaneta Kimotsuki Suneo Shun Yashiro Nobita's Mama Noriko Ohara Nobita's Papa Ichirou Murakoshi Suneo's Mama Kazue Takahashi Gatchako Junko Hori Sewashi Keiko Yamamoto Sensei Masashi Amenomori Opening themes The opening theme used for the weekly Doraemon series airing between 1979 and 2005 was , which was performed by five different performers over the course of its years: Performer Starting date Ending date 1. April 2, 1979 October 2, 1992 2. October 9, 1992 September 20, 2002 3. October 4, 2002 April 11, 2003 4. Misato Watanabe April 18, 2003 April 23, 2004 5. AJI April 30, 2004 March 18, 2005 In the New Doraemon Series (2005), new opening themes songs were used, except for the first one. Performer Song Title Starting date Ending date 1. April 15, 2005 (episode 1) October 21, 2005 (episode 24) 2. Rimi Natsukawa October 28, 2005 (episode 25) April 20, 2007 (episode 86) 3. mao May 11, 2007 (episode 87) present Two songs were used for a separate weekday Doraemon series which is a part of Fujiko Fujio Theater (藤子不二雄劇場, Fujiko Fujio Gekijoo), the first song being the same as the first song of the weekly series. Name Song Title Starting date Ending date 1. April 2, 1979 September 29, 1979 2. October 1 1979 September 26, 1981 Ending themes The ending themes used for the weekly Doraemon series airing between 1979 and 2005 were: Song Title Performer Starting date Ending date 1. April 8, 1979 September 27, 1981 2. October 2, 1981 March 30, 1984 3. November 18, 1983 December 30, 1983 4. April 6, 1984 April 8, 1988 5. April 15, 1988 October 2, 1992 6. October 9, 1992 April 7, 1995 7. April 14, 1995 September 20, 2002 8. October 4, 2002 April 11, 2003 9. April 18, 2003 October 4, 2003 10. October 10, 2003 May 28, 2004 11. June 4, 2004 March 18, 2005 Since the 2005 series incorporated all the credits into the Opening Sequence, these three themes were used as the Ending Theme. Song Title Performer Starting date Ending date 1. June 29, 2007 August 10, 2007 Three songs were used for the separate weekday Doraemon series. Song Title Performer 1. 2. 3. Significance On 22 April, 2002, on the special issue of Asian Hero in TIME Magazine, Doraemon was selected as one of the 22 Asian Heroes. Being the only cartoon character selected, Doraemon was described as "The Cuddliest Hero in Asia". In 2005, the Japan Society of New York selected Doraemon as a culturally significant work of Japanese otaku pop-culture in its exhibit Little Boy: The Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture, curated by renowned artist Takashi Murakami. In Murakami's analysis, he states that Doraemon's formulaic plotlines typified the "wish fulfilment" mentality of 1970s Japan, where the electronics revolution glamorized the idea that one could solve their problems with machines and gadgets rather than hard work or individual intelligence. In 2008, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan) appointed Doraemon to be as the first anime cultural ambassador. Despite having no official appearance in the United States, Doraemon influenced a number of shows on the US-based TV network, Nickelodeon. Doraemon is the predecessor-of-sorts to Butch Hartman's animated TV series, The Fairly OddParents (which airs on the above-mentioned channel), and has the same plot and style of humor. Both series have also met with high popularity worldwide. In many ways, Doraemon was the first of its kind. It has been considered to be the prototype of the modern slapstick cartoon series for children such as the above-mentioned The Fairly OddParents, SpongeBob SquarePants (another US-made show made by Nickelodeon), and Fujiko Fujio's own bleak Kiteretsu Daihyakka. References See also List of non-Japanese Doraemon versions List of Doraemon media Kiteretsu Daihyakka, a similar manga by Fujiko F. Fujio The Doraemons, a spin-off about Doraemon and his friends from Robot School Dorabase, a spin-off about robot cats who play on a baseball team. External links Doraemon Official Website Doraemon Movie Official Website Doraemon Official TV Asahi Website] Doraemon Secret Dōgu List, a comprehensive list of dōgu featured in Doraemon Doraemon nel Paese Preistorico (Nobita no Kyouryuu - Hiroshi Fukutomi, 1980) Doraemon article from TIME Asia Edition [http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=1317 Doraemon (anime) at Anime News Network's Encyclopedia Doraemon at the Internet Movie Database Viz Media Webpage on Doraemon List of Characters (With Preview) | Doraemon |@lemmatized japanese:11 manga:18 series:36 create:3 fujiko:8 f:3 fujio:8 pen:1 name:4 hiroshi:2 fujimoto:1 later:1 become:5 anime:15 asian:4 franchise:1 robotic:3 cat:4 doraemon:115 travel:4 back:6 time:11 century:2 aid:1 schoolboy:1 first:20 appear:6 december:4 publish:5 simultaneously:2 six:3 different:4 magazine:13 total:1 story:12 original:3 shogakukan:5 brand:2 extend:1 forty:3 five:7 volume:6 collect:2 takaoka:1 central:1 library:1 toyama:2 japan:13 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1,010 | Nasreddin | A depiction of Nasreddin Nasreddin (Turkish "Nasrettin Hoca", Persian ملا نصرالدین, Arabic: حجا transl.: ḥujā ,نصرالدين meaning "Victory of the Faith", transl.: Malai Mash-hoor, Albanian "Nastradin Hoxha" or just "Nastradini", Azeri"Molla Nəsrəddin" Bosnian "Nasrudin hodža", Uzbek "Nasriddin Afandi" or just "Afandi", "Khozhanasir", Uyghur "Näsirdin Äfänti" "Afanti de gu shi" (A collection of the Uighur people's folktales as well as information about their customs and life styles) ISBN 9576910048 J.C. Yang, Xenophobes Guide to the Chinese, Oval Books, ISBN 1-902825-22-5 "The Effendi And The Pregnant Pot - Uygur Tales from China"; New World Press; Beijing, China ) is a legendary satirical Sufi figure who lived during the Middle Ages (around 13th century), in Akşehir, and later in Konya, under the Seljuq rule. Many nations of the Near, Middle East and Central Asia claim the Nasreddin as their own (i.e. Afghans, Iranians, Turks, TURKIC HERO - NASREDDIN HOJA Mulla Nasruddin Stories, accessed February 20, 2007. The outrageous Wisdom of Nasruddin, Mullah Nasruddin; accessed February 19, 2007. and Uzbeks ). His name is spelled differently in various cultures and is often preceded or followed by titles "Hodja", "Mullah", or "Effendi" (see section "Name variants"). Nasreddin was a populist philosopher and wise man, remembered for his funny stories and anecdotes. Much of Nasreddin's actions can be described as illogical yet logical, rational yet irrational, bizarre yet normal, foolish yet sharp, and simple yet profound. What adds even further to his uniqueness is the way he gets across his messages in unconventional yet very effective methods in a profound simplicity. 1996–1997 was declared International Nasreddin Year by UNESCO. Nasreddin's origin & legacy The ever-smiling Hodja riding on his bronze donkey in Bukhara. Backwards, no less... Nasreddin lived in Anatolia; he was born in Hortu Village in Sivrihisar, Eskişehir in the 13th century, then settled in Akşehir, and later in Konya, where he died (probably born in 1209 CE and died 1275/6 or 1285/6 CE). As generations went by, new stories were added, others were modified, and the character and his tales spread to other regions. The themes in the tales have become part of the folklore of a number of nations and express the national imaginations of a variety of cultures. Although most of them depict Nasreddin in an early small-village setting, the tales (like Aesop's fables) deal with concepts that have a certain timelessness. They purvey a pithy folk wisdom that triumphs over all trials and tribulations. The oldest manuscript of Nasreddin was found in 1571. Today, Nasreddin stories are told in a wide variety of regions, and have been translated into many languages. Some regions independently developed a character similar to Nasreddin, and the stories have become part of a larger whole. In many regions, Nasreddin is a major part of the culture, and is quoted or alluded to frequently in daily life. Since there are thousands of different Nasreddin stories, one can be found to fit almost any occasion. Ohebsion, Rodney (2004) A Collection of Wisdom, Immediex Publishing, ISBN 1932968199. Nasreddin often appears as a whimsical character of a large Albanian, Arab, Armenian, Azeri, Bengali, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Greek, Hindi, Italian, Pashto, Persian, Romanian, Serbian, Turkish and Urdu folk tradition of vignettes, not entirely different from zen koans. He is also very popular in Greece for his wisdom and his judgement; he is also known in Bulgaria, although in a different role, see below. He has been very popular in China for many years, and still appears in variety of movies, cartoons, and novels. The "International Nasreddin Hodja Festival" is held annually in Akşehir between July 5–10. Akşehir's International Nasreddin Hoca Festival and Aviation Festival - Turkish Daily News Jun 27, 2005 Nasreddin's tales Hodja-park in Akşehir The Nasreddin stories are known throughout the Middle East and have touched cultures around the world. Superficially, most of the Nasreddin stories may be told as jokes or humorous anecdotes. They are told and retold endlessly in the teahouses and caravanserais of Asia and can be heard in homes and on the radio. But it is inherent in a Nasreddin story that it may be understood at many levels. There is the joke, followed by a moral — and usually the little extra which brings the consciousness of the potential mystic a little further on the way to realization. Idris Shah (1964), The Sufis, London: W. H. Allen ISBN 0-385-07966-4. :D General characteristics of the anecdotes The anecdotes attributed to him reveal a satirical personality with a biting tongue that he was not afraid to use even against the most tyrannical rulers of his time. He is the symbol of Middle-Eastern satirical comedy and the rebellious feelings of people against the dynasties that once ruled this part of the world. Some mystic traditions use jokes, stories and poetry to express certain ideas, allowing the bypassing of the normal discriminative thought patterns. The rationality that confines and objectifies the thinking process is the opposite to the intuitive, gestalt mentality that the mystic is attempting to engage, enter and retain. By developing a series of impacts that reinforce certain key ideas, the rational mind is occupied with a surface meaning whilst other concepts are introduced. Thus paradox, unexpectedness, and alternatives to convention are all expressed. Although there are several books that attempt to put together the many jokes attributed to him, most people encounter his jokes in the context of their daily lives. Often, a Nasreddin joke is told by one party when the other party makes the kind of mistake that Nasreddin had parodied. Some tales of Nasreddin are also adapted and used as teaching stories by followers of Sufism. This is such a common practice that, given the nature of many of Nasreddin's jokes, multiple interpretations (or several 'layers' of meaning) are to be expected. Idries Shah, a well-known Sufi and writer, published a number of collections of Nasreddin stories (see list below), and suggested that the stories' various layers of meaning have a teaching-effect. European folk tales and literary works In some Bulgarian and Macedonian folk tales that originated during the Ottoman period, the name appears as an antagonist to a local wise man, named Sly Peter. In Sicily the same tales involve a man named Giufà. While Nasreddin is mostly known as a character from anecdotes, whole novels and stories have later been written and an animated feature film was almost made. In Russia Nasreddin is known mostly because of the novel "Tale of Hodja Nasreddin" written by Leonid Solovyov (English translation "The Beggar in the Harem: Impudent Adventures in Old Bukhara"). Composer Shostakovich celebrates Nasreddin, among other figures, in the second movement (Yumor, 'Humor') of his Symphony No. 13. The text, by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, portrays humor as a weapon against dictatorship and tyranny. Shostakovich's music shares many of the 'foolish yet profound' qualities of Nasreddin's sayings listed above. Uzbek Nasriddin Afandi For Uzbek people Nasriddin is one of their own. In gatherings, family meetings, parties they tell each other stories about him that are called "latifa" of "afandi". There are at least two collections of stories related to Nasriddin Afandi. Books on him: "Afandining qirq bir passhasi" - (Forty-one flies of Afandi) - Zohir A'lam, Tashkent "Afandining besh xotini" - (Five wives of Afandi) Even a film was produced by Uzbekistan SSR called "Nasriddin Buxoroda" ("Nasriddin in Bukhara") Examples Delivering a Khutba Once, Nasreddin was invited to deliver a khutba. When he got on the minbar (pulpit), he asked, "Do you know what I am going to say?" The audience replied "NO", so he announced, "I have no desire to speak to people who don't even know what I will be talking about!" and he left. The people felt embarrassed and called him back again the next day. This time, when he asked the same question, the people replied "YES". So Nasreddin said, "Well, since you already know what I am going to say, I won't waste any more of your time!" and he left. Now the people were really perplexed. They decided to try one more time and once again invited the Mullah to speak the following week. Once again he asked the same question - "Do you know what I am going to say?" Now the people were prepared and so half of them answered "YES" while the other half replied "NO". So Nasreddin said "The half who know what I am going to say, tell it to the other half," and he left. Two sides of a river Nasreddin sat on a river bank when someone shouted to him from the opposite side: - "Hey! how do I get to the other side?" - "You are on the other side!" Nasreddin shouted back. Whom do you trust A neighbour comes to the gate of Mulla Nasreddin's yard. The Mulla goes out to meet him outside. "Would you mind, Mulla," the neighbour asks, "lending me your donkey today? I have some goods to transport to the next town." The Mulla doesn't feel inclined to lend out the animal to that particular man, however; so, not to seem rude, he answers: "I'm sorry, but I've already lent him to somebody else." Suddenly the donkey can be heard braying loudly behind the wall of the yard. "You lied to me, Mulla!" the neighbour exclaims. "There it is behind that wall!" "What do you mean?" the Mulla replies indignantly. "Whom would you rather believe, a donkey or your Mulla?" Taste the same Children saw Hodja coming from the vineyard with 2 basketfuls of grapes on his donkey, gathered around him and asked him to give them some. Hodja picked up a bunch of grapes, cut it up into pieces and gave each child a piece. "You have so much, but you gave us so little," the children complained. "There is no difference whether you have a basketful or a small piece. They all taste the same," Hodja remarked. A szőlőskertek meséiből Collections 600 Mulla Nasreddin Tales, collected by Mohammad Ramazani (Popular Persian Text Series: 1) (in Persian). The Exploits of the Incomparable Mulla Nasrudin, by Idries Shah The Subtleties of the Inimitable Mulla Nasrudin, by Idries Shah The Pleasantries of the Incredible Mullah Nasrudin, by Idries Shah Mullah Nasiruddiner Galpo (Tales of Mullah Nasreddin) collected and retold by Satyajit Ray, in Bengali The Wisdom of Mulla Nasruddin, by Shahrukh Husain Nasreddin's name is also commonly spelled Nasrudeen, Nasrudin, Nasr ud-Din, Nasredin, Naseeruddin, Nasruddin, Nasr Eddin, Nastradhin, Nasreddine, Nastratin, Nusrettin, Nasrettin, Nostradin and Nastradin (lit.: Victory of the Deen). His name is sometime preceded or followed by a title of wisdom used in the corresponding cultures: "Hoxha", "Khwaje", "Hodja", "Hojja","Hodscha", "Hodža", "Hoca", "Hogea", "Hodza". In Arabic-speaking countries this character is known as "Juha", "Djoha", "Djuha", "Dschuha", "Giufà", "Chotzas", "Goha" (حجا), "Mullah", "Mulla", "Molla", "Maulana", "Efendi", "Afandi", "Ependi" (أفندي), "Hajji. In several cultures his name is just the title. In the Swahili culture many of his stories are being told under the name of "Abunuwasi", though this confuses Nasreddin with an entirely different man - the poet Abu Nuwas, known for homoerotic verse. In China, where stories of him are well known, he is known by the various transliterations from his Uyghur name, 阿凡提 (Āfántí) and 阿方提 (Āfāngtí). Shanghai Animation Film Studio produced a 13-episode Nasreddin related Animation called 'The Story of Afanti'/阿凡提 (电影) in 1979, which became one of the most influential animations in China's history. In Central Asia, he is commonly known as "Afandi". New Findings on Nasreddin In his Research Article published in March 2009, Dr Saadat Noury wrote that: 1. Mullah was originally from Persia. 2. Mullah lived during the end rule of Khwarezmian dynasty (1077-1231) and the early rule of Ilkhanate (1256-1335). At the time of Mongolian invasion to Persia in February 1220, Mullah was about 11 years old. 3. Mullah was contemporary to well-known Muslim poet Mowlana Jalaledin Mohammad Mowlavi Rumi (1207-1273) and famous Persian scientist and scholar Khajeh Nasir Tusi (1201-1274). 4. Most of the anecdotes told by the Mullah really have a point. 5. The name of Mullah Nasreddin will remain in the History of Persian Culture as a populist philosopher, a philosopher representing or connected with the ideas and opinions of ordinary people. See also Till Eulenspiegel Hershele Ostropoler Gebre Hanna Hitar Petar References External links Nasreddin Hodja Fıkra Booklist comprising larger collections of Nasreddin stories in various languages Nasruddin.org "Nasruddin is an ancient Persian folk character, telling stories in the Sufi tradition of Rumi and Hafiz, as well as wisdom tales from many faiths, ..." Afghanistan Online: Mullah Nasruddin Jokes "Funny Works.. A few of the thousands of humorous and thoughtful stories about Mullah Nasruddin" afghan-network.net Mullah Nasruddin and his Spiritual Stories "This page contains numerous Mullah Nasruddin Jokes!" afghan-web.com | Nasreddin |@lemmatized depiction:1 nasreddin:47 turkish:3 nasrettin:2 hoca:3 persian:7 ملا:1 نصرالدین:1 arabic:2 حجا:2 transl:2 ḥujā:1 نصرالدين:1 mean:3 victory:2 faith:2 malai:1 mash:1 hoor:1 albanian:2 nastradin:2 hoxha:2 nastradini:1 azeri:2 molla:2 nəsrəddin:1 bosnian:2 nasrudin:5 hodža:2 uzbek:3 nasriddin:6 afandi:9 khozhanasir:1 uyghur:2 näsirdin:1 äfänti:1 afanti:2 de:1 gu:1 shi:1 collection:6 uighur:1 people:10 folktale:1 well:6 information:1 custom:1 life:3 style:1 isbn:4 j:1 c:1 yang:1 xenophobes:1 guide:1 chinese:1 oval:1 book:3 effendi:2 pregnant:1 pot:1 uygur:1 tale:13 china:5 new:3 world:3 press:1 beijing:1 legendary:1 satirical:3 sufi:4 figure:2 live:3 middle:4 age:1 around:3 century:2 akşehir:5 later:3 konya:2 seljuq:1 rule:4 many:10 nation:2 near:1 east:2 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1,011 | Air_Force_Space_Surveillance_System | Part of the master transmitter antenna at Lake Kickapoo, Texas c.2001. The Air Force Space Surveillance System, colloquially known as the Space Fence, is a multistatic radar system that detects orbital objects passing over America. It is a component of the US space surveillance network, and is claimed to be able to detect objects as small as 10cm (four inches) at heights up to 30,000 km (15,000 nautical miles.) Although formerly operated by the U.S. Navy and known as NAVSPASUR (short for "Naval Space Command Surveillance") NAVSPASUR: Fence , command passed to the Air Force 20th Space Control Squadron on October 1, 2004. Navy newsstand. Navy Transfers Space Surveillance Mission to Air Force. October 24, 2004. Accessed May 24, 2006. The operation's headquarters are at Dahlgren, Virginia, while radar stations are spread out across the continental United States at roughly the level of the 33rd parallel north. There are three transmitter sites in the system: 47CFR§2.106 Footnote US229. Accessed May 24, 2006. 216.983 MHz at Lake Kickapoo, Texas () (Master transmitter) 216.97 MHz at Gila River, Arizona () 216.99 MHz at Jordan Lake, Alabama (). The master transmitter at Lake Kickapoo is said to be the most powerful continuous wave (CW) station in the world, at 768 kW radiated power. Overhead imagery (see coordinates given above) of the Gila River and Jordan Lake sites suggests that the original design called for antennas of twice the present length with, presumably, greater radiated power. There are 6 receiving stations: San Diego, California () Elephant Butte, New Mexico () Red River, Arkansas () Silver Lake, Mississippi () Hawkinsville, Georgia () Tattnall, Georgia (). The receiving stations at Elephant Butte and Hawkinsville are considered to be "High Altitude" stations with longer and more complex antenna systems that are designed to see targets at higher altitudes than the other four receiving stations. References External links 20th Space Control Squadron, Det 1 - Air Force Fact sheet about the Alternate Space Control Center and the AN/FPS-133 surveillance fence radar US Naval Space Command Space Surveillance System at the FAS website Rural site part of USA's oldest sat-tracking system from USA Today Naval Space Command - Maxwell-Gunter AFB http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/COLLIDE021109.xml&headline=Orbital%20Collision%20Was%20The%20Worst%20Ever&channel=space&gclid=CI7MrZu22JgCFQUWGgodnSEscw | Air_Force_Space_Surveillance_System |@lemmatized part:2 master:3 transmitter:4 antenna:3 lake:6 kickapoo:3 texas:2 c:1 air:4 force:4 space:12 surveillance:6 system:6 colloquially:1 know:2 fence:3 multistatic:1 radar:3 detect:2 orbital:2 object:2 pass:2 america:1 component:1 u:3 network:1 claim:1 able:1 small:1 four:2 inch:1 height:1 km:1 nautical:1 mile:1 although:1 formerly:1 operate:1 navy:3 navspasur:2 short:1 naval:3 command:4 control:3 squadron:2 october:2 newsstand:1 transfer:1 mission:1 access:2 may:2 operation:1 headquarters:1 dahlgren:1 virginia:1 station:6 spread:1 across:1 continental:1 united:1 state:1 roughly:1 level:1 parallel:1 north:1 three:1 site:3 footnote:1 mhz:3 gila:2 river:3 arizona:1 jordan:2 alabama:1 say:1 powerful:1 continuous:1 wave:1 cw:1 world:1 kw:1 radiate:2 power:2 overhead:1 imagery:1 see:2 coordinate:1 give:1 suggest:1 original:1 design:2 call:1 twice:1 present:1 length:1 presumably:1 great:1 receive:2 san:1 diego:1 california:1 elephant:2 butte:2 new:1 mexico:1 red:1 arkansas:1 silver:1 mississippi:1 hawkinsville:2 georgia:2 tattnall:1 receiving:1 consider:1 high:2 altitude:2 long:1 complex:1 target:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 det:1 fact:1 sheet:1 alternate:1 center:1 fps:1 fas:1 website:1 rural:1 usa:2 old:1 sit:1 track:1 today:1 maxwell:1 gunter:1 afb:1 http:1 www:1 aviationweek:1 com:1 aw:1 generic:1 story:1 jsp:1 id:1 news:1 xml:1 headline:1 channel:1 gclid:1 |@bigram nautical_mile:1 navy_newsstand:1 gila_river:2 san_diego:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 jsp_id:1 |
1,012 | Nereid | In Greek mythology, the Nereids (neer'-ee-eds) (Νηρηΐδες) are sea nymphs, the fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris. They often accompany Poseidon and are always friendly and helpful towards sailors fighting perilous storms. They are particularly associated with the Aegean Sea, where they dwelt with their father in the depths within a silvery cave. The most notable of them are Thetis, wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles; Amphitrite, wife of Poseidon; and Galatea, love of the Cyclops Polyphemus. In Iliad XVIII, when Thetis cries out in sympathy for the grief of Achilles for the slain Patroclus, (E.V. Rieu, translator) In classical art Nereids are frequently depicted riding an assortment of sea creatures — dolphins, sea monsters, and hippocampi. Names of the Nereids This list is correlated from four sources. Apollodorus, Hesiod, Homer, and Hyginus. Because of this the total number of names goes beyond fifty. NEREIDS, Greek Mythology Link - www.maicar.com Actaea Agave Amathia Amphinome Amphithoe Amphitrite Apseudes Arethusa Asia Autonoe Beroe Callianassa Callianira Calypso Ceto Clio Clymene Cranto Creneis Cydippe Cymo Cymatolege Cymodoce Cymothoe Deiopea Dero Dexamene Dione Doris Doto Drymo Dynamene Eione Ephyra Erato Eucrante Eudore Eulimene Eumolpe Eunice Eupompe Eurydice Evagore Evarne Galene Galatea Glauce Glauconome Halie Halimede Hipponoe Hippothoe Iaera Ianassa Ianira Ione Laomedia Leiagore Leucothoe Ligea Limnoria Lycorias Lysianassa Maera Melite Menippe Nausithoe Nemertes Neomeris Nesaea Neso Opis Orithyia Panopaea Panope Pasithea Pherusa Phyllodoce Plexaure Ploto Pontomedusa Pontoporia Poulunoe Pronoe Proto Protomedia Psamathe Sao Spio Thaleia Themisto Thetis Thoe Thoosa In modern Greek folklore, the term "nereid" (νεράϊδα, neráïda) has come to be used of all nymphs, or fairies, not merely nymphs of the sea. References External links Nereids in classical literature and art Nereid and Triton Mosaic from Ephesus Terrace Home -2 3D stereoview of Nereid and Triton relief from Apollon Temple in Didim | Nereid |@lemmatized greek:3 mythology:2 nereid:8 nee:1 ee:1 ed:1 νηρηΐδες:1 sea:5 nymphs:1 fifty:2 daughter:1 nereus:1 doris:2 often:1 accompany:1 poseidon:2 always:1 friendly:1 helpful:1 towards:1 sailor:1 fight:1 perilous:1 storm:1 particularly:1 associate:1 aegean:1 dwell:1 father:1 depth:1 within:1 silvery:1 cave:1 notable:1 thetis:3 wife:2 peleus:1 mother:1 achilles:2 amphitrite:2 galatea:2 love:1 cyclops:1 polyphemus:1 iliad:1 xviii:1 cry:1 sympathy:1 grief:1 slain:1 patroclus:1 e:1 v:1 rieu:1 translator:1 classical:2 art:2 frequently:1 depict:1 rid:1 assortment:1 creature:1 dolphin:1 monster:1 hippocampus:1 name:2 list:1 correlate:1 four:1 source:1 apollodorus:1 hesiod:1 homer:1 hyginus:1 total:1 number:1 go:1 beyond:1 link:2 www:1 maicar:1 com:1 actaea:1 agave:1 amathia:1 amphinome:1 amphithoe:1 apseudes:1 arethusa:1 asia:1 autonoe:1 beroe:1 callianassa:1 callianira:1 calypso:1 ceto:1 clio:1 clymene:1 cranto:1 creneis:1 cydippe:1 cymo:1 cymatolege:1 cymodoce:1 cymothoe:1 deiopea:1 dero:1 dexamene:1 dione:1 doto:1 drymo:1 dynamene:1 eione:1 ephyra:1 erato:1 eucrante:1 eudore:1 eulimene:1 eumolpe:1 eunice:1 eupompe:1 eurydice:1 evagore:1 evarne:1 galene:1 glauce:1 glauconome:1 halie:1 halimede:1 hipponoe:1 hippothoe:1 iaera:1 ianassa:1 ianira:1 ione:1 laomedia:1 leiagore:1 leucothoe:1 ligea:1 limnoria:1 lycorias:1 lysianassa:1 maera:1 melite:1 menippe:1 nausithoe:1 nemertes:1 neomeris:1 nesaea:1 neso:1 opis:1 orithyia:1 panopaea:1 panope:1 pasithea:1 pherusa:1 phyllodoce:1 plexaure:1 ploto:1 pontomedusa:1 pontoporia:1 poulunoe:1 pronoe:1 proto:1 protomedia:1 psamathe:1 sao:1 spio:1 thaleia:1 themisto:1 thoe:1 thoosa:1 modern:1 folklore:1 term:1 νεράϊδα:1 neráïda:1 come:1 use:1 nymph:2 fairy:1 merely:1 reference:1 external:1 literature:1 triton:2 mosaic:1 ephesus:1 terrace:1 home:1 stereoview:1 relief:1 apollon:1 temple:1 didim:1 |@bigram aegean_sea:1 cyclops_polyphemus:1 iliad_xviii:1 hesiod_homer:1 external_link:1 |
1,013 | MVS | Multiple Virtual Storage, more commonly called MVS, was the most commonly used operating system on the System/370 and System/390 IBM mainframe computers. It was developed by IBM, but is unrelated to IBM's other mainframe operating system, VM. First released in 1974, MVS had been renamed multiple times, first to MVS/XA (eXtended Architecture), next to MVS/ESA (Enterprise Systems Architecture), then to OS/390 (when UNIX System Services (USS) were added), and finally to z/OS (when 64-bit support was added with the zSeries models). Its core remains fundamentally the same operating system. By design, programs written for MVS can still run on z/OS without modification. At first IBM described MVS as simply a new release of OS/VS2. But it was in fact a complete re-write - previous OS/VS2 releases were upgrades of OS/MVT and, like MVT, were mainly written in Assembler; the core of MVS was almost entirely written in PL/S. IBM's use of "OS/VS2" emphasized upwards compatibility: application programs which ran under MVT did not even need to be re-compiled in order to run under MVS; the same Job Control Language files could be used unchanged; the utilities and other non-core facilities like TSO ran unchanged. But users almost unanimously called the new system MVS from the start, and IBM followed their lead in the naming of later major versions such as MVS/XA. After the release of MVS, users described earlier OS/VS2 releases as SVS (Single Virtual Storage). Evolution of MVS OS/MFT (Multitasking with a Fixed number of Tasks) provided multitasking: several memory partitions, each of a fixed size, were set up when the operating system was installed. For example, there might be a small partition, two medium partitions, and a large partition. If there were two large programs ready to run, one would have to wait on the other until it finished and vacated the large partition. OS/MVT (Multitasking with a Variable number of Tasks) was an enhancement which further refined memory usage. Instead of using fixed-size memory partitions, MVT allocated memory to programs as needed provided there was enough contiguous physical memory available. This was a significant advance over MFT's memory management: there was no predefined limit on the number of jobs that could run at the same time; and two or more large jobs could run at the same time if enough memory was available. But it had some weaknesses: if a job allocated memory dynamically (as most sort programs and database management systems do), the programmers had to estimate the job's maximum memory requirement and pre-define it for MVT; a job which contained a mixture of small and large programs would waste memory while the small programs were running; most seriously, memory could become fragmented, i.e. the memory not used by current jobs could be divided into uselessly small chunks between the areas used by current jobs, and the only remedy was to wait until all current jobs finished before starting any new ones. In the early 1970s IBM sought to mitigate these difficulties by introducing virtual memory (referred to by IBM as "virtual storage"), which allowed programs to request address spaces larger than physical memory. The original implementations had a single virtual address space, shared by all jobs. OS/VS1 was OS/MFT within a single virtual address space; OS/VS2 SVS was OS/MVT within a single virtual address space. So OS/VS1 and SVS in principle had the same disadvantages as MFT and MVT but the impacts were less severe because jobs could request much larger address spaces. MVS address spaces - global view MVS (shared part of all address spaces) App 1 App 2 App 3 Shared virtual area (controlled by MVS) One application's view MVS App 1 Shared virtual area In the mid-1970s IBM introduced MVS, which allowed an indefinite number of applications to run in different address spaces - two concurrent programs might try to access the same virtual memory address, but the virtual memory system redirected these requests to different areas of physical memory. Each of these address spaces consisted of 3 areas: operating system (one instance shared by all jobs); application area which was unique for each application; shared virtual area which was used for various purposes including inter-job communication. IBM promised that the application areas would always be at least 8MB. MVS originally supported 24-bit addressing (i.e. up to 16MB). As the underlying hardware progressed it supported 31-bit (XA and ESA; up to 2048MB) and now (as z/OS) 64-bit addressing. Two of the most significant reasons for the rapid upgrade to 31-bit addressing were: the growth of large transaction-processing networks, mostly controlled by CICS, which ran in a single address space; the DB2 relational database management system needed more than 8MB of application address space in order to run efficiently (early versions were configured into two address spaces which communicated via the shared virtual area, but this imposed a significant overhead since all such communications had to be transmitted via the operating system). The main user interfaces to MVS are: Job Control Language (JCL), which was originally designed for batch processing but from the 1970s onwards was also used to start and allocate resources to long-running interactive jobs such CICS; and TSO (Time Sharing Option), the interactive time-sharing interface, which was mainly used to run development tools and a few end-user information systems. ISPF is a TSO application for users on 3270-family terminals (and later, on VM as well) which allows the user to accomplish the same tasks as TSO's command line but in a menu and form oriented manner, and with a full screen editor and file browser. TSO's basic interface is command line, although facilities were added later for creating form-driven interfaces). Early editions of MVS (mid-1970s) were among the first of the IBM OS series to support multiprocessor configurations, though it had previously been supported in the 1960s on a limited basis by the M65MP variant of OS/360 running on 360/65 and 360-67. The 360-67 had also hosted the multiprocessor capable TSS/360 and MTS operating systems. In tightly-coupled systems, two CPUs shared concurrent access to the same memory (and copy of the operating system) and peripherals, providing greater processing power and a degree of graceful degradation if one CPU failed. In loosely-coupled configurations each of a group of processors (single and / or tightly-coupled) had its own memory and operating system but shared peripherals and the operating system component JES3 allowed the whole group to be managed from one console - this provided greater resilience and enabled operators to decide which processor should run which jobs from a central job queue. MVS took a major step forward in fault-tolerance that IBM called 'software recovery'. IBM decided to do this after years of practical real-world experience with MVT in the business world - system failures were now having major impacts on customer businesses and IBM decided to take a major design jump, to assume that despite the very best software development and testing techniques, that 'problems WILL occur'. This profound assumption was pivotal in adding great percentages of fault-tolerance code to the system, but likely contributed to the system's success in tolerating software and hardware failures. Statistical information is hard to come by to prove the value of these design features (how can you measure 'prevented' or 'recovered' problems?), but IBM has, in many dimensions, enhanced these fault-tolerant software recovery and rapid problem resolution features, over time. This design specified a hierarchy of error-handling programs, in system (kernel/'privileged') mode, called Functional Recovery Routines, and in user ('task' or 'problem program') mode, called "ESTAE" (Extended Specified Task Abnormal Exit routines) that were invoked in case the system detected an error (actually, hardware processor or storage error, or software error). The purpose of each recovery routine was to make the 'mainline' function reinvokable, capture error diagnostic data sufficient to debug the causing problem, and either 'retry' (reinvoke the mainline) or 'percolate' (escalate error processing to the next recovery routine in the hierarchy). Thus, with each and every error: diagnostic data was captured, an attempt was made to perform a repair and keep the system up. The worst thing possible was to take down a user address space (a 'job') in the case of unrepaired errors. Although it was an initial design point, it was not until the most recent MVS version (z/OS), that recovery program was not only guaranteed its own recovery routine, but each recovery routine now has its own recovery routine. This recovery structure was embedded in the basic MVS control program, and programming facilities are available and used by application program developers and 3rd party developers. Practically, it has been observed that the MVS software recovery made problem debugging both easier and more difficult: Software recovery required that programs leave 'tracks' of where they were and what they were doing, thus facilitating debugging, but the fact that processing does not stop at the time of an error, but rather progresses, can make the tracks over-written. Early date capture at the time of the error maximizes debugging, and facilities exist for the recovery routines (task and system mode, both) to do this. IBM included additional criteria for a major software problem that would require IBM service to repair it: If a mainline component failed to initiate software recovery, that was considered a reportable valid failure. Also, if a recovery routine failed to collect significant diagnostic data such that the original problem was solvable by data collected by that recovery routine, IBM standards dictated that this fault was reportable and required repair. Thus, IBM standards, when applied rigorously, would encourage continuous improvement. IBM introduced an on-demand hypervisor, a major serviceability tool, called Dynamic Support System (DSS), in the first release of MVS. This facility could be invoked to initiate a session to create diagnostic procedures, or invoke already-stored procedures. The procedures 'trapped' special events, such as the loading of a program, device I/O, system procedure calls, and then triggered the activation of the previously-defined procedures. These procedures, which could be invoked recursively, allowed for reading and writing of data, and alteration of instruction flow. Program Event Recording hardware was used. Due to the overhead of this tool, it was removed from customer-available MVS systems. Program-Event Recording (PER) exploitation was performed by the enhancement of the diagnostic "SLIP" command with the introduction of the PER support (SLIP/Per) in SU 64/65 (1978). Multiple copies of MVS (or other IBM operating systems) could share the same machine if that machine was controlled by VM/370 - in this case VM/370 was the real operating system and regarded the "guest" operating systems as applications with unusually high privileges. As a result of later hardware enhancements one instance of an operating system (either MVS, or VM with guests, or other) could also occupy a Logical Partition (LPAR) instead of an entire physical system. Multiple MVS instances can be organized and collectively administered in a structure called a systems complex or sysplex, introduced in September, 1990. Instances interoperate through a software component called a Cross-system Coupling Facility (XCF) and a hardware component called a Hardware Coupling Facility (CF or Integrated Coupling Facility, ICF, if co-located on the same mainframe hardware). Multiple sysplexes can be joined via standard network protocols such as IBM's proprietary Systems Network Architecture (SNA) or, more recently, via TCP/IP. The z/OS operating system (MVS' most recent descendant) also has native support to execute POSIX applications. Files are properly called data sets in MVS. Names of those files are organized in catalogs which are VSAM files themselves. The native encoding scheme of IBM mainframes and their peripherals is Big Endian EBCDIC, but MVS provides hardware-accelerated services to perform translation and support of ASCII, Little Endian, and Unicode. MVS filesystem Data set names (DSNs, mainframe term for filenames) are organized in a hierarchy whose levels are separated with dots, e.g. "DEPT01.SYSTEM01.FILE01". Each level in the hierarchy can be up to eight characters long. The total filename length is a maximum of 44 characters including dots. By convention, the components separated by the dots are used to organize files similarly to directories in other operating systems. For example there were utility programs which performed similar functions to those of Windows Explorer (but without the GUI and usually in batch processing mode) - adding, renaming or deleting new elements and reporting all the contents of a specified element. However, unlike in many other systems, these levels are not actual directories but just a naming convention (like the original Macintosh File System, where folder hierarchy was an illusion maintained by the Finder). TSO supports a default prefix for files (similar to a "current directory" concept), and RACF supports setting up access controls based on filename patterns, analogous to access controls on directories on other platforms. As with other members of the OS family, MVS' data sets were record-oriented. MVS inherited three main types from its predecessors: Sequential data sets were normally read one record at a time from beginning to end. In BDAM (direct access) data sets, the application program had to specify the physical location of the data it wanted to access (usually by specifying the offset from the start of the data set). In ISAM data sets a specified section of each record was defined as a key which could be used as a key to look up specific records. The key quite often consisted of multiple fields but these had to be contiguous and in the right order; and key values had to be unique. Hence an IBM ISAM file could have only one key, equivalent to the primary key of a relational database table; ISAM could not support foreign keys. Sequential and ISAM datasets could store either fixed-length or variable length records, and all types could occupy more than one disk volume. All of these are based on the VTOC disk structure. Early IBM database management systems used various combinations of ISAM and BDAM datasets - usually BDAM for the actual data storage and ISAM for indexes. In the early 1970s IBM's virtual memory operating systems introduced a new file management component, VSAM, which provided similar facilities: Entry-Sequenced Datasets (ESDS) provided facilities similar to those of both sequential and BDAM datasets, since they could be read either from start to finish or directly by specifying an offset from the start. Key-Sequenced Datasets (KSDS) were a major upgrade from ISAM: they allowed secondary keys with non-unique values and keys formed by concatenating non-contiguous fields in any order; they greatly reduced the performance problems caused by records in ISAM; and they greatly reduced the risk that a software or hardware failure in the middle of an index update might corrupt the index. These VSAM formats became the basis of IBM's database management systems, IMS/VS and DB2 - usually ESDS for the actual data storage and KSDS for indexes. VSAM also included a catalog component which was used for MVS' master catalog. Partitioned datasets (PDS) were sequential datasets which were subdivided into "members" which could be processed as sequential files in their own right. The most important use of PDS was for program libraries - system administrators used the main PDS as a way to allocate disk space to a project and the project team then created and edited the members. Generation Data Groups (GDGs) were originally designed to support grandfather-father-son backup procedures - if a file was modified, the changed version became the new "son", the previous "son" became the "father", the previous "father" became the "grandfather" and the previous "grandfather" was deleted. But one could set up GDGs with a lot more than 3 generations and some applications used GDGs to collect data from several sources and feed the information to one program - each collecting program created a new generation of the file and the final program read the whole group as a single sequential file (by not specifying a generation in the JCL). Modern versions of MVS (i.e. z/OS) also support POSIX-compatible "slash" filesystems along with facilities for integrating the two filesystems. That is, the OS can make an MVS dataset appear as a file to a POSIX program or subsystem. These newer filesystems include Hierarchical File System (HFS) (not to be confused with Apple's Hierarchical File System) and zFS (not to be confused with Sun's ZFS). History and modernity MVS is no longer supported by IBM. In fact, in 2007, IBM phased out support for the releases of z/OS that supported 31-bit hardware. Only the 64-bit z/OS versions are still supported. Of course, z/OS continues to support running older 24-bit and 31-bit MVS applications alongside just-written 64-bit code. See also Hercules a S/370, S/390, and zSeries emulator capable of running MVS Utility programs supplied with MVS (and successor) operating systems References Bob DuCharme: "The Operating Systems Handbook, Part 06: MVS" (available online here) External links IBM: z/OS V1R9.0 MVS Manuals IBM: z/OS V1R8.0 MVS manuals-Broken link MVS: the operating system that keeps the world going MVS... a long history Functional structure of IBM virtual storage operating systems Part II: OS/VS2-2 concepts and philosophies by A. L. 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1,014 | Karaoke | Japanese karaoke display encyclopedia.com- 'karaoke' (; ) is a form of entertainment in which amateur singers sing along with recorded music (and/or a music video) using a microphone and public address system. The music is typically a well-known pop song minus the lead vocal. Lyrics are usually displayed on a video screen, along with a moving symbol or changing color and/or music video images, to guide the singer. In some countries, a karaoke music video with lyrics and the option to disable the original voice track is called a KTV. It is very commonly pronounced as /kæriːoʊkiː/, some people incorrectly spell it "kareoke". There are known health risks associated with excessive karaoke such as sore throats and arthritis. History The concept of creating studio recordings that lack the lead vocal has been around for probably nearly as long as recording itself. Many artists, amateur and professional, perform in situations where a full band/orchestra is either logistically or financially impractical and so they use a "karaoke" recording, but they are actually the original artists. (This is not to be confused with "lip syncing" in which a performer mimes to a previously produced studio recording with the lead vocal intact.) The first karaoke machine was invented by Japanese musician Daisuke Inoue Who Invented the Karaoke Machine? Events-in-Music.com in Kobe, Japan, in the early 1970s. Time 100:Daisuke Inoue, August 23-30, 1999 VOL. 154 NO. 7/8 After becoming popular in Japan, karaoke spread to East and Southeast Asia during the 1980s and subsequently to other parts of the world. In Japan, it has long been common to provide musical entertainment at a dinner or a party. Japanese drummer Daisuke Inoue was asked by frequent guests in the Utagoe Kissa, where he performed, to provide a recording of his performance so that they could sing along on a company-sponsored vacation. Realizing the potential for the market, Inoue made a tape recorder that played a song for a 100-yen coin. Development in Japan Instead of giving his karaoke machines away, Inoue leased them out so that stores did not have to buy new songs on their own. Originally, it was considered a somewhat expensive fad, as it lacked the live atmosphere of a real performance and 500 yen in the 1970s was the price of two typical lunches, but it caught on as a popular entertainment. Karaoke machines were initially placed in restaurants and hotel rooms; soon, new businesses called karaoke boxes, with compartmented rooms, became popular. In 2004, Daisuke Inoue was awarded the tongue-in-cheek Ig Nobel Peace Prize for inventing karaoke, "thereby providing an entirely new way for people to learn to tolerate each other." 1980s: Filipino patent Inoue never bothered to patent his invention, losing his chance to become one of Japan's richest men. Roberto del Rosario, a Filipino inventor who called his sing-along system "Minus-One", now holds the patent for the device now commonly known as the "karaoke machine". As a matter of fact, "Minus-One" has been in existence in the Philippines since the 70s. The spread of "Minus-One" music would have been attributed to a few Filipinos who brought with them their music wherever they go and a few went to Japan as entertainers during the early part of this decade and that may have had that indirect influence on Inoue's ingenuity. Following a court battle with a Japanese company which claimed to have invented the system, del Rosario's patents were issued in 1983 and 1986, more than a decade after Inoue's original unpatented invention of the device in 1971. About:Inventors, Roberto del Rosario Accessed January 6, 2007 1990s Entrance Hall of a karaoke box in Taipei Karaoke soon spread to the rest of Asia and then (back) to the United States in the 1990s, as well as to Canada, Australia and other Western countries. In-home karaoke machines soon followed but lacked success in the US and Canadian markets. When creators became aware of this problem, karaoke machines were no longer being sold strictly for the purpose of karaoke but as home theater systems to enhance television watching to "movie theater like quality". Home theater systems took off, and karaoke went from being the main purpose of the stereo system, to a side feature. As more music became available for karaoke machines, more people within the industry saw karaoke as a profitable form of lounge and nightclub entertainment. It is not uncommon for some bars to have karaoke performances seven nights a week, commonly with much more high-end sound equipment than the small, stand-alone consumer versions. Dance floors and lighting effects are also becoming common sights in karaoke bars. Lyrics are often displayed on multiple TV screens around the bar. Technology Early karaoke machine A basic karaoke machine consists of a music player, microphone inputs, a means of altering the pitch of the played music, and an audio output. Some low-end machines attempt to provide vocal suppression so that one can feed regular songs into the machine and suppress the voice of the original singer; however, this is rarely effective. Most common machines are CD+G, Laser Disc, VCD or DVD players with microphone inputs and an audio mixer built in. CD+G players use a special track called subcode to encode the lyrics and pictures displayed on the screen while other formats natively display both audio and video. Most karaoke machines have technology that electronically changes the pitch of the music so that amateur singers can sing along to any music source by choosing a key that is appropriate for their vocal range, while maintaining the original tempo of the song. (There were some very old systems that used cassettes, and these changed the pitch by altering playback speed, but none are still on the market, and their commercial use is virtually nonexistent.) A popular game using karaoke is to type in a random number and call up a song, of which participants take turns to try to sing as much as they can. In some machines, this game is pre-programmed and may be limited to a genre so that they cannot call up an obscure national anthem that none of the participants can sing. This game has come to be called "Kamikaze Karaoke" or "Karaoke Roulette" in some parts of the United States and Canada. Many low-end entertainment systems have a karaoke mode that attempts to remove the vocal track from regular audio CDs. This is done by center removal, which exploits the fact that in most music the vocals are in the center. This means that the voice, as part of the music, has equal volume on both stereo channels and no phase difference. To get the quasi-karaoke (mono) track, the left channel of the original audio is subtracted from the right channel. The Sega Saturn also has a "mute vocals" feature that is based on the same principle and is also able to adjust the pitch of the song to match the singer's vocal range. A row of 3 karaoke booths at a shopping center in Angeles City. The crudeness of this approach is reflected in the often-poor performance of voice removal. Common effects are hearing the reverberation of the voice track (due to stereo reverb being put on the vocals); also, other instruments (snare/bass drum, solo instruments) that happen to be mixed into the center get removed, degrading this approach to hardly more than a gimmick in those devices. Recent years have seen the development of new techniques based on the Fast Fourier Transform. Although still not perfect, the results are usually much better than the old technique, because the stereo left-right comparison can be done on individual frequencies. Early age Early karaoke machines used cassette tapes, but technological advances replaced this with CDs, VCDs, laserdiscs and, currently, DVDs. In the late 1980s and 1990s, Pioneer Electronics dominated the international karaoke music video market, producing high quality karaoke music videos (inspired by the music videos such as those on MTV). In 1992, Taito introduced the X2000, which fetched music via a dial-up telephone network. Its repertoire of music and graphics was limited, but its smaller size and the advantage of continuous updates saw it gradually replace traditional machines. Now, karaoke machines connected via fiber-optic links to provide instant high-quality music and video are becoming increasingly popular. Karaoke direct are an internet division established in 1997 and have been serving the public online since 1998. They released the first karaoke player that supports MP3+G and now the KDX2000 model supporting karaoke in DIVX Format. Karaoke video games The earliest karaoke-based music video game, called Karaoke Studio, was released for the Nintendo Famicom in 1985, but its limited computing ability made for a short catalog of songs and therefore reduced replay value. As a result, karaoke games were considered little more than collector's items until they saw release in higher-capacity DVD formats. Karaoke Revolution, created for the PlayStation 2 by Harmonix and released by Konami in North America in 2003, is a console game in which a single player sings along with on-screen guidance and receives a score based on his or her pitch, timing, and rhythm. The game soon spawned several follow-ups including Karaoke Revolution Vol. 2, Karaoke Revolution Vol. 3, Karaoke Revolution Party Edition, CMT Presents Karaoke Revolution: Country and Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol. While the original Karaoke Revolution was also eventually released for the Microsoft Xbox console in late 2004, the new online-enabled version included the ability to download additional song packs through the console's exclusive Xbox Live service. A similar series, SingStar, published by Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, is particularly popular in the European and Australasian markets. Other music video game titles that involve singing by the player include Boogie, Disney Sing It, Get On Da Mic, Guitar Hero World Tour, High School Musical: Sing It!, Lips, the Rock Band series, SingSong, UltraStar, and Xbox Music Mixer. Karaoke VCDs in East and Southeast Asia is partly due to the popularity of karaoke. Many VCD players in Southeast Asia have a built-in karaoke function. On stereo recordings, one speaker will play the music with the vocal track, and the other speaker will play the music without the vocal track. So, to sing karaoke, users play the music-only track through both speakers. In the past, there were only pop-song karaoke VCDs. Nowadays, different types of karaoke VCDs are available. Cantonese opera karaoke VCD is now a big hit among the elderly in Hong Kong. Karaoke on mobile phones In 2003, several companies started offering a karaoke service on mobile phones, using a Java MIDlet that runs with a text file containing the words and a MIDI file with the music. This is still a budding service, and it is unclear whether it will become popular; however, some mobile karaoke providers, such as Karaokini, have begun to achieve commercial success. Researchers have also developed karaoke games for cell phones in order to boost music database training. In 2006, the Interactive Audio Lab at Northwestern University released a game called Karaoke Callout for the Nokia Series 60 phone. The project has since then expanded into a web-based game and will be released soon as an iPhone application. Karaoke on computers and the Internet Since 2003, much software has been released for hosting karaoke shows and playing karaoke songs on a personal computer. Instead of having to carry around hundreds of CD-Gs or laserdiscs, KJs can "rip" their entire libraries onto their hard drives and play the songs and lyrics from there. Additionally, new software permits singers to sing and listen to one another over the Internet. Karaoke in automobiles Chinese automobile maker Geely Automobile received much press in 2003 for being the first to equip a car, their Beauty Leopard, with a karaoke machine as standard equipment. Europe's first commercial "karaokecab" which was a London TX4 taxi with a karaoke machine inside for occupants of the cab to sing whilst in the cab. The idea and installation was made by Richard Harfield of karaokeshop.com and was featured on Channel 4's Big Breakfast and several German TV stations featured the karaokecab. Granada TV also featured the cab, which is now in its 4th vehicle and operates in Bolton, Lancashire as Clint's Karaoke Cab. Karaoke is often also found as a feature in aftermarket in-car DVD players. Alternative playback devices The CD+G format of a karaoke disc, which contains the lyrics on a specially encoded subcode track, has heretofore required special—and expensive—equipment to play. Commercial players have come down in price, though, and some unexpected devices (including the Sega Saturn video game console and XBMC Media Center on the Xbox 1) can decode the graphics; in fact, karaoke machines, including video and sometimes recording capability, are often popular electronics items for sale in toy stores and electronics stores. Additionally, there is software for Windows, Pocket PC, Linux, and Macintosh PCs that can decode and display karaoke song tracks, though usually these must be ripped from the CD first, and possibly compressed. In addition to CD+G and software-based karaoke, microphone-based karaoke players enjoy popularity mainly in North America and some Asian countries such as the Philippines. Microphone-based karaoke players only need to be connected to a TV—and in some cases to a power outlet; in other cases they run on batteries. These devices often sport advanced features, such as pitch correction and special sound effects. Some companies offer karaoke content for paid download to extend the song library in microphone-based karaoke systems. CD+G, DVD, VCD and microphone-based players are most popular for home use. Due to song selection and quality of recordings, CD+G is the most popular format for English and Spanish. It is also important to note that CD+G has limited graphical capabilities, whereas VCD and DVD usually have a moving picture or video background. VCD and DVD are the most common format for Asian singers due to music availability and largely due to the moving picture/video background. Karaoke terms Jūhachiban (also ohako 十八番, literally, Number 18; 18th place). Many karaoke singers have one song which they are especially good at and which they use to show off their singing abilities. In Japan, this is called jūhachiban in reference to the 18 most popular kabuki plays. Karamovie or Movioke Karaoke using scenes from movies. Amateur actors replace their favorite movie stars in popular movies. Usually facilitated by software or remote control muting and screen blanking/freezing. Karamovie originated in 2003. Karaoke jockey or KJ A karaoke jockey plays and manages the music for a venue. The role of the KJ often includes announcing song titles and whose turn it is to use the microphone. A common myth about the etymology of the word "karaoke" claims that the word means "tone deaf" in Japanese. This is not true. Hitokara Singing karaoke alone is called hitokara (ヒトカラ, ヒト hito, "one person" or "alone" and カラ kara, "karaoke") in Japan. Recently this trend has become very popular amongst amateur singers in Japan, also India and China. Karaoke in culture Public places for karaoke Lobby of a karaoke box in Japan Entrance to a karaoke box in China Karaoke in an Irish public house in Hamburg Asia In Asia, a karaoke box is the most popular type of karaoke venue. A karaoke box is a small or medium-sized room containing karaoke equipment rented by the hour or half-hour, providing a more intimate atmosphere. Karaoke venues of this type are often dedicated businesses, some with multiple floors and a variety of amenities including food service, but hotels and business facilities sometimes provide karaoke boxes as well. In some traditional Chinese restaurants, there are so-called "mahjong-karaoke rooms" where the elderly play mahjong while teenagers sing karaoke. The result is fewer complaints about boredom but more noise. Noise regulations can be an issue, especially when karaoke is brought into residential areas. In the Philippines, karaoke machines are available for rent for use in occasions such as parties. North American and Europe A karaoke bar, restaurant, club or lounge is a bar or restaurant that provides karaoke equipment so that people can sing publicly, sometimes on a small stage. Most of these establishments allow patrons to sing for free, with the expectation that sufficient revenue will be made selling food and drink to the singers. Less commonly, the patron wishing to sing must pay a small fee for each song they sing. Many establishments offer karaoke on a weekly schedule, while some have shows every night. Such establishments commonly invest more in both equipment and song discs, and are often extremely popular, with an hour or more wait between a singer's opportunities to take the stage (called the rotation). Private karaoke rooms, similar to Asia's "karaoke boxes", are commonplace in communities such as Toronto, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Karaoke in Korean culture In July 2007, the nation of North Korea issued an edict banning, among other similar establishments, karaoke bars from operating in the country. The Ministry of Security officially stated that the ban was enacted to "crush enemy scheming and to squarely confront those who threaten the maintenance of the socialist system." Although extremely popular in South Korea, there have been expressions of dissatisfaction with respect to the circulation of Japanese music and songs via Karaoke. Japanese songs enter South Korea by karaoke. Karaoke production methods Karaoke is very popular in Asia, and many artists distribute a karaoke track at the same time the song is released. In Europe and North America, karaoke tracks are almost never done by the original artist, they are re-recorded by musicians. The world's largest creator of Karaoke tracks, Blank Productions USA, (since 1986), produces between 40 and 60 titles per month, adding to their 25,000 title library, which is licensed to manufacturers and content providers. Karaoke companies like Sound Choice and Chartbuster select popular songs and release soundalike tracks with lyrics synchronized, most commonly in CD+G format. Karaoke in film A karaoke box in a skyscraper in Shinjuku, Tokyo, featured in the movie Lost In Translation. Karaoke has been depicted in a variety of movies and television shows, including: Films: 1989 film Black Rain 1996 comedy The Cable Guy 1997 romantic comedy My Best Friend's Wedding 1997 Korean gangster comedy No. 3 Karaoke is central to the 2000 movie Duets, which features a father and daughter competing in karaoke contests In the 2001 film Jackpot, an aspiring singer tours karaoke bars hoping to catch his big break as a country star 2001 film Rush Hour 2 includes a karaoke performance by Chris Tucker, where he upstages a tone-deaf local in Hong Kong by singing Michael Jackson's "Don't Stop 'Til You Get Enough" 2003 film Lost in Translation Karaoke is the central theme of The Karaoke King, a 2006 independent film Television shows: American television show Desperate Housewives Several episodes of American television series Angel feature the demonic karaoke bar Caritas, whose proprietor Lorne (Andy Hallett) can read the destiny of the person singing. All of American actor David Boreanaz's major television roles have involved his character being assaulted (in particular, being shot at) in a karaoke bar. Angel Episode "That Old Gang of Mine" Angel Episode "Offspring" Bones Episode "Wannabe in the Weeds" Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps featured Donna singing "Chick Chick Chicken", which was made for the BBC by Zoom Entertainments, a karaoke producer based in Hull, UK. One episode of the American show Heroes. World records Finland holds the record for the largest number of people singing karaoke at one time, for over 80,000 people singing "Hard Rock Hallelujah" on 26 May 2006 in Helsinki after Lordi won the Eurovision Song Contest 2006. China holds the record for the longest non-stop rally of karaoke, for 456 hours, two minutes, and five seconds between February 20, 2009 and March 11, 2009. Longest karaoke marathon by multiple participants References See also Karaoke World Championships Karaoke box List of English words of Japanese origin External links | Karaoke |@lemmatized japanese:8 karaoke:133 display:6 encyclopedia:1 com:3 form:2 entertainment:7 amateur:5 singer:12 sing:22 along:6 recorded:1 music:32 video:16 use:13 microphone:8 public:4 address:1 system:10 typically:1 well:3 know:3 pop:2 song:24 minus:4 lead:3 vocal:12 lyric:7 usually:5 screen:5 move:2 symbol:1 change:3 color:1 image:1 guide:1 country:6 option:1 disable:1 original:8 voice:5 track:14 call:13 ktv:1 commonly:6 pronounce:1 kæriːoʊkiː:1 people:6 incorrectly:1 spell:1 kareoke:1 health:1 risk:1 associate:1 excessive:1 sore:1 throat:1 arthritis:1 history:1 concept:1 create:2 studio:3 recording:5 lack:3 around:3 probably:1 nearly:1 long:4 record:7 many:6 artist:4 professional:1 perform:2 situation:1 full:1 band:2 orchestra:1 either:1 logistically:1 financially:1 impractical:1 actually:1 confuse:1 lip:2 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1,015 | Fuel_cell | Direct-methanol fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered bi-cubic structure in the center of the image A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device. It produces electricity from fuel (on the anode side) and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained. Fuel cells are different from electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant from an external source, which must be replenished -- a thermodynamically open system. By contrast batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically closed system. Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are possible. A hydrogen cell uses hydrogen as fuel and oxygen (usually from air) as oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other oxidants include chlorine and chlorine dioxide. S. G. Meibuhr, Electrochim. Acta, 11, 1301 (1966) Fuel cell design A fuel cell works by catalysis, separating the component electrons and protons of the reactant fuel, and forcing the electrons to travel through a circuit, hence converting them to electrical power. The catalyst typically comprises a platinum group metal or alloy. Another catalytic process puts the electrons back in, combining them with the protons and oxidant to form waste products (typically simple compounds like water and carbon dioxide). A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors: Activation loss Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnects) Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage) To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits, where series yield higher voltage, and parallel allows a stronger current to be drawn. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. Further, the cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell. Proton exchange fuel cells In the archetypal hydrogen–oxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the anode and cathode sides. This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was well-understood. (Notice that "polymer electrolyte membrane" and "proton exchange mechanism" result in the same acronym.) On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what is commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes (MFPM). The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water — in this example, the only waste product, either liquid or vapor. In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water. Construction of a high temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel structure, fabricated from conductive plastics (enhanced with carbon nanotubes for more conductivity); Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the cell ensures the collection of electric current. LEMTA - Our fuel cells The materials used in fuel cells differ by type. In a typical membrane electrode assembly (MEA), the electrode–bipolar plates are usually made of metal, nickel or carbon nanotubes, and are coated with a catalyst (like platinum, nano iron powders or palladium) for higher efficiency. Carbon paper separates them from the electrolyte. The electrolyte could be ceramic or a membrane. Oxygen ion exchange fuel cells In a solid oxide fuel cell design, the anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte that is conductive to oxygen ions but non-conductive to electrons. The electrolyte is typically made from zirconia doped with yttria. On the cathode side, oxygen catalytically reacts with a supply of electrons to become oxygen ions, which diffuse through the electrolyte to the anode side. On the anode side, the oxygen ions react with hydrogen to form water and free electrons. A load connected externally between the anode and cathode completes the electrical circuit. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are the most efficient type of fuel cell, and also the most fuel-flexible. That is, they can directly utilize a wide variety of commonly-available fuels, including natural gas, biogas, ethanol, methanol, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and synthesis gas produced from coal or natural gas, without the thorough and extensive purification required for low-temperature fuel cells. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues Costs. In 2002, typical cells had a catalyst content of US$1000 per kilowatt of electric power output. In 2008 UTC Power has 400kW Fuel cells for $1,000,000 per 400kW installed costs. The goal is to reduce the cost in order to compete with current market technologies including gasoline internal combustion engines. Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power Systems have experiments with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk which allows a 30% reduction (1 mg/cm² to 0.7 mg/cm²) in platinum usage without reduction in performance. . Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT instead of platinum. 2008 - Cathodes in fuel cells The production costs of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The Nafion membrane currently costs €400/m². In 2005 Ballard Power Systems announced that its fuel cells will use Solupor, a porous polyethylene film patented by DSM. Water and air management Water_and_Air_Management (in PEMFCs). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing on flow control. Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently. Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. This is particularly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell. Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary fuel cell applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of -35 °C to 40 °C (-31 °F to 104 °F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000 hour lifespan (the equivalent of 150,000 miles) under extreme temperatures. Current service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions DOE fuel cell school bus june 2008 Pag 9 . Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at -30 °C (-22 °F) and have a high power to volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter). Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of the cathode. History Sketch of William Grove's 1839 fuel cell The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838 and published in one of the scientific magazines of the time. Based on this work, the first fuel cell was demonstrated by Welsh scientist and barrister Sir William Robert Grove in the February 1839 edition of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science Grove, William Robert "On Voltaic Series and the Combination of Gases by Platinum", Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science vol. XIV (1839), pp 127-130. and later sketched, in 1842, in the same journal. Grove, William Robert "On a Gaseous Voltaic Battery", Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science vol. XXI (1842), pp 417-420. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric-acid fuel cell. In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the 'Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell'. GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. It wasn't until 1959 that British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers which was demonstrated across the US at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). United Technologies Corporation's UTC Power subsidiary was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell 200, a 200 kW system (although soon to be replaced by a 400 kW version, expected for sale in late 2009). UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied the Apollo missions, Apollo Space Program Hydrogen Fuel Cells and currently the Space Shuttle program, and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers; the company has demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its proton exchange membrane automotive fuel cell. Types of fuel cells Fuel Cell Name Electrolyte Qualified Power (W) Working Temperature (°C) Electrical efficiency Status Cost per Watt Metal hydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g.potassium hydroxide) above -20(50% Ppeak @ 0°C) Electro-galvanic fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., potassium hydroxide) under 40 Direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC) Polymer membrane (ionomer) to 50 W under 40 Commercial/Research Zinc-air battery Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., potassium hydroxide) under 40 Mass production Microbial fuel cell Polymer membrane or humic acid under 40 Research Upflow microbial fuel cell (UMFC) under 40 Research Regenerative fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) under 50 Direct borohydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., sodium hydroxide) 70 Commercial Alkaline fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution (e.g., potassium hydroxide) 10 kW to 100 kW under 80 Cell: 60–70%System: 62% Direct methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 100 kW to 1 MW 90–120 Cell: 20–30%System: 10–20% Reformed methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 5 W to 100 kW (Reformer)250–300(PBI)125–200 Cell: 50–60%System: 25–40% Direct-ethanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) up to 140 mW/cm² above 25? 90–120 Research Direct formic acid fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 25+ Research Proton exchange membrane fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) (e.g., Nafion or Polybenzimidazole fiber) 100 W to 500 kW (Nafion)50–120(PBI)125–220 Cell: 50–70%System: 30–50% RFC - Redox Liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle & polymer membrane (Ionomer) 1 kW to 10 MW Research Phosphoric acid fuel cell Molten phosphoric acid (H3PO4) up to 10 MW 150-200 Cell: 55%System: 40%Co-Gen: 90% $4–$4.50 per watt Molten carbonate fuel cell Molten alkaline carbonate (e.g., sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3) 100 MW 600-650 Cell: 55%System: 47% Tubular solid oxide fuel cell (TSOFC) O2--conducting ceramic oxide (e.g., zirconium dioxide, ZrO2) up to 100 MW 850-1100 Cell: 60–65%System: 55–60% Commercial/Research Protonic ceramic fuel cell H+-conducting ceramic oxide 700 Research Direct carbon fuel cell Several different 700-850 Cell: 80%System: 70% Planar Solid oxide fuel cell O2--conducting ceramic oxide (e.g., zirconium dioxide, ZrO2 Lanthanum Nickel Oxide La2XO4,X= Ni,Co, Cu.) up to 100 MW 850-1100 Cell: 60–65%System: 55–60% Efficiency Fuel cell efficiency The efficiency of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power drawn from it. Drawing more power means drawing more current, which increases the losses in the fuel cell. As a general rule, the more power (current) drawn, the lower the efficiency. Most losses manifest themselves as a voltage drop in the cell, so the efficiency of a cell is almost proportional to its voltage. For this reason, it is common to show graphs of voltage versus current (so-called polarization curves) for fuel cells. A typical cell running at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the energy content of the hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into heat. (Depending on the fuel cell system design, some fuel might leave the system unreacted, constituting an additional loss.) For a hydrogen cell operating at standard conditions with no reactant leaks, the efficiency is equal to the cell voltage divided by 1.48 V, based on the enthalpy, or heating value, of the reaction. For the same cell, the second law efficiency is equal to cell voltage divided by 1.23 V. (This voltage varies with fuel used, and quality and temperature of the cell.) The difference between these numbers represents the difference between the reaction's enthalpy and Gibbs free energy. This difference always appears as heat, along with any losses in electrical conversion efficiency. Fuel cells do not operate on a thermal cycle. As such, they are not constrained, as combustion engines are, in the same way by thermodynamic limits, such as Carnot cycle efficiency. At times this is misrepresented by saying that fuel cells are exempt from the laws of thermodynamics, because most people think of thermodynamics in terms of combustion processes (enthalpy of formation). The laws of thermodynamics also hold for chemical processes (Gibbs free energy) like fuel cells, but the maximum theoretical efficiency is higher (83% efficient at 298K Fuel Cell efficiency ) than the Otto cycle thermal efficiency (60% for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4). Comparing limits imposed by thermodynamics is not a good predictor of practically achievable efficiencies. Also, if propulsion is the goal, electrical output of the fuel cell has to still be converted into mechanical power with the corresponding inefficiency. In reference to the exemption claim, the correct claim is that the "limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics on the operation of fuel cells are much less severe than the limitations imposed on conventional energy conversion systems". Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting chemical energy to electrical energy, especially when they are operated at low power density, and using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants. In practice For a fuel cell operating on air (rather than bottled oxygen), losses due to the air supply system must also be taken into account. This refers to the pressurization of the air and dehumidifying it. This reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to that of a compression ignition engine. Furthermore fuel cell efficiency decreases as load increases. The tank-to-wheel efficiency of a fuel cell vehicle is about 45% at low loads and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure. The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a car with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency . It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen. In addition to the production losses, over 70% of US' electricity used for hydrogen production comes from thermal power, which only has an efficiency of 33% to 48%, resulting in a net increase in carbon dioxide production by using hydrogen in vehicles. Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency) is between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions. While a much cheaper lead-acid battery might return about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-term storage. Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80-90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market. Fuel cell applications Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dry dock The world's first certified Fuel Cell Boat (HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability. This equates to around one minute of down time in a two year period. Micro combined heat and power systems such as home fuel cells and cogeneration for office buildings and factories are in mass production phase. The stationary fuel cell application generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of exergy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using the electricity to drive a heat pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90% (35-50% electric + remainder as thermal) Molten-carbonate fuel cells have also been installed in these applications, and solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist. Since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device). One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative Stuart Island Energy Initiative has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. The SIEI website gives extensive technical details. The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output. Suggested applications Base load power plants Electric and hybrid vehicles. Auxiliary power Off-grid power supply Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be available for weeks at a time. Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges your cell phone or PDA). Smartphones with high power consumption due to large displays and additional features like GPS might be equipped with micro fuel cells. Hydrogen transportation and refueling Toyota FCHV PEM FC fuel cell vehicle. Mercedes-Benz (Daimler AG) Citaro fuel cell bus on Aldwych, London. Element One fuel cell vehicle. Toyota's FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005. The GM 1966 Electrovan was the automotive industry's first attempt at an automobile powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. The Electrovan, which weighed more than twice as much as a normal van, could travel up to 70mph for 30 seconds. "An Electrovan, Not an Edsel" by Danny Hakim. New York Times. New York, N.Y.: November 17, 2002. pg. 3.2 The 2001 Chrysler Natrium used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It produces hydrogen for the fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydride fuel with Borax, both of which Chrysler claimed were naturally occurring in great quantity in the United States. natrium The hydrogen produces electric power in the fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without impinging on passenger space. Chrysler also developed vehicles which separated hydrogen from gasoline in the vehicle, the purpose being to reduce emissions without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen infrastructure and to avoid large storage tanks. The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit (produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. Royal Dutch Shell is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere. In 2003 President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI), which was later implemented by legislation through the 2005 Energy Policy Act and the 2006 Advanced Energy Initiative. These aimed at further developing hydrogen fuel cells and its infrastructure technologies with the ultimate goal to produce commercial fuel cell vehicles by 2020. By 2008, the U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to this project. Nice, Karim, and Jonathan Strickland. "How Fuel Cells Work." How Stuff Works. 30 Oct. 2008. 3 Nov. 2008 <http://www.howstuffworks.com/fuel-cell.htm>. In May 2009, however, the Obama Administration announced that it will "cut off funds" for the development of fuel cell hydrogen vehicles, since other vehicle technologies will lead to quicker reduction in emissions in a shorter time. The US Secretary of Energy explained that hydrogen vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years", and also mentioned the challenges involved in the development of the required infrastructure to distribute hydrogen fuel. Nevertheless, the U.S. government will continue to fund research related to stationary fuel cells. The National Hydrogen Association and the U.S. Fuel Cell Council criticized this decision arguing that "...the cuts proposed in the DOE hydrogen and fuel cell program threaten to disrupt commercialization of a family of technologies that are showing exceptional promise and beginning to gain market traction." In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 100 miles in an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour. In 2004 Honda developed a fuel-cell motorcycle which utilized the Honda FC Stack. Type 212 submarines use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface. Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller. In 2007, the Revolve Eco-Rally (launched by HRH Prince of Wales) demonstrated several fuel cell vehicles on British roads for the first time, driven by celebrities and dignitaries from Brighton to London's Trafalgar Square. Fuel cell powered race vehicles, designed and built by university students from around the world, competed in the world's first hydrogen race series called the 2008 Formula Zero Championship, which began on August 22, 2008 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. More races are planned for 2009 and 2010. After this first race, Greenchoice Forze from the university of Delft (The Netherlands) became leader in the competition. Other competing teams are Element One (Detroit), HerUCLAs (LA), EUPLAtecH2 (Spain), Imperial Racing Green (London) and Zero Emission Racing Team (Leuven). The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative by the California Governor to implement a series of hydrogen refueling stations along that state. These stations are used to refuel hydrogen vehicles such as fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen combustion vehicles. As of July 2007 California had 179 fuel cell vehicles and twenty five stations were in operation, and ten more stations have been planned for assembly in California. However, there have already been three hydrogen fueling stations decommissioned. Japan also has a hydrogen highway, as part of the Japan hydrogen fuel cell project. Twelve hydrogen fueling stations have been built in 11 cities in Japan. Canada, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark also have hydrogen highways implemented. There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being researched or manufactured by motor car manufacturers. In 2008, Honda released a hydrogen vehicle, the FCX Clarity. Meanwhile there exist also other examples of bikes http://de.youtube.com/watch?v=B_Whbb_hlPs Hydrogen Fuel Cell electric bike and bicycles http://www.horizonfuelcell.com Horizon fuel cell vehicles with a hydrogen fuel cell engine. A few companies are conducting hydrogen fuel cell research and practical fuel cell bus trials. Daimler AG, with thirty-six experimental units powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells completing a successful three-year trial, in eleven cities, in January 2007. There are also fuel cell powered buses currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor buses with UTC Power fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses. The first Brazilan hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype will begin operation in São Paulo during the first semester of 2009. The hydrogen bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three additional buses. Market structure Not all geographic markets are ready for SOFC powered m-CHP appliances. Currently, the regions that lead the race in Distributed Generation and deployment of fuel cell m-CHP units are the EU and Japan. m-CHP Hydrogen economy Electrochemical extraction of energy from hydrogen via fuel cells is an especially clean method of meeting power requirements, but not an efficient one, due to the necessity of adding large amounts of energy to either water or hydrocarbon fuels in order to produce the hydrogen. Additionally, during the extraction of hydrogen from hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide is released. Although this gas is artificially converted into carbon dioxide, such a method of extracting hydrogen remains environmentally injurious. It must however be noted that regarding the concept of the hydrogen vehicle, burning/combustion of hydrogen in an internal combustion engine (IC/ICE) is often confused with the electrochemical process of generating electricity via fuel cells (FC) in which there is no combustion (though there is a small byproduct of heat in the reaction). Both processes require the establishment of a hydrogen economy before they may be considered commercially viable, and even then, the aforementioned energy costs make a hydrogen economy of questionable environmental value. Hydrogen combustion is similar to petroleum combustion, and like petroleum combustion, still results in nitrogen oxides as a by-product of the combustion, which lead to smog. Hydrogen combustion, like that of petroleum, is limited by the Carnot efficiency, but is completely different from the hydrogen fuel cell's chemical conversion process of hydrogen to electricity and water without combustion. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water during use, while producing carbon dioxide emissions during the majority of hydrogen production, which comes from natural gas. Direct methane or natural gas conversion (whether IC or FC) also generate carbon dioxide emissions, but direct hydrocarbon conversion in high-temperature fuel cells produces lower carbon dioxide emissions than either combustion of the same fuel (due to the higher efficiency of the fuel cell process compared to combustion), and also lower carbon dioxide emissions than hydrogen fuel cells, which use methane less efficiently than high-temperature fuel cells by first converting it to high purity hydrogen by steam reforming. Although hydrogen can also be produced by electrolysis of water using renewable energy, at present less than 3% of hydrogen is produced in this way. Hydrogen is an energy carrier, and not an energy source, because it must be produced by adding energy from other energy sources, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, wind power, or solar photovoltaic cells. Hydrogen may be produced from subsurface reservoirs of methane and natural gas by a combination of steam reforming with the water gas shift reaction, from coal by coal gasification, or from oil shale by oil shale gasification. low pressure electrolysis of water or high pressure electrolysis, which requires electricity, and high-temperature electrolysis/thermochemical production, which requires high temperatures (ideal the for expected Generation IV reactors), are two primary methods for the extraction of hydrogen from water. As of 2006, 49.0% of the electricity produced in the United States comes from coal, 19.4% comes from nuclear, 20.0% comes from natural gas, 7.0% from hydroelectricity, 1.6% from petroleum and the remaining 3.1% mostly coming from geothermal, solar and biomass. EIA - Electricity Data, Analysis, Surveys When hydrogen is produced through electrolysis, the energy comes from these sources. Though the fuel cell itself will only emit heat and water as waste, pollution is often caused when generating the electricity required to produce the hydrogen that the fuel cell uses as its power source (for example, when coal, oil, or natural gas-generated electricity is used). This will be the case unless the hydrogen is produced using electricity generated by hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, wind or other clean power sources (which may or may not include nuclear power, depending on one's attitude to the nuclear waste byproducts); hydrogen is only as clean as the energy sources used to produce it. A holistic approach has to take into consideration the impacts of an extended hydrogen scenario, including the production, the use and the disposal of infrastructure and energy converters. Nowadays low temperature fuel cell stacks proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) and phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) make extensive use of platinum catalysts. Impurities create catalyst poisoning (reducing activity and efficiency) in these low-temperature fuel cells, thus high hydrogen purity or higher catalyst densities are required. Although platinum is seen by some as one of the major "showstoppers" to mass market fuel cell commercialization companies, most predictions of platinum running out and/or platinum prices soaring do not take into account effects of thrifting (reduction in catalyst loading) and recycling. Recent research at Brookhaven National Laboratory could lead to the replacement of platinum by a gold-palladium coating which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime considerably. Current targets for a transport PEM fuel cells are 0.2 g/kW Pt – which is a factor of 5 decrease over current loadings – and recent comments from major original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) indicate that this is possible. Also it is fully anticipated that recycling of fuel cells components, including platinum, will kick in. High-temperature fuel cells, including molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC's) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC's), do not use platinum as catalysts, but instead use cheaper materials such as nickel and nickel oxide, which are considerably more abundant (for example, nickel is used in fairly large quantities in common stainless steel). They also do not experience catalyst poisoning by carbon monoxide, and so they do not require high-purity hydrogen to operate. They can use fuels with an existing and extensive infrastructure, such as natural gas, directly, without having to first reform it externally to hydrogen and CO followed by CO removal. Instead, they can more efficiently use the same fuels that are used to make hydrogen for low-temperature fuel cells. This fuel flexibility, combined with new developments to make SOFCs on cheaper and more durable metal supports, makes SOFCs increasingly important as candidates for transportation, as well as for stationary power. SOFCs have the highest efficiency of all fuel cell types, and their ability to use common fuels, including liquid fuels, may make them more suitable for long-distance vehicular transportation, as well as for stationary power. Research and development August 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers use triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel. 2006: Staxon introduced an inexpensive OEM fuel cell module for system integration. In 2006 Angstrom Power, a British Columbia based company, began commercial sales of portable devices using proprietary hydrogen fuel cell technology, trademarked as "micro hydrogen." See also Aqueous phase reforming produces hydrogen from biomass-derived oxygenated compounds (such as glycerol, sugars and sugar alcohols). Bio-nano generator Comparison of automobile fuel technologies Cryptophane Distributed generation Electrolysis Energy development Flow battery Paper battery Germanischer Lloyd guidelines for fuel cells on ships and boats Glossary of fuel cell terms Grid energy storage Hydrogen reformer Hydrogen storage Hydrogen technologies Microgeneration Microgeneration Certification Scheme Renewable energy Standard for the installation of stationary fuel cell power systems Water splitting References External links Well sourced history of fuel cell TC 105 IEC Technical standard for Fuel Cells EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells Further reading Vielstich, W., et al. (eds.) (2009). Handbook of fuel cells: advances in electrocatalysis, materials, diagnostics and durability. 6 vol. 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1,016 | Glasgow_City_Chambers | The front of the City Chambers, from George Square. City Chambers viewed from George Square. The main entrance is obscured by the cenotaph commemorating World War I. The Council Chamber The Full Marble Staircase Mosaic ceiling of the ground floor Loggia The City Chambers (built 1882-90, architect William Young) of Glasgow, Scotland, are the headquarters of Glasgow City Council, the largest local authority in Scotland, and were completed in 1889. Located on the eastern side of the city's George Square, Queen Victoria performed the inauguration ceremony in August 1888, and the first Council meeting was held in October 1889. The buildings are an eminent example of Victorian civic architecture. The entrance hall of the Chambers displays a mosaic of the city's coat of arms on the floor. The arms reflect legends about Glasgow's patron saint, Saint Mungo, and include four emblems - the bird, tree, bell, and fish - as remembered in the following verse: Here's the Bird that never flew Here's the Tree that never grew Here's the Bell that never rang Here's the Fish that never swam A tapestry hanging in the hall is intended to represent Glasgow's past and present, and from a distance appears almost Japanese in style. Pillars of marble and granite give way to staircases of marble, freestone, and alabaster, and a ceiling decorated in gold is topped by a stained glass dome. The Councillor's Corridor, containing councillors' mailboxes and decorated in Italian faience, leads to the Committee Rooms, where formal business committees meet, and an impressive library. From the corridor one passes through into the Council Chamber. This is where the Council meets formally, and is one of the most impressive rooms in the City Chambers. There are seats for each of the 79 councillors, all facing the Lord Provost (the Scottish equivalent of the lord mayor found in London and other cities), his Depute, and the Chief Executive, who are seated behind the mace. A public gallery looks down on the proceedings, and a small press gallery is located at the side. The Lord Provost's main office is decorated in the same Venetian style as the rest of the building. Famous visitors, including the British Royal family have signed the visitor book here. The municipal mace is kept in an ante-room leading to the Lord Provost's office. Part of the ritual of the Council's proceedings is that the mace is carried by the Council Officer when leading the Lord Provost into the Council Chamber to chair full council meetings. The mace is made from gold-plated silver, and was presented to the council in 1912. Next to the Council Chamber, you come across three rooms used for civic functions and large meetings: the Satinwood Salon, Octagonal Room, and Mahogany Salon. These rooms are decorated in fine woods as their names imply, and also house a selection of fine paintings. The grandest room in the Chambers is the Banqueting Hall. Its magnificence has impressed heads of state, and it has witnessed many different types of events, from formal civil ones to record launches, fashion shows, children's Christmas parties and private functions. Nelson Mandela received his Freedom of the City here in 1993. The hall is 33.5m long by 14.6m wide and 15.8m high. The carpet comes in three sections which are rotated regularly to prevent wear. The carpet design reflects the ornate pattern of the roof. Huge murals decorate the walls, depicting the granting of the city's charter, its history and culture, and the four main Scottish rivers. The hall's electric chandeliers, or "electroliers", were designed in 1885. The daily tours of the Chambers conclude with the Upper Gallery on the third floor, which lets one see the detail on the beautiful dome visible from the other floors, as well as portraits of former Lord Provosts. The City Chambers of Glasgow, with its architectural features and position as a seat of local government ensure its appeal to locals and other Scots. 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1,017 | James_Branch_Cabell | James Branch Cabell, (April 14, 1879 – May 5, 1958) was an American author of fantasy fiction and belles lettres. Cabell was well regarded by his contemporaries, including H. L. Mencken and Sinclair Lewis. His works were considered escapist and fit well in the culture of the 1920s, when his works were most popular. For Cabell, veracity was "the one unpardonable sin, not merely against art, but against human welfare." Interest in Cabell declined in the 1930s, a decline that has been attributed in part to his failure to move out of his fantasy niche. Alfred Kazin said that "Cabell and Hitler did not inhabit the same universe". Although escapist, Cabell's works are ironic and satirical. H. L. Mencken disputes Cabell's claim to romanticism, characterized him as "really the most aciduous of all the anti-romantics. His gaudy heroes... chase dragons precisely as stockbrockers play golf." Cabell saw art as an escape from life, but once the artist creates his ideal world, he finds that it is made up of the same elements that make the real one. Life Cabell was born into an affluent and well-connected Virginian family, and lived most of his life in Richmond. His father, Robert Gamble Cabell II (1847–1922), was a physician, and his mother, Anne Harris (1859–1915), was the daughter of Col. and Mrs James R. Branch. Cabell's paternal great-grandfather, William H. Cabell, was governor of Virginia from 1805 to 1808. Cabell County in West Virginia is named after a branch of his family. James was the oldest of three boys — his brothers were Robert Gamble Cabell III (1881–1968) and John Lottier Cabell (1883–1946). His parents separated and were later divorced in 1907. Although Cabell's surname is often mispronounced "Ka-BELL", he himself pronounced it "CAB-ble". To remind an editor of the correct pronunciation, Cabell composed this rhyme: "Tell the rabble my name is Cabell." Cabell matriculated to the College of William and Mary in 1894 at the age of fifteen and graduated in 1898. While an undergraduate, Cabell taught French and Greek at the College. According to his close friend and fellow author Ellen Glasgow, Cabell developed a friendship with a professor at the college which was considered by some to be "too intimate" and as a result Cabell was dismissed, although he was subsequently readmitted and finished his degree. Following his graduation, he worked from 1898 to 1900 as a newspaper reporter in New York City, but returned to Richmond in 1901, where he worked several months on the staff of the Richmond News. 1901 was an eventful year for Cabell: his first stories were accepted for publication, and he was suspected of the murder of John Scott, a wealthy Richmonder. It was rumored that Scott was "involved" with Cabell's mother. Cabell's supposed involvement in the Scott murder and his college "scandal" were both mentioned in Ellen Glasgow's posthumously published (1954) autobiography The Woman Within. In 1902, seven of his first stories appeared in national magazines and over the next decade he wrote many short stories and articles, contributing to nationally published magazines including Harper's Monthly Magazine and the Saturday Evening Post, as well as carrying out extensive research on his family's genealogy. Between 1911 and 1913, he was employed by his uncle in the office of the Branch coalmines in West Virginia. On November 8, 1913, he married Priscilla Bradley Shepherd, a widow with five children by her previous marriage. In 1915 a son, Ballard Hartwell Cabell, was born. Priscilla died in March 1949; Cabell remarried in June 1950 to Margaret Waller Freeman. During his life, Cabell published fifty-two books, including novels, genealogies, collections of short stories, poetry, and miscellanea. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1937. Today, the modern languages house and an endowed law professorship at the College of William and Mary are named in his honor. Cabell died of a cerebral hemorrhage in 1958. He is buried in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond. Honors In 1970, Virginia Commonwealth University, also located in Richmond, named its main campus library "James Branch Cabell Library" in his honor. In the 1970s Cabell's library and personal papers were moved from his home on Monument Avenue to the James Branch Cabell Library. Consisting of some 3,000 volumes, the collection includes manuscripts, notebooks and scrapbooks, periodicals in which Cabell's essays, reviews and fiction were published, his correspondence with noted writers including H. L. Mencken, Ellen Glasgow, Sinclair Lewis and Theodore Dreiser, correspondence with family, friends, editors and publishers, newspaper clippings, photographs, periodicals, criticisms, printed material, publishers' agreements and statements of sales. The VCU undergraduate literary journal at the university is named Poictesme after the fictional province in his novel Jurgen. Works Jurgen Cabell's eighth (and best-known) book, Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice (1919), was the subject of a celebrated obscenity case shortly after its publication. The eponymous hero, who considers himself a "monstrous clever fellow", embarks on a journey through ever more fantastic realms, even to hell and heaven. Everywhere he goes, he winds up seducing the local women, even the Devil's wife. The novel was denounced by the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice; they attempted to bring a prosecution for obscenity. The case went on for two years before Cabell and his publishers won: the "indecencies" were double entendres that also had a perfectly decent interpretation, though it appeared that what had actually offended the prosecution most was a joke about papal infallibility. The presiding judge, Charles C. Nott, wrote in his decision that "...the most that can be said against the book is that certain passages therein may be considered suggestive in a veiled and subtle way of immorality, but such suggestions are delicately conveyed" and that because of Cabell's writing style "...it is doubtful if the book could be read or understood at all by more than a very limited number of readers." Cabell took an author's revenge: the revised edition of 1926 included a previously "lost" passage in which the hero is placed on trial by the Philistines, with a large dung-beetle as the chief prosecutor. He also wrote a short book, Taboo, in which he thanks John H. Sumner and the Society for Suppression of Vice for generating the publicity that gave his career a boost. Due to the notoriety of the suppression of Jurgen, Cabell became a figure of international fame. In the early 1920s he became the leader of a group of writers known as "The James Branch Cabell School", which included such figures as H. L. Mencken, Carl Van Vechten and Elinor Wylie. The Biography of Manuel A great deal of Cabell's works has focused on The Biography of Manuel, the story of Dom Manuel and his descendants through many generations. The biography includes a total of twenty five works that were written over a 23 year period. Cabell stated that he considered the Biography to be a single work, and supervised its publication in a single uniform edition of 18 volumes, known as the Storisende Edition, published from 1927 to 1930. A number of the volumes of the Biography were also published in editions illustrated by Frank C. Papé between 1921 and 1926. The themes and characters from Jurgen make appearances in many works included in the Biography. Figures of Earth tells the story of Manuel the swineherd, a scoundrel who rises to conquer a realm by playing on others' expectations – his motto Mundus Vult Decipi, meaning "the world wishes to be deceived". The Silver Stallion is a loose sequel to Figures of Earth that deals with the creation of the legend of Manuel the Redeemer, in which Manuel is pictured as an infallible hero, an example to which all others should aspire; the story describes the story of Manuel's former knights, who remember how things really were and take different approaches to reconciling the mythology with the actuality of Manuel. Many of these books take place in the fictional country eventually ruled by Manuel, known as "Poictesme", (pronounced "pwa-tem"). It was the author's intention to situate Poictesme roughly in the south of France. The name suggests the two real French cities of Poitiers (medieval Poictiers) and Angoulême (medieval Angoulesme). Several others take place in the fictional town of Lichfield, Virginia. After concluding the Biography in 1932, Cabell shortened his pen name to Branch Cabell. The "truncated" name was used for all his new, "post-Biography" publications until the printing of There Were Two Pirates (1946). Others Though Cabell is best known as a fantasist, the plots and characters of his first few novels, The Eagle's Shadow (1904), The Cords of Vanity (1909), and The Rivet in Grandfather's Neck (1915), (later all adapted for inclusion into the Biography) do not wander out of the everyday society of Virginia's beleaguered gentry. But Cabell's signature droll style is clearly in evidence, and in later printings each book would bear a characteristically Cabellian subtitle: A Comedy of Purse-Strings, A Comedy of Shirking, and A Comedy of Limitations, respectively. His later novel, The First Gentleman of America: A Comedy of Conquest (1942), retells the strange career of an American Indian from the shores of the Potomac who sailed away with Spanish explorers, later to return, be made chief of his tribe, and kill all the Spaniards in the new Virginia settlement. Cabell delivered a more concise, historical treatment of the novel's events in The First Virginian, part one of his 1947 work of non-fiction, Let Me Lie, a book on the history of Virginia. Other works include: The Nightmare Has Triplets (trilogy comprising Smirt (1934), Smith (1935), and Smire (1937)) The Heirs and Assigns trilogy, comprising Hamlet Had an Uncle (1940), The King Was in His Counting House (1938), ad The First Gentleman of America (1942) The It Happened in Florida trilogy, comprising The St. Johns (written in collaboration with A. J. Hanna), There Were Two Pirates (1946), and The Devil's Own Dear Son (1949) Anecdotia Americana (with introduction by J. Mortimer Hall) Cabell also wrote a number of autobiographical and genealogical works. Influence Cabell's work was thought of very highly by a number of his peers, including Mark Twain, Sinclair Lewis, H. L. Mencken, Joseph Hergesheimer, and Jack Woodford. When Twain died he was reading Cabell's Chivalry. Although now largely forgotten by the general public, his work was remarkably influential on later authors of fantastic fiction. James Blish was a fan of Cabell's works, and for a time edited Kalki, the journal of the Cabell Society. Robert A. Heinlein was greatly inspired by Cabell's boldness, and originally described his famous book Stranger in a Strange Land as "a Cabellesque satire", and a later work, Job, A Comedy of Justice (with the title derived from Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice), features, like Jurgen, an appearance of the Slavic god Koschei. Fritz Leiber's Swords of Lankhmar was also influenced by Jurgen. Jack Vance's Dying Earth books show considerable stylistic resemblances to Cabell; Cugel the Clever in those books bears a strong resemblance, not least in his opinion of himself, to Jurgen. Cabell was also a major influence on Neil Gaiman, Neil Gaiman's Journal: Novelisting acknowledged as such in the rear of Gaiman's novels Stardust and American Gods. This thematic and stylistic influence is highly evident in the multi-layered pantheons of Gaiman's most famous work, The Sandman, which have many parallels in Cabell's work, particularly Jurgen. Cabell maintained a close and lifelong friendship with well-known Richmond writer Ellen Glasgow, whose house on West Main St was only a few blocks from Cabell's family home on East Franklin St. They corresponded extensively between 1923 and Glasgow's death in 1945 and over 200 of their letters survive. Cabell dedicated his 1927 novel Something About Eve to her, and she in turn she dedicated her book They Stooped to Folly: A Comedy of Morals (1929) to Cabell. In her autobiography, Glasgow also gave considerable thanks to Cabell for his help in the editing of her Pulitzer Prize-winning book In This Our Life (1941). However, late in their lives, friction developed between the two writers as a result of Cabell's critical 1943 review of Glasgow's novel A Certain Measure. There are also references to Cabell himself in the works of many other fantasy and science fiction authors. For example, the Leshy Circuit stories by Larry Niven feature planets and places whose names are taken from Cabell, and his protagonist in A World Out of Time is named Jerome Branch Corbell. H. Beam Piper also used names from Cabell for some of his invented planets. From 1969 through 1972, the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series returned six of Cabell's novels to print, and elevated his profile in the fantasy genre. Today, many more of his works are available from Wildside Press. Criticism Michael Swanwick published a critical monograph on Cabell's work, Swanwick, Michael, What Can Be Saved From the Wreckage?, Temporary Culture, Upper Montclair, N.J., 2007 (ISBN 978-0-9764660-3-1) 2007 which argues for the continued value of a few of Cabell's works — notably Jurgen, The Cream of the Jest and The Silver Stallion — while acknowledging that much of his writing has dated badly. Swanwick places much of the blame for Cabell's obscurity on Cabell himself, for authorising the 18-volume Storisende uniform edition of the Biography of Dom Manuel, including much that was of poor quality and ephemeral. This alienated admirers and scared off potential new readers. "There are, alas, an infinite number of ways for a writer to destroy himself," Swanwick wrote. "James Branch Cabell chose one of the more interesting. Standing at the helm of the single most successful literary career of any fantasist of the twentieth century, he drove the great ship of his career straight and unerringly onto the rocks." Other studies on Cabell were written during his lifetime by Hugh Walpole, Walpole, Hugh, The Art of James Branch Cabell, New York, 1920 W. A. McNeill, McNeill, W. A., Cabellian Harmonics, Random House, New York, 1928 and Carl van Doren. Van Doren, Carl, James Branch Cabell, New York, 1925 Quotations "The optimist proclaims that we live in the best of all possible worlds; and the pessimist fears this is true." – Coth in Cabell, The Silver Stallion "...when I have been telling you, from alpha to omega, what is the one great thing the sigil taught me—that everything in life is miraculous. For the sigil taught me that it rests within the power of each of us to awaken at will from a dragging nightmare of life made up of unimportant tasks and tedious useless little habits, to see life as it really is, and to rejoice in its exquisite wonderfulness. If the sigil were proved to be the top of a tomato-can, it would not alter that big fact, nor my fixed faith. No Harrowby, the common names we call things by do not matter—except to show how very dull we are," – James Branch Cabell, The Cream of the Jest "In the early part of the 20th century, there was a fantasy writer named James Branch Cabell who had a theory of writing as magic. His books (highly recommended, especially Jurgen) are both funny and mythological... and it's easy to see how his process of creating characters was really a process of evocation and invocation." — Philip H. Farber "Once we understand the fundamentals of Mr. Cabell's artistic aims, it is not easy to escape the fact that in Figures of Earth he undertook the staggering and almost unsuspected task of rewriting humanity's sacred books, just as in Jurgen he gave us a stupendous analogue of the ceaseless quest for beauty. For we must accept the truth that Mr. Cabell is not a novelist at all in the common acceptance of the term, but a historian of the human soul. His books are neither documentary nor representational; his characters are symbols of human desires and motives. By the not at all simple process of recording faithfully the projections of his rich and varied imagination, he has written thirteen books, which he accurately terms biography, wherein is the bitter-sweet truth about human life." — Burton Rascoe "I have finished Jurgen; a great and beautiful book, and the saddest book I ever read. I don't know why, exactly. The book hurts me – tears me to small pieces – but somehow it sets me free. It says the word that I've been trying to pronounce for so long. It tells me everything I am, and have been, and may be, unsparingly... I don't know why I cry over it so much. It's too – something-or-other – to stand. I've been sitting here tonight, reading it aloud, with the tears streaming down my face..." — Deems Taylor, Letter to Mary Kennedy, 12 December 1920 "...For a book, once it is printed and published, becomes individual. It is by its publication as decisively severed from its author as in parturition a child is cut off from its parent. The book 'means' thereafter, perforce,—both grammatically and actually,—whatever meaning this or that reader gets out of it." — James Branch Cabell, "A Note on Cabellian Harmonics" in Cabellian Harmonics, April 1928 References Brewer, Frances Joan (intr. by James Branch Cabell), James Branch Cabell: A Bibliography of his Writings, Biography and Criticism (2 vols.), University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, 1957 External links James Branch Cabell Encyclopaedia Britannica James Branch Cabell Library (Virginia Commonwealth University) Poictesme, Virginia Commonwealth University's literary journal Cabell works online Domnei (Google Books) Jurgen: A Comedy of Justice (Google Books) Jurgen: A Comedy of Justice (University of Virginia) The Cream of The Jest (University of Wisconsin) Bibliographies Chronology of James Branch Cabell's Published Works Fan sites James Branch Cabell Mundus Vult Decipi | James_Branch_Cabell |@lemmatized james:18 branch:21 cabell:86 april:2 may:3 american:4 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1,018 | History_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia | The Federated States of Micronesia are located on the Caroline Islands in the western Pacific Ocean. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on Yap. European explorers - first the Portuguese in search of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and then the Spanish - reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. In 1914 German administration ended when the Japanese navy took military possession of the Marshall, Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands. Japan began its formal administration under a League of Nations mandate in 1920. During this period, extensive settlement resulted in a Japanese population of over 100,000 throughout Micronesia while the indigenous population was about 40,000. Sugar cane, mining, fishing and tropical agriculture became the major industries. World War II brought an abrupt end to the relative prosperity experienced during Japanese civil administration. By the War's conclusion most infrastructure had been laid waste by bombing, and the islands and people had been exploited by the Japanese Military to the point of impoverishment. The United Nations created the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) in 1947. Ponape (then including Kusaie), Truk, Yap, Palau, the Marshall Islands and the Northern Mariana Islands, together constituted the TTPI. The United States accepted the role of Trustee of this, the only United Nations Trusteeship to be designated as a "Security Trusteeship", whose ultimate disposition was to be determined by the UN Security Council. As Trustee the US was to "promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants." On May 10, 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia. The neighboring trust districts of Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The Honorable Tosiwo Nakayama, the former President of the Congress of Micronesia, became the first President of the FSM and formed his Cabinet. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the U.S., which entered into force on November 3, 1986, marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence. Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM. This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement. The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM. Amended financial assistance provisions came on-line in FY 2004. The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely. External links U.S. State Department Background Note: Micronesia | History_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia |@lemmatized federated:2 state:4 micronesia:6 locate:1 caroline:2 islands:2 western:1 pacific:2 ocean:1 ancestor:1 micronesians:1 settle:1 year:1 ago:1 decentralize:1 chieftain:1 base:1 system:1 eventually:1 evolve:1 centralized:1 economic:2 religious:1 empire:1 center:1 yap:2 european:1 explorer:1 first:2 portuguese:1 search:1 spice:1 island:7 indonesia:1 spanish:2 reach:1 carolines:1 century:1 establishing:1 sovereignty:1 german:1 administration:3 end:2 japanese:4 navy:1 take:1 military:2 possession:1 marshall:3 northern:3 mariana:3 japan:1 begin:1 formal:1 league:1 nation:3 mandate:1 period:1 extensive:1 settlement:1 result:1 population:2 throughout:1 indigenous:1 sugar:1 cane:1 mining:1 fishing:1 tropical:1 agriculture:1 become:3 major:1 industry:1 world:1 war:2 ii:1 bring:1 abrupt:1 relative:1 prosperity:1 experience:1 civil:1 conclusion:1 infrastructure:1 lay:1 waste:1 bomb:1 people:1 exploit:1 point:1 impoverishment:1 united:3 create:1 trust:3 territory:2 ttpi:2 ponape:1 include:1 kusaie:1 truk:1 palau:2 together:1 constitute:1 accept:1 role:1 trustee:2 trusteeship:3 designate:1 security:3 whose:1 ultimate:1 disposition:1 determine:1 un:1 council:1 u:5 promote:1 advancement:1 self:1 sufficiency:1 inhabitant:1 may:1 four:1 district:2 ratify:1 new:1 constitution:1 neighboring:1 choose:1 participate:1 honorable:1 tosiwo:1 nakayama:1 former:1 president:2 congress:1 fsm:4 form:1 cabinet:1 sign:1 compact:3 free:2 association:2 enter:1 force:1 november:1 mark:1 emergence:1 independence:1 full:1 authority:1 responsibility:1 defense:1 relationship:2 change:1 terminate:1 mutual:1 agreement:1 provide:1 grant:1 fund:1 federal:1 program:1 assistance:2 amend:1 financial:1 provision:1 come:1 line:1 fy:1 basic:1 continue:1 indefinitely:1 external:1 link:1 department:1 background:1 note:1 |@bigram pacific_ocean:1 northern_mariana:3 mariana_island:3 sugar_cane:1 self_sufficiency:1 marshall_islands:1 external_link:1 |
1,019 | Hussite | The Hussites were a Christian movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus or John Huss (c. 1369–1415), who became one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. After the Council of Constance lured Jan Hus in with a letter of indemnity and then put him to death on 6 July 1415, the same year in which the Council had declared itself superior to the Pope, Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article "Constance, Council of" the Hussites fought a series of wars (1420–1434) for their religious and political cause. Among present-day Christians, its traditions are represented in churches which call themselves Moravian or Unity of the Brethren churches, and in the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite Church. Nĕmec, Ludvík "The Czechoslovak heresy and schism: the emergence of a national Czechoslovak church," American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1975, ISBN 0-87169-651-7 Effect in Bohemia of the Death of Hus Recreation of Hussite shield from an original in the Museum of Prague Hussite theologians disputes in the presence of King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands. The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to Emperor Sigismund, to release Jan Hus. When news of his death at the Council of Constance in 1415 arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy, and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country, and his death was seen as a criminal act. King Wenceslaus, prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance; and his wife openly favored the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government. A league was formed by certain lords, who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates, and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible, with the university as arbiter of any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league. If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Roman Church, and the Council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge. Pope Martin V, who while still Cardinal Otto of Colonna, had attacked Hus with relentless severity, energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance, seeking to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus. For this purpose, the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection. Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country, and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund. The Parties of the Bohemian Hussites Hussism organised itself during the years 1415–1419. From the beginning, there formed two parties. The moderate party, who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched. The more radical party identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of John Wyclif, sharing his passionate hatred of the monastic clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles. This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions. The radicals preached the "sufficientia legis Christi"—the divine law (i.e. the Bible) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters. They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of saints and images, fasts, superfluous holidays, the oath, intercession for the dead, auricular Confession, indulgences, the sacraments of Confirmation and the Anointing of the Sick; they admitted laymen and women to the preacher's office, and chose their own priests. But above all they clung to Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, denying transubstantiation, and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party. The Four Articles of Prague The program of the more conservative Hussites is contained in the four articles of Prague, which were agreed upon in July 1420, and promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages. The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as: Freedom to preach the Word of God. Celebration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds (bread and wine to priests and laity alike). No secular power for the clergy. Punishment for the mortal sins. Calixtines (or Utraquists) and Taborites The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at the university and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague party, but also Calixtines (Latin calix chalice) or Utraquists (Latin utraque both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem. The radicals had their gathering-places all around the country. Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Ústí, on the river Luznice, south of Prague (today's Sezimovo Ústí). However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled the remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named Tábor (after the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called Taborites. They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites. Their aim was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword. Their end-of-world visions did not come true. In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and usury, and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to the social order of the time. The Taborites usually had the support of the Orebites (later called Orphans), an eastern Bohemian sect of Hussitism based in Hradec Králové. The Hussite Wars The news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague. A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property was seized by the Hussite nobility. Sigismund could get possession of his kingdom only by force of arms. Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of the West to take up arms against the Hussites, and there followed twelve years of warfare. The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive. Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders, but crossed the borders into neighboring countries. On March 23, 1430, Joan of Arc dictated a letter Joan of Arc Letter of March 23, 1430 that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat. The Council of Basel and Compacta of Prague Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. They invited a Bohemian embassy to appear at the Council of Basel. The discussions began on 10 January 1432, centering chiefly on the four articles of Prague. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian-Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the "Compacta" of Prague on 30 November 1433. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed. The Taborites refused to conform. The Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany on (30 May 1434). From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in Poland for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki. The state assembly of Jihlava in 1436 confirmed the "Compacta" and gave them the sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the Utraquists, as heresy in 1444. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" () (see Unity of the Brethren; also Bohemian Brethren and Moravian Church). Reorganisation of the Hussites The Utraquists had retained hardly anything of the doctrines of Hus except Communion in both kinds. In 1462, Pope Pius II declared the "Compacta" null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King George of Podebrady as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with the Roman Church. This he refused, but his successor, King Vladislaus II, favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the Diet of Kutná Hora, an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists which lasted for thirty-one years. It was only later, at the diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established. Luther's appearance was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Martin Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists approved of the German Reformation; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised the "Unitas Fratrum"" already in 1457. Under Emperor Maximilian II, the Bohemian state assembly established the "Confessio Bohemica,"'' upon which Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From that time forward Hussitism began to die out. After the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 the Roman Catholic Faith was re-established with vigour which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of Bohemia and Moravia. Leaders and members of Unitas Fratrum were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the Holy Roman Empire (mainly Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly. As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe. The largest remaining communities of the Brethren were located in Lissa (Leszno) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia. Some, among them Jan Amos Comenius, fled to western Europe, mainly the Low Countries. A settlement of hussites in Herrnhut, Germany, in 1727 caused the emergence of the Moravian Church. Today, the Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to be the modern successor of the Hussite tradition. References See also The Hussite Bible, a Hungarian Bible translation named after the Czech-influenced orthography imported by Hungarian followers of Hus. Bibliography Kaminsky, Howard. "A History of the Hussite Revolution," University of California Press, 1967. Ondřej, Brodu, "Traktát mistra Ondřeje z Brodu o původu husitů" (), Muzem husitského revolučního hnutí, Tábor, 1980, OCLC 28333729 in with introduction in Mathies, Christiane, "Kurfürstenbund und Königtum in der Zeit der Hussitenkriege: die kurfürstliche Reichspolitik gegen Sigmund im Kraftzentrum Mittelrhein," Selbstverlag der Gesellschaft für Mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte, Mainz, 1978, OCLC 05410832 in Bezold, Friedrich von, "König Sigmund und die Reichskriege gegen die Husiten," G. Olms, Hildesheim, 1978, ISBN 3-487-05967-3 in Denis, Ernest, "Huss et la Guerre des Hussites," AMS Press, New York, 1978, ISBN 0-404-16126-X in Macek, Josef, "Jean Hus et les Traditions Hussites: XVe-XIXe siècles," Plon, Paris, 1973, OCLC 905875 in External links Hussite Museum, Tabor Hussites - God's warriors, in Notes on the Hussite movement and links to primary sources, from Kenyon college The Hussite Era, from Radio Prague's History Online feature Catholic Encyclopedia: Hussites Hussite War-wagons, presenting detailed information about the Hussites' most characteristic tactic, by Matthew Haywood Letter to the Hussites dictated by Joan of Arc on March 23, 1430, translated by Allen Williamson. Short article on the Hussites, from the University of Calgary's 'The End of Europe's Middle Ages' Article on the Tactics of the Hussites | Hussite |@lemmatized hussite:38 christian:3 movement:4 follow:3 teaching:1 czech:7 reformer:1 jan:4 hus:17 john:2 c:1 become:2 one:2 forerunner:1 protestant:1 reformation:2 predominantly:1 religious:5 propel:1 social:2 issue:1 strengthen:1 national:3 awareness:1 council:10 constance:5 lure:1 letter:4 indemnity:1 put:1 death:6 july:2 year:7 declare:2 superior:1 pope:4 oxford:2 dictionary:1 church:17 university:5 press:3 isbn:4 article:8 fight:2 series:1 war:6 political:2 cause:5 among:5 present:3 day:1 tradition:3 represent:2 call:5 moravian:4 unity:2 brother:7 refounded:1 czechoslovak:4 nĕmec:1 ludvík:1 heresy:2 schism:2 emergence:2 american:1 philosophical:1 society:2 philadelphia:1 effect:2 bohemia:6 recreation:1 shield:1 original:1 museum:2 prague:14 theologian:1 dispute:1 presence:1 king:10 władysław:1 ii:4 jagiełło:1 poland:4 arrest:1 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1,020 | Damascus_steel | Damascus steel is a hot-forged steel used in Middle Eastern swordmaking from about 1100 to 1700 AD. Damascus swords were of legendary sharpness and strength, and were apocryphally claimed to be able to cut through lesser quality European swords and even rock. The technique used to create original Damascus steel is now a matter of historical conjecture. Many raw materials and the metalsmiths' recipes are no longer available. The foundation for Damascus Steel is Wootz Steel, which originated in India and Sri Lanka and later spread to Persia. From the 3rd century to 17th century, India was shipping steel ingots to the Middle East for use in Damascus Steel. The general term "Damascus" refers to metal with a visible grain pattern, sometimes with a texture. Modern Damascus is a lamination of folded steels selected with cosmetic qualities, with grinding and polishing specifically to expose the layers. True Damascus patterns are formed when carbon trace elements form visible swirls in the steel mix. These elements change properties when the steel is work hardened (forged), creating the patterns. History According to Will Durant (The Story of Civilization I: Our Oriental Heritage), the secret of manufacturing Damascus steel was learned by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India and Sri Lanka. Drawing of corn harvesting knife of twisted cable or pattern welding Several other steelmaking techniques, such as wootz steel also result in patterned surfaces and have often been sold as Damascus steel, Damascened steel and sometimes watered steel(Japan). The most common technique today for producing these materials is pattern welding, which is widely used for custom knife making. Modern Damascus steel is usually made by pattern welding two tool steels, one with high nickel content, appearing bright, the other appearing more grey so that alternating steels produce light-dark stripes. Treating or pickling the steel with dilute acid after polishing enhances the pattern by darkening one of the steels more than the other. Folding and twisting while hammer forging controls the striped pattern, and the method used is often trademarked. Skilled swordsmiths can manipulate the layered patterns to mimic the complex designs found in the surface of the original, medieval Damascus steel. Some knife artists begin with stacking steel wires and through folding can produce repeating images along a blade, such as a crossed U.S. flags. Stacking wires is a speciality of the Cable Damascus technique, a new age development. The advent of steel wire rope (1830's) provided mid-west blacksmiths a way to make corn harvester's machetes (cable knives). One explanation of the legendary properties of Damascus steel is that the pattern consists of alternating bands of very hard but brittle iron carbide or cementite and softer more flexible iron. Another possibility is that the steel contains a small amount of vanadium, which would theoretically strengthen the blade . The legendary steel may have been a happy accident by way of the limited production methods. Original Damascus steel billet was formed from a small disk that was hammer folded/forged into its final shape. Unlike northern European methods, the ferro-smelting technique in Persia during the Middle Ages involved small bowl-type crucibles with lids, baked in a mound-type oven often used for bread. Controlling the air contact to the melt, as well as trace elements found locally, all combined to produce a steel blade noticeably better than its contemporaries. Carbon nanotubes and nanowires were found in a sample of a 17th century sword forged from Damascus steel. The complex process of forging and annealing is thought to have accounted for the nano-scale structures. The origins of the name Damascus remains somewhat controversial. Damascus steel was originally made using ore with a certain chemical composition from a mine that is now exhausted, so attempts at reproduction are difficult at best. It would seem obvious that the name Damascus refers to swords forged in Damascus, but there are several other possible sources of the name. One is the name of the swordsmith himself: the author al-Beruni refers to swords made by a man he names Damashqi. Another author, al-Kindi, refers to swords made in Damascus as Damascene. This word has often been employed as an epithet in various Eastern European legends (Sabya Damaskinya or Sablja Dimiskija meaning "Damascene sword"), of which perhaps the best known are the Serbian legends of Prince Marko, a historical figure of the late 14th century in what is now the Republic of Macedonia. Manufacture The original Damascus steel swords may have been made in the vicinity of Damascus, Syria, in the period from 900AD to as late as 1750AD. Damascus steel is a type of steel alloy that is both hard and flexible, a combination that made it ideal for the building of swords. It is said that when Damascus-made swords were first encountered by Ottomans during the Crusades, it garnered an almost mythical reputation—a Damascus steel blade was said to be able to cut a piece of silk in half as it fell to the ground, as well as being able to chop through normal blades, or even rock, without losing its sharp edge. Recent metallurgical experiments, based on microscopic studies of preserved Damascus-steel blades, have claimed to reproduce a very similar steel via possible reconstructions of the historical process John D. Verhoeven. 2001. The Mystery of Damascus Blades. Scientific American . When forming a batch of steel, impurities are added to control the properties of the resulting alloy. In general, notably during the era of Damascus steel, one could produce an alloy that was hard and brittle at one extreme by adding up to 2% carbon, or soft and malleable at the other, with about 0.5% carbon. The problem for a swordsmith is that the best steel should be both hard and malleable — hard, so as to hold an edge once sharpened, but malleable so it would not break when hitting other metal in combat. This was not possible with normal processes. Metalsmiths in India and Sri Lanka perhaps as early as 300BCE developed a new technique known as wootz steel that produced a high-carbon steel of unusually high purity. Glass was added to a mixture of iron and charcoal and then heated. The glass would act as a flux and bind to other impurities in the mixture, allowing them to rise to the surface and leave a more nearly pure steel when the mixture cooled. Thousands of steel making sites were found in Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka that made high carbon steel as early as 300BCE. (Juleff, 1996). These steel making furnaces were built facing western monsoon winds and wind turbulence and suction was used to create heat in the furnace. Steel making sites in Sri Lanka have been dated to 300BCE using carbon dating technology. The technique propagated very slowly through the world, reaching modern-day Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan around 900CE, and then the Middle East circa 1000CE. This process was further refined in the Middle East using locally produced steels. The exact process remains unknown, but allowed carbides to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade. The carbides are far harder than the surrounding low carbon steel, allowing the swordsmith to make an edge which would cut hard materials with the precipitated carbides, while the bands of softer steel allowed the sword as a whole to remain tough and flexible. The banded carbide precipitates appear in the blade as a swirling pattern. By manipulating the ingot of steel in a certain way during forging, various intentional patterns could be induced in the steel. The most common of these was a pattern of lateral bands, often called 'Muhammad's Ladder', most likely formed by cutting or forging notches into the surface of the ingot, then forging it into the blade shape (this is the method Pendray (below) used to reproduce the pattern). A team of researchers based at the Technical University of Dresden that uses x-rays and electron microscopy to examine Damascus steel discovered the presence of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes. Peter Paufler, a member of the Dresden team, says that these nanostructures give Damascus steel its distinctive properties Legendary Swords' Sharpness, Strength From Nanotubes, Study Says and are a result of the forging process. Lefever Grade G shotgun with Damascus Barrels The knife makers process was adopted by early gun makers from India and Persia. Eventually the technology to make damascus gun barrels was adopted by European gunmakers. In 1634 Hungarian gunsmith Caspar Hartmann was making guns with damascus barrels for King Gyorcki Raboczi I. A watershed event occurred in 1683 with the Siege of Vienna. The defeat of Kara Mustafa by Poland's Jan III Sobieski at Vienna resulted in thousands of Ottoman-produced weapons being left on the battle field. Many of these had damascus barrels. By 1700 damascus barrels were being produced at Liege, Belgium. Over time, Liege became the major source for damascus barrels. Damascus barrels were produced by every major gun making center in Europe. The great majority of these barrels were used in shotguns. This usage continued until World War I. After the war, damascus barrels fell out of favor amongst sportsman. By the early 1930s commercial production of damascus barrels had for all practical purposes stopped because stronger, cheaper fluid steel became available after W.W. I. Loss of the technique For reasons that are not entirely clear, but possibly because sources of ores containing trace amounts of tungsten and/or vanadium needed for its production were depleted, the process was lost to the middle-eastern metalsmiths circa 1750AD. It has been eagerly sought by many since that time. It has long been argued that the raw material for Damascus steel swords was imported from India, because India was the only known center of crucible-fired steels like wootz. However this conclusion became suspect when the furnaces in Turkmenistan were discovered, demonstrating at least that the technique was moving out from India. The wootz may have been manufactured locally in the Damascus area, but so far no remains of the distinctive wootz furnaces have appeared. The work of Verhoeven et al. supports the hypothesis that the wootz used was from India, as several key impurities that appear to give Damascus steel its properties point to particular ores available only in India. The Russian bulat steel has many similar properties, at least in nature if not in process. Recently various groups have claimed to have recreated steel with properties consistent with true Damascus blades, through experimental archaeology, though even they admit they cannot be certain how it was originally created. Verhoeven et al. (1998) argued that the keys are ores with certain trace elements, controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging, and a grinding process to reveal the final damask pattern. A somewhat different technique was proposed by Wadsworth and Sherby. The recent discovery of carbon nanotubes in the steel's composition by Peter Paufler has also brought to light a new hypothesis which might explain the loss of the technique. Carbon nanotubes (perhaps the strongest and stiffest material known), while occurring randomly in nature (simple campfires produce some nanotubes), require fairly high-tech, high-energy production methods to be made in large quantities as useful structural materials. Therefore, ancient smiths, with the level of technology at their disposal, could hardly control the formation of these nanometer-scale carbon structures. Some element of random chance (forging, alloy composition, heat treatment, smelting process, environmental particularities, etc.) might have been responsible for the formation of these structures, which could not only explain some of their "legendary" qualities, but also the reason why, to this day, these properties have never been successfully emulated. This in turn may mean that Damascus swords, once manufactured, had to undergo a process of selection, whereby only a small percentage were actually found to possess the coveted combination of extreme hardness and high malleability. Attempts at reproduction From the very start, the superior capabilities of Damascus swords attracted significant attention, and many attempts were made to reproduce either the performance or the appearance of the Damascus blades. Since pattern welding was a widespread technique, and produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, many people believed that Damascus blades were made using a pattern welding technique. This belief was challenged in the 1990s when J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their experiments on reproducing the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. Verhoeven and Pendray started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords they had access to. The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a large grain structure, and many beads of pure iron carbide which were the result of the hypereutectoid state of the wootz. They had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbide, so their question was how to reproduce the fine iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the large grains in the wootz. Although such material could be worked at low temperatures to produce the striated Damascene pattern of intermixed ferrite and cementite bands (in a manner identical to pattern-welded Damascus steel), any heat treatment sufficient to dissolve the carbides would destroy the pattern permanently. However, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel the Damascene pattern could be recovered by aging at a moderate temperature. Their investigations found that certain carbide forming elements (chief of which was vanadium), which in the wootz were concentrated in the carbide regions and were formed into a striated pattern during forging just as the iron carbide itself, did not disperse until higher temperatures than those needed to dissolve the carbides. Therefore, though a high heat treatment could remove the visible evidence of patterning associated with carbides it did not remove the underlying patterning of the carbide forming elements, and a subsequent lower temperature heat treatment (at a temperature at which the carbides were again stable) could recover the identical structure by the binding of carbon by those elements. Pattern welded "Damascened" steel Pattern welded "Damascened steel" sheath knife It used to be believed that Damascus steel was made using pattern welding because the layering revealed by etching a pattern-welded blade in acid is similar to that of Damascus steel. Pattern welded steel is commonly sold today as "Damascus steel", though it appears that the original Damascus steel was not created with that technique. Pattern welded Damascus is made out of several types of steel and iron slices, which are then welded together to form a billet. The patterns vary depending on what the smith does to the billet. The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed. The end result, if done well, bears a strong resemblance to the surface appearance of a true Damascus blade, though the internal structure is completely dissimilar. See also Japanese sword making Experimental archaeology Tungsten carbide, which is often bonded to steel to form tools that are tough, and have a hard, durable cutting surface. Notes References Eric M. Taleff, Bruce L. Bramfitt, Chol K. Syn, Donald R. Lesuer, Jeffrey Wadsworth, and Oleg D. Sherby, "Processing, structure, and properties of a rolled ultrahigh-carbon steel plate exhibiting a damask pattern," Materials Characterization 46 (1), 11-18 (2001). J. D. Verhoeven, "A review of microsegregation induced banding phenomena in steels", J. Materials Engineering and Performance 9 (3), 286-296 (2000). External links Exeter University recreation of Sri Lankan Steel Furnaces "Damascus steel's lost secret found" "Damascene Technique in Metal Working" Detailed historical and scientific discussion with many pictures "Secret's out for Saracen sabres" News of the discovery of nanotubes and nanowires, from issue 2578 of New Scientist magazine, 15 November 2006, page 20, citing Nature, vol 444, p 286 "Damascus Gun Barrels" Devoted to understanding the technology, people and art that created Forge Welded Damascus Shotgun Barrels. Many pictures. 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1,021 | Hail | Hail is a form of precipitation which consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice (hailstones). Hailstones on Earth usually consist mostly of water ice and measure between 5 and 150 millimeters in diameter, with the larger stones coming from severe and dangerous thunderstorms. It sometimes, though not always, occurs during a tornado warning but not as a result of a tornado itself. Hail can occur within any thunderstorm. Hail is only produced by cumulonimbi (thunderclouds), usually at the front of the storm system, and is composed of transparent ice or alternating layers of transparent and translucent ice at least 1 mm thick. The METAR code for hail 5 mm or greater in diameter is GR, while smaller hailstones and graupel are coded GS. Unlike ice pellets, they are layered and can be irregular and clumped together. Formation A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.36 in) in diameter Hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud. In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing . The growth rate is maximized at about , and becomes vanishingly small much below as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common in mid-latitudes during early summer where surface temperatures are warm enough to promote the instability associated with strong thunderstorms, but the upper atmosphere is still cool enough to support tegan ice. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Also, entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Hail is also much more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely. One of the most notorious regions for large hail is the mountainous northern India and Bangladesh, which have reported more hail-related deaths than anywhere else in the world and also some of the largest hailstones ever measured. Mainland China is also notorious for killer hailstorms. In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley." UCAR fact sheet on hail Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season. Hail Alley Hailstones, while most commonly only a few millimetres in diameter, can sometimes grow to and weigh more than Video accompanying entry for "hail" in Britannica Online, Academic Edition . Pea or golf ball-sized hailstones are not uncommon in severe storms. Hail can do serious damage, notably to automobiles, skylights, glass-roofed structures, and most commonly, farmers' crops. Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma. Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration. Hail storms rock southern Qld - Toowoomba News Severe Thunderstorm Images of the Month Archives - 1997 - Australian Severe Weather Short term detection Hail clouds often exhibit a characteristic green coloration. In the United States, to issue proper warnings and forecasts, National Weather Service uses a network of NEXRAD doppler radars to detect hail. Hail size and probability can be determined from radar data by a computer using different algorithms. This, in combination with an analysis of the radar display is an accurate way of detecting hail. An analysis of the radar data would include viewing reflectivity data at multiple angles above ground level to check for hail development in the upper levels of the storm, and checking the Vertically Integrated Liquid (VIL). VIL and hail do have a relationship, although it varies with atmospheric conditions and therefore is not highly accurate. Radar data can also be complimented by a knowledge of current atmospheric conditions which can allow one to determine if the current atmosphere is conducive to hail development. Size scale Hailstone size is often reported as compared to known objects rather than by reporting the actual diameter. Below is a table of commonly used objects for this purpose. PDF from NOAA, Page 5 The UK organisation, TORRO, also scales for both hailstones and hailstorms. TORRO: Severe Weather: Hailstorm Intensity Scale Hailstones ranging in size from Pea to Nickel + Common coin sizes U.S. CanadianDimeCent (or "Penny")Five cents (Nickel)Quarter dollarDollar50 Cents/Half DollarTwo Dollars + Other Objects Object DiameterPeaMarble (small)Walnut/Ping-pong ballGolf ballLime/Hen eggTennis ballCricket ballBaseballApple/TeacupGrapefruitSoftballComputer CD Costly or deadly hailstorms Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India. Telegraph News The largest hailstone ever recorded fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska, USA. Gallery See also Ice pellets Graupel Snow grains Hail cannon References Further reading External links Hail Research Information Center Hail factsheet Using sound to break up hail The Economic Costs of Hail Storm Damage NOAA Economics Images Hail and hailstorms Major hail event in Brazil Youtube video of large hailstorm in progress NOAA Hail Reports on Google map (non commercial) | Hail |@lemmatized hail:38 form:3 precipitation:1 consist:2 ball:2 irregular:2 lump:1 ice:8 hailstone:20 earth:1 usually:2 mostly:1 water:5 measure:2 millimeter:1 diameter:5 large:10 stone:1 come:1 severe:5 dangerous:1 thunderstorm:9 sometimes:2 though:1 always:1 occur:3 tornado:2 warning:2 result:1 within:2 produce:2 cumulonimbus:1 thunderclouds:1 front:1 storm:8 system:1 compose:1 transparent:2 alternate:1 layer:4 translucent:1 least:1 mm:2 thick:1 metar:1 code:1 great:3 gr:1 small:4 graupel:2 cod:1 g:1 unlike:1 pellet:2 clump:1 together:1 formation:1 cm:1 cloud:8 supercooled:2 droplet:3 freeze:3 contact:1 condensation:1 nucleus:1 dust:1 dirt:1 updraft:6 blow:1 upper:3 part:1 dissipates:1 fall:2 back:1 lift:2 gain:1 grow:3 increasingly:1 ascent:1 become:3 heavy:1 support:2 latent:1 heat:1 release:1 freezing:1 may:2 melt:1 outer:2 shell:2 undergo:1 wet:1 growth:2 liquid:3 collect:1 strong:3 particularly:1 intense:1 high:2 content:1 vertical:1 extent:1 good:1 portion:1 rate:1 maximize:1 vanishingly:1 much:4 rare:1 reason:1 common:5 mid:2 latitude:2 early:2 summer:1 surface:1 temperature:1 warm:1 enough:2 promote:2 instability:1 associate:1 atmosphere:3 still:1 cool:1 tegan:1 accordingly:1 actually:1 less:1 tropic:2 despite:1 frequency:2 tend:1 warmer:1 depth:1 also:7 entrainment:1 dry:1 air:1 continent:1 increase:1 evaporational:1 cooling:1 lower:1 level:3 give:1 volume:1 along:1 mountain:2 range:2 force:1 horizontal:1 wind:1 upwards:1 know:4 orographic:1 thereby:1 intensify:1 make:1 likely:1 one:3 notorious:2 region:1 mountainous:1 northern:1 india:2 bangladesh:1 report:4 related:1 death:1 anywhere:1 else:1 world:1 ever:2 mainland:1 china:1 killer:1 hailstorm:8 north:2 america:2 area:1 colorado:1 nebraska:2 wyoming:2 meet:1 alley:2 ucar:1 fact:1 sheet:1 cheyenne:1 prone:1 city:1 average:1 nine:1 ten:1 per:1 season:1 commonly:3 millimetre:1 weigh:1 video:2 accompany:1 entry:1 britannica:1 online:1 academic:1 edition:1 pea:2 golf:1 size:6 uncommon:1 serious:1 damage:2 notably:1 automobile:1 skylight:1 glass:1 roofed:1 structure:1 farmer:1 crop:1 rarely:1 massive:1 cause:2 concussion:1 fatal:1 head:1 trauma:1 often:3 identifiable:1 green:2 coloration:2 rock:1 southern:1 qld:1 toowoomba:1 news:2 image:2 month:1 archive:1 australian:1 weather:3 short:1 term:1 detection:1 exhibit:1 characteristic:1 united:1 state:1 issue:1 proper:1 forecast:1 national:1 service:1 use:4 network:1 nexrad:1 doppler:1 radar:5 detect:2 probability:1 determine:2 data:4 computer:1 different:1 algorithm:1 combination:1 analysis:2 display:1 accurate:2 way:1 would:1 include:1 view:1 reflectivity:1 multiple:1 angle:1 ground:1 check:2 development:2 vertically:1 integrated:1 vil:2 relationship:1 although:1 vary:1 atmospheric:2 condition:2 therefore:1 highly:1 compliment:1 knowledge:1 current:2 allow:1 conducive:1 scale:3 compare:1 object:4 rather:1 actual:1 table:1 purpose:1 pdf:1 noaa:3 page:1 uk:1 organisation:1 torro:2 intensity:1 nickel:2 coin:1 u:1 canadiandimecent:1 penny:1 five:1 cent:2 quarter:1 half:1 dollartwo:1 dollar:1 diameterpeamarble:1 walnut:1 ping:1 pong:1 ballgolf:1 balllime:1 hen:1 eggtennis:1 ballcricket:1 ballbaseballapple:1 teacupgrapefruitsoftballcomputer:1 cd:1 costly:2 deadly:2 event:2 throughout:1 history:1 incident:1 around:1 century:1 roopkund:1 uttarakhand:1 telegraph:1 record:1 fell:1 aurora:1 usa:1 gallery:1 see:1 snow:1 grain:1 cannon:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 research:1 information:1 center:1 factsheet:1 sound:1 break:1 economic:1 cost:1 economics:1 major:1 brazil:1 youtube:1 progress:1 google:1 map:1 non:1 commercial:1 |@bigram latent_heat:1 vanishingly_small:1 anywhere_else:1 britannica_online:1 severe_thunderstorm:1 doppler_radar:1 vertically_integrated:1 ping_pong:1 external_link:1 |
1,022 | Manx_language | Manx (native name or , or Jackson 1955, 49 ), also known as Manx Gaelic, is a Goidelic language spoken on the Isle of Man. The last native speaker, Ned Maddrell, died in 1974, but in recent years it has been the subject of language revival efforts, and it is now the medium of education at the , a primary school for four- to eleven-year-olds in St. John's, Isle of Man. . Retrieved 24 September 2008. Classification and dialects Manx is a Goidelic language, which means it is derived from Old and Middle Irish and is closely related to Irish and Scottish Gaelic. It shares a number of sound changes with dialects of Irish and Scottish Gaelic, but also shows a number of unique sound changes. In addition, Manx itself can be divided into two dialects, Northern Manx and Southern Manx. Broderick 1984–86, 1:xxvii–xxviii, 160 Manx shares with Scottish Gaelic the loss of contrastive palatalisation of labial consonants; thus while in Irish the velarised consonants contrast phonemically with palatalised , in Scottish Gaelic and Manx, the phonemic contrast has been lost; these languages have only simple . Jackson 1955, 66. Jackson claims that northern Irish has also lost the contrast between velarised and palatalised labials, but this seems to be a mistake on his part, as both Mayo Irish and Ulster Irish are consistently described as having the contrast (cf. Mhac an Fhailigh 1968, 27; Hughes 1994, 621; see also Ó Baoill 1978, 87) A consequence of this phonemic merger is that Middle Irish unstressed word-final (spelled -(a)ibh, -(a)imh in Irish and Gaelic) has merged with (-(e)abh, -(e)amh) in Manx; both have become , spelled -oo or -u(e) in Manx. Examples include ("to stand"; Irish ), ("religion"; Irish ), ("fainting"; Early Modern Irish , lit. in clouds), and ("on you (plural)"; Irish ). O'Rahilly 1932, 77–82; Broderick 1984–86, 2:152 Like northern dialects of Irish (cf. Irish phonology) and most dialects of Scottish Gaelic, Manx has changed the historical consonant clusters to . For example, Middle Irish ("mockery") and ("women") have become and respectively in Manx. O'Rahilly 1932, 22 The affrication of to is also common to Manx, northern Irish, and Scottish Gaelic. O'Rahilly 1932, 203 Also like northern dialects of Irish, as well as like southern dialects of Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Arran, Kintyre), the unstressed word-final syllable of Middle Irish (spelled -(a)idh and -(a)igh) as developed to in Manx, where it is spelled -ee, as in ("buy"; cf. Irish ) and ("apparatus"; cf. Gaelic ). O'Rahilly 1932, 57 Another property Manx shares with Ulster Irish and some dialects of Scottish Gaelic is that rather than appears in unstressed syllables before (in Manx spelling, agh), for example ("straight") (Irish ), ("to remember") (Gaelic . O'Rahilly 1932, 110; Jackson 1955, 55 Similarly to Munster Irish, historical (spelled bh and mh) has been lost in the middle or at the end of a word in Manx either with compensatory lengthening or vocalisation as u resulting in diphthongisation with the preceding vowel. For example, Manx ("winter") and ("mountains") correspond to Irish and (Southern Irish dialect spelling and pronunciation gíre () and sléte ()). O'Rahilly 1932, 24; Broderick 1984–86 3:80–83; Ó Sé 2000:15, 120 Another similarity to Munster Irish is the development of the Old Irish diphthongs before velarised consonants (spelled ao in Irish and Scottish Gaelic) to , as in ("carpenter") and ("narrow") (spelled and in Irish and pronounced virtually the same in Munster). Jackson 1955, 47–50; Ó Cuív 1944, 38, 91 Like southern and western varieties of Irish and northern varieties of Scottish Gaelic, but unlike the geographically closer varieties of Ulster Irish and Arran and Kintyre Gaelic, Manx shows vowel lengthening or diphthongisation before the Old Irish fortis and lenis sonorants. For example, ("children") , ("brown") , ("butter") correspond to Irish/Scottish Gaelic , , and respectively, which have long vowels or diphthongs in western and southern Irish and in the Scottish Gaelic dialects of the Outer Hebrides and Skye, thus western Irish , Southern Irish/Northern Scottish , , ), but short vowels in northern Irish, Arran, and Kintyre, and . O'Rahilly 1932, 51; Jackson 1955, 57–58; Holmer 1957, 87, 88, 106; 1962, 41 Another similarity with southern Irish is the treatment of Middle Irish word-final unstressed , spelled -(e)adh in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. In nouns (including verbal nouns), this became in Manx, as it did in southern Irish, e.g. ("war") , ("to praise") ; cf. Irish and , pronounced and in southern Irish. O'Rahilly 1932, 68; Broderick 1984–86, 2:56, 308 In finite verb forms before full nouns (as opposed to pronouns) became in Manx, as in southern Irish, e.g. ("would praise"), cf. Irish , pronounced in southern Irish. O'Rahilly 1932, 75 Linguistic analysis of the last few dozen native speakers reveals a number of dialectal differences between the northern and the south-western parts of the island. Northern Manx is reflected by speakers from towns and villages from Maughold in the northeast of the island to Peel on the west coast. Southern Manx is used by speakers from the Sheading of Rushen. In Southern Manx, older á and in some cases ó have become . In Northern Manx the same happens, but á sometimes remains as well. For example, ("day", cf. Irish ) is in the south but or in the north. Old ó is always in both dialects, e.g. ("young", cf. Irish ) is in both dialects. Broderick 1984–8,6 1:160 In Northern Manx, older (e)a before nn in the same syllable is diphthongised, while in Southern Manx it is lengthened but remains a monophthong. For example, ("head", cf. Irish ) is in the north but in the south. Broderick 1984–86, 1:161 In both dialects of Manx, older ua and in some cases ao have become a sound spelled eay in Manx. In Northern Manx, this sound is , while in Southern Manx it is , , or . For example, ("wind", cf. Irish ) is in the north and in the south, while ("coal", cf. Irish is in the north and , , or in the south. Broderick 1984–86, 1:161–62 In both the north and the south, there is a tendency to insert a short sound before a word-final in monosyllabic words, as in for ("whole") and for ("woman"). This phenomenon is known as pre-occlusion. In Southern Manx, however, there is also pre-occlusion of before and of before , as in for ("walking") and for . These forms are generally pronounced without pre-occlusion in the north. Preocclusion of before , on the other hand, is more common in the north, as in ("heavy"), which is in the north but or in the south. Broderick 1984–86, 1:162–63 Southern Manx tends to lose word-initial before , while Northern Manx usually preserves it, e.g. ("glen") is in the north and in the south, and ("knee") is in the north and in the south. Broderick 1984–86, 1:164–65 Phonology Consonants The consonant phonemes of Manx are as follows: Thomson 1992, 128–29; Broderick 1993, 234 +Manx consonant phonemes Bilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Palato-velar Velar Labio-velar Glottal Plosive Fricative Nasal Trill Approximant Lateral The voiceless plosives are pronounced with aspiration. The dental, postalveolar and palato-velar plosives are affricated to in many contexts. Manx has an optional process of lenition of plosives between vowels, whereby voiced plosives and voiceless fricatives become voiced fricatives and voiceless plosives become either voiced plosives or voiced fricatives. This process introduces the allophones to the series of voiced fricatives in Manx. The voiced fricative may be further lenited to , and may disappear altogether. Examples include: Broderick 1984–86, 3:3–13; Thomson 1992, 129 Voiceless plosive to voiced plosive → : "flag, rag" → : "sin" Voiceless plosive to voiced fricative → : "cup" → : "boat" → : "tooth" Voiced plosive to voiced fricative → : "horse" → : "face" → : "prayer" → → : "stick" → : "born" Voiceless fricative to voiced fricative → or : "married" → : "stand" → : "easy" → → : "beginning" → : "live" → → : "past" Another optional process of Manx phonology is pre-occlusion, the insertion of a very short plosive consonant before a sonorant consonant. In Manx, this applies to stressed monosyllabic words (i.e. words one syllable long). The inserted consonant is homorganic with the following sonorant, which means it has the same place of articulation. Long vowels are often shortened before pre-occluded sounds. Examples include: Broderick 1984–86, 3:28–34; 1993, 236 → : → "heavy" → : → "head" → : → "birds" → : → "ship" → : → "walking" The trill is realised as a one- or two-contact flap at the beginning of syllable, and as a stronger trill when preceded by another consonant in the same syllable. At the end of a syllable, can be pronounced either as a strong trill or, more frequently, as a weak fricative , which may vocalise to a nonsyllabic or disappear altogether. Broderick 1984–86; 3:17–18 This vocalisation may be due to the influence of Manx English, which is itself a non-rhotic accent. Jackson 1955, 118; Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1998, Isle of Man, retrieved 2008-09-28 Examples of the pronunciation of include: "snare" "bread" "big" Vowels The vowel phonemes of Manx are as follows: Broderick 1993, 230–33 + Manx vowel phonemes Short Long Front Central Back Front Central Back Close Mid Open () () Tha status of and as separate phonemes is debatable, but is suggested by the allophony of certain words such as ta "is", mraane "women", and so on. Manx has a relatively large number of diphthongs, all of them falling: + Manx diphthongs Second element is Second element is Second element is First element is close First element is mid First element is open There is evidence that open-mid and were originally separate phonemes from close-mid and , but by the twentieth century the pairs merged. When stressed, is realised as . Broderick 1993, 232–33 Stress Stress generally falls on the first syllable of a word in Manx, but in many cases, stress is attracted to a long vowel in the second syllable. Broderick 1993, 236 Examples include: "sprite" "busy" "royal" "advantage" Morphology Manx nouns fall into one of two genders, masculine or feminine. Nouns are inflected for number (the plural being formed in a variety of ways, most commonly by addition of the suffix -yn ), but usually there is no inflection for case, except in a minority of nouns that have a distinct genitive singular form, which is formed in various ways (most common is the addition of the suffix -ey to feminine nouns). Historical genitive singulars are often encountered in compounds even when they are no longer productive forms; for example "cowhouse" uses the old genitive of "cattle". Thomson 1992, 118–19; Broderick 1993, 239–40 Manx verbs generally form their finite forms by means of periphrasis: inflected forms of the auxiliary verbs "to be" or "to do" are combined with the verbal noun of the main verb. Only the future, conditional, preterite, and imperative can be formed directly by inflecting the main verb, but even in these tenses, the periphrastic formation is more common in Late Spoken Manx. Broderick 1984–86, 75–82; 1993, 250, 271; Thomson 1992, 122 Examples: + Manx finite verb forms Tense Periphrastic form(literal translation) Inflected form Gloss Present (I am throwing) — I throw Imperfect (I was throwing) — I was throwing Perfect (I am after throwing) The particle is identical in form to the preposition "on"; however, it is etymologically distinct, coming from Old Irish "after" (Williams 1994, 725). — I have thrown Pluperfect (I was after throwing) — I had thrown Future (I will do throwing) I will throw Conditional (I would do throwing) I would throw Preterite (I did throwing) I threw Imperative (Do throwing!) Throw! The future and conditional tenses (and in some irregular verbs, the preterite) make a distinction between "independent" and "dependent" forms. Independent forms are used when the verb is not preceded by any particle; dependent forms are used when a particle (e.g. "not") does precede the verb. For example, "you will lose" is with the independent form ("will lose"), while "you will not lose" is with the dependent form (which has undergone eclipsis to after ). Similarly "they went" is with the independent form ("went"), while "they did not go" is with the dependent form . Broderick 1984–86, 1:92; 1992, 250; Thomson 1992, 122 This contrast is inherited from Old Irish, which shows such pairs as ("(s)he carries") vs. ("(s)he does not carry"), and is found in Scottish Gaelic as well, e.g. ("will take") vs. ("will not take"). In Modern Irish, the distinction is found only in irregular verbs (e.g. ("saw") vs. ("did not see"). Like the other Insular Celtic languages, Manx has so-called inflected prepositions, contractions of a preposition with a pronominal direct object. For example, the preposition "at" has the following forms: + Inflections of ec "at" Singular Plural First person ("at me") ("at us") Second person ("at you") ("at you") Third person Masculine ("at him") ("at them") Feminine ("at her") Numbers Manx IPA English Irishcognate Scottish Gaeliccognate one two three four five six seven eight (dialect hocht) nine ten eleven twelve Initial consonant mutations Many places, such as Douglas, sport bilingual welcome signs. Note here the consonant mutation of (Douglas) to . Like all modern Celtic languages, Manx shows initial consonant mutations, which are processes by which the initial consonant of a word is altered according to its morphological and/or syntactic environment. Broderick 1984–86, 1:7–21; 1993, 236–39; Thomson 1992, 132–35 Manx has two mutations: lenition and nasalisation, found on nouns and verbs in a variety of environments; adjectives can undergo lenition but not nasalisation. In the late spoken language of the 20th century the system was breaking down, with speakers frequently failing to use mutation in environments where it was called for, and occasionally using it in environments where it was not called for. +Lenition and nasalisation in Manx Unmutated consonant Lenition Nasalisation Not attested in the late spoken language (Broderick 1984–86, 3:66) ? ? In the corpus of the late spoken language, there is only one example of the nasalisation of : the sentence ("I have found the lamb"), where ng is pronounced . However, it is possible that the verbal noun in this case is not , which usually means "get", but rather , which is the more usual word for "find" (Broderick 1984–86 2:190, 3:66). (no change) zero (no change) (no change) Syntax Like most Insular Celtic languages, Manx uses Verb Subject Object word order: the inflected verb of a sentence precedes the subject, which itself precedes the direct object. Broderick 1993, 276 However, as noted above, most finite verbs are formed periphrastically, using an auxiliary verb in conjunction with the verbal noun. In this case, only the auxiliary verb precedes the subject, while the verbal noun comes after the subject. The auxiliary verb may be a modal verb rather than a form of ("be") or ("do"). Particles like the negative ("not") precede the inflected verb. Examples: put- the priest his hand on her "The priest put his hand on her." Broderick 1984–86, 1:181 were the lambs eat- the gorse "The lambs used to eat the gorse." Broderick 1984–86, 1:179 not can you- see- anything "You can't see anything." Broderick 1993, 274 When the auxiliary verb is a form of ("do"), the direct object precedes the verbal noun and is connected to it with the particle : did they my voice hear- "They heard my voice." Thomson 1992, 105 As in Irish (cf. Irish syntax#The forms meaning "to be"), there are two ways of expressing "to be" in Manx: with the substantive verb , and with the copula. The substantive verb is used when the predicate is an adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase. Broderick 1993, 276–77 Examples: is it awful "It is awful." is he well "He is well" is he in the ale house "He is in the ale house." Where the predicate is a noun, it must be converted to a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition ("in") + possessive pronoun (agreeing with the subject) in order for the substantive verb to be grammatical: is he in-his man good "He is a good man" (lit. "He is in his good man") Broderick 1993, 277 Otherwise, the copula is used when the predicate is a noun. The copula itself takes the form or in the present tense, but it is often omitted in affirmative statements: / Manxman me "I am a Manxman." Broderick 1993, 278 this the man "This is the man." Thomson 1992, 105 In questions and negative sentences, the present tense of the copula is : not me him "I am not him." this the book "Is this the book?" Vocabulary Manx vocabulary is predominantly of Goidelic origin, derived from Old Irish and closely related to words in Irish and Scottish Gaelic. However, Manx itself, as well as the languages from which it is derived, borrowed words from other languages as well, especially Latin, Old Norse, French (particularly Anglo-Norman), and English (both Middle English and Modern English). Broderick 1993, 282–83 The following table shows a selection of nouns from the Swadesh list and indicates their pronunciations and etymologies. ManxIPA Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2 EnglishEtymology Macbain 1911; Dictionary of the Irish Language; Broderick 1984–86, vol. 2 liverGoidelic; from Mid.Ir. < O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. skyLatin; from O.Ir. < L. ; cf. Sc.G. fireGoidelic; from O.Ir. "very bright"; cf. Ir., Sc.G. snakeApparently "highly poisonous" (cf. "high", "poison")riverGoidelic; from the M.Ir. dative form abainn of < O.Ir. abaind ; cf. Ir. abha/abhainn, dative abhainn, Sc.G. (literary nominative abha).fatherGoidelic; from M.Ir. athair, O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. mouthGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. wormLatin; from M.Ir. < O.Ir. < L. womanGoidelic; from M.Ir and O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. treeGoidelic; from O.Ir. flowerGoidelic; from O.Ir. , Ir. bláth, Sc.G. blàthyearGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. cloudEnglish/French; shortened from "pillar of cloud" (cf. Sc.G. ); originally meant "pillar" or "battlement" < E. battle < Fr. bellyGoidelic; from O.Ir. , Ir., Sc.G bolgfootGoidelic; from O.Ir. , cf. Sc.G. , Ir.dialect cas, Ir. costongueGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. stoneGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Sc.G. , Ir. clochearGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative "hearing"; cf. Ir., Sc.G. , Ir. dialect cluais "ear", dative cluaisgutsGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. , derived from caol "thin, slender"skinGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. , dialect croiceannboneGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. heartGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. personGoidelic; from O.Ir. backGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative , nominative dromm; cf. Ir. drom, dialect , dative droim, Sc.G. drom, dialect , dative druimleafGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Sc.G. hornGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. , Ir. dialect aidhearcmoonGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. archaic Ir. , Sc.G. fishGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. nameGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. seaGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. grassGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. tailGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. featherGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. "wing", Sc.G. toothGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. meatGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. manGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. rainGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. "rainwater; a drenching", realted to fliuch "wet"hairGoidelic; from O.Ir. , Ir.folt, Sc.G. faltrootGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , préamh, Sc.G. bloodGoidelic; from O.Ir. , Ir.,Sc.G. fuilwindGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. , dative gaoithsandGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Sc.G. , Ir. gaineamhkneeGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. , dative glùinsunGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. smokeGoidelic, from M.Ir. < O.Ir. ; cf. Sc.G. dustGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. fogGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. seaGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. "harbor", Sc.G. "ocean"breastGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. forestGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. headGoidelic; from O.Ir. , dative ciond; cf. Ir., Sc.G. , dative cionndayGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Sc.G. handGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. ashesGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. lakeGoidelic; from O.Ir. legGoidelic; from O.Ir. "shin bone"; cf. Ir. stickGoidelic; from O.Ir. , Ir.,Sc.G. maidelouseGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. fruitGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. dogGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. madra, N.Ir. mada,madadh [madu], Sc.G. motherGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. máthair, Sc.G. neckGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , muinéal, Sc.G. nightGoidelic; from O.Ir. (accusative ); cf. Ir. , Sc.G. eggGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. childFrench; from E.M.Ir. "page, attendant" < O.Fr. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. roadEnglish; from Cl.Ir. < M.E. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. seedGoidelic; from O.Ir. starGoidelic; from M.Ir. < O.Ir. + feminine diminutive suffix -óg; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. barkBrythonic; from O.Ir. < Brythonic (cf. Welsh ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. wingGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. mountainGoidelic, from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. snowGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. saltGoidelic; from O.Ir.,Ir.,Sc.G. eyeGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative ; cf. Ir. súil, Sc.G. noseGoidelic; from O.Ir. dative ; cf. Ir. srón, dialect sróin, dative sróin, Sc.G. , dative sròinropeGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. earthGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. birdGoidelic; from O.Ir. "lark"; cf. Ir. , Sc.G. waterGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir. uisce, Sc.G. fingernailGoidelic; from O.Ir. ; cf. Ir., Sc.G. , dative iongain, plural Ir. iongna, Sc.G. iongnan, etc. See Celtic Swadesh lists for the complete list in all the Celtic languages. Orthography The spelling of Manx, unlike that of Irish and Scottish Gaelic, does not represent the Classical Gaelic orthography, and is based on the Welsh and English orthographies. For example, is used for , as in Welsh (e.g. "horse"), and and are used for and respectively, as in English (e.g. "three", "hound"). If any distinctively Manx written literature existed before the Reformation, it was unidentifiable or lost by the time that widespread literacy was being seriously advocated, so when attempts were made (mainly by the Anglican church authorities) to introduce a standardised orthography for the language, a new system based partly on Welsh, and mainly on the English of the 1700s was developed. It is commonly supposed that it was simply invented by John Phillips, the Welsh-born Bishop of Sodor and Man (1605–33) who translated the Book of Common Prayer into Manx. However, it does appear to have some similarities with orthographical systems found occasionally in Scotland, also based on English orthographical practices. For example, the Book of the Dean of Lismore and the Fernaig manuscript are written in Scottish Gaelic using a similar system of spelling. However, it must be noted that the Book of the Dean of Lismore is based on the orthography of Scots, and not Southern English. History Manx began to diverge from Early Modern Irish in around the 13th century and from Scottish Gaelic in the 15th. Broderick 1993, 228 The language sharply declined during the 19th century and was supplanted by English. In 1848, J. G. Cumming wrote that "there are ... few persons (perhaps none of the young) who speak no English", and Henry Jenner estimated in 1874 that about 30% of the population habitually spoke Manx (12,340 out of a population of 41,084). According to official census figures, 9.1% of the population claimed to speak Manx in 1901; in 1921 the percentage was only 1.1%. Gunther 1990, 59–60 Since the language had fallen to a status of low prestige, parents tended not to teach the language to their children, thinking that Manx would be useless to them compared with English. Following the decline in the use of Manx during the 19th century, (The Manx Language Society) was founded in 1899. By the middle of the 20th century only a few elderly native speakers remained (the last of them, Ned Maddrell, died on 27 December, 1974), but by then a scholarly revival had begun to spread to the populace and many had learned Manx as a second language. The revival of Manx has been aided by the recording work done in the 20th century by researchers. Most notably, the Irish Folklore Commission was sent in with recording equipment in 1948 by Éamon de Valera. There is also the work conducted by language enthusiast and fluent speaker Brian Stowell, who is considered personally responsible for the current revival of the Manx language. The first native speakers of Manx (bilingual with English) in many years have now appeared: children brought up by Manx-speaking parents. Primary immersion education in Manx is provided by the Manx government: since 2003, the former St. John's School building has been used by the sole Manx primary school, the (Manx language-medium primary school). Degrees in Manx are available from the Isle of Man College and the Centre for Manx Studies, while the University of Edinburgh offers an Honours course on the Culture, History, and Language of the Isle of Man. Manx-language drama groups also exist, and Manx is taught as a second language at all of the island's primary and secondary schools and also at the Isle of Man College and Centre for Manx Studies. Manx is used as the sole medium for teaching at five of the Island's preschools by a company named , Mooinjer Veggey - Official site which also operates the . The first film to be made in Manx - the 22-minute long Ny Kiree fo Niaghtey (The Sheep Under the Snow) - premiered in 1983 and was entered for the 5th Celtic Film and Television Festival in Cardiff in 1984. It was directed by Shorys Y Creayrie for Foillan Films of Laxey, and is about the background to an early 18th century folk song. In the 2001 census, 1,689 out of 76,315, or 2.2% of the population, claimed to have knowledge of Manx, although the degree of knowledge in these cases presumably varied. Manx names are once again becoming common on the Isle of Man, especially Moirrey and Voirrey (Mary, properly pronounced similar to the Scottish Moira, but often mispronounced as Moiree/Voiree when used as a given name by non-Manx speakers), Illiam (William), Orry (from the Manx King), Breeshey (also Breesha) (Bridget) and Aalish (also Ealish) (Alice), Juan (Jack), Ean (John), Joney, Fenella (Fionnuala), Pherick (Patrick) and Freya (from the Norse Goddess) remain popular. Although Manx is commonly used for written slogans by local businesses, and appears on departmental letterheads and promotional materials within the Isle of Man Government, it is not used as a spoken language within the business community, or spoken within the Government. Manx is used in the annual Tynwald ceremony, with new laws being read out by ('the Reader') in both Manx and English. Manx is recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is also one of the regional languages recognised in the framework of the British-Irish Council. Little secular Manx literature has been preserved. Arguably, no trace of written Manx survives from before the 1600s, but the Book of Common Prayer and the Bible were translated into Manx in the 17th and 18th centuries. A tradition of carvals, religious songs or carols, developed. Examples The following examples are taken from Broderick 1984–86, 1:178–79 and 1:350–53. The first example is from a speaker of Northern Manx, the second from Ned Maddrell, a speaker of Southern Manx. OrthographyPhonetic transcriptionGlossThey used to think if a horse was looking tired and weary in the morning then it had been with the fairies all night and they would bring the priest to put his blessing on it.There was a woman here last week and she wanted me to teach her to say the Lord's Prayer. She said that she used to say it when she was a little girl, but she has forgotten it all, and she wanted to learn it again to say it at a class or something. And I said I would do my best to help her and she came here to hear it, and do you want to hear me say it? Notes References See also List of Celtic language media List of television channels in Celtic languages Irish language revival External links Manx language, alphabet and pronunciation at Omniglot Information about the language isle-of-man.com language section Fockleyreen - Downloadable Manx-English & English-Manx Dictionary Manx-English dictionary to download or look up online Gaelic Dictionaries Manx-English dictionary A short Manx-English-Japanese phrasebook Online Manx Lessons with MP3 recordings Bilingual Bible in Manx and English by the Manx Language Project be-x-old:Мэнская мова | Manx_language |@lemmatized manx:106 native:5 name:4 jackson:7 also:16 know:2 gaelic:25 goidelic:3 language:37 speak:5 isle:9 man:15 last:4 speaker:11 ned:3 maddrell:3 die:2 recent:1 year:3 subject:6 revival:5 effort:1 medium:4 education:2 primary:5 school:5 four:2 eleven:2 old:14 st:2 john:4 retrieve:2 september:1 classification:1 dialect:21 mean:6 derive:4 middle:8 irish:64 closely:2 relate:2 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1,023 | Dragoon | Statue of a dragoon on the Triumph Arc of the Louvres in Paris A dragoon was originally a soldier intended to fight on foot but to deploy by horse. They were therefore trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. Dragoon regiments were established in most European armies during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Originally dragoons were considered separate from the cavalry, but during the 18th century dragoon units evolved into conventional cavalry. The word "dragoon" is derived from the French Army designation dragon which was originally the name of a type of firearm (whose name means dragon) carried by French dragoons. In French, Portuguese and Spanish there is no distinction between the words dragoon and dragon. The title has been retained in modern times by a number of armoured or ceremonial mounted regiments. Origins and name The establishment of dragoons in France was an evolution of the occasional practice of infantry being transported by cavalry when rapidity of manoeuvre was required, ordered by Louis of Nassau during operations on Mons at Hennegau when 500 infantry were transported in this way. p.330, Bismark In 1552 Prince Alexander of Parma, in order to secure surprise, mounted several companies of infantry on pack horses. Another suggestion is that the first dragoons were raised by the Marshal de Brisac in 1600, p.331, Bismark . According to a common legend in older German literature, dragoons were invented by Count Ernst von Mansfeld (1580-1626), one of the greatest German military enterprisers of the early 1620s, a story, however, that cannot be true, since there are several other examples from earlier times. Mansfeld, who had learned his profession in Hungary and the Netherlands, often used horses to make his foot troops more mobile, thus creating what was called an "armée volante". It is possible that the name derives from the dragoon's primary weapon, a short Wheellock called the dragon, so named because the weapon of the first unit of dragoons raised in France had the muzzle of their weapons decorated with the head of a dragon. The practice of so naming a weapon stems from the earlier period when all gunpowder weapons had distinctive names irrespective of size such as the culverin, serpentine, falcon, falconet, etc. p.333, Bismark It is also thought that the mounted infantryman with his loose coat and the burning match at a gallop resembled the mythical dragon. p.48, A Dictionary of Military Uniform W. Y. Carman ISBN0-684-15130-8 History and role The early dragoons were organized not in squadrons or troops like the cavalry, but in companies like the foot soldier, and their officers and non-commissioned officers bore infantry ranks. Dragoon regiments employed drummers in the infantry style, rather than cavalry trumpeters, to communicate orders on the battlefield. The flexibility of mounted infantry made dragoons a useful arm, especially when employed for what would now be termed "internal security" against smugglers or civil unrest, and on line of communication security duties. The dragoon regiments were also cheaper to recruit and maintain than the notoriously expensive regiments of cavalry. When in the 17th century Gustav II Adolf introduced dragoons into the Swedish Army, he provided them with a sabre, an axe and a matchlock musket: many of the European armies henceforth imitated this all-purpose set of weaponry. However, dragoons were at a disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, and constantly sought to raise their horsemanship, armament and social status to the levels of the latter. In most European armies "dragoon" did not come to refer to cavalry until after the Napoleonic Wars, in the 1820s. Dragoons also acquired responsibilities for scouting and picket duty which in the French, Austrian, Prussian, and other armies was passing to hussars and other light cavalry corps. In the Imperial Russian Army due to the availability of the cossack troops the dragoons were retained in their original role for much longer. An exception to the rule was the British Army. In order to cut the state's military budget, all Horse (cavalry) regiments were gradually demoted to the status of Dragoons from 1746 onwards--a change that placed them on a lower pay scale. When this change was completed in 1788, the heavy cavalry regiments had became known as either Dragoon Guards or Heavy Dragoons (depending on their precedence). The designation of Dragoon Guards did not mean that these regiments (the former 2nd to 8th Horse) had become Household Troops, but simply that they had been given a more dignified designation to compensate for the loss of pay and prestige page 22 "British Cavalry Uniforms Since 1660", Michael Barthorp, ISBN 0 7137 1043 8 . Starting in 1756, seven regiments of Light Dragoons were raised. These Light Dragoons were trained in reconnaissance, skirmishing and other work requiring endurance in accordance with contemporary standards of light cavalry performance. The success of this new class of cavalry was such that that 8 regular Dragoon regiments were converted to Light Dragoons between 1768 and 1783 page 24 "British Cavalry Uniforms Since 1660", Michael Barthorp, ISBN 0 7137 1043 8 . . Austria-Hungarian Dragoons Officers Helmet During the Napoleonic Wars, dragoons often assumed a cavalry role, though lighter than armored cuirassiers. Dragoons rode larger horses than the light cavalry and wielded straight, rather than curved swords. Emperor Napoleon often formed complete divisions out of his 20 to 30 dragoon regiments and used them as battle cavalry owing to shortage of cavalry mounts, to break the enemy's main resistance. Rothenberg, p 141 In 1809, French dragoons scored notable successes against Spanish armies at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes. British heavy dragoons made devastating charges against French infantry at the Battle of Salamanca in 1812 and at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the Spanish army, in 1635, Pedro de la Puente organized in Innsbruck (Austria) a body of dragoons, and in 1640 one was created in Spain a tercio of a thousand armed dragoons with arqabus. At the end of the 18th century , there were three tercios in Spain, three in the Netherlands, and an other three in the Milan (Italy). In 1704, like the rest of the tercios, they were dissolved and transformed into regiments by Felipe V. During the 18th century several regiments of dragoons were created in the Spanish Americas , some of them to function as a police force. In 1803 the regiments of dragoons began to be called light cavalry and by the end of the early 19th century they ultimately disappeared. In several stages between 1816 and 1861, the 21 existing Light Dragoon regiments in the British Army were disbanded or converted to lancers and hussars. Britsih Cavalry Uniforms Since 1660, Michael Barthorp ISBN0-7137-1043-8 . Between 1881 and 1910 all Russian cavalry (other than Cossacks and Imperial Guard regiments) were designated as dragoons; reflecting an emphasis on dismounted action in their training and a growing acceptance of the impracticality of employing historical cavalry tactics against modern firepower. Baden dragoon in World War I, with functional Stahlhelm In 1914 there were still dragoon regiments in the British, French, German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Peruvian, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Spanish armies. Their uniforms varied greatly, lacking the characteristic features of hussar or lancer regiments. There were occasional reminders of the mounted infantry origins of this class of soldier. Thus the dragoon regiments of the Imperial German Army wore the pickelhaube (spiked helmet) of the same design as those of the infantry and the British dragoons wore scarlet tunics, hussars and all but one of the lancer regiments wore dark blue. In other respects however dragoons had adopted the same tactics, roles and equipment as other branches of the cavalry and the distinction had become simply one of traditional titles. Modern dragoons Brazil The Brazilian president's honor guard is provided by a regiment of dragoons - the 1st Guards Cavalry Regiment - the Presidential Guard Battalion and the Cayenne Battery This regiment is known as the "Independence Dragoons". The name was given in 1927 and refers to the fact that a detachment of dragoons escorted the Prince Royal of Portugal, Peter Ist, at the time when he declared Brazilian independence from Portugal, on September 7, 1822. The Independence Dragoons wear 19th century uniforms similar to those of the earlier Imperial Honor Guard. The uniform was designed by Debret, in white and red, with plumed bronze helmets. The colors and pattern were influenced by the Austrian dragoons of the period, as the Brazilian Empress Consort was also an Austrian Archduchess. The color of the plumes varies according to rank. The Independence Dragoons are armed with lances. site of the office of the president of Brazil. The regiment was established in 1808 by the Prince Regent and future king of Portugal, John VI, with the duty of protecting the Portuguese royal family, which had sought refuge in Brazil during the Napoleonic wars. However dragoons had existed in Portugal since at least the early 18th century and, in 1719, units of this type of cavalry were sent to Brazil, initially to escort shipments of gold and diamonds and to guard the Viceroy who resided in Rio de Janeiro (1st Cavalry Regiment - Vice-Roy Guard Squadron). Later, they were also sent to the south to serve against the Spanish during frontier clashes. After the proclamation of Brazilian independence, the title of the regiment was changed to that of the Imperial Honor Guard, with the role of protecting the Imperial Family. The Guard was later disbanded by Emperor Peter II and would be recreated only later in the republican era. CARVALHO, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II: Ser ou não ser. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007, p.98 At the time of the Republic proclamation in 1889, horse #6 of the Imperial Honor Guard was ridden by the officer making the declaration. This is commemorated by the custom under which the horse having this number is used only by the commander of the modern regiment.< Canada There are three dragoon regiments in the Canadian Forces: The Royal Canadian Dragoons and two reserve regiments, the British Columbia Dragoons and the Saskatchewan Dragoons. The Royal Canadian Dragoons is the senior armoured regiment in the Canadian Forces. The current role of The Royal Canadian Dragoons is to provide Armour Reconnaissance support to 2 CMBG operations. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police were accorded the status of a regiment of Dragoons in 1921. http://www.regiments.org/regiments/na-canada/cav/RCMP.htm#colours heraldist1 However this distinction was cancelled during the 1960s and the modern RCMP have no formal connection with the Canadian Armed Forces. Chile Founded as the Dragones de la Reina (Queen's Dragoons) in 1758 and later renamed the Dragoons of Chile in 1812, and then becoming the Carabineros de Chile in 1903. The Carabineros are the national police of Chile. Denmark The Royal Danish Army includes amongst its historic regiments The Jutish Dragoons, which was raised in 1670. Finland The Finnish Dragoon squadron exists in conjunction with the Land Warfare School in Lappeenranta and continues the tradition of the former 1. Squadron of the Uusimaa Dragoon battalion. France The modern French Army retains two Dragoons regiments : the 2nd, which is a nuclear, bacteriologic and chemical protection regiment, and the 13th, which is a special-ops parachute regiment. Norway In the Norwegian Army during the early part of the 20th century, dragoons served in part as mounted troops, and in part on skis or bicycles (hjulryttere, "wheel-riders"). Dragoons fought on horses, bicycles and skis against the German invasion in 1940. After WW2 the dragoon regiments were reorganized as armoured reconnaissance units. "Dragon" is the rank of an enlisted private cavalryman. Perú The Dragoon Guards of the “Field Marshal Nieto” Regiment of Cavalry, Life-Guard of the President of the Republic of Perú were the traditional Guard of the Government Palace of Perú until 1987. This regiment of dragoons was created in 1904 following the suggestion of a French military mission when undertaking the reorganization of the Peruvian Army in 1896. The Peruvian Dragoon Guard continues to wear French style uniforms of black tunic and red breeches in the winter and white coat and red breeches in the summer, with red and white plumed bronze helmets. They are armed with lances, sabres and fusils. At 13:00 hours every day the main esplanade in front of the Government Palace of Perú fronting Lima's Main Square serves as the stage for the changing of the guard, undertaken by the Dragoons of the Presidential Guard. Portugal The Portuguese Army still maintains two units which are descended from former regiments of dragoons. These are the 3rd Regiment of Cavalry (the former "Olivença Dragoons") and the 6th Regiment of Cavalry (the former "Chaves Dragoons"). Both regiments are, presently, armoured units. The Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade' Armoured Reconnaissance Squadron - a unit from the 3rd Regiment of Cavalry - is known as the "Paratroopers Dragoons". During the Portuguese Colonial War in the 1960s and the 1970s, the Portuguese Army created an experimental horse platoon, to combat the guerrillas in eastern Angola. This unit was soon augmented, becoming a group of three squadrons, known as the "Angola Dragoons". The Angola Dragoons operated as mounted infantry - like the original dragoons - each soldier being armed with a pistol to fire when on horseback and with an automatic rifle, to use when dismounted. A unit of the same type was being created in Mozambique when the war ended in 1974. Sweden In the Swedish Army, dragoons are the Military Police and Military Police Rangers. They form the Dragoons Battalion of the Life Guards (Swedish Army). The Dragoons Battalion have roots that go back as far as 1523, making it one of the world's oldest military units still in service. "Livdragon" is the rank of a private cavalryman. The Swedish Army Dragoons are one of few units that still use horses. Horses are used for ceremonial purposes only, most often when the dragoons take part at the change of the guards at The Royal Castle. Switzerland In the Swiss Army, mounted dragoons existed until the early 1970s, when they were converted into Armoured Grenadiers units. The "Dragoner" had to prove he was able to keep a horse at home before entering the army. At the end of basic training they had to buy a horse at a reduced price from the army and to take it home together with equipment, uniform and weapon. In the "yearly repetition course" the dragoons served with their horses, often riding from home to the meeting point. The abolition of the dragoon units, believed to be the last non-ceremonial horse cavalry in Europe, was a contentious issue in Switzerland. On 5 December 1972 the Swiss Conseil national approved the measure by 91 votes, against 71 for retention. United Kingdom As many as seventeen regiments were in being at the height of the Napoleonic Wars. In the present-day British Army regular army, four regiments are designated dragoons: 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards Royal Scots Dragoon Guards Royal Dragoon Guards The Light Dragoons The three regiments designated Dragoon Guards were historically sometimes considered heavy cavalry, although by continental standards they were not heavy cavalry since they carried no armour (unlike cuirassiers). The designation "Dragoon Guards" does not indicate the status of Household Troops is a distinction awarded to former "Regiments of Horse" when these were converted to Dragoons in 1746. The Light Dragoons were formed as light cavalry during the Napoleonic Wars, and were similar to hussars. At some times regiments were simultaneously designated light dragoons and hussars. In the Territorial Army, one of the five squadrons of the Royal Yeomanry is designated as dragoons: The Westminster Dragoons. United States The 1st United States Dragoons were among the first people to scout Iowa after the Black Hawk Purchase put the area under U.S. control. In the summer of 1835, the Dragoons blazed a trail along the Des Moines river and established outposts from present-day Des Moines to Fort Dodge. In 1933, the State of Iowa opened the Dragoon Trail, a scenic and historic drive that follows the path of the 1st United States Dragoons on their historic march. The 1st and 2nd Battalion, 48th Infantry were mechanized infantry units assigned to the 3d Armored Division (3AD) in West Germany during the Cold War. The battalions had overlapping assignements in the 3AD within the time frame 1956 to 1983 (joining the 2d of the 48th, the 1st of the 48th relocated to the 3AD at Gelnhausen in 1963 from a prior assignment to 7th Army at Worms, Germany). Along with the 1st Battalion, 33d Armor, they comprised the maneuver elements of the Division's 2d Brigade, stationed Coleman Kaserne, in the city of Gelnhausen, Federal Republic of Germany. The Battalions served as part of NATO forces guarding the Inner-German Border against the Warsaw Pact. The unit crest of the 48th Infantry designated the unit as Dragoons. They are descended from National Guard units which trained for the First World War, and Armored Rifle Battalions which served with the U.S. 7th Armored Division during WWII. The 48th Armored Rifle Battalion, along with 1st Battalion, 40th Armor, in particular fought a tough battle in Vielsalm, Belgium, holding off the German V Panzer Corps for three days at the crossing of the Salm river, during the German Ardennes Offensive (aka Battle of the Bulge). The 1st Dragoons was reformed in the Vietnam era as 1st Squadron, 1st U.S. Cavalry, and continues to this day in the Iraqi War as the oldest cavalry unit, as well as the most decorated unit, in the U.S. Army. Today's modern 1-1 Cavalry is a scout/attack unit, equipped with M1A1 Abrams tanks and M3 Bradley CFVs. Another modern United States Army unit informally known as the 2nd Dragoons is the 2nd Cavalry Regiment (Stryker). This unit was originally organized as the Second Dragoon Regiment in 1836 until it was renamed the Second Cavalry Regiment in 1860, morphing into the 2d Armored Cavalry Regiment in the 1960s. The regiment is currently equipped with the Stryker family of wheeled fighting vehicles. In popular culture One of the main antagonists to Benjamin Martin (Mel Gibson) in the 2000 film The Patriot, Colonel William Tavington (Jason Isaacs), is the leader of the fictional Green Dragoons in the British army. In Robert A. Heinlein's The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, Earth's Federated Nations government sends a unit known as Peace Dragoons to the Moon (then a penal colony) as colonists begin to get restless under absentee rule. http://www.heinleinsociety.org/concordance/books/mhm_hc.htm#peacedragoons In Starcraft, the name dragoon is also a name for a mechanized protoss unit. The dragoon is a recurring class in the Ogre Battle series. The dragoon character class appears in many of the games of the Final Fantasy series. In the Bruce Campbell series Jack of All Trades, the character Jack Styles took on the persona of a folk hero named The Daring Dragoon. In the Scrapped Princess Anime, a dragoon is an Artificial intelligence weapon systems that were originally created to be used as combat weapons against an alien race. In the PC Game Empire Earth the Dragoon appears as a cavalry rider with a rifle and tall hat. In the computer game Age of Empires 3 the Dragoon is a light cavalry unit that is used as a counter-cavalry unit. In the computer game World of Warcraft, Dwarf Dragoons can be found in the Dungeon Blackrock Depths dungeon, they fight with rifles. See also Carabinier Gendarmerie Citations and notes References Rothenburg, Gunther E. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-253-31076-8 von Bismark, Friedrich Wilhelm, Graf, Beamish, North Ludlow, (translator), On the Uses and Application of Cavalry in War from the Text of Bismark: With Practical Examples Selected from Antient and Modern History, T. & W. Boone, London, 1855 Further reading External links Napoleonic Cavalry: Dragoons, Cuirassiers Saskatchewan Dragoons (Canada) British Columbia Dragoons (Canada) First Regiment of Cavalry (USA) The Society of the Military Horse “Field Marshal Nieto” Regiment of Cavalry (Perú) Perú 1970: Changing of the Dragoon Guard | Dragoon |@lemmatized statue:1 dragoon:124 triumph:1 arc:1 louvre:1 paris:1 originally:5 soldier:4 intend:1 fight:5 foot:3 deploy:1 horse:19 therefore:1 train:3 riding:1 well:2 infantry:14 skill:1 regiment:57 establish:3 european:3 army:32 late:1 early:10 century:9 consider:2 separate:1 cavalry:48 unit:26 evolve:1 conventional:1 word:2 derive:2 french:10 designation:4 dragon:7 name:11 type:3 firearm:1 whose:1 mean:2 carry:2 portuguese:6 spanish:6 distinction:4 title:3 retain:3 modern:9 time:6 number:2 armoured:4 ceremonial:3 mounted:6 origin:2 establishment:1 france:3 evolution:1 occasional:2 practice:2 transport:2 rapidity:1 manoeuvre:1 require:2 order:4 louis:1 nassau:1 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1,024 | Murray_Gell-Mann | Murray Gell-Mann (born September 15, 1929) is an American physicist who received the 1969 Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the theory of elementary particles. Among his many accomplishments, he formulated the quark model of hadronic resonances, and identified the SU(3) flavor symmetry of the light quarks, extending isospin to include strangeness, which he also discovered. He discovered the V-A theory of chiral neutrinos in collaboration with Richard Feynman. He created current algebra in the 1960s as a way of extracting predictions from quark models when the fundamental theory was still murky, which led to model-independent sum rules confirmed by experiment. Gell-Mann, along with Levy, discovered the sigma model of pions, which describes low energy pion interactions. Modifying the integer-charged quark model of Han and Nambu, Fritzsch and Gell-Mann were the first to write down the modern accepted theory of quantum chromodynamics although they did not anticipate asymptotic freedom. Gell-Mann is responsible for the see-saw theory of neutrino masses, that produces masses at the inverse-GUT scale in any theory with a right-handed neutrino, like the SO(10) model. He is also known to have played a large role in keeping string theory alive through the 1970s, supporting that line of research at a time when it was unpopular. Biography Born on New York's Lower East Side into a family of Jewish immigrants from Czernowitz, THE MAKING OF A PHYSICIST: A TALK WITH MURRAY GELL-MANN Gell-Mann quickly revealed himself as a child prodigy. Propelled by an intense boyhood curiosity and love for nature, he entered Yale at fifteen after graduating valedictorian from the Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in physics in 1969 for his discovery of a system for classifying subatomic particles. Gell-Mann's work in the 1950s involved recently discovered cosmic ray particles that came to be called kaons and hyperons. Classifying these particles led him to propose a new quantum number called strangeness. Another of Gell-Mann's triumphs is the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula, which was, initially, a formula from empirical results, but was later explained by the quark model. Gell-Mann and Abraham Pais were involved in explaining many puzzling aspects of the physics of these particles. In 1961, this led him (and Kazuhiko Nishijima) to introduce a classification of elementary particles called hadrons (also independently proposed by Yuval Ne'eman at six months earlier, although Gell-Mann alone got the Nobel Prize). This scheme is now explained by the quark model. Gell-Mann's own name for the classification scheme was the eightfold way, because of the octets of particles in the classification. The term is a reference to the eightfold way of Buddhism — a choice which is reflective of Gell-Mann's eclectic interests. Gell-Mann, and, independently, George Zweig, went on, in 1964, to postulate the existence of quarks, the particles from which the hadrons are composed. The name was coined by Gell-Mann and is a reference to the novel Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce ("Three quarks for Muster Mark!" - book 2, episode 4). Zweig had referred to the particles as "aces" but Gell-Mann's name caught on. Quarks were soon accepted as the underlying elementary objects in the study of the structure of hadrons. In 1972 he introduced with Harald Fritzsch the quantum number 'color' and later, in a joint paper with Heinrich Leutwyler, the full theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) was released as the gauge theory of strong interactions (cf. references). The quark model is part of QCD, and has been robust enough to survive the discovery of other flavours of quarks. Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, working together, and a rival group of George Sudarshan and Robert Marshak, were the first to discover the vector structure of the weak interaction in physics. This work followed the seminal discovery of parity violation by Chien-Shiung Wu, as suggested by Chen-Ning Yang and T. D. Lee. In the 1990s his interest turned to the emerging study of complexity, where he was closely associated with the Santa Fe Institute. He wrote a popular science book about these matters, The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex. The title of the book is taken from a line of an Arthur Sze poem: "The world of the quark has everything to do with a jaguar circling in the night." George Johnson wrote a major biography of Gell-Mann, which is entitled Strange Beauty: Murray Gell-Mann and the Revolution in 20th-Century Physics. Gell-Mann is also a collector of East Asian antiquities and a keen linguist. Timeline Gell-Mann earned a bachelor's degree in physics from Yale University in 1948, and a PhD in physics from MIT in 1951. He was a postdoctoral research associate in 1951, and a visiting research professor at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign from 1952 to 1953. After serving as Visiting Associate Professor at Columbia University in 1954-55, he became a professor at the University of Chicago before moving to the Caltech, where he taught from 1955 until 1993. He is currently the Robert Andrews Millikan Professor of Theoretical Physics Emeritus at Caltech as well as a University Professor in the Physics and Astronomy Department of the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, New Mexico. He is a member of the editorial board of the Encyclopædia Britannica. In 1984 Gell-Mann co-founded the Santa Fe Institute — a non-profit research institute in Santa Fe, New Mexico — to study complex systems and disseminate the notion of a separate interdisciplinary study of complexity theory. Personal life Spouse: J. Margaret Dow (m. 1955, d. 1981) and Marcia Southwick (m. 1992) Children: Elizabeth Sarah Gell-Mann (b. 1956), Nicholas Webster Gell-Mann (b. 1963), Nicholas Southwick Levis (b. 1978), stepson Trivia Gell-Mann appeared in a commercial for Enron. http://www.physics.harvard.edu/QFT/SidneyfestBlog.htm Gell-Mann has an Erdös number of 3 Gell-Mann is left-handed His name is an idiosyncratic spelling of the Russian-Jewish name Gel'man (where the apostrophe denotes palatalization of the l). Hobbies Bird watching Linguistics Awards Dannie Heineman Prize (1959) Erice Prize (1990) Ernest O. Lawrence Award (1966) Franklin Medal (1967) John J. Carty Medal (1968) Nobel Prize in Physics (1969) Humanist of the Year (2005) Albert Einstein Award Awards and honors Yale University — D.Sc (h.c.), 1959 American Physical Society — Dannie Heineman Prize, 1959 Ernest O. Lawrence Award, 1966 University of Chicago — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1967 Franklin Institute of Philadelphia — Franklin Medal, 1967 National Academy of Sciences — John J. Carty Medal, 1968 University of Illinois — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1968 Wesleyan University — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1968 Research Corporation Award, 1969 University of Turin, Italy — Honorary Doctorate, 1969 Nobel Prize in Physics, 1969 University of Utah — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1970 Columbia University — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1977 University of Cambridge, England — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1980 United Nations Environment Programme Roll of Honor for Environmental Achievement (The Global 500), 1988 World Federation of Scientists — Erice Prize, 1990 University of Oxford, England — D.Sc.(h.c.), 1992 Southern Illinois University — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1993 University of Florida — Sc.D.(h.c.), Doctorate of Natural Resources, 1994 Southern Methodist University — Sc.D.(h.c.), 1999 Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology, Telluride, Colorado, 2002 American Humanist Association - Humanist of the Year, 2005 References and further reading Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy Encyclopaedia Britannica's Biography of Murray Gell-Mann Fritzsch, Gell-Mann, Leutwyler "Advantages of the color octet gluon picture", Physics Letters B 47, 1973, p.365; Fritzsch, Gell-Mann "Current algebra- quarks and what else?", 16. International Conference High energy physics, Cern 1972, vol.2, p.135 Murray Gell-Mann Home page at Santa Fe Institute Strange Beauty home page TedTalks March 2007: Beauty and truth in physics The Making of a Physicist: A Talk With Murray Gell-Mann The Man Who Knows Everything, David Berreby, New York Times, May 8, 1994 The Man With Five Brains The many worlds of Murray Gell-Mann The Simple and the Complex, Part I: The Quantum and the Quasi-Classical with Murray Gell-Mann, Ph.D. Nobel Prize Biography External links Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Department of Energy, Office of Scientific & Technical Information Gell-Mann's Home Page at SFI TED Talks: Murray Gell-Mann on beauty and truth in physics at TED in 2007 TED Talks: Murray Gell-Mann on the ancestor of language at TED | Murray_Gell-Mann |@lemmatized murray:10 gell:37 mann:37 born:1 september:1 american:3 physicist:3 receive:1 nobel:6 prize:10 physic:16 work:4 theory:10 elementary:3 particle:9 among:1 many:3 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1,025 | Ecosystem | An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the physical (abiotic) factors of the environment. An ecosystem is a unit of interdependent organisms which share the same habitat. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs which show the interdependence of the organisms within the ecosystem. Christopherson, RW (1996) Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Prentice Hall Inc. The High Peaks Wilderness Area in the Adirondack Park is an example of a diverse ecosystem. Overview Flora of Baja California Desert, Cataviña region, Mexico. Savanna at Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by Roy Clapham to denote the combined physical and biological components of an environment. British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system,… including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". Tansley, AG (1935) The use and abuse of vegetational terms and concepts. Ecology 16, 284-307. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as "mental isolates". Tansley later Tansley, AG (1939) The British islands and their vegetation. Volume 1 of 2. Cambridge University Press, United. Kingdom. 484 pg. defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term "ecotope". Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem." Odum, EP (1971) Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the human/nature dichotomy and the premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope. Examples of ecosystems Aquatic ecosystem Chaparral Coral reef Desert Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Human ecosystem Large marine ecosystem Littoral zone Marine ecosystem Rainforest Savanna Subsurface Lithoautotrophic Microbial Ecosystem Taiga Terrestrial ecosystem Tundra Urban ecosystem A freshwater ecosystem. Biomes Map of Terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation. Similar to an ecosystem is a biome, which is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate. Unlike ecozones, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation. Ecosystem topics Classification The Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, Australia. Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - ratified by more than 175 countries - defines "the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings" United Nations Environment Programme. Convention on Biological Diversity. June 1992. UNEP Document no. Na.92-78. Reprint as a commitment of ratifying countries. This has created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow distinguish among them. The CBD defines an "ecosystem" as a "dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit". With the need of protecting ecosystems, the political need arose to describe and identify them efficiently. Vreugdenhil et al. argued that this could be achieved most effectively by using a physiognomic-ecological classification system, as ecosystems are easily recognizable in the field as well as on satellite images. They argued that the structure and seasonality of the associated vegetation, complemented with ecological data (such as elevation, humidity, and drainage), are each determining modifiers that separate partially distinct sets of species. This is true not only for plant species, but also for species of animals, fungi and bacteria. The degree of ecosystem distinction is subject to the physiognomic modifiers that can be identified on an image and/or in the field. Where necessary, specific fauna elements can be added, such as seasonal concentrations of animals and the distribution of coral reefs. Several physiognomic-ecological classification systems are available: Physiognomic-Ecological Classification of Plant Formations of the Earth: a system based on the 1974 work of Mueller-Dombois and Heinz Ellenberg Möller-Dombois & Ellenberg: "A Tentative Physiognomic-Ecological Classification of Plant Formations of the Earth". , and developed by UNESCO. It describes the above-ground or underwater vegetation structures and cover as observed in the field, described as plant life forms. This classification is fundamentally a species-independent physiognomic, hierarchical vegetation classification system which also takes into account ecological factors such as climate, elevation, human influences such as grazing, hydric regimes, and survival strategies such as seasonality. The system was expanded with a basic classification for open water formations. Map of the ecosystems of Central America, WICE 2005. Retrieved 30 August 2008. Land Cover Classification System (LCCS), developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Antonio Di Gregorio & Louisa J.M. Jansen (2000). Land Cover Classification System (LCCS): Classification Concepts and User Manual. Retrieved 30 August 2008. Several aquatic classification systems are available, and an effort is being made by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN) to design a complete ecosystem classification system that will cover both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. From a philosophy of science perspective, ecosystems are not discrete units of nature that simply can be identified using "the right" classification approach. In agreement with the definition by Tansley ("mental isolates"), any attempt to delineate or classify ecosystems should be explicit about the observer/analyst input in the classification including its normative rationale. Summer field in Belgium (Hamois). The blue flower is Centaurea cyanus and the red one a Papaver rhoeas. Ecosystem services Ecosystem services are “fundamental life-support services upon which human civilization depends,”i and can be direct or indirect. Examples of direct ecosystem services are: pollination, wood, and erosion prevention. Indirect services could be considered climate moderation, nutrient cycles, and detoxifying natural substances. Ecosystem legal rights The borough of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania passed a law giving ecosystems legal rights. The ordinance establishes that the municipal government or any Tamaqua resident can file a lawsuit on behalf of the local ecosystem. Tamaqua Law Recognizes Rights of Nature Other townships, such as Rush, followed suit and passed their own laws. Rush Township Strips Sludge Corporation "Rights" This is part of a growing body of legal opinion proposing 'wild law'. Wild law, a term coined by Cormac Cullinan (a lawyer based in South Africa), would cover birds and animals, rivers and deserts. On Thin Ice Earthly rights Function and biodiversity From an anthropological point of view, many people see ecosystems as production units similar to those that produce goods and services. Among some of the most common goods produced by ecosystems, is wood by forest ecosystems and grass for cattle by natural grasslands. Meat from wild animals, often referred to as bush meat in Africa, has proven to be extremely successful under well-controlled management schemes in South Africa and Kenya. Much less successful has been the discovery and commercialization of substances of wild organism for pharmaceutical purposes. Services derived from ecosystems are referred to as ecosystem services. They may include (1) facilitating the enjoyment of nature, which may generate many forms of income and employment in the tourism sector, often referred to as eco-tourisms, (2) water retention, thus facilitating a more evenly distributed release of water, (3) soil protection, open-air laboratory for scientific research, etc. A greater degree of species or biological diversity - popularly referred to as Biodiversity - of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem, because there are more species present at a location to respond to change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects. This reduces the effect before the ecosystem's structure is fundamentally changed to a different state. This is not universally the case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level: Humid tropical forests produce very few goods and direct services and are extremely vulnerable to change, while many temperate forests readily grow back to their previous state of development within a lifetime after felling or a forest fire. Some grasslands have been sustainably exploited for thousands of years (Mongolia, Africa, European peat and mooreland communities). The study of ecosystems The Blue Marble, taken in 1972 by the Apollo 17 crew. This image is the only photograph of its kind to date, showing a fully sunlit hemisphere of the Earth. Approximately 72% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) consists of ocean. Ecosystem dynamics Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various Adansonia (baobab) species, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation. Introduction of new elements, whether biotic or abiotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse or "trophic cascading" and the death of many species within the ecosystem. Under this deterministic vision, the abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem; i.e. how far the ecosystem is away from its steady state. Often, however, ecosystems have the ability to rebound from a disruptive agent. The difference between collapse or a gentle rebound is determined by two factors -- the toxicity of the introduced element and the resiliency of the original ecosystem. Ecosystems are primarily governed by stochastic (chance) events, the reactions these events provoke on non-living materials, and the responses by organisms to the conditions surrounding them. Thus, an ecosystem results from the sum of individual responses of organisms to stimuli from elements in the environment. The presence or absence of populations merely depends on reproductive and dispersal success, and population levels fluctuate in response to stochastic events. As the number of species in an ecosystem is higher, the number of stimuli is also higher. Since the beginning of life organisms have survived continuous change through natural selection of successful feeding, reproductive and dispersal behavior. Through natural selection the planet's species have continuously adapted to change through variation in their biological composition and distribution. Mathematically it can be demonstrated that greater numbers of different interacting factors tend to dampen fluctuations in each of the individual factors. Given the great diversity among organisms on earth, most ecosystems only changed very gradually, as some species would disappear while others would move in. Locally, sub-populations continuously go extinct, to be replaced later through dispersal of other sub-populations. Stochastists do recognize that certain intrinsic regulating mechanisms occur in nature. Feedback and response mechanisms at the species level regulate population levels, most notably through territorial behaviour. Andrewatha and Birch Andrewatha, HG and LC Birch (1954) The distribution and abundance of animals. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL suggest that territorial behaviour tends to keep populations at levels where food supply is not a limiting factor. Hence, stochastists see territorial behaviour as a regulatory mechanism at the species level but not at the ecosystem level. Thus, in their vision, ecosystems are not regulated by feedback and response mechanisms from the (eco)system itself and there is no such thing as a balance of nature. Arctic tundra on Wrangel Island, Russia. If ecosystems are indeed governed primarily by stochastic processes, they may be more resilient to sudden change than each species individually. In the absence of a balance of nature, the species composition of ecosystems would undergo shifts that would depend on the nature of the change, but entire ecological collapse would probably be infrequent events. The theoretical ecologist Robert Ulanowicz has used information theory tools to describe the structure of ecosystems, emphasizing mutual information (correlations) in studied systems. Drawing on this methodology and prior observations of complex ecosystems, Ulanowicz depicts approaches to determining the stress levels on ecosystems and predicting system reactions to defined types of alteration in their settings (such as increased or reduced energy flow, and eutrophication. Robert Ulanowicz (1997). Ecology, the Ascendant Perspective. Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-23-110828-1. See also Relational order theories, as to fundamentals of life organization. Forest on San Juan Island Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact. Systems ecology An aerial view of a human ecosystem: Chicago, Illinois. Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems. The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment In 2005, the largest ever assessment http://www.maweb.org of the Earth's ecosystems was conducted by a research team of over 1,000 scientists. The findings of the assessment were published in the multi volume Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, which concluded that in the past 50 years humans have altered the Earth's ecosystems more than any other time in our history. See also Biodiversity Biodiversity Action Plan Biogeochemical cycle Biome Biosphere Biosphere 2 Earth Science Ecological economics Ecological yield Ecology Ecoregion Ecosystem diversity Ecosystem ecology Ecosystem engineer Ecosystem model Ecosystem services Ecosystem valuation Ecotope Edge effect Eugene Odum Food chain Global warming Invasive species Landscape ecology Leaf Natural environment Nature Sustainability Sustainable development Software ecosystem References The Amazon River in Brazil. Further reading Boer, P.J. den, and J. Reddingius. 1996. Regulation and stabilization paradigms in population ecology. Population and Community Biology Series 16. Chapman and Hall, New York. 397 pg. Ecological Society of America, Ecosytem Services, 25 May 2007 Ehrlich, Paul; Walker, Brian “Rivets and Redundancy”.BioScience.vol.48.no.5. May 1998. pp. 387. American Institute of Biological Sciences. Grime, J.P. "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function: The Debate Deepens." Science Vol. 277. no. 533029 Aug 1997 pp. 1260 - 1261. 25 May 2007 Groom , Martha J., and Gary K. Meffe. Principles of Conservation Biology. 3. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc, 2006. Lawton, John H., What Do Species Do in Ecosystems?], Oikos, December, 1994. vol.71,no.3. Lindeman, R.L. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology '23''': 399-418. Patten, B.C. 1959. An Introduction to the Cybernetics of the Ecosystem: The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect. Ecology'' 40, no. 2.: 221-231. Ranganathan, J & Irwin, F. (2007, May 7). Restoring Nature's Capital: An Action Agenda to Sustain Ecosystem Services Vreugdenhil, D., Terborgh, J., Cleef, A.M., Sinitsyn, M., Boere, G.C., Archaga, V.L., Prins, H.H.T., 2003, Comprehensive Protected Areas System Composition and Monitoring, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 106 pg. External links The Economics of Natural and Manmade hazards to Ecosytems NOAA Economics The Ecosystem Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem: current status Arctic Climate and Ecosystem: current status Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Teaching about Ecosystems The State of the Nation's Ecosystems (U.S.) Ecosystem Services Ecotron - Ecological research project Texas A&M University - Department of Ecosystem Science and Management Texas AgriLife Extension Service - Department of Ecosystem Science and Management | Ecosystem |@lemmatized ecosystem:101 natural:10 unit:7 consisting:1 plant:10 animal:9 micro:2 organism:13 biotic:4 factor:9 area:7 function:3 together:1 physical:6 abiotic:4 environment:9 interdependent:1 share:1 habitat:2 ecosystems:10 usually:2 form:4 number:4 food:4 web:1 show:2 interdependence:1 within:6 christopherson:1 rw:1 geosystems:1 introduction:3 geography:1 prentice:1 hall:2 inc:2 high:3 peak:1 wilderness:1 adirondack:1 park:1 example:3 diverse:1 overview:1 flora:1 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1,026 | Cimabue | Maestà, 1280-1285, Uffizi Gallery, Florence Cenni di Pepo (Giovanni) Cimabue (c. 1240 — c. 1302) also known as Bencivieni di Pepo or in modern Italian, Benvenuto di Giuseppe, was an Italian painter and creator of mosaics from Florence. He is also well known for his student Giotto, considered the first great artist of the Italian Renaissance. Cimabue is generally regarded as the last great painter working in the Byzantine tradition. Adams, 9. The art of this period comprised scenes and forms that appeared relatively flat and highly stylized. Cimabue was a pioneer in the move towards naturalism, as his figures were depicted with rather more life-like proportions and shading. Biography Crucifix, 1287-1288, Panel, 448 x 390 cm Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence. Owing to little surviving documentation, not much is known about Cimabue's life. He was born in Florence and died in Pisa. His career was described in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (called, in Italian, Le Vite), widely regarded as the first art history book, though it was completed over 200 years after Cimabue's death. Although it is one of the few early records we have of him, its accuracy is uncertain. According to Hugh Honour and John Fleming: "His name is, in fact, little more than a convenient label for a closely related group of panel and wall paintings". page 303, A World History of Art, by Hugh Honour and John Fleming, first published in the UK by Papermac in 1982, ISBN 0333 37185 2 Works Judging this by the commissions that he received, Cimabue appears to have been a highly-regarded artist in his day. While he was at work in Florence, Duccio was the major artist, and perhaps his rival, in nearby Siena. Cimabue was commissioned to paint two very large frescoes for the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi. They are on the walls of the transepts: a Crucifixion and a Deposition. Unfortunately these works are now dim shadows of their original appearance. During occupancy of the building by invading French troops, straw caught fire, severely damaging the frescoes. The white paint was partially composed of silver, which oxidised and turned black, leaving the faces and much of the drapery of the figures in negative. The Madonna of St. Francis. Another sadly-damaged work is the great Crucifix of Santa Croce at Florence. It was the major work of art lost in the flood in Florence in 1966. Much of the paint from the body and face washed away. Among Cimabue's few surviving works are the Madonna of Santa Trinita, once in the church of Santa Trinita, and now housed, with Duccio's Rucellai Madonna and Giotto's Ognissanti Madonna, in the Uffizi Gallery. In the Lower Church of Saint Francis in Assisi is an extremely important fresco, depicting The Madonna and Christ Child enthroned with angels and Saint Francis. It is claimed to be a work of Cimabue's old age. Two additional, very fine paintings are attributed to Cimabue. The Flagellation of Christ was purchased by New York's Frick Collection in 1950 and was long considered to be of uncertain authorship, possibly Duccio's. But in 2000, the National Gallery in London acquired The Virgin and Child Enthroned with Two Angels with many similarities (size, materials, red borders, incised margins, etc.) to Flagellation. The two pictures are now thought to be parts of a single work, a diptych or triptych altarpiece, and their attribution to Cimabue is fairly secure. The pair are believed to date from 1280. The Virgin and Child was on loan to the Frick for a few months in late 2006, so the two works could be viewed side-by-side. The Flagellation painting is one of only two Cimabues permanently in the United States. A tiny devotional painting of a "Madonna and Child with SS. Peter and John the Baptist" at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC was painted by Cimabue or one of his students around 1290. It is significant because it shows a cloth of honor that may well be the first patchwork quilt in Western art. Legacy History has long regarded Cimabue as the last of an era that was overshadowed by the Italian Renaissance. In Canto XI of his Purgatorio, Dante laments Cimabue's quick loss of public interest in the face of Giotto's revolution in art: Purgatio XI, cited in the Cenni di Petro Cimabue article in the Catholic Encyclopedia O vanity of human powers, how briefly lasts the crowning green of glory, unless an age of darkness follows! In painting Cimabue thought he held the field but now it's Giotto has the cry, so that the other's fame is dimmed. See also List of painters List of Italian painters Western painting List of famous Italians References Sources External links Web Gallery of Art be-x-old:Чымабуэ | Cimabue |@lemmatized maestà:1 uffizi:2 gallery:5 florence:7 cenni:2 di:5 pepo:2 giovanni:1 cimabue:17 c:2 also:3 know:3 bencivieni:1 modern:1 italian:7 benvenuto:1 giuseppe:1 painter:5 creator:1 mosaic:1 well:2 student:2 giotto:4 consider:2 first:4 great:3 artist:3 renaissance:2 generally:1 regard:3 last:3 work:10 byzantine:1 tradition:1 adam:1 art:8 period:1 comprise:1 scene:1 form:1 appear:2 relatively:1 flat:1 highly:2 stylize:1 pioneer:1 move:1 towards:1 naturalism:1 figure:2 depict:2 rather:1 life:3 like:1 proportion:1 shade:1 biography:1 crucifix:2 panel:2 x:2 cm:1 basilica:2 santa:4 croce:2 owe:1 little:2 surviving:1 documentation:1 much:3 bear:1 die:1 pisa:1 career:1 describe:1 giorgio:1 vasari:1 excellent:1 sculptor:1 architect:1 call:1 le:1 vite:1 widely:1 history:3 book:1 though:1 complete:1 year:1 death:1 although:1 one:3 early:1 record:1 accuracy:1 uncertain:2 accord:1 hugh:2 honour:2 john:3 fleming:2 name:1 fact:1 convenient:1 label:1 closely:1 related:1 group:1 wall:2 painting:4 page:1 world:1 publish:1 uk:1 papermac:1 isbn:1 judge:1 commission:2 receive:1 regarded:1 day:1 duccio:3 major:2 perhaps:1 rival:1 nearby:1 siena:1 paint:6 two:6 large:1 fresco:3 st:2 francis:4 assisi:2 transept:1 crucifixion:1 deposition:1 unfortunately:1 dim:2 shadow:1 original:1 appearance:1 occupancy:1 building:1 invade:1 french:1 troop:1 straw:1 caught:1 fire:1 severely:1 damage:2 white:1 partially:1 compose:1 silver:1 oxidise:1 turn:1 black:1 leave:1 face:3 drapery:1 negative:1 madonna:6 another:1 sadly:1 lose:1 flood:1 body:1 wash:1 away:1 among:1 survive:1 trinita:2 church:2 house:1 rucellai:1 ognissanti:1 low:1 saint:2 extremely:1 important:1 christ:2 child:4 enthrone:2 angel:2 claim:1 old:2 age:2 additional:1 fine:1 attribute:1 flagellation:3 purchase:1 new:1 york:1 frick:2 collection:1 long:2 authorship:1 possibly:1 national:2 london:1 acquire:1 virgin:2 many:1 similarity:1 size:1 material:1 red:1 border:1 incised:1 margin:1 etc:1 picture:1 think:2 part:1 single:1 diptych:1 triptych:1 altarpiece:1 attribution:1 fairly:1 secure:1 pair:1 believe:1 date:1 loan:1 month:1 late:1 could:1 view:1 side:2 permanently:1 united:1 state:1 tiny:1 devotional:1 peter:1 baptist:1 washington:1 dc:1 around:1 significant:1 show:1 cloth:1 honor:1 may:1 patchwork:1 quilt:1 western:2 legacy:1 era:1 overshadow:1 canto:1 xi:2 purgatorio:1 dante:1 lament:1 quick:1 loss:1 public:1 interest:1 revolution:1 purgatio:1 cite:1 petro:1 article:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 vanity:1 human:1 power:1 briefly:1 crown:1 green:1 glory:1 unless:1 darkness:1 follow:1 hold:1 field:1 cry:1 fame:1 see:1 list:3 famous:1 reference:1 source:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 чымабуэ:1 |@bigram uffizi_gallery:2 highly_stylize:1 basilica_di:1 santa_croce:2 giorgio_vasari:1 painter_sculptor:1 sculptor_architect:1 le_vite:1 closely_related:1 highly_regarded:1 francis_assisi:2 severely_damage:1 washington_dc:1 external_link:1 |
1,027 | Doppler_effect | A source of waves moving to the left. The frequency is higher on the left than on the right. The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift), named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler who proposed it in 1842, is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to the source of the waves. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren approaches, passes and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is increased (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is decreased during the recession. For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler effect may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, or motion of the medium. Each of these effects is analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or gravity in special relativity, only the relative difference in velocity between the observer and the source needs to be considered. Development Doppler first proposed the effect in 1842 in his treatise "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). Alec Eden The search for Christian Doppler, Springer-Verlag, Wien 1992. Contains a facsimile edition with an English translation. The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by Buys Ballot in 1845. He confirmed that the sound's pitch was higher than the emitted frequency when the sound source approached him, and lower than the emitted frequency when the sound source receded from him. Hippolyte Fizeau discovered independently the same phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in 1848 (in France, the effect is sometimes called "effet Doppler-Fizeau"). In Britain, John Scott Russell made an experimental study of the Doppler effect (1848). An English translation of Doppler's 1842 treatise can be found in the book The Search for Christian Doppler by Alec Eden. General In classical physics (waves in a medium), the relationship between observed frequency f and emitted frequency f0 is given by: where is the velocity of waves in the medium is the velocity of the source relative to the medium is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium. Both velocities and are computed so that the observed frequency is increased when either the source is moving towards the observer or the observer is moving towards the source. The frequency is decreased if either is moving away from the other. The above formula assumes that the source is either directly approaching or receding from the observer. If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a constant velocity), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than the object's emitted frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through equality when it is closest to the observer, and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the observer. When the observer is very close to the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt. When the observer is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is gradual. In the limit where the speed of the wave is much greater than the relative speed of the source and observer (this is often the case with electromagnetic waves, e.g. light), the relationship between observed frequency f and emitted frequency f0 is given by: Observed frequencyChange in frequency where is the velocity of the source relative to the receiver: it is negative when the source is moving towards the receiver, positive when moving away is the speed of wave (e.g. 3×108 m/s for electromagnetic waves travelling in a vacuum) is the wavelength of the transmitted wave in the reference frame of the source. These two equations are only accurate to a first order approximation. However, they work reasonably well in the case considered by Doppler: when the speed between the source and receiver is slow relative to the speed of the waves involved and the distance between the source and receiver is large relative to the wavelength of the waves. If either of these two approximations are violated, the formulae are no longer accurate. Analysis The frequency of the sounds that the source emits does not actually change. To understand what happens, consider the following analogy. Someone throws one ball every second in a man's direction. Assume that balls travel with constant velocity. If the thrower is stationary, the man will receive one ball every second. However, if the thrower is moving towards the man, he will receive balls more frequently because the balls will be less spaced out. The inverse is true if the thrower is moving away from the man. So it is actually the wavelength which is affected; as a consequence, the received frequency is also affected. It may also be said that the velocity of the wave remains constant whereas wavelength changes; hence frequency also changes. If the source moving away from the observer is emitting waves through a medium with an actual frequency f0, then an observer stationary relative to the medium detects waves with a frequency f given by where vs is positive if the source is moving away from the observer, and negative if the source is moving towards the observer. A similar analysis for a moving observer and a stationary source yields the observed frequency (the receiver's velocity being represented as vr): where the similar convention applies: vr is positive if the observer is moving towards the source, and negative if the observer is moving away from the source. These can be generalized into a single equation with both the source and receiver moving. <center> With a relatively slow moving source, vs,r is small in comparison to v and the equation approximates to where . However the limitations mentioned above still apply. When the more complicated exact equation is derived without using any approximations (just assuming that source, receiver, and wave or signal are moving linearly relatively to each other) several interesting and perhaps surprising results are found. For example, as Lord Rayleigh noted in his classic book on sound, by properly moving it would be possible to hear a symphony being played backwards. This is the so-called "time reversal effect" of the Doppler effect. Other interesting conclusions are that the Doppler effect is time-dependent in general (thus we need to know not only the source and receivers' velocities, but also their positions at a given time), and in some circumstances it is possible to receive two signals or waves from a source, or no signal at all. In addition there are more possibilities than just the receiver approaching the signal and the receiver receding from the signal. All these additional complications are derived for the classical, i.e., non-relativistic, Doppler effect, but hold for the relativistic Doppler effect as well. The first attempt to extend Doppler's analysis to light waves was soon made by Fizeau. However, light waves do not require a medium to propagate, and correct understanding of the Doppler effect for light requires knowledge of the special theory of relativity. See relativistic Doppler effect. A common misconception Craig Bohren pointed out in 1991 that some physics textbooks erroneously state that the observed frequency increases as the object approaches an observer and then decreases only as the object passes the observer. Bohren, C. F. (1991). What light through yonder window breaks? More experiments in atmospheric physics. New York: J. Wiley. In fact, the observed frequency of an approaching object declines monotonically from a value above the emitted frequency, through a value equal to the emitted frequency when the object is closest to the observer, and to values increasingly below the emitted frequency as the object recedes from the observer. Bohren proposed that this common misconception might occur because the intensity of the sound increases as an object approaches an observer and decreases once it passes and recedes from the observer and that this change in intensity is misperceived as a change in frequency. Applications A stationary microphone records moving police sirens at different pitches depending on their relative direction. Sirens The siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer. Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus: "The reason the siren slides is because it doesn't hit you." In other words, if the siren approached the observer directly, the pitch would remain constant (as vs, r is only the radial component) until the vehicle hit him, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch. Because the vehicle passes by the observer, the radial velocity does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle between his line of sight and the siren's velocity: where vs is the velocity of the object (source of waves) with respect to the medium, and is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer. Astronomy Redshift of spectral lines in the optical spectrum of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to that of the Sun (left). The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of great use in astronomy and results in either a so-called redshift or blue shift. It has been used to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us, that is, the radial velocity. This is used to detect if an apparently single star is, in reality, a close binary and even to measure the rotational speed of stars and galaxies. The use of the Doppler effect for light in astronomy depends on our knowledge that the spectra of stars are not continuous. They exhibit absorption lines at well defined frequencies that are correlated with the energies required to excite electrons in various elements from one level to another. The Doppler effect is recognizable in the fact that the absorption lines are not always at the frequencies that are obtained from the spectrum of a stationary light source. Since blue light has a higher frequency than red light, the spectral lines of an approaching astronomical light source exhibit a blue shift and those of a receding astronomical light source exhibit a redshift. Among the nearby stars, the largest radial velocities with respect to the Sun are +308 km/s (BD-15°4041, also known as LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and -260 km/s (Woolley 9722, also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years away). Positive radial velocity means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching. Temperature measurement Another use of the Doppler effect, which is found mostly in plasma physics and astronomy, is the estimation of the temperature of a gas (or ion temperature in a plasma) which is emitting a spectral line. Due to the thermal motion of the emitters, the light emitted by each particle can be slightly red- or blue-shifted, and the net effect is a broadening of the line. This line shape is called a Doppler profile and the width of the line is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the emitting species, allowing a spectral line (with the width dominated by the Doppler broadening) to be used to infer the temperature. Radar The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target — e.g. a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists — as it approaches or recedes from the radar source. Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength. In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength. In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's velocity. Moreover, the proximity fuze, developed during World War II, relies upon Doppler radar to explode at the correct time, height, distance, etc. Medical imaging and blood flow measurement An echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect. One of the limitations is that the ultrasound beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible. Velocity measurements allow assessment of cardiac valve areas and function, any abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the cardiac output. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements. Although "Doppler" has become synonymous with "velocity measurement" in medical imaging, in many cases it is not the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (when the received signal arrives). Velocity measurements of blood flow are also used in other fields of medical ultrasonography, such as obstetric ultrasonography and neurology. Velocity measurement of blood flow in arteries and veins based on Doppler effect is an effective tool for diagnosis of vascular problems like stenosis. D. H. Evans and W. N. McDicken, Doppler Ultrasound, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2000. Flow measurement Instruments such as the laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), and acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure velocities in a fluid flow. The LDV emits a light beam and the ADV emits an ultrasonic acoustic burst, and measure the Doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow. The actual flow is computed as a function of the water velocity and face. This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and high frequency. Velocity profile measurement Developed originally for velocity measurements in medical applications (blood flows), Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) can measure in real time complete velocity profile in almost any liquids containing particles in suspension such as dust, gas bubbles, emulsions. Flows can be pulsating, oscillating, laminar or turbulent, stationary or transient. This technique is fully non-invasive. Underwater acoustics In military applications the Doppler shift of a target is used to ascertain the speed of a submarine using both passive and active sonar systems. As a submarine passes by a passive sonobuoy, the stable frequencies undergo a Doppler shift, and the speed and range from the sonobuoy can be calculated. If the sonar system is mounted on a moving ship or another submarine, then the relative velocity can be calculated. Audio The Leslie speaker, associated with and predominantly used with the Hammond B-3 Organ, takes advantage of the Doppler Effect by using an electric motor to rotate a horn around a speaker continuously, rapidly alternating the received frequency of a keyboard note. Vibration Measurement A Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) is a non-contact method for measuring vibration. The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of interest, and the vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to the motion of the surface. See also Relativistic Doppler effect Dopplergraph Fizeau experiment Fading Rayleigh fading Notes Further reading "Doppler and the Doppler effect", E. N. da C. Andrade, Endeavour Vol. XVIII No. 69, January 1959 (published by ICI London). Historical account of Doppler's original paper and subsequent developments. External links Doppler Effect, ScienceWorld Java simulation of Doppler effect Doppler Shift for Sound and Light at MathPages The Doppler Effect and Sonic Booms (D.A. Russell, Kettering University) Video Mashup with Doppler Effect videos Practical Doppler flow meters- Doppler flow meters with engineering examples and applications Wave Propagation from John de Pillis. An animation showing that the speed of a moving wave source does not affect the speed of the wave. EM Wave Animation from John de Pillis. How an electromagnetic wave propagates through a vacuum Signal-Processing - Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimeters for real time measurement of velocity profiles in liquids Doppler Shift Demo - Interactive flash simulation for demonstrating Doppler shift. Excellent interactive applet, go to applet thumbnails>upcoming applets. | Doppler_effect |@lemmatized source:37 wave:36 move:25 left:3 frequency:39 high:9 right:3 doppler:55 effect:30 shift:14 name:1 austrian:1 physicist:1 christian:3 propose:3 change:6 observer:32 relative:12 commonly:1 hear:2 vehicle:4 sound:10 siren:6 approach:14 pass:6 recedes:3 received:4 increase:6 compare:2 emitted:8 identical:1 instant:1 passing:2 decrease:7 recession:1 propagate:2 medium:13 velocity:34 transmit:1 total:1 may:2 therefore:1 result:3 motion:5 analyze:1 separately:1 require:4 light:19 gravity:1 special:2 relativity:2 difference:1 need:2 consider:3 development:2 first:4 treatise:2 über:1 da:2 farbige:1 licht:1 der:1 doppelsterne:1 und:1 einiger:1 anderer:1 gestirne:1 de:3 himmels:1 coloured:1 binary:2 star:8 heaven:1 alec:2 eden:2 search:2 springer:1 verlag:1 wien:1 contain:2 facsimile:1 edition:2 english:2 translation:2 hypothesis:1 test:1 buy:1 ballot:1 confirm:1 pitch:6 low:5 recede:8 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1,028 | Kenya_Defence_Forces | The Kenyan military consists, according to the Constitution, of the Army, Navy and Air Force. Its main mission is defence of the country's borders in a notoriously unstable region. The military enjoys, in general, a good reputation. It is regularly deployed in peace keeping missions around the world and generally commended for its professionalism. Further, in the aftermath of the national elections of December 2007 and the violence that subsequently engulfed the country, a commission of inquiry, the Waki Commission commended its readiness and adjudged it to "have performed its duty well." Commission of Inquiry into the Post Election Violence at 391 Retrieved 18 November 2008 Nevertheless there have been serious allegations of human rights violations, most recently while conducting counter-insurgency operations in the Mt Elgon area and also in the district of Mandera central. http://www.nation.co.ke/News/-/1056/486206/-/view/printVersion/-/15cwkg8/-/index.html Kenya National Commission on Human Rights Retrieved 18 November 2008 The President also holds the Government of Kenya (GOK) defence portfolio as the Commander in Chief of all the Armed Forces. Background The Department of Defence (KDOD), like the police, is part of the Office of the President. All but senior military officers are appointed, promoted, and, if necessary, removed by the military's professional personnel system. The President appoints and retires senior military officers. Just under the president, the Minister of Defence presides over the Defence Council. The Chief of General Staff heads the nation’s Defence Headquarters. The National Assembly is the deliberative body charged with the right to declare war. Organization The army's organisation is as follows: 2 armoured brigades, 4 infantry brigades, 1 engineer brigade, 1 armoured reconnaissance battalion, 3 artillery battalions, 3 engineer battalions, 1 independent air cavalry battalion with 35 armed helicopters (Embakasi), 5 infantry battalions, 1 parachute battalion. D Company 20 Parachute Battalion is the only sub unit in Kenya that performs high risk tasks such as recce, raids, ambushes and high risk infiltration on any task. Within the Company is a troop of 4+20 pers who perform the most dangerous duties of all. Equipment Vickers Mk3: 76 T-72AV: 110 from Ukraine 77 in 2007 with more planned for delivery in 2008. 33 T-72's ordered from Ukraine were hijacked by Somalian pirates. The MV Faina was released and the tanks unloaded in Mombasa Feb 2009. There have been doubts expressed as to whether the T-72s imported by Kenya are intended for use by the Kenyan Army. Instead, popular opinion is that they were being clandestinely imported for the southern Sudanese army, which has an arms embargo against it. [http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/asection/la-fg-pirates30-2008sep30,0,627952.story} Los Angeles Times, retrieved 18 November 2008 Recce: 72 x Panhard AML-60/-90, 12 x Ferret armoured car and 8 x Shorland armoured car; APC: 85 BRM Ukraine in 2007, 35 x WZ-551, 52 x Thyssen Henschel UR-416 and 1- x Panhard M-3 (in store); SP Artillery: 25 x 203mm 2S7 Pion ,35 x BM-21; Towed Arty: 48x 122mm, unknown x L-5 Pack Howitzer, 40x 105mm RO L118 Light Gun., Mortars: 50 x 81mm., and 12 x 120mm., 25 x 203mm., ATGW: 40 x MILAN, and 14 x Swingfire, RPG-7 RCL 84mm: 80 x Carl Gustav recoilless rifle; AD Guns 20mm: 50 x TCM-20, and 11 x Oerlikon; AD Guns 23mm : 70 xZPU-4 AD Guns 40mm: 13 x L/70. AD Missiles: BUK Small arms: G3 rifle The Air Force has Kenyan military aviation OrBat Fighters: 7 x Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter figher aircraft. There are reports that Kenya seeks to purchase an additional 15 used F5 fighter jets from Jordan. East African Standard "Military to Spend shs 1.5 billion on 15 fighter jets" retrieved 18 November 2008 Transport (fixed wing): 7 x de Havilland Canada DHC-5D Buffalo, 12 x Harbin Y-12 (II), 10 x Piper PA-31 Navajo, 3 x de Havilland Canada DHC-8 Dash 8, 1x Fokker 70 (VIP), and 6 Dornier Do 28D-2 (in store) Helicopters (Armed): 11 x Hughes 500MD Defender with TOW, 8 x Hughes 500ME Defender, and 15 x Hughes 500M Defender Helicopters (Transport) (9 x IAR 330 Puma, 13 x Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma, and 1 x Aérospatiale SA 342 Gazelle); Training Aircraft: 12 x Scottish Aviation Bulldog 103/127, 8 x BAe Hawk Mk 52, 12 x Shorts Tucano, and 2 x helicopter Hughes 500D. The Air Force also has Air-to-Surface Missile (ASM) AGM-65 Maverick TOW, and Air-to-Air missile(AAM) AIM-9 Sidewinder. Kenya’s Navy has 10 x Missile Craft; 6 x Patrol and Coastal Combatants; 1 x Amphibious Craft; and 5 x Support Vessel. The General Service Unit’s Air Wing comprises 7 x Cessna; and 3 x Bell light helicopters. Kenya Security Information - Institute for Security Studies retrieved on May 28 2007 </div> Personnel 300xp|Kenyan Army The Kenyan Armed forces include about 45,000 personnel, including the army (40,000), the navy (1,000), the air force (4,000), and KDOD headquarters staff (200). A number of Kenyan military personnel participate in international peacekeeping operations in war torn countries under the auspices of the United Nations. In 2000, women were integrated into the regular units of the military, and the Womens Service Corps disbanded. In addition to the armed forces, Kenya employs up to 40,000 police and paramilitary personnel. The Kenya Police, which report to the Commissioner of Police in the office of the president, field about 60,000 officers. The General Service Unit (GSU) initially known as the Kenya Police Emergency Company, was established by the colonial government to battle Mau Mau freedom fighters during the fight for Kenya's independence. It now has around 9,000 paramilitary of which 2000 are Israeli trained and battle hardened (Recee group) that forms most of the Presidential guard,VIP and Diplomatic protection. In addition, Administration Police (AP) 20000 report to local District Commissioners, who in turn report to the office of the President.A special police unit created to deal with terrorism reports to the CID branch whose commander reports directly to the president Finally, the National Youth Service (NYS), which is administered by the office of the president, provides some paramilitary training to young job trainees and are about 2000. Other forces include the Kenya Prisons with about 16,000 personnel. Military service is fulfilled by voluntary enlistment, generally for a period of nine years. However due to the present dismal economic situation, annual recruitment of new constables in all the military is not more than 2000 personnel. Kenya's armed forces combat worthiness against an opposing organised military in the field remains untested since independence. The armed forces successfully suppressed some 10 continuous years of cross border raiding by Somalia. Kenyan National Security Intelligence Service (NSIS) In 1998, a new act of Parliament in Kenya established the National Security Intelligence Service (NSIS) to replace the former Directorate of Security Intelligence which was commonly known as the "Special Branch" and which was part of the Kenya Police Department . The NSIS brief, like all other intelligence organisations, is to gather and exploit secret information. It identifies conditions that threaten Kenya's political, economic and social stability. It subsequently develops opportunities and strategies to neutralise such threats. The Current NSIS boss is Maj-Gen Michael Gichangi In May 1999, President Daniel arap Moi appointed retired Brig. Wilson Bonett to head NSIS whose intelligence gathering work includes: internal, external and strategic intelligence. NSIS is divided into seven sections: 1. Administration 2. Information technology 3. Internal intelligence L 4. External intelligence A 5. Analysis & production 6. Operations 7. National Intelligence Academy It changed name and relocated from its notorious Nyati House offices to new headquarters on the outskirts of the city, near the Windsor Golf and Country Hotel. As the Director general of NSIS, Retired Brig. Boinet is the principle advisor of the President on matters relating to national security. In April 1999, the Moi government appointed Mrs Pamela Mboya, the former Permanent representative to the Habitat, to head a Committee that was charged with formulating a scheme of service for NSIS officers. Security of tenure given the director of NSIS is designed to protect him from such abuse by members of the governing elite. He has the opportunity to say 'no' to any unlawful or sectarian instructions from his bosses without fear of losing his job. Officials of the new Intelligence body are: Director of operations, Director of external intelligence, Director of internal intelligence, Director of National Intelligence Academy, Director of administration, Director of economic affairs Director of information technology. Notes External links Kenya Ministry of Defence Kenya National Security Intelligence Service Kenya Security Information - Institute for Security Studies retrieved on May 28 2007 | Kenya_Defence_Forces |@lemmatized kenyan:7 military:12 consists:1 accord:1 constitution:1 army:6 navy:3 air:9 force:10 main:1 mission:2 defence:7 country:4 border:2 notoriously:1 unstable:1 region:1 enjoys:1 general:5 good:1 reputation:1 regularly:1 deploy:1 peace:1 keep:1 around:2 world:1 generally:2 commend:2 professionalism:1 aftermath:1 national:10 election:2 december:1 violence:2 subsequently:2 engulf:1 commission:4 inquiry:2 waki:1 readiness:1 adjudge:1 perform:3 duty:2 well:1 post:1 retrieve:6 november:4 nevertheless:1 serious:1 allegation:1 human:2 right:3 violation:1 recently:1 conduct:1 counter:1 insurgency:1 operation:4 mt:1 elgon:1 area:1 also:3 district:2 mandera:1 central:1 http:2 www:2 nation:3 co:1 ke:1 news:2 view:1 printversion:1 index:1 html:1 kenya:19 president:10 hold:1 government:3 gok:1 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1,029 | Charge_of_the_Goddess | The Charge of the Goddess is a traditional inspirational text sometimes used in the neopagan religion of Wicca. Several versions exist, though they all have the same basic premise, that of a set of instructions given by a Great Goddess to her worshippers. The most well known version is that written by Gerald Gardner, and rewritten by his High Priestess Doreen Valiente in the mid 1950s, which is contained within the tradition Gardnerian Book of Shadows. Several different versions of a Wiccan Charge of the God have since been created to mirror and accompany the Charge of the Goddess. Themes The opening paragraph names a collection of goddesses, some derived from Greek or Roman mythology, others from Celtic or Arthurian legends, affirming a belief that these various figures represent a single Great Mother: Listen to the words of the Great Mother; she who of old was also called among men Artemis, Astarte, Athene, Dione, Melusine, Aphrodite, Cerridwen, Dana, Arianrhod, Isis, Bride, and by many other names. This theme echoes the ancient Roman belief that the Goddess Isis was known by ten thousand names. The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the words that Aradia, the messianic daughter of Diana, speaks to her followers in Charles Godfrey Leland's 1899 book Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches. The third paragraph is largely written by Doreen Valiente, with some phrases adapted from The Book of the Law by Aleister Crowley. The charge affirms that ALL acts of love and pleasure are sacred to the Goddess. "Let my worship be within the heart that rejoices, for behold, all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals. Therefore, let there be beauty and strength, power and compassion, honor and humility, mirth and reverence within you. " History Ancient Precedents In Apuleius's The Golden Ass, Isis delivers what Ceisiwr Serith calls "essentially a charge of a goddess". This is rather different to the modern version known in Wicca, though they have the same premise, that of the rules given by a great Mother Goddess to her faithful. Wiccan Charge The earliest known Wiccan version is found in a document dating from the 1940s, and draws extensively from Charles Godfrey Leland's Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches and other modern sources, http://www.ceisiwrserith.com/wicca/charge.htm Ceisiwr Serith. The Sources of the Charge of the Goddess. Accessed 23 October 2007 particularly from the works of the occultist Aleister Crowley. It is believed to have been compiled by Gerald Gardner or another member of the New Forest coven. Doreen Valiente, a student of Gardner, took his version from his Book of Shadows and adapted it into verse, and later into another prose version. Her prose version has since been modified and adapted by many others. The initial verse version by Doreen Valiente consisted of eight verses, the second of which was : Bow before My spirit bright Aphrodite, Arianrhod Lover of the Hornéd God Queen of witchery and night The Rebirth of Witchcraft, Doreen Valiente, page 61 Valiente was unhappy with this version, saying that "people seemed to have some difficulty with this, because of the various goddess-names which they found hard to pronounce" The Rebirth of Witchcraft, Doreen Valiente, page 62 , and so she rewrote it as a prose version, much of which differs from her initial version, and is more akin to Gardner's version. References External links "The Sources of the Charge of the Goddess" an analysis by Ceisiwr Serith "Website dedicated to the memory of Doreen Valiente." | Charge_of_the_Goddess |@lemmatized charge:9 goddess:11 traditional:1 inspirational:1 text:1 sometimes:1 use:1 neopagan:1 religion:1 wicca:3 several:2 version:13 exist:1 though:2 basic:1 premise:2 set:1 instruction:1 give:2 great:4 worshipper:1 well:1 know:3 write:2 gerald:2 gardner:4 rewrite:2 high:1 priestess:1 doreen:7 valiente:8 mid:1 contain:1 within:3 tradition:1 gardnerian:1 book:4 shadow:2 different:2 wiccan:3 god:2 since:2 create:1 mirror:1 accompany:1 theme:2 opening:1 paragraph:3 name:4 collection:1 derive:2 greek:1 roman:2 mythology:1 others:2 celtic:1 arthurian:1 legend:1 affirm:2 belief:2 various:2 figure:1 represent:1 single:1 mother:3 listen:1 word:2 old:1 also:1 call:2 among:1 men:1 artemis:1 astarte:1 athene:1 dione:1 melusine:1 aphrodite:2 cerridwen:1 dana:1 arianrhod:2 isi:3 bride:1 many:2 echo:1 ancient:2 ten:1 thousand:1 second:2 largely:2 paraphrase:1 aradia:3 messianic:1 daughter:1 diana:1 speak:1 follower:1 charles:2 godfrey:2 leland:2 gospel:2 witch:2 third:1 phrase:1 adapt:3 law:1 aleister:2 crowley:2 act:2 love:2 pleasure:2 sacred:1 let:2 worship:1 heart:1 rejoice:1 behold:1 ritual:1 therefore:1 beauty:1 strength:1 power:1 compassion:1 honor:1 humility:1 mirth:1 reverence:1 history:1 precedent:1 apuleius:1 golden:1 delivers:1 ceisiwr:3 serith:3 essentially:1 rather:1 modern:2 rule:1 faithful:1 early:1 known:1 find:2 document:1 date:1 draw:1 extensively:1 source:3 http:1 www:1 ceisiwrserith:1 com:1 htm:1 access:1 october:1 particularly:1 work:1 occultist:1 believe:1 compile:1 another:2 member:1 new:1 forest:1 coven:1 student:1 take:1 verse:3 later:1 prose:3 modify:1 initial:2 consist:1 eight:1 bow:1 spirit:1 bright:1 lover:1 hornéd:1 queen:1 witchery:1 night:1 rebirth:2 witchcraft:2 page:2 unhappy:1 say:1 people:1 seem:1 difficulty:1 hard:1 pronounce:1 much:1 differs:1 akin:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 analysis:1 website:1 dedicate:1 memory:1 |@bigram gerald_gardner:2 doreen_valiente:7 arthurian_legend:1 aleister_crowley:2 http_www:1 rebirth_witchcraft:2 external_link:1 |
1,030 | Kaj_Munk | Kaj Munk from the Wervelwind February 1944Kaj Harald Leininger Munk (commonly called Kaj Munk) (13 January, 1898 – 4 January, 1944) was a Danish playwright and Lutheran pastor, known for his cultural engagement and his martyrdom during World War II. He is commemorated as a martyr in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on August 14 with Maximilian Kolbe. He was born Kaj Harald Leininger Petersen on the island of Lolland, Denmark, and raised by a family named Munk after the death of his parents. From 1924, he was the vicar of Vedersø in Western Jutland. The dramas of Munk were mostly performed and made public during the 1930s, although many were written in the 1920s. Much of his work is a contribution to the "philosophy-on-life debate" (religion - Marxism - Darwinism) which marked much of Danish cultural life during this period. He often used a historical background for his plays - among his influences were Shakespeare and Goethe. In his dramas Munk often displays a fascination for "strong characters" and integrated people who fight wholeheartedly for their ideals (whether good or bad). In his play En Idealist, for example, the "hero" is King Herod whose fight to maintain power is the motive behind all of his acts until he is at last defeated by a show of kindness to the Christ child in a weak moment. I Brændingen is a camouflaged portrait of Munk's antagonist, the anti-religious Georg Brandes whose atheism also impressed him. His 1925 play Ordet (The Word) is often said to have been his best work; it is an investigation of miracles from the unique (at least, to theatre) viewpoint of one who was not prepared to dismiss them. A family of farmers - of differing degrees of faith - find themselves reconciled to their neighbours through a miracle. A 1955 film version of Ordet was directed by Carl Theodor Dreyer, and won the Golden Globe Award that year for Best Foreign Language Film. On one occasion, in the early 1930s, in a comment that would come back to haunt him in later years, Munk expressed admiration for Hitler (for uniting Germans) and wished that the same kind of unifying figure could be found for Danes. However, Munk's attitude towards Hitler (and Mussolini) quickly turned to outspoken disgust, as he witnessed Hitler's persecution of the German Jewish community, and Mussolini's conduct of the war in Ethiopia. In 1938 the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten published on its front page an open letter to Benito Mussolini written by Kaj Munk criticising the persecutions against Jews. Early on, Munk was a strong opponent of the German Occupation of Denmark (1940-1945), although he continually opposed the idea of democracy as such, preferring the idea of a "Nordic dictator" who should unite the Nordic countries and keep them neutral during periods of international crisis. His plays Han sidder ved Smeltediglen ("He sits by the melting pot") and Niels Ebbesen were direct attacks on Nazism. The latter, centering on the figure of Niels Ebbesen, a medieval Danish squire considered a national hero for having assassinated an earlier German occupier of Denmark, Count Gerhard III was a contemporary analogue to WWII-era Denmark. He was arrested and subsequently assassinated by the Gestapo on January 4, 1944 at Hørbylunde, near Silkeborg. His plays, many of which have been performed at the Royal Theatre, Copenhagen, and elsewhere, include: Pilatus (1917. Published 1937), Ordet (tr. The Word) (1925), Kærlighed (1926), En Idealist (1928), I Brændingen (1929), Kardinalen og Kongen (1929), Cant (1931), De Udvalgte (1933), Sejren (1936), Han sidder ved Smeltediglen (1938), Egelykke (1940), Niels Ebbesen (1942), Før Cannae (1943). His play Niels Ebbesen has been translated into English (2007) by his granddaughter Arense Lund, and Dave Carley. External links www.kajmunk.dk www.kajmunk.hum.aau.dk | Kaj_Munk |@lemmatized kaj:4 munk:11 wervelwind:1 february:1 harald:2 leininger:2 commonly:1 call:1 january:3 danish:4 playwright:1 lutheran:2 pastor:1 know:1 cultural:2 engagement:1 martyrdom:1 world:1 war:2 ii:1 commemorate:1 martyr:1 calendar:1 saint:1 church:1 august:1 maximilian:1 kolbe:1 bear:1 petersen:1 island:1 lolland:1 denmark:4 raise:1 family:2 name:1 death:1 parent:1 vicar:1 vedersø:1 western:1 jutland:1 drama:2 mostly:1 perform:2 make:1 public:1 although:2 many:2 write:2 much:2 work:2 contribution:1 philosophy:1 life:2 debate:1 religion:1 marxism:1 darwinism:1 mark:1 period:2 often:3 use:1 historical:1 background:1 play:6 among:1 influence:1 shakespeare:1 goethe:1 display:1 fascination:1 strong:2 character:1 integrated:1 people:1 fight:2 wholeheartedly:1 ideal:1 whether:1 good:1 bad:1 en:2 idealist:2 example:1 hero:2 king:1 herod:1 whose:2 maintain:1 power:1 motive:1 behind:1 act:1 last:1 defeat:1 show:1 kindness:1 christ:1 child:1 weak:1 moment:1 brændingen:2 camouflaged:1 portrait:1 antagonist:1 anti:1 religious:1 georg:1 brandes:1 atheism:1 also:1 impress:1 ordet:3 word:2 say:1 best:2 investigation:1 miracle:2 unique:1 least:1 theatre:2 viewpoint:1 one:2 prepared:1 dismiss:1 farmer:1 differ:1 degree:1 faith:1 find:2 reconcile:1 neighbour:1 film:2 version:1 direct:2 carl:1 theodor:1 dreyer:1 win:1 golden:1 globe:1 award:1 year:2 foreign:1 language:1 occasion:1 early:3 comment:1 would:1 come:1 back:1 haunt:1 later:1 express:1 admiration:1 hitler:3 unite:2 german:4 wish:1 kind:1 unifying:1 figure:2 could:1 dane:1 however:1 attitude:1 towards:1 mussolini:3 quickly:1 turn:1 outspoken:1 disgust:1 witness:1 persecution:2 jewish:1 community:1 conduct:1 ethiopia:1 newspaper:1 jyllands:1 posten:1 publish:2 front:1 page:1 open:1 letter:1 benito:1 criticise:1 jew:1 opponent:1 occupation:1 continually:1 oppose:1 idea:2 democracy:1 prefer:1 nordic:2 dictator:1 country:1 keep:1 neutral:1 international:1 crisis:1 han:2 sidder:2 ved:2 smeltediglen:2 sit:1 melting:1 pot:1 niels:4 ebbesen:4 attack:1 nazism:1 latter:1 center:1 medieval:1 squire:1 consider:1 national:1 assassinate:2 occupier:1 count:1 gerhard:1 iii:1 contemporary:1 analogue:1 wwii:1 era:1 arrest:1 subsequently:1 gestapo:1 hørbylunde:1 near:1 silkeborg:1 royal:1 copenhagen:1 elsewhere:1 include:1 pilatus:1 tr:1 kærlighed:1 kardinalen:1 og:1 kongen:1 cant:1 de:1 udvalgte:1 sejren:1 egelykke:1 før:1 cannae:1 translate:1 english:1 granddaughter:1 arense:1 lund:1 dave:1 carley:1 external:1 link:1 www:2 kajmunk:2 dk:2 hum:1 aau:1 |@bigram lutheran_pastor:1 maximilian_kolbe:1 golden_globe:1 jyllands_posten:1 benito_mussolini:1 external_link:1 |
1,031 | Pythagorean_theorem | The Pythagorean theorem: The sum of the areas of the two squares on the legs (a and b) equals the area of the square on the hypotenuse (c). In mathematics, the Pythagorean theorem (American English) or Pythagoras' theorem (British English) is a relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right triangle (right-angled triangle in British English). It states: In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle). The theorem can be written as an equation: where c represents the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b represent the lengths of the other two sides. The Pythagorean theorem is named after the Greek mathematician Pythagoras, who by tradition is credited with its discovery and proof, Heath, Vol I, p. 144. although it is often argued that knowledge of the theory predates him. (There is much evidence that Babylonian mathematicians understood the principle, if not the mathematical significance). In formulae If we let c be the length of the hypotenuse and a and b be the lengths of the other two sides, the theorem can be expressed as the equation: or, solved for c: If c is already given, and the length of one of the legs must be found, the following equations (which are corollaries of the first) can be used: or This equation provides a simple relation among the three sides of a right triangle so that if the lengths of any two sides are known, the length of the third side can be found. A generalization of this theorem is the law of cosines, which allows the computation of the length of the third side of any triangle, given the lengths of two sides and the size of the angle between them. If the angle between the sides is a right angle it reduces to the Pythagorean theorem. Proofs This is a theorem that may have more known proofs than any other (the law of quadratic reciprocity being also a contender for that distinction); the book Pythagorean Proposition, by Elisha Scott Loomis, contains 367 proofs. Some arguments based on trigonometric identities (such as Taylor series for sine and cosine) have been proposed as proofs for the theorem. However, since all the fundamental trigonometric identities are proved using the Pythagorean theorem, there cannot be any trigonometric proof. (See also begging the question.) Proof using similar triangles Proof using similar triangles Like most of the proofs of the Pythagorean theorem, this one is based on the proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles. Let ABC represent a right triangle, with the right angle located at C, as shown on the figure. We draw the altitude from point C, and call H its intersection with the side AB. The new triangle ACH is similar to our triangle ABC, because they both have a right angle (by definition of the altitude), and they share the angle at A, meaning that the third angle will be the same in both triangles as well. By a similar reasoning, the triangle CBH is also similar to ABC. The similarities lead to the two ratios: These can be written as Summing these two equalities, we obtain In other words, the Pythagorean theorem: Euclid's proof Proof in Euclid's Elements In Euclid's Elements, Proposition 47 of Book 1, the Pythagorean theorem is proved by an argument along the following lines. Let A, B, C be the vertices of a right triangle, with a right angle at A. Drop a perpendicular from A to the side opposite the hypotenuse in the square on the hypotenuse. That line divides the square on the hypotenuse into two rectangles, each having the same area as one of the two squares on the legs. For the formal proof, we require four elementary lemmata: If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and the angles included by those sides equal, then the triangles are congruent. (Side - Angle - Side Theorem) The area of a triangle is half the area of any parallelogram on the same base and having the same altitude. The area of any square is equal to the product of two of its sides. The area of any rectangle is equal to the product of two adjacent sides (follows from Lemma 3). The intuitive idea behind this proof, which can make it easier to follow, is that the top squares are morphed into parallelograms with the same size, then turned and morphed into the left and right rectangles in the lower square, again at constant area. See for example Mike May S.J., Pythagorean theorem by shear mapping, Saint Louis University website Java applet Illustration including the new lines The proof is as follows: Let ACB be a right-angled triangle with right angle CAB. On each of the sides BC, AB, and CA, squares are drawn, CBDE, BAGF, and ACIH, in that order. From A, draw a line parallel to BD and CE. It will perpendicularly intersect BC and DE at K and L, respectively. Join CF and AD, to form the triangles BCF and BDA. Angles CAB and BAG are both right angles; therefore C, A, and G are collinear. Similarly for B, A, and H. Angles CBD and FBA are both right angles; therefore angle ABD equals angle FBC, since both are the sum of a right angle and angle ABC. Since AB and BD are equal to FB and BC, respectively, triangle ABD must be equal to triangle FBC. Since A is collinear with K and L, rectangle BDLK must be twice in area to triangle ABD. Since C is collinear with A and G, square BAGF must be twice in area to triangle FBC. Therefore rectangle BDLK must have the same area as square BAGF = AB2. Similarly, it can be shown that rectangle CKLE must have the same area as square ACIH = AC2. Adding these two results, AB2 + AC2 = BD × BK + KL × KC Since BD = KL, BD* BK + KL × KC = BD(BK + KC) = BD × BC Therefore AB2 + AC2 = BC2, since CBDE is a square. This proof appears in Euclid's Elements as that of Proposition 1.47. Elements 1.47 by Euclid, retrieved 19 December 2006 Garfield's proof James A. Garfield (later President of the United States) is credited with a novel algebraic proof: Head, Angie. "Pythagorean Theorem" The whole trapezoid is half of an (a + b) by (a + b) square, so its area = (a + b)2/2 = a2/2 + b2/2 + ab. Triangle 1 and triangle 2 each have area ab/2. Triangle 3 has area c2/2, and it is half of the square on the hypotenuse. But the area of triangle 3 also = (area of trapezoid) − (sum of areas of triangles 1 and 2) = a2/2 + b2/2 + ab − ab/2 − ab/2 = a2/2 + b2/2 = half the sum of the squares on the other two sides. Therefore the square on the hypotenuse = the sum of the squares on the other two sides. Proof by subtraction In this proof, the square on the hypotenuse plus four copies of the triangle can be asssembled into the same shape as the squares on the other two sides plus four copies of the triangle. This proof is recorded from China. Proof using area subtraction Similarity proof From the same diagram as that in Euclid's proof above, we can see three similar figures, each being "a square with a triangle on top". Since the large triangle is made of the two smaller triangles, its area is the sum of areas of the two smaller ones. By similarity, the three squares are in the same proportions relative to each other as the three triangles, and so likewise the area of the larger square is the sum of the areas of the two smaller squares. Proof by rearrangement Proof of Pythagorean theorem by rearrangement of 4 identical right triangles: Since the total area and the areas of the triangles are all constant, the total black area is constant. But this can be divided into squares delineated by the triangle sides a, b, c, demonstrating that = c2. A proof by rearrangement is given by the illustration and the animation. In the illustration, the area of each large square is . In both, the area of four identical triangles is removed. The remaining areas, and c2, are equal. Q.E.D. Animation showing another proof by rearrangement Proof using rearrangement Algebraic proof: A square created by aligning four right angle triangles and a large square This proof is indeed very simple, but it is not elementary, in the sense that it does not depend solely upon the most basic axioms and theorems of Euclidean geometry. In particular, while it is quite easy to give a formula for area of triangles and squares, it is not as easy to prove that the area of a square is the sum of areas of its pieces. In fact, proving the necessary properties is harder than proving the Pythagorean theorem itself (see Lebesgue measure and Banach-Tarski paradox). Actually, this difficulty affects all simple Euclidean proofs involving area; for instance, deriving the area of a right triangle involves the assumption that it is half the area of a rectangle with the same height and base. For this reason, axiomatic introductions to geometry usually employ another proof based on the similarity of triangles (see above). A third graphic illustration of the Pythagorean theorem (in yellow and blue to the right) fits parts of the sides' squares into the hypotenuse's square. A related proof would show that the repositioned parts are identical with the originals and, since the sum of equals are equal, that the corresponding areas are equal. To show that a square is the result one must show that the length of the new sides equals c. Note that for this proof to work, one must provide a way to handle cutting the small square in more and more slices as the corresponding side gets smaller and smaller. Pythagorean Theorem: Subtle Dangers of Visual Proof by Alexander Bogomolny, retrieved 19 December 2006. Algebraic proof An algebraic variant of this proof is provided by the following reasoning. Looking at the illustration which is a large square with identical right triangles in its corners, the area of each of these four triangles is given by an angle corresponding with the side of length C. The A-side angle and B-side angle of each of these triangles are complementary angles, so each of the angles of the blue area in the middle is a right angle, making this area a square with side length C. The area of this square is C2. Thus the area of everything together is given by: However, as the large square has sides of length , we can also calculate its area as , which expands to . (Distribution of the 4) (Subtraction of 2AB) Proof by differential equations One can arrive at the Pythagorean theorem by studying how changes in a side produce a change in the hypotenuse in the following diagram and employing a little calculus. Hardy. Proof using differential equations As a result of a change da in side a, by similarity of triangles and for differential changes. So upon separation of variables. which results from adding a second term for changes in side b. Integrating gives When a = 0 then c = b, so the "constant" is b2. So As can be seen, the squares are due to the particular proportion between the changes and the sides while the sum is a result of the independent contributions of the changes in the sides which is not evident from the geometric proofs. From the proportion given it can be shown that the changes in the sides are inversely proportional to the sides. The differential equation suggests that the theorem is due to relative changes and its derivation is nearly equivalent to computing a line integral. These quantities da and dc are respectively infinitely small changes in a and c. But we use instead real numbers Δa and Δc, then the limit of their ratio as their sizes approach zero is da/dc, the derivative, and also approaches c/a, the ratio of lengths of sides of triangles, and the differential equation results. Converse The converse of the theorem is also true: For any three positive numbers a, b, and c such that , there exists a triangle with sides a, b and c, and every such triangle has a right angle between the sides of lengths a and b. This converse also appears in Euclid's Elements. It can be proven using the law of cosines (see below under Generalizations), or by the following proof: Let ABC be a triangle with side lengths a, b, and c, with . We need to prove that the angle between the a and b sides is a right angle. We construct another triangle with a right angle between sides of lengths a and b. By the Pythagorean theorem, it follows that the hypotenuse of this triangle also has length c. Since both triangles have the same side lengths a, b and c, they are congruent, and so they must have the same angles. Therefore, the angle between the side of lengths a and b in our original triangle is a right angle. A corollary of the Pythagorean theorem's converse is a simple means of determining whether a triangle is right, obtuse, or acute, as follows. Where c is chosen to be the longest of the three sides: If , then the triangle is right. If , then the triangle is acute. If , then the triangle is obtuse. Consequences and uses of the theorem Pythagorean triples A Pythagorean triple has three positive integers a, b, and c, such that . In other words, a Pythagorean triple represents the lengths of the sides of a right triangle where all three sides have integer lengths. Evidence from megalithic monuments on the Northern Europe shows that such triples were known before the discovery of writing. Such a triple is commonly written . Some well-known examples are and . List of primitive Pythagorean triples up to 100 (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (7, 24, 25), (8, 15, 17), (9, 40, 41), (11, 60, 61), (12, 35, 37), (13, 84, 85), (16, 63, 65), (20, 21, 29), (28, 45, 53), (33, 56, 65), (36, 77, 85), (39, 80, 89), (48, 55, 73), (65, 72, 97) The existence of irrational numbers One of the consequences of the Pythagorean theorem is that incommensurable lengths (ie. their ratio is irrational number), such as the square root of 2, can be constructed. A right triangle with legs both equal to one unit has hypotenuse length square root of 2. The proof that the square root of 2 is irrational was contrary to the long-held belief that everything was rational. According to legend, Hippasus, who first proved the irrationality of the square root of two, was drowned at sea as a consequence. Heath, Vol I, pp. 65, 154; Stillwell, p. 8–9. Distance in Cartesian coordinates The distance formula in Cartesian coordinates is derived from the Pythagorean theorem. If (x0, y0) and (x1, y1) are points in the plane, then the distance between them, also called the Euclidean distance, is given by More generally, in Euclidean n-space, the Euclidean distance between two points, and , is defined, using the Pythagorean theorem, as: Generalizations Generalization for similar triangles,green area The Pythagorean theorem was generalized by Euclid in his Elements: If one erects similar figures (see Euclidean geometry) on the sides of a right triangle, then the sum of the areas of the two smaller ones equals the area of the larger one. The Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the more general theorem relating the lengths of sides in any triangle, the law of cosines: where θ is the angle between sides a and b. When θ is 90 degrees, then cos(θ) = 0, so the formula reduces to the usual Pythagorean theorem. Given two vectors v and w in a complex inner product space, the Pythagorean theorem takes the following form: In particular, ||v + w||2 = ||v||2 + ||w||2 if v and w are orthogonal, although the converse is not necessarily true. Using mathematical induction, the previous result can be extended to any finite number of pairwise orthogonal vectors. Let v1, v2, …, vn be vectors in an inner product space such that <vi, vj> = 0 for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n. Then The generalization of this result to infinite-dimensional real inner product spaces is known as Parseval's identity. When the theorem above about vectors is rewritten in terms of solid geometry, it becomes the following theorem. If lines AB and BC form a right angle at B, and lines BC and CD form a right angle at C, and if CD is perpendicular to the plane containing lines AB and BC, then the sum of the squares of the lengths of AB, BC, and CD is equal to the square of AD. The proof is trivial. Another generalization of the Pythagorean theorem to three dimensions is de Gua's theorem, named for Jean Paul de Gua de Malves: If a tetrahedron has a right angle corner (a corner like a cube), then the square of the area of the face opposite the right angle corner is the sum of the squares of the areas of the other three faces. There are also analogs of these theorems in dimensions four and higher. In a triangle with three acute angles, α + β > γ holds. Therefore, a2 + b2 > c2. In a triangle with an obtuse angle, α + β < γ holds. Therefore, a2 + b2 < c2. Edsger Dijkstra has stated this proposition about acute, right, and obtuse triangles in this language: sgn(α + β − γ) = sgn(a2 + b2 − c2) where α is the angle opposite to side a, β is the angle opposite to side b and γ is the angle opposite to side c. The Pythagorean theorem in non-Euclidean geometry The Pythagorean theorem is derived from the axioms of Euclidean geometry, and in fact, the Euclidean form of the Pythagorean theorem given above does not hold in non-Euclidean geometry. (It has been shown in fact to be equivalent to Euclid's Parallel (Fifth) Postulate.) For example, in spherical geometry, all three sides of the right triangle bounding an octant of the unit sphere have length equal to ; this violates the Euclidean Pythagorean theorem because . This means that in non-Euclidean geometry, the Pythagorean theorem must necessarily take a different form from the Euclidean theorem. There are two cases to consider — spherical geometry and hyperbolic plane geometry; in each case, as in the Euclidean case, the result follows from the appropriate law of cosines: For any right triangle on a sphere of radius R, the Pythagorean theorem takes the form This equation can be derived as a special case of the spherical law of cosines. By using the Maclaurin series for the cosine function, it can be shown that as the radius R approaches infinity, the spherical form of the Pythagorean theorem approaches the Euclidean form. For any triangle in the hyperbolic plane (with Gaussian curvature −1), the Pythagorean theorem takes the form where cosh is the hyperbolic cosine. By using the Maclaurin series for this function, it can be shown that as a hyperbolic triangle becomes very small (i.e., as a, b, and c all approach zero), the hyperbolic form of the Pythagorean theorem approaches the Euclidean form. In hyperbolic geometry, for a right triangle one can also write, where is the angle of parallelism of the line segment AB that where μ is the multiplicative distance function (see Hilbert's arithmetic of ends). In hyperbolic trigonometry, the sine of the angle of parallelism satisfies Thus, the equation takes the form where a, b, and c are multiplicative distances of the sides of the right triangle (Hartshorne, 2000). In more than 2 dimensions In 3 dimensions the distance between the points (a, b, c) and (d, e, f) is √([√((a − d)2 + (b − e)2)]2 + (c − ƒ)2) = √((a − d)2 + (b − d)2 + (c − f)2), and similarly for 4 or more dimensions. In complex arithmetic The Pythagoras formula is used to find the distance between two points in the Cartesian coordinate plane, and is valid if all coordinates are real: the distance between the points (a, b) and (c, d) is √((a − c)2 + (b − d)2). With complex coordinates, instead of one uses where is the complex conjugate of z. For example, the distance between the points (0, 1) and (i, 0) would work out as 0 if complex conjugates were not taken. But the distance is History Visual proof for the (3, 4, 5) triangle as in the Chou Pei Suan Ching 500–200 BC The history of the theorem can be divided into four parts: knowledge of Pythagorean triples, knowledge of the relationship among the sides of a right triangle, knowledge of the relationships among adjacent angles, and proofs of the theorem. Megalithic monuments from circa 2500 BC in Egypt, and in Northern Europe, incorporate right triangles with integer sides. Bartel Leendert van der Waerden conjectures that these Pythagorean triples were discovered algebraically. van der Waerden 1983. Written between 2000 and 1786 BC, the Middle Kingdom Egyptian papyrus Berlin 6619 includes a problem whose solution is a Pythagorean triple. The Mesopotamian tablet Plimpton 322, written between 1790 and 1750 BC during the reign of Hammurabi the Great, contains many entries closely related to Pythagorean triples. The Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, the dates of which are given variously as between the 8th century BC and the 2nd century BC, in India, contains a list of Pythagorean triples discovered algebraically, a statement of the Pythagorean theorem, and a geometrical proof of the Pythagorean theorem for an isosceles right triangle. The Apastamba Sulba Sutra (circa 600 BC) contains a numerical proof of the general Pythagorean theorem, using an area computation. Van der Waerden believes that "it was certainly based on earlier traditions". According to Albert Bŭrk, this is the original proof of the theorem; he further theorizes that Pythagoras visited Arakonam, India, and copied it. Pythagoras, whose dates are commonly given as 569–475 BC, used algebraic methods to construct Pythagorean triples, according to Proklos's commentary on Euclid. Proklos, however, wrote between 410 and 485 AD. According to Sir Thomas L. Heath, there was no attribution of the theorem to Pythagoras for five centuries after Pythagoras lived. However, when authors such as Plutarch and Cicero attributed the theorem to Pythagoras, they did so in a way which suggests that the attribution was widely known and undoubted. Around 400 BC, according to Proklos, Plato gave a method for finding Pythagorean triples that combined algebra and geometry. Circa 300 BC, in Euclid's Elements, the oldest extant axiomatic proof of the theorem is presented. Written sometime between 500 BC and 200 AD, the Chinese text Chou Pei Suan Ching (周髀算经), (The Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon and the Circular Paths of Heaven) gives a visual proof of the Pythagorean theorem — in China it is called the "Gougu Theorem" (勾股定理) — for the (3, 4, 5) triangle. During the Han Dynasty, from 202 BC to 220 AD, Pythagorean triples appear in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, together with a mention of right triangles. Swetz. The first recorded use is in China, known as the "Gougu theorem" (勾股定理) and in India known as the Bhaskara Theorem. There is much debate on whether the Pythagorean theorem was discovered once or many times. Boyer (1991) thinks the elements found in the Shulba Sutras may be of Mesopotamian derivation. Cultural references to the Pythagorean theorem The Pythagorean theorem has been referenced in a variety of mass media throughout history. A verse of the Major-General's Song in the Gilbert and Sullivan musical The Pirates of Penzance, "About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news, With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse", with oblique reference to the theorem. The Scarecrow of The Wizard of Oz makes a more specific reference to the theorem when he receives his diploma from the Wizard. He immediately exhibits his "knowledge" by reciting a mangled and incorrect version of the theorem: "The sum of the square roots of any two sides of an isosceles triangle is equal to the square root of the remaining side. Oh, joy, oh, rapture. I've got a brain!" The "knowledge" exhibited by the Scarecrow is incorrect. The accurate statement would have been "The sum of the squares of the legs of a right triangle is equal to the square of the remaining side." In an episode of The Simpsons, after finding a pair of Henry Kissinger's glasses in a toilet at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, Homer puts them on and quotes Oz Scarecrow's mangled version of the formula. A man in a nearby toilet stall then yells out "That's a right triangle, you idiot!" (The comment about square roots remained uncorrected.) Similarly, the Speech software on an Apple MacBook references the Scarecrow's incorrect statement. It is the sample speech when the voice setting 'Ralph' is selected. In Freemasonry, one symbol for a Past Master is the diagram from the 47th Proposition of Euclid, used in Euclid's proof of the Pythagorean theorem. President Garfield was a freemason. In 2000, Uganda released a coin with the shape of a right triangle. The coin's tail has an image of Pythagoras and the Pythagorean theorem, accompanied with the mention "Pythagoras Millennium". Greece, Japan, San Marino, Sierra Leone, and Suriname have issued postage stamps depicting Pythagoras and the Pythagorean theorem. In Neal Stephenson's speculative fiction Anathem, Pythagorean theorem are referred to as 'the Adrakhonic theorem'. A geometric proof of the theorem is displayed on the side of an alien ship to demonstrate their understanding of mathematics. See also List of triangle topics Baudhayana Katyayana Linear algebra Orthogonality Parallelogram law Synthetic geometry Fermat's Last Theorem Pythagorean expectation Nonhypotenuse number Pythagorean theorem proof (rational trigonometry) Notes References Bell, John L., The Art of the Intelligible: An Elementary Survey of Mathematics in its Conceptual Development, Kluwer, 1999. ISBN 0-7923-5972-0. Euclid, The Elements, Translated with an introduction and commentary by Sir Thomas L. Heath, Dover, (3 vols.), 2nd edition, 1956. Hardy, Michael, "Pythagoras Made Difficult". Mathematical Intelligencer, 10 (3), p. 31, 1988. Heath, Sir Thomas, A History of Greek Mathematics (2 Vols.), Clarendon Press, Oxford (1921), Dover Publications, Inc. (1981), ISBN 0-486-24073-8. Loomis, Elisha Scott, The Pythagorean proposition. 2nd edition, Washington, D.C : The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1968. ISBN 978-0873530361. Maor, Eli, The Pythagorean Theorem: A 4,000-Year History. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-691-12526-8. Stillwell, John, Mathematics and Its History, Springer-Verlag, 1989. ISBN 0-387-96981-0 and ISBN 3-540-96981-0. Swetz, Frank, Kao, T. I., Was Pythagoras Chinese?: An Examination of Right Triangle Theory in Ancient China, Pennsylvania State University Press. 1977. van der Waerden, B.L., Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations, Springer, 1983. External links Pythagorean Theorem (more than 70 proofs from cut-the-knot) Interactive links: Interactive proof in Java of The Pythagorean Theorem Another interactive proof in Java of The Pythagorean Theorem Pythagorean theorem with interactive animation Animated, Non-Algebraic, and User-Paced Pythagorean Theorem Pythagorean Theorem and Right triangle formulas be-x-old:Тэарэма Піфагора | Pythagorean_theorem |@lemmatized pythagorean:68 theorem:86 sum:17 area:50 two:31 square:55 leg:5 b:32 equal:20 hypotenuse:15 c:34 mathematics:6 american:1 english:3 pythagoras:13 british:2 relation:2 euclidean:17 geometry:16 among:4 three:13 side:68 right:51 triangle:85 angle:50 state:4 whose:4 opposite:6 meet:1 write:9 equation:10 represent:4 length:26 name:2 greek:2 mathematician:2 tradition:2 credit:2 discovery:2 proof:56 heath:5 vol:2 p:3 although:2 often:1 argue:1 knowledge:6 theory:2 predate:1 much:2 evidence:2 babylonian:1 understand:1 principle:1 mathematical:4 significance:1 formulae:1 let:6 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1,032 | ABBA | ABBA was a Swedish pop music group formed in 1972. The band consisted of Agnetha Fältskog, Björn Ulvaeus, Benny Andersson and Anni-Frid Lyngstad. They topped the charts worldwide from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s. The name "ABBA" is an acronym formed from the first letters of each of the group members' given names (Agnetha, Björn, Benny, Anni-Frid), and the group took this name officially in late 1973. . At one time, Agnetha was married to Björn, and Benny was married to Anni-Frid, but both couples divorced. ABBA was considered as one of the greatest musical groups which entertained the world in the 20th century. ABBA gained international popularity employing catchy song hooks, simple lyrics, and a Wall of Sound achieved by overdubbing the female singers' voices in multiple harmonies. As their popularity grew, they were sought after to tour Europe, Australia, and North America, drawing crowds of ardent fans, notably in Australia. Touring became a contentious issue, being particularly unpopular with Agnetha, but they continued to release studio albums to great commercial success. At the height of their popularity, however, both marriages of the band members (Agenetha with Björn, and Benny with Anni-Frid) failed, and the relationship changes were reflected in their music, as they produced more thoughtful lyrics with different compositions. They remain a fixture of radio playlists and are one of the world's best selling bands, having sold over 370 million records world wide; Former ABBA drummer found dead in garden Amol Rajan; msnbc; accessed 18 July 2008; claims 400 million. It's ABBA on the phone making a lot more money, money, money Sherwin, Adam; The Times; 19 April 2006; accessed December 2006; claims over 750 million. they still sell two to four million records a year. ABBA was also the first pop group from mainland Europe to enjoy consistent success in the charts of English-speaking countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Ireland, South Africa, Rhodesia, Australia and New Zealand. Their enormous popularity subsequently opened the doors for other Continental European acts. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 527. The music of ABBA has been re-arranged into the successful musical Mamma Mia! that has toured worldwide and had a movie version released in July 2008. All four of the former members of ABBA were present at the Stockholm premieres of both the musical (2005) and the film (2008). The film première took place at the Benny Andersson-owned Rival Theatre at Mariatorget, Stockholm on 4 July 2008. A new museum devoted entirely to the pop supergroup was scheduled to open in Stockholm in 2009, but the project was postponed as of September 2008. Before ABBA (1960s) Benny Andersson (born 16 December 1946 in Stockholm, Sweden) became (at age 18) member of a popular Swedish pop-rock group, The Hep Stars, that performed covers of international hits. The Hep Stars were known as "The Swedish Beatles"; they even set up Hep House, their equivalent of the Apple Corps. Andersson played keyboard and eventually started writing original compositions for his band, many of which became major hits including "No Response" that hit #3 in 1965, "Sunny Girl", "Wedding", "Consolation", all of which hit #1 in 1966. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 86-87. Andersson also had a fruitful songwriting collaboration with Lasse Berghagen, with whom he composed his first Svensktoppen entry "Sagan om lilla Sofi" ("The Story of Little Sophie") in 1968. Björn Ulvaeus (born 25 April 1945 in Gothenburg, Sweden) also began his musical career at 18 (as a singer and guitarist), when he fronted The Hootenanny Singers, a popular Swedish folk-skiffle group. Ulvaeus started writing English-language songs for his group, and even had a brief solo career alongside. The Hootenanny Singers and The Hep Stars sometimes crossed paths while touring, and in June 1966 Ulvaeus and Andersson decided to write a song together. Their first attempt was "Isn't It Easy to Say", a song later recorded by The Hep Stars. Stig Anderson was the manager of The Hootenanny Singers and founder of the Polar Music label. He saw potential in the collaboration, and encouraged them to compose more. Both also began playing occasionally with the other's bands on stage and on record, although not until 1969 did the pair write and produce some of their first real hits together: "Ljuva sextiotal" ('Merry Sixties'), recorded by Brita Borg and The Hep Stars' 1969 hit "Speleman" ("Fiddler"). Björn Ulvaeus and Agnetha Fältskog were married on 6 July 1971. Andersson wrote and submitted the song "Hej, Clown" for the 1969 Melodifestivalen, the Swedish Eurovision Song Contest finals. The song tied for first, but re-voting relegated Andersson's song to second place. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 110. On that occasion Andersson briefly met his future spouse, singer Anni-Frid Lyngstad, who also participated in the contest. A month later, the two had become a couple. As their respective bands began to break up during 1969, Andersson and Ulvaeus teamed up and recorded their first album together in 1970, called Lycka ("Happiness"), which included original compositions sung by both men. Their spouses were often present in the recording studio, and sometimes added backing vocals; Fältskog even co-wrote a song with the two. Ulvaeus still occasionally recorded and performed with The Hootenanny Singers until the summer of 1974, and Andersson took part in producing their records. Agnetha Fältskog (born 5 April 1950 in Jönköping, Sweden) had a #1 record in Sweden when she was only 17, and was soon noted by the critics and songwriters as a talented singer/songwriter of schlager style songs. Fältskog's main inspiration in her early years were singers like Connie Francis. Along with her own compositions, she recorded covers of foreign hits and performed them on tours in Swedish folkparks. In 1967 she submitted an original song (Försonade ("Redeemed")) for Melodifestivalen, but it was rejected. She briefly met Anni-Frid Lyngstad for the first time during a TV show in January 1968, and met Björn Ulvaeus at a concert venue a few months later. During filming of a Swedish TV special in May 1969, Fältskog met Ulvaeus again, and they were married in 1971. Fältskog and Ulvaeus eventually got involved in each other's recording sessions, Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 162. and soon even Andersson and Lyngstad added backing vocals to her 1970 album "Som jag är" ("As I Am"). In 1973, Fältskog starred as Mary Magdalene in the original Swedish production of Jesus Christ Superstar and attracted favourable reviews. Between 1967 and 1975, Fältskog released five studio albums. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 112-129 and 135-6. Anni-Frid "Frida" Lyngstad (born 15 November 1945 in Bjørkåsen in Ballangen, Norway) sang from the age of thirteen with various dance bands, and worked mainly in a jazz-oriented cabaret style. She also formed her own band, the Anni-Frid Four. In the summer of 1967, she won a national talent competition with the song "En ledig dag" ("A Day Off"), included in the EMI compilation Frida 1967-1972. The first prize was a recording contract with EMI Sweden and to perform live on the most popular TV show in Sweden. This first TV performance, amongst many others, is included in the 3½ hour documentary Frida - The DVD. Lyngstad released several singles on EMI and had many hits in the Swedish charts. When Benny Andersson started to produce her recordings in 1971, she got her first #1 single, "Min egen stad" ("My Own Town"), for which all the future ABBA members sang the backup vocals. Lyngstad toured and performed regularly in the folkpark circuit and made appearances on radio and TV. She met Björn Ulvaeus briefly in 1963 during a talent contest, and Agnetha Fältskog during a TV show in early 1968. Lyngstad finally linked up with her future bandmates in 1969. On 1 March 1969, she participated in the Melodifestivalen, where she met Andersson for the first time. A few weeks later they met again during a concert tour in southern Sweden and they soon became a couple. Andersson produced her single "Peter Pan" in September 1969 – the first collaboration between her and Benny & Björn, as they had written the song. Later Andersson produced Lyngstad's debut album, Frida, which was released in March 1971 and praised by critics. Lyngstad also played in several revues and cabaret shows in Stockholm between 1969 and 1973. After ABBA formed, she recorded another successful album in 1975, Frida Ensam, which included the original Swedish rendition of "Fernando", which became a huge hit in Scandinavia before the English version was recorded. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 41-58. First live performance and the start of "Festfolk" An attempt at combining their talents occurred in April 1970 when the two couples went on holiday together to the island of Cyprus. What started as singing for fun on the beach ended up as an improvised live performance in front of the United Nations soldiers stationed on the island. Andersson and Ulvaeus were at this time recording their first album together, "Lycka", which was to be released in September 1970. Fältskog and Lyngstad added backing vocals on several tracks during June, and the idea of them all working together saw them launch a stage act, "Festfolk", which translates from Swedish to mean both "Party People" and "Engaged Couples", on 1 November 1970 in Gothenburg. The cabaret show attracted positive reviews. The foursome performed the Andersson and Ulvaeus hit "Hej, gamle man" ("Hi, Old Man"); the first recording credited to all four – and solo numbers from respective albums, but the foursome did not feel like working together, and soon concentrated on individual projects again. First record together "Hej, gamle man" "Hej, gamle man", a song about an old Salvation Army soldier, became the quartet's first hit. The record was credited to Björn & Benny and reached number 5 on the sales charts and number 1 on Svensktoppen, staying there for 15 weeks. In the first half of 1971, the four artists worked more together, adding vocals to the others' recordings. Fältskog, Andersson and Ulvaeus toured together in May, while Lyngstad toured on her own. Frequent recording sessions brought the foursome tighter together during the summer. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 163-170. Forming the group (1970–1973) After the 1970 release of Andersson's and Ulvaeus' album "Lycka", two more singles credited to 'Björn & Benny' were released in Sweden, "Det kan ingen doktor hjälpa" ("No doctor can help with that") and "Tänk om jorden vore ung" ("Imagine if the Earth were young"), but clearly with more prominent vocals by Fältskog and Lyngstad - and with moderate chart success. Fältskog released her fourth album in 1971 and married Ulvaeus on 6 July 1971. Andersson, Ulvaeus, and Fältskog started performing together on a regular basis during the summer of 1971. Stig Anderson, founder and owner of Polar, was determined to break into the mainstream international market with music by Andersson and Ulvaeus. "One day the pair of you will write a song that becomes a worldwide hit", he predicted. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 150. Stig encouraged Ulvaeus and Andersson to write a song for Melodifestivalen, and after two rejected entries in 1971, Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 173. Andersson and Ulvaeus submitted their new song "Säg det med en sång" ("Say It With A Song") for the 1972 contest, and they chose newcomer Lena Anderson to perform. The song won third place, encouraging Stig, and became a huge hit in Sweden. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 174. The first signs of foreign success came as a surprise, as the Andersson and Ulvaeus single "She's My Kind of Girl" was released by Epic in Japan in March 1972, giving the duo a Top 10 hit. Two more singles were released in Japan, "En Carousel" Cover art for Björn and Benny single "En Carousel"/"Lycka" (earlier version of "Merry-Go-Round") and "Love Has Its Ways" (a song they wrote with Koichi Morita). Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 182. First hit as 'Björn, Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid' The cover of "People Need Love". Ulvaeus and Andersson persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements. "People Need Love" was released in June 1972, featuring guest vocals by the women, who were now given much greater prominence. Stig Anderson released it as a single, credited to Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid. The song reached #17 in the Swedish combined single and album charts, enough to convince them they were on to something. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 185. The single also became the first record to chart for the quartet in the United States, where it peaked at #114 on the Cashbox singles chart and #117 on Record World's singles chart. Billed as Björn & Benny (with Svenska Flicka), it was released there on Playboy Records. However, according to Stig Anderson, "People Need Love" could have been a much bigger American hit, but a small label like Playboy Records did not have the distribution resources to meet the demand for the single from retailers and radio programmers. Interview with Songwriter magazine, 6, 1981, pp.23-25. The foursome decided to record their first album together in the autumn of 1972, and sessions began on 26 September 1972. The two women shared lead vocal on "Nina, Pretty Ballerina", on this day, and the two women's voices combined in harmonies for the first time gave the foursome an idea of the qualities of their combined talents. "Ring Ring" For 1973, the band and their manager Stig Anderson decided to have another try at the Melodifestivalen, this time with the song "Ring Ring." The studio sessions were handled by Michael B. Tretow, who experimented with a "wall of sound" production technique that became the wholly new ABBA sound. Anderson arranged an English translation of the lyrics by Neil Sedaka and Phil Cody and they thought this would be a surefire winner, but in the Melodifestivalen, on 10 February 1973, it placed third, and thus never reached the international contest. Nevertheless the proto-group put out their first album, called Ring Ring. The album did well and the "Ring Ring" single was a hit in many parts of Europe, but Stig Anderson felt the true breakthrough could only come with a UK or US hit. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 191-211. Official naming In early 1973, Stig Anderson, tired of unwieldy names, started to refer to the group privately and publicly as ABBA. At first, this was a play on words, as Abba was also the name of a well-known fish-canning company in Sweden. However, since the fish canners were unknown outside Sweden, Anderson came to believe the name would work in international markets. A competition to find a suitable name for the group was held in a Gothenburg newspaper. The group was impressed with the names "Alibaba," "FABB," and "Baba", but in the end all the entries were ignored and it was announced in the summer that the name "ABBA" was official. Later the group negotiated with the canners for the right to the name. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 210. "ABBA" is an acronym formed from the first letters of each group member's name: Agnetha, Björn, Benny and Anni-Frid (Frida). The first 'B' in the logo version of the name was "mirror-image" reversed on the band's promotional material from 1976 onwards and became the group's registered trademark. The first time the name is found written on paper is on a recording session sheet from the Metronome Studio in Stockholm, dated 16 October 1973. This was first written as "Björn, Benny, Agnetha & Frida", but was subsequently crossed out with "ABBA" written in large letters on top. The official logo, using the bold version of the News Gothic typeface, was designed by Rune Söderqvist, and appeared for the first time on the "Dancing Queen" single in August 1976, and subsequently on all later original albums and singles. But the idea for the official logo was made by the German photographer Wolfgang Heilemann on a "Dancing Queen" shoot for the teenage magazine BRAVO. On the photo, every ABBA-member held a giant initial letter of his/her name. After the pictures were made, Heilemann found out that one of the men held his letter upside down. They discussed it and the members of ABBA liked it. In 1992 Polygram redesigned the logo for the ABBA Gold compilation, having a different font along with a crown emblem. Still, the classic logo is more commonly seen, for instance being used on the official ABBA website. ABBA Logo 25th Anniversary. Breakthrough (1973–1976) Eurovision For their first Eurovision, ABBA entered with "Ring Ring" but failed to qualify as the 1973 Swedish entry, it came third in the preliminary round. Stig immediately started planning for the 1974 contest. Ulvaeus, Andersson, and manager Stig Anderson believed in the possibilities of using the Melodifestivalen and Eurovision TV contests as a way to make the music business aware of the band and Andersson, Ulvaeus and Stig as composers. In late 1973, they were invited by Swedish television to contribute a song for the 1974 contest, and from a number of newly written compositions, the foursome chose the upbeat "Waterloo"; the group was now inspired by the growing glam rock scene in England. "Waterloo" was an unashamedly glam-style pop track produced with Michael B. Tretow's wall-of-sound approach. ABBA won their national heats on Swedish TV on 9 February 1974, and with this third attempt were far more experienced and better prepared for the international contest. Winning the Eurovision Song Contest gave ABBA the chance to tour Europe and perform on major TV shows; thus the band saw the "Waterloo" single climb the charts in many European countries. "Waterloo" was ABBA's first number one single in big markets such as the UK, Germany and Australia. In the US, it reached #6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, paving the way for their first album and their first trip as a group there. Albeit being a short promotional visit, it included their first performance on American TV, The Mike Douglas Show. The Waterloo album only peaked at #145 on the Billboard 200 album chart, but received unanimous high praise from the US critics: Los Angeles Times called it "a compelling and fascinating debut album that captures the spirit of mainstream pop quite effectively...an immensely enjoyable and pleasant project", while Creem characterized it as "a perfect blend of exceptional lovable compositions". ABBA's follow-up single, "Honey, Honey", reached #27 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and was #2 in Germany. However, in the UK, a cover version of the song by the act Sweet Dreams made #10 because ABBA's British record company, Epic, decided to re-release a remixed version of "Ring Ring" instead. It failed to reach the Top 30, increasing growing speculation that the group were simply Eurovision one-hit wonders. Post-Eurovision In November 1974, ABBA embarked on their first European tour, playing dates in Denmark, West Germany, and Austria. It was not as successful as the band had hoped, since most of the venues did not sell out. Due to a lack of demand, they were even forced to cancel a few shows, including a sole concert scheduled in Switzerland. The second leg of the tour, which took them through Scandinavia in January 1975, was different. They played to full houses everywhere and finally got the reception they aimed for. Live performances continued during the summer of 1975 when ABBA embarked on a sixteen open-air date tour of Sweden and Finland, attracting huge crowds. Their Stockholm show at the Gröna Lund amusement park was seen by an estimated audience of 19,200. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 268. In 1974 they released So Long as a single in the UK but it received no airplay from radio 1 and failed to chart. In summer 1975 they released I Do I Do I Do I Do I Do, which again received little airplay on radio 1 but managed to climb the charts, to #38. Later in 1975 the release of their next album ABBA and single "SOS" brought back their chart presence in the UK, where the single hit #6 and the album reached #13. SOS also became ABBA's second number 1 single in both Germany and Australia. Success was further solidified with "Mamma Mia" reaching the #1 spot in UK, Germany and Australia in January 1976. In the US, "SOS" reached #10 on the Record World Top 100 singles chart and #15 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, picking up the BMI Award along the way as one of the most played songs on American radio in 1975. The success of the group in the United States had been so far limited to single releases. By early 1976, the group already had four Top 30 singles on US charts, but the album market proved to be tough to crack. The eponymous ABBA album generated three American hits, but it only peaked at #165 on the Cashbox album chart and #174 on the Billboard 200 chart. Opinions were voiced, by Creem in particular, that in the US ABBA had endured "a very sloppy promotional campaign". The group, however, enjoyed warm reviews from American press. Cashbox went as far as saying that "there is a recurrent thread of taste and artistry inherent in Abba's marketing, creativity and presentation that makes it almost embarrassing to critique their efforts", while Creem wrote: "SOS is surrounded on this LP by so many good tunes that the mind boggles". In Australia, the airing of the videos for I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do and Mamma Mia on nationwide TV in August 1975 started an immense interest for ABBA, resulting in #1 positions on both the single and album charts for months. Superstardom (1976–1981) In March 1976, the band released the compilation Greatest Hits, despite having had only six Top 40 hits in the UK and the US. Nevertheless, it became their first UK #1 album, and also took ABBA into the Top 50 on the US album charts for the first time, eventually selling more than a million copies there. At the same time, Germany released a compilation named The Very Best of ABBA, also becoming a #1 album there whereas the Greatest hits LP followed a few months later to #2 on the German charts, despite all similarities with "The Very Best" album. Also included on Greatest Hits was a new single, Fernando, which had first been written by Ulvaeus and Andersson in Swedish for Lyngstad's #1 1975 solo album Frida ensam (Frida alone). After Lyngstad's major success with the song in Scandinavia, the group decided to record an English version. With "Fernando" hitting #1 in twelve countries worldwide (including the UK and Germany), it occupied the top position in Australia for 14 weeks, tying The Beatles for longest number one for "Hey Jude", making it one of the best-selling singles of all time in that country. That same year, the group received its first international prize, with "Fernando" being chosen as the "Best Studio Recording of 1975". In the US, "Fernando" reached the Top 10 of the Cashbox Top 100 singles chart and #13 on the Billboard Hot 100. It also topped the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart, ABBA's first American number one single of any kind. The group's next album, Arrival, a #1 bestseller all over Europe and Australia, represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work, prompting rave reviews from more rock-orientated UK music weeklies such as Melody Maker and New Musical Express, and mostly appreciative notices from American critics. Hit after hit flowed from Arrival: "Money, Money, Money", another #1 in Germany and Australia, and "Knowing Me, Knowing You", ABBA's sixth consecutive German #1 as well as another UK #1. The real sensation of all was "Dancing Queen", not only topping the charts in the loyal markets UK, Germany and Australia, but also reaching #1 in the US. In 1977 Arrival was nominated for the inaugural BRIT Award in the category "Best International Album of the Year". By this time ABBA were popular in the UK, most of Western Europe and Australia. In Frida - The DVD, Lyngstad explains how she and Fältskog developed as singers, as ABBA's recordings grew more complex over the years. Their popularity in the US would remain on a comparatively smaller scale, and "Dancing Queen" became the only Billboard Hot 100 #1 single ABBA had there (they did, however, get three more singles to the #1 position on other Billboard charts, including Billboard Adult Contemporary and Hot Dance Club Play). Nevertheless, Arrival finally became a true breakthrough release for ABBA on the US album market where it peaked at #20 on the Billboard 200 album chart and was certified gold by RIAA. European and Australian tour In January 1977, ABBA hit the road. The group's status had changed dramatically and they were clearly regarded as superstars. They opened their much anticipated tour in Oslo, Norway, on 28 January, and mounted a lavishly produced spectacle that included a few scenes from their self-penned mini-operetta "The Girl With The Golden Hair." The concert attracted immense media attention from across Europe and Australia. They continued the tour through Western Europe visiting Gothenburg, Copenhagen, Berlin, Cologne, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Essen, Hanover, Hamburg, and ended it with shows in the UK in Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow and two sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall. Tickets for these two shows were available only by mail application and it was later revealed that the box-office received 3.5 million requests for tickets, enough to fill the venue 580 times. There were, however, complaints about the group's performance lacking the same intriguing qualities on stage as what was presented in the studio, as an article in The Times accused the show of being boring. Williams, Richard (15 February 1977). "Performance: ABBA – Albert Hall." The Sunday Times (London); p. 9.) One of the Royal Albert Hall concerts was filmed as a reference for the filming of the Australian tour for what became ABBA: The Movie, though it is not known exactly how much of the concert was filmed. After the European leg of the tour, in March 1977, ABBA played eleven dates in Australia before a total of 160,000 people. The opening concert in Sydney at the Sydney Showground on 3 March before over 20,000 was marred by torrential rain and Frida slipped on the wet stage during the concert. However, all four members would later recall this concert to be the most memorable of their career. Upon their arrival in Melbourne, a civic reception was held at the Town Hall and ABBA appeared on the balcony to greet an enthusiastic crowd of 6,000 people. In Melbourne, ABBA played three concerts at the Melbourne Myer Music Bowl with 14,500 at each including the Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser and his family. At the first Melbourne concert, an additional 16,000 people gathered outside the fenced-off area to listen to the concert. In Adelaide, the group performed one concert at West Lakes Football Stadium before 20,000 people with another 10,000 listening outside. During the first of five concerts in Perth, there was a bomb scare with everyone having to evacuate the Entertainment Centre. The trip was accompanied by mass hysteria and unprecedented media attention, and is vividly captured on film in ABBA: The Movie, directed by Lasse Hallström. The Australian tour and its subsequent ABBA: The Movie produced some ABBA lore, as well. Agnetha Fältskog's blonde good looks had long made her the band's 'pin-up girl', a role she disdained. During the Australian tour, she performed in a skin-tight white jumpsuit, causing one Australian newspaper to use the headline "Agnetha's bottom tops dull show". When asked about this at a news conference, she replied: "Don't they have bottoms in Australia?" DVD documentaries: The Winner Takes It All (2002) and Super Troupers (2004) In December 1977, ABBA followed up Arrival with the more musically and lyrically ambitious fifth album The Album, which was released to coincide with ABBA: The Movie. Although the album was less well-received by the critics in the UK, it did spawn more worldwide hits: "The Name of the Game" and "Take a Chance on Me", both of which topped the UK charts, and reached #12 and #3, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US. Although "Take a Chance on Me" did not top the American charts, it has actually proved to be ABBA's biggest hit single in the United States, selling more copies than "Dancing Queen". Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 382. The Album also included the ABBA signature tune, "Thank You for the Music", released as a single in the UK in 1983, and had been the B-side of "Eagle" in countries where the latter had been released. Polar Music Studio formation By 1978, ABBA was a megagroup. They converted a vacant movie theatre into the Polar Music Studio, a state-of-the-art studio in Stockholm. The studio was used by several other bands; notably, Genesis' Duke and Led Zeppelin's In Through the Out Door were recorded there. During May, the group went to the US for a huge promotional campaign, and performed on Olivia Newton-John's TV show. However, a lot of effort was put into the new recording studio in Stockholm. The recording sessions for "Summer Night City" were an uphill struggle, but upon release the song became another significant hit for the group. The track would also set the stage for ABBA's foray into disco with their upcoming album. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 383-386. Several years ago, the original Polar Music Studios (by that time renamed Polar Studios) were closed because the landlord of the building had increased the rent required. The site is now a Fitness First gymnasium, and there is a display in its foyer acknowledging its history as Polar (Music) Studios. On 9 January 1979, the group performed "Chiquitita" at the Music for UNICEF Concert held at the United Nations General Assembly to celebrate UNICEF's Year of the Child. ABBA donated the copyright of this worldwide hit to the UNICEF; see Music for UNICEF Concert. "Bee Gees, Olivia were a hit with the VIPs" (11 January 1979). Courier Mail (Brisbane); p. 30. The single was released the following week, and reached #1 in ten countries. North American and European tours In mid-January 1979, Ulvaeus and Fältskog announced they were getting divorced. The news caused a massive interest from the media, and led to speculation about the band's future. ABBA assured the press and their fanbase they were continuing their work as a group, and that the divorce would not affect them. "ABBA divorce – Agnetha moves out" (17 January 1979). The Sun (Sydney); p. 1.) Nonetheless, the media continued to confront them with this in interviews. The group's sixth album, Voulez-Vous, was released in April 1979, the title track of which was recorded at the famous Criteria Studios in Miami, U.S. with the assistance, among others, of recording engineer Tom Dowd. The album topped the charts across Europe and in Japan and Mexico, hit the Top 10 in Canada and Australia and the Top 20 in the US. None of the singles from the album reached #1 on the UK charts, but "Chiquitita", "Does Your Mother Know", "Angeleyes" and "Voulez-Vous" all charted no lower than #4. "I Have a Dream" was the exception, when the single reached #2 in UK and #1 on Eurochart Hot 100 singles. In Canada, "I Have a Dream" became ABBA's second #1 on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart, after "Fernando" hit the top previously. Later that year, the group released their second compilation album, Greatest Hits Vol. 2, which featured a brand new track: "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)", another number 3 hit in both, the UK and Germany. In Russia during the late 1970s, they were paid in oil commodities because of an embargo on the ruble. Rodgers, Peter (16 March 1980). "Pop goes ABBA's $2m oil gamble: ABBA may lose enormous amount of money following venture into oil market." The Sunday Times; Business News, p 53) On 13 September 1979, ABBA began their first (and only) North American Tour at the Northlands Coliseum in Edmonton, Canada, with a full house of 14,000. During the next four weeks, they played a total of seventeen sold-out dates, thirteen in the U.S. and four in Canada. The last scheduled ABBA concert on U.S. soil, in Washington, DC, was canceled due to Agnetha Fältskog's emotional distress suffered during the flight from New York to Boston, when the private plane the group was on was subjected to extreme weather conditions and was unable to land for an extended period. They appeared on the Boston Music Hall stage for the performance ninety minutes late. The tour ended with a show in Toronto, Canada at Maple Leaf Gardens before a capacity crowd of 18,000. The shows also generated the same type of complaints that were expressed during the group's 1977 tour: many fans regarded ABBA as more of a studio group than a live band. On 19 October 1979, the tour resumed in Western Europe where the band played 23 sold-out gigs, including an unprecedented six sold-out nights at London's Wembley Arena. Progression In March 1980, ABBA traveled to Japan where upon their arrival at Narita International Airport, they were besieged by thousands of fans. The group played eleven concerts to full houses, including six shows at Tokyo's Budokan. This tour was the last "on the road" adventure of their career. The same year saw the release of ABBA's seventh album Super Trouper, which reflected a certain change in ABBA's style with more prominent use of synthesisers and increasingly more personal lyrics. It set a record for the most pre-orders ever received for a UK album after one million copies were ordered before release. Anticipation for the album had been built up by "The Winner Takes It All", the group's eighth UK chart topper (and their first since 1978). In the US, the single reached #8 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and became ABBA's second Billboard Adult Contemporary #1. The song was allegedly written about Ulvaeus and Fältskog's marital tribulations. The next single from the album, "Super Trouper", also hit #1 in the UK as well as in Germany, becoming the group's ninth and final UK chart-topper. Another track from Super Trouper, "Lay All Your Love on Me", released in 1981 as a 12-inch single only in selected territories, managed to top the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart and peaked at #7 on the UK singles chart becoming at the time the highest ever charting 12-inch release in UK chart history. Also in 1980, ABBA recorded a compilation of Spanish-language versions of their hits called Gracias Por La Música. It was released in Spanish-speaking countries as well as Japan and Australia. The album became a major success, and along with the Spanish version of "Chiquitita", this signaled the group's breakthrough in Latin America Final album and performances (1981–1982) In January 1981, Ulvaeus married Lena Källersjö, and manager Stig Anderson celebrated his 50th birthday with a huge party. For this occasion, ABBA recorded the track 'Hovas Vittne' (a pun on the Swedish word for Jehovah's Witness) as a tribute to him, and released it only on 200 red vinyl copies, to be distributed to the guests attending the party. This single has become a sought-after collectible. In mid-February 1981, Andersson and Lyngstad announced they were filing for divorce. Information surfaced that their marriage had been an uphill struggle for years, and Benny had already met another woman, Mona Nörklit, whom he married in November 1981. Andersson and Ulvaeus had songwriting sessions during the first months of 1981, and recording sessions began in mid-March. At the end of April, the group recorded a TV special, Dick Cavett meets ABBA with the US talk show host Dick Cavett. The Visitors, ABBA's eighth and final studio album, showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placing the band squarely in the pop genre, with catchy tunes and harmonies. Although not revealed at the time of its release, the album's title track, according to Ulvaeus, refers to the secret meetings held against the approval of totalitarian governments in Soviet-dominated states, while other tracks address topics like failed relationships, the threat of war, aging, loss of innocence, and a parent watching a child grow up. This change of content led to the release of the album "The Visitors" including the UK #3 single "One of Us", also the last of ABBA's nine number 1 singles in Germany in December 1981. Although it topped the album charts across most of Europe, including the UK and Germany, The Visitors was not as commercially successful as its predecessors, showing a commercial decline in previous loyal markets such as France, Australia or Japan. A track from The Visitors, "When All Is Said and Done", was released as a single in North America, Australia and New Zealand, and fittingly became ABBA's final Top 40 hit in the US, while reaching #4 on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart in Canada. The song's lyrics, as with "The Winner Takes It All" and "One of Us", dealt with the painful experience of separating from a long-term partner, though it looked at the trauma more optimistically. With the now publicized story of Andersson and Lyngstad's divorce, speculation increased of tension within the band. Also released in the US was the title track of The Visitors, which hit the Top Ten on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. Last recording sessions The cover of The Singles: The First Ten Years. In the spring of 1982, songwriting sessions had started and the group came together for more recordings. Plans were not completely clear, but a new album was discussed and the prospect of a small tour suggested. The recording sessions in May and June were a struggle, and only three songs were eventually recorded: "You Owe Me One", "I Am the City", and "Just Like That". Andersson and Ulvaeus were not satisfied with the outcome, so the tapes were shelved and the group took a break for the summer. Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 455-56. Back in the studio again in early August, the group had changed plans for the rest of the year: they settled for a Christmas release of a double album compilation of all their past single releases to be named The Singles: The First Ten Years. New songwriting and recording sessions took place, Palm, Carl Magnus, pp. 456-57. and during October and November, they released the singles "The Day Before You Came"/"Cassandra" and "Under Attack"/"You Owe Me One", the A-sides of which were included on the compilation album. Neither single made the top 20 in the UK, though "The Day Before You Came" became a Top 5 hit in many European countries such as Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. The album went to #1 in the UK and Belgium, Top 5 in the Netherlands and West Germany and Top 20 in many other countries. "I Am the City" and "Just Like That" were left unreleased on The Singles: The First Ten Years for possible inclusion on the next projected studio album from ABBA, though this never came to fruition. "I Am the City" was eventually released as a bonus track on the compilation album More ABBA Gold in 1993, while "Just Like That" has been recycled in new songs with other artists produced by Andersson and Ulvaeus. A reworked version of the verses ended up in the musical Chess. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 490. The chorus section of "Just Like That" was eventually released on a retrospective boxset in 1994. Despite numerous requests from fans, Ulvaeus and Andersson are still refusing to release ABBA's version of "Just Like That" in its entirety, even though the complete version surfaced on bootlegs. The group travelled to London to promote The Singles: The First Ten Years in the first week of November 1982, appearing on Saturday Superstore and The Late, Late Breakfast Show, and also to West Germany in the second week, to perform on Show Express. On 19 November 1982, ABBA appeared for the last time in Sweden on the TV programme Nöjesmaskinen, and on 11 December 1982, they made their last performance ever, transmitted to the UK on Noel Edmonds' The Late, Late Breakfast Show, via a live link from a TV studio in Stockholm. Last performances Andersson and Ulvaeus began collaborating with Tim Rice in early 1983 on writing songs for the musical project Chess, while Fältskog and Lyngstad both concentrated on international solo careers. While Andersson and Ulvaeus were working on the musical, a further cooperation between three of them came with the musical Abbacadabra that was produced in France for television. It was a children's musical utilising 14 ABBA songs. Alain and Daniel Boublil, who wrote Les Misérables, had been in touch with Stig Anderson about the project, and the TV musical was aired over Christmas 1983 on the British channel ITV. Lyngstad, who had recently moved to Paris, participated in the French version, and recorded a single, "Belle", a duet with French singer Daniel Balavoine. The song was a cover of ABBA's instrumental 1976 track "Arrival". As the single "Belle" sold well in France, Cameron Mackintosh wanted to stage an English language version of the show in London, with the French lyrics translated by David Wood and Don Black; Andersson and Ulvaeus got involved in the project, and contributed with one new song, "The Seeker". "Abbacadabra" premièred 8 December 1983 at The Lyric Hammersmith Theatre in London, to mixed reviews and full houses for eight weeks, closing on 21 January 1984. Lyngstad was involved in this production as well, recording 'Belle' in English as "Time"; a duet with actor and singer B. A. Robertson: the single sold well, this time produced and recorded by Andersson and Ulvaeus. All four members made their last public appearance, as four friends more than as ABBA, in January 1986, when they recorded a video of themselves performing an acoustic version of "Tivedshambo", which was the first song written by their manager, Stig Anderson, for a Swedish TV show honouring Anderson on his 55th birthday. The four had not seen each other for more than two years. That same year they also performed privately at another friend's 40th birthday: their old tour manager, Claes af Geijerstam. They sang a self-composed song titled "Der Kleine Franz" that later was to surface in Chess. The same year ABBA Live was released, featuring selections of live performances from the group's 1977 and 1979 tours. Their last appearance as a group was filmed privately by Anders Glenmark. They were guests on the 50th birthday of Görel Hanser in 1999. Hanser was a long-time friend of all four, and also former secretary of Stig Anderson. Honouring Görel, ABBA performed a Swedish birthday song "Med En Enkel Tulipan" a cappella. ABBA's last known appearance (1999) Benny Andersson has on several occasions performed old ABBA songs. In June 1992, he and Björn Ulvaeus appeared with U2 at a Stockholm concert, singing the chorus of "Dancing Queen", and a few years later during the final performance of the B & B in Concert in Stockholm, Andersson joined the cast for an encore at the piano. Andersson frequently adds an ABBA song to the playlist when he performs with his BAO band. He also played the piano during new recordings of the ABBA songs "Like an Angel Passing Through My Room" with opera singer Anne Sofie von Otter, and "When All Is Said And Done" with Swede Viktoria Tolstoy. Andersson and Ulvaeus both did an a capella rendition of the first verse of "Fernando" as they accepted their Ivor Novello award in London in 2002. Frida Lyngstad performed and recorded an a cappella version of "Dancing Queen" with the Swedish group The Real Group in 1993, and has also re-recorded "I Have a Dream" with Swiss singer Dan Daniell in 2003. Breaking up ABBA has never officially announced the end of the group, but the group has long been considered dissolved. Their last public performance together as ABBA was on the British TV programme The Late, Late Breakfast Show (live from Stockholm) December 11, 1982. In January 1983, Agnetha started recording sessions for a solo album, as Frida had released her Something's Going On a year earlier to great success. Björn and Benny started songwriting sessions for the musical Chess—and ABBA was shelved in the meantime. In interviews, Björn and Benny denied the split of ABBA ("Who are we without our ladies? Initials of Brigitte Bardot?" ) and Frida and Agnetha kept claiming in interviews that ABBA would come together for a new album repeatedly during 1983 and 1984. Internal strife between the group and their manager escalated and the group sold their shares in Polar Music during 1983. With this, the foursome did not come together publicly until all four members were reunited at the Swedish premiere of Mamma Mia! on 4 July 2008. In an interview with the Sunday Telegraph, following the premiere, Bjorn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson confirmed that there was nothing that could entice them back on stage again. "We will never appear on stage again", Ulvaeus said. "There is simply no motivation to re-group. Money is not a factor and we would like people to remember us as we were. Young, exuberant, full of energy and ambition. I remember Robert Plant saying Led Zeppelin were a cover band now because they cover all their own stuff. I think that hit the nail on the head." Hastings, Chris, Sunday Telegraph, 5 July 2008. After ABBA Andersson and Ulvaeus Björn Ulvaeus at Gothenburg Book Fair 2007. In October 1984, Ulvaeus and Andersson together with lyricist Tim Rice released the musical concept double album Chess. The singles "One Night in Bangkok" (with vocals by Murray Head) and "I Know Him So Well" (a duet by Barbara Dickson and Elaine Paige and later also recorded by both Barbra Streisand and Whitney Houston) were both huge successes. In May 1986, the musical premièred in the West End of London, and ran for almost three years. On Broadway it opened in April 1988, but closed within two months due to bad reviews. The musical has since been staged regularly on a smaller scale to great success, and even the concert version is popular . In Stockholm, the composers staged "Chess på svenska" ('Chess in Swedish') in 2003, with some new material including the musical numbers "Han är en man, han är ett barn" ("He's a man, he's a child") and "Glöm mig om du kan" ("Forget me if you can"). What is considered to be Andersson's and Ulvaeus' masterpiece , however, is Kristina från Duvemåla, an epic Swedish musical which the composers premiered in Malmö in southern Sweden in October 1995. It was directed for the stage by Lars Rudolfsson and based on the The Emigrants tetralogy by Swedish novelist Vilhelm Moberg. The musical ran for five years in Stockholm, and an English version has been in development for some considerable time. It has been reported that a Broadway production is in its earliest stages of pre-production. icethesite | Kristina från Duvemåla - The Musical Benny Andersson during a performance in Minnesota 2006. Since 1983, besides Chess and Kristina från Duvemåla, Benny Andersson has continued writing songs with Björn Ulvaeus. The pair produced two English-language pop albums with Swedish duo Gemini in 1985 and 1987. In 1987, Andersson also released his first solo album on his own label, Mono Music, called "Klinga mina klockor" ("Ring my bells"), all new material inspired by Swedish folk music - -and followed it with his 2nd album titled November 1989. In the 1990s, Andersson wrote music for the popular Swedish cabaret quartet Ainbusk Singers, giving them two hits: "Lassie" and "Älska mig" ("Love me"), and later produced Shapes, an English-language album by the group's Josefin Nilsson with all-new material by Andersson and Ulvaeus. Andersson has also regularly written music for films (most notably to Roy Andersson's Songs from the Second Floor). In 2001, Andersson formed his own band, BAO!, which released three successful albums in 2001, 2004 and 2007. Andersson has the distinction of remaining the longest in the Swedish Svensktoppen charts; the song "Du är min man", "You're My Man", sung by Helen Sjöholm is still there, presently in its 249th week as of April 12th, 2009. Andersson released his third album BAO 3 in October 2007 with new material with his band BAO! and vocalists Helen Sjöholm and Tommy Körberg, as well as playing to full houses at two of Sweden's largest concert venues in October and November 2007 with an audience of 14,000. Björn Ulvaeus has not appeared on stage performing music since ABBA, but had a reunion with his co-members of The Hootenanny Singers on 16 July 2005 at a music festival in his hometown of Västervik, singing their 1966 hit "Marianne". Andersson and Ulvaeus are highly involved in the worldwide productions of the musical Mamma Mia!, alongside Lyngstad who attends premieres. They were also involved in the production of the successful film version of the musical, which opened in July 2008. Andersson produced the soundtrack utilising many of the musicians ABBA used on their albums and tours. Andersson made a cameo appearance in the movie as a 'fisherman' piano player in the 'Dancing Queen' scene, while Ulvaeus is seen as a Greek god playing harp during the closing credits. Andersson and Ulvaeus are continuously composing new material; most recently the two wrote the title track for Andersson's first international release, "Benny Andersson's Band -The Story Of A Heart", due to be released in July 2009. The album is a compilation of 14 tracks from Andersson's five Swedish-language releases, including five songs now recorded in English, and the new title song premiered on BBC2's Ken Bruce Show Monday on 25 May. A Swedish-language version, "Sommaren Du Fick" ('The Summer You Got'), will be released in Sweden prior to the English version, with vocals by Helen Sjöholm. In the spring of 2009, Andersson also released a single recorded by the staff at his privatly owned Stockholm hotel Hotel Rival, titled "2nd Best To None", accompanied by a video showing the staff at work. Last year the two wrote a song for Swedish singer Sissela Kyle for her Stockholm stage show "Your Days Are Numbered", titled "Jag vill bli gammal" ("I Wanna Grow Old"); in 2007 they wrote "Han som har vunnit allt" ("He Who's Won It All") for actor/singer Anders Ekborg and "I Walk With You Mama" and "After the Rain" for opera singer Anne Sofie Von Otter for her Andersson tribute album "I Let The Music Speak". Fältskog and Lyngstad Both female members of ABBA pursued solo careers on the international scene after their work with ABBA. In 1982, Lyngstad chose Genesis drummer and singer Phil Collins to produce the album Something's Going On and unveiled the hit single and video " I Know There's Something Going On" in autumn of that year. The single became a #1 hit in France, where it spent five weeks at the top, Belgium, Switzerland and Costa Rica. The track reached #3 in Austria, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Poland, and was also a Top 10 hit in Germany, Italy, South Africa and Finland. In the United States, the single reached #13. In all, "I Know There's Something Going On" sold 3.5 million copies worldwide and is the biggest selling single any of the four members have had outside ABBA. Lyngstad's album sold 1.5 million copies internationally. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 452. Sveriges Television, documented this historical event, by filming the whole recording process. The result became a one-hour TV documentary, including interviews with Frida, Phil, Björn, and Benny as well as all the musicians. This documentary and the promotion videos from the album are included in Frida - The DVD. Frida's second solo album after ABBA was the experimental Shine, produced by Steve Lillywhite. "Shine" was recorded in Paris and released in 1984. "Shine" reached the Top 10 on the album charts in Sweden, Norway and Belgium and the Top 20 in the Netherlands. The leadsingle was the title track "Shine". This album was Frida's final studio album release for twelve years. The promotion videos and clips for "Shine" are included in Frida - The DVD. Agnetha Fältskog followed in 1983 with the album Wrap Your Arms Around Me. This included the hit single "The Heat Is On", which was a hit in Europe and Scandinavia. In the US, Fältskog scored a Billboard Top 30 hit with "Can't Shake Loose". In Europe, the single "Wrap Your Arms Around Me" was another successful hit, topping the charts in Belgium and Denmark, reaching the Top 5 in Sweden and the Netherlands and the Top 20 in Germany and France. Her album sold 1.2 million copies worldwide. Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 470. Fältskog's second post-ABBA solo album was Eyes of a Woman, released in March 1985, which reached #2 in Sweden and performed reasonably well in Europe. The first single from the album was "I Won't Let You Go". In November 1987, Fältskog released her third post-ABBA solo album, the Peter Cetera-produced I Stand Alone, (which also included the Billboard hit "I Wasn't The One (Who Said Goodbye)". The album sold very well in Sweden, where it spent eight weeks at #1. Later that year, however, Fältskog withdrew from public life and halted her music career for a while. In 1996, she released her autobiography, As I Am, and a compilation album featuring her solo hits alongside some ABBA classics. In 2004, she made a successful comeback, releasing the critically acclaimed album My Colouring Book, which debuted at #1 in Sweden (achieving triple-platinum status), #6 in Germany, and #12 in the UK, winning a silver award, and achieving gold status in Finland. The single "If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind" became Fältskog's biggest solo hit in the UK, reaching the #11 position. The single saw the #2 spot in Sweden and was a hit throughout Scandinavia and Europe. In January 2007, she sang a live duet on stage with Swedish singer Tommy Körberg at the after party for the final showing of the musical, Mamma Mia!, in Stockholm, at which Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus were also present. In 1992 Frida was asked and chosen to be the chairperson for the environmental organisation "Artister för miljön" (Artists for the Environment) in Sweden. Frida accepted and became chairwoman for this organisation from 1992 to 1995. To mark her interests for the environment, she recorded the Julian Lennon song Saltwater and performed it live in Stockholm. She arranged and financed summer camps for poor children in Sweden, focusing on environmental and ecological issues. Her environmental work for this organisation led up to the decision to record again. Djupa andetag (Deep Breaths) was released towards the end of 1996 and became a huge success in Sweden, where it reached #1 and Scandinavia. The lyrics for the single from this album, "Även en blomma" (Even a Flower), deal with environmental issues.In 2004, Lyngstad recorded a song called "The Sun Will Shine Again", written especially for her and released with former Deep Purple member Jon Lord. The couple made several TV performances with this song in Germany. Lyngstad lives a low-profile life but occasionally appears at a party or charity function. On 26 August 1992, she married Prince Heinrich Ruzzo Reuss von Plauen, of the German Reuss family. Von Plauen died of lymphoma at the age of 49. In addition to losing her husband, Lyngstad had also lost her daughter in a car crash a year earlier. On November 15, 2005, due to Anni-Frid Lyngstad's 60th birthday, Universal released the Frida Box Set, consisting of the solo albums she recorded for the Polar Label. Included is also the 3 1/2 hour documentary Frida - The DVD. On this DVD, which covers Lyngstad's entire singing career, the viewer is guided by Frida herself through the years. From her TV debut in Sweden 1967 to the TV performances she made in Germany 2004, singing "The Sun Will Shine Again" together with Jon Lord of rock group Deep Purple. Many rare clips are included in the set and each performance is explained by Lyngstad herself. The interview with Lyngstad was filmed in the Swiss Alps, summer 2005. Revival The same year the members of ABBA went their separate ways, the French production of a 'tribute' show; a children's TV musical named Abbacadabra, using 14 of ABBA's songs, spawned new interest in the group's music. The London staging of the musical had stars such as Elaine Paige and Finola Hughes singing new lyrics to the old ABBA hits. After receiving little attention during the mid 1980s, ABBA's music experienced a resurgence in the early 1990s due in part to the Australian tribute act Björn Again, and the UK synth-pop duo Erasure who released an EP featuring cover versions of ABBA's songs which topped the charts in the spring of 1992. As U2 arrived in Stockholm for a concert in June of that year, the band paid homage to ABBA by inviting Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson to join them on stage for a rendition of "Dancing Queen", playing guitar and keyboards. September 1992 saw the release of ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits, a new compilation album, which became a massive worldwide seller. The album became the most popular ABBA release ever, selling more than twenty-six million copies to date and setting chart longevity records. The enormous interest in the Gold compilation saw the release of More ABBA Gold: More ABBA Hits in 1993. This collection also contained the bonus track "I Am the City", one of the unreleased songs from the 1982 recording sessions. In 1994 two Australian movies caught the attention of the world's media, both focussing on admiration for ABBA: The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert and Muriel's Wedding. The same year, Thank You for the Music, a four-disc box set comprising all the group's hits and stand-out album tracks, was released with the involvement of all four members. For this release, several demo versions and odd tracks were discovered in the Polar vaults. ABBA were soon recognised and embraced by other acts: Evan Dando of The Lemonheads recorded a cover version of "Knowing Me, Knowing You", Palm, Carl Magnus, p. 504. Sinéad O'Connor and Boyzone's Stephen Gately have recorded "Chiquitita", Tanita Tikaram, and Blancmange paid tribute to "The Day Before You Came", Cliff Richard covered "Lay All Your Love On Me", while Dionne Warwick and Peter Cetera recorded their versions of "SOS". U.S. alternative-rock musician Marshall Crenshaw has also been known to play a version of "Knowing Me, Knowing You" in concert appearances, while English Latin pop songwriter Richard Daniel Roman has recognized ABBA as a major influence. Swedish metal guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen covered "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" with slightly altered lyrics. Tribute albums were released both in Sweden and the UK. In Sweden, the growing recognition of the legacy of Andersson and Ulvaeus resulted in the 1998 B & B Concerts: a tribute concert (with Swedish singers who had worked with the composers through the years) showcasing not only their ABBA years, but even hits from the 1960s and after ABBA. The concert was a huge success, released on CD, and later toured Scandinavia and even went to Beijing in the People's Republic of China for two concerts. In 1999, Sweden saw the birth of ABBA Teens, later re-named A*Teens, recording techno-pop versions of ABBA songs to huge success worldwide: not only the English original versions, but ABBA's Spanish versions also. An episode of Angry Beavers on Nickelodeon featured ABBA anthropomorphized as sheep and called "BAABAA". In April 1999, the Mamma Mia! musical opened in London, and soon premièred in cities worldwide to huge success. In 2000, ABBA were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately US$1,000,000,000 (one billion US dollars) to do a reunion tour consisting of 100 concerts. Basham, David. "ABBA Nixes Billion-Dollar Offer To Reunite." MTV News. However, this information is widely considered an urban legend, whereas the actual amount was near 1 billion Swedish Kronor (140 million US dollars). Thomas Johansson, director of the concert arranger EMA-Telstar and manager of ABBA explains "That is a kind of urban tale where people has mixed together different pieces of information. But it is true that we have been offered breathtaking sums for a reunited ABBA." Ivarsson, Måns. "ABBA Turned down one billion offer." Expressen. For the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul thirty years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, all four members of ABBA appeared briefly in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled "Our Last Video Ever". Each of the four members of the group made a brief cameo role, as did others such as Cher and Rik Mayall. The video was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release, retitled "The Last Video" at the request of the former ABBA members. Although it was billed as the first time the four had worked together since the group split, each member was filmed separately. In 2005 all four members of ABBA appeared at the Stockholm premiere of the musical Mamma Mia. With Mamma Mia!'''s huge success worldwide, and the 2008 film starring Meryl Streep and Pierce Brosnan, there is a huge interest in ABBA's music. However, in a November 2004 interview with the German magazine Bunte, Ulvaeus said a reunion would not satisfy ABBA's many fans, even though there are legions of them around the world often clamouring for one. In 2008 all four ABBA members were reunited at the Swedish premiere of the film Mamma Mia! on 4 July. It was only the second time all of them had appeared together in public since 1986. During the appearance, they re-emphasized that they intended never to officially reunite, citing the opinion of Robert Plant that the re-formed Led Zeppelin was more like a cover band of itself than the original band. Ulvaeus stated that he wanted the band to be remembered as they were during the peak years of their success. Posing together with the actors from the motion picture Mamma Mia! The Movie on July 4, 2008, are the original ABBA members. Far left, Benny Andersson. Fifth from left, Agnetha Fältskog ("Anna"), with her hand on Anni-Frid Lyngstad's ("Frida") shoulder. Second from right, Björn Ulvaeus. The compilation album ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits, originally released in 1992, returned to number one in the UK album charts for the fifth time on August 3, 2008. On August 14, 2008, the Mamma Mia! The Movie film soundtrack went to number 1 on the USA Billboard Charts. While ABBA were together, the highest album chart position they ever achieved in America was No. 14. The year 2008 was the first time an "ABBA" album went to the top of the American record charts. In 2008 the Swedish band The Airwaves recorded an ABBA tribute song "Hey You, Ring Me Tonight". The song is written by Clive Jones, who is a member of an English band Black Widow. Most recently all eight studio albums, together with a ninth of rare tracks, have been released as ABBA The Albums. Amazingly, it has hit several charts, peaking at #4 in Sweden and reaching the top 10 in several other European territories. UK release was Monday, November 24. In 2008, Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, in collabaration with Universal Music Group Sweden AB, released SingStar ABBA on both PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 video game systems as part of the SingStar music video games. The game features 20 ABBA songs on PS2 and 25 on PS3, most of them #1 hits. The game was released worldwide and as a stand-alone game. On January 22, 2009, Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad surprisingly showed up together to receive the Swedish music award "Rockbjörnen" (for "lifetime achievement") and gave an open-hearted interview onstage; the two wanted to express gratitude for the honorary award and to thank their fans. They also commented with concern on the old rumour that the two weren't friends. The ABBA stars Benny Andersson and Bjorn Ulvaeus are set to premiere their first newly written pop song in 15 years. The song is called 'Story Of A Heart' and its release date is July 6, 2009 . Fashion, videos, advertising campaigns ABBA were widely noted for the colourful and trend-setting costumes its members wore. The videos that accompanied some of their biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre. Most of ABBA's videos (and ABBA: The Movie) were directed by Lasse Hallström, who would later direct the films My Life as a Dog, The Cider House Rules and Chocolat. ABBA made videos because their songs were hits in many different countries and personal appearances were not always possible. This was also done in an effort to minimize traveling, particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights. Fältskog and Ulvaeus had two young children and Fältskog, who was also afraid of flying, was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time. ABBA's manager, Stig Anderson, realized the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicize a single or album, thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour. Some of these videos became classics because of the 1970s-era costumes and early video effects, such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs, overlapping one singer's profile with the other's full face, and the contrasting of one member against another. The director somehow managed to produce the videos with acts that seem to be integrated with the music. In 1976, ABBA participated in a high-profile advertising campaign by the Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd., which was designed to promote the brand "National". This campaign was designed initially for Australia, where "National" was still the primary brand used by Matsushita, who had not introduced the "Panasonic" brand to Australia yet despite its widespread use in other parts of the world such as the United States. However, the campaign was also aired in Japan. Five commercials, each approximately one minute long, were produced, each using the "National Song" sung by ABBA, which used the melody and instrumental arrangement of Fernando, adapted with new lyrics promoting National, and working in several slogans used by National in their advertising. ABBA: The National Commercial In 2008, United States Senator John McCain wanted to use the group's music in his 2008 presidential campaign but opted against it, citing licensing and other concerns. http://www.reuters.com/article/politicsNews/idUSN1820870620080219 Discography Awards and recognition Bibliography Potiez, Jean-Marie (2000). ABBA - The Book ISBN 1-85410-928-6 Palm, Carl Magnus (2002). Bright Lights Dark Shadows: The Real Story of ABBA ISBN 0-7119-9194-4 Palm, Carl Joslin (2004). From "ABBA" to "Mamma Mia!"'' ISBN 1-85227-864-1 See also ABBA-related Abba-esque - Erasure's 1992 EP ABBA unreleased songs Björn Again - World-famous ABBA tribute band Gemini Mamma Mia! - Musical stage show based on the songs of ABBA Mamma Mia! The Movie - Film adaption of the musical stage show Lists List of best-selling music artists List of Swedes in music List of ABBA songs List of ABBA tribute bands Other Music of Sweden Swedish music abroad Notes External links ABBA - The Site - Official site. This site is owned and maintained by Universal Music AB in Sweden. Mikory's ABBA Blog ABBA The Tour at Wenig-LaMonica Associates ABBA at RollingStone.com ABBA - for the record - Collector site and discography. Ingyen Angol ABBA Dancing Queen Lyrics (also in Hungarian) ABBA at WorldMusicDatabase ABBA videos icethesite - Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus news site I LET THE MUSIC SPEAK - ABBA In Germany German TV shows, chart list etc. (engl./dtsch.) 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1,033 | In_vitro | In vitro (Latin for within the glass) refers to the technique of performing a given procedure in a controlled environment outside of a living organism. Some may argue that in vitro refers to a process that is created in a "test tube"; however, Robert Kail and John Cavanaugh, on page 58 in the 4th edition of Human Development: A Life-Span View cite that in fact the process is contained in a Petri dish. Many experiments in cellular biology are conducted outside of organisms or cells; because the test conditions may not correspond to the conditions inside of the organism, this may lead to results that do not correspond to the situation that arises in a living organism. Consequently, such experimental results are often annotated with in vitro, in contradistinction with in vivo. In vitro research This type of research aims at describing the effects of an experimental variable on a subset of an organism's constituent parts. It tends to focus on organs, tissues, cells, cellular components, proteins, and/or biomolecules. it is better suited for deducing the mechanisms of action (See in vivo for its description and respective merits). With fewer variables and perceptually amplified reactions to subtle causes, results are generally more discernible. The massive adoption of low-cost in vitro molecular biology techniques has caused a shift away from in vivo research which is more idiosyncratic and expensive in comparison to its molecular counterpart. Currently, in vitro research is vital and highly productive. However, the controlled conditions present in the in vitro system differ significantly from those in vivo, and may give misleading results. Therefore in vitro studies are usually followed by in vivo studies. Examples include: In biochemistry, non-physiological stoichiometric concentration may result in enzymatic active in a reverse direction, hence for historical reasons several enzymes in the Krebs cycle may appear to have incorrect nomeclature. DNA may adopt other configurations, such as A-DNA. Protein folding may differ as in a cell there is a high density of other protein and there are systems to aid in the folding, while in vitro, conditions are less clustered and not aided. It should be pointed out that the term is historical, as currently most lab ware is disposable and made out of polypropylene (sterilizable by autoclaving, ex: microcentrifuge tubes) or clear polystyrene (ex: serological pipettes) rather than glass to ease labwork, ensure sterility, and minimize the possibility of cuts from broken glass. See also Animal testing Ex vivo In situ In utero In vivo In silico In papyro In vitro fertilization In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Animal In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant | In_vitro |@lemmatized vitro:12 latin:1 within:1 glass:3 refers:2 technique:2 perform:1 give:2 procedure:1 controlled:2 environment:1 outside:2 living:2 organism:5 may:8 argue:1 process:2 create:1 test:3 tube:2 however:2 robert:1 kail:1 john:1 cavanaugh:1 page:1 edition:1 human:1 development:1 life:1 span:1 view:1 cite:1 fact:1 contain:1 petri:1 dish:1 many:1 experiment:1 cellular:4 biology:4 conduct:1 cell:3 condition:4 correspond:2 inside:1 lead:1 result:5 situation:1 arise:1 consequently:1 experimental:2 often:1 annotate:1 contradistinction:1 vivo:7 research:4 type:1 aim:1 describe:1 effect:1 variable:2 subset:1 constituent:1 part:1 tend:1 focus:1 organ:1 tissue:1 component:1 protein:3 biomolecules:1 well:1 suit:1 deduce:1 mechanism:1 action:1 see:2 description:1 respective:1 merit:1 perceptually:1 amplified:1 reaction:1 subtle:1 cause:2 generally:1 discernible:1 massive:1 adoption:1 low:1 cost:1 molecular:2 shift:1 away:1 idiosyncratic:1 expensive:1 comparison:1 counterpart:1 currently:2 vital:1 highly:1 productive:1 present:1 system:2 differ:2 significantly:1 misleading:1 therefore:1 study:2 usually:1 follow:1 example:1 include:1 biochemistry:1 non:1 physiological:1 stoichiometric:1 concentration:1 enzymatic:1 active:1 reverse:1 direction:1 hence:1 historical:2 reason:1 several:1 enzyme:1 krebs:1 cycle:1 appear:1 incorrect:1 nomeclature:1 dna:2 adopt:1 configuration:1 fold:1 high:1 density:1 aid:2 folding:1 less:1 clustered:1 point:1 term:1 lab:1 ware:1 disposable:1 make:1 polypropylene:1 sterilizable:1 autoclave:1 ex:3 microcentrifuge:1 clear:1 polystyrene:1 serological:1 pipette:1 rather:1 ease:1 labwork:1 ensure:1 sterility:1 minimize:1 possibility:1 cut:1 broken:1 also:1 animal:2 situ:1 utero:1 silico:1 papyro:1 fertilization:1 developmental:2 plant:1 |@bigram petri_dish:1 molecular_biology:1 krebs_cycle:1 developmental_biology:2 |
1,034 | Bipedalism | An ostrich, one of the fastest of living bipeds A Man Running - Eadweard Muybridge Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs, or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a bipedal manner is known as a biped (), meaning "two feet" (from the Latin bi for "two" and ped for "foot"). Types of bipedal movement include walking, running, or hopping, on two appendages (typically legs). Relatively few modern species are habitual bipeds whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged. Within mammals, habitual bipedalism has evolved four times, with the macropods, kangaroo mice, springhare NC Heglund, GA Cavagna and CR Taylor 1982 Energetics and mechanics of terrestrial locomotion. III. Energy changes of the centre of mass as a function of speed and body size in birds and mammals Journal of Experimental Biology 97:1 and homininan apes. In the Triassic period some groups of archosaurs (a group that includes the ancestors of crocodiles) developed bipedalism; among their descendants the dinosaurs all the early forms and many later groups were habitual or exclusive bipeds; the birds descended from one group of exclusively bipedal dinosaurs. A larger number of modern species are capable of bipedal movement for a short time in exceptional circumstances. Several non-archosaurian lizard species move bipedally when running, usually to escape from threats. Many animals rear up on their hind legs while fighting. A few animals commonly stand on their hind legs, in order to reach food or to keep watch, but do not move bipedally. There are two main types of bipedal locomotion: macropods, some smaller birds, and heteromyid rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously; other groups, including apes and larger birds, walk or run by moving one leg at a time. Definition The word is derived from the Latin words bi(s) 'two' and ped- 'foot', as contrasted with quadruped 'four feet'. Facultative and obligate bipedalism Zoologists often label behaviors, including bipedalism, as "facultative" (i.e. optional) or "obligate" (the animal has no reasonable alternative). Even this distinction is not completely clear-cut - for example humans normally walk and run in biped fashion, but almost all can crawl on hands and knees when necessary. There are even reports of humans who normally walk on all fours with their feet but not their knees on the ground, but these cases are a result of conditions such as Uner Tan syndrome - very rare genetic neurological disorders rather than normal behavior. Even if one ignores exceptions caused by some kind of injury or illness, there are many unclear cases, including the fact that "normal" humans can crawl on hands and knees. This article therefore avoids the terms "facultative" and "obligate", and focuses on the range of styles of locomotion normally used by various groups of animals. Movement There are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism. Standing. Staying still on both legs. In most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance. Walking. One foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time. Running. One foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground. Jumping/Hopping. Moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together. Bipedal animals The great majority of living terrestrial vertebrates are quadrupeds. Among mammals, bipedalism is a normal method of ground locomotion in various groups of primates (e.g. lemurs, gibbons and Hominina), in the macropods (kangaroos, wallabies, etc.) and in a few groups of rodents (kangaroo mice, spring hares). All birds are bipeds when on the ground, a feature inherited from their dinosaur ancestors. Bipedalism evolved more than once in archosaurs, the group that includes both dinosaurs and crocodilians. A few lizards can also move bipedally, but only in emergencies. There are no known living or fossil bipedal amphibians. Most bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies. The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans) and, among primates that move bipedally, only the lemurs have tails. Humans and large birds walk by raising one foot at a time. On the other hand most macropods, smaller birds and bipedal rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously. Tree kangaroos are able to utilize either form of locomotion, most commonly alternating feet when moving arboreally and hopping on both feet simultaneously when on the ground. Dinosaurs and their descendants All dinosaurs are believed to be descended from a fully bipedal ancestor, perhaps similar to Eoraptor. It is believed that maniraptors were able to reach speeds of up to 65 km/h moving bipedally, comparable to their large, flightless-bird descendants such as the ostrich. Bipedal movement also re-evolved in a number of other dinosaur lineages such as the iguanodons. Some extinct members of the crocodilian line, a sister group to the dinosaurs and birds, also evolved bipedal forms - a crocodile relative from the triassic, Effigia okeeffeae, was believed to be bipedal. Mammals Bipedal movement is less common among mammals, most of which are quadrupedal. All primates possess some bipedal ability, though non-human primates primarily use quadrupedal locomotion on land. Primates aside, the largest mammalian group using exclusive bipedal movement are the macropods (kangaroos, wallabies and their relatives), which move via hopping. Other mammals also move via hopping, such as the kangaroo rat, springhare and certain primates such as the sifaka and sportive lemur. Possibly the only mammals other than primates that commonly move bipedally by an alternating gait rather than hopping is the ground pangolin. Primates Primates can be distinguished from other quadrupedal mammals as they exhibit a greater diversity in locomotor behaviors. These include arm swinging (brachiation), quadrumanous climbing, knuckle walking, and regular short bouts of bipedalism. In addition, quadrupedal locomotion in primates also exhibits significant differences from other mammals. These differences in gait characteristics are primarily adaptations to an arboreal environment. All primates can sit upright. Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support. Chimpanzees, bonobos, gibbons and baboons [Video of baboons wading through water] exhibit relatively advanced forms of bipedalism. Injured chimpanzees and bonobos have been capable of sustained bipedalism. Primates that live in tropical areas often wade through water in a bipedal stance. Bonobos, proboscis monkeys and baboons have been observed wading bipedally.Three captive primates, one macaque Natasha and two chimps, Oliver and Poko, were found to move bipedally. Natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while Poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage University of Liverpool - Research Intelligence Issue 22 - Walking tall after all Tetrapod Zoology : Bipedal orangs, gait of a dinosaur, and new-look Ichthyostega: exciting times in functional anatomy part I . Oliver reverted to knuckle-walking after developing arthritis. In addition primates often use bipedal locomotion when carrying food. It is thus believed that humans evolved bipedalism as one means of carrying food to share with group members. Bipedality in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo (Pan paniscus): Testing hypotheses on the evolution of bipedalism Limited bipedalism in mammals Other mammals engage in limited, non-locomotory, bipedalism. A number of other animals, such as rats, racoons, and beavers will squat on their hindlegs in order to manipulate some objects but revert to four limbs when moving (the beaver may also move bipedally if transporting wood for their dams). Bears will fight in a bipedal stance in order to use their forelegs as weapons. Ground squirrels and meerkats will stand on hind legs to survey their surroundings, but will not walk bipedally. Dogs can stand or move on two legs if trained, or if birth defect or injury precludes quadrupedalism. The gerenuk antelope stands on its hind legs while eating from trees, as did the extinct giant ground sloth and chalicotheres. The spotted skunk will also use limited bipedalism when threatened, rearing up on its forelimbs while facing the attacker so its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, face its attacker. Limited bipedalism in non-mammals Bipedalism is unknown among the amphibians. Among the non-archosaur reptiles bipedalism is rare, but it is found in the 'reared-up' running of lizards such as agamids and monitor lizards. Many reptile species will also temporarily adopt bipedalism while fighting. One genus of basilisk lizard can run bipedally across the surface of water for some distance. Among arthropods, cockroaches are known to move bipedally at high speeds . Bipedalism is virtually solely found in terrestrial animals, though at least two types of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to be used to camouflage the octopus as a mat of algae or a floating coconut. Advantages Limited and exclusive bipedalism can offer a species several advantages. Bipedalism raises the head; this allows a greater field of vision with improved detection of distant dangers or resources, access to deeper water for wading animals and allows the animals to reach higher food sources with their mouths. While upright, non-locomotory limbs become free for other uses, including manipulation (in primates and rodents), flight (in birds), digging (in giant pangolin), combat (in bears and the large monitor lizard) or camouflage (in certain species of octopus). Running speeds can be increased when an animal lacks a flexible backbone, though the maximum bipedal speed appears less fast than the maximum speed of quadrapedal movement with a flexible backbone - the ostrich reaches speeds of 65 km/h and the red kangaroo 70 km/h, while the cheetah can exceed 100 km/h. Evolution Recent evidence regarding modern human sexual dimorphism (physical differences between men and women) in the lumbar spine has been seen in pre-modern primates such as Australopithecus africanus. This dimorphism has been seen as an evolutionary adaptation of females to better bear lumbar load during pregnancy, an adaptation that non-bipedal primates would not need to make. The Independent's article A pregnant woman's spine is her flexible friend, by Steve Connor from The Independent (Published: 13 December 2007) quoting Shapiro, Liza, University of Texas at Austin Dept. of Anthropology about her article, Whitcome, et al., Nature advance online publication, doi:10.1038/nature06342 (2007). Why Pregnant Women Don't Tip Over. Amitabh Avasthi for National Geographic News, December 12, 2007. This article has good pictures explaining the differences between bipedal and non-bipedal pregnancy loads. Bipedalism has a number of adaptive advantages, and has evolved independently in a number of lineages. Early reptiles and lizards The first known biped is the bolosaurid Eudibamus whose fossils date from 290 million years ago. Its long hindlegs, short forelegs, and distinctive joints all suggest bipedalism. This may have given increased speed. The species was extinct before the dinosaurs appeared. Independent of Eudibamus, some modern lizard species have developed the capacity to run on their hind legs for added speed. Dinosaurs and birds Bipedalism also developed independently among the dinosaurs. Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the Middle to Late Triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the Permian-Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95% of all life on Earth. Citation for Permian/Triassic extinction event, percentage of animal species that went extinct. See commentary Another citation for P/T event data. See commentary Radiometric dating of fossils from the early dinosaur genus Eoraptor establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists believe Eoraptor resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; Hayward, T. (1997). The First Dinosaurs. Dinosaur Cards. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040612. if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators. The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as Marasuchus and Lagerpeton in Argentinian Middle Triassic strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators. Mammals (excluding humans) A number of mammals will adopt a bipedal stance in specific situations such as for feeding or fighting. A number of groups of extant mammals have independently evolved bipedalism as their main form of locomotion - for example humans, giant pangolins, and macropods. Humans, as their bipedalism has been extensively studied are documented in the next section. Macropods are believed to have evolved bipedal hopping only once in their evolution, at some time no later than 45 million years ago. Humans There are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans, and also some debate as to when. Bipedalism evolved well before the large human brain or the development of stone tools. The different hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a number of selective forces may have acted together to lead to human bipedalism. It is important to distinguish between adaptations for bipedalism and adaptations for running, which came later still. Various reasons have been proposed for the evolution of human bipedalism, including freeing the hands for tool use and carrying, sexual dimorphism in food gathering, changes in climate and habitat (from jungle to savanna) and to reduce the amount of skin exposed to the tropical sun. The first two explanations have been criticized for projecting modern social concerns and prejudices onto ancestral species. The latter two have been criticized for not making sense in the context of the forest and woodland biomes occupied by human ancestors. An alternative explanation is the mixture of savanna and scattered forests forced proto-humans to travel between clusters of trees and bipedalism offered greater efficiency for slow, long-distance travel between these clusters than knuckle-walking quadrupedism. Postural feeding hypothesis The postural feeding hypothesis has been recently supported by Dr. Kevin Hunt, a professor at Indiana University. This theory asserts that chimpanzees were only bipedal when they ate. While on the ground, they would reach up for fruit hanging from small trees and while in trees, bipedalism was utilized by grabbing for an overhead branch. These bipedal movements may have evolved into regular habits because they were so convenient in obtaining food. Also, Hunt theorizes that these movements coevolved with chimpanzee arm-hanging, as this movement was very effective and efficient in harvesting food. When analyzing fossil anatomy, Australopithecus afarensis has very similar features of the hand and shoulder to the chimpanzee, which indicates hanging arms. Also, the Australopithecus hip and hind limb very clearly indicate bipedalism, but these fossils also indicate very inefficient locomotive movement when compared to humans. For this reason, Hunt argues that bipedalism evolved more as a terrestrial feeding posture than as a walking posture. As Hunt says, “A bipedal postural feeding adaptation may have been a preadaptation for the fully realized locomotor bipedalism apparent in Homo erectus.” Provisioning model One theory on the origin of bipedalism is the behavioral model presented by C. Owen Lovejoy, known as "male provisioning". Lovejoy theorizes that the evolution of bipedalism was a response to monogamy. As hominid males became monogamous, Lovejoy contends, they would leave their mates and offspring for the day to search for food. Once they found food for their family, the male hominids would return carrying the food in their arms and walking on their hind legs. There is no particular evidence, however, that early hominids were monogamous. And some evidence indicates that early bipedal hominids were in fact polygamous. Among all monogamous primates, males and females are about the same size. That is sexual dimorphism is minimal. In Australopithecus afarensis, males were thought to be nearly twice the weight of females (as well as a great deal taller), which suggests that they were polygamous. Modern monogamous primates are also highly territorial, but fossil evidence indicates that Australopithecus afarensis lived in large groups. There is likewise no evidence that female hominids did not forage themselves. Early hominids did not have the large brains that require that infants be born premature and helpless. Females in ape species similar to early hominids do not wait for food to be brought to them. In short, there is no direct evidence to support either monogamy or polygamy in early hominids and indirect evidence points to polygamy. Other behavioural models There are a variety of ideas which promote a specific change in behaviour as the key driver for the evolution of hominid bipedalism. For example, Wescott (1967) and later Jablonski & Chaplin (1993) suggest that bipedal threat displays could have been the transitional behaviour which led to some groups of apes beginning to adopt bipedal postures more often. Others (e.g. Dart 1925) have offered the idea that the need for more vigilance against predators could have provided the initial motivation. Dawkins (e.g. 2004) has argued that it could have begun as a kind of fashion that just caught on and then escalated through sexual selection. And it has even been suggested (e.g. Tanner 1981:165) that male phallic display could have been the initial incentive. Thermoregulatory model The thermoregulatory model explaining the origin of bipedalism is one of the simplest theories so far advanced, but it is a viable explanation. Dr. Peter Wheeler, a professor of evolutionary biology, proposes that bipedalism raises the amount of body surface area higher above the ground which results in a reduction in heat gain and helps heat dissipation. When a hominid is higher above the ground, the organism accesses more favorable wind speeds and temperatures. During heat seasons, greater wind flow results in a higher heat loss, which makes the organism more comfortable. Also, Wheeler explains that a vertical posture minimizes the direct exposure to the sun whereas quadrupedalism exposes more of the body to direct exposure. Carrying models Charles Darwin wrote that "Man could not have attained his present dominant position in the world without the use of his hands, which are so admirably adapted to the act of obedience of his will" Darwin (1871:52) and many models on bipedal origins are based on this line of thought. Gordon Hewes (1961) suggested that the carrying of meat "over considerable distances" (Hewes 1961:689) was the key factor. Isaac (1978) and Sinclair et al. (1986) offered modifications of this idea as indeed did Lovejoy (1981) with his 'provisioning model' described above. Others, such as Nancy Tanner (1981) have suggested that infant carrying was key, whilst others have suggested stone tools and weapons drove the change. Wading hypothesis The Aquatic ape hypothesis proposes that humans evolved bipedalism as a result of bipedal wading . Mammals that switch from quadrupedalism on land to bipedal wading appear mainly to be found among large primates, especially apes, with relatively few exceptions such as the grizzly bear. Bipedal wading has been observed in the bonobo, chimpanzee, lowland gorilla, orangutan, baboon and proboscis monkey. Bipedal wading provides the advantage of keeping the head above water for breathing. Further weight to the theory is given by the similarities of the human pelvis to that of Oreopithecus bambolii, an extinct ape that lived in swamps on an island, though not a human ancestor [*Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA PNAS October 14, 1997 vol. 94 no. 21 11747-11750 Meike Köhlerand Salvador Moyà-Solà Ape-like or hominid-like? The positional behavior of Oreopithecus bambolii reconsidered Science News On-Line 18 October 1997 . Savannah hypothesis This proposes that the onset of drier conditions severely reduced the amount of wooded habitats. During this period, when the forests became thin, early hominids adapted to an environment which was now more like the liminal forest-savanna mosaic zones of equatorial Africa. The theory states that, in order to remain effective in gathering food, the hominids had to travel relatively long distances with food or tools, thus making quadrupedalism extremely inefficient. Bipedalism has been suggested as being further developed to give early hominids use of their hands for food cultivation and tool-use since they were no longer needed for locomotion. Physiology Bipedal movement occurs in a number of ways, and requires many mechanical and neurological adaptations. Some of these are described below. Biomechanics Engineers who study bipedal walking or running describe it as a repeatedly interrupted fall. The phenomenon of "tripping" is informative with regards to the "controlled falling" concept of walking and running. The common way to think of tripping is as pulling a leg out from under a walker or runner. In fact, however, merely stopping the movement of one leg of a walker, and merely slowing one leg of a runner, is sufficient to amount to tripping them. They were already "falling", and preventing the tripped leg from aborting that fall is sufficient to cause bipeds to collapse to the ground. Standing Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid overcorrection. Walking Efficient walking is more complicated than standing. It entails tipping slightly off-balance forward and to the side, and correcting balance with the right timing. In humans, walking is composed of several separate processes: rocking back and forth between feet pushing with the toe to maintain speed combined interruption in rocking and ankle twist to turn shortening and extending the knees to prolong the "forward fall" Running Running is an inherently continuous process, in contrast to walking; a bipedal creature or device, when efficiently running, is in a constant state of falling forward. This is maintained as relatively smooth motion only by repeatedly "catching oneself" with the right timing, but in the case of running only delaying the otherwise inevitable fall for the duration of another step. Musculature Bipedalism requires strong leg muscles, particularly in the thighs. Contrast in domesticated poultry the well muscled legs, against the small and bony wings. Likewise in humans, the quadriceps and hamstring muscles of the thigh are both so crucial to bipedal activities that each alone is much larger than even the well-developed biceps of the arms. Nervous system The famous knee jerk (or patellar reflex) emphasizes the necessary bipedal control system: the only function served by the nerves involved being connected as they are is to ensure quick response to imminent disturbance of erect posture; it not only occurs without conscious mental activity, but also involves none of the nerves which lead from the leg to the brain. A less well-known aspect of bipedal neuroanatomy can be demonstrated in human infants who have not yet developed toward the ability to stand up. They can nevertheless run with great dexterity, provided they are supported in a vertical position and offered the stimulus of a moving treadmill beneath their feet. Respiration A biped also has the ability to breathe whilst it runs. Humans usually take a breath every other stride when their aerobic system is functioning. During a sprint, at which point the anaerobic system kicks in, breathing slows until the anaerobic system can no longer sustain a sprint. This is not necessarily an advantage over quadrupeds, as not only can many quadrupeds breathe while running, but in mammals such as dogs, the act of running helps to expand and contract the lungs. The muscles of the trunk thus perform locomotive and respiratory tasks at the same time, making breathing while running more efficient in these animals than in bipeds. Bipedal robots ASIMO - a bipedal robot For nearly the whole of the 20th century, bipedal robots were very difficult to construct and robot locomotion involved only wheels, treads, or multiple legs. Recent cheap and compact computing power has made two-legged robots more feasible. Some notable biped robots are ASIMO, HUBO and QRIO. Bipedal molecule In 2005, chemists at the University of California, Riverside developed the first bipedal molecule, 9,10-Dithioanthracene, which propels itself in a straight line when heated on a flat copper surface. Researchers believe the molecule has potential for use in molecular computers. Kwon KY, Wong KL, Pawin G, Bartels L, Stolbov S, Rahman TS. (2005). Unidirectional adsorbate motion on a high-symmetry surface: "walking" molecules can stay the course. Phys Rev Lett. 95(16):166101. PMID 16241817 See also Quadrupedalism Notes References Darwin, C., "The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex", Murray (London), (1871). Dart, R.A., "Australopithecus africanus: The Ape Man of South Africa" Nature, 145, 195-199, (1925). Dawkins, R., "The Ancestor's Tale", Weidenfeld and Nicolson (London), (2004). Hardy, Alistair, "Was Man More Aquatic in the Past?," The New Scientis, 17 March 1960, pp. 642–645, U. of Victoria (1960) Hewes, G.W., "Food Transport and the Origin of Hominid Bipedalism" American Anthropologist, 63, 687-710, (1961). Hunt, K.D., "The Evolution of Human Bipedality" Journal of Human Evolution, 26, 183-202, (1994). Isaac, G.I., "The Archeological Evidence for the Activities of Early African Hominids" In:Early Hominids of Africa (Jolly, C.J. (Ed.)), Duckworth (London), 219-254, (1978). Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. "Origin of Habitual Terrestrial Bipedalism in the Ancestor of the Hominidae", Journal of Human Evolution, 24, 259-280, (1993). Lovejoy, C. O., "The Origin of Man." Science, 211, 341-350, (1981). Morgan, E., "The Aquatic Ape: A theory of Human Evolution," Souvenir Press, London (1982). Tanner, N.M., "On Becoming Human", Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), (1981). Wescott, R.W., "Hominid Uprightness and Primate Display", American Anthropologist, 69, 738,(1967). Wheeler, P. E., "The Evolution of Bipedality and Loss of Functional Body Hair in Hominoids." Journal of Human Evolution, 13, 91-98, (1984). Vrba, E., "The Pulse that Produced Us." 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1,035 | Felony | A felony is a serious crime in the United States and previously other common law countries. The term originates from English common law where felonies were originally crimes which involved the confiscation of a convicted person's land and goods; other crimes were called misdemeanors. Most common law countries have now abolished the felony/misdemeanor distinction and replaced it with other distinctions such as between summary offences and indictable offences. In the United States, where the felony/misdemeanor distinction is still widely applied, the Federal government defines a felony as a crime which involves a potential punishment of one year or longer in prison. 18 USC 3559. Overview Crimes commonly considered to be felonies include, but are not limited to: aggravated assault and/or battery, arson, burglary, illegal drug abuse/sales, embezzlement, grand theft, tax evasion, treason, espionage, racketeering, robbery, murder, rape, kidnapping and fraud. Broadly, felonies can be categorized as either violent or non-violent (property, drug, white-collar) offenses. Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances. For example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor. Possession of a deadly weapon may be generally legal, but carrying the same weapon into a restricted area such as a school may be viewed as a serious offense, regardless of whether or not there is intent to use the weapon. "The common law divided participants in a felony into four basic categories: (1) first-degree principals, those who actually committed the crime in question; (2) second-degree principals, aiders and abettors present at the scene of the crime; (3) accessories before the fact, aiders and abettors who helped the principal before the basic criminal event took place; and (4) accessories after the fact, persons who helped the principal after the basic criminal event took place. In the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories." Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez, 549 U.S. __ (2007) (citations omitted). In some states, felonies are also classified (class A, B, etc.) according to their seriousness and punishment. In New York State, the classes of felonies are E, D, C, B, A-II, and A-I (the most severe). Others class felonies numerically, e.g., capital, life, 1st degree, 2nd degree, 3rd degree, state jail or class 1, 2, etc. (VA). The number of classifications and the corresponding crimes vary by state and are determined by the legislature. Usually, the legislature also determines the maximum punishment allowable for each felony class; this avoids the necessity of defining specific sentences for every possible crime. A felony may be punishable with imprisonment for one or more years or death in the case of the most serious felonies, such as murder, treason, and espionage; indeed, at common law when the British and American legal systems divorced in 1776, felonies were crimes for which the punishment was either death or forfeiture of property. In modern times, felons can receive punishments which range in severity; from probation, to imprisonment, to execution for premeditated murder or other serious crimes. In the United States felons often face additional consequences, such as the loss of voting rights in many states; exclusion from certain lines of work and difficulty in finding a job in others; prohibition from obtaining certain licenses; exclusion from purchase and possession of firearms, ammunition and body armour; and ineligibility to run for or be elected to public office. In addition, some states consider a felony conviction to be grounds for an uncontested divorce. All of these losses of privileges, including others noted explicitly by the judge in sentencing, are known as collateral consequences of criminal charges. Finally if a felon is not a U.S. citizen, that person may be subject to deportation after sentencing is complete. Civil sanctions imposed on United States citizens convicted of a felony in many states include the loss of competence to serve on a grand or petit jury or to vote in elections even after release from prison. While controversial, these disabilities are explicitly sanctioned by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, a Reconstruction-era amendment that deals with permissible state regulation of voting rights. Expungement For state law convictions, expungement is determined by the law of the state. Few states do not allow expungement, regardless of the offense. Federal law does not have any provisions for persons convicted of felonies in a federal United States district court to apply to have their record expunged. The only relief that an individual prosecuted in Federal Court may receive is a Presidential Pardon, which does not expunge the conviction, but rather grants relief from the civil disabilities that stem from it. United States Department of Justice, Pardon Information and Instructions "While a presidential pardon will restore various rights lost as a result of the pardoned offense and should lessen to some extent the stigma arising from a conviction, it will not erase or expunge the record of your conviction." See also Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives Compounding a felony Criminal law Civil law DEA FBI FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives Federal crime Felony murder Law of the United States Misdemeanor Misprision of felony Record sealing RICO State court Supreme Court of the United States Three Strikes Law United States district court United States Marshals Service United States Secret Service References | Felony |@lemmatized felony:23 serious:4 crime:12 united:12 state:24 previously:1 common:5 law:12 country:2 term:1 originate:1 english:1 originally:1 involve:2 confiscation:1 convict:3 person:4 land:1 good:1 call:1 misdemeanor:6 abolish:1 distinction:4 replace:1 summary:1 offence:2 indictable:1 still:1 widely:1 apply:2 federal:5 government:1 define:2 potential:1 punishment:5 one:2 year:2 long:1 prison:2 usc:1 overview:1 commonly:1 consider:2 include:3 limit:1 aggravate:1 assault:1 battery:1 arson:1 burglary:1 illegal:2 drug:2 abuse:1 sale:1 embezzlement:1 grand:2 theft:1 tax:1 evasion:1 treason:2 espionage:2 racketeering:1 robbery:1 murder:4 rape:1 kidnapping:1 fraud:1 broadly:1 categorize:1 either:2 violent:2 non:1 property:2 white:1 collar:1 offenses:1 offense:4 though:1 similar:1 nature:1 may:8 depend:1 circumstance:1 example:1 manufacture:1 distribution:1 possession:4 controlled:1 substance:1 although:1 small:1 amount:1 deadly:1 weapon:3 generally:1 legal:2 carry:1 restricted:1 area:1 school:1 view:1 regardless:2 whether:1 intent:1 use:1 divide:1 participant:1 four:1 basic:3 category:2 first:2 degree:5 principal:4 actually:1 commit:1 question:1 second:1 aiders:2 abettor:2 present:1 scene:1 accessory:2 fact:2 help:2 criminal:4 event:2 take:2 place:2 course:1 century:1 however:1 american:2 jurisdiction:1 eliminate:1 among:1 three:2 gonzales:1 v:1 duenas:1 alvarez:1 u:2 citation:1 omit:1 also:3 classify:1 class:5 b:2 etc:2 accord:1 seriousness:1 new:1 york:1 e:2 c:1 ii:1 severe:1 others:3 numerically:1 g:1 capital:1 life:1 jail:1 va:1 number:1 classification:1 corresponding:1 vary:1 determine:3 legislature:2 usually:1 maximum:1 allowable:1 avoid:1 necessity:1 specific:1 sentence:2 every:1 possible:1 punishable:1 imprisonment:2 death:2 case:1 indeed:1 british:1 system:1 divorce:2 forfeiture:1 modern:1 time:1 felon:3 receive:2 range:1 severity:1 probation:1 execution:1 premeditated:1 often:1 face:1 additional:1 consequence:2 loss:3 vote:3 right:3 many:2 exclusion:2 certain:2 line:1 work:1 difficulty:1 find:1 job:1 prohibition:1 obtain:1 license:1 purchase:1 firearm:2 ammunition:1 body:1 armour:1 ineligibility:1 run:1 elect:1 public:1 office:1 addition:1 conviction:5 ground:1 uncontested:1 privilege:1 note:1 explicitly:2 judge:1 sentencing:1 know:1 collateral:1 charge:1 finally:1 citizen:2 subject:1 deportation:1 complete:1 civil:3 sanction:2 impose:1 competence:1 serve:1 petit:1 jury:1 election:1 even:1 release:1 controversial:1 disability:2 fourteenth:1 amendment:2 constitution:1 reconstruction:1 era:1 deal:1 permissible:1 regulation:1 expungement:3 allow:1 provision:1 district:2 court:5 record:3 expunge:3 relief:2 individual:1 prosecute:1 presidential:2 pardon:3 rather:1 grant:1 stem:1 department:1 justice:1 information:1 instruction:1 restore:1 various:1 lose:1 result:1 pardoned:1 lessen:1 extent:1 stigma:1 arise:1 erase:1 see:1 bureau:1 alcohol:1 tobacco:1 explosives:1 compound:1 dea:1 fbi:2 ten:1 wanted:1 fugitive:1 misprision:1 seal:1 rico:1 supreme:1 strike:1 marshal:1 service:2 secret:1 reference:1 |@bigram felony_misdemeanor:3 indictable_offence:1 aggravate_assault:1 grand_theft:1 tax_evasion:1 controlled_substance:1 gonzales_v:1 punishable_imprisonment:1 felony_murder:2 firearm_ammunition:1 convict_felony:2 petit_jury:1 fourteenth_amendment:1 wanted_fugitive:1 supreme_court:1 |
1,036 | Microassembler | A microassembler (sometimes called a meta-assembler) is a computer program that helps prepare a microprogram to control the low level operation of a computer in much the same way an assembler helps prepare higher level code for a processor. The difference is that the microprogram is usually only developed by the processor manufacturer and works intimately with the hardware. The microprogram defines the instruction set any normal program (including both application programs and operating systems) is written in. The use of a microprogram allows the manufacturer to fix certain mistakes, including working around hardware design errors, without modifying the hardware. Another means of employing microassembler-generated microprograms is in allowing the same hardware to run different instruction sets. After it is assembled, the microprogram is then loaded to a control store to become part of the logic of a CPU's control unit. Some microassemblers are more generalized and are not targeted at a single computer architecture. For example, through the use of macro-assembler-like capabilities, Digital Equipment Corporation used their MICRO2 microassembler for a very wide range of computer architectures and implementations. If a given computer implementation supports a writeable control store, the microassembler is usually provided to customers as a means of writing customized microcode. | Microassembler |@lemmatized microassembler:4 sometimes:1 call:1 meta:1 assembler:3 computer:5 program:3 help:2 prepare:2 microprogram:5 control:4 low:1 level:2 operation:1 much:1 way:1 high:1 code:1 processor:2 difference:1 usually:2 develop:1 manufacturer:2 work:2 intimately:1 hardware:4 define:1 instruction:2 set:2 normal:1 include:2 application:1 operate:1 system:1 write:2 use:3 allow:2 fix:1 certain:1 mistake:1 around:1 design:1 error:1 without:1 modify:1 another:1 mean:2 employ:1 generated:1 microprograms:1 run:1 different:1 assemble:1 load:1 store:2 become:1 part:1 logic:1 cpu:1 unit:1 microassemblers:1 generalized:1 target:1 single:1 architecture:2 example:1 macro:1 like:1 capability:1 digital:1 equipment:1 corporation:1 wide:1 range:1 implementation:2 give:1 support:1 writeable:1 provide:1 customer:1 customized:1 microcode:1 |@bigram |
1,037 | Binary_prefix | In computing, a binary prefix is a set of letters that precede a unit of measure (such as a byte) to indicate multiplication by a power of two. In certain contexts in computing, such as computer memory sizes, units of information storage and communication traffic (Byte) have traditionally been reported in multiples of powers of two. The term binary prefix is intended to differentiate usage of certain symbolic abbreviations (for example, k or kilo) from the SI prefixes, which are always decimal. As the binary multipliers 1024 (210), (220), etc., are close in value to certain SI prefixes such as kilo (1000 = 103) and mega ( = 106), respectively, it has been common practice amongst computer professionals to use these prefixes for the binary multiples – for example, to use the symbol "M" ("mega") to mean instead of . However, these prefixes have decimal meanings in other contexts, e.g., when used with SI units. Also, certain areas of computing have always used these prefixes as decimal multipliers, for example, when specifying quantities of bits transmitted on a serial transmission medium. This has led to ambiguity in intended use of these prefixes. In 1999, following recommendations by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 1995 IUCr 1995 Report - IUCr IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) and National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the standards organization known as the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) adopted a set of distinct prefixes (cf. IEC 60027), e.g., kibi (symbol Ki, from "kilobinary") and mebi (symbol Mi, from "megabinary"), to indicate binary multipliers. The system used the multiplier 1024 (210), rather than 1000 (103) as in the SI system, to arrive at successively larger prefixes. Under this recommendation, the SI prefixes should only be used in the decimal sense: kilobyte and megabyte denote one thousand bytes and one million bytes respectively, while kibibyte and mebibyte denote 1024 bytes and bytes respectively. This recommendation has since been adopted by some other leading national and international standards bodies, that now prescribe that the prefixes k, M and G should always refer to powers of ten, even in the context of information technology. Notwithstanding the availability of the new binary prefixes and their unambiguous meaning, they have seen limited adoption in practice; the use of K (or k), M and G as binary multipliers when denoting the capacity of solid‑state memory like random access memory (RAM) remains a ubiquitous industry practice. Hewlett-Packard, Dell, Sony, Apple Inc., Toshiba, GatewaySun Microsystems, 4AllMemory.com History Early usage Early computers used one of two addressing methods to access the system memory; binary (base-2) or decimal (base-10). For instance, the IBM 701 (1952) used binary and could address 2,048 36-bit words, while the IBM 702 (1953) used decimal and could address 10,000 7-bit words. By the mid 1960s, binary addressing had become the standard architecture in computer design. The computer system documentation would specify the memory size with an exact number such as 32768, 65536 or 131072 words of storage (all powers of 2). There were several methods used to abbreviate these quantities. The use of K in the binary sense as in a "32K core" can be found as early as 1959 Note: the IBM 704 core memory units had 4096 36-bit words. Up to 32,768 words could be installed "The 8K core stores were getting fairly common in this country in 1954. The 32K store started mass production in 1956; it is the standard now for large machines and at least 200 machines of the size (or its equivalent in the character addressable machines) are in existence today (and at least 100 were in existence in mid-1959)." Note: The IBM 1401 was a character addressable computer. Gene Amdahl's seminal 1964 article on IBM System/360 used 1K to mean 1024. Figure 1 gives storage (memory) capacity ranges of the various models in "Capacity 8 bit bytes, 1 K = 1024" This style was used by other computer vendors, the CDC 7600 System Description (1968) made extensive use of K as 1024. Another style was to truncate the last 3 digits and append K. The exact values , and would then become 32K, 65K and 131K. (If were instead rounded off, it would be 33K; if K = 1024 were used, 65,536 would become "64K".) This style was used from about 1965 to 1975. These two styles (K = 1024 and truncation) were used loosely around the same time, sometimes by the same company. (In discussions of binary-addressed memories, the exact size was evident from context.) The HP 21MX real-time computer (1974) denoted 196608 as 196K and as 1 M, while the HP 3000 business computer (1973) could have 64K, 96K, or 128K bytes of memory. The terms Kbit, Kbyte, Mbit and Mbyte started to be used as binary units in the early 1970s. Most memory capacities were expressed in K, even when M could have been used: The IBM System/370 Model 158 brochure (1972) had the following: "Real storage capacity is available in 512K increments ranging from 512K to 2,048K bytes." Megabyte was used to describe the 22-bit addressing of DEC PDP-11/70 (1975) and gigabyte the 30-bit addressing DEC VAX11/780 (1977). By the mid 1970s it was common to see K (e.g. Kbyte) meaning 1024 and the occasional M (e.g. Mbyte) as 1048576 for words or bytes of computer memory (RAM) while K and M were commonly used with their decimal meaning for disk storage. In the 1980s the term G (e.g. GB) with decimal meaning was commonly applied to disk storage while M in its binary meaning became common for computer memory. In the 1990s G in its binary meaning became common usage for computer memory. The first TB hard disk drive (terabyte, decimal meaning) was introduced in 2007. PC World - Hitachi Introduces 1-Terabyte Hard Drive The dual use of these prefixes as both decimal and binary quantities was defined in standards and dictionaries. The 1986 ANSI/IEEE Std 1084-1986 defined dual uses for kilo and mega. The binary units Kbyte and Mbyte were formally defined in ANSI/IEEE Std 1212-1991. The terms Kbyte, Mbyte, and Gbyte are found in the trade press and in IEEE journals. "Gigabyte" was formally defined in IEEE Std 610.10-1994 as either or 230 bytes. Kilobyte, Kbyte, and KB are equivalent units and all are defined in the current standard, IEEE 100-2000. "kB See kilobyte." "Kbyte Kilobyte. Indicates 210 bytes." "Kilobyte Either 1000 or 210 or 1024 bytes." The standard also defines megabyte and gigabyte. There is a note that an alternative notation for base-2 is under development. The industry has coped with the dual definitions because system memory (RAM) typically uses the binary meaning while disk storage uses the decimal meaning. There are exceptions like diskettes and CDs. There are no SI units for computer storage capacity but the decimal prefix meanings of KB, MB, and GB are often referred to as SI prefixes. Suggestions for new prefixes While computer scientists typically used k to mean 1000, they recognized the convenience that would result from working with powers of 1024 and the confusion that resulted from using the same abbreviation for two definitions. Letters to the editor: Abbreviations for computer and memory sizes. Donald R. Morrison, Sandia Corp, Communications of the ACM, Volume 11, Issue 3 (March 1968) Page: 150 Several proposals for unique symbols were made in 1968. (At the time, memory size was small, and only K was in widespread use.) Donald Morrison proposed to use the Greek letter κ to denote 1024, κ² to denote 1024×1024, and so on. Wallace Givens responded with a proposal to use bK as an abbreviation for 1024 and bK2 or bK² for 1024×1024, though he noted that neither the Greek letter nor lowercase letter b would be easy to reproduce on computer printers of the day. Letters to the editor: proposed abbreviation for 1024: bK, Wallace Givens, Applied National Lab, Communications of the ACM archive, Volume 11, Issue 6 (June 1968), Page: 391 Bruce A. Martin further proposed that the units be abandoned altogether, and the letter B be used as a binary exponent, similar to E notation, to create shorthands like 3B20 for 3×220 Letters to the editor: On binary notation, Bruce A. Martin, Associated Universities Inc., Communications of the ACM, Volume 11, Issue 10 (October 1968) Page: 658 None of these gained much acceptance, and capitalization of the letter K became the de facto standard for binary notation, though this could not be extended to higher powers. Later, as the discrepancy between the two systems increased, more proposals for unique units were made. In 1996, Markus Kuhn proposed a system of units with di prefixes, like the "dikilobyte" (K₂B or K2B). Standardized units for use in information technology, Markus Kuhn, 1996-12-29 The binary set of prefixes seem to have been first proposed by the IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols in 1995. At that time, it was proposed that the terms kilobyte and megabyte be used only for 103 bytes and 106 bytes respectively. The new prefixes "kibi" (kilobinary), "mebi" (megabinary) and "gibi" (gigabinary) were also proposed at the time, and the proposed symbols for the prefixes were "kb", "Mb" and "Gb" respectively, rather than "Ki", "Mi" and "Gi". The proposal was not accepted at the time. The IEEE had begun to collaborate with the ISO and IEC to find acceptable names for binary prefixes. The IEC proposed "kibi", "mebi", "gibi" and "tebi", with the prefixes "Ki", "Mi", "Gi" and "Ti" respectively, in 1996. 1996 IUCr IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) report The IEEE decided that IEEE standards would use the prefixes "kilo" etc. with their metric definitions, allowing the base-two definitions to be used in an interim period as long as such usage was explicitly pointed out on a case-by-case basis. Bruce Barrow, "A Lesson in Megabytes," IEEE Standards Bearer, January 1997, page 5 In January 1999, the IEC published the first international standard (IEC 60027-2 Amendment 2) with the new prefixes, extended up to "pebi" (Pi) and "exbi" (Ei). "These prefixes for binary multiples, which were developed by IEC Technical Committee (TC) 25, Quantities and units, and their letter symbols, with the strong support of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), were adopted by the IEC as Amendment 2 to IEC International Standard IEC 60027-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology - Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics." IUCR 1999 report on IUPAC Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols Proposals for alternative sets of prefixes have continued following the introduction of these prefixes as well. Donald Knuth, who uses decimal notation like 1 MB = 1000 kB, The Art of Computer Programming Volume 1, Donald Knuth, pp. 24 and 94 has proposed that the powers of 1024 be designated as "large kilobytes" and "large megabytes" (abbreviated KKB and MMB, as "doubling the letter connotes both binary-ness and large-ness"). Knuth: Recent News (1999) Prefixes IECRepresentationsSI prefix in binary use Name Symbol Base 2 Base 1024 Base 10 Value Name Symbol kibi Ki 210 10241 ~103 kilo k/K mebi Mi 220 10242 ~106 mega M gibi Gi 230 10243 ~109 giga G tebi Ti 240 10244 ~1012 tera T pebi Pi 250 10245 ~1015 peta P exbi Ei 260 10246 ~1018 exa E zebi Zi 270 10247 ~1021 zetta Z yobi Yi 280 10248 ~1024 yotta Y Traditional prefixes in binary use Quantities that are multiples of the unit by a power of 2 are indicated using similarly-valued SI prefixes, such as using kilo (the SI prefix for 1000) to indicate 210=1024. Byte multiples using binary powers up to yottabyte are given by the on-line computing dictionary FOLDOC. Free on-line Dictionary of Computing The one-letter symbols are identical to SI prefixes, except for "K", which is used interchangeably with "k" (in SI, only the lower-case "k" represents 1000). These prefixes are in common use in contexts such as file and memory sizes. The names and values of the SI prefixes were defined in the 1960 SI standard, with powers-of-1000 values. Standard dictionaries do recognize the binary use of these prefixes. Oxford online dictionary defines, for example, megabyte as: "Computing a unit of information equal to one million or (strictly) ." IEC standard prefixes In January 1999, the International Electrotechnical Commission introduced in an addendum to IEC 60027-2 the prefixes kibi (kibibyte), mebi, gibi, etc., and the symbols Ki, Mi, Gi, etc. to specify binary multiples of a quantity and eliminate the ambiguity with their meanings. The names for the new standard are derived from the original SI prefixes followed by "binary", such as "kilobinary", and can be shortened to a prefix like "kibi". The new standard also clarifies that, from the point of view of the IEC, the SI prefixes will remain to have their base-10 meaning and never have a base-2 meaning. The second edition of the standard IEC 60027-2 (2000-11) Ed. 2.0 defined them only up to exbi, but in 2005, the third edition added prefixes zebi and yobi, thus matching all SI prefixes with their binary counterparts. On 19 March 2005 the IEEE standard IEEE 1541-2002 (Prefixes for Binary Multiples) was elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period. Nevertheless, , the IEEE Publications division does not use the IEC prefixes in its major magazines such as Spectrum "A lot can happen in a decade. You can hold the Nokia N800 in your hand, yet it’s a near-exact match for a high-end desktop PC from 10 years ago. It has a 320-megahertz processor, 128 megabytes of RAM, and a few gigabytes of available mass storage." or Computer. "The processor has a memory subsystem with separate first-level 32-Kbyte instruction and data caches, and a 512-Kbyte unified second-level cache." Authors are with IBM. The harmonized ISO/IEC IEC 80000-13:2008 standard cancels and replaces subclauses 3.8 and 3.9 of IEC 60027-2:2005 (those defining Prefixes for binary multiples). The only significant change is the addition of explicit definitions for some quantities. niso, New Specs and Standards BIPM (the International Bureau of Weights and Measures which maintains ) expressly prohibits the binary prefix usage, and recommends the use of the IEC prefixes as an alternative since computing units are not included in SI. . The binary definition of the prefixes k, M, G etc is not permitted by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Approximate ratios between binary and decimal values As the order of magnitude increases, the percentage difference between the binary and decimal values of the prefixes increases, from 2.4% (with the kilo prefix) to over 20% (with the yotta prefix). This makes differentiating between the two increasingly important as larger and larger data storage and transmission technologies are developed. Name Bin ÷ Dec Dec ÷ Bin Percentage difference kilobyte 1.024 0.976 +2.4% or −2.3% megabyte 1.049 0.954 +4.9% or −4.6% gigabyte 1.074 0.931 +7.4% or −6.9% terabyte 1.100 0.909 +10.0% or −9.1% petabyte 1.126 0.888 +12.6% or −11.2% exabyte 1.153 0.867 +15.3% or −13.3% zettabyte 1.181 0.847 +18.1% or −15.3% yottabyte 1.209 0.827 +20.9% or −17.3% Example: 300 GB (300×109 B) ≅ 279.4 GiB (279.4×10243 B) Usage notes In this section, the phrase "decimal unit" is used to denote "SI designation understood in its standard, decimal, power-of-1000 sense" and "binary unit" means "SI designation understood in its binary, power-of-1024 sense." B is the symbol for bytes (as per computer-industry standard IEEE 1541 and IEC 60027), while both bit (as per ISO/IEC 80000) and b (as per IEEE 1541-2002) are used as the symbol for bits. Certain units are always understood as decimal even in computing contexts. For example, hertz (Hz), which is used to measure clock rates of electronic components, and bit/s, used to measure bit rate. So a 1 GHz processor performs clock ticks per second, a 128 kbit/s MP3 stream consumes 128,000 bits (16 kB, 15.625 KiB) per second, and a 1 Mbit/s Internet connection can transfer (125 kB, approx 122 KiB) per second, assuming an 8-bit byte, and no overhead. Binary vs. Decimal Measurements Pronunciation It is suggested that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as "bee." Files Prior to the release of Mac OS (1984), file sizes were typically reported by the operating system in decimal digits without prefixes of any sort. Today, most operating systems are capable of reporting file sizes with prefixes. Most Unix-like systems which use the ls command to display file sizes use powers of 1024 indicated as KB/MB. Microsoft Windows reports file sizes in binary units but does not use IEC standard prefixes. Computer memory The 536,870,912 byte (512×220) capacity of these RAM modules is stated as "512 MB" on the label. Measurements of most types of electronic memory such as RAM, ROM and Flash (large scale disk-like flash is sometimes an exception) are given in binary units, as they are made in power-of-two sizes. This is the most natural configuration for memory, as all combinations of their address lines map to a valid address, allowing easy aggregation into a larger contiguous block of memory. JEDEC Solid State Technology Association, the semiconductor engineering standardization body of the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) in Standard 100B.01[6] continues to include definitions in the binary sense K, M and G as prefixes to units of semiconductor memory (see JEDEC memory standards), noting that these definitions are "only included to reflect common usage" and noting that "IEEE/ASTM SI 10-1997 states 'This practice frequently leads to confusion and is deprecated.'" All standards published by JEDEC use the common usage, including end-user packaging recommendations for memory chips. Many computer programming tasks naturally reference memory in terms of powers of two. For example, a 16-bit pointer can reference at most 65,536 items (bytes, words, or other objects), or an operating system might map memory in terms of 4096-byte pages, in which case exactly 8192 pages could be allocated within of hardware memory. It is convenient to informally express these numbers, respectively, as 64K items, or as 8K pages of 4 Kbytes (KiB) each within 32 MBytes (MiB) of memory. A programmer can easily mentally calculate that "8K × 4K is 32 meg" and get it exactly right, within this powers-of-two context. This convenience is likely one source of originally adapting "kilo" and "mega" into shorthand for 1024 and 1048576 as jargon within a segment of the industry. Hard disk drives HDD manufacturers mostly state capacity in decimal units. This usage has a long tradition, even predating the SI system of decimal prefixes adopted in 1960, as follows: The first disk drive the IBM 350 (1950s) had 5 million 6 bit characters organized in 100 character sectors (i.e., blocks). This predates the SI system. In the 1960s most disk drives used IBM's variable block length format (called, Count Key Data or "CKD"). IBM invented the disk drive in 1956 and until the late 1960s its drives and their clones were dominant. See, e.g. US vs. IBM antitrust litigation (Jan 1969), especially IBM analyses of Memorex and other disk drive companies. Any block size could be specified up to the maximum track length. Blocks ("records" in IBM's terminology) of 88, 96, 880 and 960 were often used because they related to the fixed block size of punch cards. The drive capacity was usually stated in full track record blocking, for example, the 100 megabyte 3336 disk pack only achieved that capacity with a full track block size of 13,030 bytes. CKD continued into the 1990s and perhaps into this day. In the 1970s and 1980s most drives were specified with unformatted tracks (the unformatted capacity) with the particular block size and formatted capacity a function of the controller design. For example, the ST412 of IBM PC/XT fame had an unformatted capacity of 12.75 MB (12.75×106 B) and with the Xebec controller and 512 byte blocks it formatted to and was advertised as a 10.0 MB (10.0×106 B) HDD. Other controllers supported other block sizes resulting in other formatted capacities. The advent of intelligent interfaces (SCSI and IDE) in the early 1990s took the block size decision into the drive and virtually all chose 512 bytes, for no reason other than that was what IBM had chosen when they picked the Xebec controller for the PC/XT. Capacity continued to be specified by the HDD manufacturers with SI prefix definitions. , most, if not all, HDD manufacturers continue to use decimal prefixes to identify capacity. On 6 January 2007, a check of the websites of Fujitsu, HGST, Samsung, Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital showed these companies (representing virtually all of the HDD industry by unit volume) specify capacity with the SI prefix definitions. Flash drives USB Flash Drive and Flash-based memory cards like CompactFlash and Secure Digital are typically classified in "powers of two" multiples of decimal megabytes; for example, a "256 MB" card provides at least 256 million bytes (), not 256×1024×1024 (). Although the devices usually have at least the expected byte capacity, each manufacturer allocates different portions of the device's ultimate capacity for such things as wear levelling. Floppy drives Floppy disk drive and media manufacturers use decimal units for unformatted recording capacity while most computer operating systems use binary units to measure the formatted capacity. The original IBM Personal Computer (1981) used a Tandon TM100 5¼ inch floppy disk drive. The single sided drive was rated at 250 kilobytes (unformatted) and the double sided version was rated at 500 kilobytes. A 5¼ inch diskette recorded at double density (MFM) will hold 6,250 bytes per track and has 40 tracks per side, yielding 250,000 bytes per side. To make it practical to record smaller blocks of data, the tracks are formatted into sectors with gaps between them. The gaps allow individual sectors to be recorded without overwriting adjacent sectors. Each sector also has additional header bytes to identify the sector. With IBM PC-DOS 1.0 and 1.1, each track has 8 sectors of 512 bytes and this provides 163,840 bytes per side (8 × 512 × 40). The IBM user documentation referred to this as "160KB" for single sided diskette and "320KB" for double sided diskette. Some software applications "used with DOS 1.10, will operate with either two 160KB drives or two 320KB drives. Both drives MUST be of the same type..." Starting with PC-DOS 2.0 (1983), each track had 9 sectors of 512 bytes. The formatted capacity was increased to 184,320 bytes per side or 368,640 bytes per diskette. The IBM documentation referred to these as "180KB" and "360KB" diskettes. The same drives and media can have different capacities depending on format. "Beginning with DOS Version 2.00, DOS formats diskettes at 9 sectors per track, which increases capacity from 163,840 to 184,320 characters of information for single-sided diskettes and from 327,680 to 368,640 characters for dual-sided diskettes. The smaller capacity diskettes created by DOS Version 1.00 or DOS Version 1.10 (8 sectors per track) are also usable with DOS Version 2.00." On all diskettes the capacity available to the user will be smaller that the total number of sectors because some are reserved by the operating system for boot records or directory tables. The IBM Personal Computer/AT (1984) had a new 5¼ inch disk drive that had 80 tracks per side, rotated at 360 rpm (versus 300 rpm) and had a new diskette media. The formatted capacity was 1228800 bytes or 1200 KB. (80 tracks × 15 sectors × 512 bytes × 2 sides) The IBM PC Convertible (1986) used the 3½ inch diskettes. These were similar in recording technology to the original 5¼ inch drives except they had 80 tracks per side. The formatted capacity was 737,280 bytes or 720 KB. Apple used the same disk with a different recording technology, GCR, that gave a formatted capacity of 819,200 bytes or 800 KB. Apple referred to this as an "800K" disk. "This article gives the specifications for the 800K floppy disks and the 1.4MB floppy disks." 800K Disk has 1600 sectors and 1.4MB Disk has 2880 sectors. A sector is 512 bytes. The last widely adopted diskette was the 3½ inch high density. This has twice the capacity as the 720 KB diskettes, 1474560 bytes or 1440 KB. The drive was marketed as 1.44 MB when a more accurate value would have been 1.4 MB (1.40625 MB). Some users have noticed the missing 0.04 MB and both Apple and Microsoft have support bulletins referring to them as 1.4 MB. "The 1.44-megabyte (MB) value associated with the 3.5-inch disk format does not represent the actual size or free space of these disks. Although its size has been popularly called 1.44 MB, the correct size is actually 1.40 MB." The 1200 KB 5¼ inch diskette was marketed as 1.2 MB (1.171875 MiB) without any controversy. Optical discs CD capacities are always given in binary units. A "700 MB" (or "80 minute") CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 MiB (approx 730 MB). Data capacity of CDs However, the capacities of other optical disc storage media like DVD, Blu-ray Disc, HD DVD are given in decimal units. A "4.7 GB" DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 GiB. Understanding Recordable and Rewritable DVD Buses Bus clock speeds and therefore bandwidths are both given in decimal units. For example, "PC3200" memory on a double pumped bus, transferring 8 bytes per cycle running with a clock speed of 200 MHz = 200,000,000 cycles per second has a bandwidth of 200,000,000 × 2 × 8 = 3,200,000,000 B/s = 3.2 GB/s (about 2.98 GiB/s). Software , most software does not distinguish symbols for binary and decimal units. The IEC binary naming convention has been adopted by some, but is not used universally. The binary convention is supported by standardization bodies and technical organizations such as IEEE, CIPM, NIST, and SAE. Prefixes for Binary Multiples — The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units — Section C.1.12 — SI prefixes The new binary prefixes have also been adopted by the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) as the harmonization document HD 60027-2:2003-03. HD 60027-2:2003 Information about the harmonization document (obtainable on order) This document will be adopted as a European standard. prEN 60027-2:2006 Information about the EN standardization process Examples of software that use IEC standard prefixes (along with standard SI prefixes) include: The Linux kernel ESR post on LKML GNU Core Utilities Flyspray Flyspray bugs.mysql.com bugs.mysql.com GParted DFSee DFSee disktype disktype raidutil Mac OS X Manual Page For raidutil(8) FreeDOS-32 FreeDOS-32 - Standards Compliance ifconfig GNOME Network GNOME Network SLIB SLIB Cygwin/X Cygwin/XFree86 HTTrack Re: minor typo - HTTrack Website Copier Forum Pidgin (IM client) http://developer.pidgin.im/ticket/1684 Developer discussion Deluge zFTPServer What's New in zFTPServer Suite yafc SourceForge.net: Files tnftp archive.netbsd.se WinSCP WinSCP :: Recent Version History One of the stated goals of the introduction of the binary prefixes was "to preserve the SI prefixes as unambiguous decimal multipliers." Programs such as fdisk/cfdisk, parted, and apt-get use SI prefixes with their decimal meaning. Consumer confusion In the early days of computers there was little or no consumer confusion because of the sophisticated nature of the consumers and the practice of computer manufacturers to specify their products with capacities in full precision, e.g., the 1968 IBM stated System 360 "Model 91s can accommodate up to 6 291 496 bytes of main storage." System/360 Model 91 Hard disk drive manufacturers used MB, i.e. 106 bytes, to characterize their products as early as 1974. The Product Line Card unambiguously uses MB to characterize HDD capacity in millions of bytes By 1977, in its first edition, Disk/Trend, a leading hard disk drive industry marketing consultancy segmented the industry according to MBs (decimal sense) of capacity. 1977 Disk/Trend Report - Rigid Disk Drives, published June 1977 The presentation of hard disk drive capacity by an operating system using MB in a binary sense appears no earlier than Macintosh Finder after 1984. Prior to that, on the systems that had a hard disk drive, capacity was presented in decimal digits with no prefix of any sort (e.g., MS/PC DOS CHKDSK command). The following three images show the discrepancy of reporting the identical disk capacity on the manufacturer's packaging (160 GB), the Windows XP disk manager (149.05 GB), and the drive properties display (152625 MB). Consumers are often confused by the differences in the reported values. Legal disputes There have been two significant class action lawsuits against digital storage manufactures. One case involved flash memory and the other involved hard disk drives. Both were settled with the manufactures agreeing to clarify the storage capacity of their products on the consumer packaging. Willem Vroegh v. Eastman Kodak Company On 20 February 2004, Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, Fuji Photo Film USA, Eastman Kodak Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., Memorex Products, Inc.; PNY Technologies Inc., SanDisk Corporation, Verbatim Corporation, and Viking InterWorks alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their flash memory cards were false and misleading. Vroegh claimed that a 256 MB Flash Memory Device had only 244 MB of accessible memory. "Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes." The plaintiffs wanted the defendants to use the non-standard binary values 220 for megabyte and 230 for gigabyte. The plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards. The manufacturers agreed to clarify the flash memory card capacity on the packaging and web sites. http://www.sandisk.com/Assets/Categories/Products/sd_capacitydisclaimer.pdf The consumers could apply for "a discount of ten percent off a future online purchase from Defendants' Online Stores Flash Memory Device". Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation On 7 July 2005, an action entitled "Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation, et al.," was filed in the Superior Court for the City and County of San Francisco, Case No. CGC-05-442812. The case was subsequently moved to the Northern District of California, Case No. 05-03353 BZ. Although Western Digital maintained that their usage of units is consistent with "the indisputably correct industry standard for measuring and describing storage capacity", and that they "cannot be expected to reform the software industry", they agreed to settle in March 2006 with 14 June 2006 as the Final Approval hearing date. Western Digital offered to compensate customers with a free download of backup and recovery software valued at US$30. They also paid $500,000 in fees and expenses to San Francisco lawyers Adam Gutride and Seth Safier, who filed the suit. News article Western Digital had this footnote in their settlement. "Apparently, Plaintiff believes that he could sue an egg company for fraud for labeling a carton of 12 eggs a "dozen," because some bakers would view a "dozen" as including 13 items." The settlement called for Western Digital to add a disclaimer; flash memory and hard disk manufacturers have disclaimers on their packaging and web sites clarifying the formatted capacity of the flash memory or defining MB as 1 million bytes and 1 GB as 1 billion bytes. See also IEEE 1541-2002 Timeline of binary prefixes Integral data type Bit Nibble Byte Octet IEC 60027-2 IEEE 1541 Orders of magnitude (data) Specific units of IEC 60027-2 A.2 These units have individual articles: References Further reading — An introduction to binary prefixes —a 1996–1999 paper on bits, bytes, prefixes and symbols —Another description of binary prefixes —White-paper on the controversy over drive capacities External links A summary of the organizations, software, and so on that have implemented the new binary prefixes A plea for sanity KiloBytes vs. kilobits vs. Kibibytes (Binary prefixes) Storage Capacity Measurement Standards Converters SI/Binary Prefix Converter Decimal-to-Binary Prefixes and Binary-to-Decimal Prefixes Converter Tool to convert to/from the binary and standard units (up to yobibytes) be-x-old:Двайковыя прыстаўкі | Binary_prefix |@lemmatized compute:8 binary:64 prefix:81 set:4 letter:13 precede:1 unit:36 measure:7 byte:50 indicate:6 multiplication:1 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1,038 | Alchemy | Alchemy (Arabic: الخيمياء al-khimia) is both a philosophy and a practice with an aim of achieving ultimate wisdom as well as immortality, involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties. The practical aspect of alchemy generated the basics of modern inorganic chemistry, namely concerning procedures, equipment and the identification and use of many current substances. The fundamental ideas of alchemy are said to have arisen in the ancient Persian Empire. E. J. Holmyard, Alchemical Equipment in "A History of Technologyy ed. E. Singer et al." vol. II (Oxford, 1957), p. 731. Alchemy has been practiced in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia (today's Iran), India, China, Japan, and Korea in Classical Greece and Rome, in the Muslim civilizations, and then in Europe up to the 20th century—in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years. Etymology Alchemy, generally, derives from the Old French alkemie; from the Arabic al-kimia: "the art of transformation." Some scholars believe the Arabs borrowed the word kimia ("χημεία") from Greek for transmutation. Others, such as Mahdihassan, Mahdihassan S. "Alchemy, Chinese versus Greek, an etymological approach: a rejoinder" argue that its origins are Chinese. During the seventeenth century the change of name from Alchemy to chemistry took place, with the work of Robert Boyle, sometimes known as "The father of Chemistry" , who in his book "The Skeptical Chymist" attacked Paracelsus and the old Aristotelian concepts of the elements and laid down the foundations of modern chemistry. Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline "Renel the Alchemist", by Sir William Douglas, 1853 Alchemy became known as the spagyric art after Greek words meaning to separate and to join together in the 16th century, the word probably being coined by Paracelsus. Compare this with one of the dictums of Alchemy in Latin: SOLVE ET COAGULA — Separate, and Join Together (or dissolve and coagulate). The best-known goals of the alchemists were the transmutation of common metals into gold (called chrysopoeia) or silver (less well known is plant alchemy, or "spagyric"); the creation of a "panacea", or the elixir of life, a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely; and the discovery of a universal solvent. Alchemy at Dictionary.com Although these were not the only uses for the discipline, they were the ones most documented and well known. Certain Hermetic schools argue that the transmutation of lead into gold is analogical for the transmutation of the physical body (Saturn or lead) into Solar energy (gold) with the goal of attaining immortality. The True Nature of Hermetic Alchemy This is described as Internal Alchemy. Starting with the Middle Ages, Arabic and European alchemists invested much effort in the search for the "philosopher's stone", a legendary substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Alchemists were alternately persecuted or supported through the centuries. For example in 1317 Pope John 22nd issued a Bull against alchemical counterfeiting, and the Cistercians banned the practice amongst their members. In 1403 Henry 4th of England banned the practice of Alchemy. In the late 14th century Piers the Ploughman and Chaucer both painted unflattering pictures of Alchemists as thieves and liars. By contrast, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, sponsored various alchemists in their work at his court in Prague. Some people suppose that Alchemists made mundane contributions to the "chemical" industries of the day—ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of gunpowder, ink, dyes, paints, cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics, glass manufacture, preparation of extracts, liquors, and so on (it seems that the preparation of aqua vitae, the "water of life", was a fairly popular "experiment" among European alchemists). In reality, although Alchemists contributed distillation to Western Europe, they did little for any known industry. Goldsmiths knew long before Alchemists appeared how to tell what was good gold or fake, and industrial technology grew by the work of the artisans themselves, rather than any Alchemical helpers. Several early alchemists, such as Zosimos of Panopolis, are recorded as viewing alchemy as a spiritual discipline, and in the Middle Ages, metaphysical aspects increasingly came to be viewed as the true foundation of the art. Organic and inorganic chemical substances, physical states, and molecular material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states and ultimately, transformations. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were a blind, hiding their true spiritual philosophy, which being at odds with the Medieval Christian Church was a necessity that could have otherwise led them to the "stake and rack" of the Inquisition under charges of heresy. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laboriously "decoded" in order to discover their true meaning. In his Alchemical Catechism, Paracelsus clearly denotes that his usage of the metals was a symbol: Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver? A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life. Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used by psychologists and philosophers. Carl Jung reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a spiritual path. Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge. Jung, C. G., & Hinkle, B. M. (1912). Psychology of the Unconscious : a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, a contribution to the history of the evolution of thought. London: Kegan Paul Trench Trubner. (revised in 1952 as Symbols of Transformation, Collected Works Vol.5 ISBN 0-691-01815-4) Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in post-modern contexts. Jung saw alchemy as a Western proto-psychology dedicated to the achievement of individuation. Jung, C. G. (1944). Psychology and Alchemy (2nd ed. 1968 Collected Works Vol. 12 ISBN 0-691-01831-6). London: Routledge. In his interpretation, alchemy was the vessel by which Gnosticism survived its various purges into the Renaissance. Jung, C. G., & Jaffe A. (1962). Memories, Dreams, Reflections. London: Collins. This is Jung's autobiography, recorded and edited by Aniela Jaffe, ISBN 0-679-72395-1 In this sense, Jung viewed alchemy as comparable to a Yoga of the East. The practice of Alchemy seemed to change the mind and spirit of the Alchemist. His interpretation of Chinese alchemical texts in terms of his analytical psychology also served the function of comparing Eastern and Western alchemical imagery and core concepts and hence its possible inner sources (archetypes). C.-G. Jung Preface to Richard Wilhelm's translation of the I Ching C.-G. Jung Preface to the translation of The Secret of The Golden Flower Magnum opus The Great Work; mystic interpretation of its three stages: Meyrink und das theomorphische Menschenbild nigredo(-putrefactio), blackening(-putrefaction): individuation, purification, burnout of impurity; see also Suns in alchemy - Sol Nigeralbedo, whitening: spiritualisation, enlightenmentrubedo, reddening: unification of man with god, unification of the limited with the unlimited. Within the Magnum Opus, was the creation of the Sanctum Moleculae, that is the 'Sacred Masses' that were derived from the Sacrum Particulae, that is the 'Sacred Particles', needed to complete the process of achieving the Magnum Opus. Alchemy as a subject of historical research The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure hermetic language of the alchemists is gradually being "deciphered", historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements, cryptography, witchcraft, and the evolution of science and philosophy. History In an historical sense, Alchemy is the pursuit of transforming common metals into valuable gold. The origins of Western alchemy are traceable back to ancient Egypt. Neumann, Erich. The origins and history of consciousness, with a foreword by C.G. Jung. Translated from the German by R.F.C. Hull. New York : Pantheon Books, 1954. Confer p.255, footnote 76: "Since Alchemy actually originated in Egypt, it is not improbable that esoteric interpretations of the Osiris myth are among the foundations of the art ..." The Leyden papyrus X and the Stockholm papyrus along with the Greek magical papyri comprise the first "book" on alchemy still existent. Greek and Indian philosophers theorized that there were only four classical elements (rather than today's 117 chemical elements, a useful analogy is with the highly similar states of matter); Earth, Fire, Water, and Air. The Greek philosophers, in order to prove their point, burned a log: The log was the earth, the flames burning it was fire, the smoke being released was air, and the smoldering soot at the bottom was bubbling water. Because of this, the belief that these four "elements" were at the heart of everything soon spread, only later being replaced in the Middle Ages by Geber's theory of seven elements, which was then replaced by the modern theory of chemical elements during the early modern period. Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in astrology at the time. Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. Alchemy starts becoming much clearer in the 8th century with the works of the Islamic alchemist, Jabir ibn Hayyan (known as "Geber" in Europe), who introduced a methodical and experimental approach to scientific research based in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were mainly allegorical. Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942-1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67-68), Frankfurt. 2002: (cf. ) Other famous alchemists include Wei Boyang in Chinese alchemy; Calid and Rhazes in Islamic alchemy; Nagarjuna in Indian alchemy; and Albertus Magnus and pseudo-Geber in European alchemy; as well as the anonymous author of the Mutus Liber, published in France in the late 17th century, and which was a 'wordless book' that claimed to be a guide to making the philosopher's stone, using a series of 15 symbols and illustrations. The philosopher's stone was an object that was thought to be able to amplify one's power in alchemy and, if possible, grant the user ageless immortality, unless he fell victim to burnings or drowning; the common belief was that fire and water were the two greater elements that were implemented into the creation of the stone. In the case of the Chinese and European alchemists, there was a difference between the two. The European alchemists tried to transmute lead into gold, and, no matter how futile or toxic the element, would continue trying until it was royally outlawed later into the century. The Chinese, however, paid no heed to the philosopher's stone or transmutation of lead to gold; they focused more on medicine for the greater good. During Enlightenment, these "elixirs" were a strong cure for sicknesses, unless it was a test medicine. Most tests were generally fatal, but stabilized elixirs served great purposes. On the other hand, the Islamic alchemists were interested in alchemy for a variety of reasons, whether it was for the transmutation of metals or artificial creation of life, or for practical uses such as Islamic medicine or the chemical industries. A tentative outline is as follows: Egyptian alchemy [5000 BCE – 400 BC], beginning of alchemy Indian alchemy [1200 BC – Present] "The oldest Indian writings, the Vedas (Hindu sacred scriptures), contain the same hints of alchemy" - Multhauf, Robert P. & Gilbert, Robert Andrew (2008). Alchemy. Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). , related to Indian metallurgy; Nagarjuna was an important alchemist Greek alchemy [332 BCE – 642 AD], studied at the Library of Alexandria Stockholm papyrus Chinese alchemy [142 AD], Wei Boyang writes The Kinship of the ThreeIslamic alchemy [700 – 1400], Muslims were at the forefront of Alchemy and Chemistry in the period of the Islamic Golden Age or Islamic Renaissance. Islamic chemistry [800 – Present], Alkindus and Avicenna refute transmutation, Rhazes refutes four classical elements, and Tusi discovers conservation of mass European alchemy [1300 – Present], Saint Albertus Magnus builds on Arabic alchemy European chemistry [1661 – Present], Boyle writes The Sceptical Chymist, Lavoisier writes Elements of Chemistry, and Dalton publishes his Atomic Theory Modern connections to alchemy Islamic alchemy was a forerunner of modern scientific chemistry. Alchemists used many of the same laboratory tools that are used today. These tools were not usually sturdy or in good condition, especially during the medieval period of Europe. Many transmutation attempts failed when alchemists unwittingly made unstable chemicals. This was made worse by the unsafe conditions. Up to the 16th century, alchemy was considered serious science in Europe; for instance, Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous. Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are Roger Bacon, Saint Thomas Aquinas, Tycho Brahe, Thomas Browne, and Parmigianino. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism. Alchemy in traditional medicine Traditional medicines involve transmutation by alchemy, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In Chinese medicine the alchemical traditions of pao zhi will transform the nature of the temperature, taste, body part accessed or toxicity. In Ayurveda the samskaras are used to transform heavy metals and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day. Junius, Manfred M; The Practical Handbook of Plant Alchemy: An Herbalist's Guide to Preparing Medicinal Essences, Tinctures, and Elixirs; Healing Arts Press 1985 Nuclear transmutation In 1919, Ernest Rutherford used artificial disintegration to convert nitrogen into oxygen. From then on, this sort of scientific transmutation has been routinely performed in many nuclear physics-related laboratories and facilities, like particle accelerators, nuclear power stations and nuclear weapons as a by-product of fission and other physical processes. In Literature A play by Ben Jonson, The Alchemist, is a satirical and sceptical take on the subject Part 2 of Goethe's Faust, is full of alchemical symbolism see Alice Raphael: Goethe and the Philosopher's Stone, symbolical patterns in 'The Parable' and the second part of 'Faust', London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965 . According to Hermetic Fictions: Alchemy and Irony in the Novel (Keele University Press, 1995), by David Meakin, alchemy is also featured in such novels as those by William Godwin, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Emile Zola, Jules Verne, Marcel Proust, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, James Joyce, Gustav Meyrink, Lindsay Clarke, Marguerite Yourcenar, Umberto Eco, and Michel Butor. In popular culture The subject of alchemy is extensively used in many cartoons and comic books, often in the form of superpowers. In Fullmetal Alchemist, alchemy and transmutation are treated as sciences, mixed with magic but fully understandable and utilizable with proper knowledge. Fullmetal Alchemist also refers to equivalency or equivalent exchange for alchemy to work. In Buso Renkin, alchemy is used primarily as a means for superpowers, however it holds little resemblance to "actual" alchemy. Alchemy is also used in many video games, usually as a form of item creation and often involving the fusion of two or more items. In Secret of Evermore, the only video game from Square's North American division, alchemy takes the place of the normal magic system. The main character receives alchemic formulas instead of spells and by combining a wide variety of ingredients (such as wax, oil, limestone, and dry ice) a reaction will take place such as fireballs, healing, or shields. The Atelier and Mana Khemia series from GUST also heavily emphasize on alchemy. The games feature hundreds of ingredient and recipes that players need to find or derive themselves. Additionally, all weapons and certain items must be made, or synthesized, and they are not sold in shops, which therefore makes alchemy essential in character growth. The adventure game Zork Nemesis features a slightly stylised (to fit the fictional world of Zork) vision of alchemy, and uses knowledge of the processes as clues to solving puzzles.Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, as the name would suggest, has as a central theme a magical stone (called the Philosopher's Stone) that is supposed to grant ever-lasting life and be able to turn anything to gold. For the American publication, the name was changed to "Sorcerer's Stone," but the parallels between the book's magical stone and the alchemists' philosophers stone are still unmistakable. The Alchemist, by Paulo Coelho, discusses one boy's quest to fulfill his destiny, and on the way he is aided by an alchemist. Another novel called The Alchemist by Donna Boyd explains the life of an immortal Egyptian going about life from Ancient Egypt to modern civilization.The Alchemyst: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel by Michael Scott centers on twins, Sophie and Josh Newman, who are guided through their prophesied quest by Nicholas Flamel, a well-known alchemist in the 14th century. Short story by H. P. Lovecraft [1908] (1986). "The Alchemist". in S. T. Joshi (ed.). Dagon and Other Macabre Tales (9th corrected printing ed.). Sauk City, WI: Arkham House. ISBN 0-87054-039-4. Alchemy also serves as one of the themes in White Wolf's Promethean: The Created role-playing game, using the humours, classical metals, and the ideas of refinement and the Magnum Opus as central ideas. In Star Wars, the Sith have their own variation called Sith Alchemy, which calls upon the use of their magic to create hideous, unnatural beasts of the dark side, summon forth monsters called Sithspawn, strengthen their weapons, and various acts of corporeal necromancy. Darth Plagueis used this science to discover a technique similar to the real-world Elixir of life. California band Thrice created a four EP set named the Alchemy Index which centers around each of the four elements involved in the alchemical process. In contemporary art In the twentieth century alchemy was a profoundly important source of inspiration for the Surrealist artist Max Ernst, who used the symbolism of alchemy to inform and guide his work. M.E. Warlick wrote his Max Ernst and Alchemy describing this relationship in detail. Contemporary artists use alchemy as inspiring subject matter, like Odd Nerdrum, whose interest has been noted by Richard Vine, and the painter Michael Pearce Cal Lutheran | Department of Art - Faculty , whose interest in alchemy dominates his work. His works Fama The Gilded Raven Blog + » fama and The Aviator's Dream'' The Gilded Raven Blog + » Storm / The Aviator’s Dream particularly express alchemical ideas in a painted allegory. See also Other alchemical pages Alchemical symbol Alchemy in art and entertainment Alchemy in history Alembic Alkahest Astrology and alchemy Berith Jakob Boehme Circle with a point at its centre Elixir of life Emerald Tablet Robert Fludd Four Humors Hermeticism Homunculus Michael Maier Musaeum Hermeticum Paracelsus Philosopher's stone Quintessence Herbert Silberer Vulcan of the alchemists Monas Hieroglyphica Alchemy and psychoanalysis Carl Jung Analytical psychology Other resources List of alchemists List of magical terms and traditions List of occultists Related and alternative philosophies Western mystery tradition Internal alchemy Astrology Necromancy, magic, magick Esotericism, Rosicrucianism, Illuminati Taoism and the Five Elements Asemic writing Kayaku-Jutsu Acupuncture, moxibustion, ayurveda, homeopathy Anthroposophy Psychology and Carl Jung New Age Tay al-Ard Substances of the alchemists lead • tin • iron • copper • mercury • silver • gold phosphorus • sulfur (sulphur) • arsenic • antimony vitriol • quartz • cinnabar • pyrites • orpiment • galena magnesia • lime • potash • natron • saltpetre • kohl ammonia • ammonium chloride • alcohol • camphor sulfuric acid (sulphuric acid) • hydrochloric acid • nitric acid • acetic acid • formic acid • citric acid • tartaric acid aqua regia • gunpowder carmot Scientific connections Chemistry Physics Synthesis of noble metals Nuclear transmutation Scientific method Protoscience, Pseudoscience, and Anti-science Obsolete scientific theories Historicism Notes References Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books Trans. Richard Dales. External links Etymology of "alchemy" Hidden Symbolism of Alchemy and the Occult Arts by Herbert Silberer The Alchemy website - Alchemy from a metaphysical perspective. The al-kemi.org website - Alchemy from a spiritual/philosophical perspective. Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry Alchemy images Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Alchemy Antiquity, Vol. 77 (2003) - "A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab". The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry, Muir, M. M. Pattison (1913) "Transforming the Alchemists", New York Times, August 1, 2006. Historical revisionism and alchemy. Electronic library with hundreds alchemical books (15th- and 20th century) and 65 original manuscripts. 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1,039 | Geography_of_Kenya | Map of Kenya, showing major lakes & towns Topography of Kenya Introduction The geography of Kenya is diverse. Kenya has a coastline on the Indian Ocean, broad plains and numerous hills. Central and Western Kenya is characterized by the Great Rift Valley. Three of Africa's highest mountains are located in Kenya or its vicinity. These are Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and Kilimanjaro. The Kakamega Forest in western Kenya is relic of an East African rainforest. Much larger is Mau Forest, the largest forest complex in East Africa. Geography Location Eastern Africa, bordering the Indian Ocean, between Somalia and Tanzania Geographic coordinates: Area Total: 582 650 km² Land: 569 250 km² Water: 13 400 km² Land boundaries Total: 3446 km Border countries: Ethiopia 830 km, Somalia 682 km, Sudan 232 km, Tanzania 769 km, Uganda 933 km Coastline 536 km along the Indian Ocean. Maritime claims Continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm Territorial sea: 12 nm Climate The climate of Kenya varies by location within Kenya: from mostly cool every day, to always warm/hot. The climate along the coast is tropical. This means rainfall and temperatures are higher throughout the year. At the coastal city Mombasa, the air heats from cool to hot, almost every day (see chart below). The further inside Kenya, the more arid the climate becomes. An arid climate is nearly devoid of rainfall, and temperature swings widely according to the general time of the day/night. For many areas of Kenya, the daytime temperature rises about 12 C degrees (22 F degrees), almost every day. Elevation is the major factor in temperature levels, with the higher areas, on average, as 11 C degrees (20 F degrees) cooler, day or night. "NairobiDagoretti, Kenya: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data", Climate-Charts.com, 2008, web: CC741: compare Nairobi/Dagoretti data with the Kitale or Mombasa charts. "Kitale, Kenya: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data", Climate-Charts.com, 2008, web: CC661. The many mile-high cities have temperature swings from roughly 50-79 F degrees. Nairobi, at 1798 m (1.1 miles), ranges from 49-80 F degrees, and Kitale, at 1825 m (1.2 miles), ranges from 51-82 F degrees. The overnight lows are not like the "Garden of Eden" because, at night, heavy clothes or blankets are needed, in the highlands, when the temperature drops to about 50-54 F every night. At lower altitudes, the increased temperature is like day and night, literally: like starting the morning at the highland daytime high, and then adding the heat of the day, again. Hence, the overnight low temperatures near sealevel are nearly the same as the high temperatures of the elevated Kenyan highlands. However, locations along the Indian Ocean have more moderate temperatures, as a few degrees cooler in the daytime, such as at Mombasa (see chart below). There are slight seasonal variations in temperature, of 4 C degrees or 8 F degrees, cooler in the winter months. Although Kenya is centered at the equator, it shares the seasons of the southern hemisphere: with the warmest summer months in February-March and the coolest winter months in July-August, although only a few degrees cooler. On the higher mountains, such as Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon and Kilimanjaro, the weather can become bitter cold for most of the year. Some snowfall has occurred on the highest mountains. Climate Data for Mombasa (at Indian Ocean) "Mombasa, Kenya: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data", Climate-Charts.com, 2008, web: CC820: May precipitation was reset as "246" mm, converting 9.7 in. NOAA CodeStatisticJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecAvg0101TemperatureAverage F81.782.682.981.779.276.675.275.276.578.380.481.379.30201TemperatureHigh value F91.892.792.790.587.684.983.783.885.586.988.99188.30301TemperatureLow value F71.672.573.272.970.968.266.766.767.569.671.871.670.30615Precipitationin inches1.40.62.36.3 9.73.62.92.82.84.24.33.13.70101TemperatureAverage C27.628.128.327.6 26.224.824.024.024.725.726.927.426.270201TemperatureHigh value C33.233.733.732.5 30.929.428.728.829.730.531.632.831.290301TemperatureLow value C22.022.522.922.7 21.620.119.319.319.720.922.122.021.260615Precipitationin mm33.914.055.6154.3 24688.371.868.267.2103.4104.775.889.391109HumidityMaximum %76.076.078.082.0 85.084.086.085.082.081.080.078.081.081110HumidityMinimum %62.059.061.066.0 70.067.067.066.065.066.068.065.065.17 Terrain Kenya’s terrain is composed of low plains that rise into central highlands that are, in turn, bisected by the Great Rift Valley. Elevation extremes The lowest point on Kenya is at sea level on the Indian Ocean. The highest point on Kenya is 5,199 meters above sea level at Mount Kenya. Rivers The two main rivers are the Galana and the Tana. However, the Ewaso Ng'iro is a very important river supplying water from Mt. Kenya to the northern part of Kenya. Natural resources Natural resources that are found on Kenya include limestone, soda ash, salt, gemstones, fluorspar, zinc, diatomite, gypsum, wildlife and hydropower. Land use 8.01% of the land is arable. Permanent crops occupy 0.97% of the land. Other uses make up the rest of Kenya's land. (2005) Irrigated land 1030km² of Kenya' land is irrigated.(2003) Natural hazards Natural hazards include recurring drought and flooding during the rainy seasons. Environmental issues Current issues Current issues that threaten the environment at the moment include water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification and poaching. International agreements Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands, Whaling Signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Other information The Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa. There are glaciers on Mt. Kenya. Unique physiography supports abundant and varied wildlife of scientific and economic value. 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1,040 | Cupola | In architecture, a cupola is a small, most-often dome-like structure, on top of a building. Often used to provide a lookout or to admit light and air, it usually crowns a larger roof or dome. The word derives, via Italian, from the lower Latin cupula (classical Latin cupella from the Greek kypellon) small cup (lat. cupa) indicating a vault resembling an upside down cup. In Italian, cupola simply means dome, and the ornamental top element is called lanterna. Cupolas often appear as small buildings in their own right. They often serve as a belfry, lantern, or belvedere above a main roof. In other cases they may crown a tower, spire, or turret. The chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is used atop a larger structure. External links Cupolas in Architecture Amish Made Cupolas from Lancaster County Pa References | Cupola |@lemmatized architecture:3 cupola:6 small:3 often:4 dome:3 like:1 structure:2 top:2 building:2 use:2 provide:1 lookout:1 admit:1 light:1 air:1 usually:1 crown:2 large:2 roof:2 word:1 derive:1 via:1 italian:2 low:1 latin:2 cupula:1 classical:1 cupella:1 greek:1 kypellon:1 cup:2 lat:1 cupa:1 indicate:1 vault:1 resemble:1 upside:1 simply:1 mean:1 ornamental:1 element:1 call:1 lanterna:1 appear:1 right:1 serve:1 belfry:1 lantern:1 belvedere:1 main:1 case:1 may:1 tower:1 spire:1 turret:1 chhatri:1 see:1 indian:1 fit:1 definition:1 atop:1 external:1 link:1 amish:1 make:1 lancaster:1 county:1 pa:1 reference:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
1,041 | Imperial_Chemical_Industries | Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) is a British chemical subsidiary of a Dutch conglomerate and one of the largest chemical producers in the world. It is based in Slough, UK. It produces paints and speciality products (including ingredients for foods, specialty polymers, electronic materials, fragrances and flavours). It employs around 29,000 people and had a turnover of just over £4.8 billion in 2006. The Company was once a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index but since January 2008 it has been a subsidiary of Dutch chemicals group Akzo Nobel, which is in the process of fully integrating the two companies. History Development of the business The Company was founded in December 1926 by way of the merger of four companies — Brunner Mond, Nobel Explosives, the United Alkali Company, and British Dyestuffs Corporation. ICI: History It established its Head Office at Millbank in London in 1928. Competing with DuPont and IG Farben, the new company produced chemicals, explosives, fertilisers, insecticides, dyestuffs, non-ferrous metals, and paints. In its first year turnover was £27m. In the 1920's and 30's the Company played a key role in the development of new chemical products, including the dyestuff phthalocyanine (1929), the acrylic plastic Perspex (1932), Dulux paints (1932, co-developed with DuPont), polyethylene (1937) and Polyethylene terephthalate fibre known as Terylene (1941). ICI also owned the Sunbeam motorcycle business, which had come with Nobel Industries, and continued to build motorcycles until 1937. Why the BSA badge? A brief History In the 1940's and 50's the Company established its pharmaceutical business and developed a number of key products including Paludrine (1940s, an anti-malarial drug), halothane (1951, an anaesthetic agent), Gramoxone (1962, a pesticide), Inderal (1965, a beta-blocker), brodifacoum (a rodenticide) in 1974, Profile: Brodifacoum tamoxifen (1978, a frequently used drug for breast cancer), and PEEK (1979, a high performance thermoplastic). ICI formed ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1957. During this period ICI was confronted with the nationalisation of its operations in Myanmar on 1. August 1962 as a consequence of the military coup. Page 297 in The State of Myanmar by Robert Taylor 2009 The Company acquired Atlas Chemicals, a major US competitor in 1971. During the 1980's (from 1982 to 1987) the Company was led by the charismatic John Harvey Jones. Under his leadership the Company acquired the Beatrice Chemical Division in 1985 and Glidden Coatings & Resins, a leading paints business in 1986. New Chairman of ICI praises planned agenda In 1991 ICI sold the agricultural and merchandising operations of BritAg and Scottish Agricultural Industries to Norsk Hydro. Norsk Hydro acquires Britag Industries In 1991, the company successfully fought off a hostile takeover bid from the Hanson plc conglomerate. Often-ravenous Hanson takes a taste of ICI In 1993 the company demerged its pharmaceutical bioscience businesses: pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, specialities, seeds and biological products were all transferred into a new and independent company called Zeneca Group (which subsequently merged with Astra AB to form AstraZeneca PLC). Will bad timing spoil ICI's plan to split in two? In 1997 ICI acquired National Starch & Chemical, the specialty chemicals business of Unilever for $8bn. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-19716641.html National Starch sold to ICI] This step was part of a strategy to move away from cyclical bulk chemicals and up the value chain to be a higher growth, higher margin business. Later that year it went on to buy Rutz & Huber, a Swiss paints business. ICI buys Swiss Paints Group Disposals of bulk chemicals businesses at that time included the sale of its Australian subsidiary, ICI Australia, for £1bn in 1997, ICI Australia shares drop sharply and of its polyester chemicals business to DuPont for $3bn also in 1997. ICI sell off raises $3bn Then the following year it bought Acheson, an electronic chemicals business. ICI buys Acheson for $560 million in move to strengthen specialties In 2000 ICI sold its petroleum business at Teesside and Tioxide, its titanium dioxide subsidiary, to Huntsman Corporation for £1.7bn. Bayer and ICI sell-offs to boost balance sheets It also sold the last of its industrial chemicals businesses to Ineos for £0.3bn. ICI Sells Its Last Industrial Chemical Operations to Ineos In 2006 the Company sold Quest Fragrance, its flavours business, to Givaudan, for £1.2bn ICI sells flavours business Quest and Uniqema, its skincare business, to Croda International, for £410m. ICI to slash debts with £410m Uniqema sale Takeover by Akzo Nobel Dutch firm Akzo Nobel (owner of Crown Berger paints) bid £7.2 billion (€10.66 billion or $14.5 billion US) for ICI in June 2007. An area of concern about a potential deal was ICI's British pension fund, which had future liabilities of more than £9 billion at the time. Regulatory issues in the UK and other markets where Dulux and Crown Paints brands each have significant market share were also a cause for concern for the boards of ICI and Akzo Nobel. In the UK, any combined operation without divestments would have seen Akzo Nobel have a 54% market share in the paint market. The initial bid was rejected by the ICI board and the majority of shareholders. However, a subsequent bid for £8 billion (€11.82 billion) was accepted by ICI in August 2007, pending approval by regulators. As of 8.00am on 2 January 2008 ICI PLC became a subsidiary of Akzo Nobel NV. Shareholders of ICI received either £6.70 in cash or Akzo Nobel loan notes to the value of £6.70 per 1 nominal ICI share. The adhesives business of ICI was transferred to Henkel as a result of the deal, while Akzo agreed to sell its Crown Paints subsidiary to satisfy the concerns of the European Commissioner for Competition. The areas of concern regarding the ICI UK pension scheme were addressed by ICI and Akzo. ICI Pension Fund Web Site. Operations ICI operated a number of chemical sites around the world. In the UK the main plants were situated as follows: Billingham and Wilton (on Teesside): ICI used the site to manufacture fertilisers in the 1920's and went on to produce plastics at Billingham in 1934. During World War II it manufactured synthetic ammonia for explosives. The white heat of new technology The former ICI Billingham Division of split into the ICI Heavy Organic Chemicals Division and ICI Agricultural Division in the 1960's. From 1971 to 1988 ICI operated a small General Atomics TRIGA Mark I nuclear reactor at its Billingham factory. History of Billingham Blackley (in Manchester): ICI used the site to manufacture dyestuffs. The dye business, known as the ICI Dyestuffs Division in the 1960's, went through several reorganizations. Through the years it was combined with other specialty chemicals businesses and became ICI Colours and Fine Chemicals and then ICI Specialties. British Dyestffs Corporation and ICI Runcorn (in Cheshire): ICI used the site to manufacture chlorine and caustic soda. ICI cuts 1,000 jobs For many years it was known as ICI Mond Division but later became part of the ICI Chemicals and Polymers Division. The Runcorn site was also responsible for the development of the HiGEE and Spinning Disc Reactor concepts, which were developed by Professor Colin Ramshaw and which led to the concept of Process Intensification: research into these novel technologies is now being pursued by the Process Intensification Group at Newcastle University. Process Intensification Ardeer (in Stevenston, Ayrshire): ICI Nobel used the site to manufacture dynamite and other explosives and nitrocellulose-based products. For a time, the site also produced nylon and nitric acid. Nobel Enterprises sold in 2002 to Inabata. Japanese firm buys ICI's nitrocellulose business Chemical Week, 22 January 2003 See also IMI plc Kynoch Eley Brothers References External links Official site Dulux National Starch and Chemical Company ICI subsidiary. 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1,042 | Land's_End | Land's End Land's End (Cornish name: Penn an Wlas) is a headland on the Penwith peninsula, located near Penzance in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is the most westerly tip of the southern mainland (for Great Britain as a whole it is Corrachadh Mòr, Ardnamurchan, Scotland which is further west). It is often thought to be the most southerly point in the British mainland, but that honour in fact falls to Lizard Point, a few miles to the south-east. Visible from Land's End is the Longships Lighthouse. The Longships, a few miles out, is a serpentine and quartz island. Offshore, midway between Land's End and the Isles of Scilly, is the supposed location of the mythical lost land of Lyonesse, referred to in Arthurian literature. The name has a particular resonance because it is so often used in outlining the length of Britain when races, walks and charitable events take place between Land's End and the Scottish village John o' Groats (the most north-easterly settlement in mainland Britain, distant by road). The phrase Land's End to John o' Groats is used both as a literal journey and as a metaphor for great or all-encompassing distance, similar to the American phrase coast to coast. In 1769 The Antiquarian, William Borlase wrote that: "Of this time we are to understand what Edward I. says (Sheringham. p. 129.) that Britain, Wales, and Cornwall, were the portion of Belinus, elder son of Dunwallo, and that that part of the Island, afterwards called England, was divided in three shares, viz. Britain, which reached from the Tweed, Westward, as far as the river Ex; Wales inclosed by the rivers Severn, and Dee; and Cornwall from the river Ex to the Land's-End". In 1987 Peter de Savary purchased Land’s End. Lands End Landmark, Landsend. | South West Cornwall Holidays | The history of Land's End He had two new buildings erected and much of the present theme park development was instigated by him. He sold both Land's End and John o' Groats for an undisclosed sum to businessman Graham Ferguson Lacey in 1991. http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/article696325.ece The current owners purchased Land’s End in 1996 and formed a company named Heritage Attractions Limited. Gallery See also A map of land's end from 1946 Land's End Airport List of topics related to Cornwall Pointe du Raz a French equivalent? Land's End to John o' Groats John o' Groats Europa Point References External links the length of Britain" Lands'End to John O'Groats a free e-book of this great journey Illustrated guide to Land's End A Few old Postcards of Lands End One family from the Lands End Land's End 360 VR panorama on lookaroundcornwall.com | Land's_End |@lemmatized land:21 end:20 cornish:1 name:3 penn:1 wlas:1 headland:1 penwith:1 peninsula:1 locate:1 near:1 penzance:1 cornwall:5 england:2 united:1 kingdom:1 westerly:1 tip:1 southern:1 mainland:3 great:3 britain:6 whole:1 corrachadh:1 mòr:1 ardnamurchan:1 scotland:1 west:2 often:2 think:1 southerly:1 point:3 british:1 honour:1 fact:1 fall:1 lizard:1 mile:2 south:2 east:1 visible:1 longships:2 lighthouse:1 serpentine:1 quartz:1 island:2 offshore:1 midway:1 isle:1 scilly:1 supposed:1 location:1 mythical:1 lost:1 lyonesse:1 refer:1 arthurian:1 literature:1 particular:1 resonance:1 use:2 outline:1 length:2 race:1 walk:1 charitable:1 event:1 take:1 place:1 scottish:1 village:1 john:6 groat:6 north:1 easterly:1 settlement:1 distant:1 road:1 phrase:2 literal:1 journey:2 metaphor:1 encompass:1 distance:1 similar:1 american:1 coast:2 antiquarian:1 william:1 borlase:1 write:1 time:1 understand:1 edward:1 say:1 sheringham:1 p:1 wale:2 portion:1 belinus:1 elder:1 son:1 dunwallo:1 part:1 afterwards:1 call:1 divide:1 three:1 share:1 viz:1 reach:1 tweed:1 westward:1 far:1 river:3 ex:2 inclose:1 severn:1 dee:1 peter:1 de:1 savary:1 purchased:1 landmark:1 landsend:1 holiday:1 history:1 apos:1 two:1 new:1 building:1 erect:1 much:1 present:1 theme:1 park:1 development:1 instigate:1 sell:1 undisclosed:1 sum:1 businessman:1 graham:1 ferguson:1 lacey:1 http:1 business:2 timesonline:1 co:1 uk:1 tol:1 special:1 ece:1 current:1 owner:1 purchase:1 form:1 company:1 heritage:1 attraction:1 limit:1 gallery:1 see:1 also:1 map:1 airport:1 list:1 topic:1 relate:1 pointe:1 du:1 raz:1 french:1 equivalent:1 europa:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 free:1 e:1 book:1 illustrate:1 guide:1 old:1 postcard:1 one:1 family:1 vr:1 panorama:1 lookaroundcornwall:1 com:1 |@bigram penzance_cornwall:1 isle_scilly:1 john_groat:6 undisclosed_sum:1 timesonline_co:1 uk_tol:1 external_link:1 vr_panorama:1 |
1,043 | Amazon_River | The Amazon River (; ) of South America is the largest river in the world by volume, with a total river flow greater than the next eight largest rivers combined. The Amazon, which has the largest drainage basin in the world, accounts for approximately one fifth of the world's total river flow. During the wet season parts of the Amazon exceed in width. Because of its vast dimensions, it is sometimes called The River Sea. At no point is the Amazon crossed by bridges. This is not because of its huge dimensions; in fact, for most of its length, the Amazon's width is well within the capability of modern engineers to bridge. However, the bulk of river flows through tropical rainforest, where there are few roads and even fewer cities, so there is no need for crossings. While the Amazon is the largest river in the world by most measures, the current consensus within the geographic community holds that the Amazon is the second longest river, just slightly shorter than the Nile. However, some scientists, particularly from Brazil and Peru, dispute this (see section below). Drainage area The Amazon basin, the largest drainage basin in the world, covers about 40 percent of South America, an area of approximately 6,915,000 square kilometres (2,670,000 sq mi) . It gathers its waters from 5 degrees north latitude to 20 degrees south latitude. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-Andean plateau, just a short distance from the Pacific Ocean. The area covered by the water of the Amazon River and its tributaries more than triples over the course of a year. In an average dry season 110,000 square kilometres (42,000 sq mi) of land are water-covered, while in the wet season the flooded area of the Amazon Basin rises to 350,000 square kilometres (135,000 sq mi) . The quantity of water released by the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean is enormous: up to 300,000 m³ per second in the rainy season. The Amazon is responsible for a fifth of the total volume of fresh water entering the oceans worldwide. Offshore of the mouth of the Amazon, potable water can be drawn from the ocean while still out of sight of the coastline, and the salinity of the ocean is notably lower five hundred kilometres out to sea. Origins of the river The Amazon originates from the Apacheta cliff in Arequipa at the Nevado Mismi, with a sole sign of a wooden cross. Source of the Amazon "Meeting of Waters" is the confluence of the Rio Negro (black) and the Rio Solimões (sandy) near Manaus, Brazil. The Upper Amazon has a series of major river systems in Peru and Ecuador, some of which flow into the Marañón and others directly into the Amazon proper. Among others, these include the following rivers: Morona, Pastaza, Nucuray, Urituyacu, Chambira, Tigre, Nanay, Napo, Huallaga, and Ucayali. The headstreams of the Marañón—which for many years had been seen as the origin of the Amazon—flow from high above central Peru's Lake Lauricocha, from the glaciers in what is known as the Nevado de Yarupa. Rushing through waterfalls and gorges in an area of the high jungle called the pongos, the Marañón River flows about from west-central to northeast Peru before it combines with the Ucayali River, just below the provincial town of Nauta, to form the Amazon River. The most distant source of the Amazon was firmly established in 1996, Source of the Amazon River Identificated (Jacek Palkiewicz) 2001 Explorers Pinpoint Source of the Amazon (National Geographic News) and 2007 Amazon river 'longer than Nile' (BBC news) (2007-06-16) as a glacial stream on a snowcapped peak called Nevado Mismi in the Peruvian Andes, roughly west of Lake Titicaca and southeast of Lima. The waters from Nevado Mismi flow into the Quebradas Carhuasanta and Apacheta, which flow into the Río Apurímac which is a tributary of the Ucayali which later joins the Marañón to form the Amazon proper. (While this is the point at which most geographers place the beginning of the Amazon proper, in Brazil the river is known at this point as the Solimões das Águas). Soon thereafter the darkly colored waters of the Rio Negro meet the sandy colored Rio Solimões, and for over 6 km these waters run side by side without mixing. After the confluence of Río Apurímac and Ucayali, the river leaves Andean terrain and is instead surrounded by flood plain. From this point to the Marañón, some , the forested banks are just out of water, and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood-line. The low river banks are interrupted by only a few hills, and the river enters the enormous Amazon Rainforest. The river systems and flood plains in Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela whose waters drain into the Solimões and its tributaries are called the "Upper Amazon". The Amazon River proper runs mostly through Brazil and Peru, and it has tributaries reaching into Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Flooding A NASA satellite image of a flooded portion of the river. Not all of the Amazon's tributaries flood at the same time of the year. Many branches begin flooding in November, and may continue to rise until June. The rise of the Rio Negro starts in February or March, and it also begins to recede in June. The Madeira rises and falls two months earlier than most of the rest of the Amazon. The average depth of the river in the height of the rainy season is and the average width can be nearly . The main river (which is between approximately one and six miles (10 km) wide) is navigable for large ocean steamers to Manaus, upriver from the mouth. Smaller ocean vessels of 3,000 tons or 9,000 tons Amazon uk.encarta.msn.com. Retrieved 1 October 2006. and draft can reach as far as Iquitos, Peru, from the sea. Smaller riverboats can reach higher as far as Achual Point. Beyond that, small boats frequently ascend to the Pongo de Manseriche, just above Achual Point Towards the sea A satellite image of the mouth of the Amazon River, looking south At some points, for long distances, the river divides into two main streams with inland and lateral channels, all connected by a complicated system of natural canals, cutting the low, flat igapo lands, which are never more than above low river, into many islands. From the village of Canaria at the great bend of the Amazon to the Negro, only very low land is found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of land in this region are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part of the trees of the sombre forests appear. Near the mouth of the Rio Negro to Serpa, nearly opposite the river Madeira, the banks of the Amazon are low, until approaching Manaus, they rise to become rolling hills. At Óbidos, a bluff above the river is backed by low hills. The lower Amazon seems to have once been a gulf of the Atlantic Ocean, the waters of which washed the cliffs near Óbidos. Only about 10% of the water discharged by the Amazon enters the mighty stream downstream of Óbidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of the Amazon basin above Óbidos city is about 5 million square kilometres (2,000,000 sq mi), and, below, only about 1 million square kilometres (400,000 sq mi or around 20%), exclusive of the 1.4 million square kilometres (540,000 sq mi) of the Tocantins basin. In the lower reaches of the river, the north bank consists of a series of steep, table-topped hills extending for about from opposite the mouth of the Xingu as far as Monte Alegre. These hills are cut down to a kind of terrace which lies between them and the river. Monte Alegre reaches an altitude of several hundred meters. On the south bank, above the Xingu, an almost-unbroken line of low bluffs bordering the flood-plain extends nearly to Santarem, in a series of gentle curves before they bend to the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of the Tapajos river valley. Mouth of the river Mouth of the Amazon River The Amazon estuary is some wide. The width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from Cabo do Norte to Punto Patijoca. But this includes the ocean outlet, wide, of the Para river, which should be deducted, as this stream is only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean frontage of Marajó, an island lying in the mouth of the Amazon. This means that the Amazon is wider at its mouth than the entire length of the Thames in England. Tidal bore Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte, and for along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the tidal phenomenon called the bore, or pororoca, occurs, where the depths are not over . The tidal bore starts with a roar, constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from with a breaking wall of water from high. The bore is the reason the Amazon does not have a protruding delta; the ocean rapidly carries away the vast volume of silt carried by the Amazon, making it impossible for a delta to grow past the shoreline. It also has a very large tide sometimes reaching and has become a popular spot for river surfing. Wildlife More than one third of all species in the world live in the Amazon Rainforest, Amazon rainforest fact sheet a giant tropical forest and river basin with an area that stretches more than 5.4 million square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi) and is among the richest tropical forests in the world. The Amazon River has over 3,000 recognized species of fish and that number is still growing. Some estimates go as high as 5,000. Along with the Orinoco, the river is one of the main habitats of the Boto, also known as the Amazon River Dolphin. The largest species of river dolphin, it can grow to lengths of up to . The boto is the subject of a very famous legend in Brazil, about a dolphin that turns into a human. Also present in large numbers are the notorious piranha, carnivorous fish which congregate in large schools, and may attack livestock and even humans. However, only a few species attack humans, and many are solely fish-eaters, and do not school. The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) has been reported up the Amazon River at Iquitos in Peru. The arapaima, or pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) is a South American tropical freshwater fish. It is one of the largest freshwater fish in the world, reportedly with a maximum length in excess of and weight up to 200 kg (440 lb). Another Amazonian freshwater fish is the arowana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum) which is also a predator and very similar to the arapaima, but reaches a length of maximum 120 centimetres. The Anaconda snake is found in shallow waters in the Amazon basin. One of the world's largest species of snake, the Anaconda spends most of its time in the water, with just its nostrils above the surface. The river supports thousands of species of fish, as well as crabs, algae, and turtles. Colonial encounter and Amazonia During what many archaeologists call the formative period, Amazonian societies were deeply involved in the emergence of South America's highland agrarian systems, and possibly contributed directly to the social and religious fabric constitutive of the Andean civilizational orders. In 1500, Vicente Yañez Pinzón was the first European to sail into the river. Pinzón called the river flow Río Santa María de la Mar Dulce, later shortened to Mar Dulce (literally, sweet sea, because of its freshwater pushing out into the ocean). For 350 years after the first European encounter of the Amazon by Pinzón, the Portuguese portion of the basin remained an untended former food gathering and planned agricultural landscape occupied by the indigenous peoples who survived the arrival of European diseases. There is ample evidence for complex large-scale, pre-Columbian social formations, including chiefdoms, in many areas of Amazonia (particularly the inter-fluvial regions) and even large towns and cities. For instance the pre-Columbian culture on the island of Marajo may have developed social stratification and supported a population of 100,000 people. The Native Americans of the Amazon rain forest may have used Terra preta to make the land suitable for the large scale agriculture needed to support large populations and complex social formations such as chiefdoms. One of Gonzalo Pizarro's lieutenants, Francisco de Orellana, during his 1541 expedition, east of Quito into the South American interior in search of El Dorado and the Country of the Cinnamon was ordered to explore the Coca River and return when the river ended. When they arrived to the confluence to the Napo River, his men menaced to mutiny if they did not continue. On 26 December 1541, he accepted to be elected chief of the new expedition and to conquest new lands in name of the king. The 49 men began to build a bigger ship for riverine navigation. During their navigation on Napo River they were threatened constantly by the Omaguas. They reached Negro River on 3 June 1542 and finally arrived to the Amazon River, that was so named because they were attacked by fierce female warriors like the mythological Amazons. The icamiabas Indians dominated the area close to the Amazon River, rich in gold. When Orellana went down the river in search of gold, descends Andes (in 1541), the river was still called Grande Rio, Mar Dulce or Rio da Canela (Cinnamon), because of the great trees of cinnamon located there. The belligerent victory of the icamiabas against the Spanish invaders was such that the fact was narrated to the king Carlos V, whom, inspired by the Greek Amazons, baptized the river as Amazon. In what is currently Brazil, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, Peru, and Venezuela a number of colonial and religious settlements were established along the banks of primary rivers and tributaries for the purpose of trade, slaving and evangelization among the indigenous peoples of the vast rain forest. The total population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about two-thirds comprised by Europeans and slaves, the slaves amounting to about 25,000. In Brazil, the principal commercial city, Para (now Belém), had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now Manaus, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1,000 to 1,500 population. All the remaining villages, as far up as Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were relatively small. Post colonial history On 6 September 1850, the emperor, Peter II, sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon, and gave the Baron of Mauá (Irineu Evangilista de Sousa) the task of putting it into effect. He organized the "Compania de Navigacao e Commercio do Amazonas" at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the Monarch, the Marajó and Rio Negro. At first, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Pará and Manaus, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaus and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Para and Cameta. This was the first step in opening up the vast interior. The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line between Pará and Manaus; and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that same period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own on the main river as well as on many of its tributaries. On 31 July 1867 the government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, especially Peru, decreed the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to certain defined points: Tabatinga—on the Amazon; Cameta—on the Tocantins; Santarem—on the Tapajos; Borba—on the Madeira and Manáos—on the Rio Negro. The Brazilian decree took effect on 7 September 1867. Thanks in part to the mercantile development associated with steam boat navigation, coupled with the internationally driven demand for natural rubber (1880-1920), Manáos (now Manaus), Para (Brazil), and Iquitos, Peru became thriving, cosmopolitan centers of commerce and spectacular—albeit illusory—modern "urban growth". This was particularly the case for Iquitos during its late 19th and early 20th century Rubber Bonanza zenith when this dynamic boom-town was known abroad as the St. Louis of the Amazon. The first direct foreign trade with Manáos was commenced around 1874. Local trade along the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company—the Amazon Steam Navigation Company—as well as numerous small steamboats, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purfis and many other tributaries, such as the Marañón to ports as distant as Nauta, Peru. The Amazon Steam Navigation Company had 38 vessels. By the turn of the 20th century, the principal exports of the Amazon Basin were india-rubber, cacao, Brazil nuts and a few other products of minor importance, such as pelts and exotic forest produce (resins, barks, woven hammocks, prized bird feathers, live animals, etc.) and extracted goods (lumber, gold, etc.). 20th century concerns Four centuries after the European discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 65 square kilometres (25 sq mi), excluding the limited and crudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters. This situation changed dramatically during the 20th century. Manaus, the largest city on the Amazon, as seen from a NASA satellite image, surrounded by the muddy Amazon River and the dark Rio Negro. Wary of foreign exploitation of the nation's resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners owned large tracts of land. The original architect of this expansion was President Getúlio Vargas, the demand for rubber from the Allied forces in World War II providing funding for the drive. The construction of the new capital Brasilia in the interior in 1960 also contributed to the opening up of the Amazon basin. A large scale colonization program saw families from north-eastern Brazil relocated to the forests, encouraged by promises of cheap land. Many settlements grew along the road from Brasilia to Belém, but rainforest soil proved difficult to cultivate. Still, long-term development plans continued. Roads were cut through the forests, and in 1970, the work on Trans-Amazon highway network began. The network's three pioneering highways were completed within ten years, connecting all the major cities of the Brazilian Amazon interior. Dispute regarding length While debate as to whether the Amazon or the Nile is the world's longest river has gone on for many years, the historic consensus of geographic authorities has been to regard the Amazon as the second longest river in the world, with the Nile being the longest. However, the Amazon has been measured by different geographers as being anywhere between 6,259 and 6,800 kilometres long. The Nile is reported to be anywhere from 5,499 to 6,690 kilometres The differences in these measurements often result from the use of different definitions. A study by Brazilian scientists claimed that the Amazon is actually longer than the Nile. Using Nevado Mismi, which in 2001 was labeled by the National Geographic Society as the Amazon's source, these scientists have made new calculations of the Amazon's length. They now estimate that the Amazon is longer than the Nile, Amazon Longer Than Nile River, Scientists Say and Guido Gelli, director of science at the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), told the Brazilian TV network Globo in June 2007 that it could be considered as a fact that the Amazon was the longest river in the world. However, other geographers have had access to the same data since 2001, and a consensus has yet to emerge to support the claims of these Brazilian scientists. Major tributaries The Amazon has over 1,000 tributaries in total, 17 of which are over 1,000 kilometers. Some of the more notable: Branco Casiquiare canal Huallaga Putumayo (or Içá River) Javary Jurua Madeira Marañón Morona Nanay Napo Negro Pastaza Purus Tambo Tapajós Tigre Tocantins Trombetas Ucayali Xingu Yapura Longest rivers in the Amazon system - Amazon, South America - Purus, Peru / Brazil, (2,948 km) (3,210 km) - Madeira, Bolivia / Brazil - Yapura, Colombia / Brazil - Tocantins, Brazil, (2,416 km) (2,640 km) - Araguaia, Brazil (tributary of Tocantins) - Juruá, Peru / Brazil - Rio Negro, Brazil/ Venezuela / Colombia - Xingu, Brazil - Tapajós, Brazil - Guaporé, Brazil / Bolivia (tributary of Madeira) - Ucayali River, Peru - Içá (Putumayo), South America - Marañón, Peru - Teles Pires, , Brazil (tributary of Tapajós) - Iriri, Brazil (tributary of Xingu) - Juruena, Brazil (tributary of Tapajós) - Tapajós, Brazil - Madre de Dios, Peru / Bolivia (tributary of Madeira) - Huallaga, Peru (tributary of Marañón) Expeditions The Amazon River is currently being walked from source to sea by Ed Stafford (UK), having started in April 2008. It is believed to be the first navigation of the Amazon on foot. http://www.walkingtheamazon.com/ References External links Amazon dries up Youtube (31 July 2006) Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library Information on the Amazon from Extreme Science Pictures of the Amazon River Information and a map of the Amazon's watershed Amazon Alive: Light & Shadow documentary film about the Amazon river http://www.extremescience.com/AmazonRiver.htm Google search:Sedimentation in the Amazon river delta and nearby Continental shelf be-x-old:Амазонка | Amazon_River |@lemmatized amazon:94 river:78 south:11 america:5 large:19 world:13 volume:3 total:6 flow:9 great:3 next:1 eight:1 combine:2 drainage:4 basin:14 account:1 approximately:3 one:7 fifth:2 wet:2 season:5 part:3 exceed:1 width:4 vast:5 dimension:2 sometimes:2 call:9 sea:6 point:8 cross:2 bridge:2 huge:1 fact:4 length:7 well:4 within:3 capability:1 modern:2 engineer:1 however:5 bulk:1 tropical:4 rainforest:5 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1,044 | Achilles | The Wrath of Achilles, by François-Léon Benouville (1821–1859) (Musée Fabre) In Greek mythology, Achilles (Ancient Greek: ) was a Greek hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad. Achilles also has the attributes of being the most handsome of the heroes assembled against Troy. Plato, Symposium, 180a Later legends (beginning with a poem by Statius in the first century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. Legend states that Achilles was semi-immortal, however his heel was vulnerable. Since he died due to a poisoned arrow shot into his heel, the "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a person's principal weakness. Birth Achilles was the son of the nymph Thetis and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until Prometheus, the fire-bringer, warned Zeus of a prophecy that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 755-768; Pindar, Nemean 5.34-37, Isthmian 8.26-47; Poeticon astronomicon (ii.15) As with most mythology there is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: in Argonautica (iv.760) Hera alludes to Thetis's chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected him. The Education of Achilles (ca. 1772), by James Barry According to a fragment of an Achilleis— the Achilleid, written by Statius in the first century AD, and to no other sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body she held him by, his heel. (See Achilles heel, Achilles' tendon.) It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 4.869-479. However none of the sources before Statius makes any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the Iliad Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood." Also in the fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle in which we can find description of the hero's death, Kúpria (unknown author), Aithiopis by Arctinus of Miletus, Ilias Mikrá by Lesche of Mytilene, Iliou pérsis by Arctinus of Miletus, there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness (heel); in the later vase-paintings presenting Achilles' death, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his body. Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, on Mt. Pelion, to be raised. Hesiod, Catalogue of Women, fr. 204.87-89 MW; Iliad 11.830-32 Achilles in the Trojan War The Rage of Achilles, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo The first two lines of the Iliad read: Sing, Goddess, of the rage, of Peleus' son Achilles the accursed rage, which brought pain to thousands of the Achaeans. Achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage. His anger is at some times wavering, but at other times he cannot be cooled. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the narrative. Telephus When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles heals him in order that he become their guide for the voyage to Troy. According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. Troilus According to the Cypria (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' Wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighboring cities and killed Troilus. Proclus' Summary of the Cypria According to Dares Phrygius' Account of the Destruction of Troy, Dares' account of the destruction of Troy, Greek Mythology Link. the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's (or sometimes Apollo) and Hecuba's five legitimate sons. Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilas and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust directed his sexual attentions on the youth - who refusing to yield found instead himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo. Later versions of the story suggested Troilas was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. James Davidson, "Zeus Be Nice Now" in London Review of Books; 19 July 2007 accessed October 23rd, 2007 Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed Troy would have been invincible. In the Iliad Achilles sacrificing to Zeus, from the Ambrosian Iliad, a 5th century illuminated manuscript. Homer's Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after he is dishonored by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon had taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begged Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refused and Apollo sent a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determined the source of the troubles but would not speak unless Achilles vowed to protect him. Achilles did so and Calchas declared Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consented, but then commanded that Achilles' battle prize Briseis be brought to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonor (and as he says later, because he loved Briseis) Iliad 9.334-343. and at the urging of Thetis, Achilles refused to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. As the battle turned against the Greeks, Nestor declared that the Trojans were winning because Agamemnon had angered Achilles, and urged the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agreed and sent Odysseus and two other chieftains to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles refused and urged the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do. Eventually, however, hoping to retain glory despite his absence from the battle, Achilles prayed to his mother Thetis, asking her to plead with Zeus to allow the Trojans to push back the Greek forces. The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently pushed the Greek army back toward the beaches and assaulted the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus led the Myrmidons into battle, though Achilles remained at his camp. Patroclus succeeded in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but was killed by Hector before he could lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. Achilles' revenge on Hector Triumphant Achilles dragging Hector's lifeless body in front of the Gates of Troy. (From a panoramic fresco on the upper level of the main hall of the Achilleion) After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieved over his close friend's death and held many funeral games in his honor. His mother Thetis came to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuaded Hephaestus to make new armor for him, in place of the armor that Patroclus had been wearing which was taken by Hector. The new armor included the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail by the poet. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ended his refusal to fight and took the field killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engaged in battle with the river god Scamander who became angry that Achilles was choking his waters with all the men he killed. The god tried to drown Achilles but was stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself took note of Achilles' rage and sent the gods to restrain him so that he would not go on to sack Troy itself, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles could defy fate itself as Troy was not meant to be destroyed yet. Finally Achilles found his prey. Achilles chased Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuaded Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realized the trick, he knew his death was inevitable and accepted his fate. Hector, wanting to go down fighting, charged at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword. Achilles got his vengeance, killing Hector with a single blow to the neck. He then tied Hector's body to his chariot and dragged it around the battlefield for nine days. With the assistance of the god Hermes, Hector's father, Priam, went to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles to permit him to perform for Hector his funeral rites. The final passage in the Iliad is Hector's funeral, after which the doom of Troy was just a matter of time. Penthesilea Achilles, after his temporary truce with Priam, fought and killed the Amazonian warrior queen Penthesilea, but later grieved over her death. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, due to Penthesilia's superior fighting skills, he refocused, and killed her. As he grieved over the death of such a rare beauty, a notorious Greek jeerer by the name of Thersites laughed and mocked the great Achilles. Annoyed by his insensitivity and disrespect, Achilles punched him in the face and killed him instantly. Memnon, and the fall of the Achilles Achilles dying in the gardens of the Achilleion in Corfu Following the death of Patroclus, Achilles's closest companion was Nestor's son Antilochus. When Memnon, king of Ethiopia killed Antilochus, Achilles was once again drawn onto the battlefield to seek revenge. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles's reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the 7th century B.C. The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. As predicted by Hector with his dying breath, Achilles was thereafter killed by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris's arrow. Ajax carries off the body of Achilles: Attic black-figure lekythos, ca. 510 BCE, from Sicily (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the lost Trojan War epic of Arctinus of Miletus as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube (see below). Another version of Achilles death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena, Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow killing him. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles. The fate of Achilles' armor Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men came to a consensus. Odysseus won. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax mad with grief and anguish as he began killing sheep, thinking they were his comrades. After a while, Athena had lifted the madness and Ajax had seen that he had actually been killing sheep. In his embarrassment, he then committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armor to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his courtbiographers do not mention the spear, which he would indeed have touched with excitement. "Alexander came to rest at Phaselis, a coastal city which was later renowned for the possession of Achilles' original spear." (Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great1973.144. But it was being shown in the time of Pausanias in the second century AD. Pausanias, iii.3.6; see Christian Jacob and Anne Mullen-Hohl, "The Greek Traveler's Areas of Knowledge: Myths and Other Discourses in Pausanias' Description of Greece", Yale French Studies 59: Rethinking History: Time, Myth, and Writing (1980:65-85) esp. p. 81. Achilles and Patroclus Achilles's relationship with Patroclus is a key aspect of his myth. Its exact nature has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad, they appeared to be generally portrayed as a model of deep and loyal friendship. However, commentators from the classical period to today have tended to interpret the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. Thus, in 5th century BC Athens the relationship was commonly interpreted as pederastic. Contemporary readers are more likely to interpret the two heroes either as non-sexual "war buddies", or as an egalitarian homosexual couple. The cult of Achilles in antiquity There was an archaic heroic cult of Achilles on the White Island, Leuce, in the Black Sea off the modern coasts of Romania and Ukraine, with a temple and an oracle which survived into the Roman period. Guy Hedreen, "The Cult of Achilles in the Euxine" Hesperia 60.3 (July 1991), pp. 313-330. In the lost epic Aithiopis, a continuation of the Iliad attributed to Arktinus of Miletos, Achilles’ mother Thetis returned to mourn him and removed his ashes from the pyre and took them to Leuce at the mouths of the Danube. There the Achaeans raised a tumulus for him and celebrated funeral games. Pliny's Natural History (IV.27.1) mentions a tumulus that is no longer evident (Insula Akchillis tumulo eius viri clara), on the island consecrated to him, located at a distance of fifty Roman miles from Peuce by the Danube Delta, and the temple there. Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles’ temple and his statue” (III.19.11). Ruins of a square temple 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain Kritzikly in 1823, but there has been no modern archeological work done on the island. Pomponius Mela tells that Achilles is buried in the island named Achillea, between Boristhene and Ister (De situ orbis, II, 7). And the Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetus of Bithynia, who lived at the time of Domitian, writes that the island was called Leuce "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honor” (Orbis descriptio, v. 541, quoted in Densuşianu 1913). The Periplus of the Euxine Sea gives the following details: "It is said that the goddess Thetis raised this island from the sea, for her son Achilles, who dwells there. Here is his temple and his statue, an archaic work. This island is not inhabited, and goats graze on it, not many, which the people who happen to arrive here with their ships, sacrifice to Achilles. In this temple are also deposited a great many holy gifts, craters, rings and precious stones, offered to Achilles in gratitude. One can still read inscriptions in Greek and Latin, in which Achilles is praised and celebrated. Some of these are worded in Patroclus’ honor, because those who wish to be favored by Achilles, honor Patroclus at the same time. There are also in this island countless numbers of sea birds, which look after Achilles’ temple. Every morning they fly out to sea, wet their wings with water, and return quickly to the temple and sprinkle it. And after they finish the sprinkling, they clean the hearth of the temple with their wings. Other people say still more, that some of the men who reach this island, come here intentionally. They bring animals in their ships, destined to be sacrificed. Some of these animals they slaughter, others they set free on the island, in Achilles’ honor. But there are others, who are forced to come to this island by sea storms. As they have no sacrificial animals, but wish to get them from the god of the island himself, they consult Achilles’ oracle. They ask permission to slaughter the victims chosen from among the animals that graze freely on the island, and to deposit in exchange the price which they consider fair. But in case the oracle denies them permission, because there is an oracle here, they add something to the price offered, and if the oracle refuses again, they add something more, until at last, the oracle agrees that the price is sufficient. And then the victim doesn’t run away any more, but waits willingly to be caught. So, there is a great quantity of silver there, consecrated to the hero, as price for the sacrificial victims. To some of the people who come to this island, Achilles appears in dreams, to others he would appear even during their navigation, if they were not too far away, and would instruct them as to which part of the island they would better anchor their ships”. (quoted in Densuşianu) The heroic cult of Achilles on Leuce island was widespread in antiquity, not only along the sea lanes of the Pontic Sea but also in maritime cities whose economic interests were tightly connected to the riches of the Black Sea. Achilles from Leuce island was venerated as Pontarches the lord and master of the Pontic (Black) Sea, the protector of sailors and navigation. Sailors went out of their way to offer sacrifice. To Achilles of Leuce were dedicated a number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters: Achilleion in Messenia (Stephanus Byzantinus), Achilleios in Laconia (Pausanias, III.25,4) Nicolae Densuşianu (Densuşianu 1913) even thought he recognized Achilles in the name of Aquileia and in the north arm of the Danube delta, the arm of Chilia ("Achileii"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over Pontos, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law." Leuce had also a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias (III.19,13) reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus (XXII.8) attributes the healing to waters (aquae) on the island. The cult of Achilles in modern times: The Achilleion in Corfu In the region of Gastouri (Γαστούρι) to the south of the city of Corfu Greece, Empress of Austria Elisabeth of Bavaria also known as Sissi built in 1890 a summer palace with Achilles as its central theme and it is a monument to platonic romanticism. The palace, naturally, was named after Achilles: Achilleion (Αχίλλειον). This elegant structure abounds with paintings and statues of Achilles both in the main hall and in the lavish gardens depicting the heroic and tragic scenes of the Trojan war. The name of Achilles Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of (akhos) "grief" and (Laos) "a people, tribe, nation, etc." In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of kleos (glory, usually glory in war). Laos has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean a corps of soldiers. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. The name Achilleus was a common and attested name among the Greeks early after 7th century BC. Epigraphical database gives 164 matches for Ἀχιλλεύς and 368 for Ἀχιλλε.The earliest ones: Corinth 7th c. BC,Delphi 530 BC,Attica and Elis 5th c. BC. It was also turned into the female form of Ἀχιλλεία,firstly attested in Attica,4th century BC, (IG II² 1617) and Achillia, a relief from Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting, 'Amazonia'. Roman gladiatorial games often referenced classical mythology and this seems to reference Achilles' fight with Penthesilea, but give it an extra twist of Achilles being 'played' by a woman. Other stories about Achilles Achilles as guardian of the palace in the gardens of the Achilleion in Corfu. He gazes northward toward the city. The inscription in Greek reads: ΑΧΙΛΛΕΥΣ i.e. Achilles Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hides the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. In book 11 of Homer's Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea, the location of the mythical "White Island" which he was said to inhabit after his death, together with many other heroes. The kings of the Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epiran princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor; he is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy. Achilles fought and killed the Amazon Helene. Some also said he married Medea, and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades — as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica. In some versions of the myth, Achilles has a relationship with his captive Briseis. Achilles in Greek tragedy The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the Achilleis trilogy, The Myrmidons, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. Pantelis Michelakis, Achilles in Greek Tragedy, 2002 The tragedian Sophocles also wrote a play with Achilles as the main character, The Lovers of Achilles. Only a few fragments survive. Achilles in Greek philosophy The philosopher Zeno of Elea centered one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise, in which he proved that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions. Spoken-word myths (audio) Achilles myths as told by story tellers1. Achilles and Patroclus, read by Timothy CarterBibliography of reconstruction: Homer Iliad, 9.308, 16.2, 11.780, 23.54 (700 BC); Pindar Olympian Odes, IX (476 BC); Aeschylus Myrmidons, F135-36 (495 BC); Euripides Iphigenia in Aulis, (405 BC); Plato Symposium, 179e (388 BC-367 BC); Statius Achilleid, 161, 174, 182 (96 CE) Achilles in later art Drama Achilles is portrayed as a former hero, who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida. Achilles is a major character in Paris, a musical based on the Trojan War written by Jon English and David MacKay which premiered in October 2003 in Australia. Fiction W.H. Auden "The Shield of Achilles" Achilles appears in the novels Ilium and Olympos by science fiction author Dan Simmons. Achilles the novel by Elizabeth Cook Achilles appears in Dante's "The Inferno" and is compared to in "Purgatory." The Wrath of Achilles is a starship in 'Gene Rodenberry's Andromeda' Achilles appears in the novel "Inside The Walls of Troy", with emphasis on his relationship to Polyxena Achilles appears in the book trilogy "Troy" by the late heroic fantasy novelist David Gemmell Achilles is featured heavily in the novel "The Firebrand" by Marion Zimmer Bradley The comic book hero Captain Marvel is endowed with the courage of Achilles, as well as other legendary heroes. In the Flash Gordon comic strip published in 1974-75, the titular hero time-travels to Troy where, posing as an envoy of the gods, he gives the Greeks the idea of the Trojan Horse. Achilles and Hector are still alive and the former takes the latter prisoner during the final storming of the city. Gordon is accompanied by a woman from his own century and she becomes Achilles' lover. Achilles is featured in the 1998 computer game Battlezone as a fictional planet orbiting Uranus It is destroyed at the end of the game. Achilles has a supporting role in the Marvel Comics miniseries Ares as the Greek God Ares' favorite warrior and battlefield commander of Greek soldiers on Mount Olympus. Achilles is a hero unit in the Real-time Strategy video game Empire Earth as well as Rise & Fall: Civilizations at War. The name Achilles is used for the fictional antagonist in the popular sci-fi novel "Ender's Shadow" written by Orson Scott Card. Achilles is a major character in the 2008 video game "Rise of the Argonauts", where he joins the game's main protagonist Jason in his search for the Golden Fleece. Film The role of Achilles has been played by: Gordon Mitchell in "Achilles" (UK) / "Fury of Achilles" (US) (1962) Piero Lulli in Ulysses (1955) Riley Ottenhof in Something about Zeus (1958) Stanley Baker in Helen of Troy (1956) Arturo Dominici in La Guerra di Troia (1962) Derek Jacobi [voice] in Achilles (Channel Four Television) by Barry Purves (1995) Steve Davislim in La Belle Hélène (TV, 1996) Richard Trewett in the miniseries The Odyssey (TV, 1997) Joe Montana (actor) in Helen of Troy (TV, 2003) Brad Pitt in Troy (2004) Television In the animated television series Class of the Titans, the character Archie is descended from Achilles and has inherited both his vulnerable heel and part of his invincibility. Music Achilles has frequently been mentioned in music. "Achilles Last Stand", by Led Zeppelin; from the album Presence, 1976, Atlantic Records. Achilles is referred to in Bob Dylan's song, "Temporary Like Achilles". "Achilles' Revenge" is a song by Warlord. Achilles Heel is an album by the indie rock band Pedro the Lion. Achilles and his heel are referenced in the song "Special K" by the rock band Placebo. "Achilles' Heel" is a song by the UK band Toploader. "Achilles" is a song by the Colorado-based power metal band Jag Panzer, from the album Casting the Stones. Achilles is referenced in the Indigo Girls song "Ghost". Song by Melbourne band Love Outside Andromeda called "Achilles (All 3)". "Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts", by Manowar; from the album The Triumph of Steel, 1992, Atlantic Records. Although not mentioned by name, "Citadel" (about the Siege of Troy) by The Crüxshadows mentions Paris' arrow 'landing true'. "Achilles' Wrath", a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin. Achilles is mentioned in "Little Joanna" by McFly: "Achilles wears a necklace". Achilles is mentioned in the song "Third Temptation Of Paris" by Alesana. "Achilles: The Back Breaker" is a song by the band The Showdown Achilles is an Oratorio by German Composer Max Bruch (1885) Achilles is also mentioned in the song "Breath Easy" "Y'all ain't real That's y'all Achilles Heel, same routine when you see me you know the drill" by Jay Z NamesakesHMNZS Achilles was a Leander class cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. She became famous for her part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside HMS Ajax and HMS Exeter. Prince Achileas-Andreas of Greece and Denmark, the grandson of the deposed Greek king, Constantine II QuotesIf Achilles was anything, he was a man who believed his own press releases.—Roger Ebert, Roger Ebert, Review of Troy commenting on the classical depiction of Achilles's character and personality. Notes References Homer, IliadHomer, Odyssey XI, 467-540 Apollodorus, Bibliotheca III, xiii, 5-8 Apollodorus, Epitome III, 14-V, 7 Ovid, Metamorphoses XI, 217-265; XII, 580-XIII, 398 Ovid, Heroides III Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica IV, 783-879 Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy, Inferno, V. Bibliography Ileana Chirassi Colombo, “Heroes Achilleus— Theos Apollon.” In Il Mito Greco, ed. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; Anthony Edwards: “Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis”, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, 26 (1985): pp. 215-227 ; “Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic”, Beitrage zur klassischen Philologie, 171, Meisenheim, 1985 ; “Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,” Classical Quarterly, 38 (1988): pp. 25-30 ; Hélène Monsacré, Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère, Paris, Albin Michel, 1984; Gregory Nagy: The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry, Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology, Illinois Classical Studies, 19, 1994; Dale S. Sinos, The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic, Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; Hamilton, Edith, Mythology, New York: Mentor, 1942 Thomas Bullfinch, Myths of Greek and Rome External links Achilles An animated short depicting the story of Achilles as told by Homer, by Barry JC Purves The Story of Achilles and Patroclus Trojan War Resources Nicolae Densuşianu, Dacia Preistorică, 1913, I.4 Cult of Achilles: literary references to the island Leucos in Antiquity Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles Explore paintings that depict stories about Achilles, including 'Achilles Among the Daughters of Lycomedes' and 'The Death of Achilles' | Achilles |@lemmatized wrath:4 achilles:212 françois:1 léon:1 benouville:1 musée:1 fabre:1 greek:34 mythology:5 ancient:3 hero:17 trojan:20 war:21 central:2 character:6 great:11 warrior:5 homer:7 iliad:16 also:15 attribute:3 handsome:1 assemble:2 troy:22 plato:2 symposium:2 later:5 legend:2 begin:3 poem:4 statius:6 first:6 century:10 ad:3 state:3 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1,045 | Anisotropy | WMAP image of the (extremely tiny) anisotropies in the cosmic background radiation Anisotropy (pronounced with stress on the third syllable: ) is the property of being directionally dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which means homogeneity in all directions. It can be defined as a difference in a physical property (absorbance, refractive index, density, etc.) for some material when measured along different axes. An example is the light coming through a polarizing lens. Fields of interest Computer graphics In the field of computer graphics, an anisotropic surface will change in appearance as it is rotated about its geometric normal, as is the case with velvet. Anisotropic filtering (AF) is a method of enhancing the image quality of textures on surfaces that are far away and steeply angled with respect to the point of view. Older techniques, such as bilinear and trilinear filtering don't take account of the angle a surface is viewed from, which can result in aliasing or blurring of textures. By reducing detail in one direction more than another, these effects can be reduced. Chemistry A chemical anisotropic filter, as used to filter particles, is a filter with increasingly smaller interstitial spaces in the direction of filtration so that the proximal regions filter out larger particles and distal regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration. In NMR, the orientation of nuclei with respect to the applied magnetic field determines their chemical shift. In this context, anisotropic systems refer to the electron distribution of molecules with abnormally high electron density, like the pi system of benzene. This abnormal electron density affects the applied magnetic field and causes the observed chemical shift to change. Wood Wood is a naturally anisotropic material. Its properties vary widely when measured with the growth grain or against it. For example, wood's strength and hardness will be different for the same sample if measured in differing orientation. Real World Imagery Images of a gravity-bound or man-made environment are particularly anisotropic in the orientation domain, with relatively more image structure located at orientations parallel with or orthogonal to the direction of gravity (vertical and horizontal). Physics A Plasma lamp displaying the nature of plasmas, in this case, the phenomenon of "filamentation" Cosmologists use the term to describe the uneven temperature distribution of the cosmic microwave background radiation. There is evidence for a so-called "Axis of Evil" 'Axis of evil' a cause for cosmic concern - space - 13 April 2007 - New Scientist Space in the early Universe that is at odds with the currently favored theory of rapid expansion after the Big Bang. Cosmic anisotropy has also been seen in the alignment of galaxies' rotation axes and polarisation angles of quasars. Physicists use the term anisotropy to describe direction-dependent properties of materials. Magnetic anisotropy, for example, may occur in a plasma, so that its magnetic field is oriented in a preferred direction. Plasmas may also show "filamentation" (such as that seen in lightning or a plasma globe) that is directional. An anisotropic liquid is one which has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but has an average structural order relative to each other along the molecular axis, unlike water or chloroform, which contain no structural ordering of the molecules. Liquid crystals are examples of anisotropic liquids. Some materials conduct heat in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source. It is more common for heat conduction to be anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in electronics are often anisotropic. Many crystals are anisotropic to light ("optical anisotropy"), and exhibit properties such as birefringence. Crystal optics describes light propagation in these media. An "axis of anisotropy" is defined as the axis along which isotropy is broken (or an axis of symmetry, such as normal to crystalline layers). Some materials can have multiple such optical axes. Geophysics Seismic anisotropy is the variation of seismic wavespeed with direction. Seismic anisotropy is an indicator of long range order in a material, where features smaller than the seismic wavelength (e.g., crystals, cracks, pores, layers or inclusions) have a dominant alignment. This alignment leads to a directional variation of elasticity wavespeed. Measuring the effects of anisotropy in seismic data can provide important information about processes and mineralogy in the Earth; indeed, significant seismic anisotropy has been detected in the Earth's crust, mantle and inner core. Geological formations with distinct layers of sedimentary material can exhibit electrical anisotropy; electrical conductivity in one direction (e.g. parallel to a layer), is different from that in another (e.g. perpendicular to a layer). This property is used in the gas and oil exploration industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of sand and shale. Sand-bearing hydrocarbon assets have high resistivity (low conductivity), whereas shales have lower resistivity. Formation evaluation instruments measure this conductivity/resistivity and the results are used to help find oil and gas wells. The hydraulic conductivity and hydraulic resistance of aquifers are often anisotropic for the same reason. When calculating groundwater flow to drains R.J.Oosterbaan, 1997, The energy balance of groundwater flow applied to subsurface drainage in anisotropic soils by pipes or ditches with entrance resistance. On line: . The corresponding free EnDrain program can be downloaded from: . or to wells R.J.Oosterbaan, 2002, Subsurface drainage by (tube)wells, 9 pp. On line: . The correspondig free WellDrain program can be downloaded from: . the difference between horizontal and vertical permeability is to be taken into account. Most common rock-forming minerals are anisotropic, including quartz and feldspar. Anisotropy in minerals is most reliably seen in their optical properties. An example of an isotropic mineral is garnet. Medical acoustics Anisotropy is also a well-known property in medical ultrasound imaging describing a different resulting echogenicity of soft tissues, such as tendons, when the angle of the transducer is changed. In diffusion tensor imaging, anisotropy alterations may reflect diffusion changes of water in the brain, particularly in the white matter. Material science and engineering Anisotropy describes the phenomena of chemical bond strengths being directionally dependent. Most materials exhibit anisotropic behavior, where the Young's modulus depends on the direction of the load. Anisotropy in polycrystalline materials can also be due to certain texture patterns which are often produced during manufacturing of the material. In the case of rolling, "stringers" of texture are produced in the direction of rolling, which can lead to vastly different properties in the rolling and transverse directions. Some materials, such as wood and fibre-reinforced composites are very anisotropic, being much stronger along the grain/fibre than across it. Metals and alloys tend to be more isotropic, though they can sometimes exhibit significant anisotropic behaviour. This is especially important in processes such as deep-drawing. Microfabrication Anisotropic etching techniques (such as Deep reactive ion etching) are used in microfabrication processes to create well defined microscopic features with a high aspect ratio. These features are commonly used in MEMS and microfluidic devices, where the anisotropy of the features is needed to impart desired optical, electrical, or physical properties to the device. Anisotropic etching could also refer to certain chemical etchants which are etching a certain material preferentially over certain crystallographic planes (e.g., KOH etching of Silicon [100] produces pyramid-like structures) References External links "Gauge, and knitted fabric generally, is an anisotropic phenomenon" | Anisotropy |@lemmatized wmap:1 image:5 extremely:1 tiny:1 anisotropy:18 cosmic:4 background:2 radiation:2 pronounce:1 stress:1 third:1 syllable:1 property:10 directionally:2 dependent:3 oppose:1 isotropy:2 mean:1 homogeneity:1 direction:11 define:3 difference:2 physical:2 absorbance:1 refractive:1 index:1 density:3 etc:1 material:15 measure:5 along:4 different:5 ax:3 example:5 light:3 come:1 polarizing:1 lens:1 field:5 interest:1 computer:2 graphic:2 anisotropic:20 surface:3 change:4 appearance:1 rotate:1 geometric:2 normal:3 case:3 velvet:1 filtering:1 af:1 method:1 enhance:1 quality:1 texture:4 far:1 away:1 steeply:1 angle:4 respect:2 point:1 view:2 old:1 technique:2 bilinear:1 trilinear:1 filter:5 take:2 account:2 result:4 aliasing:1 blurring:1 reduce:2 detail:1 one:3 another:2 effect:2 chemistry:1 chemical:5 use:8 particle:3 increasingly:2 small:3 interstitial:1 space:3 filtration:2 proximal:1 region:2 large:1 distal:1 remove:1 great:1 flow:3 efficient:1 nmr:1 orientation:5 nucleus:1 apply:2 magnetic:4 determine:1 shift:2 context:1 system:2 refer:2 electron:3 distribution:2 molecule:2 abnormally:1 high:3 like:2 pi:1 benzene:1 abnormal:1 affect:1 applied:1 cause:2 observed:1 wood:4 naturally:1 vary:1 widely:1 growth:1 grain:2 strength:2 hardness:1 sample:1 differ:1 real:1 world:1 imagery:1 gravity:2 bound:1 man:1 make:1 environment:1 particularly:2 domain:1 relatively:1 structure:2 locate:1 parallel:2 orthogonal:1 vertical:2 horizontal:2 physic:1 plasma:5 lamp:1 display:1 nature:1 phenomenon:3 filamentation:2 cosmologist:1 term:2 describe:5 uneven:1 temperature:1 microwave:1 evidence:1 call:1 axis:6 evil:2 concern:1 april:1 new:1 scientist:1 early:1 universe:1 odds:1 currently:1 favor:1 theory:1 rapid:1 expansion:1 big:1 bang:1 also:5 see:3 alignment:3 galaxy:1 rotation:1 polarisation:1 quasar:1 physicist:1 may:3 occur:1 orient:1 preferred:1 show:1 lightning:1 globe:1 directional:2 liquid:4 fluidity:1 average:1 structural:2 order:2 relative:1 molecular:1 unlike:1 water:2 chloroform:1 contain:1 ordering:1 crystal:4 conduct:1 heat:5 way:1 isotropic:3 independent:1 spatial:1 around:1 source:2 common:2 conduction:1 imply:1 detailed:1 modeling:1 typically:1 diverse:1 thermally:1 manage:1 require:1 transfer:1 reject:1 electronics:1 often:3 many:1 optical:4 exhibit:4 birefringence:1 optic:1 propagation:1 medium:1 break:1 symmetry:1 crystalline:1 layer:5 multiple:1 geophysics:1 seismic:6 variation:2 wavespeed:2 indicator:1 long:1 range:1 feature:4 wavelength:1 e:4 g:4 crack:1 pore:1 inclusion:1 dominant:1 lead:2 elasticity:1 data:1 provide:1 important:2 information:1 process:3 mineralogy:1 earth:2 indeed:1 significant:2 detect:1 crust:1 mantle:1 inner:1 core:1 geological:1 formation:2 distinct:1 sedimentary:1 electrical:3 conductivity:4 perpendicular:1 gas:2 oil:2 exploration:1 industry:1 identify:1 hydrocarbon:2 bearing:2 sand:3 sequence:1 shale:2 asset:1 resistivity:3 low:2 whereas:1 evaluation:1 instrument:1 help:1 find:1 well:5 hydraulic:2 resistance:2 aquifer:1 reason:1 calculate:1 groundwater:2 drain:1 r:2 j:2 oosterbaan:2 energy:1 balance:1 subsurface:2 drainage:2 soil:1 pipe:1 ditch:1 entrance:1 line:2 corresponding:1 free:2 endrain:1 program:2 download:2 tube:1 pp:1 correspondig:1 welldrain:1 permeability:1 rock:1 forming:1 mineral:3 include:1 quartz:1 feldspar:1 reliably:1 garnet:1 medical:2 acoustic:1 know:1 ultrasound:1 echogenicity:1 soft:1 tissue:1 tendon:1 transducer:1 diffusion:2 tensor:1 imaging:1 alteration:1 reflect:1 brain:1 white:1 matter:1 science:1 engineering:1 bond:1 behavior:1 young:1 modulus:1 depend:1 load:1 polycrystalline:1 due:1 certain:4 pattern:1 produce:3 manufacturing:1 rolling:3 stringer:1 vastly:1 transverse:1 fibre:2 reinforce:1 composite:1 much:1 strong:1 across:1 metal:1 alloy:1 tend:1 though:1 sometimes:1 behaviour:1 especially:1 deep:2 drawing:1 microfabrication:2 etch:3 reactive:1 ion:1 create:1 microscopic:1 aspect:1 ratio:1 commonly:1 mem:1 microfluidic:1 device:2 need:1 impart:1 desired:1 etching:2 could:1 etchants:1 preferentially:1 crystallographic:1 plane:1 koh:1 silicon:1 pyramid:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 gauge:1 knit:1 fabric:1 generally:1 |@bigram anisotropy_cosmic:1 refractive_index:1 magnetic_field:3 vertical_horizontal:1 cosmic_microwave:1 microwave_background:1 big_bang:1 earth_crust:1 crust_mantle:1 electrical_conductivity:1 subsurface_drainage:2 horizontal_vertical:1 forming_mineral:1 quartz_feldspar:1 soft_tissue:1 fibre_reinforce:1 ion_etch:1 microfluidic_device:1 external_link:1 |
1,046 | Operation_Enduring_Freedom | Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) is the official name used by the U.S. Government for its War in Afghanistan, together with three smaller military actions, under the umbrella of its Global War on Terror (GWOT). The operation was originally called "Operation Infinite Justice", (often misquoted in news articles and political commentary as "Operation Ultimate Justice" ) but this phrase had previously been restricted to the description of God (among followers of several faiths), and it is believed to have been changed to avoid offense to Muslims. On October 5, 2006, NATO officially took over control of U.S. forces in Afghanistan. The Operation comprises several subordinate operations: Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan (OEF-A) Operation Enduring Freedom - Philippines (OEF-P) (formerly Operation Freedom Eagle) Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA) Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara (OEF-TS) The term "OEF" typically refers to the war in Afghanistan. Other operations, such as the Georgia Train and Equip Program, are only loosely or nominally connected to OEF, such as through government funding vehicles. All the operations, however, have a focus on counterterrorism activities. Operation Enduring Freedom - Kyrgyzstan was basically an operation to clear out al-Qaeda forces in Kyrgyzstan so that Operation Enduring Freedom Allies could use Kyrgyzstan as a base in central Asia. It should be noted that Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan, which is a joint US, UK and Afghan operation, is separate from the ISAF, which is an operation of NATO nations including the USA and UK. The two operations run in parallel, and although has been intended that they merge for some time, this has not yet happened. Overview On October 7, 2001, early combat operations including a mix of strikes from land-based B-1 Lancer, B-2 Spirit and B-52 Stratofortress bombers; carrier-based F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet fighters; and Tomahawk cruise missiles launched from both U.S. and British ships and submarines signaled the start of Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan (OEF-A). The initial military objectives of OEF-A, as articulated by Former President George W. Bush in his Sept. 20th Address to a Joint Session of Congress and his Oct. 7th address to the country, included the destruction of terrorist training camps and infrastructure within Afghanistan, the capture of al-Qaeda leaders, and the cessation of terrorist activities in Afghanistan." In January 2002, over 1,200 soldiers from the United States Special Operation Command Pacific (SOCPAC) deployed to Philippines to support the Armed Forces of the Philippines in their push to uproot terrorists forces on the island of Basilan. Of those groups included are Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiyah. The operation consisted of training the AFP in counter-terrorist operations as well as supporting the local people with humanitarian aid in Operation Smiles. In October 2002, the Combined Task Force 150 and United States military Special Forces established themselves in Djibouti at Camp Le Monier. The stated goals of the operation were to provide humanitarian aid and patrol the Horn of Africa to reduce the abilities of terrorist organizations in the region. Similar to OEF-P, the goal of humanitarian aid was highlighted in order to prevent terrorist organizations from being able to take hold amongst the population as well as reemerge after being removed. The military aspect involves coalition forces searching and boarding ships entering the region for illegal cargo as well as providing training and equipment to the armed forces in the region. The humanitarian aspect involves building schools, clinics and water wells to enforce the confidence of the local people. Since 2001, the cumulative expenditure by the U.S. government on Operation Enduring Freedom has exceeded $150 Billion. The operation continues, with military direction mostly coming from United States Central Command. Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan (OEF-A) The Taliban Seizing upon a power vacuum after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan after their invasion, the Taliban assumed the role of government from 1996-2001. Their extreme interpretation of Islamic law prompted them to ban music, television, sports, and dancing, and enforce harsh judicial penalties (See Human rights in Afghanistan). Amputation was an accepted form of punishment for stealing, and public executions could often be seen at the Kabul football stadium. Women's rights groups around the world cried often and loudly as the Taliban banned women from appearing in public or holding many jobs outside the home. They drew further criticism when they destroyed the Buddhas of Bamyan, historical statues nearly 1500 years old, because the buddhas were considered idols. In 1996, Saudi dissident Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan upon the invitation of the Northern Alliance leader Abdur Rabb ur Rasool Sayyaf. When the Taliban came to power, bin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and his al-Qaeda organization. It is understood that al-Qaeda-trained fighters known as the 055 Brigade were integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001. It has been suggested that the Taliban and bin Laden had very close connections. US-led coalition action On September 20, 2001, the U.S. stated that Osama bin Laden was behind the September 11, 2001 attacks, and made a five point ultimatum to the Taliban: . Deliver to the U.S. all of the leaders of al-Qaeda Release all imprisoned foreign nationals Close immediately every terrorist training camp Hand over every terrorist and their supporters to appropriate authorities Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps for inspection On September 21, 2001, the Taliban rejected this ultimatum, stating there was no evidence in their possession linking bin Laden to the September 11 attacks . On September 22, 2001 the United Arab Emirates and later Saudi Arabia withdrew their recognition of the Taliban as the legal government of Afghanistan, leaving neighboring Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic ties. On October 4, 2001, it is believed that the Taliban covertly offered to turn bin Laden over to Pakistan for trial in an international tribunal that operated according to Islamic shar'ia law . Pakistan is believed to have rejected the offer. On October 7, 2001, the Taliban proposed to try bin Laden in Afghanistan in an Islamic court. This proposition was immediately rejected by the U.S. Shortly afterward, the same day, the United States, supported by a coalition of other countries, initiated military action against the Taliban, bombing Taliban forces and al-Qaeda terrorist training camps. On October 14, 2001, the Taliban proposed to hand bin Laden over to a third country for trial, but only if they were given evidence of bin Laden's involvement in the events of September 11, 2001. The U.S. rejected this proposal and continued with military operations. The UN Security Council, on January 16, 2002, unanimously established an arms embargo and the freezing of identifiable assets belonging to bin Laden, al-Qaeda, and the remaining Taliban. Combat operations start Air Force Airman 1st Class Kelliea Guthrie and Senior Airman Greg Ellis guard a C-130 Hercules aircraft during cargo operations at Feyzabab Airfield, Afghanistan. 5-country multinational fleet, during "Operation Enduring Freedom" in the Oman Sea. In four descending columns, from left to right: MM Maestrale (F 570), De Grasse (D 612); USS John C. Stennis (CVN 74), Charles De Gaulle (R 91), Surcouf (F 711); USS Port Royal (CG-73), HMS Ocean (L 12), USS John F. Kennedy (CV 67), HNLMS Van Amstel (F 831); and MM Durand de la Penne (D 560). On Sunday October 7, 2001, American and British forces began an aerial bombing campaign targeting Taliban forces and al-Qaeda. The Northern Alliance, fighting against a Taliban weakened by U.S. bombing and massive defections, captured Mazari Sharif on November 9. It rapidly gained control of most of northern Afghanistan and took control of Kabul on November 13 after the Taliban unexpectedly fled the city. The Taliban were restricted to a smaller and smaller region, with Kunduz, the last Taliban-held city in the north, captured on November 26. Most of the Taliban fled to Pakistan. The war continued in the south of the country, where the Taliban retreated to Kandahar. After Kandahar fell in December, remnants of the Taliban and al-Qaeda continued to mount resistance. Meanwhile, in November 2001 the US military and its allied forces established their first ground base in Afghanistan to the south west of Kandahar, known as FOB Rhino. The Battle of Tora Bora, involving US, British and Northern Alliance forces took place in December 2001 to further destroy the Taliban and suspected al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. In early March 2002 the United States military, along with allied Afghan military forces, conducted a large operation to destroy al-Qaeda in an operation code-named Operation Anaconda. The operation was carried out by elements of the United States 10th Mountain Division, 101st Airborne Division, the US special forces groups TF 11, TF Bowie, and TF Dagger, British Royal Marines, the Norwegian Forsvarets Spesialkommando (FSK), Hærens Jegerkommando and Marinejegerkommandoen, Canada's 3rd Battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, the Afghan National Army, the German KSK, and elements of the Australian Special Air Service Regiment and of the New Zealand Special Air Service. After managing to evade U.S. forces throughout the summer of 2002, the remnants of the Taliban gradually began to regain their confidence. A Canadian and US led operation (supported by British and Dutch forces), Operation Mountain Thrust was launched in May 2006 to counter renewed Taliban insurgency. Since January 2006, the NATO International Security Assistance Force undertook combat duties from Operation Enduring Freedom in southern Afghanistan, the NATO force chiefly made up of British, Canadian and Dutch forces (and some smaller contributions from Denmark, Romania and Estonia and air support from Norway as well as air and artillery support from the US) (see the article Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006). The United States military also conducts military operations separate from NATO as part of Operation Enduring Freedom in other parts of Afghanistan, in areas such as Kandahar, Bagram, and Kabul (including Camp Eggers and Camp Phoenix.) International Support The United States was supported by several nations during Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) in Afghanistan in 2001-2003 and in subsequent coalition operations directly or indirectly in support of OEF. See the article Afghanistan War order of battle for the current disposition of coalition forces in Afghanistan. For coalition forces involved in NATO combat operations in southern Afghanistan in 2006, see the article Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2006. For coalition forces involved in NATO operations in 2007, see the article Coalition combat operations in Afghanistan in 2007. And the article International Security Assistance Force for coalition forces in Afghanistan as part of ISAF. Result The U.S.-led Coalition is credited with removing the Taliban from power and seriously crippling al-Qaeda and associated militants in both Afghanistan and neighboring Pakistan. On October 9, 2004, Afghanistan elected Hamid Karzai President in its first direct elections. The following year, Afghans conducted the Afghan parliamentary election, 2005 on September 18, 2005. Since the invasion, hundreds of schools and mosques have been constructed, millions of dollars in aid have been distributed, and the occurrence of violence has been greatly reduced. While military forces interdict insurgents and assure security, Provincial reconstruction teams are tasked with infrastructure building, like constructing roads and bridges, assisting during floods, and providing food and water to refugees. Many warlords have participated in an allegiance program, recognizing the legitimacy of the Government of Afghanistan, and surrendering their soldiers and weapons, though some of their subsequent actions have led to serious questions about their true loyalties. The newly activated Afghan National Army, Afghan National Police, and Afghan Border Police are being trained to assume the task of securing their nation. However, the Taliban still wields strong influence in many regions, and Karzai's government is believed to hold little real power outside the capital city of Kabul. Criticism AFP, reporting on a news story in the Sunday, April 3, 2004, issue of The New Yorker, wrote that retired Army Colonel Hy Rothstein, "who served in the Army Special Forces for more than 20 years, ... commissioned by The Pentagon to examine the war in Afghanistan concluded the conflict created conditions that have given 'warlordism, banditry and opium production a new lease on life' ...." The conduct of U.S. forces was criticised in a report entitled Enduring Freedom - Abuses by US Forces in Afghanistan by U.S.-based human rights group, Human Rights Watch in 2004. For more criticism of OEF in Afghanistan, see PDA monograph (http://www.comw.org/pda/0201strangevic.html). For one U.S. Army response, see The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for the 21st Century. Operation Enduring Freedom - Philippines (OEF-P) Abu Sayyaf Group The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) Al Harakat Al Islamiyya, is deemed a "foreign terrorist organization" by the United States government. Specifically, it is an Islamist separatist group based in and around the southern islands of the Republic of the Philippines, primarily Jolo, Basilan, and Mindanao. Since inception in the early 1990s, the group has carried out bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, and extortion in their fight for an independent Islamic state in western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, with a claimed overarching goal of creating a Pan-Islamic superstate across the Malay portions of Southeast Asia, spanning, from east to west, the large island of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago (Basilan and Jolo islands), the large island of Borneo (Malaysia and Indonesia), the South China Sea, and the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Myanmar). Jemaah Islamiyah Jemaah Islamiyah is a militant Islamic terrorist organization dedicated to the establishment of a fundamentalist Islamic theocracy in Southeast Asia, in particular Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Malaysia, the south of Thailand and the Philippines. Financial links between Jemaah Islamiyah and other terrorist groups, such as Abu Sayyaf and al-Qaeda, have been found to exist. Jemaah Islamiyah means "Islamic Group" or "Islamic Community" and is often abbreviated JI. Jemaah Islamiyah is thought to have killed hundreds of civilians and is suspected of having executed the Bali car bombing on October 12, 2002 in which suicide bombers killed 202 people, mostly Australian tourists, and wounded many in a nightclub. After this attack, the U.S. State Department designated Jemaah Islamiyah as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. Jemaah Islamiyah is also suspected of carrying out the Zamboanga bombings, the Metro Manila bombings, the 2004 Australian embassy bombing and the 2005 Bali terrorist bombing. U.S. action In January 2002, 1,200 members of United States Special Operations Command, Pacific (SOCPAC) were deployed to the Philippines to assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in uprooting al-Qaeda, Jemaah Islamiyah and Abu Sayyaf. The members of SOCPAC were assigned to assist in military operations against the terrorist forces as well as humanitarian operations for the island of Basilan, where most of the conflict was expected to take place. The United States Special Forces (SP) unit trained and equipped special forces and scout rangers of the AFP, creating the Light Reaction Company (LRC). The LRC and elements of SOCPAC deployed to Basilan on completion of their training. The stated goals of the deployment were denying the ASG sanctuary, surveiling, controlling, and denying ASG routes, surveiling supporting villages and key personnel, conducting local training to overcome AFP weaknesses and sustain AFP strengths, supporting operations by the AFP "strike force" (LRC) in the area of responsibility (AOR), conducting and supporting civil affairs operations in the AOR. Result The desired result was for the AFP to gain sufficient capability to locate and destroy the ASG, to recover hostages and to enhance the legitimacy of the Philippine government. Much of the operation was a success; the ASG was driven from Basilan, and one U.S. hostage was recovered. The Abu Sayyaf Group's ranks, which once swelled above 800+a man and some operatives, has been reduced to less than 100. The humanitarian portion of the operation, Operation Smiles, has created 14 schools, 7 clinics, 3 hospitals and provided medical care to over 18,000 residents of Basilan. Humanitarian groups were able to continue their work without fear of further kidnappings and terrorists attacks by the Abu Sayyaf Group. Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA) Unlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist organization as a target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the region and to work with host nations to deny the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities. In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was established in Djibouti at Camp Le Monier containing approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF), and coalition force members, Combined Task Force 150 (CTF-150). The coalition force consists of ships from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Pakistan, New Zealand, Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region. CJTF-HOA has devoted the majority of its efforts to train selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include the rebuilding of schools and medical clinics, as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained. The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali. U.S. Action Anti piracy operations were undertaken by the coalition throughout 2006 with a battle fought in March of that year when US vessels were attacked by pirates. In January 2007, during the war in Somalia, an AC-130 airstrike was conducted against al-Qaeda members embedded with forces of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) operating in southern Somalia near Ras Kamboni. US naval forces, including the aircraft carrier USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, were positioned off the coast of Somalia to provide support and to prevent any al-Qaeda forces escaping by sea. Actions against pirates also occurred in June and October 2007 with varying amounts of success. Military decorations Since 2002, the United States military has created military awards and decorations related to Operation Enduring Freedom: Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal Afghanistan Campaign Medal NATO also created a military decoration related to Operation Enduring Freedom: Non-Article 5 ISAF NATO Medal See also Coalition Casualties in Afghanistan International Security Assistance Force War on Terrorism Afghanistan Orbat References Further reading Maloney, Sean M. Enduring the Freedom: A Rogue Historian in Afghanistan. Washington, D.C. : Potomac Books, Incorporated, 2005. ISBN 1574889532. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/200111--04.htm External links Special Operations Forces in Operation "Enduring Freedom" The Enduring Freedom Foundation | Operation_Enduring_Freedom |@lemmatized operation:68 endure:22 freedom:25 oef:18 official:1 name:2 use:2 u:29 government:9 war:9 afghanistan:38 together:1 three:1 small:4 military:19 action:7 umbrella:1 global:2 terror:1 gwot:1 originally:1 call:1 infinite:1 justice:2 often:4 misquote:1 news:2 article:7 political:1 commentary:1 ultimate:1 phrase:1 previously:1 restrict:2 description:1 god:1 among:1 follower:1 several:3 faith:1 believe:4 change:1 avoid:1 offense:1 muslim:1 october:11 nato:9 officially:1 take:5 control:4 force:49 comprise:1 subordinate:1 philippine:8 p:3 formerly:1 eagle:1 horn:5 africa:5 hoa:7 trans:2 sahara:1 term:1 typically:1 refer:1 georgia:1 train:6 equip:2 program:3 loosely:1 nominally:1 connect:1 funding:1 vehicle:1 however:2 focus:2 counterterrorism:2 activity:4 kyrgyzstan:3 basically:1 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1,047 | Propaganda | First Red Scare depiction of a "European Anarchist" attempting to destroy the Statue of Liberty. Poster for Thirteenth Naval District, United States Navy, showing a rat representing Japan, approaching a mousetrap labeled "Army, Navy, Civilian," on a background map of the Alaska Territory. Propaganda is the dissemination of information aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of people. As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda in its most basic sense, often presents information primarily in order to influence its audience. Propaganda often presents facts selectively (thus lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or gives loaded messages in order to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject in the target audience to further a political agenda. Types Propaganda is generally an appeal to emotion not the intellect. It shares techniques with advertising and public relations. Advertising and public relations can be thought of as propaganda that promotes a commercial product or shapes the perception of an organization, person or brand, though in post-World War II usage the word "propaganda" more typically refers to political or nationalist uses of these techniques or to the promotion of a set of ideas, since the term had gained a pejorative meaning, which commercial and government entities couldn’t accept. The refusal phenomenon was eventually to be seen in politics itself by the substitution of ‘political marketing’ and other designations for ‘political propaganda’. Poster of the 19th century Scandinavist movement Propaganda was often used to influence opinions and beliefs on religious issues, particularly during the split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant churches. Propaganda has become more common in political contexts, in particular to refer to certain efforts sponsored by governments, political groups, but also often covert interests. In the early 20th century, propaganda was exemplified in the form of party slogans. Also in the early 20th century the term propaganda was used by the founders of the nascent public relations industry to describe their activities. This usage died out around the time of World War II, as the industry started to avoid the word, given the pejorative connotation it had acquired. The execution of British nurse Edith Cavell by the German Army in 1915 was a major theme of World War I anti-German propaganda Literally translated from the Latin gerundive as "things which must be disseminated", in some cultures the term is neutral or even positive, while in others the term has acquired a strong negative connotation. The connotations of the term "propaganda" can also vary over time. For example, in Portuguese and some Spanish language speaking countries, particularly in the Southern Cone, the word "propaganda" usually refers to the most common manipulative media — "advertising". In English, "propaganda" was originally a neutral term used to describe the dissemination of information in favor of any given cause. During the 20th century, however, the term acquired a thoroughly negative meaning in western countries, representing the intentional dissemination of often false, but certainly "compelling" claims to support or justify political actions or ideologies. This redefinition arose because both the Soviet Union and Germany's government under Hitler admitted explicitly to using propaganda favoring, respectively, communism and Nazism, in all forms of public expression. As these ideologies were repugnant to liberal western societies, the negative feelings toward them came to be projected into the word "propaganda" itself. A 1947 comic book published by the Catechetical Guild Educational Society warning of "the dangers of a Communist takeover". Roderick Hindery argues Hindery, Roderick R., Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought? (2001) that propaganda exists on the political left, and right, and in mainstream centrist parties. Hindery further argues that debates about most social issues can be productively revisited in the context of asking "what is or is not propaganda?" Not to be overlooked is the link between propaganda, indoctrination, and terrorism/counterterrorism. He argues that threats to destroy are often as socially disruptive as physical devastation itself. Propaganda also has much in common with public information campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of leaflets, posters, TV and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other medium. In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal (imposed by law) distinction between advertising (a type of overt propaganda) and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda." Journalistic theory generally holds that news items should be objective, giving the reader an accurate background and analysis of the subject at hand. On the other hand, advertisements evolved from the traditional commercial advertisements to include also a new type in the form of paid articles or broadcasts disguised as news. These generally present an issue in a very subjective and often misleading light, primarily meant to persuade rather than inform. Normally they use only subtle propaganda techniques and not the more obvious ones used in traditional commercial advertisements. If the reader believes that a paid advertisement is in fact a news item, the message the advertiser is trying to communicate will be more easily "believed" or "internalized." Such advertisements are considered obvious examples of "covert" propaganda because they take on the appearance of objective information rather than the appearance of propaganda, which is misleading. Federal law specifically mandates that any advertisement appearing in the format of a news item must state that the item is in fact a paid advertisement. US Office for War Information poster implying that working less helped the Axis powers. The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or situation for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are desirable to the interest group. Propaganda, in this sense, serves as a corollary to censorship in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's minds with approved information, but by preventing people from being confronted with opposing points of view. What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception and confusion rather than persuasion and understanding. The leaders of an organization know the information to be one sided or untrue, but this may not be true for the rank and file members who help to disseminate the propaganda. More in line with the religious roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about new religious movements (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs cults. Anti-cult activists and countercult activists accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and CESNUR affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the anti-cult movement of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons. The much-imitated 1914 "Lord Kitchener Wants You!" poster Propaganda is a powerful weapon in war; it is used to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external, by creating a false image in the mind. This can be done by using derogatory or racist terms, avoiding some words or by making allegations of enemy atrocities. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just. Propaganda is also one of the methods used in psychological warfare, which may also involve false flag operations. The term propaganda may also refer to false information meant to reinforce the mindsets of people who already believe as the propagandist wishes. The assumption is that, if people believe something false, they will constantly be assailed by doubts. Since these doubts are unpleasant (see cognitive dissonance), people will be eager to have them extinguished, and are therefore receptive to the reassurances of those in power. For this reason propaganda is often addressed to people who are already sympathetic to the agenda. This process of reinforcement uses an individual's predisposition to self-select "agreeable" information sources as a mechanism for maintaining control. Britannia arm-in-arm with Uncle Sam symbolizes the British-American alliance in World War I. Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message. White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an argument. Black propaganda is identified as being from one source, but is in fact from another. This is most commonly to disguise the true origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country or from an organization with a negative public image. Grey propaganda is propaganda without any identifiable source or author. A major application of grey propaganda is making enemies believe falsehoods using straw arguments: As phase one, to make someone believe "A", one releases as grey propaganda "B", the opposite of "A". In phase two, "B" is discredited using some strawman. The enemy will then assume "A" to be true. In scale, these different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to grey propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the very campaign the black propagandist supported. Propaganda may be administered in insidious ways. For instance, disparaging disinformation about the history of certain groups or foreign countries may be encouraged or tolerated in the educational system. Since few people actually double-check what they learn at school, such disinformation will be repeated by journalists as well as parents, thus reinforcing the idea that the disinformation item is really a "well-known fact", even though no one repeating the myth is able to point to an authoritative source. The disinformation is then recycled in the media and in the educational system, without the need for direct governmental intervention on the media. Such permeating propaganda may be used for political goals: by giving citizens a false impression of the quality or policies of their country, they may be incited to reject certain proposals or certain remarks or ignore the experience of others. See also: black propaganda, marketing, advertising. Techniques Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets, movies, radio, television, and posters. In the case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as long-running advertorials. Propaganda campaigns often follow a strategic transmission pattern to indoctrinate the target group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hot line, radio program, et cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to opinion leader through indoctrination. A number of techniques based in social psychological research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques can be found under logical fallacies, since propagandists use arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid. Some time has been spent analyzing the means by which propaganda messages are transmitted. That work is important but it is clear that information dissemination strategies become propaganda only strategies when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those messages are spread. Below are a number of techniques for generating propaganda: Ad hominem A Latin phrase which has come to mean attacking your opponent, as opposed to attacking their arguments. Ad nauseam This argument approach uses tireless repetition of an idea. An idea, especially a simple slogan, that is repeated enough times, may begin to be taken as the truth. This approach works best when media sources are limited and controlled by the propagator. Appeal to authority Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position, idea, argument, or course of action. Appeal to fear Appeals to fear seek to build support by instilling anxieties and panic in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German people. Appeal to prejudice Using loaded or emotive terms to attach value or moral goodness to believing the proposition. Bandwagon Bandwagon and "inevitable-victory" appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action that "everyone else is taking." Inevitable victory: invites those not already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured that staying aboard is their best course of action. Join the crowd: This technique reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best interest to join. Getting What He Deserves. Heroes of the Fiery Cross 1928 Black-and-White fallacy Presenting only two choices, with the product or idea being propagated as the better choice. (e.g., "You are either with us, or you are with the enemy") Beautiful people The type of propaganda that deals with famous people or depicts attractive, happy people. This makes other people think that if they buy a product or follow a certain ideology, they too will be happy or successful. (This is more used in advertising for products, instead of political reasons) Big Lie The repeated articulation of a complex of events that justify subsequent action. The descriptions of these events have elements of truth, and the "big lie" generalizations merge and eventually supplant the public's accurate perception of the underlying events. After World War I the German Stab in the back explanation of the cause of their defeat became a justification for Nazi re-militarization and revanchist aggression. Common man The "'plain folks'" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average person. For example, a propaganda leaflet may make an argument on a macroeconomic issue, such as unemployment insurance benefits, using everyday terms: "given that the country has little money during this recession, we should stop paying unemployment benefits to those who do not work, because that is like maxing out all your credit cards during a tight period, when you should be tightening your belt." Demonizing the enemy Making individuals from the opposing nation, from a different ethnic group, or those who support the opposing viewpoint appear to be subhuman (e.g., the Vietnam War-era term "gooks" for National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam aka Vietcong, (or 'VC') soldiers), worthless, or immoral, through suggestion or false accusations. World War I poster by Winsor McCay, urging Americans to buy Liberty Bonds Direct order This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process by using images and words to tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I want you" image is an example of this technique. Disinformation The creation or deletion of information from public records, in the purpose of making a false record of an event or the actions of a person or organization, including outright forgery of photographs, motion pictures, broadcasts, and sound recordings as well as printed documents. Euphoria The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness, or using an appealing event to boost morale. Euphoria can be created by declaring a holiday, making luxury items available, or mounting a military parade with marching bands and patriotic messages. Flag-waving An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a group, country, or idea. The feeling of patriotism which this technique attempts to inspire may not necessarily diminish or entirely omit one's capability for rational examination of the matter in question. The Finnish Maiden - personification of Finnish nationalism Glittering generalities Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words applied to a product or idea, but which present no concrete argument or analysis. A famous example is the campaign slogan "Ford has a better idea!" Half-truth A half-truth is a deceptive statement which may come in several forms and includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation, or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade blame or misrepresent the truth. Intentional vagueness Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience forgoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity, reasonableness and application may still be considered. Labeling A Euphemism is used when the propagandist attempts to increase the perceived quality, credibility, or creedence of a particular ideal. A Dysphemism is used when the intent of the propagandist is to discredit, diminish the perceived quality, or hurt the perceived righteousness of the Mark. By creating a 'label' or 'category' or 'faction' of a population, it is much easier to make an example of these larger bodies, because they can uplift or defame the Mark without actually incuring legal-defamation. Example: "Liberal" is a dysphamsim intended to diminish the perceived credibility of a particular Mark. By taking a displeasing argument presented by a Mark, the propagandist can quote that person, and then attack 'liberals' in an attempt to both (1) create a political battle-ax of unaccountable aggression and (2) diminish the quality of the Mark. If the propagandist uses the label on too-many perceivably credible individuals, muddying up the word can be done by broadcasting bad-examples of 'liberals' into the media. Labeling can be thought of as a sub-set of Guilt by association, another logical fallacy. Name-calling Propagandists use the name-calling technique to incite fears and arouse prejudices in their hearers in the intent that the bad names will cause hearers to construct a negative opinion about a group or set of beliefs or ideas that the propagandist would wish hearers to denounce. The method is intended to provoke conclusions about a matter apart from impartial examinations of facts. Name-calling is thus a substitute for rational, fact-based arguments against the an idea or belief on its own merits. Propaganda Techniques Obtain disapproval or Reductio ad Hitlerum This technique is used to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group which supports a certain policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people support the same policy, then the members of the group may decide to change their original position. This is a form of bad logic, where a is said to equal X, and b is said to equal X, therefore, a = b. Oversimplification Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems. Illustration by Rev. Branford Clarke from Heroes of the Fiery Cross by Bishop Alma White published by the Pillar of Fire Church 1928 in Zarephath, NJ Quotes out of Context Selective editing of quotes which can change meanings. Political documentaries designed to discredit an opponent or an opposing political viewpoint often make use of this technique. Rationalization Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs. Red herring Presenting data or issues that, while compelling, are irrelevant to the argument at hand, and then claiming that it validates the argument. Repetition This type of propaganda deals with a jingle or word that is repeated over and over again, thus getting it stuck in someones head, so they can buy the product. The "Repetition" method has been described previously. Scapegoating Assigning blame to an individual or group, thus alleviating feelings of guilt from responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to fix the problem for which blame is being assigned. Slogans A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to support reasoned ideas, in practice they tend to act only as emotional appeals. Opponents of the US's invasion and occupation of Iraq use the slogan "blood for oil" to suggest that the invasion and its human losses was done to access Iraq's oil riches. On the other hand, "hawks" who argue that the US should continue to fight in Iraq use the slogan "cut and run" to suggest that it would be cowardly or weak to withdraw from Iraq. Similarly, the names of the military campaigns, such as "enduring freedom" or "just cause", may also be regarded to be slogans, devised to influence people. Stereotyping This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even though they are far from being representative of the whole country or group; such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal. In graphic propaganda, including war posters, this might include portraying enemies with stereotyped racial features. Testimonial Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. See also, damaging quotation Transfer Also known as association, this is a technique that involves projecting the positive or negative qualities of one person, entity, object, or value onto another to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols superimposed over other visual images. These symbols may be used in place of words; for example, placing swastikas on or around a picture of an opponent in order to associate the opponent with Naziism. Unstated assumption This technique is used when the propaganda concept that the propagandist intends to transmit would seem less credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead repeatedly assumed or implied. Virtue words These are words in the value system of the target audience which tend to produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, "The Truth", etc. are virtue words. In countries such as the U.S. religiosity is seen as a virtue, making associations to this quality affectively beneficial. See ""Transfer"". Models Herman and Chomsky's propaganda model French Propaganda Postcard from World War I era showing a caricature of Kaiser Wilhelm II biting the world The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky that alleges systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural economic causes. First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda model views the private media as businesses selling a product — readers and audiences (rather than news) — to other businesses (advertisers) and relying primarily on government and corporate information and propaganda. The theory postulates five general classes of "filters" that determine the type of news that is presented in news media: Ownership of the medium, the medium's Funding, Sourcing of the news, Flak, and Anti-communist ideology. The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the authors as being the most important. Although the model was based mainly on the characterization of United States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles which the model postulates as the cause of media biases. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Chomsky stated that the new filter replacing communism would be terrorism and Islam. Ross' epistemic merit model The epistemic merit model is a method for understanding propaganda conceived by Sheryl Tuttle Ross and detailed in her 2002 article for the Journal of Aesthetic Education entitled "Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Model and Its Application to Art". Ross, Sheryl Tuttle. "Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Model and Its Application to Art." Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 36, No.1. pp. 16-30 Ross developed the Epistemic merit model due to concern about narrow, misleading definitions of propaganda. She contrasted her model with the ideas of Pope Gregory XV, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, Alfred Lee, F.C. Bartlett, and Hans Speier. Insisting that each of their respective discussions of propaganda are too narrow, Ross proposed her own definition. American World War I poster: "Remember Your First Thrill of American Liberty" To appropriately discuss propaganda, Ross argues that one must consider a threefold communication model: that of Sender-Message-Receiver. "That is... propaganda involve[s]... the one who is persuading (Sender) [who is] doing so intentionally, [the] target for such persuasion (Receiver) and [the] means of reaching that target (Message)." There are four conditions for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda involves the intention to persuade. As well, propaganda is sent on behalf of a sociopolitical institution, organization, or cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a socially significant group of people. Finally, propaganda is an epistemic struggle to challenge other thoughts. Ross claims that it is misleading to say that propaganda is simply false, or that it is conditional to a lie, since often the propagandist believes in what he/she is propagandizing. In other words, it is not necessarily a lie if the person who creates the propaganda is trying to persuade you of a view that they actually hold. "The aim of the propagandist is to create the semblance of credibility." This means that they appeal to an epistemology that is weak or defective. Throughout history those who have wished to persuade have used art to get their message out. This can be accomplished by hiring artists for the express aim of propagandizing or by investing new meanings to a previously non-political work. Therefore, Ross states, it is important to consider "the conditions of its making [and] the conditions of its use." History Ancient propaganda English Civil War cartoon entitled "The Cruel Practices of Prince Rupert" (1643) Propaganda has been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription (c. 515 BC) detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne, can be seen as an early example of propaganda. The Arthashastra written by Chanakya (c. 350 - 283 BC), a professor of political science at Takshashila University and a prime minister of the Maurya Empire in ancient India, discusses propaganda in detail, such as how to spread propaganda and how to apply it in fare. His student Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340 - 293 BC), founder of the Maurya Empire, employed these methods during his rise to power. Boesche, Roger. "Kautilya’s Arthasastra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India", The Journal of Military History 67 (p. 9–38), January 2003. The writings of Romans such as Livy (c. 59 BC - 17 AD) are considered masterpieces of pro-Roman propaganda. Another example of early propaganda would be the 12th century work The War of the Irish with the Foreigners, written by the Dál gCais to portray themselves as legitimate rulers of Ireland. U.S. Propaganda from World War II, depicting Hitler as foolish. 19th and 20th centuries With the beginnings of the mass media in the 19th century, war rape was sometimes used as propaganda by European colonialists in order to justify the colonization of places they had conquered. The most notable example was perhaps during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, known as "India's First War of Independence" to the Indians and as the "Sepoy Mutiny" to the British, where Indian sepoys rebelled against the British East India Company's rule in India. While incidents of rape committed by Indian rebels against English women or girls were generally uncommon during the rebellion, this was exaggerated to great effect by the British media in order to justify continued British colonialism in the Indian subcontinent. At the time, British newspapers had printed various accounts about English women and girls being raped by the Indian rebels, but with little physical evidence to support these stories. It was later found that some of these accounts were false stories created in order to paint the native people of India as savages who need to be civilized by British colonialists, a mission sometimes known as "The White Man's Burden". One such account published by The Times, regarding an incident where 48 English girls as young as 10-14 were supposedly raped by the Indian rebels in Delhi, was criticized as a false propaganda story by Karl Marx, who pointed out that the story was reported by a clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion. Gabriel Tarde's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon's The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first codifications of propaganda techniques, which influenced many writers afterward, including Sigmund Freud. Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily influenced by Le Bon's theories. Journalist Walter Lippmann, in Public Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as the American advertising pioneer Edward Bernays, a nephew of Freud, early in the 20th century. About Edward Berneys book chapter During World War I, Lippmann and Bernays were hired by then United States President, Woodrow Wilson, to participate in the Creel Commission, the mission of which was to sway popular opinion in favor of entering the war, on the side of the United Kingdom. The Creel Commission provided themes for speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the American press. The Commission was so unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organize and archive its papers. The war propaganda campaign of Lippmann and Bernays produced within six months such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business (and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion. Bernays coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in practical propaganda work. The current public relations industry is a direct outgrowth of Lippmann's and Bernays' work and is still used extensively by the United States government. For the first half of the 20th century Bernays and Lippmann themselves ran a very successful public relations firm. World War II saw continued use of propaganda as a weapon of war, both by Hitler's propagandist Joseph Goebbels and the British Political Warfare Executive, as well as the United States Office of War Information. John Bull on a British First World War recruiting poster In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely distributed a video game known as America's Army. The stated intention of the game is to encourage players to become interested in joining the U.S. Army. Russian revolution Russian revolutionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries distinguished two different aspects covered by the English term propaganda. Their terminology included two terms: (agitatsiya), or agitation, and , or propaganda, see agitprop (agitprop is not, however, limited to the Soviet Union, as it was considered, before the October Revolution, to be one of the fundamental activities of any Marxist activist; this importance of agit-prop in Marxist theory may also be observed today in Trotskyist circles, who insist on the importance of leaflet distribution). Soviet propaganda meant dissemination of revolutionary ideas, teachings of Marxism, and theoretical and practical knowledge of Marxist economics, while agitation meant forming favorable public opinion and stirring up political unrest. These activities did not carry negative connotations (as they usually do in English) and were encouraged. Expanding dimensions of state propaganda, the Bolsheviks actively used transportation such as trains, aircraft and other means. Joseph Stalin's regime built the largest fixed-wing aircraft of the 1930s, Tupolev ANT-20, exclusively for this purpose. Named after the famous Soviet writer Maxim Gorky who had recently returned from fascist Italy, it was equipped with a powerful radio set called "Voice from the sky", printing and leaflet-dropping machinery, radio stations, photographic laboratory, film projector with sound for showing movies in flight, library, etc. The aircraft could be disassembled and transported by railroad if needed. The giant aircraft set a number of world records. Nazi Germany Most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry shortly after Hitler took power in 1933. All journalists, writers, and artists were required to register with one of the Ministry's subordinate chambers for the press, fine arts, music, theater, film, literature, or radio. The Nazis believed in propaganda as a vital tool in achieving their goals. Adolf Hitler, Germany's Führer, was impressed by the power of Allied propaganda during World War I and believed that it had been a primary cause of the collapse of morale and revolts in the German home front and Navy in 1918 (see also: Dolchstoßlegende). Hitler would meet nearly every day with Goebbels to discuss the news and Goebbels would obtain Hitler's thoughts on the subject; Goebbels would then meet with senior Ministry officials and pass down the official Party line on world events. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval before their works were disseminated. Along with posters, the Nazis produced a number of films and books to spread their beliefs. America in World War II Britain in World War II Soviet Union in World War II Cold War propaganda German Democratic Republic poster showing the increase of timber production from 7 million cubic metres in 1970 to 11 million in 1990 (see also Economy of the German Democratic Republic) Poster showing the increase of agricultural production in the German Democratic Republic from 1981 to 1983 and 1986 Soldier loads a "leaflet bomb" during the Korean war. The United States and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, and Third World nations and USA. The United States Information Agency operated the Voice of America as an official government station. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, which were in part supported by the Central Intelligence Agency, provided grey propaganda in news and entertainment programs to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union respectively. The Soviet Union's official government station, Radio Moscow, broadcast white propaganda, while Radio Peace and Freedom broadcast grey propaganda. Both sides also broadcast black propaganda programs in periods of special crises. In 1948, the United Kingdom's Foreign Office created the IRD (Information Research Department) which took over from wartime and slightly post-war departments such as the Ministry of Information and dispensed propaganda via various media such as the BBC and publishing. The ideological and border dispute between the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China resulted in a number of cross-border operations. One technique developed during this period was the "backwards transmission", in which the radio program was recorded and played backwards over the air. (This was done so that messages meant to be received by the other government could be heard, while the average listener could not understand the content of the program.) When describing life in capitalist countries, in the US in particular, propaganda focused on social issues such as poverty and anti-union action by the government. Workers in capitalist countries were portrayed as "ideologically close". Propaganda claimed rich people from the US derived their income from weapons manufacturing, and claimed that there was substantial racism or neo-fascism in the US. When describing life in Communist countries, western propaganda sought to depict an image of a citizenry held captive by governments that brainwash them. The West also created a fear of the East, by depicting an aggressive Soviet Union. In the Americas, Cuba served as a major source and a target of propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast The Voice of Vietnam as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the USS Pueblo. George Orwell's novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union, these books are about totalitarian regimes in which language is constantly corrupted for political purposes. These novels were, ironically, used for explicit propaganda. The CIA, for example, secretly commissioned an animated film adaptation of Animal Farm in the 1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its own needs. Guardian — The cartoon that came in from the cold - Revolution in Central and Eastern Europe During the democratic revolutions of 1989 in Central and Eastern Europe the propaganda poster was an important weapon in the hand of the opposition. Printed and hand-made political posters appeared on the Berlin Wall, on the statue of St. Wenceslas in Prague and around the unmarked grave of Imre Nagy in Budapest and the role of them was important for the democratic change. Yugoslav wars During the Yugoslav wars, propaganda was used to create fear and hatred and particularly incite the Serb population against the other ethnicities (Bosniaks, Croats, Albanians and other non-Serbs). Serb media made a great effort in justifying, revising or denying mass war crimes committed by Serb forces during the Yugoslav wars on Bosniaks and other non-Serbs. According to the ICTY verdicts against Serb political and military leaders, during the Bosnian war, the propaganda was a part of the Strategic Plan by Serb leadership, aimed at linking Serb-populated areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina together, gaining control over these areas and creating a separate Serb state, from which most non-Serbs would be permanently removed. The Serb leadership was aware that the Strategic Plan could only be implemented by the use of force and fear, thus by the commission of war crimes. Croats also used propaganda against Bosniaks during the 1992-1994 Croat-Bosniak war, which was part of the larger Bosnian War. During Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing Croat forces seized the television broadcasting stations (for example at Skradno) and created its own local radio and television to carry propaganda, seized the public institutions, raised the Croatian flag over public institution buildings, and imposed the Croatian Dinar as the unit of currency. During this time, Busovača's Bosniaks were forced to sign an act of allegiance to the Croat authorities, fell victim to numerous attacks on shops and businesses and, gradually, left the area out of fear that they would be the victims of mass crimes. According to ICTY Trial Chambers in Blaškić case Croat authorities created a radio station in Kiseljak which broadcast nationalist propaganda. A similar pattern was applied in Mostar and Gornji Vakuf (where Croats created a radio station called Radio Uskoplje). Local propaganda efforts in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina controlled by the Croats, were supported by Croatian daily newspapers such as Večernji list and Croatian Radiotelevision, especially by controversial reporters Dijana Čuljak and Smiljko Šagolj who are still blamed by the families of Bosniak victims in Vranica case for inciting massacre of Bosnian POWs in Mostar, when broadcasting a report about alleged terrorists arrested by Croats who victimized Croat civilians. The bodies of Bosnian POWs were later found in Goranci mass grave. Croatian Radiotelevision presented Croat attack on Mostar, as a Bosnian Muslim attack on Croats in alliance with the Serbs. According to ICTY, in the early hours of May 9, 1993, the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) attacked Mostar using artillery, mortars, heavy weapons and small arms. The HVO controlled all roads leading into Mostar and international organisations were denied access. Radio Mostar announced that all Bosniaks should hang out a white flag from their windows. The HVO attack had been well prepared and planned. During the ICTY trials against Croat war leaders, many Croatian journalists participated as the defence witnesses trying to relativise war crimes committed by Croatian troops. During the trial against general Tihomir Blaškić (later convicted of war crimes), Ivica Mlivončić, Croatian columnist in Slobodna Dalmacija, tried to defend general Blaškić presenting number of claims in his book Zločin s pečatom about alleged genocide against Croats (most of it unproven or false), which was considered by the Trial Chambers as irrelevant for the case. After the conviction, he continued to write in Slobodna Dalmacija against the ICTY presenting it as the court against Croats, with chauvinistic claims that the ICTY cannot be unbiassed because it is financed by Saudi Arabia (Muslims). Slobodna Dalmacija — NAJVEĆI DONATOR HAAŠKOG SUDA JE — SAUDIJSKA ARABIJA Igor Lasić — Izlog izdavačkog smeća Afghan War In the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, psychological operations tactics were employed to demoralize the Taliban and to win the sympathies of the Afghan population. At least six EC-130E Commando Solo aircraft were used to jam local radio transmissions and transmit replacement propaganda messages. Leaflets were also dropped throughout Afghanistan, offering rewards for Osama bin Laden and other individuals, portraying Americans as friends of Afghanistan and emphasizing various negative aspects of the Taliban. Another shows a picture of Mohammed Omar in a set of crosshairs with the words "We are watching." This technique has been shown to be rather ineffective in terms of long term opinions change given current political and social conditions in Afghanistan. US PSYOP pamphlet disseminated in Iraq. Text: "This is your future al-Zarqawi" and shows al-Qaeda fighter al-Zarqawi caught in a rat trap. The US Air Force can use cluster bombs to deliver leaflets. The LBU-30 clusterbomb is designed to allow an aircraft to deliver leaflets to a target area while minimizing wind drift. Iraq War The United States and Iraq both contributed to the use of propaganda and like strategy during the Iraq War. With the growing discomfort in the hearts of the American and Iraqi people, there needed to be a way to gain the support of the on-going war. The United States established campaigns towards the American people on the justifications of the war while using similar tactics to bring down Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq. Altheide, David L. "War and Mass Mediated Evidence." Cultural Studies — Critical Methodologies 9 (2009): 14-22. By looking at the ways America and Iraq used propaganda to benefit their individual views it is clear that both sides had similar ideas on how to gain the support needed to win the war. Iraqi Propaganda The Iraqi insurgency had a plan, and that was to gain as much support as possible by using violence as their propaganda tool. Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 23-32. By using the inspiration of the Vietcong Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15-24. , the insurgents were using rapid movement to keep the coalition off-balance. Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 23-32. By using low-technology strategies to convey their messages, they were able to gain support. Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 24 Graffiti slogans were used on walls and houses praising the virtues of many group leaders while condemning the Iraqi government. Others used flyers, leaflets, articles and self published newspapers and magazines to get the point across. Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 24 Low-tech methods were most common in Iraqi propaganda however, they were also proficient in high-tech methods. The insurgents would produce CDs and DVDs and distribute them in communities that the Iraq and the U.S. Government were trying to influence. Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 26 The insurgents designed advertisements that cost a fraction of what the U.S. was spending on their ads aimed at the same people in Iraq with much more success. Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 26 In Addition, the Iraqis also created and established an Arabic language television station in order to transmit information to the people of Iraq about the rumors and lies that the Americans were spreading about the war. Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15-24. American Propaganda in Iraq For the U.S. to create their aim of a moderate, pro-western Iraq, the U.S. authorities have been careful to avoid conflict with Islamic culture in order to avoid any passionate reaction from the Iraqis. As a result differentiating between "good" and "bad" Islams has proven to be challenging for the U.S. Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15-24. The U.S. implemented something called “Black Propaganda” by creating false radio personalities that would disseminate pro-American information but supposedly run by the supporters of Saddam Hussein. One radio station used was Radio Tikrit. Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15-24. Another example of America’s attempt with Black Propaganda is that the U.S. paid Iraqis to publish articles written by American troops in their newspapers under the idea that they are unbiased and real accounts; this was brought forth by the New York Times in 2005. Shah, Anup. Iraq War Media Reporting, Journalism and Propaganda. Aug 1, 2007. May 12, 2009. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/461/media-reporting-journalism-and-propaganda.> The article stated that it was the Lincoln Group who had been hired by the U.S. government to create the propaganda, however their names were later cleared from any wrong doing. Shah, Anup. Iraq War Media Reporting, Journalism and Propaganda. Aug 1, 2007. May 12, 2009. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/461/media-reporting-journalism-and-propaganda.> The U.S. was more successful with the “Voice of America”campaign, which is an old Cold War tactic that exploited people’s desire for information. Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15-24. While the information they gave out to the Iraqis was truthful, they were in a high degree of competition with the opposing forces after the censorship of the Iraqi media was lifted with the removal of Saddam from power. Goldstein, Sol. "A Strategic Failure: American Information Control Policy in Occupied Iraq." Military Review 88.2 (Mar. 2008): 58-65. If the U.S. had wished to be more successful with their news media they could have followed Hussein’s lead and prohibited Satellite TV and popular access to the internet directly after the Fall of Hussein. Goldstein, Sol. "A Strategic Failure: American Information Control Policy in Occupied Iraq." Military Review 88.2 (Mar. 2008): 58-65. In addition to the employment of Black Propaganda and other types of mass communication attempts in Iraq, the U.S. also used many different leaflets that were pro-western in nature. Some of which read that the no-fly zones were for the safety of Iraqis and others attempt to persuade Iraqis to become civil servants for the post-Saddam era in Iraq. Psywar.org. N.D.A. May 13, 2009. http://www.psywar.org/apdsearchform.php?Search=Search&war=Iraqi%20Freedom. However, due to the lack of understanding that the American government has for the Iraqi’s these attempts have not been fruitful. In November 2005, the Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times, alleged that the United States military had manipulated news reported in Iraqi media in an effort to cast a favorable light on its actions while demoralizing the insurgency. Lt. Col. Barry Johnson, a military spokesman in Iraq, said the program is "an important part of countering misinformation in the news by insurgents", while a spokesman for former Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld said the allegations of manipulation were troubling if true. The Department of Defense has confirmed the existence of the program. http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/U.S._military_covertly_pays_to_run_stories_in_Iraqi_press#Sources The New York Times published an article about how the Pentagon has started to use contractors with little experience in journalism or public relations to plant articles in the Iraqi press. These articles are usually written by US soldiers without attribution or are attributed to a non-existent organization called the "International Information Center." Planting propaganda stories in newspapers was done by both the Allies and Central Powers in the First World War and the Axis and Allies in the Second; this is the latest version of this technique. Propaganda aimed at Americans The United States has chosen to portray Iraq in a generally violent way, instilling fear in American citizens. John, Sue Lockett, et al. "Going Public, Crisis after Crisis: The Bush Administration and the Press from September 11 to Saddam." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10.2 (Summer2007 2007): 195-219. Media such as daily news coverage, advertisements, videos, pictures, polls, and various others are indirectly controlled by the news media. The country has strayed from its popular form of mass advertising media and focused more on its biased coverage found in the news. Altheide, David L. "War and Mass Mediated Evidence." Cultural Studies — Critical Methodologies 9 (2009): 14-22. This is seen as a credible source, allowing information on the current situation to be known to the general public. As noted in the book Selling Intervention & War by Jon Western, the president is “selling the war” to the public. Thrall, A. Trevor. "A Review of: "Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq, by Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq, by Paul Rutherford Selling Intervention & War: The Presidency, the..." Political Communication 24.2 (Apr. 2007): 202-207. People had their initial reactions to the War on Terror, but with more biased and persuading information, Iraq as a whole has been negatively targeted.. John, Sue Lockett, et al. "Going Public, Crisis after Crisis: The Bush Administration and the Press from September 11 to Saddam." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10.2 (Summer2007 2007): 195-219. America’s goal was to remove Saddam Hussein’s power in Iraq with allegations of possible weapons of mass destruction related to Osama Bin Laden. O'Shaughnessy, Nicholas. "Weapons of Mass Seduction: Propaganda, Media and the Iraq War." Journal of Political Marketing 3.4 (2004): 79-104. America: History & Life. Video and picture coverage in the news has shown shocking and disturbing images of torture and other evils being done under the Iraqi Government. O'Shaughnessy, Nicholas. "Weapons of Mass Seduction: Propaganda, Media and the Iraq War." Journal of Political Marketing 3.4 (2004): 79-104. America: History & Life. This is one way United States media is fabricating the enemy. By providing purely negative and exaggerated alleged evidence on the situation, Americans are provided with the generally accepted opinion of hatred towards the evil in Iraq. Cover page of Album de la Revolucion Cubana, a series of comic trading card and music compilation that targets children Children Of all the potential targets for propaganda, children are the most vulnerable because they are the most unprepared for the critical reasoning and contextual comprehension required to determine whether a message is propaganda or not. Children's vulnerability to propaganda is rooted in developmental psychology. The attention children give their environment during development, due to the process of developing their understanding of the world, will cause them to absorb propaganda indiscriminately. Also, children are highly imitative: studies by Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross and Sheila A. Ross in the 1960s indicated that children are susceptible to filmed representations of behaviour. Therefore television is of particular interest in regard to children's vulnerability to propaganda. Another vulnerability of children is the theoretical influence that their peers have over their behaviour. According to Judith Rich Harris's group-socialization theory, children learn the majority of what they do not receive paternally, through genes, from their peer groups. The implication then is that if peer-groups can be indoctrinated through propaganda at a young age to hold certain beliefs, the group will self-regulate the indoctrination, since new members to the group will adapt their beliefs to fit the group's. Poster promoting the Nicaraguan Sandinistas. The text reads, "Sandinista children: Toño, Delia and Rodolfo are in the Association of Sandinista Children. Sandinista children use a handkerchief. They participate in the revolution and are very studious." To a degree, socialization, formal education, and standardized television programming can be seen as using propaganda for the purpose of indoctrination. Schools that utilize dogmatic, frozen world-views, often resort to propagandist curricula that indoctrinate children. The use of propaganda in schools was highly prevalent during the 1930s and 1940s in Germany, as well as in Stalinist Russia. Anti-Semitic propaganda for children In Nazi Germany, the education system was thoroughly co-opted to indoctrinate the German youth with anti-Semitic ideology. This was accomplished through the National Socialist Teachers League, of which 97% of all German teachers were members in 1937. It encouraged the teaching of “racial theory.” Picture books for children such as Don’t Trust A Fox in A Green Meadow Or the Word of A Jew, The Poisonous Mushroom, and The Poodle-Pug-Dachshund-Pincher were widely circulated (over 100,000 copies of Don’t Trust A Fox... were circulated during the late 1930s) and contained depictions of Jews as devils, child molesters, and other morally charged figures. Slogans such as “Judas the Jew betrayed Jesus the German to the Jews” were recited in class. Mills, Mary. "Propaganda and Children During the Hitler Years". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/propchil.html The following is an example of a propagandistic math problem recommended by the National Socialist Essence of Education: Tomorrow's Pioneers(; also The Pioneers of Tomorrow) is a children's program, broadcast since April 13, 2007 on the official Palestinian Hamas television station, Al-Aqsa TV (). The program deals with many life aspects Palestinan children face. Assoud (; also rendered as Assud), a Bugs Bunny-like rabbit character whose name means lion was introduced after his brother, the previous co-host, Nahoul died of illness. In explaining why he is called Assoud (lion), when Arnoub (rabbit) would be more appropriate, Assoud explains that "A rabbit is a term for a bad person and coward. And I, Assoud, will finish off the Jews and eat them." Nissan Ratzlav-Katz, "PA TV Bunny Rabbit Threatens to 'Eat the Jews'", Arutz Sheva, February 12, 2008 (6 Adar 5768). Before Nahoul's death, Assoud lived in Lebanon; he returned "in order to return to the homeland and liberate it." Assoud has hinted in episode 113 that he will be replaced by a tiger when he is martyred. See also Astroturfing Disinformation Index of public relations-related articles Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media Media bias Misinformation References Bibliography Fred Cohen. ``Frauds, Spies, and Lies — and How to Defeat Them. ISBN 1-878109-36-7 (2006). ASP Press. Fred Cohen. ``World War 3 ... Information Warfare Basics. ISBN 1-878109-40-5 (2006). ASP Press. Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques (August 31, 1979). Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters; Department of the Army. (partial contents here) Bytwerk, Randall L. Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-87013-710-7 Edwards, John Carver. Berlin Calling: American Broadcasters in Service to the Third Reich. New York, Prager Publishers, 1991. ISBN 0275939057 Howe, Ellic. The Black Game: British Subversive Operations Against the German During the Second World War. London: Futura, 1982. Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World Revisited, New York: Harper, 1958 Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Knopf, 1965. New York: Random House/ Vintage 1973 Hindery, Roderick, "The Anatomy of Propaganda within Religious Terrorism", Humanist, March-April 2003, 16-19. Le Bon, Gustave, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind, 1897 (1895 original version) Linebarger, Paul M. A. (aka Cordwainer Smith). Psychological Warfare. Washington, D.C., Infantry Journal Press, 1948. Nelson, Richard Alan. A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press, 1996. ISBN 0-313-29261-2. Young, Emma (October 10, 2001) Psychological warfare waged in Afghanistan. New Scientist. Shirer, William L. Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934-1941. New York: Albert A. Knopf, 1942. Stauber, John, and Rampton, Sheldon Toxic Sludge Is Good for You! Lies, Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995. Further reading Edward Bernays. "Propaganda". (1928) Altheide, David L. & Johnson, John M. Bureaucratic Propaganda. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. (1980) J. A. C. Brown Techniques of Persuasion: From Propaganda to Brainwashing Harmondsworth: Pelican (1963) John H. Brown. "Two Ways of Looking at Propaganda" (2006) Robert Cole. Propaganda in Twentieth Century War and Politics (1996) Robert Cole, ed. Encyclopedia of Propaganda (3 vol 1998) Combs, James E. & Nimmo, Dan. The New Propaganda: The Dictatorship of Palaver in Contemporary Politics. White Plains, N.Y. Longman. (1993) Nicholas John Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, eds. Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (2003) Cunningham, Stanley, B. The Idea of Propaganda: A Reconstruction. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. (2002) Edward S. Herman & Noam Chomsky. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books. (1988) Jowett, Garth S. and O'Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda and Persuasion 4th edition. * * Kevin R. Kosar. "Is Propaganda Legal?" Chicago Sun-Times, January 29, 2006. Kevin R. Kosar. Public Relations and Propaganda: Restrictions on Executive Branch Activities, CRS Report RL32750, February 2005. Kevin R. Kosar. "The Law: The Executive Branch and Propaganda: The Limits of Legal Restrictions" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 35 Iss. 4 Page 784-797, December 2005. Harold D. Lasswell. Propaganda Technique in World War I. Cambridge, Mass: The M.I.T. Press. (1971) Le Bon, Gustave, The Crowd: a study of the Popular Mind (1895) John R. MacArthur. Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War. New York: Hill and Wang. (1992) Randal Marlin. Propaganda & The Ethics of Persuasion. Orchard Park, New York: Broadview Press. (2002) McCombs M. E. & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-87. Paul M. Linebarger. Psychological Warfare. International Propaganda and Communications. ISBN 0-405-04755-X (1948) Pratkanis, Anthony & Aronson, Elliot. Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. (1992) Rutherford, Paul. Endless Propaganda: The Advertising of Public Goods. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (2000) Rutherford, Paul. Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (2004) Nancy Snow. "American Persuasion, Influence and Propaganda" Sproule, J. Michael. Channels of Propaganda. Bloomington, IN: EDINFO Press. (1994) David R.Willcox,Propaganda, the Press and Conflict (2005) Notes External links Current propaganda PR Watch Is Government Propaganda Legal? Well... Spinwatch Propaganda Critic: A website devoted to propaganda analysis. Manufacturing Consent by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky Historical propaganda Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East by the National Security Archive. Collection of 148 documents and overview essay. Sacred Congregation of Propaganda from the Catholic Encyclopedia World War II propaganda leaflets: A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Some posters also. Second World War Posters: A website containing images/links/information on Second World War posters, mostly British. War, Propaganda and the Media: from GlobalIssues.org Canadian Wartime Propaganda - Canadian War Museum Vietnamese propaganda posters "North Korea's art of propaganda", BBC, July 29, 2007: images of North Korean propaganda posters CBC Radio's "Nazi Eyes On Canada" (1942), series with Hollywood stars promoting Canadian War Bonds America at War, a digital collection of World War II-era American propaganda pamphlets and additional material Over 400 posters from World Wars II & II (searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) Psywar.org's large collection of propaganda leaflets from various conflicts Pyongyang Chronicles US Central Command (CENTCOM) archive of propaganda leaflets dropped in Iraq Stefan Landsberger's Chinese Propaganda Poster Pages Bytwerk, Randall, "Nazi and East German Propaganda Guide Page". Calvin College. US Navy recruiting posters archive Tim Frank Collection of WWII Propaganda Leaflets, Dwight D. 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1,048 | Melbourne_Grand_Prix_Circuit | An overhead view of part of the circuit as viewed from the Eureka Tower observation deck. The Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit is a street-based circuit around Albert Park Lake, only a couple of kilometres south of central Melbourne. It is used once a year as a racetrack for the Australian Grand Prix and associated support races. The circuit utilises everyday sections of road that circle Albert Park Lake, a small man-made lake just south of the Central Business District of Melbourne. The road sections that are used were rebuilt prior to the inaugural event in 1996 to ensure consistency and smoothness. As a result, compared to other circuits that are held on public roads, the Albert Park track has quite a smooth surface. Before 2007 there existed only a few other places on the Formula 1 calendar with a body of water close to the track. Most of the new tracks, like Valencia, Singapore and Dubai have imitated that feature. The course is considered to be quite fast and relatively easy to drive, with drivers having commented that the consistent placement of corners allows them to easily learn the circuit and achieve competitive times. However, the flat terrain around the lake, coupled with a track design that features few true straights, means that the track is not conducive to overtaking or easy spectating unless in possession of a grandstand seat. Each year, most of the trackside fencing, pedestrian overpasses, grandstands and other motorsport infrastructure are erected approximately a month prior to the Grand Prix weekend and removed within 6 weeks after the event. Land around the circuit (including a large aquatic centre, a golf course, a football stadium, some restaurants and rowing boathouses) has restricted access during the grand prix weekend. Dissent is still prevalent among nearby local residents and some still maintain a silent protest against the event. Nevertheless, the event is reasonably popular in Melbourne and Australia (with a large European population and a general interest in motorsport). Middle Park, the home of South Melbourne FC was demolished in 1994 due to expansion at Albert Park. On 04 Jul 2008, the official F1 site reported that more than 300,000 people attended the four-day Melbourne Grand Prix, though actual ticket sales were later disputed by the local media. The Grand Prix will continue until at least 2015 after securing a new contract with Formula One Management. There will be no night races in Albert Park but 2009’s event will start at 5pm and will take place between March 26-29. See also Formula One Australian Grand Prix Adelaide Street Circuit References External links Australian Grand Prix Corporation Google Maps satellite view of the circuit Ciro Pabón's Racetracks 3D views, websites, official ticket sites and virtual laps of all F1 circuits, including this one, via Google Earth Albert Park Circuit Statistics Trackpedias guide to the Albert Park Circuit Albert Park Circuit info from official F1 site BBC circuit guide | Melbourne_Grand_Prix_Circuit |@lemmatized overhead:1 view:4 part:1 circuit:14 eureka:1 tower:1 observation:1 deck:1 melbourne:6 grand:8 prix:8 street:2 base:1 around:3 albert:8 park:9 lake:4 couple:2 kilometre:1 south:3 central:2 use:2 year:2 racetrack:2 australian:3 associated:1 support:1 race:2 utilise:1 everyday:1 section:2 road:3 circle:1 small:1 man:1 make:1 business:1 district:1 rebuilt:1 prior:2 inaugural:1 event:5 ensure:1 consistency:1 smoothness:1 result:1 compare:1 hold:1 public:1 track:5 quite:2 smooth:1 surface:1 exist:1 place:2 formula:3 calendar:1 body:1 water:1 close:1 new:2 like:1 valencia:1 singapore:1 dubai:1 imitate:1 feature:2 course:2 consider:1 fast:1 relatively:1 easy:2 drive:1 driver:1 comment:1 consistent:1 placement:1 corner:1 allow:1 easily:1 learn:1 achieve:1 competitive:1 time:1 however:1 flat:1 terrain:1 design:1 true:1 straight:1 mean:1 conducive:1 overtake:1 spectate:1 unless:1 possession:1 grandstand:2 seat:1 trackside:1 fencing:1 pedestrian:1 overpass:1 motorsport:2 infrastructure:1 erect:1 approximately:1 month:1 weekend:2 remove:1 within:1 week:1 land:1 include:2 large:2 aquatic:1 centre:1 golf:1 football:1 stadium:1 restaurant:1 row:1 boathouse:1 restrict:1 access:1 dissent:1 still:2 prevalent:1 among:1 nearby:1 local:2 resident:1 maintain:1 silent:1 protest:1 nevertheless:1 reasonably:1 popular:1 australia:1 european:1 population:1 general:1 interest:1 middle:1 home:1 fc:1 demolish:1 due:1 expansion:1 jul:1 official:3 site:3 report:1 people:1 attend:1 four:1 day:1 though:1 actual:1 ticket:2 sale:1 later:1 dispute:1 medium:1 continue:1 least:1 secure:1 contract:1 one:3 management:1 night:1 start:1 take:1 march:1 see:1 also:1 adelaide:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 corporation:1 google:2 map:1 satellite:1 ciro:1 pabón:1 website:1 virtual:1 lap:1 via:1 earth:1 statistic:1 trackpedias:1 guide:2 info:1 bbc:1 |@bigram grand_prix:8 golf_course:1 external_link:1 |
1,049 | Justin_Martyr | Saint Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher, Latin Iustinus Martyr or Flavius Iustinus) (100–165) was an early Christian apologist and saint. His works represent the earliest surviving Christian "apologies" of notable size. Life Most of what is known about the life of Justin Martyr comes from his own writings. He was born at Flavia Neapolis (ancient Shechem in Judaea/Palaestina, now modern-day Nablus). According to church tradition Justin suffered martyrdom at Rome under the Emperor Marcus Aurelius when Junius Rusticus was prefect of the city (between 162 and 168); in records actually contemporary with Justin's life, Marcus Aurelius was one of the most tolerant Emperors, and even Tertullian claims that Aurelius honoured Christian soldiers. Justin called himself a Samaritan, but his father and grandfather were probably Greek or Roman, and he was brought up a pagan. It seems that St Justin had property, studied philosophy, converted to Christianity, and devoted the rest of his life to teaching what he considered the true philosophy, still wearing his philosopher's gown to indicate that he had attained the truth. He probably traveled widely and ultimately settled in Rome as a Christian teacher. It is alleged that his relics are housed in the church of St. John the Baptist in Sacrofano, a few kilometers north of Rome. In 1882 Pope Leo XIII had a Mass and an Office composed for his feast day, which he set at 14 April, Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Justin Martyr the day after the day indicated as that of his death in the Martyrology of Florus; but since this date quite often falls within the main Paschal celebrations, the feast was moved in 1968 to 1 June, the date on which he is celebrated in the Byzantine Rite since at least the ninth century. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 1969), p. 94 Writings The earliest mention of Justin is found in the Oratio ad Graecos by Tatian, who calls him "the most admirable Justin," quotes a saying of his, and says that the Cynic Crescens laid snares for him. Irenaeus Haer. I., xxviii. 1. speaks of his martyrdom and of Tatian as his disciple. Irenaeus quotes Justin twice IV., vi. 2, V., xxvi. 2. , and shows his influence in other places. Tertullian, in his Adversus Valentinianos, calls Justin a philosopher and martyr, and the earliest antagonist of heretics. Hippolytus and Methodius of Olympus also mention or quote him. Eusebius of Caesarea deals with him at some length Church History, iv. 18. , and names the following works: The First Apology addressed to Antoninus Pius, his sons, and the Roman Senate; a Second Apology addressed to the Roman Senate; the Discourse to the Greeks, a discussion with Greek philosophers on the character of their gods; a Hortatory Address to the Greeks; a treatise On the Sovereignty of God, in which he makes use of pagan authorities as well as Christian; a work entitled The Psalmist; a treatise in scholastic form On the Soul; and the Dialogue with Trypho. Eusebius implies that other works were in circulation; from St Irenaeus he knows of the apology "Against Marcion," and from Justin's "Apology" i. 26 of a "Refutation of all Heresies " Church History, IV., xi. 10. . Epiphanius Haer., xlvi. 1. and St Jerome De vir. ill., ix. mention Justin. Rufinus borrows from him Latin original of Hadrian's letter. After Rufinus, Justin was known mainly from St Irenaeus and Eusebius or from spurious works. The Chronicon Paschale assigns his martyrdom to the year 165. A considerable number of other works are given as Justin's by Arethas, Photius, and other writers; but their spuriousness is now generally admitted. The Expositio rectae fidei has been assigned by Draseke to Apollinaris of Laodicea, but it is probably a work of as late as the sixth century. The Cohortatio ad Graecos has been attributed to Apollinaris of Laodicea, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, as well as others. The Epistola ad Zenam et Serenum, an exhortation to Christian living, is dependent upon Clement of Alexandria, and is assigned by Batiffol to the Novatian Bishop Sisinnius (c. 400). The extant work under the title "On the Sovereignty of God" does not correspond with Eusebius' description of it, though Harnack regards it as still possibly Justin's, and at least of the second century. The author of the smaller treatise To the Greeks cannot be Justin, because he is dependent on Tatian; Harnack places it between 180 and 240. The authenticity of the two Apologies and the Dialogue with Trypho is universally accepted. They are preserved only in the Sacra parallela; but, besides that they were known by Tatian, Methodius, and Eusebius, their influence is traceable in Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, the Pseudo-Melito, and especially Tertullian. Eusebius speaks of two Apologies, but he quotes them both as one, which indeed they are in substance. The identity of authorship is shown not only by the reference in chapter 120 of the Dialogue to the Apology, but by the unity of treatment. Zahn showed that the Dialogue was originally divided into two books, that there is a considerable lacuna in chapter 74, as well as at the beginning, and that it is probably based on an actual occurrence at Ephesus, the personality of the Rabbi Tarphon being employed, though in a Hellenized form. The treatise On the Resurrection, of which extensive fragments are preserved in the Sacra parallela, is not so generally accepted. Even earlier than this collection, it is referred to by Procopius of Gaza (c. 465-528), and Methodius appeals to Justin in support of his interpretation of 1 Corinthians 15:50 in a way which makes it natural to assume the existence of a treatise on the subject, to say nothing of other traces of a connection in thought both here, in Irenaeus (V., ii.-xiii. 5), and also in Tertullian, where it is too close to be anything but a conscious following of the Greek. The Against Marcion is lost, as is the Refutation of all Heresies to which Justin himself refers in Apology, i. 26; Hegesippus, besides perhaps Irenaeus and Tertullian, seems to have used it. The Apology The Dialogue is a later work than the First Apology; the date of composition of the latter, from the fact that it was addressed to Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, must fall between 147 and 161. The reference to Felix as governor of Egypt, since this can only be the Lucius Munatius Felix whom the Oxyrhynchus papyri name as prefect September 13, 151, fixes the date still more exactly. The Chronicon of Eusebius gives 152-153 as the date of the attacks of Crescens. What is designated as the Second Apology was written as a supplement to the first, on account of certain proceedings which had in the mean time taken place in Rome before Lollius Urbicus as prefect of the city, which must have been between 150 and 157. The purpose of the Apology is to prove to the emperors, renowned as upright and philosophical men, the injustice of the persecution of the Christians, who are the representatives of true philosophy. Chapters i.-xii. give the preliminary negative proof; chap. xiii. begins a positive exposition of Christianity. Christians are the true worshipers of God, the Creator of all things; they offer him the only sacrifices worthy of him, those of prayer and thanksgiving, and are taught by his Son, to whom they assign a place next in honor to him. This teaching leads them to perfect morality, as shown in their teacher's words and their own lives, and founded on their belief in the resurrection. The doctrine of the Logos begotten of flesh is specially emphasized. What interferes with belief in this fact is the deceitful work of demons, in contrast with which Christian righteousness is still further described. Then follows the proof that Christ is the Son of God from Old Testament prophecy, fulfilled in every detail, no matter what evil spirits may pretend; even Plato learned from Moses. The remaining chapters (lxi.-lxvii.) give a glimpse of the daily life of Christians at the time—baptism, Eucharist, and Sunday worship. To this day he is quoted as being evidence that Early Christians professed the Eucharist to be the Real Presence of Christ. The supplementary or Second Apology depicts the behavior of the Christians under persecution, of which the demons are again set forth as the instigators. The Dialogue and Resurrection In the Dialogue, after an introductory section (i.-ix.), Justin undertakes to show that Christianity is the new law for all men (x.-xxx.), and to prove from Scripture that Jesus is the Christ (xxxi.-cviii.). The concluding section (cix.-cxlii.) demonstrates that the Christians are the true people of God. The fragments of the work "On the Resurrection" begin with the assertion that the truth, and God the author of truth, need no witness, but that as a concession to the weakness of men it is necessary to give arguments to convince those who gainsay it. It is then shown, after a denial of unfounded deductions, that the resurrection of the body is neither impossible nor unworthy of God, and that the evidence of prophecy is not lacking for it. Another fragment takes up the positive proof of the resurrection, adducing that of Christ and of those whom he recalled to life. In another the resurrection is shown to be that of what has gone down, i.e., the body; the knowledge concerning it is the new doctrine in contrast with that of the old philosophers; the doctrine follows from the command to keep the body in moral purity. Interestingly, in the Dialogue, Justin also wrote, "For I choose to follow not men or men's doctrines, but God and the doctrines [delivered] by Him. For if you have fallen in with some who are called Christians, but who do not admit this [truth], and venture to blaspheme the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob ; who say there is no resurrection of the dead, and that their souls, when they die, are taken to heaven; do not imagine that they are Christians." Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 80 The Catholic Encyclopedia includes cautionary remarks that are a helpful guide to understanding Justin's writings: “In both "Apologies" and in his "Dialogue" he gives many personal details, e.g. about his studies in philosophy and his conversion; they are not, however, an autobiography, but are partly idealized, and it is necessary to distinguish in them between poetry and truth ... He received a good education in philosophy, an account of which he gives us at the beginning of his "Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon"…This account cannot be taken too literally; the facts seem to be arranged with a view…This interview is evidently not described exactly as it took place, and yet the account cannot be wholly fictitious”. Theology Flacius discovered "blemishes" in Justin's theology, which he attributed to the influence of pagan philosophers; and in modern times Semler and S.G. Lange have made him out a thorough Hellene, while Semisch and Otto defend him from this charge. In opposition to the school of Ferdinand Christian Baur, who considered him a Jewish Christian, Albrecht Ritschl has pointed out that it was precisely because he was a Gentile Christian that he did not fully understand the Old Testament foundation of Paul's teaching, and explained in this way the modified character of his Paulinism and his legal mode of thought. M. von Engelhardt has attempted to extend this line of treatment to Justin's entire theology, and to show that his conceptions of God, of free will and righteousness, of redemption, grace, and merit prove the influence of the cultivated Greek pagan world of the second century, dominated by the Platonic and Stoic philosophy. But he admits that Justin is a Christian in his unquestioning adherence to the Church and its faith, his unqualified recognition of the Old Testament, and his faith in Christ as the Son of God the Creator, made manifest in the flesh, crucified, and risen, through which belief he succeeds in getting away from the dualism of pagan and also of Gnostic philosophy. Conversion and teachings In the opening of the "Dialogue," Justin relates his vain search among the Stoics, Peripatetics, and Pythagoreans for a satisfying knowledge of God; his finding in the ideas of Plato wings for his soul, by the aid of which he hoped to attain the contemplation of the God-head; and his meeting on the sea-shore with an aged man who told him that by no human endeavor but only by divine revelation could this blessedness be attained, that the prophets had conveyed this revelation to man, and that their words had been fulfilled. Of the truth of this he assured himself by his own investigation; and the daily life of the Christians and the courage of the martyrs convinced him that the charges against them were unfounded. So he sought to spread the knowledge of Christianity as the true philosophy. Justin had, like others, the idea that the Greek philosophers had derived, if not borrowed, the most essential elements of truth found in their teaching from the Old Testament. But at the same time he adopted the Stoic doctrine of the "seminal word," and so philosophy was to him an operation of the Word—in fact, through his identification of the Word with Christ, it was brought into immediate connection with him. Thus he does not scruple to declare that Socrates and Heraclitus were Christians (Apol., i. 46, ii. 10). His aim, of course, is to emphasize the absolute significance of Christ, so that all that ever existed of virtue and truth may be referred to him. The old philosophers and law-givers had only a part of the Logos, while the whole appears in Christ. While the gentile peoples, seduced by demons, had deserted the true God for idols, the Jews and Samaritans possessed the revelation given through the prophets and awaited the Messiah. The law, however, while containing commandments intended to promote the true fear of God, had other prescriptions of a purely pedagogic nature, which necessarily ceased when Christ, their end, appeared; of such temporary and merely relative regulations were circumcision, animal sacrifices, the Sabbath, and the laws as to food. Through Christ the abiding law of God has been fully proclaimed. In his character as the teacher of the new doctrine and promulgator of the new law lies the essential nature of his redeeming work. The idea of an economy of grace, of a restoration of the union with God which had been destroyed by sin, is not foreign to him. It is noteworthy that in the "Dialogue" he no longer speaks of a "seed of the Word" in every man, and in his non-apologetic works the emphasis is laid upon the redeeming acts of the life of Christ rather than upon the demonstration of the reasonableness and moral value of Christianity, though the fragmentary character of the latter works makes it difficult to determine exactly to what extent this is true and how far the teaching of Irenaeus on redemption is derived from him. Justin was confident that his teaching is that of the Church at large. He knows of a division among the orthodox only on the question of the millennium and on the attitude toward the milder Jewish Christianity, which he personally is willing to tolerate as long as its professors in their turn do not interfere with the liberty of the Gentile converts; his millenarianism seems to have no connection with Judaism, but he believes firmly in a millennium, and generally in the primitive Christian eschatology. Justin's self-perception of himself was that of a scholar, although his skills in Hebrew were either non-existent or minimal. His opposition to Judaism was typical of church leaders in his day, but does not descend to the level of anti-semitism. After collaborating with a Jewish convert to assist him with the Hebrew, Justin published an attack on Judaism based upon a no-longer-extant text of a Midrash. This Midrash was reconstructed and published by Saul Lieberman. Doctrine of the logos Justin's use of the idea of the logos has always attracted attention. It is probably too much to assume a direct connection with Philo of Alexandria in this particular. The idea of the Logos was widely familiar to educated men, and the designation of the Son of God as the Logos was not new to Christian theology. The significance is clear, however, of the manner in which Justin identifies the historical Christ with the rational force operative in the universe, which leads up to the claim of all truth and virtue for the Christians and to the demonstration of the adoration of Christ, which aroused so much opposition, as the only reasonable attitude. It is mainly for this justification of the worship of Christ that Justin employs the Logos-idea, though where he explicitly deals with the divinity of the Redeemer and his relation to the Father, he makes use of the Old Testament, not of the Logos-idea, which thus can not be said to form an essential part of his Christology. On the other hand, Justin sees the Logos as a separate being from God and subordinate to him: "For next to God, we worship and love the Logos who is out of the unbegotten and ineffable God, since also He became man for our sakes, that, becoming a partaker of our sufferings, He might also bring us healing" (Second Apology, 13). "There is, and that there is said to be, another God and Lord subject to the Maker of all things who is also called an Angel, because He announces to men whatsoever the Maker of all things, above whom there is no other God, wishes to announce to them.... I shall endeavour to persuade you, that He who is said to have appeared to Abraham, and to Jacob, and to Moses, and who is called God, is distinct from Him who made all things, I mean numerically, not in will. (Dialogue with Trypho, 56). Justin speaks of the divine Logos as "another God" beside the Father, qualified by the gloss: ‘other, I mean, in number, not in will’. Justin actually finds fault with the view of hellenized Jews who held that the divine Logos is no more distinct from God than sunlight is from the sun and suggested, instead, that the Logos is more like a torch lit from another. He wanted to do justice to the independence of the Logos. Scriptural citations in Justin The importance which Justin attaches to the evidence of prophecy shows his estimate of the Old Testament Scriptures, which are to Christians absolutely the word of God, spoken by the Holy Ghost, and confirmed by the fulfillment of the prophecies. Not less divine, however, are the "Memoirs of the Apostles" (Greek ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν αποστολων; transliteration apomnemoneumata ton apostolon), which are read in the assembly every Lord's Day - though these are perhaps not used in his "Dialogue" with the same authority as the Old Testament. As Charles E. Hill puts it, in mainstream scholarship, "It is commonly held that in Rome of Justin's day even the Memoirs themselves possessed only a quite limited authority." Charles E. Hill, The Johannine Corpus in the Early Church. Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 345 And yet, Hill argues that this is not really true. He sees in Justin "a parity of authority between these two groups of writings", and cites Bruce Metzger to the effect that Justin values the Memoirs even above the Old Testament scriptures. Charles E. Hill, The Johannine Corpus in the Early Church. Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 346 As Justin saw it, the word of the apostles was the teaching of the Divine Logos, and reproduces the sayings of Christ authentically. In general, Justin uses the material from the Synoptic Gospels - Matthew, Mark, and Luke - but his use of John is somewhat debatable. Nowhere in his works, the name of any canonical gospel is mentioned specifically, other than this general designation of the "Memoirs of the Apostles", which is used quite often. It is believed that Justin used some sort of a Gospel Harmony that included the material from the 3 Synoptic gospels. As Helmut Koester says, "On the basis of the gospel quotations of the First Apology and the Dialogue with Trypho, one can conclude with great certainty that Justin also had composed a harmony of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (he did not know the Gospel of John), which is lost but was used by his student Tatian for the composition of his famous and influential four-gospel harmony known as the Diatessaron." Helmut Koester, Introduction to the New Testament: History and literature of Early Christianity. 2nd ed. Walter de Gruyter, 2000, Vol. 2, p. 344 It is also possible that, rather than composing this Harmony himself, he may have used a text already in existence. Justin does not quote from the Book of Revelation directly, yet he clearly refers to it, naming its author. For Justin, this serves to bring out the role of prophesy among the Christians, "Moreover also among us a man named John, one of the apostles of Christ, prophesied in a revelation made to him that those who have believed on our Christ will spend a thousand years in Jerusalem; and that hereafter the general and, in short, the eternal resurrection and judgment of all will likewise take place." Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 81, par. 4 The opposition of Marcion prepares us for an attitude toward the Pauline epistles corresponding to that of the later Church. Distinct references are found to Romans, 1 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, and possible ones to Philippians, Titus, and 1 Timothy. It seems likely that he also knew Hebrews and 1 John. The apologetic character of Justin's habit of thought appears again in the Acts of his martyrdom (ASB, Apr., ii. 108 sqq.; Thierry Ruinart, Acta martyrum, Regensburg, 1859, 105 sqq.), the genuineness of which is attested by internal evidence. Prophetic exegesis Justin’s writings constitute a storehouse of early interpretation of the prophetic Scriptures. Firm believer in Prophecies The truth of the prophets, he declares, compels assent. The Old Testament is an inspired guide and counselor. He puts the following words in the mouth of the Christian philosopher who converted him: " 'There existed, long before this time, certain men more ancient than all those who are esteemed philosophers, both righteous and beloved by God, who spoke by the Divine Spirit, and foretold events which would take place, and which are now taking place. They are called prophets. These alone both saw and announced the truth to men, neither reverencing nor fearing any man. not influenced by a desire for glory, but speaking those things alone which they saw and which they heard, being filled with the Holy Spirit. Their writings are still extant, and he who has read them is very much helped in his knowledge of the beginning and end of things. . . And those events which have happened, and those which are happening, compel you to assent to the utterances made by them.'” Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 7 Then Justin tells of his own experience: "Straightway a flame was kindled in my soul; and a love of the prophets, and of those men who are friends of Christ, possessed me; and whilst revolving his words in my mind, I found this philosophy alone to be safe and profitable.” Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 8 Prophetic fulfillment Justin talks of the following fulfillments of Bible prophecy The prophecies concerning the Messiah, and the particulars of His life. First Apology, Chapter 31 The destruction of Jerusalem. First Apology, chapter 47 The Gentiles accepting Christianity. First Apology, Chapter 49 Isaiah predicted that Jesus would be born of a virgin. First Apology, Chapter 33 Micah mentions Bethlehem as the place of His birth. First Apology, Chapter 34 Zephaniah forecasts His entry into Jerusalem on the foal of an ass. first Apology, Chapter 35 Second coming and Daniel 7 Justin connects Christ's second coming with the climax of the prophecy of Daniel 7. "But if so great a power is shown to have followed and to be still following the dispensation of His suffering, how great shall that be which shall follow His glorious advent! For He shall come on the clouds as the Son of man, so Daniel foretold, and His angels shall come with Him." [Then follows Dan. 7:9-28.] Dailogue with Trypho, chapter 31 Antichrist The second glorious advent Justin places, moreover, close upon the heels of the appearance of the Antichrist, or "man of apostasy." Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 110 Justin's interpretation of prophecy is, however, less clear and full than that of others who follow. Time, times, and a half Daniel's "time, times, and a half", Justin believed, was nearing its consummation, when Antichrist would speak his blasphemies against the Most High. And he contends with Trypho over the meaning of a "time" and "times". Justin expects the time to be very short, but Trypho's concept is interesting. "The times now running on to their consummation; and he whom Daniel foretells would have dominion for a time, and times, and an half, is even already at the door, about to speak blasphemous and daring things against the Most High. But you, being ignorant of how long he will have dominion, hold another opinion. For you interpret the 'time' as being a hundred years. But if this is so, the man of sin must, at the shortest, reign three hundred and fifty years, in order that we may compute that which is said by the holy Daniel--'and times'--to be two times only.” Dialogue with Trypho, Chapter 32 Editions Critical editions of the text include: Thirlby, S., London, 1722. Maran, P., Paris, 1742 (the Benedictine edition, reprinted in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Vol. VI. Paris, 1857). Otto, J. C., Jena, 1842 (3d ed., 1876–1881). Krüger, G., Leipzig, 1896 (3d ed., Tübingen, 1915). Goodspeed, E. J., Göttingen, 1914 (in Die ältesten Apologeten). Early Christian Fathers | Christian Classics Ethereal Library References Credits This article incorporates text from the New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (a text that has entered the public domain and is available online). See also Epistle to Diognetus External links Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Justin Martyr COG writer site on Justin Martyr Opera Omnia ex Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Translations of works by St Justin Martyr Works of Justin Martyr First Apology Second Apology Dialogue with Trypho the Jew Martyr Justin the Philosopher and those with him at Rome Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion for June 1 Bibliographies EarlyChurch.org.uk | Justin_Martyr |@lemmatized saint:2 justin:64 martyr:12 also:13 caesarea:2 philosopher:11 latin:2 iustinus:2 flavius:1 early:11 christian:29 apologist:1 works:1 represent:1 survive:1 apology:25 notable:1 size:1 life:10 know:8 come:5 writing:6 bear:2 flavia:1 neapolis:1 ancient:2 shechem:1 judaea:1 palaestina:1 modern:2 day:8 nablus:1 accord:1 church:10 tradition:1 suffer:1 martyrdom:4 rome:6 emperor:3 marcus:3 aurelius:4 junius:1 rusticus:1 prefect:3 city:2 record:1 actually:2 contemporary:1 one:5 tolerant:1 even:6 tertullian:5 claim:2 honour:1 soldier:1 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1,050 | Orimulsion | Orimulsion is a registered trademark name for a bitumen-based fuel that was developed for industrial use by Intevep, the Research and Development Affiliate of Petroleos de Venezuela SA (PDVSA), following earlier collaboration on oil emulsions with British Petroleum. Source of the bitumen Like coal and oil, bitumen occurs naturally and is obtained from the world's largest deposit in the Orinoco Belt in Venezuela. Reserves are estimated at more than 1.2 trillion million barrels (190 trillion m3) of bitumen, an amount greater than 50% of the world's estimated oil reserves. Preparation Raw bitumen has an extremely high viscosity and specific gravity between 8 to 10 API degrees, at ambient temperatures and is unsuitable for direct use in conventional power stations. Orimulsion is made by mixing the bitumen with about 30% fresh water and a small amount of surfactant. The result behaves similarly to fuel oil. An alcohol-based surfactant recently replaced the original phenol-based version; improving the transport properties of the fuel and eliminating the health concerns associated with the phenol group of surfactants. Advantages As a fuel for electricity generation, Orimulsion has a number of attractive characteristics: the known reserves of bitumen are very large; it is currently priced to be competitive with internationally traded coal; it is relatively easy and safe to produce, transport, handle and store; it is easy to ignite and has good combustion characteristics; it can be used in power stations designed to run on coal or heavy fuel oil, with suitable modification. Decreasing usage Orimulsion is currently used as a commercial boiler fuel in power plants worldwide (e.g., Canada, Japan, Lithuania, Italy The Torrevaldaliga Nord plant in Civitavecchia and China). Use of fuel used to be much wider and demand was at the sky-rocketing increase stage. However, when a major strike hit PDVSA, most of the engineers were fired as punishment. Orimulsion had been the pride of the PDVSA engineers, so Orimulsion fell out of favor with the key political leaders. As a result, the government is trying to "Wind Down" the Orimulsion program. The one exception is the sales of Orimulsion to China. The Venezuelan government has close ties to China, as it has with Cuba. The result is that China is still supplied with Orimulsion, while the rest of the world has either had their supplies terminated, or are still experiencing the "Wind Down" phase. Another reason is that with rising crude oil prices, it has been found that mixing or diluting Orinoco bitumen (extra-heavy oil) with a lighter crude oil can make this blend more profitable as a crude oil on the world market than by selling it as Orimulsion. An example of this is the popular Merey blend (Orinoco bitumen and Mesa crude oil). ConocoPhillips along with PDVSA operate the Merey Sweeny (bpd) delayed coker, vacuum tower and related facilities at ConocoPhillips' refinery in Sweeny, Texas, U.S.A. for processing and upgrading heavy sour Merey crude oil. Air pollutant control technology that is commonly available can limit emissions from Orimulsion to levels considered "Best Available Control Technology," as defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. 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1,051 | Montalcino | Montalcino is a hilltown and comune in Tuscany, Italy. It is famous for its Brunello di Montalcino wine. The town is located to the west of Pienza, close to the Crete Senesi in Val d'Orcia. It is 42 km from Siena, 110 km from Florence and 150 km from Pisa. History The hill upon which Montalcino sits has been settled probably since Etruscan times. Its first mention in historical documents in 814 AD suggests there was a church here in the 9th century, most likely built by monks who were associated with the nearby Abbey of Sant'Antimo. The population grew suddenly in the middle of the tenth century when people fleeing the nearby town of Roselle took up residence in the town. The town takes its name from a variety of oak tree that once covered the terrain. The very high site of the town offers stunning views over the Asso, Ombrone and Arbia valleys of Tuscany, dotted with silvery olive orchards, vineyards, fields and villages. The lower slopes of the Montalcino hill itself are dominated by highly productive vines and olive orchards. During medieval times the city was known for its tanneries and for the shoes and other leather goods that were made from the high quality leathers that were produced there. As time went by, many medieval hill towns, including Montalcino, went into serious economic decline. In the case of Montalcino ill fortune has recently been reversed by international tourism, but also because Montelcino sits in the middle of one of Italy's most important grape-growing areas. The famed Brunello vines for which the region is famous produce the grapes which are used for the production of a number of DOC vintages and a couple of DOCG, Super Tuscan wines. Like many of the medieval towns of Tuscany, Montalcino experienced long periods of peace and often enjoyed a measure of prosperity. This peace and prosperity was, however, interrupted by a number of extremely violent episodes. During the late Middle Ages it was an independent commune with considerable importance owing to its location on the old Via Francigena, the main road between France and Florence, but increasingly Montalcino came under the sway of the larger and more aggressive city of Siena. Montalcino As a satellite of Siena since the Battle of Montaperti in 1260, Montalcino was deeply involved and affected by the conflicts in which Siena became embroiled, particularly in those with city of Florence in the 14th and 15th centuries, and like many other cities in central and northern Italy, the town was also caught up in the internecine wars between the Ghibellines (supporters of the Holy Roman Empire) and the Guelphs (supporters of the Papacy). Factions from each side controlled the town at various times in the late medieval period. Once Siena had been conquered by Florence under the rule of the Medici family in 1555, Montalcino held out for almost four years, but ultimately fell to the Florentines, under whose control it remained until the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was amalgamated into a united Italy in 1861. Fortress in Montalcino. View from the Fortress. Abbey of Sant'Antimo. Main sights The first medieval walls were built in the 13th century. The fortress was built at the highest point of the town in 1361, on a pentagonal plan designed by the Sienese architects, Mino Foresi and Domenico di Feo. The fortress incorporates some of the pre-existing southern walls, the pre-existing structures including the keep of Santo Martini, the San Giovanni tower and an ancient basilica which now serves as the fortress chapel. Down the narrow, short street that extends from the main gate of the fortress is the Chiesa di Sant'Agostino with its simple Romanesque façade, also built in the 13th century. The building adjacent to the church is a one-time convent, but it is now the home of the Musei Riuniti which is both a civic and diocesan museum. The museums hold various works, including a gorgeous wooden crucifix by an unknown artist of the Sienese school, two beautiful 15th century wooden sculptures and several other sculptures in terracotta which appear to be of the Della Robbia school. The collection also includes a St Peter and St Paul by Ambrogio Lorenzetti and a Virgin and Child by Simone Martini. The Duomo (cathedral), dedicated to San Salvatore, was originally built in the 14th Century, but it now has a neo-classical appearance thanks to extensive renovation work that was done in the early 19th century under the direction of Sienese architect Agostino Fantasici. The main piazza, the Piazza del Popolo, is downhill from the fortress and Duomo on the via Matteotti. The principle building on the piazza is the town hall, once the Palazzo dei Priori (built late 13th, early 14th century) but now the Palazzo Comunale. The palace is adorned with the coats of arms of the Podesta who once ruled the city. A very high medieval tower is incorporated into the palazzo. Close by is a Renaissance structure with six round arches, called La Loggia, which was started at the very end of the 14th century and finished in the early 15th, but which has undergone much restoration work over the subsequent centuries. Montalcino is divided, like most medieval Tuscan cities, into quarters called contrade. The thirteenth-century church of San Francesco in the Castlevecchio contrada has undergone several renovations. Some of the interior frescoes were done by Vincenzo Tamagni in the early sixteenth century. There are many other medieval buildings in Montalcino that make up its centro storico (historical center). As with many other similar cities, money from tourism is aiding the cause of restoration and preservation. Other attractions Churches with frescoes of the Sienese School the Rocca, a ruined castle Sant'Antimo, a nearby Benedictine abbey Paleontological research into fossilised skeletons, notably a whale, at the wine estate Castello Banfi (former name: Poggio alle Mura) in 2007. Prehistoric Whale Found at Castello Banfi accessed 22 March 2007 Books The Australian Isabella Dusi has written two books on her life in the town: Vanilla beans and brodo ISBN 0-7434-0411-4 Bel Vino: A Year of Sundrenched Pleasure Among the Vines of Tuscany ISBN 0-7434-7844-4 See also Val d'Orcia External links Art and architecture of Montalcino Biography of Alfredo Del Rosso, native of Montalcino Save San Pietro Montalcino Tuscany Video of San Pietro Church and artwork by Salimbeni Video introduction to Montalcino References | Montalcino |@lemmatized montalcino:18 hilltown:1 comune:1 tuscany:6 italy:4 famous:2 brunello:2 di:3 wine:3 town:12 locate:1 west:1 pienza:1 close:2 crete:1 senesi:1 val:2 orcia:2 km:3 siena:5 florence:4 pisa:1 history:1 hill:3 upon:1 sits:2 settle:1 probably:1 since:2 etruscan:1 time:5 first:2 mention:1 historical:2 document:1 ad:1 suggests:1 church:5 century:13 likely:1 build:6 monk:1 associate:1 nearby:3 abbey:3 sant:4 antimo:3 population:1 grow:2 suddenly:1 middle:3 tenth:1 people:1 flee:1 roselle:1 take:2 residence:1 name:2 variety:1 oak:1 tree:1 cover:1 terrain:1 high:4 site:1 offer:1 stun:1 view:2 asso:1 ombrone:1 arbia:1 valley:1 dot:1 silvery:1 olive:2 orchard:2 vineyard:1 field:1 village:1 low:1 slope:1 dominate:1 highly:1 productive:1 vine:3 medieval:8 city:7 know:1 tannery:1 shoe:1 leather:2 good:1 make:2 quality:1 produce:2 go:2 many:5 include:4 serious:1 economic:1 decline:1 case:1 ill:1 fortune:1 recently:1 reverse:1 international:1 tourism:2 also:5 montelcino:1 one:2 important:1 grape:2 area:1 famed:1 region:1 use:1 production:1 number:2 doc:1 vintage:1 couple:1 docg:1 super:1 tuscan:2 like:3 experience:1 long:1 period:2 peace:2 often:1 enjoy:1 measure:1 prosperity:2 however:1 interrupt:1 extremely:1 violent:1 episode:1 late:3 age:1 independent:1 commune:1 considerable:1 importance:1 owe:1 location:1 old:1 via:2 francigena:1 main:4 road:1 france:1 increasingly:1 come:1 sway:1 large:1 aggressive:1 satellite:1 battle:1 montaperti:1 deeply:1 involved:1 affect:1 conflict:1 become:1 embroiled:1 particularly:1 central:1 northern:1 catch:1 internecine:1 war:1 ghibellines:1 supporter:2 holy:1 roman:1 empire:1 guelphs:1 papacy:1 faction:1 side:1 control:2 various:2 conquer:1 rule:2 medici:1 family:1 hold:2 almost:1 four:1 year:2 ultimately:1 fell:1 florentine:1 whose:1 remain:1 grand:1 duchy:1 amalgamate:1 united:1 fortress:7 sight:1 wall:2 point:1 pentagonal:1 plan:1 design:1 sienese:4 architect:2 mino:1 foresi:1 domenico:1 feo:1 incorporate:2 pre:2 exist:2 southern:1 structure:2 keep:1 santo:1 martini:2 san:5 giovanni:1 tower:2 ancient:1 basilica:1 serve:1 chapel:1 narrow:1 short:1 street:1 extend:1 gate:1 chiesa:1 agostino:2 simple:1 romanesque:1 façade:1 building:3 adjacent:1 convent:1 home:1 musei:1 riuniti:1 civic:1 diocesan:1 museum:2 work:3 gorgeous:1 wooden:2 crucifix:1 unknown:1 artist:1 school:3 two:2 beautiful:1 sculpture:2 several:2 terracotta:1 appear:1 della:1 robbia:1 collection:1 st:2 peter:1 paul:1 ambrogio:1 lorenzetti:1 virgin:1 child:1 simone:1 duomo:2 cathedral:1 dedicate:1 salvatore:1 originally:1 neo:1 classical:1 appearance:1 thanks:1 extensive:1 renovation:2 early:4 direction:1 fantasici:1 piazza:3 del:2 popolo:1 downhill:1 matteotti:1 principle:1 hall:1 palazzo:3 dei:1 priori:1 comunale:1 palace:1 adorn:1 coat:1 arm:1 podesta:1 renaissance:1 six:1 round:1 arch:1 call:2 la:1 loggia:1 start:1 end:1 finish:1 undergone:2 much:1 restoration:2 subsequent:1 divide:1 quarter:1 contrade:1 thirteenth:1 francesco:1 castlevecchio:1 contrada:1 interior:1 fresco:2 vincenzo:1 tamagni:1 sixteenth:1 centro:1 storico:1 center:1 similar:1 money:1 aid:1 cause:1 preservation:1 attraction:1 rocca:1 ruined:1 castle:1 benedictine:1 paleontological:1 research:1 fossilised:1 skeleton:1 notably:1 whale:2 estate:1 castello:2 banfi:2 former:1 poggio:1 alle:1 mura:1 prehistoric:1 find:1 access:1 march:1 book:2 australian:1 isabella:1 dusi:1 write:1 life:1 vanilla:1 bean:1 brodo:1 isbn:2 bel:1 vino:1 sundrenched:1 pleasure:1 among:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 art:1 architecture:1 biography:1 alfredo:1 rosso:1 native:1 save:1 pietro:2 video:2 artwork:1 salimbeni:1 introduction:1 reference:1 |@bigram brunello_di:1 di_montalcino:1 super_tuscan:1 deeply_involved:1 grand_duchy:1 duchy_tuscany:1 piazza_del:1 del_popolo:1 coat_arm:1 benedictine_abbey:1 external_link:1 san_pietro:2 |
1,052 | Kitáb-i-Aqdas | The Kitáb-i-Aqdas is a central book of the Bahá'í Faith written by Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion. The work was written in Arabic under the Arabic title al-Kitáb al-Aqdas (), but it is commonly referred to by its Persian title, Kitáb-i-Aqdas (), which was given to the work by Bahá'u'lláh himself. It is sometimes also referred to as "the Aqdas", "the Most Holy Book", "the Book of Laws" and occasionally "the Book of Aqdas". It is usually stated that the book was completed around 1873, although there is evidence to suggest that at least some of the work was written earlier . Bahá'u'lláh had manuscript copies sent to Bahá'ís in Iran some years after the revelation of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, and in 1890–91 (1308 AH), he arranged for the publication of the original Arabic text of the book in Bombay, India. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas is referred to as "the Mother-Book" of the Bahá'í teachings, and the "Charter of the future world civilization" Effendi, 1944: 213 . It is not, however, only a 'book of laws': much of the content deals with other matters, notably ethical exhortations and addresses to various individuals, groups, and places. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas also discusses the establishment of Bahá'í administrative institutions, Bahá'í religious practices, laws of personal status, criminal law, ethical exhortations, social principles, miscellaneous laws and abrogations, and prophecies. Content The Kitáb-i-Aqdas is supplemented by the "Questions and Answers"', which consists of 107 questions submitted to Bahá'u'lláh by Zaynu'l-Muqarrabin concerning the application of the laws and Bahá'u'lláh's replies to those questions "Some Texts Revealed by Bahá'u'lláh" Synopsis and Codification of the Laws and Ordinances, prepared by Shoghi Effendi explanatory notes prepared by the Universal House of Justice The book was divided into six main themes in the Synopsis and Codification by Shoghi Effendi: The appointment of `Abdu'l-Bahá as the successor of Bahá'u'lláh Anticipation of the Institution of the Guardianship The Institution of the Universal House of Justice Laws, Ordinances and exhortations Specific admonitions, reproofs and warnings Miscellaneous subjects Further, the laws were divided into four categories: A. Prayer B. Fasting C. Laws of personal status D. Miscellaneous laws, ordinances and exhortations Laws Some laws and teachings of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are, according to Bahá'í teaching, not meant to be applied at the present time; their application depends on decisions by the Universal House of Justice. See also Bahá'í laws for laws in practice in Bahá'í communities. Prayer Bahá'ís between 15 and 70 years of age are to perform a daily obligatory prayer, and can choose daily from among three, all of which are accompanied by specific rites, and preceded by ablutions. During the obligatory prayer Bahá'ís face the Qiblih, which is the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Bahjí, Israel. People are exempt from the obligatory prayers when ill, in danger, or women during their courses. Congregational prayer is forbidden, except for the case of the Prayer for the Dead. Fasting The Bahá'í fast is observed from sunrise to sunset in the Bahá'í month of `Alá' from 2 March through 20 March. During this time Bahá'ís in good health between the ages of 15 and 70 abstain from eating and drinking. Exemptions to the fast are given to people who are travelling, ill, pregnant, nursing, menstruating, or engaged in heavy labour. Vowing to fast outside of the prescribed fasting period is permissible, and encouraged when done for the benefit of mankind. Laws of personal status Marriage and divorce In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas marriage is highly recommended but is stated to not be obligatory. Bahá'ís need to be at least 15 years of age to get married, and the consent of all living biological parents is needed to get married. Marriage is also conditioned a payment of dowry by the husband to the wife of approximately 2.2 troy ounces of gold or silver dependent on the permanent residence of the husband. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas allows a man to marry two wives under the condition that they be treated equally. Later, `Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi clarified that monogamy was the intent of the paragraph. Divorce is permitted, although discouraged, and is granted after a year of separation if the couple is unable to reconcile their differences. Inheritance In the Kitáb-i-Aqdas it is stated that all Bahá'ís must write a will. The other Bahá’í laws of inheritance in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas apply only in case of intestacy, that is, when the individual dies without leaving a will. The system of inheritance provides for distribution of the deceased's estate among seven categories of heirs: children, spouse, father, mother, brothers, sisters, and teachers with higher categories obtaining a larger share. In cases where some of the categories of heirs does not exist the share falls partly to the children and the Local Spiritual Assembly. See also Bahá'í prophecies References Notes Bibliography External links Kitáb-i-Aqdas research tool The Kitab-i-Aqdas: its place in Baha'i literature Compendium on the Kitáb-i-Aqdas | Kitáb-i-Aqdas |@lemmatized kitáb:14 aqdas:17 central:1 book:9 bahá:27 í:11 faith:1 write:4 u:8 lláh:8 founder:1 religion:1 work:3 arabic:3 title:2 al:2 commonly:1 refer:3 persian:1 give:2 sometimes:1 also:5 holy:1 law:17 occasionally:1 usually:1 state:3 complete:1 around:1 although:2 evidence:1 suggest:1 least:2 earlier:1 manuscript:1 copy:1 send:1 ís:6 iran:1 year:4 revelation:1 ah:1 arrange:1 publication:1 original:1 text:2 bombay:1 india:1 mother:2 teaching:3 charter:1 future:1 world:1 civilization:1 effendi:4 however:1 much:1 content:2 deal:1 matter:1 notably:1 ethical:2 exhortation:4 address:1 various:1 individual:2 group:1 place:2 discuss:1 establishment:1 administrative:1 institution:3 religious:1 practice:2 personal:3 status:3 criminal:1 social:1 principle:1 miscellaneous:3 abrogation:1 prophecy:2 supplement:1 question:3 answer:1 consist:1 submit:1 zaynu:1 l:3 muqarrabin:1 concern:1 application:2 reply:1 reveal:1 synopsis:2 codification:2 ordinance:3 prepare:2 shoghi:3 explanatory:1 note:2 universal:3 house:3 justice:3 divide:2 six:1 main:1 theme:1 appointment:1 abdu:2 successor:1 anticipation:1 guardianship:1 specific:2 admonition:1 reproof:1 warning:1 subject:1 far:1 four:1 category:4 prayer:7 b:1 fast:5 c:1 accord:1 mean:1 apply:2 present:1 time:2 depend:1 decision:1 see:2 community:1 age:3 perform:1 daily:2 obligatory:4 choose:1 among:2 three:1 accompany:1 rite:1 precede:1 ablution:1 face:1 qiblih:1 shrine:1 bahjí:1 israel:1 people:2 exempt:1 ill:2 danger:1 woman:1 course:1 congregational:1 forbidden:1 except:1 case:3 dead:1 observe:1 sunrise:1 sunset:1 month:1 alá:1 march:2 good:1 health:1 abstain:1 eating:1 drinking:1 exemption:1 travel:1 pregnant:1 nursing:1 menstruating:1 engage:1 heavy:1 labour:1 vow:1 outside:1 prescribed:1 fasting:1 period:1 permissible:1 encourage:1 benefit:1 mankind:1 marriage:3 divorce:2 highly:1 recommended:1 need:2 get:2 married:2 consent:1 live:1 biological:1 parent:1 condition:2 payment:1 dowry:1 husband:2 wife:2 approximately:1 troy:1 ounce:1 gold:1 silver:1 dependent:1 permanent:1 residence:1 allow:1 man:1 marry:1 two:1 treat:1 equally:1 later:1 clarify:1 monogamy:1 intent:1 paragraph:1 permit:1 discourage:1 grant:1 separation:1 couple:1 unable:1 reconcile:1 difference:1 inheritance:3 must:1 intestacy:1 dy:1 without:1 leave:1 system:1 provide:1 distribution:1 decease:1 estate:1 seven:1 heir:2 child:2 spouse:1 father:1 brother:1 sister:1 teacher:1 high:1 obtain:1 large:1 share:2 exist:1 fall:1 partly:1 local:1 spiritual:1 assembly:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 research:1 tool:1 kitab:1 baha:1 literature:1 compendium:1 |@bigram kitáb_aqdas:13 bahá_í:11 í_faith:1 u_lláh:8 bahá_ís:6 shoghi_effendi:3 abdu_l:2 obligatory_prayer:3 sunrise_sunset:1 eating_drinking:1 payment_dowry:1 troy_ounce:1 gold_silver:1 external_link:1 |
1,053 | Blizzard | A blizzard is a severe winter storm condition characterized by low temperatures, strong winds, and heavy blowing snow. Blizzards are formed when a high pressure system, also known as a ridge, interacts with a low pressure system; this results in the advection of air from the high pressure zone into the low pressure area. Geography Definition According to Environment Canada, a winter storm must have winds of 40 km/h (25 mph) or more, have snow or blowing snow, visibility less than 500 ft (about 1⁄10 mile), a wind chill of less than −25 °C (−15 °F), and that all of these conditions must last for 4 hours or more before the storm can be properly called a blizzard. In the United States, the National Weather Service defines a blizzard as sustained 35mph (56 km/h) winds which lead to blowing snow and cause visibilities of 500ft or less, lasting for at least 3 hours. Temperature is not taken into consideration when issuing a blizzard warning, but the nature of these storms is such that cold air is often present when the other criteria are met. NOAA - National Weather Service . Temperatures are generally below 0 °C (32 °F). Other countries, such as the UK, have a lower threshold: the Met Office defines a blizzard as "moderate or heavy snow" combined with a mean wind speed of 30 mph (48 km/h) and visibility below 650 feet (200 m). When there are blizzard conditions but no snow falling, this happens a lot meteorologists call this a ground blizzard because all the snow is already present at the surface of the earth and is simply being blown by high winds. Ground blizzards require large expanses of open and relatively flat land with a sufficient amount of accumulated and loosely packed, powdery snow to be blown around. Whiteouts Although the word is commonly used to describe heavy snow and high winds, this is not a true "whiteout". Real "whiteouts" occur mostly in the Arctic and Antarctic during the spring, when snow is still deep on the ground and there is lots of daylight and surprisingly calm weather and excellent visibility. Whiteouts occur when rays of sunlight are bounced in all directions between bright white clouds, especially a thin layer of overcast and bright snow or ice. Clean snow and ice reflects nearly 85% of incoming light. Falling snowflakes, suspended fog droplets or ice particles in the air would make conditions even worse. In a true whiteout, neither shadows, nearby objects, landmarks, nor clouds are discernible. All sense of direction, depth perception and even of balance may be lost. Land and sky seem to blend, and the horizon disappears into a white nothingness. Whiteouts trick pilots and travelers into believing down is up and thinking far is near. During mountaineous snowfall Low visibility during snowfall at Corviglia, Upper Engadin, above St. Moritz in Switzerland A similar though distinct phenomenon may occur in mountainous areas during heavy snowfall combined with being inside a cloud, when one cannot see depth or distance. When encountered by skiers, these conditions are challenging and dangerous, and extreme caution must be used in order to remain on the slope and avoid accidents. Depending on the intensity of the snowfall, visibility may be reduced to several meters; in less severe storms, such as the one pictured here, distinct objects (a chairlift and the supporting mast of a gondola) can be seen even at a distance, but depth and distance are almost impossible to determine, since the snow on the ground and in the air make it impossible to see clearly. Economic Impact of Blizzards Like all severe weather events such as hurricanes, droughts and floods, blizzards can be disruptive to local economies. This is especially the case when blizzards hit in localities in generally warmer climates where snowfall is infrequent. In cities that do not have snow removal equipment, traffic and commerce can be brought to a stand still for days and in some cases weeks. The economic impact ranges across industries, from lost productivity in companies because people cannot get to work, parents must stay home with children due to school closings, airport closures, product delivery delays and the actual cost of snow removal. See also Great Blizzard of 1888 Schoolhouse Blizzard Halloween Blizzard References External links Dr Richard Wild Website dedicated to the history, news and facts about heavy snow and blizzards. Digital Snow Museum Photos of historic blizzards and snowstorms. Blizzards Photo Gallery Environment Canada's definition of Blizzard Farmers Almanac List of Worst Blizzards Severe Winter Weather Events Excerpts from The Canadian Weather Trivia Calendar http://www.ussartf.org/blizzards.htm http://content.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=4912 | Blizzard |@lemmatized blizzard:21 severe:4 winter:3 storm:5 condition:5 characterize:1 low:5 temperature:3 strong:1 wind:7 heavy:5 blowing:1 snow:17 form:1 high:4 pressure:4 system:2 also:2 know:1 ridge:1 interact:1 result:1 advection:1 air:4 zone:1 area:2 geography:1 definition:2 accord:1 environment:2 canada:2 must:4 km:3 h:3 mph:2 blow:4 visibility:6 less:4 ft:1 mile:1 chill:1 c:2 f:2 last:2 hour:2 properly:1 call:2 united:1 state:1 national:2 weather:6 service:2 define:2 sustained:1 lead:1 cause:1 least:1 take:1 consideration:1 issue:1 warning:1 nature:1 cold:1 often:1 present:2 criterion:1 meet:1 noaa:1 generally:2 country:1 uk:1 threshold:1 met:1 office:1 moderate:1 combine:2 mean:1 speed:1 foot:1 fall:2 happen:1 lot:2 meteorologists:1 ground:4 already:1 surface:1 earth:1 simply:1 require:1 large:1 expanse:1 open:1 relatively:1 flat:1 land:2 sufficient:1 amount:1 accumulate:1 loosely:1 packed:1 powdery:1 around:1 whiteout:6 although:1 word:1 commonly:1 use:2 describe:1 true:2 real:1 occur:3 mostly:1 arctic:1 antarctic:1 spring:1 still:2 deep:1 daylight:1 surprisingly:1 calm:1 excellent:1 ray:1 sunlight:1 bounce:1 direction:2 bright:2 white:2 cloud:3 especially:2 thin:1 layer:1 overcast:1 ice:3 clean:1 reflect:1 nearly:1 incoming:1 light:1 snowflake:1 suspend:1 fog:1 droplet:1 particle:1 would:1 make:2 even:3 bad:2 neither:1 shadow:1 nearby:1 object:2 landmark:1 discernible:1 sense:1 depth:3 perception:1 balance:1 may:3 lose:2 sky:1 seem:1 blend:1 horizon:1 disappear:1 nothingness:1 trick:1 pilot:1 traveler:1 believe:1 think:1 far:1 near:1 mountaineous:1 snowfall:5 corviglia:1 upper:1 engadin:1 st:1 moritz:1 switzerland:1 similar:1 though:1 distinct:2 phenomenon:1 mountainous:1 inside:1 one:2 cannot:2 see:4 distance:3 encounter:1 skier:1 challenge:1 dangerous:1 extreme:1 caution:1 order:1 remain:1 slope:1 avoid:1 accident:1 depend:1 intensity:1 reduce:1 several:1 meter:1 pictured:1 chairlift:1 support:1 mast:1 gondola:1 almost:1 impossible:2 determine:1 since:1 clearly:1 economic:2 impact:2 like:1 event:2 hurricane:1 drought:1 flood:1 disruptive:1 local:1 economy:1 case:2 hit:1 locality:1 warm:1 climate:1 infrequent:1 city:1 removal:2 equipment:1 traffic:1 commerce:1 bring:1 stand:1 day:1 week:1 range:1 across:1 industry:1 productivity:1 company:1 people:1 get:1 work:1 parent:1 stay:1 home:1 child:1 due:1 school:1 closing:1 airport:1 closure:1 product:1 delivery:1 delay:1 actual:1 cost:1 great:1 schoolhouse:1 halloween:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 dr:1 richard:1 wild:1 website:1 dedicate:1 history:1 news:1 fact:1 digital:1 museum:1 photo:2 historic:1 snowstorm:1 gallery:1 farmer:1 almanac:1 list:1 excerpt:1 canadian:1 trivia:1 calendar:1 http:2 www:1 ussartf:1 org:1 htm:1 content:1 scholastic:1 com:1 browse:1 article:1 jsp:1 id:1 |@bigram h_mph:1 wind_chill:1 mph_km:1 arctic_antarctic:1 thin_layer:1 moritz_switzerland:1 external_link:1 photo_gallery:1 http_www:1 jsp_id:1 |
1,054 | I._M._Pei | Ieoh Ming Pei () (born April 26, 1917), commonly known by his initials I. M. Pei, is a Pritzker Prize-winning Chinese-born American architect, known as the last master of high modernist architecture. Early life and education Pei was born in Canton (pinyin: Guangzhou), China on April 26, 1917, to a prominent family. His father, a banker, was later the director of the Bank of China and the governor of the Central Bank of China. His family later moved to Shanghai, but resided in Suzhou, a city near Shanghai. The family's residence is in a renowned garden in Suzhou, now part of the World Heritage Site listed Classical Gardens of Suzhou. The house was called the Garden of the Lion Forest, and consisted of many rock sculptures carved naturally by water. Pei loved how the buildings and the nature were combined, and especially liked the way light and shadow mixed. His first education was at St. Paul's College, Hong Kong (primary school), and then at Saint John's University, Shanghai (high school) before moving to the United States to study architecture at the age of 18 at the University of Pennsylvania. He received a Bachelor of Architecture degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1940. He is a 1940 recipient of the Alpha Rho Chi Medal, the MIT Traveling Fellowship, and the AIA Gold Medal. He then studied at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Shortly after his studies there, he was a member of the National Defense Research Committee in Princeton, New Jersey. I M Pei Biography, Bio, Profile, pictures, photos from Netglimse.com In 1944, he returned to Harvard, studying under Walter Gropius, who was previously associated with the Bauhaus. He received a Master's degree in Architecture in 1946. He was a member of the Harvard faculty subsequently attaining the rank of assistant professor. He received the Wheelwright Traveling Fellowship in 1951 and became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1954. Official biography from Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website Career In 1948, William Zeckendorf hired Pei to work at the real estate development corporation Webb and Knapp in a newly created post, Director of Architecture. While at Webb and Knapp, Pei worked on many large-scale architectural and planning projects across the country and designed his buildings mostly in the manner of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Pei founded his own architectural firm in 1955, which was originally known as I. M. Pei and Associates and, later, I. M. Pei & Partners until 1989 when it became known as Pei Cobb Freed & Partners recognizing James Ingo Freed and Henry N. Cobb. Honors Ambassador Ann L. Wagner hosts a reception for American Architect I.M. Pei to celebrate the opening of his latest project, the Musee d'Art Moderne Grand-Duc Jean (MUDAM) in Luxembourg I.M. Pei is a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and a Corporate Member of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He has also been elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Design, and the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. In 1975 he was elected to the American Academy, which is restricted to a lifetime membership of fifty members. In 1978, he became Chancellor of the American Academy, the first architect to hold that position. He served until 1980. Mr. Pei was inducted a "Membre de l'Institut de France" in 1984, and decorated by the French government as a Commandeur in the "Ordre des Arts et des Lettres" in 1985. On July 4, 1986, he was one of twelve naturalized American citizens to receive the Medal of Liberty from President Ronald Reagan. Two years later French president François Mitterrand inducted I. M. Pei as a Chevalier in the Légion d'Honneur. In November 1993 he was raised to Officier. Also in 1993, he was elected an Honorary Academician of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. In 1997 the Académie d'Architecture de France elected him Foreign Member. http://www.pcf-p.com/a/f/fme/imp/b/b.html Family and later life In 1990, Pei retired from his firm but still maintains an office there. He has 4 children, 2 of them architects. Two of his sons, Chien Chung (Didi) Pei and Li Chung (Sandi) Pei, after leaving their father's firm, established their own practice, Pei Partnership Architects in 1992. I. M. Pei still participates in design work with both Pei Cobb Freed and Partners and Pei Partnership Architects. Selected works Project list References Gero von Boehm, Conversations with I.M. Pei: "Light is the Key" ISBN 3-7913-2176-5 Michael Cannell, I.M. Pei : Mandarin of Modernism ISBN 0-517-79972-3 (Excerpt) Carter Wiseman, I. M. Pei: A Profile in American Architecture ISBN 0-8109-3477-9 External links Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website Interview with I.M. Pei (June 2004) New York Architecture Images- Pei, Cobb, Freed Pritzker Prize biography, Photo Gallery, and Acceptance Speech Biography (World of Biography) Concept sketches for The Musée d'Art Moderne by I.M. Pei Digital archive of American architecture: I.M. 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1,055 | Brick | An old brick wall in English bond laid with alternating courses of headers and stretchers. A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry construction, usually laid using mortar. History The Roman Constantine Basilica in Trier, Germany, built in the 4th century with fired bricks as audience hall for Constantine I The oldest shaped bricks found date back to 7,500 B.C. They have been found in Çayönü, in the upper Tigris region, and in south east Anatolia close to Diyarbakir. Other more recent findings, dated between 7,000 and 6,395 B.C., come from Jericho and Catal Hüyük. From archaeological evidence, the invention of the fired brick (as opposed to the considerably earlier sun-dried mud brick) is believed to have arisen in about the third millennium BC in the Middle East. Being much more resistant to cold and moist weather conditions, brick enabled the construction of permanent buildings in regions where the harsher climate precluded the use of mud bricks. Bricks have the added warmth benefit of storing heat energy from the sun during the day and continuing to release heat after sunset. The Ancient Egyptians and the Indus Valley Civilization also used mudbrick extensively, as can be seen in the ruins of Buhen, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, for example. In the Indus Valley Civilization all bricks corresponded to sizes in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1. [The ancient Jetavanaramaya stupa in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka is one of the largest brick structures in the world The world's highest brick tower of St. Martin's Church, Landshut, completed in 1500 In Sumerian times offerings of food and drink were presented to "the Bone god," who was "represented in the ritual by the first brick." More recently, mortar for the foundations of the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul was mixed with "a broth of barley and bark of elm" and sacred relics, accompanied by prayers, placed between every 12 bricks. The Romans made use of fired bricks, and the Roman legions, which operated mobile kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised its production. The use of bricks in Southern and Western Germany, for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect Vitruvius. In pre-modern China, brick-making was the job of a lowly and unskilled artisan, but a kiln master was respected as a step above the latter. Brook, 19–20 Early descriptions of the production process and glazing techniques used for bricks can be found in the Song Dynasty carpenter's manual Yingzao Fashi, published in 1103 by the government official Li Jie, who was put in charge of overseeing public works for the central government's construction agency. The historian Timothy Brook writes of the production process in Ming Dynasty China (aided with visual illustrations from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedic text published in 1637): The brickwork of Shebeli Tower in Iran displays 12th century craftsmanship ...the kilnmaster had to make sure that the temperature inside the kiln stayed at a level that caused the clay to shimmer with the colour of molten gold or silver. He also had to know when to quench the kiln with water so as to produce the surface glaze. To anonymous laborers fell the less skilled stages of brick production: mixing clay and water, driving oxen over the mixture to trample it into a thick paste, scooping the paste into standardized wooden frames (to produce a brick roughly 42 cm long, 20 cm wide, and 10 cm thick), smoothing the surfaces with a wire-strung bow, removing them from the frames, printing the fronts and backs with stamps that indicated where the bricks came from and who made them, loading the kilns with fuel (likelier wood than coal), stacking the bricks in the kiln, removing them to cool while the kilns were still hot, and bundling them into pallets for transportation. It was hot, filthy work. Brook, 20–21. The idea of signing the worker's name on the brick and the place where it was made was not new to the Ming era and had little or nothing to do with vanity. Brook, 22. As far back as the Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC), the government required blacksmiths and weapon-makers to engrave their names onto weapons in order to trace the weapon back to them, lest their weapons should prove to be of a lower quality than the standard required by the government. Brook, 22–23. In the 12th century, bricks from Northern Italy were re-introduced to Northern Germany, where an independent tradition evolved. It culminated in the so-called brick Gothic, a reduced style of Gothic architecture that flourished in Northern Europe, especially in the regions around the Baltic Sea which are without natural rock resources. Brick Gothic buildings, which are built almost exclusively of bricks, are to be found in Denmark, Germany, Poland and Russia. During the Renaissance and the Baroque, visible brick walls were unpopular and the brickwork was often covered with plaster. It was only during the mid-18th century that visible brick walls regained some degree of popularity, as illustrated by the Dutch Quarter of Potsdam, for example. Chile house in Hamburg, Germany The transport in bulk of building materials such as paper over long distances was rare before the age of canals, railways, roads and heavy goods vehicles. Before this time bricks were generally made close to their point of intended use. It has been estimated that in England in the eighteenth century carrying bricks by horse and cart for ten miles (16 km) over the poor roads then existing could more than double their price. Bricks were often used, even in areas where stone was available, for reasons of speed and economy. The buildings of the Industrial Revolution in Britain were largely constructed of brick and timber due to the demand created. During the building boom of the nineteenth century in the eastern seaboard cities of Boston and New York, for example, locally made bricks were often used in construction in preference to the brownstones of New Jersey and Connecticut for these reasons. The trend of building upwards for offices that emerged towards the end of the 19th century displaced brick in favour of cast and wrought iron and later steel and concrete. Some early 'skyscrapers' were made in masonry, and demonstrated the limitations of the material - for example, the Monadnock Building in Chicago (opened in 1896) is masonry and just seventeen stories high, the ground walls are almost thick, clearly building any higher would lead to excessive loss of internal floor space on the lower floors. Brick was revived for high structures in the 1950s following work by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and the Building Research Establishment in Watford, UK. This method produced eighteen story structures with bearing walls no thicker than a single brick (150-225 mm). This potential has not been fully developed because of the ease and speed in building with other materials, in the late-20th century brick was confined to low- or medium-rise structures or as a thin decorative cladding over concrete-and-steel buildings or for internal non-load bearing walls. Methods of Manufacture Brick making at the beginning of the 20th century. Bricks may be made from clay, shale, soft slate, calcium silicate, concrete, or shaped from quarried stone. Clay is the most common material, with modern clay bricks formed in one of three processes - soft mud, dry press, or extruded. In 2007 a new type of brick was invented, based on fly ash, a by-product of coal power plants. Mud bricks The soft mud method is the most common, as it is the most economical. It starts with the raw clay, preferably in a mix with 25-30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then fired ("burned") at 900-1000 °C to achieve strength. Rail kilns Xhosa brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in the former Transkei in 2007. In modern brickworks, this is usually done in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which the bricks move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars to achieve consistency for all bricks. The bricks often have added lime, ash, and organic matter to speed the burning. Bull's Trench Kilns In Pakistan and India, brick making is typically a manual process. The most common type of brick kiln in use there are Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineer W. Bull in the late nineteenth century. An oval or circular trench, 6-9 meters wide, 2-2.5 meters deep, and 100-150 meters in circumference, is dug. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre. Half or more of the trench is filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow. The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick. In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick pile; cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport. In the middle the brick workers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, [wood], oil, debris, etc) through access holes in the roof above the trench. West face of Roskilde Cathedral in Roskilde, Denmark. The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency compared with clamp or scove kilns. Sheet metal or boards are used to route the airflow through the brick lattice so that fresh air flows first through the recently burned bricks, heating the air, then through the active burning zone. The air continues through the green brick zone (pre-heating and drying them), and finally out the chimney where the rising gases create suction which pulls air through the system. The reuse of heated air yields savings in fuel cost. As with the rail process above, the BTK process is continuous. A half dozen laborers working around the clock can fire approximately 15,000-25,000 bricks a day. Unlike the rail process, in the BTK process the bricks do not move. Instead, the locations at which the bricks are loaded, fired, and unloaded gradually rotate through the trench. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, Brick Kiln Units (PDF file) Dry pressed bricks The dry press method is similar to mud brick but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the longer burn make this method more expensive. Extruded bricks With extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10-15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20-25% water (soft extrusion). This is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the proper width and depth. This is then cut into bricks of the desired length by a wall of wires. Most structural bricks are made by this method, as hard dense bricks result, and holes or other perforations can be produced by the die. The introduction of holes reduces the needed volume of clay through the whole process, with the consequent reduction in cost. The bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have thermal properties different from solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by drying for between 20 and 40 hours at 50-150 °C before being fired. The heat for drying is often waste heat from the kiln. Calcium silicate bricks The raw materials for calcium silicate bricks include lime mixed with quartz, crushed flint or crushed siliceous rock together with mineral colourants. The materials are mixed and left until the lime is completely hydrated, the mixture is then pressed into moulds and cured in an autoclave for two or three hours to speed the chemical hardening. The finished bricks are very accurate and uniform, although the sharp arrises need careful handling to avoid damage to brick (and brick-layer). The bricks can be made in a variety of colours, white is common but pastel shades can be achieved. Influence on fired colour The fired colour of clay bricks is influenced by the chemical and mineral content of raw materials, the firing temperature and the atmosphere in the kiln. For example pink coloured bricks are the result of a high iron content, white or yellow bricks have a higher lime content. Most bricks burn to various red hues, if the temperature is increased the colour moves through dark red, purple and then to brown or grey at around 1300 °C. Calcium silicate bricks have a wider range of shades and colours, depending on the colourants used. The names of bricks may reflect their origin and colour, such as London Red and Cambridgeshire White. Bricks formed from concrete are usually termed blocks, and are typically pale grey in colour. They are made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed in steel moulds by vibration and compaction in either an "egglayer" or static machine. The finished blocks are cured rather than fired using low-pressure steam. Concrete blocks are manufactured in a much wider range of shapes and sizes than clay bricks and are also available with a wider range of face treatments - a number of which are to simulate the appearance of clay bricks. An impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a "slip," which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base. Natural stone bricks are of limited modern utility, due to their enormous comparative mass, the consequent foundation needs, and the time-consuming and skilled labour needed in their construction and laying. They are very durable and considered more handsome than clay bricks by some. Only a few stones are suitable for bricks. Common materials are granite, limestone and sandstone. Other stones may be used (e.g. marble, slate, quartzite, etc.) but these tend to be limited to a particular locality. Optimal dimensions, characteristics and strength Loose bricks For efficient handling and laying bricks must be small enough and light enough to be picked up by the rocklayer using one hand (leaving the other hand free for the trowel). Bricks are usually laid flat and as a result the effective limit on the width of a brick is set by the distance which can conveniently be spanned between the thumb and fingers of one hand, normally about four inches (about 100 mm). In most cases, the length of a brick is about twice its width, about eight inches (about 200 mm) or slightly more. This allows bricks to be laid bonded in a structure to increase its stability and strength (for an example of this, see the illustration of bricks laid in English bond, at the head of this article. The wall is built using alternating courses of stretchers, bricks laid longways and headers, bricks laid crossways. The headers tie the wall together over its width. The correct brick for a job can be picked from a choice of colour, surface texture, density, weight, absorption and pore structure, thermal characteristics, thermal and moisture movement, and fire resistance. +Face brick ("house brick") sizes http://www.crammix.co.za/export_info.htm Crammix, Export Information - product options , from small to largeStandard Imperial Metric 8 × 4 × 2¼ inches 203 × 102 × 57 mm 8½ × 4 × 2½ inches 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm 8¾ × 4 × 3 inches 222 × 106 × 73 mm 9 × 4⅓ × 3 inches 230 × 110 × 76 mm In England, the length and the width of the common brick has remained fairly constant over the centuries, but the depth has varied from about two inches (about 51 mm) or smaller in earlier times to about two and a half inches (about 64 mm) more recently. In the United States, modern bricks are usually about 8 × 4 × 2.25 inches (203 × 102 × 57 mm). In the United Kingdom, the usual ("work") size of a modern brick is 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm (about 8.5 × 4 × 2.5 inches), which, with a nominal 10 mm mortar joint, forms a "coordinating" or fitted size of 225 × 112.5 × 75 mm, for a ratio of 6:3:2. Some brickmakers create innovative sizes and shapes for bricks used for plastering (and therefore not visible) where their inherent mechanical properties are more important than the visual ones. Crammix Maxilite These bricks are usually slightly larger, but not as large as blocks and offer the following advantages: a slightly larger brick requires less mortar and handling (fewer bricks) which reduces cost ribbed exterior aids plastering more complex interior cavities allow improved insulation, while maintaining strength. Blocks have a much greater range of sizes. Standard coordinating sizes in length and height (in mm) include 400×200, 450×150, 450×200, 450×225, 450×300, 600×150, 600×200, and 600×225; depths (work size, mm) include 60, 75, 90, 100, 115, 140, 150, 190, 200, 225, and 250. They are usable across this range as they are lighter than clay bricks. The density of solid clay bricks is around 2,000 kg/m³: this is reduced by frogging, hollow bricks, etc.; but aerated autoclaved concrete, even as a solid brick, can have densities in the range of 450–850 kg/m³. Bricks may also be classified as solid (less than 25% perforations by volume, although the brick may be "frogged," having indentations on one of the longer faces), perforated (containing a pattern of small holes through the brick removing no more than 25% of the volume), cellular (containing a pattern of holes removing more than 20% of the volume, but closed on one face), or hollow (containing a pattern of large holes removing more than 25% of the brick's volume). Blocks may be solid, cellular or hollow The term "frog" for the indentation on one bed of the brick is a word that often excites curiosity as to its origin. The most likely explanation is that brickmakers also call the block that is placed in the mould to form the indentation a frog. Modern brickmakers usually use plastic frogs but in the past they were made of wood. When these are wet and have clay on them they resemble the amphibious kind of frog and this is where they got their name. Over time this term also came to refer to the indentation left by them.[Matthews 2006] The compressive strength of bricks produced in the United States ranges from about 1000 lbf/in² to 15,000 lbf/in² (7 to 105 MPa or N/mm² ), varying according to the use to which the brick are to be put. In England clay bricks can have strengths of up to 100 MPa, although a common house brick is likely to show a range of 20–40 MPa. Use Vault of Roman Bath in Bath - England A brick section of the old Dixie Highway East Florida Connector on the west side of Lake Lily in Maitland, Florida. It was built in 1915 or 1916, paved over at some point, and restored in 1999. Bricks are used for building and pavement. In the USA, brick pavement was found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic, but it is coming back into use as a method of traffic calming or as a decorative surface in pedestrian precincts. For example, in the early 1900s, most of the streets in the city of Grand Rapids, Michigan were paved with brick. Today, there are only about 20 blocks of brick paved streets remaining (totalling less than 0.5 percent of all the streets in the city limits). Michigan | Success Stories | Preserve America | Office of the Secretary of Transportation | U.S. Department of Transportation Bricks are also used in the metallurgy and glass industries for lining furnaces. They have various uses, especially refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral (chromomagnesite) refractory bricks. This type of brick must have good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, and satisfactory porosity. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom, Japan and the United States. In the United Kingdom, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Until recently, almost all houses were built almost entirely from bricks. Although many houses in the UK are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are skinned with a layer of bricks on the outside for aesthetic appeal. In the UK a redbrick university is one founded and built in the Victorian era, often as a technical college. The term is used as differentiation from older, more classics-oriented universities. See also Brick tinting Brickwork Ceramics Cinder block Fire brick Masonry Mortar Millwall brick Mudbrick Roman brick Wienerberger Brickyard Gallery Notes References External links Use of old solid Red Clay Bricks as alternative for refractory firebricks. Brick in 20th century architecture The Hudson River Brick Industry European Tile and Brick Producers Association Production process of clay bricks Brick Industry Association, Reston, VA be-x-old:Цэгла | Brick |@lemmatized old:6 brick:148 wall:9 english:2 bond:3 laid:1 alternate:2 course:2 header:3 stretcher:2 block:11 ceramic:2 material:12 use:29 masonry:4 construction:6 usually:7 lay:8 mortar:5 history:1 roman:7 constantine:2 basilica:1 trier:1 germany:5 build:9 century:13 fired:4 audience:1 hall:1 shaped:2 find:5 date:2 back:6 b:2 c:5 çayönü:1 upper:1 tigris:1 region:3 south:1 east:3 anatolia:1 close:3 diyarbakir:1 recent:1 finding:1 come:4 jericho:1 catal:1 hüyük:1 archaeological:1 evidence:1 inven:1 tion:1 oppose:1 consid:1 erably:1 earlier:1 sun:2 dry:7 mud:6 believe:1 arise:1 third:1 millennium:1 bc:3 middle:2 much:5 resistant:1 cold:1 moist:1 weather:1 condition:1 enable:1 permanent:1 building:10 harsher:1 climate:1 preclude:1 add:3 warmth:1 benefit:1 store:1 heat:5 energy:2 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1,056 | Oude_Maas | River Oude Maas ("Old Meuse") is a branch in the Rhine-Meuse delta in the Dutch province of South Holland. It begins at the city of Dordrecht where the Beneden Merwede river splits into the Noord River and the Oude Maas. The Oude Maas forms the southern boundary of the IJsselmonde island. Soon after Dordrecht the Dordtsche Kil forks off and after that the Oude Maas forms the northern boundary of the Hoeksche Waard island, flowing west until the Spui river forks off at the town of Oud-Beijerland. The Oude Maas then heads northwest between the towns/cities of Spijkenisse and Hoogvliet and joins river Nieuwe Maas opposite the city of Vlaardingen, the combined river is known as Het Scheur and flows to the North Sea. Although this branch is called "Maas" (Meuse), it gets most of its water from river Rhine, of which it is an important estuary. In fact, the influence of the Meuse have been diminished to the point that both the Nieuwe Maas and the Oude Maas can no longer been considered part of the river Meuse. Both stretches of river are only receiving water from the Rhine, at least for most of the time. The river is tidal and has nature and recreation areas. Connections from the IJsselmonde island on the north: with Dordrecht island: road bridge road tunnel railway bridge with Hoeksche Waard island: 1st and 2nd Heinenoordtunnel (motor vehicles, cyclists) with Voorne-Putten island: Spijkenisser Bridge (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians) metro tunnel Satellite image of the northwest part of the Rhine-Meuse delta showing river Oude Maas (o). | Oude_Maas |@lemmatized river:11 oude:7 maas:10 old:1 meuse:6 branch:2 rhine:4 delta:2 dutch:1 province:1 south:1 holland:1 begin:1 city:3 dordrecht:3 beneden:1 merwede:1 split:1 noord:1 form:2 southern:1 boundary:2 ijsselmonde:2 island:6 soon:1 dordtsche:1 kil:1 fork:2 northern:1 hoeksche:2 waard:2 flow:2 west:1 spui:1 town:2 oud:1 beijerland:1 head:1 northwest:2 spijkenisse:1 hoogvliet:1 join:1 nieuwe:2 opposite:1 vlaardingen:1 combine:1 know:1 het:1 scheur:1 north:2 sea:1 although:1 call:1 get:1 water:2 important:1 estuary:1 fact:1 influence:1 diminish:1 point:1 longer:1 consider:1 part:2 stretch:1 receive:1 least:1 time:1 tidal:1 nature:1 recreation:1 area:1 connection:1 road:2 bridge:3 tunnel:2 railway:1 heinenoordtunnel:1 motor:2 vehicle:2 cyclist:2 voorne:1 putten:1 spijkenisser:1 pedestrian:1 metro:1 satellite:1 image:1 show:1 |@bigram oude_maas:7 rhine_meuse:2 meuse_delta:2 nieuwe_maas:2 het_scheur:1 cyclist_pedestrian:1 |
1,057 | Hezekiah | Hezekiah (or Ezekias) (Hebrew: , Khizkiyahu; or , Y'khizkiyahu; "Tetragrammaton Mighty God"; compare Ezekiel) was the 13th king of the Kingdom of Judah. His reign has been dated from 715 – 687 BC or 716 – 687 BC. See William F. Albright for the former and for the latter Edwin R. Thiele's, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (3rd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983) 217. But Gershon Galil dates his reign to 697–642 BC. Under either of these chronologies, Hezekiah ruled the southern Kingdom of Judah during the forced resettlement of the northern Kingdom of Israel by Sargon's Assyrians in c. 720 BC and the invasion and siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib in 701 BC. The Biblical account See: Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem; Sennacherib's Prism Family and life Hezekiah was born in c. 740 BC, the son of King Ahaz and Abijah (). Abijah was a daughter of a man named Zechariah, but he was not the prophet Zechariah. Abijah was also known as Abi. () He was married to Hephzi-bah. () He died in 687 BC at the age of 54 years from natural causes, and was succeeded by his only son Manasseh, who was 12 years old. () Reign over Judah Remnants of the broad wall of biblical Jerusalem, built during Hezekiah's days against Sennacherib's siege Hezekiah took the throne at the age of twenty-five () and reigned twenty-nine years (). The main accounts are from the Hebrew Bible contained in , , and . These sources portray him as a great and good king, following the example of his great-grandfather Uzziah. Hezekiah introduced religious reform and reinstated religious traditions. He set himself to abolish idolatry from his kingdom, and among other things which he did for this end, he destroyed the "brazen serpent," which had been relocated at Jerusalem, and had become an object of idolatrous worship. A great reformation was wrought in the kingdom of Judah in his day (; ). The author of 2 Kings ends his account of Hezekiah with praise (). Political moves and Assyrian invasion Siloam pool Between the death of Sargon, and the succession of his son Sennacherib, Hezekiah sought to throw off his subservience to the Assyrian kings. He ceased to pay the tribute imposed on his father, and "rebelled against the king of Assyria, and served him not," but entered into a league with Egypt (; ). This led to the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib () in the 4th year of Sennacherib (701 BC). The invasion of Judah by Sennacherib and the Assyrian army was a major and well documented event in the history of Judah. Sennacherib recorded on his monumental inscription, "The Prism of Sennacherib", how in his campaign against Hezekiah ("Ha-za-qi-(i)a-ú") he took 46 cities in this campaign (column 3, line 19 of the Sennacherib prism), and besieged Jerusalem ("Ur-sa-li-im-mu") with earthworks. James B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965) 287-288. It was during the siege of Jerusalem that the Bible says the Angel of the Lord killed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers. Herodotus wrote of the invasion and acknowledges many Assyrian deaths, which he claims were the result of a plague of mice. (19:35) Herodotus (Histories 2:141) The Assyrians claimed that Sennacherib raised his siege of Jerusalem after Hezekiah acknowledged Sennacherib as his overlord and paid him tribute Sennacherib's Hexagonal Prism . The Bible records that eventually Hezekiah saw Sennacherib's determination, and offered to pay him three hundred talents of silver and thirty of gold in tribute, even despoiling the doors of the Temple to produce the promised amount. () Hezekiah's construction The Biblical account maintains that Hezekiah anticipated the Assyrian invasion and made at least one major preparation called Hezekiah's tunnel, which is more commonly known as the Siloam Tunnel. It is 533 meters long and was dug in order to provide Jerusalem underground access to the waters of the Spring of Gihon/The Siloam Pool, which lay outside the city. This work is described in the Siloam Inscription, which has been dated to his reign on the basis of its script). At the same time a wall was built around the Pool of Siloam, into which the waters from the spring flowed (Isaiah 22:11) which was where all the spring waters were channeled. The wall surrounded the entire city, which bored up to Mount Zion. An impressive vestige of this structure is the broad wall in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. "When Hezekiah saw that Sennacherib had come, intent on making war against Jerusalem, he consulted with his officers and warriors about stopping the flow of the springs outside the city ... for otherwise, they thought, the King of Assyria would come and find water in abundance" (). The narrative in the Bible states (; ; ; ) that Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem. Death of Sennacherib says - "It came about as he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch his god, that Adrammelech and Sharezer killed him [Sennacherib] with the sword; and they escaped into the land of Ararat. And Esarhaddon his son became king in his place." The Bible does not say when this took place, but Assyrian records show that Sennacherib was assassinated by his sons, Adrammelech and Sharezer, in 681 BC - ie., twenty years after the invasion of Judah in 701 BC. J. D. Douglas, ed., New Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1965) 1160. He was succeeded by Esarhaddon as the Assyrian king. Hezekiah's illness and death The narrative of Hezekiah's sickness and miraculous recovery is found in , , . Various ambassadors came to congratulate him on his recovery, among them Merodach-baladan, the king of Babylon (; 2 Kings 20:12). Hezekiah is also remembered for giving too much information to Baladan, king of Babylon, for which he was confronted by Isaiah the prophet (). The Talmudic account states that Isaiah went to tell Hezekiah that he was going to die because he deliberately did not have children. This was on account of the fact that Hezekiah had seen prophetically that his child would be an idolator and therefore he preferred not to have children. Isaiah told him he was required to fulfil the biblical commandment of "be fruitful and multiply" and not outguess God about what the future would bring. Isaiah then suggested perhaps if his own daughter married Hezekiah in the merit of righteous parents their children would also be righteous. Bablyonian Talmud Berakhoth 10a Hezekiah agreed and Isaiah's daughter bore him Manasseh who was an idolator and later murdered his grandfather Isaiah. He repented in his later years after being taken to Babylon in captivity. According to Jewish tradition, The victory over the Assyrians and Hezekiah's return to health happened at the same time, the first night of Passover. Religious reforms King Hezekiah introduced substantial religious reforms, including: Hezekiah concentrated worship of Yahweh at Jerusalem, suppressing the shrines to him that had existed till then elsewhere in Judea (). He abolished idol worship which had resumed under his father's reign. He abolished the shrines and smashed the pillars and cut down the sacred post. () He also broke into pieces the bronze serpent which Moses had made, for until that time the Israelites had been offering sacrifices to it "(). He resumed the Passover pilgrimage and the tradition of inviting the scattered tribes of Israel to take part in a Passover festival (, 10, 13, 26). While the historicity of has been criticized, recovery of LMLK seals from the northwest territory of Israel (corresponding to ) may indicate that some sort of administrative relationship existed between Hezekiah and a minority of northern Israelites (see "An Administrative Center of the Iron Age in Nahal Tut" by Amir Gorzalczany ). These are incredibly important reforms, as they removed the polytheism of the past and in essence restored the notion of the one God, thereby preserving the foundation for the Abrahamic religions we know today. Richard Elliot Friedman Friedman, Richard Eliot (1997) "Who Wrote the Bible" (Harper) is of the belief that the P Source of the Bible was composed during the time of Hezekiah. P for instance “emphasizes centralization of religion: one centre, one altar, one Tabernacle, one place of sacrifice. Who was the king who began such centralization? King Hezekiah." But the books of Kings and Chronicles have lengthy passages attesting that there was effective centralization before him, in the days of David (; 15:3-16:6; 16:37,38; 23:2-26:32) and Solomon (; 6:1-7:51; 8:1-66; , 10). According to Friedman and others who follow the theorizing of Julius Wellhausen regarding the formation of Israel's religion, P is the work of Aaronid priesthood. They are the priests in authority at the central altar – not Moses, not Korah, nor any other Levites. Only those descended from Aaron can be priests. Friedman then goes on to say “P always speaks of two distinct groups, the priests and the Levites. Who was the king who formalized the divisions between priests and Levites? King Hezekiah." Chronicles reports explicitly: “Hezekiah assigned (Hebrew יעמד) the priests and Levites to divisions—each of them according to their duties as priests or Levites (2 Chronicles 32:1, NIV).” As was noted above, long sections in Kings and Chronicles attribute the original assignment of these courses to David and his son Solomon, so that Hezekiah was re-establishing, not creating, these divisions. But there is evidence from archaeology that Hezekiah did not centralize the religion. He allowed, and indeed built temples at Lachish and Arad, and allowed a high place to continue in operation at Beersheva. The statement of 2 Kings 18:4 that Hezekiah ”removed the high places (bamot), and broke down the pillars (massebot) and cut down the sacred poles (asherah)," is claimed by William G. Dever Dever, William G. (2005) "Did God have a wife? Archaeology and Folk Religion in Ancient Israel" (Eerdmans) to be "simply Deuteronomistic propaganda". Far from being a Canaanite goddess, the Kuntillet Arjud and Khirbet el-Qom both speak of Yahweh and his Asherah. According to these writers, the P source equally sought to establish the legitimacy of its approach by crediting in Chronicles their later reforms to Hezekiah, to out-trump their Shilohite enemies. This is shown by the fact that ostraca of the Arad temple at the time of Hezekiah not only that its maintenance was an official state cult, but that it was not under the control of the Aaronids at all. The ostraca mention the provisioning of the temple for the “sons of Korah” the descendent of Moses with “qodesh kohanim” holy objects of the priests. Aaronids were not exclusively the priests for Hezekiah as Chronicles claims – that came later with the victory of the Aaronites in the second temple period. Hezekiah like Josiah was following the Shilohite kohanim. Even Friedman acknowledges that the “Aaronid priesthood that produced P had opponents, Levites who saw Moses and not Aaron as their model. What was the most blatant reminder of Moses power that was visible in Judah? The bronze serpent 'Nehushtan'. According to tradition, stated explicitly in E, Moses had made it. It had the power to save people from snakebite. Who was the king who smashed the Nehushtan? Hezekiah.” However, there is indirect (admittedly weak) Biblical evidence that he did not. Ezra, the Aaronid priest, for instance, reports much later that even as late as the Exile there were images of serpents painted all over the walls of the inner chamber of the temple. Dever and others argue that in order to establish the sanctity of their view, the P Source writers had to show it was anchored in the actions of Hezekiah. Archaeological evidence Stamped bulla sealed by a servant of King Hezekiah, formerly pressed against a cord; unprovenanced Redondo Beach collection of antiquities A lintel inscription, found over the doorway of a tomb, has been ascribed to his comptroller Shebna. Seals Two distinct classes of seal impressions have been found in modern Israel relating to King Hezekiah: LMLK seals on storage jar handles, excavated from strata formed by Sennacherib's destruction as well as immediately above that layer suggesting they were used throughout his 29-year reign (Grena, 2004, p. 338) Bullae from sealed documents, some that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself (Grena, 2004, p. 26, Figs. 9 and 10) while others name his servants (ah-vah-deem in Hebrew, ayin-bet-dalet-yod-mem), all from the antiquities market and subject to authentication disputes (see Biblical archaeology) Siloam Inscription In the Siloam Tunnel we find the Siloam Inscription, which commemorates the meeting of the two teams, one the Assyrian's and the other the Israelites. This inscription depicts the battle that took place in Israel. Chronological issues There has been considerable academic debate about the actual dates of Hezekiah's reign. In an endeavor to synchronize the chronology of events referred to in the Bible with those derived from other sources, scholars have noted that the apparent inconsistencies are resolved by accepting the evidence that Hezekiah, like his predecessors for four generations in the kings of Judah, had a coregency with his father, and this coregency began in 729 BC. As an example of the reasoning that finds inconsistencies in calculations when coregencies are a priori ruled out, dates the fall of Samaria (the Northern Kingdom) to the 6th year of Hezekiah's reign. William F. Albright has dated the fall of the Kingdom of Israel to 721 BC, while E. R. Thiele calculates the date as 723 BC. Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (3rd ed.; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan/Kregel, 1983) pp. 134, 217. If Abright's or Thiele's dating are correct, then Hezekiah's reign would begin in either 729 or 727 BC. On the other hand, states that Sennacherib invaded Judah in the 14th year of Hezekiah's reign. Dating based on Assyrian records date this invasion to 701 BC, and Hezekiah's reign would therefore begin in 716/715 BC. Leslie McFall, “A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles,” Bibliotheca Sacra 148 (1991) p. 33. (Link) This dating would be confirmed by the account of Hezekiah's illness in chapter 20, which immediately follows Sennacherib's departure (). This would date his illness to Hezekiah's 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement (() that he will live fifteen more years (29-15=14). As shown below, these problems are all addressed by scholars who make reference to the ancient Near Eastern practice of coregency. Following the approach of Wellhausen, which Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen characterized as presupposition-based (no coregency, no consideration from archaeology of how ancient scribes measured the years), Kenneth Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids. MI: Eerdmans, 2003) p. 494. another set of calculations shows it is probable that Hezekiah did not ascend the throne before 722 BC. By Albright's calculations, Jehu's initial year is 842 BC; and between it and Samaria's destruction the Books of Kings give the total number of the years the kings of Israel ruled as 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number is 165. This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years (165-120), has been accounted for in various ways; but every one of those theories must allow that Hezekiah's first six years fell before 722 BC. (That Hezekiah began to reign before 722 BC, however, is entirely consistent with the principle that the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency began in 729 BC.) Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when called to the throne, although states he was twenty-five years of age. His father died at the age of thirty-six (); it is not likely that Ahaz at the age of eleven should have had a son. Hezekiah's own son Manasseh ascended the throne twenty-nine years later, at the age of twelve. This places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father's reign, or gives Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was twenty-five at his ascension. It is more probable that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (and suggesting an error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh. Coregency solution Since Albright and Friedman, several scholars have explained these dating problems on the basis of a coregency between Hezekiah and his father Ahaz between 729 and 716/715 BC. Assyriologists and Egyptologists recognize that coregency was a practice both in Assyria and Egypt, William J. Murnane, Ancient Egyptian Coregencies (Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1977). J. D. Douglas, ed., New Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1965) p. 1160. After noting that coregencies were only used sporadically in the northern kingdom (Israel), Nadav Na'aman writes, In the kingdom of Judah, on the other hand, the nomination of a co-regent was the common procedure, beginning from David who, before his death, elevated his son Solomon to the throne
When taking into account the permanent nature of the co-regency in Judah from the time of Joash, one may dare to conclude that dating the co-regencies accurately is indeed the key for solving the problems of biblical chronology in the eighth century B.C." Nadav Na'aman, "Historical and Chronological Notes on the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the Eighth Century B.C." Vetus Testamentum 36 (1986) p. 91. Among the numerous scholars who have recognized the coregency between Ahaz and Hezekiah are Kenneth Kitchen in his various writings, See Kitchen's chronology in New Bible Dictionary p. 220. Leslie McFall, Leslie McFall, "Translation Guide" p.42. and Jack Finegan. Jack Finegan, Handbook of Biblical Chronology (rev. ed.; Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1998) p. 246. McFall, in his 1991 article, argues that if 729 BC (that is, the Judean regnal year beginning in Tishri of 729) is taken as the start of the Ahaz/Hezekiah coregency, and 716/715 BC as the date of the death of Ahaz, then all the extensive chronological data for Hezekiah and his contemporaries in the late eighth century BC are in harmony. Further, McFall found that no textual emendations are required among the numerous dates, reign lengths, and synchronisms given in the Bible for this period, as can be seen by reading his "A Translation Guide to the Chronological Data in Kings and Chronicles." Leslie McFall, "Translation Guide" pp. 4-45 (Link). In contrast, those who do not accept the Ancient Near Eastern principle of coregencies require multiple emendations of the Scriptural text, and there is no general agreement on which texts should be emended, nor is there any consensus among these scholars on the resultant chronology for the eighth century BC. This is in contrast with the general consensus among those who accept the biblical and near Eastern practice of coregencies that Hezekiah was installed as coregent with his father Ahaz in 729 BC, and the synchronisms of 2 Kings 18 must be measured from that date, whereas the synchronisms to Sennacherib are measured from the sole reign starting in 716/715 BC. The two synchronisms to Hoshea of Israel in 2 Kings 18 are then in exact agreement with the dates of Hoshea's reign that can be determined from Assyrian sources, as is the date of Samaria's fall as stated in 2 Kings 18:10. An analogous situation of two ways of measurement, both equally valid, is encountered in the dates given for Jehoram of Israel, whose first year is synchronized to the 18th year of the sole reign of Jehoshaphat of Judah in 2 Kings 3:1 (853/852 BC), but his reign is also reckoned according to another method as starting in the second year of the coregency of Jehoshaphat and his son Jehoram of Judah (2 Kings 1:17); both methods refer to the same calendrical year. Scholars who accept the principle of coregencies note that abundant evidence for their use is found in the biblical material itself. Thiele, Mysterious Numbers chapter 3, "Coregencies and Rival Reigns." The agreement of scholarship built on these principles with both biblical and secular texts was such that the Thiele/McFall chronology was accepted as the best chronology for the kingdom period in Jack Finegan's encyclopedic Handbook of Biblical Chronology. Jack Finegan, Handbook of Biblical Chronology p. 246. Astronomical solution Still another date has been put forth as possible by astronomical calculations. 2 Kings 20:8-11 speaks obscurely about "the shadow" moving "ten degrees" during the above mentioned illness of Hezekiah (as does Isaiah 38:7f). Professor Aurel Ponori-Thewrewk, retired director of the planetarium of Budapest, Hungary, may have been the first scholar to offer an astronomical explanation for this passage; observing that new Bible translations use "the sundial of Ahaz," while other Bibles "the stairway of Ahaz," he states that the original Hebrew text says ma(c)alóth, the plural of ma(c)alah. Therefore, his conclusion is that it had a double meaning: while it refers to the steps over which the shadow has already passed, it may have meant the instrument (?) of Ahaz which had obviously contained more than ten units, and on which Hezekiah could observe the movement of the sun's shadow. But whatever was the original meaning of the Hebrew word, Ponori-Thewrewk says, the shadow had made an abnormal movement on it. He imagines a pole or gnomon that casts a shadow on a plane that is perpendicular to it. The shadow can move ahead for a while, then it can move backward on that plane. John D. Davis, Davis dictionary of the Bible (Baker Book House, 1975: 184) also asserts the possibility that 2 Kings 20:11 and Isaiah 38:8 may be explained by a solar eclipse, and the stairway of Ahaz may have been a sundial with a projecting gnomon to cast a shadow. The foretold backward position of the sun's shadow, could have been caused by an eclipse of the sun, probably on May 6, 724 BC. This eclipse took place between 6:09 and 8:24 a.m., its maximum was 64.3% at 7:15 a.m. This would then date Hezekiah's first year as king to 738 BC, and his last to 709 BC. It is possible that Isaiah (38: 7-8) had been informed beforehand by an astronomer, perhaps by one of Merodach-baladan's envoys, about the expected date of a solar eclipse on May 6, so Isaiah comforted the king on May 3. According to the latest NASA charts, however, the eclipse of May 6, 724 BC would not have been visible from Jerusalem. NASA chart at Legacy He is also one of the kings mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew. References Resources a fictionalized account of Hezekiah's rise to power, Book 1 in Austin's "Chronicles of the Kings" series External links King Hezekiah from Jerusalem Mosaic Hezekiah See all Bible verses pertaining to King Hezekiah The Reign Of Hezekiah by John F. Brug Sennacherib's Invasion of Hezekiah's Judah in 701 BC - by Craig C. 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1,058 | Kamikaze | USS Bunker Hill hit by kamikazes piloted by Ensign Kiyoshi Ogawa (see below) and another man on May 11, 1945. 372 personnel were killed from a crew of 2,600. Ensign Kiyoshi Ogawa posing before he killed himself in a kamikaze attack on the USS Bunker Hill (see above) on May 11, 1945. The () were suicide attacks by military aviators from the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, designed to destroy as many warships as possible. Kamikaze pilots would attempt to intentionally crash their aircraft – often laden with explosives, bombs, torpedoes and full fuel tanks – into Allied ships. The aircraft's normal functions, to deliver torpedoes or bombs or shoot down other aircraft, were put aside, and the planes were converted to what were essentially manned missiles, in a desperate attempt to reap the benefits of greatly increased accuracy and payload over that of normal bombs. The goal of crippling as many Allied capital ships as possible was considered critical enough to warrant the sacrifice of aviators and aircraft. These attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for Japan. At that time, Japan experienced a decreasing capacity to wage war, the loss of experienced pilots, and a rapidly declining industrial capacity relative to the United States. The Japanese government expressed its reluctance to surrender. In combination, these factors led to the use of kamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands. Although kamikaze was the most common and best-known form of Japanese suicide attack during World War II, they were similar to the "banzai charge" used by Japanese soldiers, and, in addition, the Japanese military used or made plans for various other suicide attacks, including those involving submarines, human torpedoes, speedboats and divers. The main difference between kamikaze and banzai is that suicide is essential to the success of a kamikaze attack, whereas a banzai charge is only suicidal, that is, the attackers hope to survive but do not expect to. The tradition of suicide instead of defeat, capture and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in the Japanese military culture. It was one of the main traditions in the Samurai life and the Bushido code: loyalty and honor until death. Definition and etymology A Japanese kamikaze aircraft explodes after crashing into Essex’s flight deck amidships 25 November 1944 Model 52c Zeroes ready to take part in a Kamikaze attack (early 1945). The Japanese word kamikaze (Japanese:神風) is usually translated as "divine wind" (kami is the word for "god", "spirit", or "divinity", and kaze for "wind"). The word kamikaze originated as the name of major typhoons in 1274 and 1281, which dispersed Mongolian invasion fleets. In Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying out suicide attacks during 1944-45 is tokubetsu kōgeki tai (特別攻撃隊), which literally means "special attack unit". This is usually abbreviated to tokkōtai (特攻隊). More specifically, air suicide attack units from the Imperial Japanese Navy were officially called shinpū tokubetsu kōgeki tai (神風特別攻撃隊, "divine wind special attack units"). Shinpū is the on-reading (on'yomi or Chinese-derived pronunciation) of the same characters that form the word kamikaze in Japanese. During World War II, the pronunciation kamikaze was used in Japan only informally in relation to suicide attacks, but after the war this usage gained acceptance worldwide and was re-imported into Japan. As a result, the special attack units are sometimes known in Japan as kamikaze tokubetsu kōgeki tai. Since the end of the war, the term kamikaze has sometimes been used as a pars pro toto for other kinds of attack in which an attacker is deliberately sacrificed. These include a variety of suicide attacks, in other historical contexts, such as the proposed use of Selbstopfer aircraft by Nazi Germany and various suicide bombings by terrorist organizations around the world (such as the September 11, 2001 attacks). In English, the word kamikaze may also be used in a hyperbolic or metaphorical fashion to refer to non-fatal actions which result in significant loss for the attacker, such as injury or the end of a career. History Background A D4Y3 (Type 33 Suisei) "Judy" in a suicide dive against the Essex. The dive brakes are extended and the non-self-sealing port wing tank is trailing fuel vapor and/or smoke. Prior to the formation of kamikaze units, deliberate crashes had been used as a last effort when a pilot’s plane was severely damaged and he did not want to risk being captured; this was the case in both the Japanese and Allied air forces. According to Axell & Kase, these suicides “were individual, impromptu decisions by men who were mentally prepared to die.” Axell, pp. 34, 40-41 In most cases, there is little evidence that these hits were more than accidental collisions, of the kind that sometimes happen in intense sea-air battles. One example of this occurred on December 7, 1941 during the attack on Pearl Harbor. First Lieutenant Fusata Iida’s plane had been hit and was leaking fuel, when he apparently used it to make a suicide attack on Kaneohe Naval Air Station. Before taking off, he had told his men that if his plane was badly damaged he would crash it into a "worthy enemy target". Axell, p.44 — A monument at the site of Iida’s crash reads: 'JAPANESE AIRCRAFT IMPACT SITE. PILOT-LIEUTENANT IIDA, COMMANDER, THIRD AIR CONTROL GROUP, DEC. 7 1941.’” During 1943-44, U.S forces were steadily advancing towards Japan. Japan's fighter planes were becoming outnumbered and outclassed by newer U.S.-made planes, especially the F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair. The Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS) was worn down by air battles against the Allies during the Solomons and New Guinea campaigns. Finally, in the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the Japanese lost over 400 carrier-based planes and pilots, an action referred to by the Allies as the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". Skilled fighter pilots were also becoming scarce. Tropical diseases, as well as shortages of spare parts and fuel, made operations more and more difficult for the IJNAS. On June 19, 1944, planes from the carrier Chiyoda approached a US task group. According to some accounts, two made suicide attacks, one of which hit the Indiana. Fighting Elites: Kamikaze: 9, 12 The important Japanese base of Saipan fell to the Allied forces on July 15, 1944. Its capture provided adequate forward bases which enabled U.S. air forces using the B-29 Superfortress to strike the Japanese home islands. After the fall of Saipan, the Japanese high command predicted that the Allies would try to capture the Philippines, which were strategically important because of their location between the oilfields of Southeast Asia and Japan. In August 1944, it was announced by the Domei news agency that a flight instructor named Takeo Tagata was training pilots in Taiwan for suicide missions. Axell, pp.40-41 Another source claims that the first kamikaze mission occurred on September 13, 1944. A group of pilots from the army's 31st Fighter Squadron on Negros Island decided to launch a suicide attack the following morning. Toland, p.568 First Lieutenant Takeshi Kosai and a sergeant were selected. Two 100-kilogram bombs were attached to two fighters, and the pilots took off before dawn, planning to crash into carriers. They never returned, and there is no record of an enemy plane hitting an Allied ship that day. According to some sources, on October 14, 1944, Reno was hit by a deliberately-crashed Japanese plane. ww2pacific.com, 2004, "World War II in the Pacific: Japanese Suicide Attacks at Sea". Access date: August 1, 2007. However, there is no evidence that this was a deliberate attack. Captain Masafumi Arima, the commander of the 26th Air Flotilla (part of the 11th Air Fleet), is also sometimes credited with inventing the kamikaze tactic. Arima personally led an attack by about 100 Yokosuka D4Y Suisei ("Judy") dive bombers against a large Essex class aircraft carrier, Franklin near Leyte Gulf, on (or about, accounts vary) October 15, 1944. Arima was killed and part of a plane hit the Franklin. The Japanese high command and propagandists seized on Arima's example: he was promoted posthumously to Admiral and was given official credit for making the first kamikaze attack. However, it is not clear that this was a planned suicide attack, Bill Gordon, 2005, "(Review of) No Surrender: German and Japanese Kamikazes" Access date: August 1, 2007 and official Japanese accounts of Arima's attack bore little resemblance to the actual events. On October 17, 1944, Allied forces assaulted Suluan Island, beginning the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The Imperial Japanese Navy's 1st Air Fleet, based at Manila, was assigned the task of assisting the Japanese ships which would attempt to destroy Allied forces in Leyte Gulf. However, the 1st Air Fleet at that time only had 40 aircraft: 34 Mitsubishi Zero carrier-based fighters, three Nakajima B6N Tenzan ("Jill") torpedo bombers, one Mitsubishi G4M ("Betty") and two Yokosuka P1Y Ginga ("Frances") land-based bombers, and one additional reconnaissance plane. The task facing the Japanese air forces seemed impossible. The 1st Air Fleet commandant, Vice Admiral Takijiro Onishi decided to form a suicide attack force, the Special Attack Unit. In a meeting at Mabalacat Airfield (known to the U.S. military as Clark Air Base) near Manila, on October 19, Onishi told officers of the 201st Flying Group headquarters: "I don't think there would be any other certain way to carry out the operation [to hold the Philippines], than to put a 250 kg bomb on a Zero and let it crash into a U.S. carrier, in order to disable her for a week." First kamikaze unit Commander Asaiki Tamai asked a group of 23 talented student pilots, all of whom he had trained, to volunteer for the special attack force. All of the pilots raised both of their hands, volunteering to join the operation. Later, Tamai asked Lieutenant Yukio Seki to command the special attack force. Seki is said to have closed his eyes, lowered his head and thought for ten seconds, before saying: "Please do appoint me to the post." Seki became the 24th kamikaze pilot to be chosen. However, Seki later wrote: "Japan's future is bleak if it is forced to kill one of its best pilots. I am not going on this mission for the Emperor or for the Empire... I am going because I was ordered to!" During his flight, his commanders heard him say "It is better to die, rather than to live as a coward." Axell, p.16 The names of four sub-units within the Kamikaze Special Attack Force were Unit Shikishima, Unit Yamato, Unit Asahi, and Unit Yamazakura. These names were taken from a patriotic poem (waka or tanka), Shikishima no Yamato-gokoro wo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana by the Japanese classical scholar, Motoori Norinaga. The poem reads: A less literal translation "Motoori Norinaga: A scholar-physician who loved cherry blossoms", THE EAST, Vol. XXVI No, 1 is: Leyte Gulf: the first attacks Starboard horizontal stabilizer from the tail of a "Judy" on the deck of Kitkun Bay. The Judy made a run on the ship approaching from dead astern, it was met by effective fire and the plane passed over the island and exploded. Parts of the plane and the pilot were scattered over the flight deck and the forecastle. According to eyewitness accounts, the first Allied ship to be hit by a kamikaze attack was the flagship of the Royal Australian Navy, the heavy cruiser Australia, on October 21, 1944. ww2australia.gov.au, 2006, "kamikaze". Access date: September 16, 2007. The attack appears to have been spontaneous and was carried out by an unknown pilot who was not a member of Onishi's Special Attack Unit. The pilot was most likely an Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF) aviator from the 6th Flying Brigade, in a Mitsubishi Ki-51 ("Sonia"). Richard L. Dunn, 2002-05, "First Kamikaze? Attack on HMAS Australia — October 21, 1944" (j-aircraft.com). Access date: June 20, 2007. If the pilot was from the 6th Flying Brigade, it was probably either Lieutenant Morita or Sergeant Itano, flying out of San Jose, Mindoro. The attack took place near Leyte Island; gunners from Australia and her sister ship Shropshire fired at, and reportedly hit, three Japanese aircraft. One flew away from the ships before turning back and flying into Australia, striking the ship's superstructure above the bridge, and spraying burning fuel and debris over a large area, before falling into the sea. At least 30 crew members died as a result of the attack, including the commanding officer of Australia, Captain Emile Dechaineux; among the wounded was Commodore John Collins, the Australian force commander. A 200 kg (440 pound) bomb carried by the plane failed to explode. On October 24, the Sonoma, a 1,120 ton ocean tug became the first ship to be sunk by a kamikaze, Bill Gordon, 2007, "49 Ships Sunk by Kamikaze Aircraft" Access date: September 15, 2007. off Dio Island, in San Pedro Bay, Leyte Gulf. Australia was hit again on October 25 and was forced to retire to the New Hebrides for repairs. That same day, the Kamikaze Special Attack Force carried out its first mission. Five Zeros, led by Seki, and escorted to the target by leading Japanese ace Hiroyoshi Nishizawa, attacked several escort carriers. One Zero attempted to hit the bridge of the Kitkun Bay but instead exploded on the port catwalk and cartwheeled into the sea. Two others dove at Fanshaw Bay but were destroyed by anti-aircraft fire. The last two ran at the White Plains. One, under heavy fire and trailing smoke, aborted the attempt on the White Plains and instead banked toward the St. Lo, plowing into the flight deck. Its bomb caused fires that resulted in the bomb magazine exploding, sinking the carrier. Toland, p.567 By day's end on October 26, 55 kamikaze from the special attack force had also damaged the large escort carriers Sangamon, Suwannee, Santee, and the smaller escorts White Plains, Kalinin Bay, and Kitkun Bay. In total seven carriers had been hit, as well as 40 other ships (five sunk, 23 heavily damaged, and 12 moderately damaged). The bridge and forward turrets of the County class heavy cruiser Australia, in September 1944. The officer facing right is Captain Emile Dechaineux, killed by the first kamikaze to hit an Allied ship, on October 21, 1944. Australia returned to combat at the Invasion of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945. However, between January 5 and January 9, the ship was hit five times by kamikazes, suffering damage which forced it to retire once more. ww2australia.gov.au, 2006, "kamikaze". Access date: September 16, 2007. The ship lost about 70 crew members to kamikaze hits. Other Allied ships which survived repeated hits from kamikazes during World War II included the Franklin and another Essex class carrier, Intrepid. Main wave of attacks Early successes, such as the sinking of the St. Lo were followed by an immediate expansion of the program, and over the next few months over 2,000 planes made such attacks. When Japan began to be subject to intense strategic bombing by B-29s, the Japanese military attempted to use suicide attacks against this threat. During the northern hemisphere winter of 1944-45, the IJAAF formed the 47th Air Regiment, also known as the Shinten Special Unit (Shinten Seiku Ta) at Narimasu Airfield, Nerima, Tokyo, to defend the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. The unit was equipped with Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki ("Tojo") fighters, with which they were to ram United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-29s in their attacks on Japan. However, this proved much less successful and practical since an airplane is a much faster, more maneuverable, and smaller target than a warship. The B-29 also had formidable defensive weaponry, so suicide attacks against the plane demanded considerable piloting skill to be successful. That worked against the very purpose of using expendable pilots and even encouraging capable pilots to bail out before impact was ineffective because vital personnel were often lost when they mistimed when to exit and were killed as a result. Columbia is attacked by a kamikaze off Lingayen Gulf, January 6, 1945. The kamikaze hits Columbia at 17:29. The plane and its bomb penetrated two decks before exploding, killing 13 and wounding 44. Sub-Lieutenant Nakano, Petty Officer Shihara, PO Goto and PO Taniushi carried out the last kamikaze operation from the Philippines on January 6, 1945, from Mabalacat. However, kamikaze attacks were being planned at far-flung Japanese bases. On January 8, Onishi formed a second official naval kamikaze unit, in Formosa. The unit, Niitaka used Zeroes and "Judys", and was based at Takao Airfield. On January 29, 1945, seven Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lilys" from the Japanese Army Shichisi Mitate Special group, took off from Palembang, Sumatra to strike the British Pacific Fleet. Vice Admiral Kimpei Teraoka and Captain Riishi Sugiyama of the 601st Air Group organized another second special unit, Mitate at Iwo Jima on February 16, as a U.S. invasion force approached. On March 11, the U.S. carrier Randolph was hit and moderately damaged at Ulithi Atoll, in the Caroline Islands, by a kamikaze that had flown almost 2,500 miles (4,000 km) from Japan, in a mission called Operation Tan No. 2. On March 20, the submarine Devilfish survived a hit from an aircraft, just off Japan. Purpose-built kamikaze planes, as opposed to converted fighters and dive-bombers, were also being constructed. Ensign Mitsuo Ohta had suggested that piloted glider bombs, carried within range of targets by a mother plane, should be developed. The First Naval Air Technical Bureau (Kugisho), in Yokosuka, refined Ohta's idea. Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka rocket planes, launched from bombers, were first deployed in kamikaze attacks from March 1945. U.S. personnel gave them the derisive nickname "Baka Bombs" (baka is Japanese for "idiot" or "stupid"). A specially-designed propeller plane, the Nakajima Ki-115 Tsurugi, was a simple, easily-built aircraft, intended to use up existing stocks of engines, in a wooden airframe. The undercarriage was non-retractable: it was jettisoned shortly after take-off for a suicide mission and then re-used on other planes. During 1945, the Japanese military began stockpiling hundreds of Tsurugi, other propeller planes, Ohka, and suicide boats, for use against Allied forces expected to invade Japan. Few were ever used. Allied defensive tactics In early 1945, Commander John Thach, a U.S. Navy air operations officer, who was already famous for developing effective aerial tactics against the Japanese such as the Thach Weave, developed an anti-kamikaze strategy called the "big blue blanket". Bill Coombes, 1995, "Divine Wind The Japanese secret weapon – kamikaze suicide attacks" This plan called for round-the-clock fighter patrols over Allied fleets. However, the U.S. Navy had cut back training of fighter pilots, so there were not enough Navy pilots available to counter the kamikaze threat. Thach also recommended larger combat air patrols (CAP), further from the carriers than had previously been the case, intensive fighter sweeps over Japanese airfields, the bombing of Japanese runways with delayed action fuses to make repairs more difficult, a line of picket destroyers and destroyer escorts at least 50 miles (80 km) from the main body of the fleet to provide earlier radar interception, and improved coordination between fighter direction officers on carriers. A Mitsubishi Zero (A6M5 Model 52) towards the end of its run at the escort carrier White Plains on October 25, 1944. The aircraft exploded in mid-air, moments after the picture was taken, scattering debris across the deck. Late in 1944, the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) used the good high altitude performance of their Supermarine Seafires on combat air patrol duties. Seafires were heavily involved in countering the kamikaze attacks during the Iwo Jima landings and beyond. The Seafires' best day was August 15, 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft for a single loss. As the end of the war approached, the Allies did not suffer significantly more damage, despite having far more ships and being attacked in far greater density. Poor training tended to make kamikaze pilots easy targets for experienced Allied pilots, who also flew superior aircraft. The U.S. Fast Carrier Task Force alone could bring over 1,000 fighter aircraft into play. Allied pilots became adept at destroying enemy aircraft before they struck ships. Allied naval crews had begun to develop techniques to negate kamikaze attacks, such as firing their high-caliber guns into the sea in front of attacking planes flying near sea level, in order to create walls of water which would swamp the attacking planes. Although such tactics could not be used against Okhas and other fast, high angle attacks, these were in turn more vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire. In 1945 large amounts of anti-aircraft shells with radio frequency proximity fuzes became available, these were on average seven times more effective than regular shells. Final phase Puffs of smoke left by anti-aircraft shells and the splashes left by cannon and machine-gun rounds detail the desperate few seconds of a vain struggle, as the Louisville is struck by a kamikaze at the Battle of Lingayen Gulf, January 1945. The peak in kamikaze attacks came during the period of April-June 1945, at the Battle of Okinawa. On April 6, 1945, waves of planes made hundreds of attacks in Operation Kikusui ("floating chrysanthemums"). Kennedy, Maxwell Taylor Danger's Hour, The Story of the USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot who Crippled Her, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2008 ISBN 9780743260800 At Okinawa, kamikaze attacks focused at first on Allied destroyers on picket duty, and then on the carriers in the middle of the fleet. Suicide attacks by planes or boats at Okinawa sank or put out of action at least 30 U.S. warships, Naval Historical Center, 2004, Casualties: U.S. Navy and Coast Guard Vessels, Sunk or Damaged Beyond Repair during World War II, December 7, 1941-October 1, 1945 (U.S. Navy) Access date: December 1, 2007. and at least three U.S. merchant ships, American Merchant Marine at War (website), 2006, "Chronological List of U.S. Ships Sunk or Damaged during 1945" Access date: December 1, 2007. along with some from other Allied forces. The attacks expended 1,465 planes. Many warships of all classes were damaged, some severely, but no aircraft carriers, battleships or cruisers were sunk by kamikaze at Okinawa. Most of the ships destroyed were destroyers or smaller vessels, especially those on picket duty. U.S. carriers, with their wooden flight decks, were more vulnerable to kamikaze hits than the reinforced steel-decked carriers from the British Pacific Fleet which operated in the theatre during 1945. The resilience of well-armoured vessels was shown on May 4. Just after 11:30, there was a wave of attacks against the BPF. One Japanese plane made a steep dive from "a great height" at the carrier Formidable and was engaged by AA guns. Sydney David Waters, 1956, The Royal New Zealand Navy, Historical Publications Branch, Wellington. p.383-4 Access date: December 1, 2007. The kamikaze was hit at close range but crashed into the flight deck, making a massive dent about 10 feet (three meters) long, two feet (0.6 m) wide and two feet deep in the armoured flight deck. A large steel splinter speared down through the hangar deck and the centre boiler-room, where it ruptured a steam line and came to rest in a fuel tank, starting a major fire in the aircraft park. Eight crew members were killed and 47 were wounded. One F4U Corsair and 10 Avengers were destroyed. However, the fires were gradually brought under control, and the crater in the deck was repaired with concrete and steel plate. By 17:00, Corsairs were able to land. On May 9, Formidable was again damaged by a kamikaze, as was the carrier Victorious and the battleship Howe. Sometimes twin-engined aircraft were used in planned kamikaze attacks. For example, Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiryū ("Peggy") medium bombers, based on Formosa, undertook kamikaze attacks on Allied forces off Okinawa. Rear Admiral Matome Ugaki, the second in command of the Combined Pacific Fleet, directed the last official kamikaze attack, sending some "Judy"s from the 701st Air Group against the Allied fleet at Okinawa on August 15, 1945. Effects |A crewman in an AA gun aboard the battleship New Jersey watches a kamikaze plane descend upon Intrepid 25 November 1944 By the end of World War II, the IJN had sacrificed 2,525 kamikaze pilots, and the IJAAF 1,387. The number of ships sunk is a matter of debate. According to a wartime Japanese propaganda announcement, the missions sank 81 ships and damaged 195, and according to a Japanese tally, suicide attacks accounted for up to 80 percent of the U.S. losses in the final phase of the war in the Pacific. In a 2004 book, World War II, the historians Wilmott, Cross & Messenger stated that more than 70 U.S. vessels were "sunk or damaged beyond repair" by kamikazes. According to a U.S. Air Force webpage: Approximately 2,800 Kamikaze attackers sunk 34 Navy ships, damaged 368 others, killed 4,900 sailors, and wounded over 4,800. Despite radar detection and cuing, airborne interception and attrition, and massive anti-aircraft barrages, a distressing 14 percent of Kamikazes survived to score a hit on a ship; nearly 8.5 percent of all ships hit by Kamikazes sank. Dr Richard P. Hallion, 1999, "Precision Weapons, Power Projection, and The Revolution In Military Affairs" (USAF Historical Studies Office). Access date: September 15, 2007. Australian journalists Denis and Peggy Warner, in a 1982 book with Japanese naval historian Seno Sadao (The Sacred Warriors: Japan’s Suicide Legions), arrived at a total of 57 ships sunk by kamikazes. However, Bill Gordon, a US Japanologist who specialises in kamikazes, states in a 2007 article that 49 ships were sunk by kamikaze aircraft. Bill Gordon, 2007, "49 Ships Sunk by Kamikaze Aircraft" Access date: September 15, 2007. Gordon says that the Warners and Sadao included eight ships that did not sink. His list consists of: three escort carriers: St. Lo, Ommaney Bay, Bismarck Sea 14 destroyers, including the last ship to be sunk, Callaghan on July 29, 1945, off Okinawa three high-speed transport ships five Landing Ship, Tank four Landing Ship Medium three Landing Ship Medium (Rocket) one auxiliary tanker three Canadian Victory ships three Liberty ships two high-speed minesweepers one Auk class minesweeper one tugboat, Sonoma, the first ship to be sunk, on October 24, 1944, off Leyte one submarine chaser two PT boats two Landing Craft Support one Landing Craft Infantry (Large) Recruitment The establishment of kamikaze forces required recruiting men for the task; this proved easier than the commanders had expected. Qualifications were simple: "youth, alertness and zeal. Flight experience was of minimal importance and expertise in landing a luxury". Captain Motoharu Okamura commented that "there were so many volunteers for suicide missions that he referred to them as a swarm of bees," explaining: "Bees die after they have stung." Axell, p.35 When the volunteers arrived for duty in the corps there were twice as many persons as aircraft. "After the war, some commanders would express regret for allowing superfluous crews to accompany sorties, sometimes squeezing themselves aboard bombers and fighters so as to encourage the suicide pilots and, it seems, join in the exultation of sinking a large enemy vessel." Many of the Kamikaze believed their death would pay the debt they owed and show the love they had for their families, friends, and emperor. "So eager were many minimally trained pilots to take part in suicide missions that when their sorties were delayed or aborted, the pilots became deeply despondent. Many of those who were selected for a bodycrashing mission were described as being extraordinarily blissful immediately before their final sortie." Axell, p.40 Training Tokkōtai pilot training, as described by Kasuga Takeo, generally "consisted of incredibly strenuous training, coupled with cruel and torturous corporal punishment as a daily routine." Irokawa Daikichi, who trained at Tsuchiura Naval Air Base, recalled that he "was struck on the face so hard and frequently that [his] face was no longer recognizable." He also wrote: "I was hit so hard that I could no longer see and fell on the floor. The minute I got up, I was hit again by a club so that I would confess." This brutal "training" was justified by the idea that it would instill a "soldier's fighting spirit." However, daily beatings and corporal punishment eliminated patriotism among many pilots. Ohnuki-Tierney Pilots were given a manual which detailed how they were supposed to think, prepare, and attack. From this manual, pilots were told to "attain a high level of spiritual training," and to "keep [their] health in the very best condition." These things, among others, were meant to put the pilot into the mindset in which he would be mentally ready to die. The tokkōtai pilot's manual also explained how a pilot may turn back if the pilot could not locate a target and that "[a pilot] should not waste [his] life lightly." However, one pilot who continually came back to base was shot after his ninth return. Ohnuki-Tierney The manual was very detailed in how a pilot should attack. A pilot would dive towards his target and "aim for a point between the bridge tower and the smoke stacks". Entering a smoke stack was also said to be "effective". Pilots were told not to aim at a ship's bridge tower or gun turret but instead to look for elevators or the flight deck to crash into. For horizontal attacks, the pilot was to "aim at the middle of the vessel, slightly higher than the waterline" or to "aim at the entrance to the aircraft hangar, or the bottom of the stack" if the former was too difficult. The tokkōtai pilot's manual told pilots never to close their eyes. This was because if a pilot closed his eyes he would lower the chances of hitting his target. In the final moments before the crash, the pilot was to yell "Hissatsu" at the top of his lungs which roughly translates to "Sink without fail". http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/619508.html, accessed April 20, 2007 http://warbirdforum.com/tokko.htm, accessed April 20, 2007 Cultural background May 26, 1945. Corporal Yukio Araki, holding a puppy, with four other pilots of the 72nd Shinbu Squadron at Bansei, Kagoshima. Araki died the following day, at age 17, in a suicide attack on ships near Okinawa. In 1944-45, the Japanese were heavily influenced by Shinto beliefs. Among other things, Emperor worship was stressed after Shinto was established as a state religion during the Meiji Restoration. As time went on, Shinto was used increasingly in the promotion of nationalist sentiment. In 1890, the Imperial Rescript on Education was passed, under which students were required to ritually recite its oath to offer themselves "courageously to the State" as well as protect the Imperial family. The ultimate offering was to give up one’s life. It was an honor to die for Japan and the Emperor. Axell and Kase pointed out: "The fact is that innumerable soldiers, sailors and pilots were determined to die, to become eirei, that is ‘guardian spirits’ of the country. [...] Many Japanese felt that to be enshrined at Yasukuni was a special honour because the Emperor twice a year visited the shrine to pay homage. Yasukuni is the only shrine, deifying common men, which the Emperor would visit to pay his respects". Axell, p.35 Young Japanese people were indoctrinated from an earliest age with these ideals. Following the commencement of the kamikaze tactic, newspapers and books ran advertisements, articles, and stories regarding the suicide bombers, to aid in recruiting and support. In October 1944, the Nippon Times quoted Lieutenant Sekio Nishina: "The spirit of the Special Attack Corps is the great spirit that runs in the blood of every Japanese…. The crashing action which simultaneously kills the enemy and oneself without fail is called the Special Attack…. Every Japanese is capable of becoming a member of the Special Attack Corps". Axell, p.36 Publishers also played up the idea that the kamikaze were enshrined at Yasukuni and ran exaggerated stories of kamikaze bravery – there were even fairy tales for little children that promoted the kamikaze. A Foreign Office official named Toshikazu Kase said: "It was customary for GHQ [in Tokyo] to make false announcements of victory in utter disregard of facts, and for the elated and complacent public to believe them". Axell, pp.38, 41, 43 While many stories were falsified, some were true, such as the story of Kiyu Ishikawa who saved a Japanese ship when he crashed his plane into a torpedo that an American submarine had launched. The sergeant major was posthumously promoted to second lieutenant by the emperor and was enshrined at Yasukuni. Axell, p.41 Stories like these, which showed the kind of praise and honor death produced, encouraged young Japanese to volunteer for the Special Attack Corps and instilled a desire in the youth to die as a kamikaze. Ceremonies were carried out before kamikaze pilots departed on their final mission. They were given the flag of Japan or the rising sun flag (Japanese naval ensign), inscribed with inspirational and spiritual words, Nambu pistol or katana and drank sake before they took off generally. They put on a headband with the rising sun, and a senninbari, a "belt of a thousand stitches" sewn by a thousand women who made one stitch each. Hobbes They also composed and read a death poem, a tradition stemming from the samurai, who did it before committing seppuku. Pilots carried prayers from their families and were given military decorations. Chiran high school girls wave farewell with cherry blossom branches to departing kamikaze pilot in a Ki-43-II Hayabusa. While commonly perceived that volunteers signed up in droves for Kamikaze missions, it has also been contended that there was extensive coercion and peer pressure involved in recruiting soldiers for the sacrifice. Their motivations in "volunteering" were complex and not simply about patriotism or bringing honour to their families. And at least one of these pilots was a conscripted Korean with a Japanese name, adopted under the pre-war Soshi-kaimei ordinance that compelled Koreans to take Japanese personal names. The Hindu : International : A "Japanese hero" goes home Out of the 1,036 IJA kamikaze pilots who died in sorties from Chiran and other Japanese air bases, during the Battle of Okinawa, 11 were Koreans. In a 2001 Japanese movie, Hotaru ("Firefly") directed by Yasuo Furuhata, one character named "Kanayama", is a Korean kamikaze pilot. Kanayama is a composite of two actual kamikaze pilots, Second Lieutenant Fumihiro Mitsuyama and Sergeant Saburo Miyakawa (Bill Gordon, 2007, "Hotaru (Firefly)" (Review). Access date: September 15, 2007. Akabane and Ishii 2001, 130-9; Asahi Shimbun Seibu Honsha 1990, 15-6 According to legend, young pilots on kamikaze missions often flew southwest from Japan over the 922 metre (3,025 ft) Mount Kaimon. The mountain is also called "Satsuma Fuji" (meaning a mountain like Mount Fuji but located in the Satsuma Province region). Suicide mission pilots looked over their shoulders to see this, the most southern mountain on the Japanese mainland, while they were in the air, said farewell to their country, and saluted the mountain. Residents on Kikaijima island, east of Amami Ōshima, say that pilots from suicide mission units dropped flowers from the air as they departed on their final missions. According to legend, the hills above Kikaijima airport have beds of cornflower that bloom in early May. Jiro Kosaka, 1995, Kyō ware Ikiteari With the passing of time, some prominent Japanese military figures who survived the war became critical of the policy. Saburo Sakai, an IJN ace said: "A kamikaze is a surprise attack, according to our ancient war tactics. Surprise attacks will be successful the first time, maybe two or three times. But what fool would continue the same attacks for ten months? Emperor Hirohito must have realized it. He should have said 'Stop.'"Even now, many faces of my students come up when I close my eyes. So many students are gone. Why did headquarters continue such silly attacks for ten months! Fools! Genda, who went to America — all those men lied that all men volunteered for kamikaze units. They lied." In 2006, Watanabe Tsuneo, Editor-in-Chief of the Yomiuri Shimbun, criticized Japanese nationalists' glorification of kamikaze attacks: New York Times, THE SATURDAY PROFILE; Shadow Shogun Steps Into Light, to Change Japan. Published: February 11, 2006. accessed February 15, 2007 International Herald Tribune, Publisher dismayed by Japanese nationalism. Published: February 10, 2006. accessed March 11, 2007 "It's all a lie that they left filled with braveness and joy, crying, 'Long live the emperor!' They were sheep at a slaughterhouse. Everybody was looking down and tottering. Some were unable to stand up and were carried and pushed into the plane by maintenance soldiers." Quotations See also Banzai charge Bushidō Giretsu Living torpedoes Ramming Suicide weapon "Umi yukaba" Vehicle explosion References Notes Bibliography Mahon, John K. (May 1959). The Pacific Historical Review. Vol. 28, No. 2. Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. (2006). Kamikaze Diaries: Reflections of Japanese Student Soldiers. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226619507 Further reading External links Kamikaze Images – Explores different Western and Japanese portrayals and perceptions of kamikaze pilots. Personal website of Mr Nobu Dayofthekamikaze.com An ex-kamikaze pilot creates a new world "Gyokusai" "Who became Kamikaze Pilots..." www.tokkotai.or.jp "The kamikaze pilot who chose life before empire" Excerpt from Kamikaze Diaries The End of Kamikaze'' (Japanese) Day of the Kamikaze, Smithsonian Networks "Ascent of the Fireflies", TIME about Tome Torihama called "Kamikaze Mom" TOEI movie "I will die only for you above all" (Orewa Kimi no tamenikoso Shiniyuku / 俺は、君のためにこそ死ににいく) about Tome Torihama ("Kamikaze Mom"), the Chiran high school girls and young Army kamikaze pilots flying Ki-43 Hayabusa fighters, DVD (2007) WW2DB: Kamikaze Doctrine | Kamikaze |@lemmatized uss:3 bunker:3 hill:4 hit:26 kamikaze:102 pilot:66 ensign:4 kiyoshi:2 ogawa:2 see:5 another:4 man:2 may:9 personnel:3 kill:10 crew:6 posing:1 attack:79 suicide:35 military:10 aviator:3 empire:3 japan:20 allied:19 naval:9 vessel:7 closing:1 stage:1 pacific:8 campaign:2 world:10 war:18 ii:9 design:2 destroy:6 many:13 warship:4 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1,059 | Alp_Arslan | Alp Arslan (1029 – December 15, 1072) was the second sultan of the Seljuk dynasty and great-grandson of Seljuk, the eponym of the dynasty. He assumed the name of Muhammad bin Da'ud Chaghri when he embraced Islam, and for his military prowess, personal valour, and fighting skills he obtained the surname Alp Arslan, which means "a valiant lion" in Turkish. Career Alp Arslan led Seljuk Turks to victory against the Byzantines in 1071. He succeeded his father Chagri Begh as governor of Khorasan in 1059. When his uncle Toğrül died he was succeeded by Suleiman, Alp Arslan's brother. Alp Arslan and his uncle Kutalmish both contested this succession. Alp Arslan defeated Kutalmish for the throne and succeeded on April 27, 1064 as sultan of Great Seljuk, and thus became sole monarch of Persia from the river Oxus to the Tigris. In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizam ul-Mulk, his Persian vizier, and one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history. With peace and security established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son Malik Shah I his heir and successor. With the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of St. Basil in Caesarea Mazaca, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the Euphrates and entered and plundered that city. He then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which he conquered in 1064. Byzantine struggle Battle of Manzikert In 1068, en route to Syria, Alp Arslan invaded the Byzantine Empire. The emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenos (great-uncle of Emperor Manuel Comnenos), the Turks were defeated in detail in 1070 and driven across the Euphrates. In 1071 Romanos again took the field and advanced with 40,000 men, including a contingent of the Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel of Bahol, into Armenia. At Manzikert, on the Murad Tchai, north of Lake Van, Diogenes was met by Alp Arslan. The sultan proposed terms of peace, which were rejected by the emperor, and the two forces met in the Battle of Manzikert. The Cuman mercenaries among the Byzantine forces immediately defected to the Turkish side; and, seeing this, "the Western mercenaries rode off and took no part in the battle." The First Crusade, Steve Runciman, Cambridge University Press, 1992 The Byzantines were totally routed. Emperor Romanos IV was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, and, terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. This famous conversation is recorded to have taken place after Romanos was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan: Alp Arslan: "What would you do if I was brought before you as a prisoner?" Romanos: "Perhaps I'd kill you, or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople." Alp Arslan: "My punishment is far heavier. I forgive you, and set you free." Alp Arslan's victories changed the balance in near Asia completely in favour of the Seljuk Turks and Sunni Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and the Crusades would contest the issue for some time, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkish ascendancy in Anatolia. Most historians, including Edward Gibbon, date the defeat at Manzikert as the beginning of the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. Certainly the entry of Turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in Anatolia which had furnished the Empire with men and treasure. State organization Alp Arslan humiliating Emperor Romanos IV. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of Boccacio's ''De Casibus Virorum Illustrium. Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm. Domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military fiefs, governed by Seljuk princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Persian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary Persians and other established cultures within the Seljuk realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army, without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars. Suleiman ibn Kutalmish was the son of the contender for Arslan's throne; he was appointed governor of the north-western provinces. An explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from Ibn al-Athir’s account of the battle between Alp-Arslan and Kutalmish, in which he writes that Alp-Arslan wept for the latter's death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman. Death The dominion of Alp Arslan after Manzikert extended over much of western Asia. He soon prepared to march to the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yussuf el-Harezmi, a Khwarezmian. He was, however, obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to a cruel death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan, who took great pride in his reputation as the foremost archer of his time, motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. Alp Arslan died four days later from this wound on November 25, 1072 in his 42nd year, and was taken to Merv to be buried next to his father Çağrı Bey. Upon his tomb lies the following inscription: “O those who saw the sky-high grandeur of Alp Arslan, behold! He is under the black soil now...” As he lay dying, Alp Arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him. "Alas," he is recorded to have said, "surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause, guarded night and day by them, I should have allowed them to do their job. I had been warned against trying to protect myself, and against letting my courage get in the way of my good sense. I forgot those warnings, and here I lie, dying in agony. Remember well the lessons learned, and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense..." Legacy Alp Arslan's conquest of Anatolia from the Byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the crusades. From 2002 to July 2008 under Turkmen calendar reform, the month of August was named after Alp Arslan. Both Alp and Alparslan (concatenated version of Alp Arslan) are among most loved and used Turkish names in Turkey. 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1,060 | Amiga_500 | The Amiga 500, also known as the A500, was the first “low-end” Commodore Amiga 16/32-bit multimedia home/personal computer. It was announced at the winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1987, at the same time as the high-end Amiga 2000, and competed directly against the Atari 520ST. The A500 was released in mid 1987 at the price of 595.95 USD without monitor. The original A500 proved to be Commodore’s best-selling Amiga model, enjoying particular success in Europe. Commodore-Amiga Sales Figures Although popular with hobbyists, arguably its most widespread use was as a gaming machine, where its advanced graphics and sound for the time were of significant benefit. Releases In October 1989, the A500 was bundled with the Batman Pack, which was sold in the United Kingdom. A500 Batman Bundle In late 1991, an enhanced model known as the A500 Plus replaced the standard A500 in some markets, the Amiga 500+ was bundled with the Cartoon Classics pack in the United Kingdom . The A500 series was discontinued altogether in mid-1992. The similarly-specified and priced Amiga 600 was marketed as its replacement, although this new machine had originally been intended as a much cheaper budget model, the A300. In late 1992, Commodore released the “next-generation” Amiga 1200, a machine closer in concept to the original A500, but featuring significant technical improvements. Despite this, neither the A1200 nor the A600 replicated the commercial success of its predecessor as, by this time, the market was definitively shifting from the home computer platforms of the past to commodity Wintel PCs and the new low-cost Macintosh LC and IIsi models. Technical description Like its predecessor, the Amiga 500 uses a Motorola 68000 microprocessor running at 7.15909 MHz in the NTSC version or 7.09379 MHz in the PAL version. While the 68000 is a 32-bit chip internally, it has a 16-bit data bus and 24-bit address bus, providing a maximum of 16 MB address space. Also like the Amiga 1000, the 500 uses the OCS chipset. Graphics can be of arbitrary dimensions, resolution and colour depth, even on the same screen. Without using overscan, the graphics can be 320 or 640 pixels wide by 200 (NTSC standard) /256 (PAL standard) or 400 (NTSC interlace)/512 (PAL interlace mode) pixels tall. Overscan mode enabled 700 x 600 resolution in PAL machines. 071016 en.wikipedia.org 071016 abc80.net Planar graphics are used, with up to 5 bitplanes (4 in hires), allowing 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 colour screens, from a palette of 4096 colours. Two special graphics modes where also included: Extra HalfBrite, which used a 6th bitplane as a mask that halved the brightness of any colour seen, and Hold And Modify (HAM), which allowed all 4096 colours on screen at once. Later revisions of the chipset made PAL/NTSC mode switchable in software. Sound is 4 hardware-mixed channels of 8-bit PCM sound at up to . The hardware channels had independent volumes (65 levels) and sampling rates, and mixed down to two fully left and fully right stereo outputs. Each channel is designated another channel for which it can optionally modulate both volume and frequency using its own output. A software controllable low-pass audio filter is also included. The machine came standard with 512 KB of Chip RAM and AmigaOS 1.2 or 1.3. One double-density floppy disk drive is included, which is completely programmable and thus can read 720 KB IBM PC disks, 880 KB standard Amiga disks, and up to 984 KB with custom formatting (such as Klaus Deppich’s diskspare.device). Breaking with the Amiga 1000, and in keeping with the home computer tradition established by the VIC-20 and C64, the A500 had its keyboard integrated with the CPU unit, although the floppy disk drive is also integrated, unlike the 8-bit models. The 500 used the standard Amiga two-button mouse. Despite the lack of Amiga 2000-compatible internal expansion slots, there are many ports and expansion options. There are two Atari 2600 DE9M sockets for joysticks or mice, stereo audio (RCA connectors 1V p-p). There is a floppy drive port for daisy-chaining up to 3 extra floppy disk drives via an DB23F connector. 070728 amigahardware.mariomisic.de . The then-standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M) and Centronics parallel port (DB25F) is also included. The power supply is ( , ). 070808 ntrautanen.fi The Amiga 500's graphics are output in analogue RGB 50 Hz PAL and NTSC video output, provided on an Amiga-specific DB23M video connector. It can drive video with 15, HSync for standard Amiga video modes but this is not compatible with most VGA monitors. A Multisync monitor is required for some higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. An RF adapter was bundled with the machine to provide output on regular televisions. Monochrome video is available via an RCA connector. There is a Zorro II bus expansion the left side behind a plastic cover and a trapdoor slot under the machine, for RAM expansion and real-time clock. Somewhat unusually for a budget machine, all chips are socketed rather than through-hole soldered so if the casing is opened up (voiding the warranty), they can be replaced by hand. The CPU can be upgraded to a 68010 directly or to a 68020, 68030 or 68040 via the side expansion slot. The Chip RAM can be upgraded to 1 MB directly on the motherboard, provided a Fat Agnus chip is also installed to support it. In fact, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the ECS chipset. 512 KB of “Slow RAM” or “Trapdoor RAM” can be added via the trapdoor expansion. Such upgrades usually also included a battery-backed clock. If further expansion is desired, up to 8 MB of “Fast RAM” can be added via the side expansion slot. Hard drive and other peripherals can also be added via the side expansion slot. So many options vying for one expansion slot can have made for difficult choices, but several companies provided combined CPU, memory and hard drive upgrades, or provided a pass-through expansion slot so multiple devices can be chained. Expansions are configured automatically by AutoConfig software, so multiple pieces of hardware did not conflict with each other. The Amiga is plug and play. Technical specifications OCS (1.2 & 1.3 models) or ECS (500+ 2.04 models) chipset. Later revisions of the chipset made PAL/NTSC mode switchable in software. Graphics can be of arbitrary dimensions, resolution and colour depth, even on the same screen. Without using overscan, the graphics can be 320 or 640 pixels wide by 200/256 or 400/512 pixels tall. Planar graphics are used, with up to 5 bitplanes (4 in hires), allowing 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 colour screens, from a palette of 4096 colours. Two special graphics modes where also included: Extra HalfBrite, which used a 6th bitplane as a mask that halved the brightness of any colour seen, and Hold And Modify (HAM), which allowed all 4096 colours on screen at once. Rhett Anderson developed the so called Sliced HAM or SHM mode, which was a standard 32-color mode, but used the Copper (part of the Agnus chip which could change hardware registers at given screen positions) to reprogram the color palette registers at each scanline. The advantage of SHM files was the ability to display all 4096 colors while eliminating the color blur of HAM compression. Sound is 4 hardware-mixed channels of 8-bit sound at up to . The hardware channels had independent volumes (65 levels) and sampling rates, and mixed down to two fully left and fully right stereo outputs. A software controllable low-pass audio filter is also included. 512 KB of Chip RAM. AmigaOS 1.2 or 1.3 One double-density floppy disk drive is included, which is completely programmable and thus can read 720 KB IBM PC disks, 880 KB standard Amiga disks, and up to 984 KB with custom formatting (such as Klaus Deppich’s diskspare.device). Built in keyboard. A two-button mouse is included. Graphics PAL mode: 320 x 256, 640 x 256, 640 x 512 (interlace), 700 x 600 in overscan. Max 6 bpp. NTSC mode: 320 x 200, 640 x 200, 640 x 400 (interlace). Connectors Two DB9M sockets for joysticks or mice (as popularized by the Atari 2600). Stereo audio (RCA connectors 1V p-p). A floppy drive port (DB23F), for daisy-chaining up to 3 extra floppy disk drives via an DB23F connector. A standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M). A parallel port (DB25F). Power inlet ( , ). Analogue RGB 50 Hz PAL and NTSC video output, provided on an Amiga-specific DB23M video connector. Can drive video with 15, HSync for standard Amiga video modes. This is not compatible with most VGA monitors. A Multisync monitor is required for some higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. An RF adapter (A520) was bundled with the machine to provide output on regular televisions. A digital 16 colour Red-Green-Blue-Intensity signal is available too on the same connector. Monochrome video via an RCA connector. Zorro II bus expansion the left side behind a plastic cover. Trapdoor slot under the machine, for RAM expansion and real-time clock. Expansions Expansion ports are limited to a side expansion port and a trapdoor expansion on the underside of the machine. The casing can also be opened up (voiding the warranty), all chips are socketed rather than through-hole soldered, so they can be replaced by hand. The CPU can be upgraded to a 68010 directly or to a 68020, 68030 or 68040 via the side expansion slot. The Chip RAM can be upgraded to 1 MB directly on the motherboard, provided a Fat Agnus chip is also installed to support it. Likewise, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the ECS chipset. 512 KB of “Slow RAM” or “Trapdoor RAM” can be added via the trapdoor expansion. Such upgrades usually also included a battery-backed clock. Up to 8 MB of “Fast RAM” can be added via the side expansion slot. Hard drive and other peripherals can be added via the side expansion slot. Several companies provided combined CPU, memory and hard drive upgrades, or provided chainable expansions, as there is only one side expansion slot. Expansions are configured automatically by AutoConfig software, so multiple pieces of hardware did not conflict with each other. Memory map Address Size [KByte] Description 0x0000 0000 256.0 Chip RAM 0x0004 0000 256.0 Chip RAM (A1000 option card) 0x0008 0000 512.0 Chip RAM expansion 0x0010 0000 1024.0 Extended Chip RAM for ECS/AGA. 0x0020 0000 8192.0 Primary auto-config space (Fast RAM) 0x00A0 0000 1984.0 Reserved 0x00BF D000 3.8 8520-B (even-byte addresses) 0x00BF E001 3.8 8520-A (odd-byte addresses) 0x00C0 0000 1536.0 Internal expansion memory (pseudo-fast, Slow RAM on Amiga 500) 0x00D8 0000 256.0 Reserved 0x00DC 0000 64.0 Real time clock 0x00DD 0000 188.0 Reserved 0x00DF F000 4.0 Custom chip registers 0x00E0 0000 512.0 Reserved 0x00E8 0000 64.0 Zorro II auto-config space (before relocation). 0x00E9 0000 448.0 Secondary auto-config space (usually 64K I/O boards) 0x00F0 0000 768.0 256K System ROM (Kickstart 1.4 or higher) 0x00FC 0000 256.0 256K System ROM 090501 ntrautanen.fi Source: Amiga Hardware Reference Manual Notable uses Digital hardcore group EC8OR recorded their premier title album using only an Amiga 500 and a microphone. Skam group Team Doyobi recorded their premier album Cryptoburners using only an Amiga 500 and no microphone. See also Amiga models and variants Minimig References External links amigahardware.mariomisic.de Amiga 500 photos Famous Amiga Uses | Amiga_500 |@lemmatized amiga:28 also:17 know:2 first:1 low:4 end:2 commodore:4 bit:7 multimedia:1 home:3 personal:1 computer:3 announce:1 winter:1 consumer:1 electronics:1 show:1 january:1 time:6 high:4 compete:1 directly:5 atari:3 release:3 mid:2 price:2 usd:1 without:3 monitor:5 original:2 prove:1 best:1 selling:1 model:8 enjoy:1 particular:1 success:2 europe:1 sale:1 figure:1 although:3 popular:1 hobbyist:1 arguably:1 widespread:1 use:14 gaming:1 machine:11 advanced:1 graphic:11 sound:5 significant:2 benefit:1 october:1 bundle:5 batman:2 pack:2 sell:1 united:2 kingdom:2 late:4 enhanced:1 plus:1 replace:3 standard:12 market:3 cartoon:1 classic:1 series:1 discontinue:1 altogether:1 similarly:1 specify:1 replacement:1 new:2 originally:1 intend:1 much:1 cheap:1 budget:2 next:1 generation:1 closer:1 concept:1 feature:1 technical:3 improvement:1 despite:2 neither:1 replicate:1 commercial:1 predecessor:2 definitively:1 shift:1 platform:1 past:1 commodity:1 wintel:1 pc:3 cost:1 macintosh:1 lc:1 iisi:1 description:2 like:2 motorola:1 microprocessor:1 run:1 mhz:2 ntsc:8 version:2 pal:9 chip:17 internally:1 data:1 bus:4 address:5 provide:11 maximum:1 mb:5 space:4 ocs:2 chipset:6 arbitrary:2 dimension:2 resolution:5 colour:11 depth:2 even:3 screen:7 overscan:4 pixel:3 wide:2 interlace:4 mode:12 pixels:1 tall:2 enable:1 x:8 en:1 wikipedia:1 org:1 net:1 planar:2 bitplanes:2 hire:2 allow:4 palette:3 two:8 special:2 include:10 extra:4 halfbrite:2 bitplane:2 mask:2 halve:2 brightness:2 see:3 hold:2 modify:2 ham:4 revision:2 make:3 switchable:2 software:6 hardware:8 mixed:2 channel:6 pcm:1 independent:2 volume:3 level:2 sample:2 rate:2 mix:2 fully:4 leave:2 right:2 stereo:4 output:8 designate:1 another:1 optionally:1 modulate:1 frequency:1 controllable:2 pas:3 audio:4 filter:2 come:1 kb:10 ram:18 amigaos:2 one:4 double:2 density:2 floppy:7 disk:9 drive:13 completely:2 programmable:2 thus:2 read:2 ibm:2 custom:5 format:2 klaus:2 deppich:2 diskspare:2 device:3 break:1 keep:1 tradition:1 establish:1 vic:1 keyboard:2 integrate:2 cpu:5 unit:1 unlike:1 button:2 mouse:4 lack:1 compatible:3 internal:2 expansion:27 slot:12 many:2 port:9 option:3 socket:2 joystick:2 rca:4 connector:10 p:4 daisy:2 chain:3 via:12 amigahardware:2 mariomisic:2 de:2 rs:1 serial:2 centronics:1 parallel:2 power:2 supply:1 ntrautanen:2 fi:2 analogue:2 rgb:2 hz:2 video:12 specific:2 hsync:2 vga:2 multisync:2 require:2 connection:2 genlocked:2 external:3 signal:3 rf:2 adapter:2 regular:2 television:2 monochrome:2 available:2 zorro:3 ii:3 left:2 side:10 behind:2 plastic:2 cover:2 trapdoor:7 real:3 clock:5 somewhat:1 unusually:1 socketed:2 rather:2 hole:2 solder:2 casing:2 open:2 void:2 warranty:2 hand:2 upgrade:10 motherboard:2 fat:2 agnus:3 instal:2 support:2 fact:1 ec:3 slow:3 add:6 usually:3 battery:2 back:2 desire:1 fast:4 hard:4 peripheral:2 vie:1 difficult:1 choice:1 several:2 company:2 combined:2 memory:4 multiple:3 configure:2 automatically:2 autoconfig:2 piece:2 conflict:2 plug:1 play:1 specification:1 rhett:1 anderson:1 develop:1 call:1 sliced:1 shm:2 color:4 copper:1 part:1 could:1 change:1 register:3 give:1 position:1 reprogram:1 scanline:1 advantage:1 file:1 ability:1 display:1 eliminate:1 blur:1 compression:1 build:1 max:1 bpp:1 popularize:1 r:1 inlet:1 digital:2 red:1 green:1 blue:1 intensity:1 limit:1 underside:1 likewise:1 chainable:1 map:1 size:1 kbyte:1 card:1 extend:1 ecs:1 aga:1 primary:1 auto:3 config:3 reserve:4 b:1 byte:2 odd:1 pseudo:1 relocation:1 secondary:1 board:1 system:2 rom:2 kickstart:1 source:1 reference:2 manual:1 notable:1 us:2 hardcore:1 group:2 record:2 premier:2 title:1 album:2 microphone:2 skam:1 team:1 doyobi:1 cryptoburners:1 variant:1 minimig:1 link:1 photo:1 famous:1 |@bigram commodore_amiga:2 consumer_electronics:1 best_selling:1 macintosh_lc:1 motorola_microprocessor:1 mhz_ntsc:1 mhz_pal:1 en_wikipedia:1 pal_ntsc:4 bit_pcm:1 floppy_disk:5 ibm_pc:2 button_mouse:2 expansion_slot:10 joystick_mouse:2 rca_connector:4 floppy_drive:2 fat_agnus:2 color_palette:1 external_link:1 |
1,061 | Frequency_modulation_synthesis | Image:frequencymodulationdemo-td.pngA 220 Hz carrier tone modulated by a 440 Hz modulating tone with various choices of modulation index, β. The time domain signals are illustrated above, and the corresponding spectra are shown below (spectrum amplitudes in dB). An audio demonstration of the four synthesized tone timbres is available here. Image:frequencymodulationdemo-fd.png In audio and music frequency modulation synthesis (or FM synthesis) is a form of audio synthesis where the timbre of a simple waveform is changed by frequency modulating it with a modulating frequency that is also in the audio range, resulting in a more complex waveform and a different-sounding tone. The frequency of an oscillator is altered or distorted, "in accordance with the amplitude of a modulating signal." (Dodge and Jerse 1997, p.115) For synthesizing harmonic sounds, the modulating signal must have a harmonic relationship to the original carrier signal. As the amount of frequency modulation increases, the sound grows progressively more complex. Through the use of modulators with frequencies that are non-integer multiples of the carrier signal (i.e., non harmonic), bell-like dissonant and percussive sounds can easily be created. History The technique, which was discovered by John Chowning (Chowning 1973, cited in Dodge and Jerse, p.115) at Stanford University in 1967-68, was patented in 1975 and later licensed to Yamaha. It should be noted that the implementation commercialized by Yamaha (US Patent 4018121 Apr 1977) is actually based on phase modulation. FM synthesis is very good at creating both harmonic and inharmonic ('clang', 'twang' or 'bong' noises) sounds. Complex (and proper) FM synthesis using analog oscillators is not generally feasible due to their inherent pitch instability, but FM synthesis (using the frequency stable phase modulation variant) is easy to implement digitally. As a result, FM synthesis was the basis of some of the early generations of digital synthesizers from Yamaha, with Yamaha's flagship DX7 synthesizer being ubiquitous throughout the 1980s. Yamaha had patented its hardware implementation of FM, allowing it to nearly monopolize the market for that technology. Casio developed a related form of synthesis called phase distortion synthesis, used in its CZ series of synthesizers. It had a similar (but slightly differently derived) sound quality as the DX series. With the expiration of the Stanford University FM patent in 1995, FM synthesis is now part of the synthesis repertoire of most modern synthesizers, usually in conjunction with additive, subtractive and sometimes sampling techniques. Functioning The harmonic distribution of a simple sine wave signal modulated by another sine wave signal can be represented with Bessel functions - this provides a basis for a simple mathematical understanding of FM synthesis. FM synthesis is a form of "distortion synthesis" or "nonlinear synthesis". It begins with an oscillator generating an audio-frequency "carrier" waveform with a frequency of Fc . An audio-frequency modulating waveform, with a frequency Fm, is then applied to change or "modulate" the frequency of the carrier oscillator. If the amplitude of the modulator is 0, the output frequency of the carrier oscillator is simply Fc . Otherwise, the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the frequency of the carrier oscillator to swing above and below Fc . This frequency swing is known as "deviation". In simple terms, the "louder" the modulating signal is, the more the carrier frequency changes. For illustration, suppose Fc is 1000 Hz. Modulation amplitude might be applied that causes the carrier to swing between 900 Hz and 1100 Hz, that is, 100 Hz in either direction. This is termed a "deviation" of 100 Hz. At the same time, the frequency of the modulating signal causes what are termed "sideband" frequencies to appear on either "side" of the carrier frequency. Therefore for each frequency component in the modulating signal, an "upper" sideband appears above Fc, and a "lower" sideband appears below Fc. Clearly a modulating waveform containing many frequencies (e.g. "partials") will create many FM sidebands. Deviation (d) is partly responsible for the power of each component of the output audio signal. When d=0, all the power is heard at the carrier frequency. The larger the deviation, the more power is shifted to the sidebands. The ratio of deviation to modulation frequency is called the "index of modulation". ( I = d / Fm ) This ratio controls the spectral richness of the sound. By varying deviation through modulation amplitude, and varying the spectrum of the modulating waveform, the resulting audio can be evolved without further instrument complexity. This is the power of FM synthesis. References External links An Introduction To FM, by Bill Schottstaedt FM tutorial SOUNDSHOCK, an English language discussion forum dedicated exclusively to FM Synthesis Article: FM Synthesis Paul Wiffens Synth School: Part 3 F.M. Synthesis including complex operator analysis | Frequency_modulation_synthesis |@lemmatized image:2 frequencymodulationdemo:2 td:1 pnga:1 hz:7 carrier:11 tone:4 modulate:9 various:1 choice:1 modulation:9 index:2 β:1 time:2 domain:1 signal:12 illustrate:1 corresponding:1 spectrum:3 show:1 amplitude:6 db:1 audio:8 demonstration:1 four:1 synthesize:2 timbre:2 available:1 fd:1 png:1 music:1 frequency:23 synthesis:19 fm:18 form:3 simple:4 waveform:6 change:3 modulating:6 also:1 range:1 result:3 complex:4 different:1 sound:7 oscillator:6 alter:1 distort:1 accordance:1 dodge:2 jerse:2 p:2 harmonic:5 must:1 relationship:1 original:1 amount:1 increase:1 grow:1 progressively:1 use:4 modulators:1 non:2 integer:1 multiple:1 e:2 bell:1 like:1 dissonant:1 percussive:1 easily:1 create:3 history:1 technique:2 discover:1 john:1 chowning:2 cite:1 stanford:2 university:2 patent:4 later:1 license:1 yamaha:5 note:1 implementation:2 commercialize:1 u:1 apr:1 actually:1 base:1 phase:3 good:1 inharmonic:1 clang:1 twang:1 bong:1 noise:1 proper:1 analog:1 generally:1 feasible:1 due:1 inherent:1 pitch:1 instability:1 stable:1 variant:1 easy:1 implement:1 digitally:1 basis:2 early:1 generation:1 digital:1 synthesizer:4 flagship:1 ubiquitous:1 throughout:1 hardware:1 allow:1 nearly:1 monopolize:1 market:1 technology:1 casio:1 develop:1 related:1 call:2 distortion:2 cz:1 series:2 similar:1 slightly:1 differently:1 derive:1 quality:1 dx:1 expiration:1 part:2 repertoire:1 modern:1 usually:1 conjunction:1 additive:1 subtractive:1 sometimes:1 sample:1 function:2 distribution:1 sine:2 wave:2 another:1 represent:1 bessel:1 provide:1 mathematical:1 understanding:1 nonlinear:1 begin:1 generate:1 fc:6 apply:2 modulator:1 output:2 simply:1 otherwise:1 cause:3 swing:3 know:1 deviation:6 term:3 louder:1 illustration:1 suppose:1 might:1 either:2 direction:1 sideband:3 appear:3 side:1 therefore:1 component:2 upper:1 low:1 clearly:1 contain:1 many:2 g:1 partial:1 sidebands:2 partly:1 responsible:1 power:4 hear:1 large:1 shift:1 ratio:2 control:1 spectral:1 richness:1 vary:2 evolve:1 without:1 instrument:1 complexity:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 introduction:1 bill:1 schottstaedt:1 tutorial:1 soundshock:1 english:1 language:1 discussion:1 forum:1 dedicate:1 exclusively:1 article:1 paul:1 wiffens:1 synth:1 school:1 f:1 include:1 operator:1 analysis:1 |@bigram tone_timbre:1 frequency_modulation:2 modulating_signal:3 percussive_sound:1 modulation_fm:2 sine_wave:2 bessel_function:1 amplitude_modulate:1 modulation_amplitude:2 hz_hz:2 external_link:1 |
1,062 | Utility_knife | A Stanley 99E utility knife, fully retracted A utility knife (also known by various other names) is a common tool used in various trades and crafts for a variety of purposes. Names In British, Australian and New Zealand English, along with Dutch, the tool is known as a Stanley knife. This name a genericised trademark named after Stanley Works, a manufacturer of such knives. Stanley Tools In Israel and Switzerland, these knives are known as Japanese knives. In Brazil they are known as estiletes or cortadores Olfa. In Portugal they are also known as X-Acto. Other names for the tool are box cutter or boxcutter, razor blade knife, carpet knife or stationery knife. Design Such a knife generally consists of a simple and cheap holder, typically flat, approximately one inch (25 mm) wide and three to four inches (75 to 100 mm) long, and typically made of either metal or plastic. Some use standard razor blades, others specialised double-ended blades as in the illustration. The user can manually adjust how far the blade extends from the handle, so that for example the knife can be used to cut the tape sealing a package without damaging the contents of the package. When the blade becomes dull, it can be quickly reversed or switched for a new one. Spare or used blades are stored in the hollow handle of some models, and can be accessed by removing a screw and opening the handle. Other models feature a quick-change mechanism that allows replacing the blade without tools, as well as a flip-out blade storage tray. The blades for a utility knife come in both double and single ended versions, and are interchangeable with many, but not all of the later copies. Specialised blades also exist for cutting string, linoleum and other purposes. Spare or used blades may be stored in the handle in some models. Disassembled utility knife, blade partly extended Another style is a snap-off utility knife that contains a long, segmented blade that slides out from it. As the endmost edge becomes dull, it can be snapped off from the rest of the blade, exposing the next section, which is sharp and ready for use, increasing safety. When all the individual segments are used, it is thrown away or a replacement blade is inserted. This design was introduced by Japanese manufacturer Olfa Corporation in 1956 as the world's first snap-off blade and was inspired from analyzing the sharp cutting edge produced when glass is broken and how pieces of a chocolate bar break into segments. Segmented blade or "snap-off blade" utility knife Fixed blade versions, usually about the size of a pencil, are widely used for handcrafts and model making and are best suited for cutting thin, lightweight materials. Light-duty utility knife for handcrafts and model making. X-Acto No. 1 knife depicted, fitted with X-Acto No. 11 blade. A style that is often used for the cutting of boxes consists of a simple sleeve around a rectangular handle into which single-edge razor blades can be inserted. The sleeve slides up and down on the handle, holding the blade in place during use and covering the blade when not in use. The blade holder is designed to expose just enough edge to cut through one layer of corrugated fiberboard, to minimise chances of damaging contents of cardboard boxes. Inexpensive stamped steel and aluminum box cutter with disposable razor blade. Use as weapons Although such knives are not usually regarded as weapons, it was suggested by United States government officials that "box-cutter knives" were used in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks against that country. The exact design of the knives actually used is unclear. (See Airport security repercussions due to the September 11 attacks for further discussion.) They have also been used by minor criminals in muggings, and some schools ban their possession on school grounds. Former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani initiated a campaign against the sale of box-cutter knives to young people in the 1990s. On June 1, 2004, Japanese elementary school student, Satomi Mitarai, was stabbed to death at the Sasebo slashing. The killer used a segmented-type utility knife. In Australia, it is illegal to sell a cutting implement such as a utility knife to anyone under 16 years of age, and proof of age is often demanded of purchasers. Recently, in the United Kingdom, there have been plans to raise the age limit for purchasing knives, including utility knives, from 16 to 18, in an effort to tackle "yob culture". The knives have been used in football hooliganism for some time, as they are able to scar without killing, something many hooligans are hesitant to do. This fact was made famous in the film The Football Factory. Reference External links History of the Stanley Works Spellbound Development Group - a maker of safety utility knives Another history of the Stanley Works | Utility_knife |@lemmatized stanley:6 utility:11 knife:26 fully:1 retract:1 also:4 know:5 various:2 name:5 common:1 tool:5 use:17 trade:1 craft:1 variety:1 purpose:2 british:1 australian:1 new:3 zealand:1 english:1 along:1 dutch:1 genericised:1 trademark:1 work:3 manufacturer:2 israel:1 switzerland:1 japanese:3 brazil:1 estiletes:1 cortadores:1 olfa:2 portugal:1 x:3 acto:3 box:5 cutter:4 boxcutter:1 razor:4 blade:25 carpet:1 stationery:1 design:4 generally:1 consist:1 simple:2 cheap:1 holder:2 typically:2 flat:1 approximately:1 one:3 inch:2 mm:2 wide:1 three:1 four:1 long:2 make:2 either:1 metal:1 plastic:1 standard:1 others:1 specialise:2 double:2 end:2 illustration:1 user:1 manually:1 adjust:1 far:1 extends:1 handle:6 example:1 cut:5 tape:1 seal:1 package:2 without:3 damage:2 content:2 become:2 dull:2 quickly:1 reverse:1 switch:1 spare:2 store:2 hollow:1 model:5 access:1 remove:1 screw:1 open:1 feature:1 quick:1 change:1 mechanism:1 allow:1 replace:1 well:1 flip:1 storage:1 tray:1 come:1 single:2 version:2 interchangeable:1 many:2 late:1 copy:1 exist:1 string:1 linoleum:1 may:1 disassemble:1 partly:1 extend:1 another:2 style:2 snap:4 contain:1 segment:4 slide:2 endmost:1 edge:4 rest:1 expose:2 next:1 section:1 sharp:2 ready:1 increase:1 safety:2 individual:1 throw:1 away:1 replacement:1 insert:2 introduce:1 corporation:1 world:1 first:1 inspire:1 analyze:1 cutting:2 produce:1 glass:1 break:2 piece:1 chocolate:1 bar:1 fix:1 usually:2 size:1 pencil:1 widely:1 handcraft:2 making:2 best:1 suit:1 thin:1 lightweight:1 material:1 light:1 duty:1 depict:1 fit:1 often:2 boxes:1 consists:1 sleeve:2 around:1 rectangular:1 hold:1 place:1 cover:1 enough:1 layer:1 corrugated:1 fiberboard:1 minimise:1 chance:1 cardboard:1 inexpensive:1 stamp:1 steel:1 aluminum:1 disposable:1 weapon:2 although:1 regard:1 suggest:1 united:2 state:1 government:1 official:1 september:2 terrorist:1 attack:2 country:1 exact:1 actually:1 unclear:1 see:1 airport:1 security:1 repercussion:1 due:1 discussion:1 minor:1 criminal:1 mugging:1 school:3 ban:1 possession:1 ground:1 former:1 york:1 city:1 mayor:1 rudy:1 giuliani:1 initiate:1 campaign:1 sale:1 young:1 people:1 june:1 elementary:1 student:1 satomi:1 mitarai:1 stab:1 death:1 sasebo:1 slash:1 killer:1 segmented:1 type:1 australia:1 illegal:1 sell:1 implement:1 anyone:1 year:1 age:3 proof:1 demand:1 purchaser:1 recently:1 kingdom:1 plan:1 raise:1 limit:1 purchase:1 include:1 effort:1 tackle:1 yob:1 culture:1 football:2 hooliganism:1 time:1 able:1 scar:1 kill:1 something:1 hooligan:1 hesitant:1 fact:1 famous:1 film:1 factory:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 history:2 spellbound:1 development:1 group:1 maker:1 knives:1 |@bigram utility_knife:10 box_cutter:4 razor_blade:4 inch_mm:2 cutting_edge:1 cardboard_box:1 cutter_knife:2 mayor_rudy:1 rudy_giuliani:1 external_link:1 |
1,063 | Giordano_Bruno | {{Infobox Philosopher | region = Western Philosophy | era = Renaissance philosophy | color = #B0C4DE nm jcfhmcvmcnm | name = Giordano Bruno | birth_date = 1548 | birth_place = Nola, Campania, Kingdom of Naples (During Spanish domination) | death_date = February 17, 1600 | death_place = Rome | main_interests = Philosophy, Cosmology, and Memory | image = Giordano Bruno Campo dei Fiori.jpg | influences = Averroes, Nicolaus Copernicus, Nicolaus Cusanus, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, Marsilo Ficino, Ramon Llull, Pico della Mirandola, Giulio Camillo | influenced = Nicola Antonio Stigliola, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza, James Joyce, Umberto Eco, Arthur Schopenhauer, Giorgio Agamben, Hans Blumenberg}}Giordano Bruno', born Filippo Bruno (1548 – February 17, 1600), was an Italian philosopher best-known as a proponent of heliocentrism and the infinity of the universe. In addition to his cosmological writings, he also wrote extensive works on the art of memory, a loosely-organized group of mnemonic techniques and principles. He is often considered an early martyr for modern scientific ideas, in part because he was burned at the stake as a heretic by the Roman Inquisition. However, some argue that his actual heresy was his pantheist beliefs about God, See for example, Michel, Paul Henri. The Cosmology of Giordano Bruno. Translated by R.E.W. Maddison. Paris: Hermann; London: Methuen; Ithaca, New York: Cornell, 1962; Birx, Jams H.. "Giordano Bruno." The Harbinger, Mobile, AL, November 11, 1997. <http://www.theharbinger.org/xvi/971111/birx.html>; Turner, William. "Giordano Bruno." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 13 Jan. 2009 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03016a.htm>; http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=203945; and http://www.pantheism.net/paul/brunphil.htm. not an idea that would be characterized today as scientific. 19th and early 20th century portrayals of Bruno often focus on his role as a 'martyr' for free thought, or intellectual freedom. In this regard McIntyre, J. L., Giordano Bruno: Mystic Martyr, London, 1903 is one representative example among the many available. He is portrayed by some as a martyr for science (e.g. Griggs, E.H., Great Leaders in Human Progress, Ayer Publishing, 1969, Ch. 9 "Giordano Bruno, The Martyr of Science"). Saiber notes: Kepler admitted to accepting Bruno's theory of infinite worlds (but not an infinite universe); Leibniz drew from Bruno's monadology, and Spinoza from Bruno's ideas of a infinite, pantheistic universe. In 1926, in Sydney, Australia, the Theosophical Society chose 2GB (2 for the State, New South Wales, G for Giordano and B for Bruno) as its call sign as a tribute to Bruno. In 1960 Soviet astronomers named a crater of the moon after Bruno. Also in 1960, the Dutch astronomers Cornelius Johannes van Houten and Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld discovered an asteroid which they subsequently designated 5148, a permutation of Bruno's birth year (Saiber 2005: 43-45). However, today, many feel that any characterization of Bruno's thought as 'scientific' (and hence any attempt to position him as a martyr for 'science') is hard to accept. More recent assessments, beginning with the pioneering work of Frances Yates, suggest that Bruno was deeply influenced by magical views of the universe inherited from Arab astrological magic, Neoplatonism and Renaissance Hermeticism. The primary work on the relationship between Bruno and Hermeticism is Frances Yates, Giordano Bruno and The Hermetic Tradition, 1964; for an alternative assessment, placing more emphasis on the Kabbalah, and less on Hermeticism, see Karen Silvia De Leon-Jones, Giordano Bruno and the Kabbalah, Yale, 1997; for a return to emphasis on Bruno's role in the development of Science, and criticism of Yates' emphasis on magical and Hermetic themes, see Hillary Gatti, Giordano Bruno and Renaissance Science, Cornell, 1999 Other recent studies of Bruno have focused on his qualitative approach to mathematics and his application of the spatial paradigms of geometry to language. Alessandro G. Farinella and Carole Preston, "Giordano Bruno: Neoplatonism and the Wheel of Memory in the 'De Umbris Idearum'", in Renaissance Quarterly, Vol. 55, No. 2, (Summer, 2002), pp. 596-624; Arielle Saiber, Giordano Bruno and the Geometry of Language, Ashgate, 2005 Life Early years, 1548–1576 Filippo Bruno was born in Nola (in Campania, then part of the Kingdom of Naples) in 1548, the son of Giovanni Bruno, a soldier, and Fraulissa Savolino. As a youth, he was sent to Naples for education. He was tutored privately at the Augustinian monastery there, and attended public lectures at the Studium Generale. Dorothea Waley Singer, Giordano Bruno, His Life and Thought, New York, 1950. At the age of 17, he entered the Dominican Order at the monastery of San Domenico Maggiore in Naples, taking the name Giordano, after Giordano Crispo, his metaphysics tutor. He continued his studies there, completing his novitiate, and became an ordained priest in 1572 at age 24. During his time in Naples he became known for his skill with the art of memory and on one occasion traveled to Rome to demonstrate his mnemonic system before Pope Pius V and Cardinal Rebiba. Bruno in later years claimed that the Pope accepted his dedication to him of the lost work On The Ark of Noah at this time. This is recorded in the diary of one Guillaume Cotin, librarian of the Abbey of St. Victor, who recorded recollections of a number of personal conversations he had with Bruno. Bruno also mentions this dedication in the Dedicatory Epistle of The Cabala of Pegasus (Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo, 1585). Such an honor suggests that Bruno was distinguished for outstanding ability. But Bruno's taste for free thinking and forbidden books soon caused him difficulties, and given the controversy he caused in later life it is surprising that he was able to remain within the monastic system for eleven years. In his testimony to Venetian inquisitors during his trial, many years later, he indicates that proceedings were twice taken against him for having cast away images of the saints, retaining only a crucifix, and for having made controversial reading recommendations to a novice. Such behavior could perhaps be overlooked, but Bruno's situation became much more serious when he was reported to have defended the Arian heresy, and when a copy of the banned writings of Erasmus, annotated by him, was discovered hidden in the convent privy. When he learned that an indictment was being prepared against him in Naples he fled, shedding his religious habit, at least for a time. Gosselin has argued that Bruno kept his tonsure after fleeing Naples, and suggests that Bruno's report that he returned to Dominican garb in Padua suggests that he kept his tonsure at least until his arrival in Geneva in 1579. He also suggests it is likely that Bruno kept the tonsure even after this point. According to this view the tonsure would show a continued and deep religious attachment contrary to the way in which Bruno has been portrayed as a martyr for modern science. Instead, Gosselin argues Bruno should be understood in the context of reformist Catholic dissenters. Edward A. Gosselin, "A Dominican Head in Layman's Garb? A Correction to the Scientific Iconography of Giordano Bruno", in The Sixteenth Century Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 1996), pp. 673–78. First years of wandering, 1576–1583 Woodcut illustration of one of Giordano Bruno's less complex mnemonic devices Bruno first went to the Genoese port of Noli, then to Savona, Turin and finally to Venice, where he published his lost work On The Signs of the Times with the permission (so he claimed at his trial) of the Dominican Remigio Nannini Fiorentino. From Venice he went to Padua where he met fellow Dominicans who convinced him to wear his priest's habit again. From Padua he went to Bergamo and then across the Alps to Chambéry and Lyon. His movements after this time are obscure. In 1579 he arrived in Geneva. It seems that while there he briefly joined the Calvinists. Bruno's name appears in a list, compiled one hundred years later, of Italian refugees who had belonged to the Protestant church of Geneva. However, during his Venetian trial he told inquisitors that while in Geneva he told the Marchese de Vico of Naples, who was notable for helping Italian refugees in Geneva, "I did not intend to adopt the religion of the city. I desired to stay there only that I might live at liberty and in security." Bruno had a pair of breeches made for himself, and the Marchese and others apparently made Bruno a gift of a sword, hat, cape and other necessities for dressing himself; in such clothing Bruno could no longer be recognized as a priest. Things apparently went well for Bruno for a time, as he entered his name in the Rector's Book of the University of Geneva in May of 1579. But in keeping with his personality he could not long remain silent. In August he published an attack on the work of Antoine de la Faye, a distinguished professor. He and the printer were promptly arrested. Rather than apologizing, Bruno insisted on continuing to defend his publication. He was refused the right to take sacrament. Though this was eventually reversed, Geneva was no longer safe for him. He left for France, arriving first in Lyon, and thereafter settling for a time (1580-1581) in Toulouse, where he took his doctorate in theology and was elected by students to lecture in philosophy. It seems he also attempted at this time to return to the Catholic fold, but was denied absolution by the Jesuit priest he approached. When religious strife broke out in the summer of 1581, he relocated to Paris. There he held a cycle of thirty lectures on theological topics, and he also began to gain fame for his prodigious memory. Bruno's feats of memory were based, at least in part, on his elaborate system of mnemonics, but some of his contemporaries found it easier to attribute them to magical powers. His talents attracted the benevolent attention of the king Henry III, who supported a conciliatory, middle-of-the-road cultural policy between Catholic and Protestant extremism. In Paris Bruno enjoyed the protection of his powerful French patrons. During this period, he published several works on mnemonics, including De umbris idearum (On The Shadows of Ideas, 1582), Ars Memoriae (The Art of Memory, 1582), and Cantus Circaeus (Circe's Song, 1582). All of these were based on his mnemonic models of organised knowledge and experience, as opposed to the simplistic logic-based mnemonic techniques of Petrus Ramus then becoming popular. Bruno also published a comedy summarizing some of his philosophical positions, titled Il Candelaio (The Torchbearer, 1582). On The Shadows of Ideas was dedicated to King Henry III. In the 16th century dedications were, as a rule, approved beforehand, and hence were a way of placing a work under the protection of an individual. Given that Bruno dedicated various works to the likes of King Henry III, Philip Sidney, Michel de Castelnau (French Ambassador to England), and possibly Pope Pius V, it is apparent that this wanderer had experienced a meteoric rise and moved in powerful circles. England, 1583–1585 In April 1583, Bruno went to England with letters of recommendation from Henry III, as a guest of the French ambassador, Michel de Castelnau. There he became acquainted with the poet Philip Sidney (to whom he dedicated two books) and other members of the Hermetic circle around John Dee, though there is no evidence that Bruno ever met Dee himself. He also lectured at Oxford, and unsuccessfully sought a teaching position there. His views spurred controversy, notably with John Underhill, Rector of Lincoln College and from 1589 bishop of Oxford, and George Abbot, who later became Archbishop of Canterbury, who poked fun at Bruno for supporting “the opinion of Copernicus that the earth did go round, and the heavens did stand still; whereas in truth it was his own head which rather did run round, and his brains did not stand still.” Andrew D. Weiner, "Expelling the Beast: Bruno's Adventures in England", in Modern Philology, Vol. 78, No. 1 (Aug., 1980), pp. 1–13. and who reports accusations that Bruno plagiarized Ficino's work. Still, the English period was a fruitful one. During that time Bruno completed and published some of his most important works, the "Italian Dialogues," including the cosmological tracts La Cena de le Ceneri (The Ash Wednesday Supper, 1584), De la Causa, Principio et Uno (On Cause, Principle and Unity, 1584), De l'Infinito Universo et Mondi (On the Infinite Universe and Worlds, 1584) as well as Lo Spaccio de la Bestia Trionfante (The Expulsion of the Triumphant Beast, 1584) and De gl' Heroici Furori (On Heroic Frenzies, 1585). Some of the works that Bruno published in London, notably the The Ash Wednesday Supper, appear to have given offense. It was not the first time, nor was it to be the last, that Bruno's controversial views coupled with his abrasive sarcasm lost him the support of his friends. Last years of wandering, 1585–1592 In October 1585, after the French embassy in London was attacked by a mob, Bruno returned to Paris with Castelnau, finding a tense political situation. Moreover, his 120 theses against Aristotelian natural science and his pamphlets against the mathematician Fabrizio Mordente soon put him in ill favor. In 1586, following a violent quarrel about Mordente's invention, "the differential compass," he left France for Germany. Woodcut from "Articuli centum et sexaginta adversus huius tempestatis mathematicos atque philosophos," Prague 1588In Germany he failed to obtain a teaching position at Marburg, but was granted permission to teach at Wittenberg, where he lectured on Aristotle for two years. However, with a change of intellectual climate there, he was no longer welcome, and went in 1588 to Prague, where he obtained 300 taler from Rudolf II, but no teaching position. He went on to serve briefly as a professor in Helmstedt, but had to flee again when he was excommunicated by the Lutherans, continuing the pattern of Bruno's gaining favor from lay authorities before falling foul of the ecclesiastics of whatever hue. During this period he produced several Latin works, dictated to his friend and secretary Girolamo Besler, including De Magia (On Magic), Theses De Magia (Theses On Magic) and De Vinculis In Genere (A General Account of Bonding). All these were apparently transcribed or recorded by Besler (or Bisler) between 1589 and 1590. Giordano Bruno, Cause Principle and Unity, and Essays on Magic, Edited by Richard J. Blackwell and Robert de Lucca, Cambridge, 1998, xxxvi He also published De Imaginum, Signorum, Et Idearum Compositione (On The Composition of Signs, Images and Ideas, 1591). The year 1591 found him in Frankfurt. Apparently, during the Frankfurt Book Fair, he received an invitation to Venice from the patrician Giovanni Mocenigo, who wished to be instructed in the art of memory, and also heard of a vacant chair in mathematics at the University of Padua. Apparently believing that the Inquisition might have lost some of its impetus, he returned to Italy. He went first to Padua, where he taught briefly, and applied unsuccessfully for the chair of mathematics, which was assigned instead to Galileo Galilei one year later. Bruno accepted Mocenigo's invitation and moved to Venice in March 1592. For about two months he functioned as an in-house tutor to Mocenigo. When Bruno announced his plan to leave Venice to his host, the latter, who was unhappy with the teachings he had received and had apparently developed a personal rancour towards Bruno, denounced him to the Venetian Inquisition, which had Bruno arrested on May 22, 1592. Among the numerous charges of blasphemy and heresy brought against him in Venice, based on Mocenigo's denunciation, was his belief in the plurality of worlds, as well as accusations of personal misconduct. Bruno defended himself skillfully, stressing the philosophical character of some of his positions, denying others and admitting that he had had doubts on some matters of dogma. The Roman Inquisition, however, asked for his transferral to Rome. After several months and some quibbling the Venetian authorities reluctantly consented and Bruno was sent to Rome in February 1593. Imprisonment, trial and execution, 1592–1600 In Rome he was imprisoned for seven years during his lengthy trial, lastly in the Tower of Nona. Some important documents about the trial are lost, but others have been preserved, among them a summary of the proceedings that was rediscovered in 1940. "II Sommario del Processo di Giordano Bruno, con appendice di Documenti sull'eresia e l'inquisizione a Modena nel secolo XVI", edited by Angelo Mercati, in Studi e Testi, vol. 101. The numerous charges against Bruno, based on some of his books as well as on witness accounts, included blasphemy, immoral conduct, and heresy in matters of dogmatic theology, and involved some of the basic doctrines of his philosophy and cosmology. Luigi Firpo lists them as follows: Luigi Firpo, Il processo di Giordano Bruno, 1993. The trial of Giordano Bruno by the Roman Inquisition. Bronze relief by Ettore Ferrari, Campo de' Fiori, Rome. Holding opinions contrary to the Catholic Faith and speaking against it and its ministers. Holding erroneous opinions about the Trinity, about Christ's divinity and Incarnation. Holding erroneous opinions about Christ. Holding erroneous opinions about Transubstantiation and Mass. Claiming the existence of a plurality of worlds and their eternity. Believing in metempsychosis and in the transmigration of the human soul into brutes. Dealing in magics and divination. Denying the Virginity of Mary. In these grim circumstances Bruno continued his Venetian defensive strategy, which consisted in bowing to the Church's dogmatic teachings, while trying to preserve the basis of his philosophy. In particular Bruno held firm to his belief in the plurality of worlds, although he was admonished to abandon it. His trial was overseen by the inquisitor Cardinal Bellarmine, who demanded a full recantation, which Bruno eventually refused. Instead he appealed in vain to Pope Clement VIII, hoping to save his life through a partial recantation. The Pope expressed himself in favor of a guilty verdict. Consequently, Bruno was declared a heretic, and told he would be handed over to secular authorities. According to the correspondence of one Gaspar Schopp of Breslau, he is said to have made a threatening gesture towards his judges and to have replied: "Maiori forsan cum timore sententiam in me fertis quam ego accipiam (Perhaps you pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it)." This is discussed in Dorothea Waley Singer, Giordano Bruno, His Life and Thought, New York, 1950, ch. 7, "A gloating account of the whole ritual is given in a letter written on the very day by a youth named Gaspar Schopp of Breslau, a recent convert to Catholicism to whom Pope Clement VIII had shown great favour, creating him Knight of St. Peter and Count of the Sacred Palace. Schopp was addressing Conrad Rittershausen. He recounts that because of his heresy Bruno had been publicly burned that day in the Square of Flowers in front of the Theatre of Pompey. He makes merry over the belief of the Italians that every heretic is a Lutheran. It is evident that he had been present at the interrogations, for he relates in detail the life of Bruno and the works and doctrines for which he had been arraigned, and he gives a vivid account of Bruno's final appearance before his judges on 8th February. To Schopp we owe the knowledge of Bruno's bearing under judgement. When the verdict had been declared, records Schopp, Bruno with a threatening gesture addressed his judges: "Perchance you who pronounce my sentence are in greater fear than I who receive it." Thus he was dismissed to the prison, gloats the convert, "and was given eight days to recant, but in vain. So today he was led to the funeral pyre. When the image of our Saviour was shown to him before his death he angrily rejected it with averted face. Thus my dear Rittershausen is it our custom to proceed against such men or rather indeed such monsters." He was quickly turned over to the secular authorities and, on February 17, 1600 in the Campo de' Fiori, a central Roman market square, "his tongue imprisoned because of his wicked words" he was burned at the stake. "II Sommario del Processo di Giordano Bruno, con appendice di Documenti sull'eresia e l'inquisizione a Modena nel secolo XVI", edited by Angelo Mercati, in Studi e Testi, vol. 101; the precise terminology for the tool used to silence Bruno before burning is recorded as una morsa di legno, "a vise of wood", which will hopefully be noted and put to rest the sensationalistic claims (as though being burned alive were not sensationalistic enough) that his tongue was pierced with an iron spike. When the fire had died out his ashes were dumped into the Tiber river. All Bruno's works were placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1603. On the 400th anniversary of Bruno's death, Cardinal Angelo Sodano declared Bruno's death to be a "sad episode". However he added that people should not judge those who condemned Bruno and maintained, despite the historical facts, that the inquisitors "had the desire to preserve freedom and promote the common good and did everything possible to save his life." Seife, Charles, "Vatican Regrets Burning Cosmologist", in ScienceNOW, March 1st, 2000. Retrospective views of Bruno The monument to Bruno in the place he was executed, Campo de' Fiori in Rome. Some authors have characterized Bruno as a "martyr of science," suggesting parallels with the Galileo affair. They assert that, even though Bruno's theological beliefs were an important factor in his heresy trial, his Copernicanism and cosmological beliefs also played a significant role for the outcome. Others oppose such views, and claim this alleged connection to be exaggerated, or outright false. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "in 1600 there was no official Catholic position on the Copernican system, and it was certainly not a heresy. When [...] Bruno [...] was burned at the stake as a heretic, it had nothing to do with his writings in support of Copernican cosmology." Sheila Rabin, Nicolaus Copernicus in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (online, accessed 19 November 2005). Similarly, the Catholic Encyclopedia (1908) asserts that "Bruno was not condemned for his defence of the Copernican system of astronomy, nor for his doctrine of the plurality of inhabited worlds, but for his theological errors, among which were the following: that Christ was not God but merely an unusually skilful magician, that the Holy Ghost is the soul of the world, that the Devil will be saved, etc." Turner, William. "Giordano Bruno." Catholic Encyclopedia. 1908. Online, accessed 2 Jan 2007, at http://newadvent.org/cathen/03016a.htm. However, the webpage of the Vatican Secret Archives discussing the document containing a summary of legal proceedings against him in Rome, suggests a different perspective: "In the same rooms where Giordano Bruno was questioned, for the same important reasons of the relationship between science and faith, at the dawning of the new astronomy and at the decline of Aristotle’s philosophy, sixteen years later, Cardinal Bellarmino, who then contested Bruno’s heretical theses, summoned Galileo Galilei, who also faced a famous inquisitorial trial, which, luckily for him, ended with a simple abjuration." Vatican Secret Archives accessed 3 November 2006. In 1885 an international committee for a monument to Bruno on the site of his execution was formed, Site of Bruno's execution: . including Victor Hugo, Herbert Spencer, Ernest Renan, Ernst Haeckel, Henrik Ibsen and Ferdinand Gregorovius. Alan Powers, Bristol Community College, Campania Felix: Giordano Bruno’s Candelaio and Naples accessed 27 May 2007 Hans-Volkmar Findeisen: „Gegenpapst und Designer des Darwinismus“ – Wer kennt heute eigentlich noch Ernst Haeckel? (in German) accessed 27 May 2007 The monument was sharply opposed by the clerical party, but was finally erected by the Rome Municipality and inaugurated in 1889. A statue of a stretched human figure standing on its head designed by Alexander Polzin depicting Bruno's death at the stake was placed in Potsdamer Platz station in Berlin on March 2, 2008. http://bruno-denkmal.de/index.html Bruno-Denkmal website in German Cosmology Cosmology before Bruno According to Aristotle and Plato, the universe was a finite sphere. Its ultimate limit was the primum mobile, whose diurnal rotation was conferred upon it by a transcendental God, not part of the universe, a motionless prime mover and first cause. The fixed stars were part of this celestial sphere, all at the same fixed distance from the immobile earth at the center of the sphere. Ptolemy had numbered these at 1,022, grouped into 48 constellations. The planets were each fixed to a transparent sphere. Illuminated illustration of the Ptolemaic geocentric conception of the Universe. In the first half of the 15th century Nicolaus Cusanus (not to be confused with Copernicus a century later) reissued the ideas formulated in Antiquity by Democritus and Lucretius and dropped the Aristotelean cosmos. He envisioned an infinite universe, whose center was everywhere and circumference nowhere, with countless rotating stars, the Earth being one of them, of equal importance. He also considered that neither the rotational orbits were circular, nor the movement was uniform. In the second half of the 16th century, the theories of Copernicus began diffusing through Europe. Copernicus conserved the idea of planets fixed to solid spheres, but considered the apparent motion of the stars to be an illusion caused by the rotation of the Earth on its axis; he also preserved the notion of an immobile center, but it was the Sun rather than the Earth. Copernicus also argued the Earth was a planet orbiting the Sun once every year. However he maintained the Ptolemaic hypothesis that the orbits of the planets were composed of perfect circles—deferents and epicycles—and that the stars were fixed on a stationary outer sphere. Few astronomers of Bruno's time accepted Copernicus's heliocentric model. Among those who did were the Germans Michael Maestlin (1550-1631), Christoph Rothmann, Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), the Englishman Thomas Digges, author of A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes, and the Italian Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Bruno's cosmology Bruno believed (and praised Copernicus for establishing a scientific explanation for the fact) that the Earth revolves around the sun, and that the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens is an illusion caused by the rotation of the Earth around its axis. Bruno also held (following Nicholas of Cusa) that because God is infinite the universe would reflect this fact in boundless immensity. Bruno also asserted that the stars in the sky were really other suns like our own, around which orbited other planets. He indicated that support for such beliefs in no way contradicted scripture or true religion. In 1584, Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues, in which he argued against the planetary spheres. (Two years later, Rothmann did the same, as did Tycho Brahe in 1587.) Bruno's infinite universe was filled with a substance -- a "pure air," aether, or spiritus -- that offered no resistance to the heavenly bodies which, in Bruno's view, rather than being fixed, moved under their own impetus. Most dramatically, he completely abandoned the idea of a hierarchical universe. The Earth was just one more heavenly body, as was the Sun. God had no particular relation to one part of the infinite universe more than any other. God, according to Bruno, was as present on Earth as in the Heavens, an immanent God, the One subsuming in itself the multiplicity of existence, rather than a remote heavenly deity. Bruno also affirmed that the universe was homogeneous, made up everywhere of the four elements (water, earth, fire, and air), rather than having the stars be composed of a separate quintessence. Essentially, the same physical laws would operate everywhere, although the use of that term is anachronistic. Space and time were both conceived as infinite. There was no room in his stable and permanent universe for the Christian notions of divine creation and Last Judgement. Under this model, the Sun was simply one more star, and the stars all suns, each with its own planets. Bruno saw a solar system of a sun/star with planets as the fundamental unit of the universe. According to Bruno, infinite God necessarily created an infinite universe, formed of an infinite number of solar systems, separated by vast regions full of Aether, because empty space could not exist. (Bruno did not arrive at the concept of a galaxy.) Comets were part of a synodus ex mundis of stars, and not -- as other authors maintained at the time -- ephemeral creations, divine instruments, or heavenly messengers. Each comet was a world, a permanent celestial body, formed of the four elements. Bruno's cosmology is marked by infinitude, homogeneity, and isotropy, with planetary systems distributed evenly throughout. Matter follows an active animistic principle: it is intelligent and discontinuous in structure, made up of discrete atoms. This animism (and a corresponding disdain for mathematics as a means to understanding) is the most dramatic respect in which Bruno's cosmology differs from what today passes for a common-sense picture of the universe. During the later 16th century, and throughout the 17th century, Bruno's ideas were held up for ridicule, debate, or inspiration. Margaret Cavendish, for example, wrote an entire series of poems against "atoms" and "infinite worlds" in Poems and Fancies in 1664. Bruno's true, if partial, rehabilitation would have to wait for the implications of Newtonian cosmology. Bruno's overall contribution to the birth of modern science is still controversial. Some scholars follow Frances Yates stressing the importance of Bruno's ideas about the universe being infinite and lacking structure as a crucial crosspoint between the old and the new. Others disagree. Others yet see in Bruno's idea of multiple worlds instantiating the infinite possibilities of a pristine, indivisible One a forerunner of Everett's Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. Max Tegmark, Parallel Universes, 2003 Works De umbris idearum (Paris, 1582) Full Latin text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;Cantus Circaeus (1582) Full Latin text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;De compendiosa architectura (1582) ;Candelaio (1582) Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;Ars reminiscendi (1583) ;Explicatio triginta sigillorum (1583) ;Sigillus sigillorum (1583) ;La Cena de le Ceneri (Le Banquet des Cendres) (1584) Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download; De la causa, principio, et Uno (1584) Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;De l'infinito universo et Mondi (1584) Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;Spaccio de la Bestia Trionfante (L'expulsion de la bête triomphante) (London, 1584), allégorie où il combat la superstition Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download; Cabala del cavallo Pegaseo- Asino Cillenico(1585) Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;De gl' heroici furori (1585) Full Italian text, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;Figuratio Aristotelici Physici auditus (1585) ;Dialogi duo de Fabricii Mordentis Salernitani (1586) ;Idiota triumphans (1586) ;De somni interpretatione (1586) ;Animadversiones circa lampadem lullianam (1586) ;Lampas triginta statuarum (1586) ;Centum et viginti articuli de natura et mundo adversus peripateticos (1586) ;Delampade combinatoria Lulliana (1587) ;De progressu et lampade venatoria logicorum (1587) ;Oratio valedictoria (1588) Full Italian version, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;Camoeracensis Acrotismus (1588) ;De specierum scrutinio (1588) ;Articuli centum et sexaginta adversus huius tempestatismathematicos atque Philosophos (1588) ;Oratio consolatoria (1589) Full Italian version, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;De vinculis in genere (1591) Full Italian version, Giordano Bruno.info: Download;De triplici minimo et mensura (1591) ;De monade numero et figura (Francfort, 1591) ;De innumerabilibus, immenso, et infigurabili (1591) ;De imaginum, signorum et idearum compositione (1591) ;Summa terminorum metaphisicorum (1595) ;Artificium perorandi (1612) ; Jordani Bruni Nolani opera latine conscripta, Dritter Band 1962 / curantibus F. Tocco et H. Vitelli Note on the Bruno portraits The earlier of the two Bruno portraits, first published in 1715 in Germany, more than a century after his death. Retrospective 'scientific' iconography of Bruno shows him with a Dominican cowl but not tonsured. Edward Gosselin has suggested that it is likely Bruno kept his tonsure at least until 1579, and it is possible that he wore it again thereafter. When Bruno was imprisoned by the Venetian inquisition in May of 1592 records describe him as a man "of average height, with a hazel colored beard and the appearance of being about forty years of age."The later of two Bruno portraits often uncritically accepted as genuine. Engraved by C. Meyer in Paris, first quarter of the 19th century Otherwise, there is a passage in a work by George Abbot suggesting that Bruno was short, "When that Italian Didapper, who intituled himselfe Philotheus Iordanus Brunus Nolanus, magis elaborata Theologia Doctor, &c with a name longer than his body...". Robert McNulty, "Bruno at Oxford", in Renaissance News, 1960 (XIII), pp 300-305 In addition to mentioning his name is "longer than his body" Abbot uses the derisive term "didaper" which in period meant "a small diving waterfowl". Neither of these descriptions offers enough material upon which to base a portrait, and no period portrait is known to exist. The supposed "portraits" of Bruno often seen derive from two sources, the earlier of which is clearly the inspiration for the later. The more recent of the two dates from 1824, and appeared in a book discussing heroes of modern 'scientific' thought. The oldest is an engraving published in 1715. Edward A. Gosselin, "A Dominican Head in Layman's Garb? A Correction to the Scientific Iconography of Giordano Bruno", in The Sixteenth Century Journal, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 1996), p 674 According to Salvestrini the earlier of the two is "the only known portrait of Bruno". He suggests it might be a re-engraving made from a lost print. Its authenticity is doubtful. Virgilio Salvestrini, Bibliografia di Giordano Bruno, Firenze, 1958 Notes References Michel, Paul Henri (1962) The Cosmology of Giordano Bruno. Translated by R.E.W. Maddison. Paris: Hermann; London: Methuen; Ithaca, New York: Cornell. ISBN 0801405092 The Cabala of Pegasus by Giordano Bruno, ISBN 0300092172Giordano Bruno, Paul Oskar Kristeller, Collier's Encyclopedia, Vol 4, 1987 ed., pg. 634Il processo di Giordano Bruno, Luigi Firpo, 1993 Giordano Bruno,Il primo libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, Il trattato sull'intelligenza artificiale, a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore. Giordano Bruno,Il secondo libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, Il Sigillo dei Sigilli, a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore. Giordano Bruno, Il terzo libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, La logica per immagini, a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore Giordano Bruno, Il quarto libro della Clavis Magna, ovvero, L'arte di inventare con Trenta Statue, a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore Giordano Bruno L'incantesimo di Circe, a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore Guido del Giudice, WWW Giordano Bruno, Marotta & Cafiero Editori, 2001 ISBN 8888234012 Giordano Bruno, De Umbris Idearum, a cura di Claudio D'Antonio, Di Renzo Editore Guido del Giudice, La coincidenza degli opposti, Di Renzo Editore, ISBN 8883231104 , 2005 (seconda edizione accresciuta con il saggio Bruno, Rabelais e Apollonio di Tiana, Di Renzo Editore, Roma 2006 ISBN 8883231481) Giordano Bruno, Due Orazioni: Oratio Valedictoria - Oratio Consolatoria, a cura di Guido del Giudice, Di Renzo Editore, 2007 ISBN 8883231740 Giordano Bruno, La disputa di Cambrai. Camoeracensis Acrotismus'', a cura di Guido del Giudice, Di Renzo Editore, 2008 ISBN 8883231996 External links Official site of Giordano Bruno's 'followers' Bruno's works: text, concordances and frequency list Writings of Giordano Bruno Detailed biography of Giordano Bruno Latin text of Bruno's Ars Memoriae Collection of short excerpts about Giordano Bruno, from many authors throughout history Bruno's Latin and Italian works online: Biblioteca Ideale di Giordano Bruno Complete works of Bruno as well as main biographies and studies available for free download in PDF format from the Warburg Institute and the Centro Internazionale di Studi Bruniani Giovanni Aquilecchia | Giordano_Bruno |@lemmatized infobox:1 philosopher:2 region:2 western:1 philosophy:9 era:1 renaissance:5 color:2 nm:1 jcfhmcvmcnm:1 name:8 giordano:59 bruno:174 nola:2 campania:3 kingdom:2 naples:9 spanish:1 domination:1 february:5 rome:9 cosmology:11 memory:8 image:4 campo:4 dei:2 fiori:4 jpg:1 influence:3 averroes:1 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1,064 | North_Africa | North Africa or more correctly Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Northern Africa includes the following seven countries or territories: Algeria Egypt Libya Morocco Sudan Tunisia Western Sahara * The disputed territory of Western Sahara is mostly occupied and administered by Morocco; the Polisario Front claims the territory in militating for the establishment an independent republic, and exercises limited control over rump border territories. The Spanish plazas de soberanía (exclaves) are on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, surrounded by Morocco on land. The Spanish Canary Islands and Portuguese Madeira Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean are northwest of the African mainland and sometimes included in this region. Geographically, Mauritania and more rarely the Azores are sometimes included. There are also other older names for certain locations in North Africa that have been changed since ancient times. The Maghreb includes Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Libya. The disputed territory Western Sahara (under Moroccan control) is generally included on the same basis as Mauritania. North Africa generally is often included in common definitions of the Middle East, as both regions make up the Arab World. In addition, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt is part of Asia, making Egypt a transcontinental country. Geography The Atlas Mountains, which extend across much of Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia, are part of the fold mountain system which also runs through much of Southern Europe. They recede to the south and east, becoming a steppe landscape before meeting the Sahara desert which covers more than 90% of the region. The sediments of the Sahara overlie an ancient plateau of crystalline rock, some of which is more than four billion years old. Sheltered valleys in the Atlas Mountains, the Nile valley and delta, and the Mediterranean coast are the main sources of good farming land. A wide variety of valuable crops including cereals, rice and cotton, and woods such as cedar and cork, are grown. Typical mediterranean crops such as olives, figs, dates and citrus fruits also thrive in these areas. The Nile valley is particularly fertile, and most of Egypt's population lives close to the river. Elsewhere, irrigation is essential to improve crop yields on the desert margins. Territories and regions Country, with flag Area(km²) Population Density(per km²) Capital GDP (Total) Per capita Currency Government Official languages 2,381,740 33,333,216 14 Algiers $224.7 billion (2007) $6,500 (2007) Algerian dinar Presidential republic Arabic 1,001,449 77,498,000 74 Cairo $477.2 billion (2009) $6,234 (2009) Egyptian pound Semi-presidential republic (democracy) Arabic 1,759,540 6,036,914 3 Tripoli $74.8 billion (2007) $12,300 (2007) Libyan dinar Jamahiriya Arabic 446,550 33,757,175 70 Rabat $125.3 billion (2007) $4,100 (2007) Moroccan dirham Constitutional monarchy Arabic 2,505,813 39,379,358 14 Khartoum $107.8 billion (2007) $2,552 (2007) Sudanese pound Dictatorship (democracy) Arabic 163,610 10,102,000 62 Tunis $77 billion (2007) $7,500 (2007) Tunisian dinar Republic Arabic, French Under Moroccan administration 266,000 382,617 1.3 Moroccan dirham ArabicSource: The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 15 July 2008. People Distribution of Berbers in Northwest Africa The inhabitants of North Africa are generally divided in a manner roughly corresponding to the principal geographic regions of North Africa: the Maghreb, the Nile Valley, and the Sahara. Northwest Africa on the whole is believed to have been inhabited by Berbers since before the beginning of recorded history, while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians record extensive contact in their Western desert with peoples that appear to have been Berber or proto-Berber. Following the Muslim-Arab conquest in the 7th century AD, the region underwent a dramatic change in demographics mainly due to migration and plague killing the indigenous populations. In his Muqiddimah/Prolegomena, Ibn Khaldun sheds light on the Arab immigration into the Maghreb (North Africa): "at the end of the eighth [fourteenth] century-the situation in the Maghrib, as we can observe, has taken a turn and changed entirely. The Berbers, the original population of the Maghrib, have been replaced by an influx of Arabs, (that began in) the fifth [eleventh] century. The Arabs outnumbered and overpowered the Berbers, stripped them of most of their lands, and (also) obtained a share of those that remained in their possession as, in the middle of the eighth [fourteenth] century, civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish." Many North African nomads, such as the Bedouin, maintain a traditional pastoral lifestyle on the desert fringes, moving their herds of sheep, goats and camels from place to place – crossing country borders in order to find sufficient grazing land. Culture The people of the Maghreb and the Sahara speak various dialects of Berber and Arabic, and almost exclusively follow Islam. The Arabic and Berber groups of languages are distantly related, both being members of the Afro-Asiatic family. The Sahara dialects are notably more conservative than those of coastal cities (see Tuareg languages). Over the years, Berber peoples have been influenced by other cultures with which they came in contact: Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, and lately Europeans. The cultures of the Maghreb and the Sahara therefore combine indigenous Berber, Arab and elements from neighboring parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. In the Sahara, the distinction between sedentary oasis inhabitants and nomadic Bedouin and Tuareg is particularly marked. The diverse peoples of the Sahara chi que en categorized along ethno-linguistic lines. In the Maghreb, where Arab and Berber identities are often integrated, these lines can be blurred. Some Berber-speaking North Africans may identify as "Arab" depending on the social and political circumstances, although substantial numbers of Berbers (or Imazighen) have retained a distinct cultural identity which in the 20th century has been expressed as a clear ethnic identification with Berber history and language. Arabic-speaking Northwest Africans, regardless of ethnic background, often identify with Arab history and culture and may share a common vision with other Arabs. This, however, may or may not exclude pride in and identification with Berber and/or other parts of their heritage. Berber political and cultural activists for their part, often referred to as Berberists, may view all Northwest Africans as principally Berber, whether they are primarily Berber- or Arabic-speaking (see also Arabized Berber). The Nile Valley traces its origins to the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Kush. The Egyptians over the centuries have shifted their language from Egyptian to modern Egyptian Arabic (both Afro-Asiatic), while retaining a sense of national identity that has historically set them apart from other people in the region. Most Egyptians are Sunni Muslim and a significant minority adheres to Coptic Christianity which has strong historical ties to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Eritrean Orthodox Church. North Africa formerly had a large Jewish population, many of whom emigrated to France or Israel when the North African nations gained independence. A smaller number went to Canada. Prior to the modern establishment of Israel, there were about 600,000–700,000 Jews in North Africa, including both Sfardīm (refugees from France, Spain and Portugal from the Renaissance era) as well as indigenous . Today, less than fifteen thousand remain in the region, almost all in Morocco and Tunisia. (See Jewish exodus from Arab lands.) History Antiquity and Ancient Rome The most notable nations of antiquity in western North Africa are Carthage and Numidia. The Phoenicians colonized much of North Africa including Carthage and parts of present day Morocco (including Chellah, Mogador and Volubilis C. Michael Hogan, Volubilis, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham (2007) ). The Carthaginians were of Phoenician origin, with the Roman myth of their origin being that Queen Dido, a Phoenician princess was granted land by a local ruler based on how much land she could cover with a piece of cowhide. She ingeniously devised a method to extend the cowhide to a high proportion, thus gaining a large territory. She was also rejected by the Trojan prince Aeneas according to Virgil, thus creating a historical enmity between Carthage and Rome, as Aeneas would eventually lay the foundations for Rome. The Carthaginians were a commercial power and had a strong navy, but relied on mercenaries for land soldiers. The Carthaginians developed an empire in Spain and Sicily, the latter being the cause of First Punic War with the Romans. Over a hundred years and more, all Carthaginian territory was eventually conquered by the Romans, resulting in the Carthaginian North African territories becoming the Roman province of Africa in 146 B.C. The Punic Wars 264-146 BC, by Nigel Bagnall This led to tension and eventually conflict between Numidia and Rome. The Numidian wars are notable for launching the careers of both Gaius Marius, and Sulla, and stretching the constitutional burden of the Roman republic, as Marius required a professional army, something previously contrary to Roman values to overcome the talented military leader Jugurtha. Sallust, De Bello Iugurthino North Africa remained a part of the Roman Empire, which produced many notable citizens such as Augustine of Hippo, until incompetent leadership from Roman commanders in the early fifth century allowed the Germanic barbarian tribe, the Vandals, to cross the Strait of Gibraltar, whereupon they overcame the fickle Roman defense. The loss of North Africa is considered a pinnacle point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire as Africa had previously been an important grain province that maintained Roman prosperity despite the barbarian incursions, and the wealth required to create new armies. The issue of regaining North Africa became paramount to the Western Empire, but was frustrated by Vandal victories and that the focus of Roman energy had to be on the emerging threat of the Huns. In 468 A.D., the last attempt by the Romans, with Byzantine aid, made a serious attempt to invade North Africa but were repelled. This is placed as the point of no return for the western Roman empire in a historical sense and the last Roman Emperor was deposed in 475 by the Ostrogoth generalissimo Odoacer who saw no purpose in regaining North Africa. Trade routes between Europe and North Africa remained intact until the coming of the Moslems. Some Berbers were Christians (but evolved their own Donatist doctrine), The Berbers, BBC World Service | The Story of Africa some were Jewish, and some adhered to their traditional polytheist religion. African pope Victor I served during the reign of Roman emperor Septimus Severus, of Roman/Berber ancestry. "Berbers : ... The best known of them were the Roman author Apuleius, the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, and St. Augustine", Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005, v.3, p.569 The Byzantine reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals began in 533 AD, as Justinian I sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former Roman province of Africa. Arab Conquest to modern times The Arab Islamic conquest reached North Africa in 640 AD. By 670, most of North Africa had fallen to Muslim rule. Indigenous Berbers subsequently started to form their own polities in response in places such as Fez, Morocco, and Sijilimasa. In the eleventh century, a reformist movement made up of members that called themselves Almoravids, expanded south into Sub-Saharan Africa. The North Africa's populous and flourishing civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Bedouin tribes of Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal. The Great Mosque of Tlemcen, MuslimHeritage.com Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert. Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell After the Middle Ages the area was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire, except Morocco. After the 19th century, the imperial and colonial presence of France, the United Kingdom, Spain and Italy left the entirety of the region under one form of European occupation. In World War II from 1940 to 1943 the area was the setting for the North African Campaign. During the 1950s and 1960s all of the North African states gained independence. There remains a dispute over Western Sahara between Morocco and the Algerian-backed Polisario Front. Transport and industry The economies of Algeria and Libya were transformed by the discovery of oil and natural gas reserves in the deserts. Morocco's major exports are phosphates and agricultural produce, and as in Egypt and Tunisia, the tourist industry is essential to the economy. Egypt has the most varied industrial base, importing technology to develop electronics and engineering industries, and maintaining the reputation of its high-quality cotton textiles. Oil rigs are scattered throughout the deserts of Libya and Algeria. Libyan oil is especially prized because of its low sulphur content, which it means it produces much less pollution than other fuel oils. See also 2004 locust outbreak European Digital Archive on Soil Maps of the World Northern Africa Railroad Development Amazigh Moroccan Democratic Party (Berbers) North African Campaign References External links The North Africa Journal Analytical magazine Energy and Mining Industries and Markets Politics and Diplomacy Finance and Banking Agriculture and Tourism Corporate Affairs Social and Labor Affairs Human Rights for Indigenous Peoples North Africa's Weather Forecasts and Weather Conditions be-x-old:Паўночная Афрыка | North_Africa |@lemmatized north:31 africa:35 correctly:1 northern:4 northernmost:1 region:10 african:12 continent:1 link:2 sahara:13 sub:2 saharan:2 geopolitically:1 un:1 definition:2 include:10 follow:3 seven:1 country:4 territory:9 algeria:5 egypt:7 libya:4 morocco:11 sudan:1 tunisia:5 western:9 disputed:2 mostly:1 occupied:1 administer:1 polisario:2 front:2 claim:1 militate:1 establishment:2 independent:1 republic:5 exercise:1 limit:1 control:3 rump:1 border:2 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1,065 | Höðr | Loki tricks Höðr into shooting Baldr. Höðr (often anglicized as Hod The name Höðr is thought to be related to höð, "battle", and mean something like "killer". This would seem to fit with the god's mythological role. In the standardized Old Norse orthography the name is spelled but the letter '' is frequently replaced with the Modern Icelandic 'ö' for reasons of familiarity or technical expediency. The name can be represented in English texts as Hod, Hoder, Hodur, Hodr, Hödr, Höd or Hoth or less commonly as Hödur, Hödhr, Höder, Hothr, Hodhr, Hodh, Hother, Höthr, Höth or Hödh. In the reconstructed pronunciation of Old Norse Höðr is pronounced (♫) while the Icelandic pronunciation is (♫), corresponding to the Icelandic spelling Höður. The various anglicizations are pronounced in an ad hoc fashion according to the taste and dialect of the speaker. ) is the brother of Baldr in Norse mythology. Guided by Loki he shot the mistletoe missile which was to slay the otherwise invulnerable Baldr. According to the Prose Edda and the Poetic Edda the goddess Frigg made everything in existence swear never to harm Baldr, except for the mistletoe which she found too young to demand an oath from. The gods amused themselves by trying weapons on Baldr and seeing them fail to do any harm. Loki, upon finding out about Baldr's one weakness, made a missile from mistletoe, and helped Höðr shoot it at Baldr. After this Odin and the giantess Rindr gave birth to Váli who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr. The Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus recorded an alternative version of this myth in his Gesta Danorum. In this version the mortal hero Høtherus and the demi-god Balderus compete for the hand of Nanna. Ultimately Høtherus slays Balderus. The Prose Edda In the Gylfaginning part of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda Höðr is introduced in an ominous way. Höðr heitir einn ássinn, hann er blindr. Œrit er hann styrkr, en vilja mundu goðin at þenna ás þyrfti eigi at nefna, þvíat hans handaverk munu lengi vera höfð at minnum með goðum ok mönnum. - Eysteinn Björnsson's edition"One of the Æsir is named Hödr: he is blind. He is of sufficient strength, but the gods would desire that no occasion should rise of naming this god, for the work of his hands shall long be held in memory among gods and men." - Brodeur's translation Höðr is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr's death is described. All things except the mistletoe (believed to be harmless) have sworn an oath not to harm Baldr, so the Æsir throw missiles at him for sport. En Loki tók mistiltein ok sleit upp ok gekk til þings. En Höðr stóð útarliga í mannhringinum, þvíat hann var blindr. Þá mælti Loki við hann: "Hví skýtr þú ekki at Baldri?" Hann svarar: "Þvíat ek sé eigi hvar Baldr er, ok þat annat at ek em vápnlauss." Þá mælti Loki: "Gerðu þó í líking annarra manna ok veit Baldri sœmð sem aðrir menn. Ek mun vísa þér til hvar hann stendr. Skjót at honum vendi þessum." Höðr tók mistiltein ok skaut at Baldri at tilvísun Loka. Flaug skotit í gögnum hann ok fell hann dauðr til jarðar. Ok hefir þat mest óhapp verit unnit með goðum ok mönnum. - Eysteinn Björnsson's edition"Loki took the mistletoe and pulled it up and went to the Thing. Hödr stood outside the ring of men, because he was blind. Then spake Loki to him: 'Why dost thou not shoot at Baldr?' He answered: 'Because I see not where Baldr is; and for this also, that I am weaponless.' Then said Loki: 'Do thou also after the manner of other men, and show Baldr honor as the other men do. I will direct thee where he stands; shoot at him with this wand.' Hödr took mistletoe and shot at Baldr, being guided by Loki: the shaft flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the earth; and that was the greatest mischance that has ever befallen among gods and men." - Brodeur's translation The Gylfaginning does not say what happens to Höðr after this. In fact it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately. Þá er Baldr var fallinn, þá fellusk öllum ásum orðtök ok svá hendr at taka til hans, ok sá hverr til annars ok váru allir með einum hug til þess er unnit hafði verkit. En engi mátti hefna, þar var svá mikill griðastaðr. - Eysteinn Björnsson's edition"Then, when Baldr was fallen, words failed all the Æsir, and their hands likewise to lay hold of him; each looked at the other, and all were of one mind as to him who had wrought the work, but none might take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was in that place." - Brodeur's translation It does seem, however, that Höðr ends up in Hel one way or another for the last mention of him in Gylfaginning is in the description of the post-Ragnarök world. Því næst koma þar Baldr ok Höðr frá Heljar, setjask þá allir samt ok talask við ok minnask á rúnar sínar ok rœða of tíðindi þau er fyrrum höfðu verit, of Miðgarðsorm ok um Fenrisúlf. - Eysteinn Björnsson's edition"After that Baldr shall come thither, and Hödr, from Hel; then all shall sit down together and hold speech with one another, and call to mind their secret wisdom, and speak of those happenings which have been before: of the Midgard Serpent and of Fenris-Wolf." - Brodeur's translation Snorri's source of this knowledge is clearly Völuspá as quoted below. In the Skáldskaparmál section of the Prose Edda several kennings for Höðr are related. Hvernig skal kenna Höð? Svá, at kalla hann blinda ás, Baldrs bana, skjótanda Mistilteins, son Óðins, Heljar sinna, Vála dólg. - Guðni Jónsson's edition"How should one periphrase Hödr? Thus: by calling him the Blind God, Baldr's Slayer, Thrower of the Mistletoe, Son of Odin, Companion of Hel, Foe of Váli." - Brodeur's translation None of those kennings, however, are actually found in surviving skaldic poetry. Neither are Snorri's kennings for Váli which are also of interest in this context. Hvernig skal kenna Vála? Svá, at kalla hann son Óðins ok Rindar, stjúpson Friggjar, bróður ásanna, hefniás Baldrs, dólg Haðar ok bana hans, byggvanda föðurtófta. - Guðni Jónsson's edition "How should Váli be periphrased? Thus: by calling him Son of Odin and Rindr, Stepson of Frigg, Brother of the Æsir, Baldr's Avenger, Foe and Slayer of Hödr, Dweller in the Homesteads of the Fathers." - Brodeur's translation It is clear from this that Snorri was familiar with the role of Váli as Höðr's slayer, even though he does not relate that myth in the Gylfaginning prose. Scholars have speculated that he found it distasteful since Höðr is essentially innocent in his version of the story. The Poetic Edda Höðr is referred to several times in the Poetic Edda, always in the context of Baldr's death. The following strophes are from Völuspá. Ek sá Baldri, blóðgom tívur, Óðins barni, ørlög fólgin: stóð um vaxinn völlum hærri mjór ok mjök fagr mistilteinn. Varð af þeim meiði, er mær sýndisk, harmflaug hættlig: Höðr nam skjóta. Baldrs bróðir var of borinn snemma, sá nam, Óðins sonr, einnættr vega. Þó hann æva hendr né höfuð kembði, áðr á bál um bar Baldrs andskota. En Frigg um grét í Fensölum vá Valhallar - vituð ér enn, eða hvat? - EB's editionI saw for Baldr, the bleeding god, The son of Othin, his destiny set: Famous and fair in the lofty fields, Full grown in strength the mistletoe stood. From the branch which seemed so slender and fair Came a harmful shaft that Hoth should hurl; But the brother of Baldr was born ere long, And one night old fought Othin’s son. His hands he washed not, his hair he combed not, Till he bore to the bale-blaze Baldr’s foe. But in Fensalir did Frigg weep sore For Valhall’s need: would you know yet more? - HAB's translationI saw for Baldr— for the bloodstained sacrifice, Óðinn's child— the fates set hidden. There stood full-grown, higher than the plains, slender and most fair, the mistletoe. There formed from that stem which was slender-seeming, a shaft of anguish, perilous: Hǫðr started shooting. A brother of Baldr was born quickly: he started—Óðinn's son— slaying, at one night old. He never washed hands, never combed head, till he bore to the pyre Baldr's adversary— while Frigg wept in Fen Halls for Valhǫll's woe. Do you still seek to know? And what? - UD's translation This account seems to fit well with the information in the Prose Edda, but here the role of Baldr's avenging brother is emphasized. Baldr and Höðr are also mentioned in Völuspá'''s description of the world after Ragnarök. Munu ósánir akrar vaxa, böls mun alls batna, Baldr mun koma. Búa þeir Höðr ok Baldr Hropts sigtóptir vel, valtívar - vituð ér enn, eða hvat? - Eysteinn Björnsson's editionUnsown shall the fields bring forth, all evil be amended; Baldr shall come; Hödr and Baldr, the heavenly gods, Hropt´s glorious dwellings shall inhabit. Understand ye yet, or what? - Thorpe's translation The poem Vafþrúðnismál informs us that the gods who survive Ragnarök are Viðarr, Váli, Móði and Magni with no mention of Höðr and Baldr. The myth of Baldr's death is also referred to in another Eddic poem, Baldrs draumar. {| | style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |Óðinn kvað: "Þegj-at-tu, völva,þik vil ek fregna, unz alkunna,vil ek enn vita: Hverr mun Baldriat bana verða ok Óðins sonaldri ræna?" Völva kvað:"Höðr berr hávan hróðrbaðm þinig,hann mun Baldri at bana verðaok Óðins son aldri ræna;nauðug sagðak, nú mun ek þegja."Óðinn kvað: "Þegj-at-tu, völva,þik vil ek fregna, unz alkunna,vil ek enn vita: Hverr mun heift Heðihefnt of vinna eða Baldrs banaá bál vega?" Völva kvað: Rindr berr Vála í vestrsölum, sá mun Óðins sonr einnættr vega: hönd of þvær né höfuð kembir, áðr á bál of berr Baldrs andskota; nauðug sagðak, nú mun ek þegja." - Guðni Jónsson's edition | style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" | Vegtam "Be thou not silent, Vala! I will question thee, until I know all. I will yet know who will Baldr’s slayer be, and Odin’s son of life bereave." Vala "Hödr will hither his glorious brother send, he of Baldr will the slayer be, and Odin’s son of life bereave. By compulsion I have spoken; I will now be silent." Vegtam "Be not silent, Vala! I will question thee, until I know all. I will yet know who on Hödr vengeance will inflict or Baldr’s slayer raise on the pile." Vala "Rind a son shall bear, in the western halls: he shall slay Odin’s son, when one night old. He a hand will not wash, nor his head comb, ere he to the pile has borne Baldr’s adversary. By compulsion I have spoken; I will now be silent." - Thorpe's translation | |} Höðr is not mentioned again by name in the Eddas. He is, however, referred to in Völuspá in skamma. Váru ellifu æsir talðir, Baldr er hné, við banaþúfu; þess lézk Váli verðr at hefna, síns of bróður sló hann handbana. - Guðni Jónsson's editionThere were eleven Æsir reckoned, when Baldr on the pile was laid; him Vali showed himself worthy to avenge, his own brother: he the slayer slew. - Thorpe's translation Skaldic poetry The name of Höðr occurs several times in skaldic poetry as a part of warrior-kennings. Thus Höðr brynju, "Höðr of byrnie", is a warrior and so is Höðr víga, "Höðr of battle". Some scholars have found the fact that the poets should want to compare warriors with Höðr to be incongruous with Snorri's description of him as a blind god, unable to harm anyone without assistance. It is possible that this indicates that some of the poets were familiar with other myths about Höðr than the one related in Gylfaginning - perhaps some where Höðr has a more active role. On the other hand the names of many gods occur in kennings and the poets might not have been particular in using any god name as a part of a kenning. Gesta Danorum In Saxo's version of the story Høtherus meets wood maidens who warn him that Balderus is a demi-god who can't be killed by normal means. In Gesta Danorum Høtherus is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines. He is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music and Nanna, daughter of King Gevarus falls in love with him. But at the same time Balderus, son of Othinus, has caught sight of Nanna bathing and fallen violently in love with her. He resolves to slay Høtherus, his rival. As Høtherus is hunting he is led astray by a mist and meets wood-maidens who control the fortunes of war. They warn him that Balderus has designs on Nanna but also tell him that he shouldn't attack him in battle since he is a demigod. Høtherus goes to consult with King Gevarus and asks him for his daughter. The king replies that he would gladly favour him but that Balderus has already offered a like request and he does not want to incur his wrath. Gevarus tells Høtherus that Balderus is invincible but that he knows of one weapon which can defeat him, a sword kept by Mimingus, the satyr of the woods. Mimingus also has another magical artifact, a bracelet that increases the wealth of its owner. Riding through a region of extraordinary cold in a carriage drawn by reindeer Høtherus captures the satyr with a clever ruse and forces him to yield his artifacts. Hearing about Høtherus's artifacts, Gelderus, king of Saxony, equips a fleet to attack him. Gevarus warns Høtherus of this and tells him where to meet Gelderus in battle. When the battle is joined, Høtherus and his men save their missiles while defending themselves against those of the enemy with a testudo formation. With his missiles exhausted, Gelderus is forced to sue for peace. He is treated mercifully by Høtherus and becomes his ally. Høtherus then gains another ally with his eloquent oratory by helping King Helgo of Hålogaland win a bride. Meanwhile Balderus enters the country of king Gevarus armed and sues for Nanna. Gevarus tells him to learn Nanna's own mind. Balderus addresses her with cajoling words but obtains a refusal. Nanna tells him that because of the great difference in their nature and stature, since he is a demigod, they are not suitable for marriage. As news of Balderus's efforts reaches Høtherus he and his allies resolve to attack Balderus. A great naval battle ensues where the gods fight on the side of Balderus. Thoro in particular shatters all opposition with his mighty club. As the battle seems lost Høtherus manages to hew Thoro's club off at the haft and the gods are forced to retreat. Gelderus perishes in the battle and Høtherus arranges a funeral pyre of vessels for him. After this battle Høtherus finally marries Nanna. Balderus is not completely defeated and shortly afterwards returns to defeat Høtherus in the field. But Balderus's victory is without fruit for he is still without Nanna. Lovesick he is harassed by phantoms in Nanna's likeness and his health deteriorates so that he cannot walk but has himself drawn around in a cart. After a while Høtherus and Balderus have their third battle and again Høtherus is forced to retreat. Weary of life because of his misfortunes against Balderus he plans to retire and wanders into the wilderness. In a cave he comes upon the same maidens he had met at the start of his career. Now they tell him that he can defeat Balderus if he gets a taste of some extraordinary food which had been devised to increase the strength of Balderus. Encouraged by this Høtherus returns from exile and once again meets Balderus in the field. After a day of inconclusive fighting Høtherus goes out during the night to spy on the enemy. He finds where Balderus's magical food is prepared and plays the lyre for the maidens preparing it. While they don't want to give him the food they bestow on him a belt and a girdle which secure victory. Heading back to his camp, Høtherus meets Balderus and plunges his sword into his side. After three days Balderus dies from his wound. Many years later, Bous, the son of Othinus and Rinda avenges his brother and kills Høtherus in a duel. Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundenses There are also two less known Danish Latin chronicles, the Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses of which the latter is included in the former. These two sources provide a second euhemerized account of Höðr's slaying of Balder. It relates that Hother was the king of the Saxons and son of Hothbrod and the daughter of Hadding. Hother first slew Othen's (i.e. Odin) son Balder in battle and then chased Othen and Thor. Finally, Othen's son Both killed Hother. Hother, Balder, Othen and Thor were incorrectly considered to be gods. Rydberg's theories According to the Swedish mythologist and romantic poet, Viktor Rydberg Investigations into Germanic Mytholgoy, Volume II, Part 2: Germanic Mythology, William P. Reaves Translation, iUniverse, 2004 the story of Baldr's death was taken from Húsdrápa, a poem composed by Ulfr Uggason around 990 AD at a feast thrown by the Icelandic Chief Óláfr Höskuldsson to celebrate the finished construction of his new home, Hjarðarholt, the walls of which were filled with symbolic representations of the Baldr myth among others. Rydberg suggested that Höðr was depicted with eyes closed and Loki guiding his aim to indicate that Loki was the true cause of Baldr's death and Höðr was only his "blind tool." Rydberg theorized that the author of the Gylfaginning then mistook the description of the symbolic artwork in the Húsdrápa as the actual tale of Baldr's death. Notes References Bellows, Henry Adams (transl.) (1936). The Poetic Edda. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Available online Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.) (1916). The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. Available online Dronke, Ursula (ed.) (1997) The Poetic Edda: Mythological Poems. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198111819. Eysteinn Björnsson (2001). Lexicon of Kennings : The Domain of Battle. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/kennings/kennings.html Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita. 2005. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). Völuspá. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html Guðni Jónsson (ed.) (1949). Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda. Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan. Available online Lindow, John (2001). Handbook of Norse mythology. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576072177. Thorpe, Benjamin (transl.) (1866). Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned. (2 vols.) London: Trübner & Co. 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1,066 | Mary_Rose | The sole known image of the Mary Rose, depicted in the Anthony Roll The Mary Rose was an English Tudor carrack warship and one of the first to be able to fire a full broadside of cannons. The Mary Rose was well equipped with 78 guns (91 after an upgrade in 1536) and was the pride of the English fleet. Built in Portsmouth, England (1509–1510) she was thought to be named after King Henry VIII's sister Mary and the rose, the Tudor emblem. She was one of the earliest purpose-built warships to serve in the Royal Navy; it is thought that she never served as a merchant ship. She displaced 500 tons (700 tons after 1536), was 38.5 m long and 11.7 m beam and her crew consisted of 200 sailors, 185 soldiers, and 30 gunners. After serving for over thirty years, she sank in the Solent during an engagement with the French fleet on 19 July 1545. The surviving section of the ship was raised in 1982 and is now on display in Portsmouth Historic Dockyard along with an extensive collection of well preserved artefacts. Career The Mary Rose served as the flagship of Admiral Sir Edward Howard in the Italian Wars and was frequently engaged. On 10 August 1512 she was the flagship of an English fleet of 50 ships that attacked the French at Brest in Brittany. The Mary Rose attacked the French Marie la Cordelière, the flagship of Admiral Ren de Clermont; in the battle the Marie la Cordelière was crippled and the Mary Rose was damaged and ran aground. The Marie la Cordelière then came under fire from the Mary James, the Sovereign, and the Regent, eventually blowing up with the loss of more than a thousand men. Thirty-two French ships were taken or destroyed in the battle. After the death of Edward Howard in 1513, the Mary Rose became the flagship of Lord High Admiral Sir Thomas Howard. Refittings In 1528 and again in 1536 the Mary Rose was rebuilt, having her displacement increased from 500 to 700 tons and now mounting 91 guns. The refits are thought to have added an extra deck, making her top-heavy and liable to increased tendencies to roll over steeply in heavy seas. The weight of an additional deck (40% over her original displacement), and the bigger guns with which she was also equipped would have increased her draft adversely—the measure of water displaced between keel bottom and the waterline. Buoyancy is directly proportional to her original keel length and lower hull shape—buoyant force increasing linearly with offsetting depth increases (and resulting in less freeboard) to counteract the increased weight— only increasing as more hull descends below the waterline. That would place her lower deck gun ports significantly closer to the waterline, as it is unlikely the low ceilinged lower gun deck could be altered as well, being in much the same situation as a basement of a house gaining a new storey. This extra 200 tons displacement would have lowered her freeboard radically and may have been a direct contributor to her later sinking. Sinking In 1545 King Francis I of France launched an invasion of England with 30,000 soldiers in 225 ships — larger than the Spanish Armada forty-three years later. The French took some soldiers from the Spanish army to help defeat England. Against this invasion fleet, The English had about 80 ships and 12,000 soldiers, with the Mary Rose the flagship of Vice Admiral Sir George Carew. In early July the French entered the Solent channel, between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. On 19 July 1545 (see Battle of the Solent) the English came out of Portsmouth and engaged the French at long range, little damage being done on either side. The next day was calm, and the French employed their galleys against the immobile English vessels. During this action the ship capsized and sank with the loss of all but 35 of her crew. Long-accepted accounts conclude that the ship sank due to a combination of poor design, open gun ports, bringing the ship about too quickly and bad luck. Other theories have stated the presence of Spanish mercenaries among the crew may have caused language communications problems in part leading to the gun ports being left open. A more recent theory suggests that her sinking happened, towards the evening as a breeze sprang up and as Mary Rose advanced to battle, because her hull was holed by cannon fire from the French galleys. Proponents of this novel theory state that for political reasons, especially to avoid conceding victory to the French, it was originally maintained that the ship sank as the result of an unfortunate combination of poor design and tidal forces. This version of events was accepted until 2008, when a new analysis of the wreck was performed. Sources said that the ship had fired from the port side and made a sharp turn so she could fire from the starboard side. The turn was so sharp that the ship heeled sufficiently to submerge the open gun ports, allowing enough water to enter to sink the ship. Sources also suggest that the Mary Rose had the gunports too near the waterline, increasing the risk of an influx of water. Furthermore, the ship was carrying a large number of soldiers in full armour on her upper decks, with the possible result of further raising her centre of gravity and making her even more unstable. As was common in warships of the time the upper decks were covered with netting to prevent soldiers from enemy ships from boarding and damaged rigging falling onto the crew. Many sailors could not swim: being superstitious they regarded this as tempting fate . This and the netting made losses particularly severe. Experiments Researchers for a television programme used an exact scale model of the Mary Rose to investigate the causes suggested for her sinking. Metal weights were used to simulate the presence of troops on the upper decks. Initial tests showed that the Mary Rose was able to make the turn described by eyewitnesses without capsizing. In later tests, a fan was used to create a breeze similar to the one reported to have suddenly sprung up on the day of the sinking as the real Mary Rose went to make the turn. As the model went to make the turn, the breeze in the upper works of the ship forced the ship to turn at a more acute angle than before, forcing her lower gun ports below the waterline. Water entered the ship, increasing the degree of heel and causing the rate of flooding to increase. The ship quickly capsized, sinking completely within a few seconds. The sequence of events closely followed what eyewitnesses had reported had occurred, particularly the suddenness with which the ship sank. The researchers concluded that numerous causes had contributed to making the Mary Rose unstable and top heavy, such as: the inexperience of the shipwright, and miscalculations were not uncommon. In addition to these weaknesses, the gun ports were originally cut too low in the ship's side, for the later resultant freeboard and ship's load line when her upper gundeck was added in an attempt to increase firepower, to fit more cannon and create a more powerful warship. These ports should have been closed as the ship went to make the turn, but for some reason, possibly a breakdown in communication, or an oversight by the sailors, they were not. Despite all these factors combining to create a hazardous situation, the experiment showed that the Mary Rose's sinking was not inevitable. The sudden gust of wind that caught the ship at the crucial point of her turn was the final fatal contribution to the sinking. Consequences The loss of one of the most powerful Tudor warships afloat caused considerable consternation, particularly as it sank within sight of King Henry VIII who was watching from Southsea Castle nearby. The fact that it sank was particularly unusual for the time. The most common cause of the loss of a warship was through fire. The lack of powerful cannon and the robustness of wooden ships made it difficult for ships to be damaged sufficiently in engagements for them to sink. There was also no immediate explanation for the sinking, such as a violent storm, or foundering on rocks.The loss of the Mary Rose therefore entered the public consciousness and was remembered, whereas most ship losses over the period were not. Modern work on the wreck Rediscovery On 16 June 1836 the Mary Rose was found when a fishing net caught on the wreck, and diver John Deane recovered timbers, guns, longbows, and other items. But the location was forgotten after Deane stopped work on the site in 1840. Alexander McKee started a new search in 1965, and in 1967 Professor Harold Edgerton found an acoustic anomaly by using side-scan sonar. In 1971 a springtide, combined with a severe gale, uncovered a layer of sediment, leaving several structural timbers clearly visible. In the years that followed, it became clear that the wreck lay on her starboard side, at an angle of 60°. On 5 February 1974 the Mary Rose wreck became the second wrecksite (along with others) to be protected under the Protection of Wrecks Act. The wrecksite remains protected today even after the lifting of the majority of the remaining ship timbers. Excavation and raising In 1979 the Mary Rose Trust was formed and an archeological team under the direction of Dr. Margaret Rule, CBE, began work to excavate the wreck. First, the wreck was lifted by means of a lifting frame. After that, the wreck, still under water, could be lifted onto a support cradle. On 11 October 1982 the wreck was lifted from the water by a team led by the Royal Engineers, and put upright in a dry dock with a temperature of 2–6 °C and a relative humidity of 95%. Preservation In 1994 work started on a three-stage conservation process using low-molecular-weight polyethylene glycol (a wax, essentially). The second stage, which commenced in 2004, consists of spraying the wreck with a high-molecular-weight polyethylene glycol; this is due to be completed around 2010. BBC Radio World Service Broadcast, "What Lies Beneath" First broadcast Friday 22 August 2008 In the third stage, the wreck will be slowly dried. This preservation technique is the same as that begun in 1961 for the Vasa, a Swedish ship of the line which capsized in 1628 and is now on display in Stockholm. The Vasa is virtually intact while the Mary Rose is an almost perfect longitudinal vertical cross-section, due to marine worms such as the shipworm Teredo navalis destroying the port side above the seabed. The expertise and facilities developed for the preservation of the Mary Rose has benefited many other archaeological projects. Experts from the Mary Rose Trust helped conserve the Dover Bronze Age Boat and the timbers from Seahenge. Finds Along with remains of around half the crew, a great number of artefacts were uncovered during excavation, including navigational and medical equipment, carpentry tools, guns, longbows, arrows with traces of copper-rich binding glue still remaining on the tips, cooking and eating utensils, lanterns, backgammon boards, playing dice, logs for the galley's ovens, and even a well-preserved shawm, a long lost predecessor of the oboe, from which a fully functioning model has since been replicated. Many of the skeletons had the "os acromiale" feature, showing that they had been archery training from childhood on with the mediaeval war bow (which needs a pull 3 times as strong as the modern standard Olympic bow). Display These artefacts, and the wreck itself, are displayed at the Mary Rose museum located on the Royal Naval base in Portsmouth, England. A £20 million appeal for funds for The Final Voyage - the co-location of the hull of the Mary Rose with her artefacts in a new museum - was launched locally in Portsmouth on the evening of 10 March 2006. Leading local businesses, members of Portsmouth City Council and the Lord Mayor attended presentations in the current museum. Intended to attract 500,000 visitors and opening by 2012 (with spraying of the hull intended to be complete around 2009/10), this new co-located museum will create a world-leading museum in Portsmouth for the Mary Rose and the Tudor Navy, an international centre for maritime archaeology and provide better facilities for education and outreach. This was originally denied a Heritage Lottery Fund grant in 2006 , but in January 2008, the Fund announced that they would award £21 million grant to the Mary Rose trust . Mary Rose Museum On 25 January 2008 it was revealed that a secondary appeal for funds to create the new museum had been successful.The Heritage Lottery Fund grant will be used to complete its conservation and build a museum around the vessel. The overall cost of the project will total £20.5m. Over 19,000 artefacts recovered from the ship will be on display at the museum, which is currently a temporary structure. Admiral John Lippiett, of the Mary Rose Trust, said: "[It] paves the way to complete the long conservation process and display the majority of amazing artefacts in a magnificent museum. The learning facilities will be world class and able to meet the huge demand placed upon them by school children and students." Dame Liz Forgan, chair of the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF), said: "The Mary Rose is an amazing time-capsule and one of our most precious heritage icons." From April 2009, the exhibition will be shown at Whitgift School in South Croydon. Some of the unseen artefacts will be shown in public for the first time in this four month-long exhibition. The Mary Rose is the only 16th-century warship in the world to be recovered and put on display. An earlier project aimed at the construction of a museum to house the Mary Rose involved the architect Christopher Alexander. In 1991 his practice, CES, were commissioned to produce designs for the Museum, at least partly as a result of the patronage of Charles, Prince of Wales. However, the Trust's major sponsor withdrew in 1992, and relations appear to have soured between the Trust and Alexander. The design is documented in a book by Alexander, Black and Tsutsui, The Mary Rose Museum. See also Maritime archaeology Underwater archaeology Archaeology of shipwrecks Vasa Kronan References External links Official website An exhibition of Mary Rose artefacts shown for the first time outside Portsmouth Visit the Mary Rose at Portsmouth Historic Dockyard from Ships of the World Article about 2003 finds http://www.abc.se/~m10354/publ/maryrose.htm HNSA Ship Page: Mary Rose Site including some history of the Mary Rose | Mary_Rose |@lemmatized sole:1 know:1 image:1 mary:39 rise:38 depict:1 anthony:1 roll:2 english:6 tudor:4 carrack:1 warship:7 one:5 first:5 able:3 fire:6 full:2 broadside:1 cannon:4 well:4 equip:2 gun:12 upgrade:1 pride:1 fleet:4 build:3 portsmouth:9 england:4 think:3 name:1 king:3 henry:2 viii:2 sister:1 emblem:1 early:3 purpose:1 serve:4 royal:3 navy:2 never:1 merchant:1 ship:32 displace:2 ton:4 long:6 beam:1 crew:5 consist:2 sailor:3 soldier:6 gunner:1 thirty:2 year:3 sink:9 solent:3 engagement:2 french:10 july:3 survive:1 section:2 raise:3 display:7 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kronan:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 outside:1 visit:1 article:1 http:1 www:1 abc:1 se:1 publ:1 maryrose:1 htm:1 hnsa:1 page:1 history:1 |@bigram henry_viii:2 run_aground:1 spanish_armada:1 vice_admiral:1 isle_wight:1 bad_luck:1 starboard_side:2 relative_humidity:1 polyethylene_glycol:2 eating_utensil:1 maritime_archaeology:2 lottery_fund:3 underwater_archaeology:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
1,067 | Cumulative_distribution_function | In probability theory and statistics, the cumulative distribution function (CDF) or just distribution function, completely describes the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable X. For every real number x, the CDF of X is given by where the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable X takes on a value less than or equal to x. The probability that X lies in the interval (a, b] is therefore if a < b. If treating several random variables X, Y, ... etc. the corresponding letters are used as subscripts while, if treating only one, the subscript is omitted. It is conventional to use a capital F for a cumulative distribution function, in contrast to the lower-case f used for probability density functions and probability mass functions. This applies when discussing general distributions: some specific distributions have their own conventional notation, for example the normal distribution. The CDF of X can be defined in terms of the probability density function ƒ as follows: Note that in the definition above, the "less or equal" sign, '≤' is a convention, but it is a universally used one, and is important for discrete distributions. The proper use of tables of the binomial and Poisson distributions depend upon this convention. Moreover, important formulas like Levy's inversion formula for the characteristic function also rely on the "less or equal" formulation. Properties From top to bottom, the cumulative distribution function of a discrete probability distribution, continuous probability distribution, and a distribution which has both a continuous part and a discrete part. Every cumulative distribution function F is (not necessarily strictly) monotone increasing and right-continuous. Furthermore, we have Every function with these four properties is a CDF. The properties imply that all CDFs are càdlàg functions. If X is a discrete random variable, then it attains values x1, x2, ... with probability pi = P(xi), and the CDF of X will be discontinuous at the points xi and constant in between: If the CDF F of X is continuous, then X is a continuous random variable; if furthermore F is absolutely continuous, then there exists a Lebesgue-integrable function f(x) such that for all real numbers a and b. (The first of the two equalities displayed above would not be correct in general if we had not said that the distribution is continuous. Continuity of the distribution implies that P (X = a) = P (X = b) = 0, so the difference between "<" and "≤" ceases to be important in this context.) The function f is equal to the derivative of F almost everywhere, and it is called the probability density function of the distribution of X. Point probability The "point probability" that X is exactly b can be found as Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Kuiper's tests The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution. The closely related Kuiper's test () is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance we might use Kuiper's test to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month. Complementary cumulative distribution function Sometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is above a particular level. This is called the complementary cumulative distribution function (ccdf), defined as In survival analysis, is called the survival function and denoted . Folded cumulative distribution Example of the folded cumulative distribution for a normal distribution function While the plot of a cumulative distribution often has an S-like shape, an alternative illustration is the folded cumulative distribution or mountain plot, which folds the top half of the graph over, Medcalc.be: Mountain plot thus using two scales, one for the upslope and another for the downslope. This form of illustration emphasises the median and dispersion of the distribution or of the empirical results. Examples As an example, suppose X is uniformly distributed on the unit interval [0, 1]. Then the CDF of X is given by Take another example, suppose X takes only the discrete values 0 and 1, with equal probability. Then the CDF of X is given by Inverse If the CDF F is strictly increasing and continuous then is the unique real number such that . Unfortunately, the distribution does not, in general, have an inverse. One may define, for , Example 1: The median is . Example 2: Put . Then we call the 95th percentile. The inverse of the cdf is called the quantile function. The inverse of the cdf can be used to translate results obtained for the uniform distribution to other distributions. Some useful properties of the inverse cdf are: is nondecreasing if and only if If has a distribution then is distributed as . This is used in random number generation using the inverse transform sampling-method. If is a collection of independent -distributed random variables defined on the same sample space, then there exist random variables such that is distributed as and with probability 1 for all . Multivariate case When dealing simultaneously with more than one random variable the joint cumulative distribution function can also be defined. For example, for a pair of random variables X,Y, the joint CDF is given by where the right-hand side represents the probability that the random variable X takes on a value less than or equal to x and that Y takes on a value less than or equal to y. Every multivariate CDF is: - Monotonically non-decreasing for each of its variables - Right-continuous for each of its variables. - and See also Descriptive statistics Empirical distribution function Cumulative frequency analysis Q-Q plot Ogive References | Cumulative_distribution_function |@lemmatized probability:16 theory:1 statistic:2 cumulative:13 distribution:36 function:22 cdf:14 completely:1 describe:1 real:4 value:6 random:12 variable:13 x:24 every:4 number:5 give:4 right:4 hand:2 side:2 represent:2 take:5 less:5 equal:7 lie:1 interval:2 b:5 therefore:1 treating:1 several:1 etc:1 corresponding:1 letter:1 use:10 subscript:2 treat:1 one:5 omit:1 conventional:2 capital:1 f:9 contrast:1 low:1 case:2 density:3 mass:1 apply:1 discuss:1 general:3 specific:1 notation:1 example:8 normal:2 define:5 term:1 ƒ:1 follow:1 note:1 definition:1 sign:1 convention:2 universally:1 used:1 important:3 discrete:5 proper:1 table:1 binomial:1 poisson:1 depend:1 upon:1 moreover:1 formula:2 like:2 levy:1 inversion:1 characteristic:1 also:3 rely:1 formulation:1 property:4 top:2 bottom:1 continuous:9 part:2 necessarily:1 strictly:2 monotone:1 increase:2 furthermore:2 four:1 imply:2 cdfs:1 càdlàg:1 attain:1 pi:1 p:3 xi:2 discontinuous:1 point:3 constant:1 absolutely:1 exist:2 lebesgue:1 integrable:1 first:1 two:3 equality:1 display:1 would:1 correct:1 say:1 continuity:1 difference:1 cease:1 context:1 derivative:1 almost:1 everywhere:1 call:5 exactly:1 find:1 kolmogorov:2 smirnov:2 kuiper:3 test:5 base:1 see:3 whether:2 empirical:4 different:2 ideal:1 closely:1 related:1 useful:3 domain:1 cyclic:1 day:3 week:2 instance:1 might:1 tornadoes:1 varies:1 year:1 sale:1 product:1 vary:1 month:1 complementary:2 sometimes:1 study:1 opposite:1 question:1 ask:1 often:2 particular:1 level:1 ccdf:1 survival:2 analysis:2 denote:1 fold:2 folded:2 plot:4 shape:1 alternative:1 illustration:2 mountain:2 half:1 graph:1 medcalc:1 thus:1 scale:1 upslope:1 another:2 downslope:1 form:1 emphasise:1 median:2 dispersion:1 result:2 suppose:2 uniformly:1 distribute:3 unit:1 inverse:6 unique:1 unfortunately:1 may:1 put:1 percentile:1 quantile:1 translate:1 obtain:1 uniform:1 nondecreasing:1 generation:1 transform:1 sample:2 method:1 collection:1 independent:1 distributed:1 space:1 multivariate:2 deal:1 simultaneously:1 joint:2 pair:1 monotonically:1 non:1 decreasing:1 descriptive:1 frequency:1 q:2 ogive:1 reference:1 |@bigram cumulative_distribution:12 probability_distribution:3 random_variable:11 poisson_distribution:1 lebesgue_integrable:1 integrable_function:1 kolmogorov_smirnov:2 closely_related:1 uniformly_distribute:1 inverse_cdf:4 quantile_function:1 distributed_random:1 |
1,068 | Magnoliales | Magnoliales is an order of flowering plants. Classification The Magnoliales includes six families: Annonaceae (custard apple family, over 2000 species of trees, shrubs, and lianas; mostly tropical but some temperate) Degeneriaceae (two species of trees found on Pacific islands) Eupomatiaceae (two species of trees and shrubs found in New Guinea and eastern Australia) Himantandraceae (two species of trees and shrubs, found in tropical areas in Southeast Asia and Australia) Magnoliaceae (about 225 species including magnolias and tulip trees) Myristicaceae (several hundred species including Nutmeg) APG system The APG system (1998) and the APG II system (2003) place this order is in the clade magnoliids, circumscribed as follows: order Magnoliales family Annonaceae family Degeneriaceae family Eupomatiaceae family Himantandraceae family Magnoliaceae family Myristicaceae The current composition and phylogeny of the Magnoliales. In these systems, published by the APG, the Magnoliales are a basal group, excluded from the eudicots. Earlier systems The Cronquist system (1981) placed the order in the subclass Magnoliidae of class Magnoliopsida (=dicotyledons) and used this circumscription: order Magnoliales family Annonaceae family Austrobaileyaceae family Canellaceae family Degeneriaceae family Eupomatiaceae family Himantandraceae family Lactoridaceae family Magnoliaceae family Myristicaceae family Winteraceae The Thorne system (1992) placed the order in superorder Magnolianae, subclass Magnoliidae (= dicotyledons), in the class Magnoliopsida (= angiosperms) and used this circumscription (including the plants placed in order Laurales and Piperales by other systems): order Magnoliales family Amborellaceae family Annonaceae family Aristolochiaceae family Austrobaileyaceae family Calycanthaceae family Canellaceae family Chloranthaceae family Degeneriaceae family Eupomatiaceae family Gomortegaceae family Hernandiaceae family Himantandraceae family Illiciaceae family Lactoridaceae family Lauraceae family Magnoliaceae family Monimiaceae family Myristicaceae family Piperaceae family Saururaceae family Schisandraceae family Trimeniaceae family Winteraceae The Engler system, in its update of 1964, placed the order in subclassis Archychlamydeae in class Dicotyledoneae (=dicotyledons) and used this circumscription: order Magnoliales family Amborellaceae family Annonaceae family Austrobaileyaceae family Calycanthaceae family Canellaceae family Cercidiphyllaceae family Degeneriaceae family Eupomatiaceae family Eupteleaceae family Gomortegaceae family Hernandiaceae family Himantandraceae family Illiciaceae family Lauraceae family Magnoliaceae family Monimiaceae family Myristicaceae family Schisandraceae family Trimeniaceae family Tetracentraceae family Trochodendraceae family Winteraceae The Wettstein system, latest version published in 1935, did not use this name although it had an order with a similar circumscription with the name Polycarpicae. This was placed in the Dialypetalae in subclass Choripetalae of class Dicotyledones. From the above it will be clear that the plants included in this order by APG have always been seen as related. They have always been placed in the order Magnoliales (or a predecessor). The difference is that earlier systems have also included other plants, which have been moved to neighbouring orders (in the magnoliids) by APG. References | Magnoliales |@lemmatized magnoliales:9 order:14 flower:1 plant:4 classification:1 include:6 six:1 family:63 annonaceae:5 custard:1 apple:1 specie:6 tree:5 shrub:3 liana:1 mostly:1 tropical:2 temperate:1 degeneriaceae:5 two:3 find:3 pacific:1 island:1 eupomatiaceae:5 new:1 guinea:1 eastern:1 australia:2 himantandraceae:5 area:1 southeast:1 asia:1 magnoliaceae:5 magnolia:1 tulip:1 myristicaceae:5 several:1 hundred:1 nutmeg:1 apg:6 system:11 ii:1 place:7 clade:1 magnoliids:2 circumscribe:1 follow:1 current:1 composition:1 phylogeny:1 publish:2 basal:1 group:1 exclude:1 eudicots:1 early:2 cronquist:1 subclass:3 magnoliidae:2 class:4 magnoliopsida:2 dicotyledon:3 use:4 circumscription:4 austrobaileyaceae:3 canellaceae:3 lactoridaceae:2 winteraceae:3 thorne:1 superorder:1 magnolianae:1 angiosperm:1 laurales:1 piperales:1 amborellaceae:2 aristolochiaceae:1 calycanthaceae:2 chloranthaceae:1 gomortegaceae:2 hernandiaceae:2 illiciaceae:2 lauraceae:2 monimiaceae:2 piperaceae:1 saururaceae:1 schisandraceae:2 trimeniaceae:2 engler:1 update:1 subclassis:1 archychlamydeae:1 dicotyledoneae:1 cercidiphyllaceae:1 eupteleaceae:1 tetracentraceae:1 trochodendraceae:1 wettstein:1 late:1 version:1 name:2 although:1 similar:1 polycarpicae:1 dialypetalae:1 choripetalae:1 dicotyledones:1 clear:1 always:2 see:1 related:1 predecessor:1 difference:1 also:1 move:1 neighbour:1 reference:1 |@bigram family_annonaceae:5 tree_shrub:3 southeast_asia:1 |
1,069 | Nero | Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), Nero's birth day is listed in Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6. His death day is uncertain, though, perhaps because Galba was declared emperor before Nero lived. A June 9th death day comes from Jerome, Chronicle, which lists Nero's rule as 13 years, 7 months and 28 days. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.3 and Josephus, War of the Jews IV, say Nero's rule was 13 years, 8 months which would be June 11th born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and final Roman emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, he succeeded to the throne on 13 October 54, following Claudius's death. Nero ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theaters and promoted athletic games. His reign included a successful war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61) and improving relations with Greece. The First Roman-Jewish War (66-70) started during his reign. In 68 a military coup drove Nero from the throne. Facing execution, he committed suicide on 9 June 68. Suetonius claims that Nero committed suicide in Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49; Sulpicius Severus, who possibly used Tacitus' lost fragments as a source, reports that is was uncertain whether Nero committed suicide, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.29, also see T.D. Barnes, "The Fragments of Tacitus' Histories", Classical Philology (1977), p.228 Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance. Galba criticized Nero's luxuria, both his public and private excessive spending, during rebellion, Tacitus, Annals I.16; Kragelund, Patrick, "Nero's Luxuria, in Tacitus and in the Octavia", The Classical Quarterly, 2000, p. 494-515 He is known for a number of executions, including those of his mother References to Nero's matricide appear in the Sibylline Oracles 5.490-520, Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales The Monk's Tale, and William Shakespeare's Hamlet 3.ii and adoptive brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned", Nero was not a fiddle player, but a lyre player. Suetonius claims Nero played the lyre while Rome burned, see Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 38; For a detailed explanation of this transition see M.F. Gyles "Nero Fiddled while Rome Burned", The Classical Journal (1948), p. 211-217 and as an early persecutor of Christians. This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero's reign — Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. These include Lucan's Civil War, Seneca the Younger's On Mercy and Dio Chrysostom's Discourses along with various Roman coins and inscriptions Some sources, though, including those mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the common Roman people, especially in the East. Tacitus, Histories I.4, I.5, I.13, II.8; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57, Life of Otho 7, Life of Vitellius 11; Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41; Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's alleged tyrannical acts. On fire and Christian persecution, see F.W. Clayton, "Tacitus and Christian Persecution", The Classical Quarterly, p. 81-85; B.W. Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero, p. 437; On general bias against Nero, see Edward Champlin, Nero, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 36-52 (ISBN 0-674-01192-9) Early life Family Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December, AD 37, in Antium, near Rome. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero.1 Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6 He was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor Caligula. Lucius' father was the grandson of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus was a grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughter Antonia Major. With Octavia, he was the grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a praetor and was a member of Caligula's staff when the future-emperor traveled to the East. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 5 Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor Tiberius with treason, adultery, and incest. Tiberius died allowing him to escape these charges. Gnaeus died of edema (or "dropsy") in 39 when Nero was three. Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's father, Germanicus, was grandson to Augustus's wife, Livia, on one side and to Mark Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of Tiberius. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius. Nero killed his step father, mother, wife, and unborn child to keep his power. Tacitus, Annals XII.66; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.34; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 44; Josephus is less sure, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1 Physical appearance In the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars" the Roman historian Suetonius describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked with spots and malodorous, his hair light blond, his features regular rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender." Rise to power Nero was not expected ever to become emperor because his maternal uncle, Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of 25 with ample time to produce his own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula 29 Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida. Caligula, his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered in 41. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.14, XIX.2.4 These events led Claudius, Caligula's uncle, to become emperor. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.3.2 Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile. Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c. 50 Claudius had married twice before marrying Messalina. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 26 His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young age. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 27 He had two children with Messalina - Claudia Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41). Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48. In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Agrippina. To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome). Tacitus, Annals XII.25 Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne. Tacitus, Annals XII.26 Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14. Tacitus, Annals XII.41 He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage. In 53, he married his stepsister Claudia Octavia. Tacitus, Annals XII.58 Emperor Early rule Aureus of Nero and his mother, Agrippina, c. 54. Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts vary greatly, many ancient historians claim Agrippina poisoned Claudius. It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius. Cassius Dio's and Suetonius' accounts claim Nero knew of the murder, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.35, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33; Tacitus' and Josephus' accounts only mention Agrippina, Tacitus, Annals XII.65, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.1 Nero became emperor at 16, the youngest emperor up until that time. Augustus was 35, Tiberius was 56, Caligula was 25 and Cladius was 50 Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year. Cassius Dio claims "At first Agrippina managed for him all the business of the empire", then Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands,", but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55, Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.3-7 Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as Alexander of Aegae. Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus. Seneca and Nero, by Eduardo Barron, Cordoba, Spain. In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene. Tacitus, Annals XIII.5 Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother. Tacitus, Annals XIII.13 Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to Octavia and entered an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave. Tacitus, Annals XIII.12 In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs. With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor. Tacitus, Annals XIII.14 Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption, was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood. Tacitus, Annals XIII.14 According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero. However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. Tacitus, Annals XIII.16 Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him. Tacitus, Annals XIII.16; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8.2; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.7 After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence. Tacitus, Annals XIII.18-21 Matricide and consolidation of power Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury. Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring Faustus Sulla to the throne. Tacitus, Annals XIII.23 Seneca was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.10 Seneca was able to get himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted. According to Cassius Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of Nero. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.7 In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and future emperor Otho. Tacitus, Annals XIII.46 Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. Tacitus, Annals XIV.1 A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62. Dawson, Alexis, "Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina?", The Classical Journal, 1969, p. 254 Additionally, according to Suetonius, Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 3 Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on the throne. Rogers, Robert, Heirs and Rivals to Nero, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 86. (1955), p. 202. Silana accuses Agrippina of plotting to bring up Plautus in 55, Tacitus, Annals XIII.19; Silana is recalled from exile after Agrippina's power waned, Tacitus, Annals XIV.12; Plautus is exiled in 60, Tacitus, Annals XIV.22 According to Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but when she survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 34 The incident is also recorded by Tacitus Tacitus, "The Annals" . The Remorse of Nero after Killing his Mother, by John William Waterhouse, 1878. In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died. Tacitus, Annals XIV.51 Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges. Tacitus, Annals XIV.52 Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs. Tacitus, Annals XIV.53 Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea. Tacitus, Annals XIV.60 After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile, but she was executed shortly after her return. Tacitus, Annals XIV.64 Nero also kicked Poppaea to death before she could have his child. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.216. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. Accusations of treason against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62. Tacitus, Annals XIV.48 The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book. Tacitus, Annals XIV.49 Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals Pallas, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla. Tacitus, Annals XIV.65 According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 37 Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule. Tacitus, Annals XIII.4 By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy. Tacitus, Annals XV.51 Administrative policies Coin showing Nero distributing charity to a citizen. c. 64-66 Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 53; Gibbon, Edward, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. I, Chap. VI Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy. In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for which he was praised by the Senate. Tacitus, Annals XIII.25 Nero was known for being hands-off and spending his time visiting brothels and taverns during this period. In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule. Aurelius Victor mentions Trajan's praise of Nero's first five or so years. Aurelius Victor The Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperitors 5; The unknown author of Epitome de Caesaribus also mentions Trajan's praise of the first five or so years of Nero Auctor incertus Epitome De Caesarbius 5 Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines. Tacitus, Annals XIII.28 Also, fees for lawyers were limited. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 17 There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom. Tacitus, Annals XIII.26 Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right. Tacitus, Annals XIII.27 The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household. Nero vetoed the measure. Tacitus, Annals XIV.45 After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero transferred collection authority to lower commissioners. Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace. Tacitus, Annals XIII.31 Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption. Tacitus, Annals XIII.30, XIV.18, XIV.40, XIV.46 When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes. Tacitus, Annals XIII.50 The Senate convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury. As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%. Tacitus, Annals XIII.51 Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public. To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt. Nero's abandoned Corinth canal Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theaters and had performers dress in Greek clothing. Tacitus, Annals XIV.20 Enormous gladiatorial shows were held. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 12 Nero also established the quinquennial Neronia. The festival included games, poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theater was for the lower-class and led to immorality and laziness. Others looked down upon Greek influence. Tacitus, Annals XIV.21 Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment. In 64, Rome burned. Tacitus, Annals XV.38 Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as significant reconstruction. Tacitus, Annals XV.43 A number of other major construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large Domus Aurea. Tacitus, Annals XV.42 In 67, Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth. Josephus, War of the Jews III.10.10,Werner, Walter: "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1997), pp. 98–119 Ancient historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State's budget. Tacitus, Annals XVI.3 The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined." Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 31 Tacitus, Annals wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45 Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles. Thornton, Mary Elizabeth Kelly "Nero's New Deal," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 102, (1971), p. 629 Great Fire of Rome The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July, AD 64. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops selling flammable goods. Tacitus, Annals XV.38 Sketch of Ancient graffiti portrait of Nero found at the Domus Tiberiana. The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for nine days. Tacitus, Annals XV.40; Suetonius says the fire raged for six days and seven nights, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 38; A pillar set by Domitius states the fire burned for nine days It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven. The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder, who wrote about it in passing. Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, XVII.1.5, Pliny mentions trees that lasted "down to the Emperor Nero’s conflagration" Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it. It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire — whether accident or arson. Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist. Suetonius, Life of Nero 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16 Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these confessions were induced by torture. Tacitus Annals XV.44 However, accidentally started fires were common in ancient Rome. Juvenal writes that Rome suffered from perpetual fires and falling houses Juvenal, Satires 3.7, 3.195, 3.214 In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69 Tacitus, Histories I.2 and in 80. Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus 8 It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16 Popular legend claims that Nero played the fiddle at the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the lyre, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome) However, Tacitus' account has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire. Tacitus, Annals XV.39 Tacitus also said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor. According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero rushed back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds. After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. Nero also built a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero. The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres). Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning, First, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 227-8. ISBN 0-06-430158-3 Ball, Larry F. (2003). The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521822513 Warden reduces its size to under . Warden, P.G., "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 40 (1981) 271-278 To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire. Tacitus, Annals XV.45 According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible. To deflect blame, Nero targeted a sect called the Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned. Tacitus described the event: Public performances Nero coin, c. 66. Ara Pacis on the reverse. Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the harp and poetry. Tacitus, Annals XIV.14, XIV.16 He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire. Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 4.39; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11 At first, Nero only performed for a private audience. Tacitus, Annals XV.33 In 64, Nero began singing in public in Neapolis in order to improve his popularity. He also sang at the second quinquennial Neronia in 65. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars Life of Nero 21 It was said that Nero craved the attention, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 33 but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people. Tacitus, Annals XVI.4; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 10, 21 Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it shameful. Tacitus, Annals XIV.15; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXI.19 Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance. Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 5.7 As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 24 He also performed as an actor and a singer. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 25 Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions, he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome. The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor. Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 23, 24 War and peace with Parthia Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates. Tacitus, Annals XIII.7 This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory. There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation. Tacitus, Annals XIII.8 Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo. Tacitus, Annals XIII.9 The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome. Tacitus, Annals XIII.10 The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia. Tacitus, Annals XIII.42 The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom. Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same year. Tacitus, Annals XIII.55 Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia. Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory. Tacitus, Annals XIII.56 Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia. Tacitus, Annals XIV.36 Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward. The Parthian Empire c. 60. Nero's peace deal with Parthia was a political victory at home and made him beloved in the east. In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of Adiabene. Tacitus, Annals XV.1 Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria. Tacitus, Annals XV.4 Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal instead. Tacitus, Annals XV.16 There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit. Tacitus, Annals XV.18 The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero. Tacitus, Annals XV.29 In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.2 This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.23 Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well. The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114. Other major power struggles and rebellions Plaster bust of Nero, Pushkin Museum, Moscow. The war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle. Suetonius Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 18; Marcus Annaeus Lucanus Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65) Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire. British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising) In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia. Tacitus, Annals XIV.29 While the governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his troops were busy capturing the island of Mona (Anglesey) from the druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni. Tacitus, Annals XIV.31 Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus was able to return, be reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61. Tacitus, Annals XIV.31-38 Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive Publius Petronius Turpilianus. Tacitus, Annals XIV.39 The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65 In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard. Tacitus, Annals XV.49 According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the Republic. Tacitus, Annals XV.50 The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos. Tacitus, Annals XV.55 As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including Lucan, the poet. Tacitus, Annals XV.70 Nero's previous advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators. Tacitus, Annals XV.60-62 The First Jewish War of 66–70 In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. Josephus, War of the Jews II.13.7 In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order. Josephus, War of the Jews III.1.3 This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death. Josephus, War of the Jews VI.10.1 This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem. Josephus, War of the Jews VII.1.1 The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the Death of Nero Marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine. In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's tax policies. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.22 Donahue. Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXIII.24 In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero. Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, Life of Galba 5 At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide. However after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero. While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the emperor and came out in support for Galba. In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. However he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from Vergil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 47 Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, none replied. Upon going to their chambers personally, all were abandoned. Upon calling for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 47 Returning again, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman offered his villa, located 4 miles outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. As it was being prepared, he said again and again "What an artist the world is losing!". At this time a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death. At this news Nero prepared himself for suicide. Losing his nerve, he first begged for one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. After quoting a line from Homer's Iliad ("Hark, now strikes on my ear the trampling of swift-footed coursers!") Nero drove a dagger into his throat. In this he was aided by his private secretary, Epaphroditos. When one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempted to stanch the bleeding. With the words "Too late! This is fidelity!", Nero died on 9 June 68. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49 This was the anniversary of the death of Octavia. Nero was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 49 With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the Four Emperors. After death According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero. Cassius Dio, Roman History 63 Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57 Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class. Tacitus, Histories I.4 The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news. Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him. Tacitus, Histories I.5 Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character" Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41 and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them." Letter from Apollonius to Emperor Vespasian, Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius 5.41 Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia." M. T. Griffin, Nero (1984), p. 186; Gibbon, Edward, The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Vol. I, Chap. III Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as "outburst of private zeal". Champlin (2003), p. 29. Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive. John Pollini, Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture by Eric R. Varner, The Art Bulletin (September 2006). This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see damnatio memoriae). Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death. Champlin (2003), pp. 29–31. The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422 Augustine of Hippo, City of God XX.19.3 Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death. The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period. According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could. Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies. Tacitus, Histories I.6 One notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula. Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba 9 Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in temperament. Tacitus, Histories I.13 It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho 7 Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero. Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius 11 After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return. Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius. Tacitus, Histories II.8 After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed. Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed. Cassius Dio, Roman History LXVI.19 Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caears, Life of Nero 57. and the matter almost came to war. Historiography The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero. Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3; Tacitus, Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola 10; Tacitus, Annals XIII.20 The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events. Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Tacitus, Annals XIV.2 Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians. Tacitus, Annals XIII.20; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XIX.1.13 A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost. Tacitus, Annals XIII.20 There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero was praised. Tacitus, Annals I.1; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8.3 The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero. A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east. Cassius Dio Cassius Dio (c. 155- 229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk. Dio Chrysostom Dio Chrysostom (c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared: Epictetus Epictetus (c. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man. Josephus The historian Josephus (c. 37-100) accused other historians of slandering Nero. The historian Josephus (c. 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said: Lucan Though more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. 39- 65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, Pharsalia (Civil War) (c. 65) Philostratus Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Though he has a generally a bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East. Pliny the Elder The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24- 79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind." Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories VII.8.46 Plutarch Plutarch (c. 46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better. Seneca the Younger It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero. Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis 4 Suetonius Suetonius (c. 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order and head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. Portions of his biography of Nero appear sensational and modern scholarship questions the full accuracy of his writings. For example: Tacitus The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66. He is unkind to Nero, but unlike other historians, he minimizes the use of sensational stories. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced: Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true. Tacitus, History I.1 Nero and religion Jewish tradition At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the Talmud (tractate Gitin 56a-b), Nero went to Jerusalem and told his men to shoot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ez. 25,14). Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but would punish him if it was. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule, was a descendant of Nero. Roman sources nowhere report Nero's alleged conversion to Judaism, a religion considered by the Romans as extremely barbaric and immoral. Isaac, Benjamin (2004) The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity pp. 440-491. Princeton. It seems unlikely that such sources - almost universally hostile towards the emperor - would not have passed up the opportunity to denigrate Nero even further by mentioning this alleged conversion. Neither is there any record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months. The historical evidence of the Talmud thus appears faulty with respect to Nero. Christian tradition A Christian Dirce, by Henryk Siemiradzki. A Christian woman is martyred in this re-enactment of the myth of Dirce. Early Christian tradition often holds Nero as the first persecutor of Christians and as the killer of Apostles Peter and Paul. There was also a belief among some early Christians that Nero was the Antichrist. First Persecutor The non-Christian historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64. Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with the fire. Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, chapter 16 The Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine". Tertullian Apologeticum, lost text quoted in , Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, II.25.4. Lactantius (c. 240- 320) also said Nero "first persecuted the servants of God". Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II as does Sulpicius Severus. Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28 However, Suetonius gives that "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [the emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit"). Suetonius The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius 25 These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews." Acts of the Apostles 18:2 Killer of Peter and Paul The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says the slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands. Ascension of Isaiah Chapter 4.2 The Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275- 339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25.5 He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and traveling to Hispania. In the apocryphal Acts of Paul, in the apocryphal Acts of Peter, in the First Epistle of Clement 5:6, and in The Muratorian Fragment Peter is first said to have been crucified upside down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200). Apocryphal Acts of Peter The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians. By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul. Lactantius wrote that Nero crucified Peter, and slew Paul., Lactantius, Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died II; John Chrysostom wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4; Sulpicius Severus says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28-29 The Antichrist The Ascension of Isaiah is the first text to suggest that Nero was the Antichrist. It claims a lawless king, the slayer of his mother,...will come and there will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken unto him in all that he desires. The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of Nero returning and bringing destruction. Sibylline Oracles 5.361-376, 8.68-72, 8.531-157 Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others, Sulpicius Severus and Victorinus of Pettau also say Nero is the Antichrist, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28-29; Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse 17 fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero suddenly disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses. In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in saying, "For the mystery of iniquity doth already work," he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.; Most scholars The Book of Revelation, Catherine A. Cory Revelation, Alan John Philip Garrow , such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins study Bibles, contend that the number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero, Hillers, Delbert, “Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba’at”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 170 (1963) 65. a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Ed. Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. 1009 When treated as Hebrew numbers, the letters of Nero's name add up either to 616 or 666, representing the two devil numbers given in ancient versions of Revelation and the two ways of spelling his name in Hebrew (NERO and NERON). The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of Preterist eschatology. Trivia During the Olympics, people competing against Nero would intentionally lose because if they beat him, he would have them killed. During his public theatrical performances, Nero would bar the doors to prevent people leaving the theatre before his finale. People were said to have pretended to die to get out of his shows, and one woman gave birth during one of his recitals. Nero in post-ancient culture Nero in medieval and Renaissance literature Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler In the Golden Legend, and its apocryphal account of his forcing Seneca the Younger's suicide, where they meet face to face on this occasion. In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, The Monk's Prologue and Tale. Giovanni Boccaccio's Concerning the Falls of Illustrious Men. Matthew Gwinn wrote a play Nero in 1603. Nero in modern culture Nero in music Nero is the main (or at least an important character) of some musical works, as the operas: Claudio Monteverdi's L'incoronazione di Poppea (1642), George Frideric Handel's Agrippina (1709), Anton Rubinstein's Nero (1879), Arrigo Boito's Nerone (1924), Pietro Mascagni's Nerone (1935). He is also an inspiration of a black metal album Satyricon's The Age of Nero (2008). Nero in IT Nero Burning ROM is a popular optical disc authoring program; it is a pun mixing the legend of Nero playing his lyre as Rome burned and the colloquial term for optical disc authoring ("burning"). The pun is more obvious in the original German as the German name for Rome is Rom (a literal English translation would be Nero Burning ROMe). The program logo is an image of the Roman Colosseum in flames; this is dramatic but inaccurate, as the Great Fire of Rome took place in 64 AD, while construction of the Colosseum only started a few years later, between 70 and 72 AD. Ancestry Notes References Primary sources Tacitus, Histories, I-IV (c. 105) Tacitus, Annals, XIII–XVI (c. 117) Josephus, War of the Jews, Books II-VI (c. 94) Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book XX (c. 94) Cassius Dio, Roman History, Books 61–63 (c. 229) Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba (c. 110) Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Tyana, Books 4–5, (c. 220) Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, the Life of Nero (c. 121) Secondary material Benario, Herbert W. Nero at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Champlin, Edward. Nero. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-674-01822-2). Donahue, John, (68-69 A.D.)" at De Imperatoribus Romanis. Grant, Michael. Nero. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 (ISBN 0-88029-311-X). Griffin, Miriam T. Nero: The End of a Dynasty. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-03285-4); London; New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-7134-4465-7). Holland, Richard. Nero: The Man Behind the Myth. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback ISBN 0-7509-2876-X). Warmington, Brian Herbert. Nero: Reality and Legend. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7011-1438-X); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-393-00542-9); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1454-1). Nero Nero: The Actor-Emperor Nero entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. 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1,070 | Iron_Age | This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age; for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. In archaeology, the Iron Age was the stage in the development of any people in which tools and weapons whose main ingredient was iron were prominent. The adoption of this material often coincided with other changes in society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles. In history, the Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system for classifying prehistoric societies, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region. No firm ending date is set for the Iron Age in any particular society; there is simply a point where archaeology becomes less important than surviving history and traditions. Iron alloys remain popular as the steels in most metallic objects. The term "Iron Age" is originally derived from the "Ages of Man", i.e. the ages of human existence on the Earth according to Classical mythology. While modern historians assume earlier ages in this scheme to be completely mythical ("The Golden Age" and the "Silver Age"), the later Bronze Age and Iron Age of classical mythology are assumed to have preserved the memory of actual periods when the metals mentioned dominated human life. Dates Dun Carloway broch, Lewis, Scotland An Iron Age thatched roof, Butser Farm, Hampshire, England Classically, the Iron Age is taken to begin in the 12th century BC in the ancient Near East, ancient Iran, ancient India (with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization), and ancient Greece (with the Greek Dark Ages). In other regions of Europe, it started much later. The Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe and the 6th century BC in Northern Europe. Iron use, in smelting and forging for tools, appears in West Africa by 1200 BC, making it one of the first places for the birth of the Iron Age. Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa' Journal of African History 35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa' Current Anthropology 1968. How Old is the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa? — by Roderick J. McIntosh, Archaeological Institute of America (1999) Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa — by Stanley B. Alpern (2005) (It is believed that meteoric iron, or iron-nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Archaeomineralogy, p. 164, George Robert Rapp, Springer, 2002 Understanding materials science, p. 125, Rolf E. Hummel, Springer, 2004 This iron, being in its native metallic state, required no smelting of ores.) The Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I (1200–1000 BC) illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age. There is no definitive cultural break between the thirteenth and twelfth century throughout the entire region, although certain new features in the hill country, Transjordan and coastal region may suggest the appearance of the Aramaean and Sea People groups. There is evidence, however, that shows strong continuity with Bronze Age culture, although as one moves later into Iron I the culture begins to diverge more significantly from that of the late second millennium. The Iron Age is usually said to end in the Mediterranean with the onset of historical tradition during Hellenism and the Roman Empire, in India with the onset of Buddhism and Jainism, in China with the onset of Confucianism, and in Northern Europe with the early Middle Ages. The arrival of iron use in various areas is discussed in more detail below, broadly in chronological order. Iron use in the Bronze Age By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appeared throughout Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the Indian subcontinent, the Levant, the Mediterranean, and Egypt. Some sources suggest that iron was being created in some places then as a byproduct of copper refining, as sponge iron, and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time. The earliest systematic production and use of iron implements originates in Anatolia. African production of iron has been suggested to have begun at around the same time, and possibly even before Anatolia, but recent discoveries suggest that iron working appeared in Anatolia since 2000 BC Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel in The Hindu, Thursday, March 26, 2009 . Recent archaeological research at Ganges Valley, India showed early iron working by 1800 BC. By 1200 BC, iron was widely used in the Middle East but did not supplant the dominant use of bronze for some time. Transition from bronze to iron Bronze was previously used to make tools because its melting point is lower than that of iron. The Iron Age began with the development of higher temperature smelting techniques. During the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, an alloy consisting of iron with a carbon content between 0.02% and 1.7% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, but stronger. However, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available. Therefore, many Iron Age tools were fashioned of wrought iron. A Brief History of Iron and Steel Production by Professor Joseph S. Spoerl (Saint Anselm College) Wrought iron is weaker than bronze, but because it was less expensive, and more easily sharpened, people used it anyway. Iron is by itself an adequately strong metal without additional alloys (although it could be further strengthened by case-hardening or forge welding small amounts of steel to areas subject to wear such as edges). Bronze, on the other hand, requires copper and tin, which are less common than iron. Additionally, iron can be sharpened by grinding whereas bronze must be reforged. Around 1800 BC, for reasons yet unknown to archaeologists, tin became scarce in the Levant, causing a decline in bronze production. Copper, also, came to be in short supply. As a result, pirate groups around the Mediterranean, from around 1800–1700 BC onward, began to attack fortified cities in search of bronze, to remelt into weaponry. Bronze was much more abundant in the period before the 12th to 10th century and Snodgrass A.M.Snodgrass (1967), "Arms and Armour of the Greeks". (Thames & Hudson, London) A. M. Snodgrass (1971), "The Dark Age of Greece" (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh). suggests that a shortage of tin, as a result of the trade disruptions in the Mediterranean at this time, forced peoples to seek an alternative to bronze. That many bronze items were recycled and made from implements into weapons during this time, is evidence of this. Ancient Near East Transition The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia or the Caucasus in the late 2nd millennium BC (circa 1300 BC). Jane. C. Waldbaum (1978), "From Bronze to Iron. Vol. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology" (LIV. Paul Astroms Forlag, Goteburg.) The use of iron weapons instead of bronze weapons spread rapidly throughout the Near East by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Anatolians had begun forging weapons out of iron, which was a superior metal to bronze, by 1500 BC at the latest. The use of iron weapons by the Hittites was believed to have been a major factor in the rapid rise of the Hittite Empire. Because the area in which iron technology first developed was near the Aegean, the technology expanded into both Asia and Europe simultaneously, John Collis (1989), "The European Iron Age" (reprint ed. B. T. Batsford, London) John Collis (1997), "The European Iron Age" (Routledge, ISBN 978-0415151399) aided by Hittite expansion. The Sea Peoples and the related Philistines are often associated with the introduction of iron technology into Asia, as are the Dorians with respect to Greece. Leonard R. Palmer (1980), "Mycenaeans and Minoans: Aegean Prehistory in the Light of the Linear B Tablets" As stated in the Bible First Book of Samuel, 13, 19-20 "Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of Israel: for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears: But all the Israelites went down to the Philistines, to sharpen every man his share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his mattock. , the Philistines maintained a monopoly on iron working, keeping their Israelite neighbors in military inferiority and economic dependance. A major objective of the Hebrews' prolonged wars with the Philistines, recounted in the Book of Samuel, was to obtain the iron-working technology - an aim achieved by the later time of King David. Finds of Iron Early examples and distribution of non precious metal finds. Alex Webb, "Metalworking in Ancient Greece" Date Crete Aegean Greece Cyprus Total Anatolia Grand total 1300–1200 BC5290163365 1200–1100 BC1282637N.A.74 1100–1000 BC133313380N.A.160 1000–900 BC3730115291.40N.A.211 Total Bronze Age5290163365 Total Iron Age513516388337N.A.511 Assyria Levant Anatolia Aegean Egypt Sub-Saharan Africa Iron Age finds in East and Southern Africa, corresponding to the early 1st millennium AD Bantu expansion Inhabitants at Termit, in eastern Niger became the first iron smelting people in West Africa and among the first in the world around 1500 BC. Iron in Africa: Revisiting the History - Unesco (2002) Iron and copper working then continued to spread southward through the continent, reaching the Cape around AD 200. The widespread use of iron revolutionized the Bantu-speaking farming communities who adopted it, driving out and absorbing the rock tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of savannah. The technologically superior Bantu-speakers spread across southern Africa and became wealthy and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities. In addition to wrought iron, very early instances of carbon steel were found to be in production around 2000 years before present in northwest Tanzania, based on complex preheating principles. These discoveries, according to Schmidt and Avery (archaeologists credited with the discovery) are significant for the history of metallurgy. Peter Schmidt, Donald H. Avery. Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania, Science 22 September 1978: Vol. 201. no. 4361, pp. 1085 - 1089 Indian subcontinent Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800 BC – 1200 BC. The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the Central Ganga plain and the Eastern Vindhyas by Rakesh Tewari (Director, U.P. State Archaeological Department) Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be earlier. The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy was achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. An iron working centre in east India is dated to the first millennium BC. Early Antiquity By I. M. Drakonoff. Published 1991. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226144658. pg 372 In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian Upanishads mention weaving, pottery, and metallurgy. Upanisads By Patrick Olivelle. Published 1998. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192835769. pg xxix The Indian Mauryan period saw advances in metallurgy. The New Cambridge History of India By J. F. Richards, Gordon Johnson, Christopher Alan Bayly. Published 2005. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521364248. pg 64 As early as 300 BC, certainly by AD 200, high quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. Juleff, 1996 East Asia China In 1972, near the city of Gaocheng (藁城) in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province), an iron-bladed bronze tomahawk (铁刃青铜钺) dating back to the 14th century BC was excavated. After a scientific examination, the iron was shown to be made from meteoric siderite. The Iron Age in East Asia began in earnest, however, when cast-iron objects appeared in Yangzi Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. Higham, Charles. 1996. The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing. According to the mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid to late Warring States period (from about 350 BC). The techniques used in Lingnan is a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments and the sophisticated cast. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. Japan The is an era in the history of Japan from about 500 BC to 300 AD. Prehistoric Archaeological Periods in Japan, Charles T. Keally Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of an intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. The Yayoi followed the Jōmon period (14,000 BC to 500 BC) and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. The succeeding lasts from around 250 to 538. The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from this era. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period. Korea Silla chest and neck armour from National Museum of Korea. Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the Yellow Sea area in the fourth century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but before the Western Han Dynasty began. Kim, Do-heon. 2002. Samhan Sigi Jujocheolbu-eui Yutong Yangsang-e Daehan Geomto [A Study of the Distribution Patterns of Cast Iron Axes in the Samhan Period]. Yongnam Kogohak [Yongnam Archaeological Review] 31:1–29. Taylor, Sarah. 1989. The Introduction and Development of Iron Production in Korea. World Archaeology 20(3):422–431. Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Yoon, Dong-suk. 1989. Early Iron Metallurgy in Korea. Archaeological Review from Cambridge 8(1):92–99. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century AD in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in the Geum River basin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Gaya Barnes, Gina L. 2001. State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. Curzon, London. Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased in this period. Lee, Sung-joo. 1998. Silla - Gaya Sahoe-eui Giwon-gwa Seongjang [The Rise and Growth of Silla and Gaya Society]. Hakyeon Munhwasa, Seoul. Europe Iron working was introduced to Europe around 1000 BC, probably from Asia Minor and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. Eastern Europe The early 1st millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the Pontic steppe and the Caucasus region, the Iron Age begins with the Koban and the Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures from ca. 900 BC. By 800 BC, it was spreading to Hallstatt C via the alleged "Thraco-Cimmerian" migrations. Along with Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures, on the territory of ancient Russia and Ukraine the Iron Age is to a significant extent associated with Scythians, who developed iron culture since the 7th century BC. The majority of remains of their iron producing and blacksmith's industries from 5th to 3rd century BC was found near Nikopol in Kamenskoe Gorodishche, which is believed to be the specialized metallurgic region of the ancient Scythia. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd edition, entry on "Железный век", available online here Christian, D. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Blackwell Publishing, 1998, p. 141, available online From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads west with the Celtic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late Lusatian culture in about the 6th century, followed in some areas by the Pomeranian culture. The ethnic ascriptions of many Iron Age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of Germanic, Baltic and Slavic peoples were sought in this area. Central Europe In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture (HaC and D, 800–450) and the late Iron Age La Tène culture (beginning in 450 BC). The Iron Age ends with the Roman Conquest. Italy In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the Villanovan culture but this culture is otherwise considered a Bronze Age culture, while the following Etruscan civilization is regarded as part of Iron Age proper. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise and conquest of the Roman Republic, which conquered the last Etruscan city of Velzna in 265 BC. British Isles In the British Isles, the Iron Age lasted from about 800 BC Haselgrove, C. and Pope, R. (2007), 'Characterising the Earlier Iron Age', in C. Haselgrove and R. Pope (eds.), The Earlier Iron Age in Britain and the Near Continent. (Oxbow, Oxford) until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century AD in non-Romanised parts. Structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the brochs and duns of northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the islands. Northern Europe The Iron Age is divided into the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age. This is followed by the migration period. Northern Germany and Denmark was dominated by the Jastorf culture, whereas the culture of the southern half of the Scandinavia was dominated by the very similar Gregan Iron Age. Early Scandinavian iron production typically involved the harvesting of bog iron. Scandinavian peninsula, Finland and Estonia show sophisticated iron production very early, but further dating is currently impossible. The range varies from 3000–2000 BP. This knowledge is associated with the non-Germanic part of Scandinavia. Metalworking and Asbestos-Ceramic pottery are somewhat synonymous in Scandinavia due to the latter's capacity to resist and retain heat. The iron ore used is believed to have been iron sand (such as red soil), because its high phosphorus content can be identified in slag. They are sometimes found together with asbestos ware axes belonging to the Ananjino Culture. The Asbestos-Ceramic ware remains a mystery, because there are other adiabatic vessels with unknown usage. See also List of archaeological periods List of archaeological sites History of ferrous metallurgy Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Fogou Iron Smelting Blast furnace Three age system Smith (metalwork) Roman metallurgy References External links A site with a focus on Iron Age Britain from resourcesforhistory.com | Iron_Age |@lemmatized article:1 archaeological:11 period:19 know:2 iron:127 age:65 mythological:1 see:2 man:3 archaeology:4 stage:1 development:5 people:8 tool:8 weapon:10 whose:1 main:1 ingredient:1 prominent:1 adoption:1 material:2 often:3 coincide:1 change:1 society:6 include:2 differ:1 agricultural:1 practice:2 religious:1 belief:1 artistic:1 style:2 history:10 last:4 principal:2 three:2 system:3 classify:1 prehistoric:4 precede:1 bronze:25 date:9 context:1 vary:1 depend:1 country:3 geographical:1 region:6 firm:1 end:6 set:1 particular:1 simply:1 point:2 become:4 less:3 important:2 survive:1 tradition:3 alloy:4 remain:2 popular:1 steel:9 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1,071 | Lie_algebra | In mathematics, a Lie algebra is an algebraic structure whose main use is in studying geometric objects such as Lie groups and differentiable manifolds. Lie algebras were introduced to study the concept of infinitesimal transformations. The term "Lie algebra" (after Sophus Lie, ("lee"), not ("lye") ) was introduced by Hermann Weyl in the 1930s. In older texts, the name "infinitesimal group" is used. Definition and first properties A Lie algebra is a type of algebra over a field; it is a vector space over some field F together with a binary operation [·, ·] called the Lie bracket, which satisfies the following axioms: Bilinearity: for all scalars a, b in F and all elements x, y, z in . Alternating on : for all x in . This implies anticommutativity, or skew-symmetry (in fact the conditions are equivalent away from 2): for all elements x, y in . The Jacobi identity: for all x, y, z in . For any associative algebra A with multiplication , one can construct a Lie algebra L(A). As a vector space, L(A) is the same as A. The Lie bracket of two elements of L(A) is defined to be their commutator in A: The associativity of the multiplication * in A implies the Jacobi identity of the commutator in L(A). In particular, the associative algebra of n × n matrices over a field F gives rise to the general linear Lie algebra The associative algebra A is called an enveloping algebra of the Lie algebra L(A). It is known that every Lie algebra can be embedded into one that arises from an associative algebra in this fashion. See universal enveloping algebra. Homomorphisms, subalgebras, and ideals The Lie bracket is not an associative operation in general, meaning that need not equal . Nonetheless, much of the terminology that was developed in the theory of associative rings or associative algebras is commonly applied to Lie algebras. A subspace that is closed under the Lie bracket is called a Lie subalgebra. If a subspace satisfies a stronger condition that then I is called an ideal in the Lie algebra . Due to the anticommutativity of the commutator, the notions of a left and right ideal in a Lie algebra coincide. A Lie algebra in which the commutator is not identically zero and which has no proper ideals is called simple. A homomorphism between two Lie algebras (over the same ground field) is a linear map that is compatible with the commutators: for all elements x and y in . As in the theory of associative rings, ideals are precisely the kernels of homomorphisms, given a Lie algebra and an ideal I in it, one constructs the factor algebra , and the first isomorphism theorem holds for Lie algebras. Given two Lie algebras and , their direct sum is the vector space consisting of the pairs , with the operation Examples Any vector space V endowed with the identically zero Lie bracket becomes a Lie algebra. Such Lie algebras are called abelian, cf. below. Any one-dimensional Lie algebra over a field is abelian, by the antisymmetry of the Lie bracket. The three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 with the Lie bracket given by the cross product of vectors becomes a three-dimensional Lie algebra. The Heisenberg algebra is a three-dimensional Lie algebra with generators: whose commutation relations are It is explicitly exhibited as the space of 3x3 strictly upper-triangular matrices. The subspace of the general linear Lie algebra consisting of matrices of trace zero is a subalgebra, Humphreys p.2 the special linear Lie algebra, denoted Any Lie group G defines an associated real Lie algebra The definition in general is somewhat technical, but in the case of real matrix groups, it can be formulated via the exponential map, or the matrix exponent. The Lie algebra consists of those matrices X for which for all real numbers t. The Lie bracket of is given by the commutator of matrices. As a concrete example, consider the special linear group SL(n,R), consisting of all n × n matrices with real entries and determinant 1. This is a matrix Lie group, and its Lie algebra consists of all n × n matrices with real entries and trace 0. The real vector space of all n × n skew-hermitian matrices is closed under the commutator and forms a real Lie algebra denoted u(n). This is the Lie algebra of the unitary group U(n). An important class of infinite-dimensional real Lie algebras arises in differential topology. The space of smooth vector fields on a differentiable manifold M forms a Lie algebra, where the Lie bracket is defined to be the commutator of vector fields. One way of expressing the Lie bracket is through the formalism of Lie derivatives, which identifies a vector field X with a first order partial differential operator LX acting on smooth functions by letting LX(f) be the directional derivative of the function f in the direction of X. The Lie bracket [X,Y] of two vector fields is the vector field defined through its action on functions by the formula: This Lie algebra is related to the pseudogroup of diffeomorphisms of M. The commutation relations between the x, y, and z components of the angular momentum operator in quantum mechanics form a representation of a complex three-dimensional Lie algebra, which is the complexification of the Lie algebra so(3) of the three-dimensional rotation group: Kac–Moody algebra is an example of an infinite-dimensional Lie algebra. Structure theory and classification Every finite-dimensional real or complex Lie algebra has a faithful representation by matrices (Ado's theorem). Lie's fundamental theorems describe a relation between Lie groups and Lie algebras. In particular, any Lie group gives rise to a canonically determined Lie algebra, and conversely, for any Lie algebra there is a corresponding connected Lie group (Lie's third theorem). This Lie group is not determined uniquely, however, any two connected Lie groups with the same Lie algebra are locally isomorphic, and in particular, have the same universal cover. For instance, the special orthogonal group SO(3) and the special unitary group SU(2) give rise to the same Lie algebra, which is isomorphic to R3 with the cross-product, and SU(2) is a simply-connected twofold cover of SO(3). Real and complex Lie algebras can be classified to some extent, and this is often an important step toward the classification of Lie groups. A Lie algebra is abelian if the Lie bracket vanishes, i.e. [x,y] = 0, for all x and y in . Abelian Lie algebras correspond to commutative (or abelian) connected Lie groups. A more general class of Lie algebras is defined by the vanishing of all commutators of given length. A Lie algebra is nilpotent if the lower central series becomes zero eventually. By Engel's theorem, a Lie algebra is nilpotent if and only if for every u in the adjoint endomorphism is nilpotent. More generally still, a Lie algebra is said to be solvable if the derived series: becomes zero eventually. Every Lie algebra has a unique maximal solvable ideal, called its radical. Under the Lie correspondence, nilpotent (respectively, solvable) connected Lie groups correspond to nilpotent (respectively, solvable) Lie algebras. A Lie algebra is "simple" if it has no non-trivial ideals and is not abelian. A Lie algebra is called semisimple if its radical is zero. Equivalently, is semisimple if it does not contain any non-zero abelian ideals. In particular, a simple Lie algebra is semisimple. Conversely, it can be proven that any semisimple Lie algebra is the direct sum of its minimal ideals, which are canonically determined simple Lie algebras. In many ways, the classes of semisimple and solvable Lie algebras are at the opposite ends of the full spectrum of the Lie algebras. The Levi decomposition expresses an arbitrary Lie algebra as a semidirect product of its solvable radical and a semisimple Lie algebra, almost in a canonical way. Semisimple Lie algebras over an algebraically closed field have been completely classified through their root systems. The classification of solvable Lie algebras is a 'wild' problem, and cannot be accomplished in general. Cartan's criterion gives conditions for a Lie algebra to be nilpotent, solvable, or semisimple. It is based on the notion of the Killing form, a symmetric bilinear form on defined by the formula where tr denotes the trace of a linear operator. A Lie algebra is semisimple if and only if the Killing form is nondegenerate. A Lie algebra is solvable if and only if The concept of semisimplicity for Lie algebras is closely related with the complete reducibility of their representations. When the ground field F has characteristic zero, semisimplicity of a Lie algebra over F is equivalent to the complete reducibility of all finite-dimensional representations of An early proof of this statement proceeded via connection with compact groups (Weyl's unitary trick), but later entirely algebraic proofs were found. Relation to Lie groups Although Lie algebras are often studied in their own right, historically they arose as a means to study Lie groups. Given a Lie group, a Lie algebra can be associated to it either by endowing the tangent space to the identity with the differential of the adjoint map, or by considering the left-invariant vector fields as mentioned in the examples. This association is functorial, meaning that homomorphisms of Lie groups lift to homomorphisms of Lie algebras, and various properties are satisfied by this lifting: it commutes with composition, it maps Lie subgroups, kernels, quotients and cokernels of Lie groups to subalgebras, kernels, quotients and cokernels of Lie algebras, respectively. The functor which takes each Lie group to its Lie algebra and each homomorphism to its differential is a full and faithful exact functor. This functor is not invertible; different Lie groups may have the same Lie algebra, for example SO(3) and SU(2) have isomorphic Lie algebras. Even worse, some Lie algebras need not have any associated Lie group. Nevertheless, when the Lie algebra is finite-dimensional, there is always at least one Lie group whose Lie algebra is the one under discussion, and a preferred Lie group can be chosen. Any finite-dimensional connected Lie group has a universal cover. This group can be constructed as the image of the Lie algebra under the exponential map. More generally, we have that the Lie algebra is homeomorphic to a neighborhood of the identity. But globally, if the Lie group is compact, the exponential will not be injective, and if the Lie group is not connected, simply connected or compact, the exponential map need not be surjective. If the Lie algebra is infinite-dimensional, the issue is more subtle. In many instances, the exponential map is not even locally a homeomorphism (for example, in Diff(S1), one may find diffeomorphisms arbitrarily close to the identity which are not in the image of exp). Furthermore, some infinite-dimensional Lie algebras are not the Lie algebra of any group. The correspondence between Lie algebras and Lie groups is used in several ways, including in the classification of Lie groups and the related matter of the representation theory of Lie groups. Every representation of a Lie algebra lifts uniquely to a representation of the corresponding connected, simply connected Lie group, and conversely every representation of any Lie group induces a representation of the group's Lie algebra; the representations are in one to one correspondence. Therefore, knowing the representations of a Lie algebra settles the question of representations of the group. As for classification, it can be shown that any connected Lie group with a given Lie algebra is isomorphic to the universal cover mod a discrete central subgroup. So classifying Lie groups becomes simply a matter of counting the discrete subgroups of the center, once the classification of Lie algebras is known (solved by Cartan et al. in the semisimple case). Category theoretic definition Using the language of category theory, a Lie algebra can be defined as an object A in Vec, the category of vector spaces together with a morphism [.,.]: A ⊗ A → A, where ⊗ refers to the monoidal product of Vec, such that where τ (a ⊗ b) := b ⊗ a and σ is the cyclic permutation braiding (id ⊗ τA,A) ° (τA,A ⊗ id). In diagrammatic form: Image:Liealgebra.png See also Adjoint representation of a Lie algebra Anyonic Lie algebra Lie algebra cohomology Lie algebra representation Lie bialgebra Lie coalgebra Lie superalgebra Killing form Particle physics and representation theory Poisson algebra Quasi-Lie algebra Restricted Lie algebra Notes References Hall, Brian C. Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Representations: An Elementary Introduction, Springer, 2003. ISBN 0-387-40122-9 Erdmann, Karin & Wildon, Mark. Introduction to Lie Algebras, 1st edition, Springer, 2006. ISBN 1-84628-040-0 Humphreys, James E. Introduction to Lie Algebras and Representation Theory, Second printing, revised. Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 9. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. ISBN 0-387-90053-5 Jacobson, Nathan, Lie algebras, Republication of the 1962 original. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1979. ISBN 0-486-63832-4 Kac, Victor G. et al. Course notes for MIT 18.745: Introduction to Lie Algebras, http://www-math.mit.edu/~lesha/745lec/ O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. Biography of Sophus Lie, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Lie.html O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. Biography of Wilhelm Killing, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Killing.html Varadarajan, V. S. Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Their Representations, 1st edition, Springer, 2004. 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1,072 | Floating_point | In computing, floating point describes a system for numerical representation in which a string of digits (or bits) represents a rational number. The term floating point refers to the fact that the radix point (decimal point, or, more commonly in computers, binary point) can "float": that is, it can be placed anywhere relative to the significant digits of the number. This position is indicated separately in the internal representation, and floating-point representation can thus be thought of as a computer realization of scientific notation. Over the years several different floating-point representations have been used in computers; however, for the last ten years the most commonly encountered representation is that defined by the IEEE 754 Standard. The advantage of floating-point representation over fixed-point (an integer) representation is that it can support a much wider range of values. For example, a fixed-point representation that has seven decimal digits, with the decimal point assumed to be positioned after the fifth digit, can represent the numbers 12345.67, 8765.43, 123.00, and so on, whereas a floating-point representation (such as the IEEE 754 decimal32 format) with seven decimal digits could in addition represent 1.234567, 123456.7, 0.00001234567, 1234567000000000, and so on. The floating-point format needs slightly more storage (to encode the position of the radix point), so when stored in the same space, floating-point numbers achieve their greater range at the expense of slightly less precision. The speed of floating-point operations is an important measure of performance for computers in many application domains. It is measured in FLOPS. World-class supercomputer installations are generally rated in teraflops. In June 2008, the IBM Roadrunner supercomputer achieved 1.026 petaflops, or 1.026 quadrillion floating-point operations per second. In November 2008, Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Cray XT Jaguar supercomputer was upgraded to hit a theoretical peak computing power of 1.64 petaflops making Jaguar the world's first petaflop system dedicated to open research. Overview A number representation (called a numeral system in mathematics) specifies some way of storing a number that may be encoded as a string of digits. The arithmetic is defined as a set of actions on the representation that simulate classical arithmetic operations. There are several mechanisms by which strings of digits can represent numbers. In common mathematical notation, the digit string can be of any length, and the location of the radix point is indicated by placing an explicit "point" character (dot or comma) there. If the radix point is omitted then it is implicitly assumed to lie at the right (least significant) end of the string (that is, the number is an integer). In fixed-point systems, some specific assumption is made about where the radix point is located in the string. For example, the convention could be that the string consists of 8 decimal digits with the decimal point in the middle, so that "00012345" has a value of 1.2345. In scientific notation, the given number is scaled by a power of 10 so that it lies within a certain range—typically between 1 and 10, with the radix point appearing immediately after the first digit. The scaling factor, as a power of ten, is then indicated separately at the end of the number. For example, the revolution period of Jupiter's moon Io is 152853.5047 seconds. This is represented in standard-form scientific notation as 1.528535047 seconds. Floating-point representation is similar in concept to scientific notation. Logically, a floating-point number consists of: A signed digit string of a given length in a given base (or radix). This is known as the significand, or sometimes the mantissa (see below) or coefficient. The radix point is not explicitly included, but is implicitly assumed to always lie in a certain position within the significand—often just after or just before the most significant digit, or to the right of the rightmost digit. This article will generally follow the convention that the radix point is just after the most significant (leftmost) digit. The length of the significand determines the precision to which numbers can be represented. A signed integer exponent, also referred to as the characteristic or scale, which modifies the magnitude of the number. The significand is multiplied by the base raised to the power of the exponent, equivalent to shifting the radix point from its implied position by a number of places equal to the value of the exponent—to the right if the exponent is positive or to the left if the exponent is negative. Using base-10 (the familiar decimal notation) as an example, the number 152853.5047, which has ten decimal digits of precision, is represented as the significand 1528535047 together with an exponent of 5 (if the implied position of the radix point is after the first most significant digit, here 1). To recover the actual value, a decimal point is placed after the first digit of the significand and the result is multiplied by 105 to give 1.528535047 × 105, or 152853.5047. Symbolically, this final value is where s is the value of the significand (after taking into account the implied radix point), b is the base, and e is the exponent. Equivalently, this is: where s here means the integer value of the entire significand, ignoring any implied decimal point, and p is the precision—the number of digits in the significand. Historically, different bases have been used for representing floating-point numbers, with base 2 (binary) being the most common, followed by base 10 (decimal), and other less common varieties such as base 16. The way in which the significand, exponent and sign bits are internally stored on a computer is implementation-dependent. The common IEEE formats are described in detail later and elsewhere, but as an example, in the binary single-precision (32-bit) floating-point representation p=24 and so the significand is a string of 24 bits (1s and 0s). For instance, the number π's first 33 bits are 11001001 00001111 11011010 10100010 0. Rounding to 24 bits in binary mode means attributing the 24th bit the value of the 25th which yields 11001001 00001111 11011011. When this is stored using the IEEE 754 encoding, this becomes the significand s with e = 1 (where s is assumed to have a binary point to the right of the first bit) after a left-adjustment (or normalization) during which leading or padding zeros are truncated should there be any. Note that they do not matter anyway. Then since the first bit of a non-zero binary significand is always 1 it need not be stored, giving an extra bit of precision. To calculate π the formula is where n is the normalized significand's nth bit from the left. Normalization, which is reversed when 1 is being added above, can be thought of as a form of compression; it allows a binary significand to be compressed into a field one bit shorter than the maximum precision, at the expense of extra processing. The word "mantissa" is often used as a synonym for significand. Many people do not consider this usage to be correct, because the mantissa is traditionally defined as the fractional part of a logarithm, while the characteristic is the integer part. This terminology comes from the way logarithm tables were used before computers became commonplace. Log tables were actually tables of mantissas. Therefore, a mantissa is the logarithm of the significand. Range of floating-point numbers By allowing the radix point to be adjustable, floating-point notation allows calculations over a wide range of magnitudes, using a fixed number of digits, while maintaining good precision. For example, in a decimal floating-point system with three digits, the multiplication that humans would write as 0.12 × 0.12 = 0.0144 would be expressed as (1.2) × (1.2) = (1.44) In a fixed-point system with the decimal point at the left, it would be 0.120 × 0.120 = 0.014 A digit of the result was lost because of the inability of the digits and decimal point to 'float' relative to each other within the digit string. The range of floating-point numbers depends on the number of bits or digits used for representation of the significand (the significant digits of the number) and for the exponent. On a typical computer system, a 'double precision' (64-bit) binary floating-point number has a coefficient of 53 bits (one of which is implied), an exponent of 11 bits, and one sign bit. Positive floating-point numbers in this format have an approximate range of 10−308 to 10308 (because 308 is approximately 1023 × log10(2), since the range of the exponent is [−1022,1023]). The complete range of the format is from about −10308 through +10308 (see IEEE 754). The number of normalized floating point numbers in a system F(B, P, L, U) (where B is the base of the system, P is the precision of the system to P numbers, L is the smallest exponent representable in the system, and U is the largest exponent used in the system) is: 2 * (B - 1) * B^(P-1) * (U - L + 1) + 1. The one is added because the number could be zero. There is a smallest positive normalized floating-point number, Underflow level = UFL = B^L which has a 1 as the leading digit and 0 for the remaining digits of the mantissa, and the smallest possible value for the exponent. There is a largest floating point number, Overflow level = OFL = B^(U + 1) * (1 - B^(-P)) which has B - 1 as the value for each digit of the mantissa and the largest possible value for the exponent. Any number larger than OFL cannot be represented in the given floating-point system, and no number smaller than the UFL can be represented in the floating point system. History In 1938, Konrad Zuse of Berlin, completed the "Z1", the first mechanical binary programmable computer. It was based on boolean algebra and had most of the basic ingredients of modern machines, using the binary system and today's standard separation of storage and control. Zuse's 1936 patent application (Z23139/GMD Nr. 005/021) also suggests a von Neumann architecture (re-invented in 1945) with program and data modifiable in storage. Originally the machine was called the "V1" but it was retroactively renamed after the war, to avoid confusion with the V1 missile. It worked with floating-point numbers having a 7-bit exponent, 16-bit significand, and a sign bit. The memory used sliding metal parts to store 16 such numbers, and worked well; but the arithmetic unit was less successful, occasionally suffering from certain mechanical engineering problems. The program was read from punched discarded 35 mm movie film. Data values could be entered from a numeric keyboard, and outputs were displayed on electric lamps. The machine was not a general purpose computer because it lacked looping capabilities. The Z3 was completed in 1941 and was program-controlled. Once electronic digital computers became a reality, the need to process data in this way was quickly recognized. The first commercial computer to be able to do this in hardware appears to be the Z4 in 1950, followed by the IBM 704 in 1954. For some time after that, floating-point hardware was an optional feature, and computers that had it were said to be "scientific computers", or to have "scientific computing" capability. All modern general-purpose computers have this ability. The PDP-11/44 was an extension of the 11/34 that included the cache memory and floating-point units as a standard feature. The UNIVAC 1100/2200 series, introduced in 1962, supported two floating-point formats. Single precision used 36 bits, organized into a 1-bit sign, 8-bit exponent, and a 27-bit significand. Double precision used 72 bits organized as a 1-bit sign, 11-bit exponent, and a 60-bit significand. The IBM 7094, introduced the same year, also supported single and double precision, with slightly different formats. Prior to the IEEE-754 standard, computers used many different forms of floating-point. These differed in the word-sizes, the format of the representations, and the rounding behavior of operations. These differing systems implemented different parts of the arithmetic in hardware and software, with varying accuracy. The IEEE-754 standard was created in the early 1980s, after word sizes of 32 bits (or 16 or 64) had been generally settled upon. Among the innovations are these: A precisely specified encoding of the bits, so that all compliant computers would interpret bit patterns the same way. This made it possible to transfer floating-point numbers from one computer to another. A precisely specified behavior of the arithmetic operations. This meant that a given program, with given data, would always produce the same result on any compliant computer. This helped reduce the almost mystical reputation that floating-point computation had for seemingly nondeterministic behavior. The ability of exceptional conditions (overflow, divide by zero, etc.) to propagate through a computation in a benign manner and be handled by the software in a controlled way. Implementation in actual computers: IEEE floating-point The IEEE has standardized the computer representation for binary floating-point numbers in IEEE 754. This standard is followed by almost all modern machines. Notable exceptions include IBM mainframes, which support IBM's own format (in addition to the IEEE 754 binary and decimal formats), and Cray vector machines, where the T90 series had an IEEE version, but the SV1 still uses Cray floating-point format The standard provides for many closely-related formats, differing in only a few details. Five of these formats are called basic formats, and two of these are especially widely used in computer hardware and languages: Single precision, called "float" in the C language family, and "real" or "real*4" in Fortran. This is a binary format that occupies 32 bits (4 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 24 bits (about 7 decimal digits). Double precision, called "double" in the C language family, and "double precision" or "real*8" in Fortran. This is a binary format that occupies 64 bits (8 bytes) and its significand has a precision of 53 bits (about 16 decimal digits). The other basic formats are "quad" (128-bit) binary and decimal floating-point, and "double" (64-bit) decimal floating-point. Less common formats include: Extended precision format, 80-bit floating point value. Usually "long double" in C language family. Half, also called float16, a 16-bit floating point value. Any integer less than or equal to 224 can be exactly represented in the single precision format, and any integer less than or equal to 253 can be exactly represented in the double precision format. Furthermore, any reasonable power of 2 times such a number can be represented. This property is sometimes used in purely integer applications, to get 53-bit integers on platforms that have double precision floats but only 32-bit integers. The bit representations of IEEE binary floating-point numbers are monotonic (increasing or decreasing in accordance with the numbers they represent), as long as exceptional values are avoided and the signs are handled properly. IEEE binary floating-point numbers are equal if and only if their integer bit representations are equal. Binary floating-point comparisons can therefore be done with simple integer comparisons on the bit patterns, as long as the signs match. However, the actual floating-point comparisons provided by hardware typically have much more sophistication in dealing with exceptional values. To a rough approximation, the bit representation of an IEEE binary floating-point number is proportional to its base 2 logarithm, with an average error of about 3%. (This is because the exponent field is in the more significant part of the datum.) This can be exploited in some applications, such as volume ramping in digital sound processing. Although the 32 bit ("single") and 64 bit ("double") formats are by far the most common, the standard actually allows for many different precision levels. Computer hardware (for example, the Intel Pentium series and the Motorola 68000 series) often provides an 80 bit extended precision format, with a 15 bit exponent, a 64 bit significand, and no hidden bit. There is controversy about the failure of most programming languages to make these extended precision formats available to programmers (although C and related programming languages usually provide these formats via the long double type on such hardware). System vendors may also provide additional extended formats (e.g. 128 bits) emulated in software. A project for revising the IEEE 754 standard was started in 2000 (see IEEE 754 revision); it was completed and approved in June 2008. It includes decimal floating-point formats and a 16 bit floating point format ("binary16"). binary16 has the same structure and rules as the older formats, with 1 sign bit, 5 exponent bits and 10 trailing significand bits. It is being used in the NVIDIA Cg graphics language, and in the openEXR standard. openEXR Internal representation Floating-point numbers are typically packed into a computer datum as the sign bit, the exponent field, and the significand (mantissa), from left to right. For the IEEE 754 binary formats they are apportioned as follows: TypeSignExponentExponent biassignificandtotalHalf (IEEE 754r)15151016Single181272332Double11110235264Quad11516383112128 While the exponent can be positive or negative, in binary formats it is stored as an unsigned number that has a fixed "bias" added to it. Values of all 0s and all 1s in this field are reserved for special treatment (see dealing with exceptional cases). Therefore the legal exponent range for normalized numbers is [−126, 127] for single precision, [−1022, 1023] for double, or [−16382, 16383] for quad. As described earlier, when a binary number is normalized the leftmost bit of the significand is known to be 1. In the IEEE binary interchange formats that bit is not actually stored in the computer datum. It is called the "hidden" or "implicit" bit. Because of this, single precision format actually has a significand with 24 bits of precision, double precision format has 53, and quad has 113. For example, it was shown above that π, rounded to 24 bits of precision, has: sign = 0 ; e = 1 ; s = 110010010000111111011011 (including the hidden bit) The sum of the exponent bias (127) and the exponent (1) is 128, so this is represented in single precision format as 0 10000000 10010010000111111011011 (excluding the hidden bit) = 40490FDB as a big-endian hexadecimal Alternative computer representations for non-integral numbers Floating-point representation, in particular the standard IEEE format, is by far the most common way of representing arbitrary real numbers in computers because it is efficiently handled in most large computer processors. However, there are alternatives: Fixed-point representation uses integer hardware operations controlled by a software implementation of a specific convention about the location of the binary or decimal point, for example, 6 bits or digits from the right. The hardware to manipulate these representations is less costly than floating-point and is also commonly used to perform integer operations. Binary fixed point is usually used in special-purpose applications on embedded processors that can only do integer arithmetic, but decimal fixed point is common in commercial applications. Binary-coded decimal is an encoding for decimal numbers in which each digit is represented by its own binary sequence. Where greater precision is desired, floating-point arithmetic can be emulated in software with variable-sized significands which might grow and shrink as the program runs. This is called arbitrary-precision, or "scaled bignum", arithmetic. Some numbers (e.g., 1/3 and 0.1) cannot be represented exactly in binary floating-point no matter what the precision. Software packages that perform rational arithmetic represent numbers as fractions with integral numerator and denominator, and can therefore represent any rational number exactly. Such packages generally need to use "bignum" arithmetic for the individual integers. Computer algebra systems such as Mathematica and Maxima can often handle irrational numbers like or in a completely "formal" way, without dealing with a specific encoding of the significand. Such programs can evaluate expressions like "" exactly, because they "know" the underlying mathematics. A representation based on natural logarithms is sometimes used in FPGA-based applications where most arithmetic operations are multiplication or division. Like floating-point representation, this solution has precision for smaller numbers, as well as a wide range. Representable numbers, conversion and rounding By their nature, all numbers expressed in floating-point format are rational numbers with a terminating expansion in the relevant base (for example, a terminating decimal expansion in base-10, or a terminating binary expansion in base-2). Irrational numbers, such as π or √2, or non-terminating rational numbers, must be approximated. The number of digits (or bits) of precision also limits the set of rational numbers that can be represented exactly. For example, the number 123456789 clearly cannot be exactly represented if only eight decimal digits of precision are available. When a number is represented in some format (such as a character string) which is not a native floating-point representation supported in a computer implementation, then it will require a conversion before it can be used in that implementation. If the number can be represented exactly in the floating-point format then the conversion is exact. If there is not an exact representation then the conversion requires a choice of which floating-point number to use to represent the original value. The representation chosen will have a different value to the original, and the value thus adjusted is called the rounded value. Whether or not a rational number has a terminating expansion depends on the base. For example, in base-10 the number 1/2 has a terminating expansion (0.5) while the number 1/3 does not (0.333...). In base-2 only rationals with denominators that are powers of 2 (such as 1/2 or 3/16) are terminating. Any rational with a denominator that has a prime factor other than 2 will have an infinite binary expansion. This means that numbers which appear to be short and exact when written in decimal format may need to be approximated when converted to binary floating-point. For example, the decimal number 0.1 is not representable in binary floating-point of any finite precision; the exact binary representation would have a "1100" sequence continuing endlessly: e = −??; s = 1100110011001100110011001100110011..., where, as previously, s is the significand and e is the exponent. When rounded to 24 bits this becomes e = −27; s = 110011001100110011001101, which is actually 0.100000001490116119384765625 in decimal. As a further example, the real number π, represented in binary as an infinite series of bits is 11.0010010000111111011010101000100010000101101000110000100011010011... but is 11.0010010000111111011011 when approximated by rounding to a precision of 24 bits. In binary single-precision floating-point, this is represented as s = 110010010000111111011011 with e = −22. This has a decimal value of 3.1415927410125732421875, whereas the more accurate approximation of the true value of π is 3.1415926535897932384626433832795... The result of rounding differs from the true value by about 0.03 parts per million, and matches the decimal representation of π in the first 7 digits. The difference is the discretization error and is limited by the machine epsilon. The arithmetical difference between two consecutive representable floating-point numbers which have the same exponent is called a Unit in the Last Place (ULP). For example, the numbers represented by 45670123 and 45670124 hexadecimal is one ULP. For numbers with an exponent of 0, a ULP is exactly 2−23 or about 10−7 in single precision, and about 10−16 in double precision. The mandated behavior of IEEE-compliant hardware is that the result be within one-half of a ULP. Rounding modes Rounding modes are used when the exact result of a floating-point operation (or a conversion to floating-point format) would need more significant digits than there are digits in the significand. There are several different rounding schemes (or rounding modes). Historically, truncation was the typical approach. Since the introduction of IEEE 754, the default method (round to nearest, ties to even, sometimes called Banker's Rounding) is more commonly used. This method rounds the ideal (infinitely precise) result of an arithmetic operation to the nearest representable value, and give that representation as the result. Computer hardware doesn't necessarily compute the exact value; it simply has to produce the equivalent rounded result as though it had computed the infinitely precise result. In the case of a tie, the value that would make the significand end in a 0 bit is chosen. This IEEE standard applies to all fundamental algebraic operations, including square root, in the absence of exceptional conditions. It means that IEEE-compliant hardware behavior is completely determined in all 32 or 64 bits. ("Library" functions such as cosine and log are not mandated.) Alternative rounding options are also available. IEEE-754-compliant hardware offers the following rounding modes: round to nearest, where ties round to the nearest even digit in the required position (the default and by far the most common mode) round to nearest, where ties round away from zero (optional for binary floating-point and commonly used in decimal) round up (toward +∞; negative results round toward zero) round down (toward −∞; negative results round away from zero) round toward zero (sometimes called "chop" mode; it is similar to the common behavior of float-to-integer conversions, which convert −3.9 to −3) Alternative modes are useful when the amount of error being introduced must be bounded. Applications that require a bounded error are multi-precision floating-point, and interval arithmetic. A further use of rounding modes is when a number is explicitly rounded to a certain number of decimal (or binary) places, as when rounding a result to euros and cents (two decimal places). In this case a common rounding mode is again "round to nearest, ties away from zero", in which a tie is rounded up for positive values. Floating-point arithmetic operations For ease of presentation and understanding, decimal radix with 7 digit precision will be used in the examples, as in the IEEE 754 decimal32 format. The fundamental principles are the same in any radix or precision, except that normalization is optional (it does not affect the numerical value of the result). Here, s denotes the significand and e denotes the exponent. Addition and subtraction A simple method to add floating-point numbers is to first represent them with the same exponent. In the example below, the second number is shifted right by three digits, and we then proceed with the usual addition method: 123456.7 = 1.234567 * 10^5 101.7654 = 1.017654 * 10^2 = 0.001017654 * 10^5 Hence: 123456.7 + 101.7654 = (1.234567 * 10^5) + (1.017654 * 10^2) = (1.234567 * 10^5) + (0.001017654 * 10^5) = (1.234567 + 0.001017654) * 10^5 = 1.235584654 * 10^5 In detail: e=5; s=1.234567 (123456.7) + e=2; s=1.017654 (101.7654) e=5; s=1.234567 + e=5; s=0.001017654 (after shifting) -------------------- e=5; s=1.235584654 (true sum: 123558.4654) This is the true result, the exact sum of the operands. It will be rounded to seven digits and then normalized if necessary. The final result is e=5; s=1.235585 (final sum: 123558.5) Note that the low 3 digits of the second operand (654) are essentially lost. This is round-off error. In extreme cases, the sum of two non-zero numbers may be equal to one of them: e=5; s=1.234567 + e=-3; s=9.876543 e=5; s=1.234567 + e=5; s=0.00000009876543 (after shifting) ---------------------- e=5; s=1.23456709876543 (true sum) e=5; s=1.234567 (after rounding/normalization) Another problem of loss of significance occurs when two close numbers are subtracted. In the following example e = 5; s = 1.234571 and e = 5; s = 1.234567 are representations of the rationals 123457.1467 and 123456.659. e=5; s=1.234571 - e=5; s=1.234567 ---------------- e=5; s=0.000004 e=-1; s=4.000000 (after rounding/normalization) The best representation of this difference is e = −1; s = 4.877000, which differs more than 20% from e = −1; s = 4.000000. In extreme cases, the final result may be zero even though an exact calculation may be several million. This cancellation illustrates the danger in assuming that all of the digits of a computed result are meaningful. Dealing with the consequences of these errors is a topic in numerical analysis; see also Accuracy problems. Multiplication To multiply, the significands are multiplied while the exponents are added, and the result is rounded and normalized. e=3; s=4.734612 × e=5; s=5.417242 ----------------------- e=8; s=25.648538980104 (true product) e=8; s=25.64854 (after rounding) e=9; s=2.564854 (after normalization) Division is done similarly, but is more complicated. There are no cancellation or absorption problems with multiplication or division, though small errors may accumulate as operations are performed repeatedly. In practice, the way these operations are carried out in digital logic can be quite complex (see Booth's multiplication algorithm and digital division). The enormous complexity of modern division algorithms once led to a famous error. An early version of the Intel Pentium chip was shipped with a division instruction that, on rare occasions, gave slightly incorrect results. Many computers had been shipped before the error was discovered. Until the defective computers were replaced, patched versions of compilers were developed that could avoid the failing cases. See Pentium FDIV bug. For a fast, simple method, see the Horner method. Dealing with exceptional cases Floating-point computation in a computer can run into three kinds of problems: An operation can be mathematically illegal, such as division by zero. An operation can be legal in principle, but not supported by the specific format, for example, calculating the square root of −1 or the inverse sine of 2 (both of which result in complex numbers). An operation can be legal in principle, but the result can be impossible to represent in the specified format, because the exponent is too large or too small to encode in the exponent field. Such an event is called an overflow (exponent too large) or underflow (exponent too small). Prior to the IEEE standard, such conditions usually caused the program to terminate, or triggered some kind of trap that the programmer might be able to catch. How this worked was system-dependent, meaning that floating-point programs were not portable. Modern IEEE-compliant systems have a uniform way of handling these situations. An important part of the mechanism involves error values that result from a failing computation, and that can propagate silently through subsequent computation until they are detected at a point of the programmer's choosing. The two error values are "infinity" (often denoted "INF"), and "NaN" ("not a number"), which covers all other errors. "Infinity" does not necessarily mean that the result is actually infinite. It simply means "too large to represent". Both of these are encoded with the exponent field set to all 1s. (Recall that exponent fields of all 0s or all 1s are reserved for special meanings.) The significand field is set to something that can distinguish them—typically zero for INF and nonzero for NaN. The sign bit is meaningful for INF, that is, floating-point hardware distinguishes between + and −. When a nonzero number is divided by zero (the divisor must be exactly zero), a "zerodivide" event occurs, and the result is set to infinity of the appropriate sign. In other cases in which the result's exponent is too large to represent, such as division of an extremely large number by an extremely small number, an "overflow" event occurs, also producing infinity of the appropriate sign. This is different from a zerodivide, though both produce a result of infinity, and the distinction is usually unimportant in practice. Floating-point hardware is generally designed to handle operands of infinity in a reasonable way, such as (+INF) + (+7) = (+INF) (+INF) × (−2) = (−INF) But: (+INF) × 0 = NaN—there is no meaningful thing to do When the result of an operation has an exponent too small to represent properly, an "underflow" event occurs. The hardware responds to this by changing to a format in which the significand is not normalized, and there is no "hidden" bit—that is, all bits of the significand are represented. The exponent field is set to the reserved value of zero. The significand is set to whatever it has to be in order to be consistent with the exponent. Such a number is said to be "subnormal" (sometimes called a "denormalized number", or a "denorm" for short, referring to the older term for subnormals that was used in the first first IEEE 754 standard where subnormal numbers were always unnormalized). Subnormal numbers are valid operands to arithmetic operations. If no significant bits are able to appear in the significand field, the number is zero. Note that, in this case, the exponent field and significand field are all zeros—floating-point zero is represented by all zeros. The mandated behavior for dealing with overflow and underflow is that the appropriate result is computed, taking the rounding mode into consideration, as though the exponent range were infinitely large. If that resulting exponent can't be packed into its field correctly, the overflow/underflow action described above is taken. Other errors, such as division of zero by zero, or taking the square root of −1, cause an "operand error" (known in IEEE 754 as an "invalid operation") event, and produce a NaN result. NaNs propagate aggressively through arithmetic operations—any NaN operand to almost any operation produces a NaN result. In summary, there are five special "events" that may occur, though some of them are quite benign: An overflow occurs as described previously, producing an infinity An underflow occurs as described previously, producing a subnormal number or zero A zerodivide occurs as described previously, producing an infinity of the appropriate sign An "operand error" ("invalid operation") occurs as described previously, producing a NaN An "inexact" event occurs whenever the rounding of a result changed that result from the true mathematical value. This occurs almost all the time, and is usually ignored. It is looked at only in the most exacting applications. Computer hardware is typically able to raise exceptions when these events occur. How this is done is system-dependent. Usually these exceptions are all masked (disabled) by software, and programs rely on the propagation of error values. Accuracy problems The fact that floating-point numbers cannot faithfully mimic the real numbers, and that floating-point operations cannot faithfully mimic true arithmetic operations, leads to many surprising situations. This is related to the finite precision with which computers generally represent numbers. For example, the non-representability of 0.1 and 0.01 (in binary) means that the result of attempting to square 0.1 is neither 0.01 nor the representable number closest to it. In 24-bit (single precision) representation, 0.1 (decimal) was given previously as e = −4; s = 110011001100110011001101, which is 0.100000001490116119384765625 exactly. Squaring this number gives 0.010000000298023226097399174250313080847263336181640625 exactly. Squaring it with single-precision floating-point hardware (with rounding) gives 0.010000000707805156707763671875 exactly. But the representable number closest to 0.01 is 0.009999999776482582092285156250 exactly. Also, the non-representability of π (and π/2) means that an attempted computation of tan(π/2) will not yield a result of infinity, nor will it even overflow. It is simply not possible for standard floating-point hardware to attempt to compute tan(π/2), because π/2 cannot be represented exactly. This computation in C: // Enough digits to be sure we get the correct approximation. double pi = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795; double z = tan(pi/2.0); will give a result of 16331239353195370.0. In single precision (using the tanf function), the result will be −22877332.0. By the same token, an attempted computation of sin(π) will not yield zero. The result will be (approximately) 0.1225 in double precision, or −0.8742 in single precision. But an attempted computation of cos(π) yields −1 exactly. Since the derivative is nearly zero near π, the effect of the inaccuracy in the argument is far smaller than the spacing of the floating-point numbers around −1, and the rounded result is exact. While floating-point addition and multiplication are both commutative (a + b = b + a and a×b = b×a), they are not necessarily associative. That is, (a + b) + c is not necessarily equal to a + (b + c). Using 7-digit decimal arithmetic: 1234.567 + 45.67844 = 1280.245 1280.245 + 0.0004 = 1280.245 but 45.67840 + 0.00004 = 45.67844 45.67844 + 1234.567 = 1280.246 They are also not necessarily distributive. That is, (a + b) ×c may not be the same as a×c + b×c: 1234.567 × 3.333333 = 4115.223 1.234567 × 3.333333 = 4.115223 4115.223 + 4.115223 = 4119.338 but 1234.567 + 1.234567 = 1235.802 1235.802 × 3.333333 = 4119.340 In addition to loss of significance, inability to represent numbers such as π and 0.1 exactly, and other slight inaccuracies, the following phenomena may occur: Cancellation: subtraction of nearly equal operands may cause extreme loss of accuracy. This is perhaps the most common and serious accuracy problem. Conversions to integer are not intuitive: converting (63.0/9.0) to integer yields 7, but converting (0.63/0.09) may yield 6. This is because conversions generally truncate rather than round. Floor and ceiling functions may produce answers which are off by one from the intuitively expected value. Limited exponent range: results might overflow yielding infinity, or underflow yielding a denormal value or zero. If a denormal number results, precision will be lost. Testing for safe division is problematic: Checking that the divisor is not zero does not guarantee that a division will not overflow and yield infinity. Testing for equality is problematic. Two computational sequences that are mathematically equal may well produce different floating-point values. Programmers often perform comparisons within some tolerance (often a decimal constant, itself not accurately represented), but that doesn't necessarily make the problem go away. Machine precision "Machine precision" is a quantity that characterizes the accuracy of a floating point system. It is also known as unit roundoff or machine epsilon. Usually denoted Emach, its value depends on the particular rounding being used. With rounding to zero, Emach = B^(1-P) whereas rounding to nearest, Emach = (1/2)*B^(1-P) This is important since it bounds the relative error in representing any non-zero real number x within the normalized range of a floating point system: Emach Minimizing the effect of accuracy problems Because of the issues noted above, naive use of floating-point arithmetic can lead to many problems. The creation of thoroughly robust floating-point software is a complicated undertaking, and a good understanding of numerical analysis is essential. In addition to careful design of programs, careful handling by the compiler is required. Certain "optimizations" that compilers might make (for example, reordering operations) can work against the goals of well-behaved software. There is some controversy about the failings of compilers and language designs in this area. See the external references at the bottom of this article. Floating-point arithmetic is at its best when it is simply being used to measure real-world quantities over a wide range of scales (such as the orbital period of Io or the mass of the proton), and at its worst when it is expected to model the interactions of quantities expressed as decimal strings that are expected to be exact. An example of the latter case is financial calculations. For this reason, financial software tends not to use a binary floating-point number representation. General Decimal Arithmetic The "decimal" data type of the C# programming language, and the IEEE 854 standard, are designed to avoid the problems of binary floating-point representation, and make the arithmetic always behave as expected when numbers are printed in decimal. Small errors in floating-point arithmetic can grow when mathematical algorithms perform operations an enormous number of times. A few examples are matrix inversion, eigenvector computation, and differential equation solving. These algorithms must be very carefully designed if they are to work well. Expectations from mathematics may not be realised in the field of floating-point computation. For example, it is known that , and that . These facts cannot be counted on when the quantities involved are the result of floating-point computation. A detailed treatment of the techniques for writing high-quality floating-point software is beyond the scope of this article, and the reader is referred to the references at the bottom of this article. Descriptions of a few simple techniques follow. The use of the equality test (if (x==y) ...) is usually not recommended when expectations are based on results from pure mathematics. Such tests are sometimes replaced with "fuzzy" comparisons (if (abs(x-y) < epsilon) ...), where epsilon is sufficiently small and tailored to the application, such as 1.0E-13 - see machine epsilon). The wisdom of doing this varies greatly. It is often better to organize the code in such a way that such tests are unnecessary. An awareness of when loss of significance can occur is useful. For example, if one is adding a very large number of numbers, the individual addends are very small compared with the sum. This can lead to loss of significance. Suppose, for example, that one needs to add many numbers, all approximately equal to 3. After 1000 of them have been added, the running sum is about 3000. A typical addition would then be something like 3253.671 + 3.141276 -------- 3256.812 The low 3 digits of the addends are effectively lost. The Kahan summation algorithm may be used to reduce the errors. Computations may be rearranged in a way that is mathematically equivalent but less prone to error. As an example, Archimedes approximated π by calculating the perimeters of polygons inscribing and circumscribing a circle, starting with hexagons, and successively doubling the number of sides. The recurrence formula for the circumscribed polygon is: Here is a computation using IEEE "double" (a significand with 53 bits of precision) arithmetic: i 6 × 2i × ti, first form 6 × 2i × ti, second form 0 {{fontcolor|purple|3}}.4641016151377543863 {{fontcolor|purple|3}}.4641016151377543863 1 {{fontcolor|purple|3}}.2153903091734710173 {{fontcolor|purple|3}}.2153903091734723496 2 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1}}596599420974940120 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1}}596599420975006733 3 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}60862151314012979 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}60862151314352708 4 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}27145996453136334 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}27145996453689225 5 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}8730499801259536 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}8730499798241950 6 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}6627470548084133 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}6627470568494473 7 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}6101765997805905 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}6101766046906629 8 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159}}70343230776862 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159}}70343215275928 9 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159}}37488171150615 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159}}37487713536668 10 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592}}9278733740748 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592}}9273850979885 11 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592}}7256228504127 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592}}7220386148377 12 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926}}717412858693 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926}}707019992125 13 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926}}189011456060 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265}}78678454728 14 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926}}717412858693 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265}}46593073709 15 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159}}19358822321783 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592653}}8571730119 16 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926}}717412858693 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592653}}6566394222 17 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415}}810075796233302 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592653}}6065061913 18 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926}}717412858693 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926535}}939728836 19 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141}}4061547378810956 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926535}}908393901 20 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}05434924008406305 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1415926535}}900560168 21 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}00068646912273617 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592653589}}8608396 22 {{fontcolor|purple|3.1}}349453756585929919 {{fontcolor|purple|3.141592653589}}8122118 23 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14}}00068646912273617 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265358979}}95552 24 {{fontcolor|purple|3}}.2245152435345525443 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265358979}}68907 25 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265358979}}62246 26 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265358979}}62246 27 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265358979}}62246 28 {{fontcolor|purple|3.14159265358979}}62246 The true value is '{{fontcolor|purple|3.141592653589793238462643383...'''}} While the two forms of the recurrence formula are clearly equivalent, the first subtracts 1 from a number extremely close to 1, leading to huge cancellation errors. Note that, as the recurrence is applied repeatedly, the accuracy improves at first, but then it deteriorates. It never gets better than about 8 digits, even though 53-bit arithmetic should be capable of about 16 digits of precision. When the second form of the recurrence is used, the value converges to 15 digits of precision. See also Significant digits Fixed-point arithmetic Computable number IEEE 754 — Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic IBM Floating Point Architecture FLOPS −0 (number) half precision single precision double precision quad precision minifloat Numerical Recipes Q (number format) for constant resolution Further reading What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic, by David Goldberg, published in the March, 1991 issue of Computing Surveys. Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.2: Floating Point Arithmetic, pp.214–264. Press et al. Numerical Recipes in C++. The Art of Scientific Computing, ISBN 0-521-75033-4. Notes and references External links Kahan, William and Darcy, Joseph (2001). How Java’s floating-point hurts everyone everywhere. Retrieved September 5, 2003 from http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/JAVAhurt.pdf. Survey of Floating-Point Formats This page gives a very brief summary of floating-point formats that have been used over the years. The pitfalls of verifying floating-point computations, by David Monniaux, also printed in ACM Transactions on programming languages and systems (TOPLAS)'', May 2008: a compendium of non-intuitive behaviours of floating-point on popular architectures, with implications for program verification and testing The www.opencores.org website contains open source floating point IP cores for the implementation of floating point operators in FPGA or ASIC devices. The project, double_fpu, contains verilog source code of a double precision floating point unit. 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1,073 | Dollar | Canadian (Loonie) one-dollar coin United States one-dollar bill United States one-dollar coin Australian one-dollar coin A New Zealand One Dollar coin One New Taiwan dollar 500 old Zimbabwean dollars The dollar (often represented by the dollar sign: "$") is the name of the official currency in several countries, including the US, Australia, and Canada, dependencies and other world regions. History The German name Thaler comes from the Bohemian coin minted in the 16th century from silver mined at Joachimsthal in Bohemia. Not long after issuance, these coins gained the name Joachimsthalers. Subsequently, the coins were called "thaler" regardless of the issuing authority , and continued to be minted until 1872. The name is historically related to the Reichsthaler in Germany, the tolar in Slovenia (Slovenian tolar) and Bohemia, the daalder in the Netherlands, and daler in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. "Guildiner" can be traced to 1486 when Archduke Sigismund of Tyrol, a small state north of Venice, issued a dollar-sized coin which was referred to as a "guildiner". Silver supplies were small which limited coinage. The Dutch lion dollar circulated throughout the Middle East and was imitated in several German and Italian cities. It was also popular in the Dutch East Indies as well as in the Dutch New Netherland Colony (New York). The lion dollar also has circulated throughout the English colonies during the 17th and early 18th centuries . Examples circulating in the colonies were usually fairly well worn so that the design was not fully distinguishable, thus they were sometimes referred to as "dog dollars." This Dutch currency made its way to the east coast due to the increased trading by colonial ships with other nations. By the mid-1700s, it was replaced by the Spanish 8 reales. The name "Spanish dollar" was used for a Spanish coin, the "real de a ocho" and later peso. It was worth eight reals (hence the nickname "pieces of eight"), and was widely circulated during the 18th century in the Spanish colonies in the New World, and in Spanish territories in Asia, namely in the Philippines. The use of the Spanish dollar and the Maria Theresa thaler as legal tender for the early United States and its fractions were the mainstay of commerce. They are the reasons for the name of that nation's currency. By the American Revolution in 1775, these Spanish coins became even more important. They backed paper money authorized by the individual colonies and the Continental Congress. However, the word dollar was in use in the English language as slang or mis-pronunciation for the thaler for about 200 years before the American Revolution, with many quotes in the plays of Shakespeare referring to dollars as money. Spanish dollars were in circulation in the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States, and were legal tender in Virginia. Coins known as dollars were also in use in Scotland during the 17th century, and there is a claim that the use of the English word, and perhaps even the use of the coin, began at the University of St Andrews. This explains the sum of 'Ten thousand dollars' mentioned in Macbeth (Act I, Scene II), although the real Macbeth, upon whom the play was based, lived in the 11th century, making the reference anachronistic; however this is not rare in Shakespeare's work. In the early 19th century, a British five-shilling piece, or crown, was sometimes called a dollar, probably because its appearance was similar to the Spanish dollar. This expression appeared again in the 1940s, when US troops came to the UK during World War II. At the time a US dollar was worth about 5s., so some of the US soldiers started calling it a dollar. Consequently, they called the half crown "half a dollar". The expression caught on among some locals and could be heard into the 1960s. In the early days of the United States, the term "Dollar" was commonly known as a coin minted by Spain called the Spanish Milled Dollar. These coins were the standard money then in use in the United States. On April 2, 1792, Alexander Hamilton, then the Secretary of the Treasury, made a report to Congress having scientifically determined the amount of silver in the Spanish Milled Dollar coins that were then in current use by the people. As a result of this report, the Dollar was defined Act of April 2, A.D. 1792 of the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, Section 9. as a unit of measure of 371 4/16th grains (24.057 grams) of pure silver or 416 grains of standard silver (standard silver being defined as 1,485 parts fine silver to 179 parts alloy Section 13 of the Act. ). Therefore paper is not the dollar, instead, it is 'worth', not 'is', 1 dollar (US Silver certificate.) In section 20 of the Act, it is specified that the "money of account" of the United States shall be expressed in those same "dollars" or parts thereof. All of the minor coins were also defined in terms of percentages of the primary coin — the dollar — such that a half dollar contained 1/2 as much silver as a dollar, quarter dollars contained 1/4 as much, and so on. In an act passed on January 18, 1837, the alloy was changed to 10%, having the effect of containing the same amount of silver but being reduced in weight to 412 1/4 grains of standard silver which was changed to 90% pure and 10% alloy. On February 21, 1853 the amount of silver in the fractional coins was reduced so that it was no longer possible to combine the fractional coins to come up with the same amount of silver that was in the dollar. Various acts have been passed over the years that affected the amount and type of metal in the coins minted by the United States such that today, there is no legal definition of the term "Dollar" to be found in any Statute of the United States. Today, the closest definition to a dollar comes from the United States code Title 31, Section 5116, paragraph b, subsection 2, "The Secretary [of the Treasury] shall sell silver under conditions the Secretary considers appropriate for at least $1.292929292 a fine troy ounce." However Federal Reserve banks are only prejudiced to deliver tax credits instead of money. The silver content of US coinage was mostly removed in 1965 and the dollar essentially became a baseless free-floating fiat currency, though the US Mint continues to make silver $1 coins at this weight. Continued Chinese demand for silver led several countries, notably the United Kingdom, United States, and Japan, to mint trade dollars in the 19th and early 20th centuries, often of slightly different weights to their domestic coinage. Silver dollars reaching China (whether Spanish, Trade, or other) were often stamped with Chinese characters known as "chop marks", which indicated that that particular coin had been assayed by a well-known merchant and determined genuine. Related names in modern currencies The tala is based on the Samoan pronunciation of the word "dollar". Likewise, the name of the smaller unit, seneiti, equates to "cent". The Slovenian tolar had the same origin as dollar, i.e. thaler. National currencies called "dollar" Some national currencies are called dollars in English, but by a different name in the native language of the country. See the complete list at the bottom of this article. The name has also been applied to the international dollar, a hypothetical unit of currency that has the same purchasing power that the US dollar has in the United States at a given point in time. See also Eurodollar Amero Dollar sign List of circulating currencies Petrodollar References Etymonline (word history) for "buck" and Etymonline (word history) for "dollar" Thesaurus (synonyms) The Source: Slang Dictionary | Dollar |@lemmatized canadian:1 loonie:1 one:6 dollar:50 coin:22 united:13 state:14 bill:1 unite:1 australian:1 new:5 zealand:1 taiwan:1 old:1 zimbabwean:1 often:3 represent:1 sign:2 name:10 official:1 currency:9 several:3 country:3 include:1 u:8 australia:1 canada:1 dependency:1 world:3 region:1 history:3 german:2 thaler:5 come:4 bohemian:1 mint:6 century:7 silver:18 mine:1 joachimsthal:1 bohemia:2 long:1 issuance:1 gain:1 joachimsthalers:1 subsequently:1 call:7 regardless:1 issue:2 authority:1 continue:3 historically:1 relate:2 reichsthaler:1 germany:1 tolar:3 slovenia:1 slovenian:2 daalder:1 netherlands:1 daler:1 sweden:1 denmark:1 norway:1 guildiner:2 trace:1 archduke:1 sigismund:1 tyrol:1 small:3 north:1 venice:1 size:1 refer:3 supply:1 limited:1 coinage:3 dutch:4 lion:2 circulate:5 throughout:2 middle:1 east:3 imitate:1 italian:1 city:1 also:6 popular:1 indie:1 well:3 netherland:1 colony:6 york:1 english:4 early:5 example:1 usually:1 fairly:1 wear:1 design:1 fully:1 distinguishable:1 thus:1 sometimes:2 dog:1 make:4 way:1 coast:1 due:1 increase:1 trading:1 colonial:1 ship:1 nation:2 mid:1 replace:1 spanish:12 real:4 use:8 de:1 ocho:1 later:1 peso:1 worth:3 eight:2 hence:1 nickname:1 piece:2 widely:1 territory:1 asia:1 namely:1 philippine:1 maria:1 theresa:1 legal:3 tender:2 fraction:1 mainstay:1 commerce:1 reason:1 american:2 revolution:2 become:3 even:2 important:1 back:1 paper:2 money:5 authorize:1 individual:1 continental:1 congress:3 however:3 word:5 language:2 slang:2 mis:1 pronunciation:2 year:2 many:1 quote:1 play:2 shakespeare:2 circulation:1 thirteen:1 virginia:1 know:4 scotland:1 claim:1 perhaps:1 begin:1 university:1 st:1 andrew:1 explain:1 sum:1 ten:1 thousand:1 mention:1 macbeth:2 act:6 scene:1 ii:2 although:1 upon:1 base:2 live:1 reference:2 anachronistic:1 rare:1 work:1 british:1 five:1 shill:1 crown:2 probably:1 appearance:1 similar:1 expression:2 appear:1 troop:1 uk:1 war:1 time:2 soldier:1 start:1 consequently:1 half:3 catch:1 among:1 local:1 could:1 hear:1 day:1 term:3 commonly:1 spain:1 mill:2 standard:4 april:2 alexander:1 hamilton:1 secretary:3 treasury:2 report:2 scientifically:1 determine:2 amount:5 current:1 people:1 result:1 define:3 senate:1 house:1 representative:1 america:1 assemble:1 section:4 unit:3 measure:1 grain:3 gram:1 pure:2 part:3 fine:2 alloy:3 therefore:1 instead:2 certificate:1 specify:1 account:1 shall:2 express:1 thereof:1 minor:1 percentage:1 primary:1 contain:3 much:2 quarter:1 pass:2 january:1 change:2 effect:1 reduce:2 weight:3 february:1 fractional:2 longer:1 possible:1 combine:1 various:1 affect:1 type:1 metal:1 today:2 definition:2 find:1 statute:1 close:1 code:1 title:1 paragraph:1 b:1 subsection:1 sell:1 condition:1 considers:1 appropriate:1 least:1 troy:1 ounce:1 federal:1 reserve:1 bank:1 prejudice:1 deliver:1 tax:1 credit:1 content:1 mostly:1 remove:1 essentially:1 baseless:1 free:1 float:1 fiat:1 though:1 chinese:2 demand:1 lead:1 notably:1 kingdom:1 japan:1 trade:2 slightly:1 different:2 domestic:1 reach:1 china:1 whether:1 stamp:1 character:1 chop:1 mark:1 indicate:1 particular:1 assay:1 merchant:1 genuine:1 modern:1 tala:1 samoan:1 likewise:1 seneiti:1 equate:1 cent:1 origin:1 e:1 national:2 native:1 see:2 complete:1 list:2 bottom:1 article:1 apply:1 international:1 hypothetical:1 purchasing:1 power:1 give:1 point:1 eurodollar:1 amero:1 petrodollar:1 etymonline:2 buck:1 thesaurus:1 synonym:1 source:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram coin_mint:3 maria_theresa:1 legal_tender:2 troy_ounce:1 fiat_currency:1 purchasing_power:1 |
1,074 | Apollinarism | Apollinarism or Apollinarianism was a view proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea (died 390) that Jesus had a human body and lower soul (the seat of the emotions) but a divine mind. Apollinaris further taught that the souls of men were propagated by other souls, as well as their bodies. The Trinity had been recognized at the Council of Nicea in 325, but debate about exactly what it meant continued. A rival to the more common belief that Jesus Christ had two natures was monophysitism ("one nature"), the doctrine that Christ had only one nature. Apollinarism and Eutychianism were two forms of monophysitism. Theodoret charged Apollinaris with confounding the persons of the Godhead, and with giving into the heretical ways of Sabellius. Basil accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking up wholly with the allegorical sense. His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites. It was declared to be a heresy in 381 by the First Council of Constantinople, since Christ was officially depicted as fully human and fully God. Followers of Apollinarianism were accused of attempting to create a tertium quid ("third thing," neither God nor man). References Catholic Encyclopedia entry | Apollinarism |@lemmatized apollinarism:2 apollinarianism:2 view:2 propose:1 apollinaris:3 laodicea:1 die:1 jesus:2 human:2 body:2 low:1 soul:3 seat:1 emotion:1 divine:1 mind:1 taught:1 men:1 propagate:1 well:1 trinity:1 recognize:1 council:2 nicea:1 debate:1 exactly:1 mean:1 continue:1 rival:1 common:1 belief:1 christ:3 two:2 nature:3 monophysitism:2 one:3 doctrine:1 eutychianism:1 form:1 theodoret:1 charge:1 confound:1 person:1 godhead:1 give:1 heretical:1 way:1 sabellius:1 basil:1 accuse:2 abandon:1 literal:1 sense:2 scripture:1 take:1 wholly:1 allegorical:1 condemn:1 synod:1 alexandria:2 athanasius:1 later:1 subdivide:1 several:1 different:1 heresy:2 main:1 polemians:1 antidicomarianites:1 declare:1 first:1 constantinople:1 since:1 officially:1 depict:1 fully:2 god:2 follower:1 attempt:1 create:1 tertium:1 quid:1 third:1 thing:1 neither:1 man:1 reference:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 entry:1 |@bigram apollinaris_laodicea:1 council_nicea:1 jesus_christ:1 alexandria_athanasius:1 athanasius_alexandria:1 |
1,075 | Batman | Batman, originally referred to as the Bat-Man and still referred to at times as the Batman, is a fictional character, a comic book superhero co-created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger (although only Kane receives official credit), appearing in publications by DC Comics. The character first appeared in Detective Comics #27 in May 1939. In the original version of the story and the vast majority of subsequent retellings, Batman's secret identity is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy industrialist, playboy, and philanthropist. Witnessing the murder of his parents as a child, Wayne trains himself both physically and intellectually and dons a bat-themed costume in order to fight crime. Batman operates in the fictional American Gotham City, assisted by various supporting characters including his sidekick Robin and his butler Alfred Pennyworth, and fights an assortment of villains influenced by the characters' roots in film and pulp magazines. Unlike most superheroes, he does not possess any superpowers; he makes use of intellect, detective skills, science and technology, wealth, physical prowess, and intimidation in his war on crime. Also hailed as the Caped Crusader and the Dark Knight, Batman became a popular character soon after his introduction, and gained his own comic book title, Batman, in 1940. As the decades wore on, differing takes on the character emerged. The late 1960s Batman television series utilized a camp aesthetic associated with the character for years after the show ended. Various creators worked to return the character to his dark roots, culminating in the 1986 miniseries Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, by writer-artist Frank Miller. The successes of director Tim Burton's 1989 film Batman and Christopher Nolan's 2005 reboot Batman Begins also helped to reignite popular interest in the character. A cultural icon, Batman has been licensed and adapted into a variety of media, from radio to television and film, and appears on a variety of merchandise sold all over the world. Publication history Creation In early 1938, the success of Superman in Action Comics prompted editors at the comic book division of National Publications (the future DC Comics) to request more superheroes for its titles. In response, Bob Kane created "the Bat-Man." Daniels, Les. Batman: The Complete History. Chronicle Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8118-4232-0, pg. 18 Collaborator Bill Finger recalled Kane Finger offered such suggestions as giving the character a cowl instead of a simple domino mask, a cape instead of wings, and gloves, and removing the red sections from the original costume. Daniels (1999), pg. 21, 23 Finger said he devised the name Bruce Wayne for the character's secret identity: "Bruce Wayne's first name came from Robert Bruce, the Scottish patriot. Wayne, being a playboy, was a man of gentry. I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism. I tried Adams, Hancock ... then I thought of Mad Anthony Wayne." Kane, Andrae, p. 44 Various aspects of Batman's personality, character history, visual design and equipment were inspired by contemporary popular culture of the 1930s, including movies, pulp magazines, comic strips, newspaper headlines, and even aspects of Kane himself. Daniels, Les. DC Comics: A Celebration of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes. New York: Billboard Books/Watson-Guptill Publications, 2003, ISBN 0-8230-7919-8, pg. 23 Kane noted especially the influence of the films The Mark of Zorro (1920) and The Bat Whispers (1930) in the creation of the iconography associated with the character, while Finger drew inspiration from literary characters Doc Savage, The Shadow, and Sherlock Holmes in his depiction of Batman as a master sleuth and scientist. Boichel, Bill. "Batman: Commodity as Myth." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 0-85170-276-7, pg. 6–7 Kane, in his 1989 autobiography, detailed Finger's contributions to Batman's creation: Kane signed away ownership in the character in exchange for, among other compensation, a mandatory byline on all Batman comics. This byline did not, originally, say "Batman created by Bob Kane"; his name was simply written on the title page of each story. The name disappeared from the comic book in the mid-1960s, replaced by credits for each story's actual writer and artists. In the late 1970s, when Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster began receiving a "created by" credit on the Superman titles, along with William Moulton Marston being given the byline for creating Wonder Woman, Batman stories began saying "Created by Bob Kane" in addition to the other credits. Finger did not receive the same recognition. While he had received credit for other DC work since the 1940s, he began, in the 1960s, to receive limited acknowledgment for his Batman writing; in the letters page of Batman #169 (February 1965) for example, editor Julius Schwartz names him as the creator of the Riddler, one of Batman's recurring villains. However, Finger's contract left him only with his writing page rate and no byline. Kane wrote, "Bill was disheartened by the lack of major accomplishments in his career. He felt that he had not used his creative potential to its fullest and that success had passed him by." At the time of Finger's death in 1974, DC had not officially credited Finger as Batman co-creator. Jerry Robinson, who also worked with Finger and Kane on the strip at this time, has criticized Kane for failing to share the credit. He recalled Finger resenting his position, stating in a 2005 interview with The Comics Journal: Although Kane initially rebutted Finger's claims at having created the character, writing in a 1965 open letter to fans that "it seemed to me that Bill Finger has given out the impression that he and not myself created the ''Batman, t' [sic] as well as Robin and all the other leading villains and characters. This statement is fraudulent and entirely untrue." Kane himself also commented on Finger's lack of credit. "The trouble with being a 'ghost' writer or artist is that you must remain rather anonymously without 'credit'. However, if one wants the 'credit', then one has to cease being a 'ghost' or follower and become a leader or innovator." Comic Book Artist 3. Winter 1999. TwoMorrows Publishing In 1989, Kane revisited Finger's situation, recalling in an interview, Early years Batman made his debut in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Cover art by Bob Kane The first Batman story, "The Case of the Chemical Syndicate," was published in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939). Finger said, "Batman was originally written in the style of the pulps," Daniels (1999), pg. 25 and this influence was evident with Batman showing little remorse over killing or maiming criminals and was not above using firearms. Batman proved a hit character, and he received his own solo title in 1940, while continuing to star in Detective Comics. By that time, National was the top-selling and most influential publisher in the industry; Batman and the company's other major hero, Superman, were the cornerstones of the company's success. Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 2001. ISBN 0-8018-7450-5, pg. 19 The two characters were featured side-by-side as the stars of World's Finest Comics, which was originally titled World's Best Comics when it debuted in fall 1940. Creators including Jerry Robinson and Dick Sprang also worked on the strips during this period. Over the course of the first few Batman strips elements were added to the character and the artistic depiction of Batman evolved. Kane noted that within six issues he drew the character's jawline more pronounced, and lengthened the ears on the costume. "About a year later he was almost the full figure, my mature Batman," Kane said. Daniels (1999), pg. 29 Batman's characteristic utility belt was introduced in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939), followed by the boomerang-like batarang and the first bat-themed vehicle in #31 (September 1939). The character's origin was revealed in #33 (November 1939), unfolding in a two-page story that establishes the brooding persona of Batman, a character driven by the loss of his parents. Written by Finger, it depicts a young Bruce Wayne witnessing the death of his parents as part of a street robbery. Days later, at their grave, the child vows that "by the spirits of my parents [I will] avenge their deaths by spending the rest of my life warring on all criminals." Detective Comics #33 (November 1939), Grand Comics Database John Jefferson Darowski, "The Mythic Symbols of Batman" December 2007. Retrieved 2008-03-20. Archived on 2008-03-20. The early, pulp-inflected portrayal of Batman started to soften in Detective Comics #38 (April 1940) with the introduction of Robin, Batman's kid sidekick. Wright, pg. 17 Robin was introduced, based on Finger's suggestion Batman needed a "Watson" with whom Batman could talk. Daniels (1999), pg. 38 Sales nearly doubled, despite Kane's preference for a solo Batman, and it sparked a proliferation of "kid sidekicks." Daniels (2003), pg. 36 The first issue of the solo spin-off series Batman was notable not only for introducing two of his most persistent antagonists, the Joker and Catwoman, but for a story in which Batman shoots some monstrous giants to death. That story prompted editor Whitney Ellsworth to decree that the character could no longer kill or use a gun. Daniels (1999), pg. 42 By 1942, the writers and artists behind the Batman comics had established most of the basic elements of the Batman mythos. Boichel, pg. 9 In the years following World War II, DC Comics "adopted a postwar editorial direction that increasingly de-emphasized social commentary in favor of lighthearted juvenile fantasy." The impact of this editorial approach was evident in Batman comics of the postwar period; removed from the "bleak and menacing world" of the strips of the early 1940s, Batman was instead portrayed as a respectable citizen and paternal figure that inhabited a "bright and colorful" environment. Wright, pg. 59 The 1950s and early 1960s Batman was one of the few superhero characters to be continuously published as interest in the genre waned during the 1950s. In the story "The Mightiest Team in the World" in Superman #76 (June 1952), Batman teams up with Superman for the first time and the pair discovers each other's secret identity. Following the success of this story, World's Finest Comics was revamped so it featured stories starring both heroes together, instead of the separate Batman and Superman features that had been running before. Daniels (1999), pg. 88 The team-up of the characters was "a financial success in an era when those were few and far between;" Daniels (1999), pg. 91 this series of stories ran until the book's cancellation in 1986. Batman comics were among those criticized when the comic book industry came under scrutiny with the publication of psychologist Fredric Wertham's book Seduction of the Innocent in 1954. Wertham's thesis was that children imitated crimes committed in comic books, and that these works corrupt the morals of the youth. Wertham criticized Batman comics for their supposed homosexual overtones and argued that Batman and Robin were portrayed as lovers. Daniels (1999), pg. 84 Wertham's criticisms raised a public outcry during the 1950s, eventually leading to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority. The tendency towards a "sunnier Batman" in the postwar years intensified after the introduction of the Comics Code. Boichel, pg. 13 It has also been suggested by scholars that the characters of Batwoman (in 1956) and Bat-Girl (in 1961) were introduced in part to refute the allegation that Batman and Robin were gay, and the stories took on a campier, lighter feel. In the late 1950s, Batman stories gradually become more science fiction-oriented, an attempt at mimicking the success of other DC characters that had dabbled in the genre. Daniels (1999), pg. 94 New characters such as Batwoman, Ace the Bat-Hound, and Bat-Mite were introduced. Batman's adventures often involved odd transformations or bizarre space aliens. In 1960, Batman debuted as a member of the Justice League of America in The Brave and the Bold #28 (February 1960), and went on to appear in several Justice League comic series starting later that same year. "New Look" Batman and camp By 1964, sales on Batman titles had fallen drastically. Bob Kane noted that, as a result, DC was "planning to kill Batman off altogether." Daniels (1999), pg. 95 In response to this, editor Julius Schwartz was assigned to the Batman titles. He presided over drastic changes, beginning with 1964's Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), which was cover-billed as the "New Look". Schwartz introduced changes designed to make Batman more contemporary, and to return him to more detective-oriented stories. He brought in artist Carmine Infantino to help overhaul the character. The Batmobile was redesigned, and Batman's costume was modified to incorporate a yellow ellipse behind the bat-insignia. The space aliens and characters of the 1950s such as Batwoman, Ace, and Bat-Mite were retired. Batman's butler Alfred was killed off (though his death was quickly reversed due to fan response) while a new female relative for the Wayne family, Aunt Harriet, came to came to live with Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson. Batman #227 (December 1970). An example of Batman's return to a Gothic atmosphere, in an homage to the cover of 1939's Detective Comics #31. Detective Comics #31 and Batman #227, Grand Comics Database Art by Neal Adams. The debut of the Batman television series in 1966 had a profound influence on the character. The success of the series increased sales throughout the comic book industry, and Batman reached a circulation of close to 900,000 copies. Benton, Mike. The Comic Book in America: An Illustrated History. Dallas: Taylor, 1989. ISBN 0-87833-659-1, pg. 69 Elements such as the character of Batgirl and the show's campy nature were introduced into the comics; the series also initiated the return of Alfred. Although both the comics and TV show were successful for a time, the camp approach eventually wore thin and the show was canceled in 1968. In the aftermath, the Batman comics themselves lost popularity once again. As Julius Schwartz noted, "When the television show was a success, I was asked to be campy, and of course when the show faded, so did the comic books." Daniels (1999), pg. 115 Starting in 1969, writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams made a deliberate effort to distance Batman from the campy portrayal of the 1960s TV series and to return the character to his roots as a "grim avenger of the night." Wright, pg. 233 O'Neil said his idea was "simply to take it back to where it started. I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories. I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after." Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William. "Notes from the Batcave: An Interview with Dennis O'Neil." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 0-85170-276-7, pg. 18 O'Neil and Adams first collaborated on the story "The Secret of the Waiting Graves" (Detective Comics #395, January 1970). Few stories were true collaborations between O'Neil, Adams, Schwartz, and inker Dick Giordano, and in actuality these men were mixed and matched with various other creators during the 1970s; nevertheless the influence of their work was "tremendous." Daniels (1999), pg. 140 Giordano said: "We went back to a grimmer, darker Batman, and I think that's why these stories did so well . . . Even today we're still using Neal's Batman with the long flowing cape and the pointy ears." Daniels (1999), pg. 141 While the work of O'Neil and Adams was popular with fans, the acclaim did little to help declining sales; the same held true with a similarly acclaimed run by writer Steve Englehart and penciler Marshall Rogers in Detective Comics #471-476 (August 1977 - April 1978), which went on to influence the 1989 movie Batman and be adapted for Batman: The Animated Series, which debuted in 1992. SciFi Wire (March 28, 2007): "Batman Artist Rogers is Dead": "Even though their Batman run was only six issues, the three laid the foundation for later Batman comics. Their stories include the classic 'Laughing Fish' (in which the Joker's face appeared on fish); they were adapted for Batman: The Animated Series in the 1990s. Earlier drafts of the 1989 Batman movie with Michael Keaton as the Dark Knight were based heavily on their work." Regardless, circulation continued to drop through the 1970s and 1980s, hitting an all-time low in 1985. Boichel, pg. 15 The Dark Knight Returns and later The first issue of Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, which redefined Batman in the 1980s. Pencils by Frank Miller. Frank Miller's 1986 limited series Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, which tells the story of a 50 year old Batman coming out of retirement in a possible future, reinvigorated the character. The Dark Knight Returns was a financial success and has since become one of the medium's most noted touchstones. Daniels (1999), pg. 147, 149 The series also sparked a major resurgence in the character's popularity. Wright, pg. 267 That year Dennis O'Neil took over as editor of the Batman titles and set the template for the portrayal of Batman following DC's status quo-altering miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths. O'Neil operated under the assumption that he was hired to revamp the character and as a result tried to instill a different tone in the books than had gone before. Daniels (1999), pg. 155, 157 One outcome of this new approach was the "Year One" storyline in Batman #404-407 (February-May 1987), in which Frank Miller and artist David Mazzucchelli redefined the character's origins. Writer Alan Moore and artist Brian Bolland continued this dark trend with 1988's 48-page one-shot Batman: The Killing Joke, in which the Joker, attempting to drive Commissioner Gordon insane, cripples Gordon's daughter Barbara, and then kidnaps and tortures the commissioner, physically and psychologically. The Batman comics garnered major attention in 1988 when DC Comics created a 900 number for readers to call to vote on whether Jason Todd, the second Robin, lived or died. Voters decided in favor of Jason's death by a narrow margin of 28 votes (see Batman: A Death in the Family). Daniels (1999), pg. 161 The following year saw the release of Tim Burton's Batman feature film, which firmly brought the character back to the public's attention, grossing millions of dollars at the box office, and millions more in merchandising. In the same year, the first issue of Legends of the Dark Knight, the first new solo Batman title in nearly fifty years, sold close to a million copies. Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William. "Introduction." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 0-85170-276-7, pg. 1 The 1993 "Knightfall" story arc introduced a new villain, Bane, who critically injures Bruce Wayne. Jean-Paul Valley, known as Azrael, is called upon to wear the Batsuit during Wayne's convalescence. Writers Doug Moench, Chuck Dixon, and Alan Grant worked on the Batman titles during "Knightfall," and would also contribute to other Batman crossovers throughout the 1990s. 1998's "Cataclysm" storyline served as the precursor to 1999's "No Man's Land", a year-long storyline that ran through all the Batman-related titles dealing with the effects of an earthquake-ravaged Gotham City. At the conclusion of "No Man's Land", O'Neil stepped down as editor and was replaced by Bob Schreck. Another writer who rose to prominence on the Batman comic series, was Jeph Loeb. Along with longtime collaborator Tim Sale, they wrote two mini-series ("The Long Halloween" and "Dark Victory") that pit an early in his career version of Batman against his entire rogue's gallery (most notably Two-Face, whose origin was re-envisioned by Loeb) while dealing with various mysteries involving serial killers Holiday and the Hangman, of which the former (Holiday) was the subject of intense debate and speculation amongst Batman fans. In 2003, Loeb teamed with artist Jim Lee to work on another mystery arc: "Batman: Hush" for the main Batman book. The twelve issue storyline saw Batman and Catwoman running the gauntlet against Batman's entire rogue's gallery, including an apparently resurrected Jason Todd, while seeking to find the identity of the mysterious super-villain Hush. While the character of Hush failed to catch on with readers, the arc was a sales success for DC. As the storyline was Jim Lee's first regular comic book work in nearly a decade, the series became #1 on the Diamond Comic Distributors sales chart for the first time since Batman #500 (October 1993) and Jason Todd's appearance laid the groundwork for writer Judd Winick's subsequent run as writer on Batman, with another multi-issue epic, "Under the Hood," which ran from Batman #637-650. In 2005, DC launched All-Star Batman and Robin, a stand-alone comic series set outside the existing DC Universe. Written by Frank Miller and drawn by Jim Lee, the series was a commercial success for DC Comics though widely panned by critics for it's writing. Review by Iann Robinson, Crave Online Review by William Gatevackes, PopMatters, 10 February 2006 . Starting in 2006, the regular writers on Batman and Detective Comics were Grant Morrison and Paul Dini, with Grant Morrison reincorporating controversial elements of Batman lore (most notably, the science fiction themed storylines of the 1950s Batman comics, which Morrison revised as hallucinations Batman suffered under the influence of various mind-bending gases and extensive sensory deprivation training) into the character. Morrison's run climaxed with "Batman RIP," which brought Batman up against the villainous "Black Glove" organization, which sought to drive Batman into madness. Batman RIP segued into Final Crisis (also written by Morrison), which saw the apparent death of Batman at the hands of Darkseid. In the 2009 miniseries Battle for the Cowl, Wayne's former protégé Dick Grayson becomes the new Batman. In June 2009, Judd Winick is to return to writing Batman, while Grant Morrison will be given his own series, titled Batman and Robin. Detective Comics meanwhile will return with Batwoman as the star of the series, as DC Comics publishes Greg Rucka's unpublished "Batwoman" mini-series. Fictional character history Batman's history has undergone various revisions, both minor and major. Few elements of the character's history have remained constant. Scholars William Uricchio and Roberta E. Pearson noted in the early 1990s, "Unlike some fictional characters, the Batman has no primary urtext set in a specific period, but has rather existed in a plethora of equally valid texts constantly appearing over more than five decades." Pearson, pg. 185 The central fixed event in the Batman stories is the character's origin story. As a little boy, Bruce Wayne is horrified and traumatized to see his parents, the physician Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, being murdered by a mugger in front of his very eyes. This drives him to fight crime in Gotham City as Batman. Pearson and Uricchio also noted beyond the origin story and such events as the introduction of Robin, "Until recently, the fixed and accruing and hence, canonized, events have been few in number," Pearson; Uricchio. "'I'm Not Fooled By That Cheap Disguise.'" Pg. 186 a situation altered by an increased effort by later Batman editors such as Dennis O'Neil to ensure consistency and continuity between stories. Pearson, pg. 191 Golden Age Bruce Wayne is inspired to become Batman. Detective Comics #33 (November 1939). Art by Bob Kane. In Batman's first appearance in Detective Comics #27, he is already operating as a crime fighter. Batman's origin is first presented in Detective Comics #33 in November 1939, and is later fleshed out in Batman #47. As these comics state, Bruce Wayne is born to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two very wealthy and charitable Gotham City socialites. Bruce is brought up in Wayne Manor, with its wealthy splendor, and leads a happy and privileged existence until the age of eight, when his parents are killed by a small-time criminal named Joe Chill while on their way home from a movie theater. Bruce Wayne swears an oath to rid the city of the evil that had taken his parents' lives. He engages in intense intellectual and physical training; however, he realizes that these skills alone would not be enough. "Criminals are a superstitious and cowardly lot," Wayne remarks, "so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible..." As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flies through the window, inspiring Bruce to assume the persona of Batman. In early strips, Batman's career as a vigilante earns him the ire of the police. During this period Wayne has a fiancée named Julie Madison. She first appears in Detective Comics #31 (September 1939) Wayne takes in an orphaned circus acrobat, Dick Grayson, who becomes his sidekick, Robin. Batman also becomes a founding member of the Justice Society of America, although he, like Superman, is an honorary member, and thus only participates occasionally. Batman's relationship with the law thaws quickly, and he is made an honorary member of Gotham City's police department. During this time, butler Alfred Pennyworth arrives at Wayne Manor, and after deducing the Dynamic Duo's secret identities joins their service. Batman #16 (May 1943); his original last name, Beagle, is revealed in Detective Comics #96 (February 1945) Silver Age The Silver Age of comic books in DC Comics is sometimes held to have begun in 1956 when the publisher introduced Barry Allen as a new, updated version of The Flash. Batman is not significantly changed by the late 1950s for the continuity which would be later referred to as Earth-One. The lighter tone Batman had taken in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages led to the stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s that often feature a large number of science-fiction elements, and Batman is not significantly updated in the manner of other characters until Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), in which Batman reverts to his detective roots, with most science-fiction elements jettisoned from the series. Detective Comics #327 (May 1964), debut of the "New Look" Batman. Cover art by Carmine Infantino & Joe Giella. After the introduction of DC Comics' multiverse in the 1960s, DC established that stories from the Golden Age star the Earth-Two Batman, a character from a parallel world. This version of Batman partners with and marries the reformed Earth-Two Catwoman, Selina Kyle (as shown in Superman Family #211) and fathers Helena Wayne, who, as the Huntress, becomes (along with the Earth-Two Robin) Gotham's protector once Wayne retires from the position to become police commissioner, a position he occupies until he is killed during one final adventure as Batman. Batman titles however often ignored that a distinction had been made between the pre-revamp and post-revamp Batmen (since unlike The Flash or Green Lantern, Batman comics had been published without interruption through the 1950s) and would on occasion make reference to stories from the Golden Age. One example is the Englehart/Rogers run of the late 1970s, which has editorial notes directing readers to issues such as Batman #1 Nevertheless, details of Batman's history were altered or expanded upon through the decades. Additions include meetings with a future Superman during his youth, his upbringing by his uncle Philip Wayne (introduced in Batman #208, January/February 1969) after his parents' death, and appearances of his father and himself as prototypical versions of Batman and Robin, respectively. In 1980 then-editor Paul Levitz commissioned the Untold Legend of the Batman limited series to thoroughly chronicle Batman's origin and history. Batman meets and regularly works with other heroes during the Silver Age, most notably Superman, whom he began regularly working alongside in a series of team-ups in World's Finest Comics, starting in 1954 and continuing through the series' cancellation in 1986. Batman and Superman are usually depicted as close friends. Batman becomes a founding member of the Justice League of America, appearing in its first story in 1960s Brave and the Bold #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, Brave and the Bold became a Batman title, in which Batman teams up with a different DC Universe superhero each month. In 1969, Dick Grayson attends college as part of DC Comics' effort to revise the Batman comics. Additionally, Batman also moves from his mansion, Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment atop the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City's crime. Batman spends the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional team-ups with Robin and/or Batgirl. Batman's adventures also become somewhat darker and more grim during this period, depicting increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of the Joker as a homicidal psychopath, and the arrival of Ra's al Ghul, a centuries-old terrorist who knows Batman's secret identity. In the 1980s, Dick Grayson becomes Nightwing. In the final issue of Brave and the Bold in 1983, Batman quits the Justice League and forms a new group called the Outsiders. He serves as the team's leader until Batman and the Outsiders #32 (1986) and the comic subsequently changed its title. Modern Batman After the 12-issue limited series Crisis on Infinite Earths, DC Comics rebooted the histories of some major characters in an attempt at updating them for contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline Year One from Batman #404-407, which emphasizes a grittier tone in the character. Though the Earth-Two Batman is erased from history, many stories of Batman's Silver Age/Earth-One career (along with an amount of Golden Age ones) remain canonical in the post-Crisis universe, with his origins remaining the same in essence, despite alteration. For example, Gotham's police are mostly corrupt, setting up further need for Batman's existence. While Dick Grayson's past remains much the same, the history of Jason Todd, the second Robin, is altered, turning the boy into the orphan son of a petty crook, who tries to steal the tires from the Batmobile. Also removed is the guardian Phillip Wayne, leaving young Bruce to be raised by Alfred. Additionally, Batman is no longer a founding member of the Justice League of America, although he becomes leader for a short time of a new incarnation of the team launched in 1987. To help fill in the revised backstory for Batman following Crisis, DC launched a new Batman title called Legends of the Dark Knight in 1989 and has published various miniseries and one-shot stories since then that largely take place during the "Year One" period. Various stories from Jeph Loeb and Matt Wagner also touch upon this era. Bane breaks Batman's back in a splash page from Batman #497 (July 1993). Art by Jim Aparo. In 1988's "Batman: A Death in the Family" storyline from Batman #426-429 Jason Todd, the second Robin, is killed by the Joker. Subsequently Batman begins exhibiting an excessive, reckless approach to his crime fighting, a result of the pain of losing Jason Todd. Batman works solo until the decade's close, when Tim Drake becomes the new Robin. In 2005, writers resurrected the Jason Todd character and have pitted him against his former mentor. Many of the major Batman storylines since the 1990s have been inter-title crossovers that run for a number of issues. In 1993, DC published both the "Death of Superman" storyline and "Knightfall" . In the Knightfall storyline's first phase, the new villain Bane paralyzes Batman, leading Wayne to ask Azrael to take on the role. After the end of "Knightfall," the storylines split in two directions, following both the Azrael-Batman's adventures, and Bruce Wayne's quest to become Batman once more. The story arcs realign in "KnightsEnd," as Azrael becomes increasingly violent and is defeated by a healed Bruce Wayne. Wayne hands the Batman mantle to Dick Grayson (then Nightwing) for an interim period, while Wayne trains to return to his role as Batman. Dixon, Chuck. et al. "Batman: Prodigal". Batman 512-514, Shadow of the Bat 32-34, Detective Comics 679-681, Robin 11-13. New York: DC Comics, 1995. The 1994 company-wide crossover Zero Hour changes aspects of DC continuity again, including those of Batman. Noteworthy among these changes is that the general populace and the criminal element now considers Batman an urban legend rather than a known force. Similarly, the Waynes' killer is never caught or identified, effectively removing Joe Chill from the new continuity, rendering stories such as "Year Two" non-canon. Batman once again becomes a member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's 1996 relaunch of the series, titled JLA. While Batman contributes greatly to many of the team's successes, the Justice League is largely uninvolved as Batman and Gotham City face catastrophe in the decade's closing crossover arc. In 1998's "Cataclysm" storyline, Gotham City is devastated by an earthquake and ultimately cut off from the United States Government afterwords. Deprived of many of his technological resources, Batman fights to reclaim the city from legions of gangs during 1999's "No Man's Land." Meanwhile, Batman's relationship with the Gotham City Police Department changed for the worse with the events of "Batman: Officer Down" and "Batman: War Games/War Crimes"; Batman's long-time law enforcement allies Commissioner Gordon and Harvey Bullock are forced out of the police department in "Officer Down", while "War Games" and "War Crimes" saw Batman become a wanted fugitive after a contigency plan of his to neutralize Gotham City's criminal underworld is accidentally triggered, resulting a massive gang war that ends with the sadist Black Mask the undisputed ruler of the city's criminal gangs. Other troubles come for Batman in the form of Lex Luthor (secretly behind the events of "No Man's Land"), who seeks revenge for Bruce Wayne cancelling all of his company's government contracts upon Luthor being elected President of the United States. Luthor arranges for the murder of Batman's on-again, off-again love interest Vesper (introduced in the mid-1990s) during the "Bruce Wayne: Murderer?" and "Bruce Wayne: Fugitive" story arcs. Though Batman is able to clear his name, he loses another ally in the form of his new chauffer Sasha, who is recruited into the organization known as "Checkmate" while stuck in prison due to her refusal to turn states evidence against her employer. While he was unable to prove that Luthor was behind the murder of Vesper, Batman does get his revenge with help from Talia Al' Ghul in Superman/Batman #1-6: not only does he bring down Lex Luthor's Presidency but also engages in a hostile take-over of Luthor's corporate holdings, bankrupting the villain in the process. DC's 2005 limited series Identity Crisis, reveals that JLA member Zatanna had edited Batman's memories to prevent him from stopping the League from lobotomizing Dr. Light after he raped Sue Dibney. This served as a retcon for Batman's complete distrust for his fellow super-heroes, which under writers such as Mark Waid in the "Tower of Babel" arc in JLA, manifested itself in the form of Batman keeping extensive files on how to kill his fellow super-heroes. Batman later creates the Brother I satellite surveillance system to watch over and if necessary, kill the other heroes. Its eventual co-opting by Maxwell Lord, who then kills super-hero Blue Beetle to keep him from alerting the Justice League of the existence of Batman's murderous creation. The revelation of Batman's creation and his tacit responsibility for Blue Beetle's death becomes a driving force in the lead-up to the Infinite Crisis miniseries, which again restructures DC continuity. In Infinite Crisis #7, Alexander Luthor, Jr. mentions that in the newly rewritten history of the "New Earth," created in the previous issue, the murderer of Martha and Thomas Wayne – again, Joe Chill – was captured, thus undoing the retcon created after Zero Hour. Batman and a team of superheroes destroy Brother Eye and the OMACs, though at the very end of the Batman reaches his apparent breaking point when Alexander Luthor Jr. mortally wounds Nightwing. Picking up a gun, Batman nearly shoots Luthor in order to avenge his former sidekick, until Wonder Woman convinces him to not pull the trigger. Following Infinite Crisis, Bruce Wayne, Dick Grayson (having recovered from his wounds), and Tim Drake retrace the steps Bruce had taken when he originally left Gotham City, to "rebuild Batman." "Infinite Crisis" #7, p. 32 In the "Face the Face" storyline, Batman and Robin return to Gotham City after their year-long absence. Part of this absence is captured in during Week 30 of the 52 series, which shows Batman fighting his inner demons. 52 #30 Later on in 52, Batman is shown undergoing an intense meditation ritual in Nanda Parbat. This becomes an important part of the regular Batman title, which reveals that Batman was reborn as a more effective crime fighter while undergoing this ritual, having "hunted down and ate" the last traces of fear in his mind. Batman #673 Batman #681 At the end of the "Face the Face" story arc, Bruce officially adopts Tim (who had lost both of his parents at various points in the character's history) as his son. The follow-up story arc in Batman, "Batman & Son", introduces Damian Wayne, who is Batman's son with Talia al Ghul. Batman, along with Superman and Wonder Woman, reforms the Justice League in the new Justice League of America series, and is leading the newest incarnation of the Outsiders. Grant Morrison's 2008 storyline, "Batman R.I.P.", featuring Batman being physically and mentally broken by the enigmatic "Black Glove," garnered much news coverage in advance of its highly-promoted conclusion, which would supposedly feature the death of Bruce Wayne. Rothstein, Simon. "Batman killed by his OWN dad." 28 November 2008. The Sun. Archived 28 November 2008. Adams, Guy. "Holy smoke, Batman! Are you dead?" 28 November 2008, The Independent. Archived 28 November 2008. The original intention was, in fact, not for Batman to die in the pages of "R.I.P.," but for the story to continue with the current DC event Final Crisis and have the death occur there. As such, a two-issue bridge arc was designed called "Last Rites" that showed Batman survive his helicopter crash into the Gotham City River and return to his Batcave, only to be summoned to the Hall of Justice by the JLA to help investigate Orion's death. This in turn led into the events of "Final Crisis" (which began publication while Batman RIP was concluding), where Batman is kidnapped by Granny Goodness after her Green Lantern host body temporarily regains control over her body and alerts Batman of how Darkseid's minions were possessing other beings. "Last Rites" told the tale of Batman being mentally probed by Darkseid's minions Mokkari and Simyon, in an attempt to cull the personality traits that make Batman the successful super-hero that he is in order to transplant them into cloned bodies. The plan fails due to the clones, imparted with Batman's sense of justice, killing themselves rather than serve Darkseid. The two-parter concludes with a major "Final Crisis" plot point, as it is revealed that Batman kept the bullet used to kill Orion in his utility belt. Newsarama: "Batman R.I.P. - Finally?" 15 January 2009 . Batman's death ultimate takes place in Final Crisis #6, as Batman confronts Darkseid. His bullet placed within an Apokalips-based gun, Batman proclaims that to stop Darkseid, he will break his "no-gun" rule and shoots Darkseid in the shoulder with the radioactive bullet made of Radion (which is poisonous to the New Gods), just as Darkseid unleashes his Omega Sanction, the "life that is death," upon Batman. However, the Omega Sanction apparently does not actually kill its victims: instead, it sends their consciousness traveling through parallel worlds. Although the presence of his corpse would seem to contradict that he would be alive, at the conclusion of Final Crisis it is suggested that Batman has been sent to the distant past, as a man in the Batman costume watches the passing of Anthro. After the 3-issue Battle for the Cowl miniseries, in which many members of Bruce Wayne's supporting cast fight for the right of being Batman, it is ultimately revealed that the new Batman is Dick Grayson. Characterization Batman's primary character traits can be summarized as "wealth; physical prowess; deductive abilities and obsession." The details and tone of Batman's characterization have varied over the years due to different interpretations. Dennis O'Neil noted that character consistency was not a major concern during early editorial regimes: "Julie Schwartz did a Batman in Batman and Detective and Murray Boltinoff did a Batman in the Brave and the Bold and apart from the costume they bore very little resemblance to each other. Julie and Murray did not coordinate their efforts, did not pretend to, did not want to, were not asked to. Continuity was not important in those days." Pearson; Uricchio. "Notes from the Batcave: An Interview with Dennis O'Neil" p. 23 A main component that defines Batman as a character is his origin story. Bob Kane said he and Bill Finger discussed the character's background and decided that "there's nothing more traumatic than having your parents murdered before your eyes." Daniels (1999), pg. 31 Batman is thus driven to fight crime, sometimes employing illegal and morally dubious tactics (like torture and intrusive surveillance), in order to avenge the death of his parents. While details of Batman's origin have varied from version to version, the "reiteration of the basic origin events holds together otherwise divergent expressions" of the character. Pearson, pg. 194 The origin is the source of many of the character's traits and attributes, which play out in many of the character's adventures. Batman is often treated as a vigilante by other characters in his stories. Frank Miller views the character as "a dionysian figure, a force for anarchy that imposes an individual order." Sharrett, Christopher. "Batman and the Twilight of the Idols: An Interview with Frank Miller." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 0-85170-276-7, pg. 44 Dressed as a bat, Batman deliberately cultivates a frightening persona in order to aid him in crime fighting. Pearson, pg. 208 Bruce Wayne In his secret identity, Batman is Bruce Wayne, a wealthy businessman who lives in Gotham City. To the world at large, Bruce Wayne is often seen as an irresponsible, superficial playboy who lives off his family's personal fortune (amassed when Bruce's family invested in Gotham real estate before the city was a bustling metropolis) Dennis O'Neil Batman: Knightfall. 1994, Bantam Books. ISBN 0553096737 and the profits of Wayne Enterprises, a major private technology firm that he inherits. However, Wayne is also known for his contributions to charity, notably through his Wayne Foundation. Pearson, pg. 202 Bruce creates the playboy public persona to aid in throwing off suspicion of his secret identity, often acting dim-witted and self-absorbed to further the act. Daniels, 1999, pg. ?? Writers of both Batman and Superman stories have often compared the two within the context of various stories, to varying conclusions. Like Superman, the prominent persona of Batman's dual identities varies with time. Modern-age comics have tended to portray "Bruce Wayne" as the facade, with "Batman" as the truer representation of his personality Scott Beatty, The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual. 2005, Quirk Books, p51. ISBN 1594740232 (in counterpoint to the post-Crisis Superman, whose "Clark Kent" persona is the 'real' personality, and "Superman" is the 'mask' Aichele, G. (1997). Rewriting Superman. In G. Aichele & T. Pippin (Eds.), The Monstrous and the Unspeakable: The Bible as Fantastic Literature (pp. 75-101). Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Superman vol. 2, #53 ). Dick Grayson Dick Grayson as Batman following Batman: Battle for the Cowl In an interview with IGN, Morrison details that having Dick Grayson as Batman and Damian Wayne as Robin will be a "reverse" of the normal dynamic between Batman and Robin, with, "a more light-hearted and spontaneous Batman and a scowling, bad ass Robin." When asked if the series would deal with the new Batman being unable to fill Bruce Wayne's proverbial shoes, Morrison answered, "When I started out I had that in mind, and I thought we'd finally prove that nobody else could be Batman. But I do believe certain aspects of RIP were about how nobody but this guy could be Batman. I think with this, it's fun to start by seeing what happens when someone else tries. Sometimes it goes wrong, and sometimes it goes really well. Some of the things these guys do are things that Bruce Wayne would never have thought to do". http://comics.ign.com/articles/986/986031p1.html Morrison discusses Batman and Robin, IGN Comics, March 11, 2009 Skills, abilities, and resources Unlike many superheroes, Batman has no superpowers and instead relies on "his own scientific knowledge, detective skills, and athletic prowess." In the stories Batman is regarded as one of the world's greatest detectives. Mike Conray, 500 Great Comicbook Action Heroes. 2002, Collins & Brown. ISBN 1844110044 In Grant Morrison's first storyline in JLA, Superman describes Batman as "the most dangerous man on Earth," able to defeat a team of superpowered aliens all by himself in order to rescue his imprisoned teammates. He is also a master of disguise, often gathering information under the identity of Matches Malone. Costume Batman's costume incorporates the imagery of a bat in order to frighten criminals. Koç, E. "Rebirth of the Gothic in the Metropolitan Legends" Çankaya Üniversitesi, Journal of Arts and Sciences (2006 Aralık) Daniels (1999) Widzer, M.E. (1977). The Comic-Book Superhero—A Study of the Family Romance Fantasy. Psychoanal. St. Child, 32:565-603. The details of the Batman costume change repeatedly through various stories and media, but the most distinctive elements remain consistent: a scallop-hem cape, a cowl covering most of the face featuring a pair of batlike ears, and a stylized bat emblem on the chest, plus the ever-present utility belt. The costumes' colors are traditionally blue and grey, Bill Schelly, Sense of Wonder: A Life in Comic Fandom : a Personal Memoir of Fandom's. 2001 TwoMorrows Publishing, p24. ISBN 1893905128 Illinca Zarifopol-Johnston, "A BatsEye View of the Republic or Victor Hugo" in Peripheries of Nineteenth-century French Studies: Views from the Edge, Timothy Bell Raser ed. 2002, University of Delaware Press, p184. ISBN 0874137659 Jim Harmon, Donald F. Glut, Great Movie Serials: Their Sound and Fury. 1973 Routledge, p234. ISBN 071300097X although this colorization arose due to the way comic book art is colored. Finger and Kane conceptualized Batman as having a black cape and cowl and grey suit, but conventions in coloring called for black to be highlighted with blue. This coloring has been claimed by Larry Ford, in Place, Power, Situation, and Spectacle: A Geography of Film, to be a reversion of conventional color-coding symbolism, which sees "bad guys" wearing dark colors. Larry Ford, "Lighting and Color in the Depiction" in Place, Power, Situation, and Spectacle: A Geography of Film, Stuart C. Aitken, Leo Zonn, Leo E. Zonn eds. 1994 Rowman & Littlefield, p132. ISBN 0847678261 Batman's gloves typically feature three scallops that protrude from long, gauntlet-like cuffs, although in his earliest appearances he wore short, plain gloves without the scallops. A yellow ellipse around the bat logo on the character's chest was added in 1964, and became the hero's trademark symbol, akin to the red and yellow "S" symbol of Superman. Daniels (1999), pg. 98 The overall look of the character, particularly the length of the cowl's ears and of the cape, varies greatly depending on the artist. Dennis O'Neil said, "We now say that Batman has two hundred suits hanging in the Batcave so they don't have to look the same . . . Everybody loves to draw Batman, and everybody wants to put their own spin on it." Daniels (1999), pg. 159–60 Equipment The 1966 television Batmobile was built by George Barris from a Lincoln Futura concept car. Batman utilizes a large arsenal of specialized gadgets in his war against crime, the designs of which usually share a bat motif. Batman historian Les Daniels credits Gardner Fox with creating the concept of Batman's arsenal with the introduction of the utility belt in Detective Comics #29 (July 1939) and the first bat-themed weapons the batarang and the "Batgyro" in Detective Comics #31 and #32 (September; October, 1939). Batman's primary vehicle is the Batmobile, which is usually depicted as an imposing black car with large tailfins that suggest a bat's wings. Batman's other vehicles include the Batplane (aka the Batwing), Batboat, Bat-Sub, and Batcycle. In proper practice, the "bat" prefix (as in batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, particularly after some portrayals (primarily the 1960s Batman live-action television show and the Super Friends animated series) stretched the practice to campy proportions. The 1960s television series Batman has an arsenal that includes such "bat-" names as the bat-computer, bat-scanner, bat-radar, bat-cuffs, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-camera with polarized bat-filter, bat-shark repellent bat-spray, and bat-rope. The storyline "A Death in the Family" suggests that given Batman's grim nature, he is unlikely to have adopted the "bat" prefix on his own. Batman keeps most of his field equipment in a utility belt. Over the years it is shown to contain a virtually limitless variety of crime fighting tools. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in either pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it. Bat-Signal When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a searchlight with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens called the Bat-signal which shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The origin of the signal varies, depending on the continuity and medium. In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV series, Commissioner Gordon also has a dedicated phone line, dubbed the Bat-Phone, connected to a bright red telephone (in the TV series) which sits on a wooden base and has a transparent cake cover on top. The line connects directly to Batman's residence, Wayne Manor, specifically both to a similar phone sitting on the desk in Bruce Wayne's study and the extension phone in the Batcave. Batcave The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of subterranean caves beneath his mansion, Wayne Manor. It serves as his command center for both local and global surveillance, as well as housing his vehicles and equipment for his war on crime. It also is a storeroom for Batman's memorabilia. In both the comic Batman: Shadow of the Bat (issue #45) and the 2005 film Batman Begins, the cave is said to have been part of the Underground Railroad. Of the heroes and villains who see the Batcave, few know where it is located. Supporting characters Batman with his sidekick Robin. Painting by Alex Ross. Batman's interactions with the characters around him, both heroes and villains, help to define the character. Commissioner James "Jim" Gordon, Batman's ally in the Gotham City police, debuted along with Batman in Detective Comics #27 and has been a consistent presence since then. Later on, Batman gained Alfred as his butler and Lucius Fox as his business manager and apparently unwitting armorer. However, the most important supporting role in the Batman mythos is filled by the hero's young sidekick Robin. Boichel, pg. 7 The first Robin, Dick Grayson, eventually leaves his mentor and becomes the hero Nightwing. The second Robin, Jason Todd, is beaten to death by the Joker but later returns as an adversary. Tim Drake, the third Robin, first appears in 1989 and has gone on to star in his own comic series. Alfred, Bruce Wayne's loyal butler, father figure, and one of the few to know his secret identity, "[lends] a homey touch to Batman's environs and [is] ever ready to provide a steadying and reassuring hand" to the hero and his sidekick. Boichel, pg. 8 Batman is at times a member of superhero teams such as the Justice League of America and the Outsiders. Batman has often been paired in adventure with his Justice League teammate Superman, notably as the co-stars of World's Finest and Superman/Batman series. In pre-Crisis continuity, the two are depicted as close friends; however, in current continuity, they have a mutually respectful but uneasy relationship, with an emphasis on their differing views on crime fighting and justice. Batman is involved romantically with many women throughout his various incarnations. These range from society women such as Vicki Vale and Silver St. Cloud, to allies like Wonder Woman and Sasha Bordeaux, to even villainesses such as Catwoman and Talia al Ghul, the latter of whom he sired a son, Damien. While these relationships tend to be short, Batman's attraction to Catwoman is present in nearly every version and medium in which the characters appear. Authors have gone back and forth over the years as to how Batman manages the 'playboy' aspect of Bruce Wayne's personality; at different times he embraces or flees from the women interested in attracting "Gotham's most eligible bachelor." Other supporting characters in Batman's world include former Batgirl Barbara Gordon, Commissioner Gordon's daughter who, now confined to a wheelchair due to a gunshot wound inflicted by the Joker, serves the superhero community at large as the computer hacker Oracle; Azrael, a would-be assassin who replaces Bruce Wayne as Batman for a time; Cassandra Cain, an assassin's daughter who became the new Batgirl, Huntress, the sole surviving member of a mob family turned Gotham vigilante who has worked with Batman on occasion, Stephanie Brown, the daughter of a criminal who operated as the Spoiler and temporarily as Robin, Ace the Bat-Hound, Batman's pet dog; Daniels (1995), pg. 138 and Bat-Mite, an extra-dimensional imp who idolizes Batman. Enemies A gathering of Batman's villains. Art by Jim Lee. Batman faces a variety of foes ranging from common criminals to outlandish super-villains. Many Batman villains mirror aspects of the hero's character and development, often having tragic origin stories that lead them to a life of crime. Batman's "most implacable foe" is the Joker, a clown-like criminal who as a "personification of the irrational" represents "everything Batman [opposes]." Other recurring antagonists include Catwoman, the Penguin, the Riddler and Two-Face, among many others. Cultural impact Batman has become a pop culture icon, recognized around the world. The character's presence has extended beyond his comic book origins; events such as the release of the 1989 Batman film and its accompanying merchandising "brought the Batman to the forefront of public consciousness." In an article commemorating the sixtieth anniversary of the character, The Guardian wrote, "Batman is a figure blurred by the endless reinvention that is modern mass culture. He is at once an icon and a commodity: the perfect cultural artefact for the 21st century." In addition, media outlets have often used the character in trivial and comprehensive surveys- Forbes Magazine estimated Bruce Wayne to be the 9th-richest fictional character with his $5.8 billion fortune, several places after Iron Man, who is at 6. BusinessWeek listed the character as one of the ten most intelligent superheroes appearing in American comics. Adaptations in other media The character of Batman has appeared in various media aside from comic books. The character has been developed as a vehicle for newspaper syndicated comic strips, books, radio dramas, television and several theatrical feature films. The first adaptation of Batman was as a daily newspaper comic strip which premiered on October 25, 1943. Daniels (1999), pg. 50 That same year the character was adapted in the 13-part serial Batman, with Lewis Wilson becoming the first actor to portray Batman on screen. While Batman never had a radio series of his own, the character made occasional guest appearance in The Adventures of Superman starting in 1945 on occasions when Superman voice actor Bud Collyer needed time off. Daniels (1999), pg. 64 A second movie serial, Batman and Robin, followed in 1949, with Robert Lowery taking over the role of Batman. The exposure provided by these adaptations during the 1940s "helped make [Batman] a household name for millions who never bought a comic book.". In the 1964 publication of Donald Barthelme's collection of short stories "Come Back, Dr. Caligari" Barthelme wrote "The Joker's Greatest Triumph." Batman is portrayed as a pertentious french speaking rich man and subtle alcoholic. Michael Keaton as Batman in Batman (1989) The Batman television series, starring Adam West, premiered in January 1966 on the ABC television network. Inflected with a camp sense of humor, the show became a pop culture phenomenon. In his memoir, Back to the Batcave, West notes his dislike for the term 'camp' as it was applied to the 1960s series, opining that the show was instead a farce or lampoon, and a deliberate one, at that. The series ran for 120 episodes, ending in 1968. In between the first and second season of the Batman television series the cast and crew made the theatrical release Batman (1966). The popularity of the Batman TV series also resulted in the first animated adaptation of Batman in the series The Batman/Superman Hour; Boichel, pg. 14 the Batman segments of the series were repackaged as Batman with Robin the Boy Wonder which produced thirty-three episodes between 1968 and 1977. From 1973 until 1984, Batman had a starring role in ABC's Super Friends series, which was animated by Hanna-Barbera. Olan Soule was the voice of Batman in all these series, but was eventually replaced during Super Friends by Adam West, who voiced the character in Filmation's 1977 series The New Adventures of Batman. Batman returned to movie theaters in 1989, with director Tim Burton's Batman starring Michael Keaton. Burton's film was a huge success; not only was it the top-grossing film of the year, but at the time was the fifth highest-grossing film in history. The film spawned three sequels: Batman Returns (1992), Batman Forever (1995) and Batman & Robin (1997), the last two of which were directed by Joel Schumacher instead of Burton, and replaced Keaton with Val Kilmer and George Clooney, respectively. Batman as he was depicted in Batman: The Animated Series. Les Daniels described the show as "[coming] as close as any artistic statement has to defining the look of Batman for the 1990s." Daniels (1999), pg. 178 In 1992, Batman returned to television in Batman: The Animated Series, which was produced by Warner Bros. and was broadcast on the Fox television network until 1997. After that point it moved to The WB Television Network and was reworked into The New Batman Adventures. The producers of Batman: The Animated Series would go to work on the animated feature film release Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993), as well as the futuristic Batman Beyond and Justice League series. Like Batman: The Animated Series, these productions starred Kevin Conroy as the voice of Batman/Bruce Wayne. In 2004, a new animated series titled The Batman made its debut with Rino Romano as the title character. In 2008, this series was replaced by another animated show, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, with Diedrich Bader as Batman. In 2005, Christopher Nolan directed Batman Begins, a reboot of the film franchise starring Christian Bale as Batman. Its sequel, The Dark Knight (2008), set the record for the highest grossing opening weekend of all time in the U.S., earning approximately $158 million, and became the fastest film to reach the $400 million mark in the history of American cinema (eighteenth day of release). , The Dark Knight has the second-highest domestic gross of all films. An animated anthology feature set between the Nolan films, Batman: Gotham Knight, was also released in 2008. The Dark Knight also pays homage to the comic Batman by making the character's eyes white during a minor scene in the movie. Batman has several video games based on him and his crime fighting adventures. Homosexual interpretations Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson. Panel from Batman #84 (June, 1954), page 24. There has been some controversy over various sexual interpretations made regarding the content of Batman comics. Homosexual interpretations have been part of the academic study of Batman since psychologist Fredric Wertham asserted in 1954 Seduction of the Innocent that "Batman stories are psychologically homosexual." He claimed, "The Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies, of the nature of which they may be unconscious." Wertham wrote, "Only someone ignorant of the fundamentals of psychiatry and of the psychopathology of sex can fail to realize a subtle atmosphere of homoeroticism which pervades the adventures of the mature 'Batman' and his young friend 'Robin.'" Wertham, Fredric. Seduction of the Innocent. Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954. pg. 189–90 Andy Medhurst wrote in his 1991 essay "Batman, Deviance, and Camp" that Batman is interesting to gay audiences because "he was one of the first fictional characters to be attacked on the grounds of his presumed homosexuality," "the 1960s TV series remains a touchstone of camp," and "[he] merits analysis as a notably successful construction of masculinity." Medhurst, Andy. "Batman, Deviance, and Camp." The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 0-85170-276-7, pg. 150 Creators associated with the character have expressed their own opinions. Writer Alan Grant has stated, "The Batman I wrote for 13 years isn't gay. Denny O'Neil's Batman, Marv Wolfman's Batman, everybody's Batman all the way back to Bob Kane... none of them wrote him as a gay character. Only Joel Schumacher might have had an opposing view." Writer Devin Grayson has commented, "It depends who you ask, doesn't it? Since you're asking me, I'll say no, I don't think he is ... I certainly understand the gay readings, though." While Frank Miller has described the relationship between Batman and the Joker as a "homophobic nightmare," Sharrett, pg. 37-38 he views the character as sublimating his sexual urges into crime fighting, concluding, "He'd be much healthier if he were gay." Sharrett, pg. 38 Burt Ward, who portrayed Robin in the 1960s television show, has also remarked upon this interpretation in his autobiography Boy Wonder: My Life in Tights; He writes that the relationship could be interpreted as a sexual one, with the show's double entendres and lavish camp also possibly offering ambiguous interpretation. Such homosexual interpretations continue to attract attention. One notable example occurred in 2000, when DC Comics refused to allow permission for the reprinting of four panels (from Batman #79, 92, 105 and 139) to illustrate Christopher York's paper All in the Family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s. Another happened in the summer of 2005, when painter Mark Chamberlain displayed a number of watercolors depicting both Batman and Robin in suggestive and sexually explicit poses. DC threatened both artist and the Kathleen Cullen Fine Arts gallery with legal action if they did not cease selling the works and demanded all remaining art, as well as any profits derived from them. The humor web site Superdickery.com has a whole section called 'Seduction of the Innocent', which includes many of the comic panels and covers from the Batman series that suggest homosexual behavior. Notes References Beatty, Scott, et al., The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual. Quirk Books, 2005. ISBN 1-59474-023-2 Daniels, Les. Batman: The Complete History. Chronicle Books, 1999. ISBN 0-8118-4232-0 Daniels, Les. DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes. Bulfinch, 1995. ISBN 0-821-22076-4 Jones, Gerard. Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book. Basic Books, 1995. ISBN 0-465-03657-0 Pearson, Roberta E.; Uricchio, William (editors). The Many Lives of the Batman: Critical Approaches to a Superhero and His Media. Routledge: London, 1991. ISBN 0-85170-276-7 Wright, Bradford W. Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America. Johns Hopkins, 2001. ISBN 0-8018-7450-5 See also Batman (Earth-Two) External links Batman at the DC Database Project | Batman |@lemmatized batman:397 originally:5 refer:4 bat:42 man:11 still:2 time:19 fictional:6 character:84 comic:103 book:34 superhero:12 co:4 create:15 artist:14 bob:10 kane:27 writer:18 bill:8 finger:22 although:8 receives:1 official:1 credit:11 appear:12 publication:7 dc:33 first:28 detective:31 may:10 original:4 version:9 story:48 vast:1 majority:1 subsequent:2 retellings:1 secret:10 identity:12 bruce:39 wayne:62 wealthy:4 industrialist:1 playboy:5 philanthropist:1 witness:2 murder:5 parent:11 child:5 train:2 physically:3 intellectually:1 theme:3 costume:10 order:9 fight:7 crime:20 operate:4 american:3 gotham:24 city:21 assist:1 various:16 support:5 include:13 sidekick:8 robin:35 butler:5 alfred:7 pennyworth:2 assortment:1 villain:12 influence:7 root:4 film:19 pulp:4 magazine:3 unlike:4 superheroes:5 possess:2 superpower:2 make:15 use:8 intellect:1 skill:4 science:6 technology:2 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1,076 | OSI_model | The Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model) is an abstract description for layered communications and computer network protocol design. It was developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative. X.200 : Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model: The basic model In its most basic form, it divides network architecture into seven layers which, from top to bottom, are the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data-Link, and Physical Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven Layer Model. A layer is a collection of conceptually similar functions that provide services to the layer above it and receives service from the layer below it. On each layer an instance provides services to the instances at the layer above and requests service from the layer below. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of the path. Conceptionally two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal protocol connection on that layer. History In 1977, work on a layered model of network architecture was started and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) began to develop its OSI framework architecture. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-layer model, and a set of specific protocols. Note: The standard documents that describe the OSI model can be freely downloaded from the ITU-T as the X.200-series of recommendations. ITU-T X-Series Recommendations. A number of the protocol specifications are also available as part of the ITU-T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO/IEC standards for the OSI model are available from the ISO, but only some of the ISO/IEC standards are available as cost-free downloads. Publicly Available Standards All aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the CYCLADES network, which also influenced Internet design. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities for use by the layer above it. Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly describe the functionality provided to an (N)-layer by an (N-1) layer, where N is one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host. Description of OSI layers OSI ModelData unitLayerFunctionHostlayersData7. ApplicationNetwork process to application6. PresentationData representation and encryption5. SessionInterhost communicationSegment4. TransportEnd-to-end connections and reliabilityMedialayersPacket3. NetworkPath determination and logical addressingFrame2. Data LinkPhysical addressingBit1. PhysicalMedia, signal and binary transmission Layer 1: Physical Layer The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, Hubs, repeaters, network adapters, Host Bus Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Networks) and more. To understand the function of the Physical Layer in contrast to the functions of the Data Link Layer, think of the Physical Layer as concerned primarily with the interaction of a single device with a medium, where the Data Link Layer is concerned more with the interactions of multiple devices (i.e., at least two) with a shared medium. The Physical Layer will tell one device how to transmit to the medium, and another device how to receive from it (in most cases it does not tell the device how to connect to the medium). Standards such as RS-232 do use physical wires to control access to the medium. The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:-- Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium. Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control. Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link. Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI protocol is a Transport Layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various Physical Layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the Data Link Layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4. Layer 2: Data Link Layer The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO work, in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the Transport Layer by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages. The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete Data Link Layer which provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective repeat Sliding Window Protocol. Both WAN and LAN services arrange bits, from the Physical Layer, into logical sequences called frames. Not all Physical Layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely intended for Physical Layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not used by the Layer. WAN Protocol architecture Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct errors. They are also capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN Data Link Layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD. IEEE 802 LAN architecture Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the ancestor of IEEE 802.3. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium, which is the function of a Media Access Control sublayer. Above this MAC sublayer is the media-independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which deals with addressing and multiplexing on multiaccess media. While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sublayer detects but does not correct errors. Layer 3: Network Layer The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer. The Network Layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best-known example of a Layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). It manages the connectionless transfer of data one hop at a time, from end system to ingress router, router to router, and from egress router to destination end system. It is not responsible for reliable delivery to a next hop, but only for the detection of errored packets so they may be discarded. When the medium of the next hop cannot accept a packet in its current length, IP is responsible for fragmenting the packet into sufficiently small packets that the medium can accept. A number of layer management protocols, a function defined in the Management Annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the Network Layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, Network Layer information and error, and Network Layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the Network Layer, not the protocol that carries them. Layer 4: Transport Layer The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the Transport Layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the Transport Layer, typical examples of Layer 4 are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Of the actual OSI protocols, there are five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the least error recovery) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the Session Layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries, both of which TCP is incapable. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table: Feature Name TP0 TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4 Connection oriented network Connectionless network Concatenation and separation Segmentation and reassembly Error Recovery Reinitiate connection (if an excessive number of PDUs are unacknowledged) multiplexing and demultiplexing over a single virtual circuit Explicit flow control Retransmission on timeout Reliable Transport Service Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the Transport Layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a Network Layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet. Layer 5: Session Layer The Session Layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The Session Layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls. Layer 6: Presentation Layer The Presentation Layer establishes a context between Application Layer entities, in which the higher-layer entities can use different syntax and semantics, as long as the Presentation Service understands both and the mapping between them. The presentation service data units are then encapsulated into Session Protocol Data Units, and moved down the stack. This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. Layer 7: Application Layer The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user, interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer. Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). Interfaces Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than as deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers are implementation-specific. For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (Layer 5 and above) and the transport (Layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (Layer 2) and the network protocol (Layer 3). Interface standards, except for the Physical Layer to Media, are approximate implementations of OSI Service Specifications. Examples Layer Misc. examples IP suite SS7 ITU-T Recommendation Q.1400 (03/1993), Architecture framework for the development of signalling and OA&M protocols using OSI concepts, pp 4, 7. AppleTalk suite OSI suite IPX suite SNA UMTS # Name 7 Application HL7, Modbus NNTP, SIP, SSI, DNS, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, NFS, NTP, DHCP, SMPP, SMTP, SNMP, Telnet, RIP, BGP INAP, MAP, TCAP, ISUP, TUP AFP, ZIP, RTMP, NBP FTAM, X.400, X.500, DAP, ROSE, RTSE, ACSE RIP, SAP APPC 6 Presentation TDI, ASCII, EBCDIC, MIDI, MPEG MIME, XDR, SSL, TLS (Not a separate layer) AFP ISO/IEC 8823, X.226, ISO/IEC 9576-1, X.236 5 Session Named Pipes, NetBIOS, SAP, Half Duplex, Full Duplex, Simplex, SDP Sockets. Session establishment in TCP. SIP. (Not a separate layer with standardized API.), RTP ASP, ADSP, PAP ISO/IEC 8327, X.225, ISO/IEC 9548-1, X.235 NWLink DLC? 4 Transport NBF TCP, UDP, SCTP DDP ISO/IEC 8073, TP0, TP1, TP2, TP3, TP4 (X.224), ISO/IEC 8602, X.234 SPX 3 Network NBF, Q.931, IS-IS IP, IPsec, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF SCCP, MTP ATP (TokenTalk or EtherTalk) ISO/IEC 8208, X.25 (PLP), ISO/IEC 8878, X.223, ISO/IEC 8473-1, CLNP X.233. IPX RRC (Radio Resource Control) Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) and BMC (Broadcast/Multicast Control) 2 Data Link 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11a/b/g/n MAC/LLC, 802.1Q (VLAN), ATM, HDP, FDDI, Fibre Channel, Frame Relay, HDLC, ISL, PPP, Q.921, Token Ring, CDP, ARP (maps layer 3 to layer 2 address), ITU-T G.hn DLL PPP, SLIP, PPTP, L2TP MTP, Q.710 LocalTalk, AppleTalk Remote Access, PPP ISO/IEC 7666, X.25 (LAPB), Token Bus, X.222, ISO/IEC 8802-2 LLC Type 1 and 2 IEEE 802.3 framing, Ethernet II framing SDLC LLC (Logical Link Control), MAC (Media Access Control) 1 Physical RS-232, V.35, V.34, I.430, I.431, T1, E1, 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, POTS, SONET, SDH, DSL, 802.11a/b/g/n PHY, ITU-T G.hn PHY MTP, Q.710 RS-232, RS-422, STP, PhoneNet X.25 (X.21bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, G.703) Twinax UMTS L1 (UMTS Physical Layer) Comparison with TCP/IP In the TCP/IP model of the Internet, protocols are deliberately not as rigidly designed into strict layers as the OSI model. RFC 3439 RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful." However, TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols, namely the scope of the software application, the end-to-end transport connection, the internetworking range, and lastly the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network. Even though the concept is different than in OSI, these layers are nevertheless often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way: The Internet Application Layer includes the OSI Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and most of the Session Layer. Its end-to-end Transport Layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI Session Layer as well as the OSI Transport Layer. The internetworking layer (Internet Layer) is a subset of the OSI Network Layer, while the Link Layer includes the OSI Data Link and Physical Layers, as well as parts of OSI's Network Layer. These comparisons are based on the original seven-layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the Network Layer document. The presumably strict consumer/producer layering of OSI as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (e.g., OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a Link Layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol may well be a Transport or even an Application Layer protocol in its own right. The TCP/IP design generally favors decisions based on simplicity, efficiency and ease of implementation. See also Cross-layer optimization Cognitive networks Hierarchical internetworking model Internet protocol suite OSI protocol suite Protocol stack Service layer TCP/IP model X.25 protocol suite WAP protocol suite References External links (license agreement for downloading) and ISO/IEC standard 7498-1:1994 (ZIP format) ITU-T X.200 (the same contents as from ISO) , Hubert Zimmermann, IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. 28, no. 4, April 1980, pp. 425 - 432. 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1,077 | Blade_Runner_3:_Replicant_Night | Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night (1996) is a novel by K. W. Jeter that continues the story of Rick Deckard. It is the sequel to Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human, which in turn was itself a sequel to Ridley Scott's 1982 film Blade Runner, and the book on which Blade Runner was based, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?. Story After the events of Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human, Deckard and Sarah Tyrell (who Deckard believed to be the replicant Rachael) had left to travel to the distant off-world colonies. Deckard has also taken a job as a consultant to a movie company, which is producing a film about his experiences as a Blade Runner - a direct analogue of the real-world movie Blade Runner. Deckard learns that the replicant character Leon is being played by an actual replicant, who is retired live on camera. Outraged, Deckard goes to find the movie director, a man named Urbenton, and finds that he has been locked in a storage closet, and did not sanction the retirement. Meanwhile, Deckard's former partner Dave Holden is sneaking into the movie studio to deliver a package to Deckard. Holden is caught and taken into a stage re-enactment of his own interview with Leon, in which Holden is shot with live ammo at the end of the scene. Deckard and the director rush to investigate, and find that the scene has been arranged by a man named Marley, who kills the Leon replicant on the spot. Deckard tries to attack Marley, but Marley argues that Deckard has no evidence of any wrongdoing: all that Deckard has seen Marley do is to retire a replicant. Deckard leaves the movie studio, but takes with him the item that Holden had been trying to deliver to him - a suitcase. The suitcase, it turns out, is intelligent and contains a working personality image of Roy Batty, taken from the human Roy Batty that Deckard originally fought in Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human. Roy explains to Deckard that a group of replicant sympathisers require Deckard to perform a mission for them. John Isidore (the version of the character present in Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human) had previously run a business modifying replicants visiting Earth so that they would be able to pass a VK test. As part of the modification, the replicants were made to forget that they even were replicants, but each one was also programmed with a secret code that would re-enable their full knowledge. The briefcase contains an encrypted form of Isidore's list of secret codes. The rep-symps want Deckard to take the package out to the replicants on the distant off-world colonies, who can decrypt the information and securely send it to Earth for the rep-symps to use to recruit Earth's replicants for the insurrection. Meanwhile, Sarah Tyrell is living on Mars. There are no ships traveling to the off-world colonies and there have not really been any for years. The level of available activity and stimulus on Mars is so low that it inevitably drives humans insane. Sarah also now knows that Deckard has realized she is not really Rachael (after she tried to masquerade as her in Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human), and he does not love her. Sarah's only remaining ambition is to kill Deckard, and then kill herself. She is visited by two agents of the Tyrell Corporation. Sarah is surprised, since she believed that she destroyed the Tyrell Corporation, but the agents explain that they work for the "shadow corporation", and they need Sarah to return with them to help discover an artifact from the Tyrell Corporation's past - the "Salander 3". The Salander 3 was the last ship to travel from Earth to the far worlds. Two people travelled on it: Ruth and Anson Tyrell. Sarah is their daughter, born on board the Salander 3. What exactly happened on board the Salander 3 has never been known, other than that the ship did not complete its voyage and ended up returning to Earth, and the only living person on it after it arrived was Sarah; Anson and Ruth were both dead. This is the reason why no ships ever leave for the far colonies any more. The Salander 3 has been buried in a secret dump site on Earth. Reluctantly, Sarah goes with the two men, and descends into the wreckage of the Salander 3. There, she sees her own name written on a wall in blood, and meets a young ten-year-old girl, identical to herself, who claims that her name is Rachael. Sarah believes that the girl is a hallucination, an image of her own younger self. Exploring further, she finds whole areas of the ship are covered in blood and the remains of humans and animals, and is nearly herself attacked by a stumbling, severely wounded image of her father. Sarah flees the Salander 3 and is rescued by the two Tyrell agents, but is shocked when they claim that they can also see the little girl; they rescue her too. Sarah remains convinced that they cannot really see Rachael and are pretending to be able to in order to drive her mad. Sarah, "Rachael" and the two agents talk about what they saw. It appears that Anson Tyrell went psychopathically insane and attempted to murder Sarah, but murdered Ruth instead and then killed himself upon realising what he had done. However, there is still no clue as to why Anson Tyrell would go insane. The two Tyrell agents ask Sarah to return to the Salander 3 to find out more information, and she agrees as long as she is given a gun to defend herself with; after receiving the gun, Sarah shoots both the agents and leaves with Rachael. Meanwhile, inside the suitcase Deckard finds a packet of powder, marked "Sebastian". The replicant sympathisers have transformed Sebastian into a "dehydrated deity" - actually, his personality has been embedded in an array of microscopic sensory override capsules. By ingesting the capsules with proper preparation, Deckard can meet with Sebastian's personality, in an artificial world that Sebastian controls. Deckard takes the powder and appears in a clone of the Bradbury Building, where Sebastian had previously lived, and where he now lives again. Sebastian has been able to rebuild the building and area he previously loved, and has restored the replicant-like toys he built, but he is upset that he has been unable to bring Pris back. Sebastian tells Deckard that the image of Batty inside the box is not lying, and that the U.N. will completely wipe out the replicants on the colonies unless the insurgency can stop them. Sebastian then admits that there is some information that the rep-symps did not want him to give Deckard, but that he will do so anyway because Deckard has given him hope: he says that the mission is far more important that Deckard realizes, as it is to do with humans as well, and the difference between humans and replicants. Sebastian gives Deckard a box, and then Deckard awakens from the artificial world. Examining the box, it appears to be an ordinary, ancient first-aid kit. Deckard thinks of throwing it away, but decides to keep it, since it was important enough that Sebastian gave it to him. Deckard returns to the colony on Mars, where he meets up with Sarah and Rachael again. Sarah still insists that Rachael is a hallucination, and when Deckard is able to converse with the girl, Sarah insists that Deckard is in league with the Tyrell agents and is conspiring to drive her insane. When Deckard hears that the girl's name is Rachael, he asks her directly about Ruth Tyrell and the Salander 3, and she answers positively. Sarah is about to shoot Deckard, but Deckard manages to trick her and escape, taking Rachael with him. After Deckard leaves, Sarah becomes enraged; and at that moment, Urbenton - the movie director - visits the apartment, explaining that he has an interest in arranging Deckard's death, which he has learned that she shares. Deckard goes with Rachael to a bar on the colony, where he is ambushed by Marley. Marley shows no desire to fight with Deckard, instead asking him to watch the TV. The "Blade Runner" film appears on TV, and Deckard realises he has been trapped. When his image is shown on the film, everyone on Earth and the colonies will know who he is, and any attempt at passing undercover with the suitcase will be impossible. However, when the film actually starts, the face imaged onto the actor is not Deckard's (as he was told it would be), nor does it even resemble him. Deckard is amazed, and Marley explains that this has happened because the film has been edited by the cable company at the government's orders. The UN wants Deckard to get through with the briefcase; it has not been sent by the rep-symps at all. The truth that the government is afraid of is that, out on the far colonies, replicants are able to live more than four years. Not only that, but they are able to breed - and, they show clear empathy. Humans, on the other hand, age and deteriorate more quickly, and universally become sterile. In other words, on the far colonies, humans become replicants, and replicants become humans. When Eldon Tyrell designed the original replicants, he included a failsafe mechanism to prevent replicants from breeding: male replicants suffer from an amplified, modified version of "stepfather syndrome", the animal instinct to kill the children of other males. Male replicants, however, have an instinct to kill their own children. In most replicants, this instinct is suppressed unless activated; the information in the briefcase is the trigger signal that will activate this, wiping out the replicant families forming on the far colonies. Finally, Marley takes out the first-aid kit that Sebastian gave Deckard, and reveals that a photograph is hidden in one of the compartments; but before Deckard can see the photograph, UN troopers burst in with guns. Deckard moves to shoot at them, but his gun is snatched by Marley, who uses it to shoot at and destroy the briefcase before Marley himself is shot dead by the troopers. The troopers seize Rachael, and take her away, leaving behind a business card for the film company. In pursuit of Rachael, Deckard returns to the film studio, where the director has set up a series of scenes intended to climax with Sarah killing Deckard live on camera. Deckard finds the Rachael child in a replica of the Bradbury building; he encounters Sarah on the roof. Sarah explains that this will be the final scene of a new version of the film, a version that will be shown on Earth as a documentary; a version where Deckard dies at the end of the film, increasing the anti-replicant sentiment on Earth to fever pitch. Deckard challenges Sarah, showing her the photo from the first-aid kit. It shows Anson and Ruth Tyrell, in uniforms from the Salander 3 - cradling two infants. Rachael is Sarah's twin sister. Sarah protests that if they were sisters, they would be the same age now. But Deckard replies that they are not, because Rachael was held in a sleep capsule, hidden there by Ruth to save her from Anson's rampage. The purpose of the Salander 3 mission was not to visit the far colonies at all. The purpose of the Salander 3 was to fly towards the far colonies and then return, to see what effects occurred in their vicinity. Anson and Ruth Tyrell were replicants, specially engineered to be unaware of that fact; and when the ship got far enough away from Earth, they became able to breed, and gave birth to Rachael and Sarah. But then, as a male experimental replicant, the modified stepfather syndrome programmed into Anson activated: he was able to murder Ruth before his new-found empathy overrode his programming and he killed himself, and the two children returned to Earth. Rachael was hidden in a sleep capsule, but Sarah remained exposed. When the ship returned to Earth, Sarah stepped off it. She is the first replicant child. Even Eldon Tyrell could not simply order the destruction of a child, especially given that she was unaware that she was a replicant, so he did the best he could to cover up the entire incident. Sarah is deeply shocked, and finally admits that she could only deny that Rachael truly existed because she had known, even since she first saw her, that Rachael was truly her sister. Sarah finally knows what she had always wanted to know. Distraught, she asks Deckard to kiss her, the way he kissed Rachael, and finally commits suicide in Deckard's arms. 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1,078 | Indictment | In the common law legal system, an indictment ( ) is a formal accusation that a person has committed a criminal offense. In those jurisdictions which retain the concept of a felony, the serious criminal offense would be a felony; those jurisdictions which have abolished the concept of a felony often substitute the concept of an indictable offence, i.e. an offence which requires an indictment. Traditionally an indictment was handed up by a grand jury, which returned a "true bill" if it found cause to make the charge, or "no bill" if it did not find cause. Most common law jurisdictions (except for much of the United States) have abolished grand juries. Australia In Australia, an indictment is issued by a government official (the Attorney-General, the Director of Public Prosecutions, or one of their subordinates). A magistrate then holds a committal hearing, which decides whether the evidence is serious enough to commit the person to trial. Brazil In Brazil an indictment (called denúncia) is issued by the public prosecutor, a member of the Public Ministry, and it is the document that starts the criminal prosecution. In the case of some offenses (like rape, for instance), the indictment is filed by the victim (represented by a lawyer), and it is called queixa-crime. England and Wales In England and Wales (except in private prosecutions by individuals) an indictment is issued by the public prosecutor (in most cases this will be the Crown Prosecution Service) on behalf of the Crown, i.e. the monarch, presently Queen Elizabeth II--who is nominally the plaintiff in all public prosecutions under English law. This is why a public prosecution of a man called Mr. Smith would be referred to in writing as "R v Smith" (or alternatively as "Regina v. Smith" or "Rex v. Smith" depending on the gender of the Sovereign reigning at the time of the case; Regina and Rex are Latin for Queen and King respectively) (and in either case may informally be pronounced as such) and when cited orally in court would be pronounced "the Queen against Smith" or "the King against Smith" (again depending on the gender of the reigning Sovereign). Smith, A.T.H., Glanville Williams: Learning the Law, 13th Edition, 2006, page 44 . All proceedings on indictment must be brought before the Crown Court. The Supreme Court Act 1981, section 46(1) OPSI By virtue of practice directions issued under section 75(1) of the Supreme Court Act 1981, an indictment must be tried by a High Court judge, a Circuit judge or a recorder (which of these it is depends on the offence). United States The Fifth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States states in part: "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Military when in actual service in time of War or public danger..." In many (though not all) U.S. jurisdictions retaining the grand jury, prosecutors often have a choice between seeking an indictment from a grand jury, or filing a charging document directly with the court. Such a document is usually called an information, accusation, or complaint, to distinguish it from a grand jury indictment. To protect the suspect's due process rights in felony cases (where the suspect's interest in liberty is at stake), there is usually a preliminary hearing where a judge determines if there is probable suspicion that the charged crime was committed by the suspect in custody. If the judge finds such probable suspicion , he or she will bind or hold over the suspect for trial. The substance of an indictment or other charging instrument is usually the same, regardless of the jurisdiction: it consists of a short and plain statement of the time, place and manner in which the defendant is alleged to have committed the offense. Each offense is usually set out in a separate count. Some indictments for complex crimes, particularly those involving conspiracy or numerous counts, can run to hundreds of pages, but many indictments, even for crimes as serious as murder, consist of a single sheet of paper. Indictable offenses are normally tried by jury, unless the accused waives the right to a jury trial. The Sixth Amendment mandates the right of having a jury trial for any criminal offense punishable by imprisonment for more than six months. Notwithstanding the existence of the right to jury trial, the vast majority of criminal cases in the U.S. are resolved by the plea bargaining process. In a multiple investigation scenario (such as a school doing an investigation after the police does one) the outcome the police find must be accepted. Any charges dropped by the police may not be mentioned in any way, punishable by law. Direct indictment A direct indictment is one in which the case is sent directly to trial before a preliminary inquiry is completed or when the accused has been discharged by a preliminary inquiry. It is meant to be an extra-ordinary, rarely used power to ensure that those who should be brought to trial are in a timely manner or where an error of judgment is seen to have been made in the preliminary inquiry. Sealed indictment An indictment can be sealed so that it stays non-public until it is unsealed. This can be done for a number of reasons. It may be unsealed, for example, once the named person is arrested or has been notified by police. See also Complaint Preliminary hearing Duplicity (law) References | Indictment |@lemmatized common:2 law:6 legal:1 system:1 indictment:19 formal:1 accusation:2 person:4 commit:4 criminal:5 offense:7 jurisdiction:5 retain:2 concept:3 felony:4 serious:3 would:3 abolish:2 often:2 substitute:1 indictable:2 offence:3 e:2 require:1 traditionally:1 hand:1 grand:6 jury:10 return:1 true:1 bill:2 find:4 cause:2 make:2 charge:5 except:3 much:1 united:2 state:4 australia:2 issue:4 government:1 official:1 attorney:1 general:1 director:1 public:8 prosecution:6 one:3 subordinate:1 magistrate:1 hold:3 committal:1 hearing:3 decide:1 whether:1 evidence:1 enough:1 trial:7 brazil:2 call:4 denúncia:1 prosecutor:3 member:1 ministry:1 document:3 start:1 case:8 like:1 rape:1 instance:1 file:2 victim:1 represent:1 lawyer:1 queixa:1 crime:5 england:2 wale:2 private:1 individual:1 crown:3 service:2 behalf:1 monarch:1 presently:1 queen:3 elizabeth:1 ii:1 nominally:1 plaintiff:1 english:1 man:1 mr:1 smith:7 refer:1 write:1 r:1 v:3 alternatively:1 regina:2 rex:2 depend:3 gender:2 sovereign:2 reigning:1 time:3 latin:1 king:2 respectively:1 either:1 may:3 informally:1 pronounce:2 cite:1 orally:1 court:6 reign:1 h:1 glanville:1 williams:1 learn:1 edition:1 page:2 proceeding:1 must:3 bring:2 supreme:2 act:2 section:2 opsi:1 virtue:1 practice:1 direction:1 try:2 high:1 judge:4 circuit:1 recorder:1 unite:1 fifth:1 amendment:2 constitution:1 part:1 shall:1 answer:1 capital:1 otherwise:1 infamous:1 unless:2 presentment:1 arise:1 land:1 naval:1 force:1 military:1 actual:1 war:1 danger:1 many:2 though:1 u:2 choice:1 seek:1 directly:2 usually:4 information:1 complaint:2 distinguish:1 protect:1 suspect:4 due:1 process:2 right:4 interest:1 liberty:1 stake:1 preliminary:5 determine:1 probable:2 suspicion:2 custody:1 bind:1 substance:1 instrument:1 regardless:1 consist:2 short:1 plain:1 statement:1 place:1 manner:2 defendant:1 allege:1 set:1 separate:1 count:2 complex:1 particularly:1 involve:1 conspiracy:1 numerous:1 run:1 hundred:1 even:1 murder:1 single:1 sheet:1 paper:1 normally:1 accused:1 waive:1 sixth:1 mandate:1 punishable:2 imprisonment:1 six:1 month:1 notwithstanding:1 existence:1 vast:1 majority:1 resolve:1 plea:1 bargaining:1 multiple:1 investigation:2 scenario:1 school:1 police:4 outcome:1 accept:1 drop:1 mention:1 way:1 direct:2 send:1 inquiry:3 complete:1 accuse:1 discharge:1 mean:1 extra:1 ordinary:1 rarely:1 used:1 power:1 ensure:1 timely:1 error:1 judgment:1 see:2 seal:2 stay:1 non:1 unsealed:2 number:1 reason:1 example:1 name:1 arrest:1 notify:1 also:1 duplicity:1 reference:1 |@bigram indictable_offence:1 grand_jury:6 queen_elizabeth:1 supreme_court:2 preliminary_hearing:2 indictable_offense:1 jury_trial:3 punishable_imprisonment:1 vast_majority:1 rarely_used:1 |
1,079 | Governor_of_Michigan | Governor Stevens T. Mason, the first governor of Michigan The Governor of Michigan is the chief executive of the U.S. state of Michigan. The current governor is Jennifer Granholm, a member of the Democratic Party, who became Michigan's first female governor on January 1, 2003, when she succeeded Governor John Engler. Granholm was re-elected on November 7, 2006. Gubernatorial elections and term of office From statehood until the election of 1966, governors were elected to two-year terms. Elections are held in November and the governor assumes office the following January, except in the case of death or resignation. From statehood until 1851, elections were held in odd-numbered years. A new state constitution was drafted in 1850 and took effect in 1851. As part of the process bringing the constitution into effect, there was a single one-year term of governor in 1851. Thereafter elections were held on even years. The constitution adopted in 1963 changed the governor's term to four years, starting in 1967. Since then, gubernatorial elections have been offset by two years from U.S. Presidential elections (e.g., Presidential elections were in 2000 and 2004, gubernatorial elections were in 1998 and 2002). The winner of the gubernatorial election takes office at noon on January 1 of the year following the election. In 1992, an amendment to the Michigan constitution imposed a lifetime term limit of two four-year terms for the office of governor. Prior to this, they were not limited as to how many terms they could serve; John Engler, the governor at the time, was exempt from the rule and served three terms, reelected in 1994 and 1998 before retiring in 2003. Executive branch departments The Executive Branch of the State of Michigan has several Departments or agencies SOM - Executive Branch : State of Michigan Departments Michigan Department of Agriculture Michigan Office of the Attorney General Michigan Department of Civil Rights Michigan Civil Service Commission Michigan Department of Community Health Michigan Department of Corrections Michigan Department of Education Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Michigan Department of History, Arts and Libraries Michigan Department of Human Services Michigan Department of Information Technology Michigan Department of Labor & Economic Growth Michigan Department of Management and Budget Michigan Department of Military and Veterans Affairs Michigan Department of Natural Resources Michigan Department of State (Secretary of State) Michigan State Police Michigan Department of Transportation Michigan Department of Treasury History of the office Forty-five people have been governors of the state. Prior to statehood, there were five governors of the Michigan Territory. Stevens T. Mason, Michigan's first governor, also served as a territorial governor. He was elected Governor of Michigan at 24 as a member of the Democratic Party in 1835 and served until 1840. Mason was the youngest state governor in United States history. References See also Lieutenant Governor of Michigan List of Governors of Michigan | Governor_of_Michigan |@lemmatized governor:20 stevens:2 mason:3 first:3 michigan:31 chief:1 executive:4 u:2 state:10 current:1 jennifer:1 granholm:2 member:2 democratic:2 party:2 become:1 female:1 january:3 succeed:1 john:2 engler:2 elect:3 november:2 gubernatorial:4 election:11 term:8 office:6 statehood:3 two:3 year:8 hold:3 assume:1 following:1 except:1 case:1 death:1 resignation:1 odd:1 numbered:1 new:1 constitution:4 draft:1 take:2 effect:2 part:1 process:1 bring:1 single:1 one:1 thereafter:1 even:1 adopt:1 change:1 four:2 start:1 since:1 offset:1 presidential:2 e:1 g:1 winner:1 noon:1 follow:1 amendment:1 impose:1 lifetime:1 limit:2 prior:2 many:1 could:1 serve:4 time:1 exempt:1 rule:1 three:1 reelect:1 retire:1 branch:3 departments:1 several:1 department:18 agency:1 som:1 agriculture:1 attorney:1 general:1 civil:2 right:1 service:2 commission:1 community:1 health:1 correction:1 education:1 environmental:1 quality:1 history:3 art:1 library:1 human:1 information:1 technology:1 labor:1 economic:1 growth:1 management:1 budget:1 military:1 veteran:1 affair:1 natural:1 resource:1 secretary:1 police:1 transportation:1 treasury:1 forty:1 five:2 people:1 territory:1 also:2 territorial:1 young:1 united:1 reference:1 see:1 lieutenant:1 list:1 |@bigram stevens_mason:2 jennifer_granholm:1 gubernatorial_election:4 odd_numbered:1 presidential_election:2 lieutenant_governor:1 |
1,080 | Logo_(programming_language) | Logo is a computer programming language used for functional programming. It is an adaptation and dialect of the Lisp language; some have called it Lisp without the parentheses. Today, it is known mainly for its turtle graphics, but it also has significant facilities for handling lists, files, I/O, and recursion. Logo was created in 1967 for educational use, more so for constructivist teaching, by Daniel G. Bobrow, Wally Feurzeig and Seymour Papert. It can be used to teach most computer science concepts, as UC Berkeley Lecturer Brian Harvey does in his Computer Science Logo Style trilogy. Computer Science Logo Style, Brian Harvey, MIT Press (3 volumes) ISBN 0-262-58148-5, ISBN 0-262-58149-3, ISBN 0-262-58150-7. Available online History Logo was created in 1967 at Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN), a Cambridge, Massachusetts research firm, by Wally Feurzeig and Seymour Papert. Its intellectual roots are in artificial intelligence, mathematical logic and developmental psychology. The first four years of Logo research, development and teaching work was done at BBN. The first implementation of Logo, called Ghost, was written in LISP on an SDS 950. The goal was to create a math land where kids could play with words and sentences. Modeled on LISP, the design goals of Logo included accessible power and informative error messages. The use of virtual Turtles allowed for immediate visual feedback and debugging. The first working turtle robot was created at MIT in 1969. A display turtle preceded the physical floor turtle. Modern Logo has not changed too much from the basic concepts before the first turtle. The first turtle was a tethered floor roamer, not radio-controlled or wireless. Later, BBN developed a turtle named Irving that had touch sensors and could move forwards, backwards, rotate, and ding its bell. The earliest year-long school users of Logo were in 1968-69 at Muzzey Jr High, Lexington MA. The virtual and physical turtles were first used by fifth graders at the Bridge School in Lexington, MA in 1970-71. Design Logo's best-known feature is the turtle, which is an on-screen cursor (derived originally from a robot of the same name), which can be given movement and drawing instructions, and is used to programmatically produce line graphics. It is traditionally and most often represented pictorially either as a triangle or a turtle icon (though it can be represented by any icon). Turtle graphics were added to the Logo language by Seymour Papert in the late 1960s to support Papert's version of the turtle robot, a simple robot controlled from the user's workstation that is designed to carry out the drawing functions assigned to it using a small retractable pen set into or attached to the robot's body. As a practical matter, the use of turtle geometry instead of a more traditional model mimics the actual movement logic of the turtle robot. Turtle geometry works somewhat differently from (x,y) addressed Cartesian geometry, rather operating in a Euclidean space (i.e., relative measures and angles without an origin, unlike coordinate-addressed systems such as PostScript). The turtle moves with commands that are relative to its own position, LEFT 90 meant rotate left by 90 degrees. A student could understand (and predict and reason about) the turtle's motion by imagining what they would do if they were the turtle. Papert called this body-syntonic reasoning. Some Logo implementations, particularly those that allow the use of concurrency and multiple turtles, support collision detection and allow the user to redefine the appearance of the turtle cursor, essentially allowing the Logo turtles to function as sprites. Turtle geometry is also sometimes used in environments other than Logo as an alternative to a strictly coordinate-addressed graphics system. For instance, the idea of turtle graphics is also useful in Lindenmayer system for generating fractals. Logo is generally known as an interpreted language, although recently there have been developed compiled Logo dialects—such as Lhogho or Liogo. Logo is not case-sensitive but retains the case used for formatting. It is a compromise between a sequential programming language with block structures, and a functional programming language. There is no standard LOGO, but UCBLogo is highly regarded. It is a teaching language but its list handling facilities make it remarkably useful for producing useful scripts. Data There are three datatypes in UCBLogo, the word, the list, the array. A number is a special case of word. There is no static typing. The interpreter detects the datatype by context. There are two important symbols The colon :- this means the contents of. This is an extremely useful symbol that keeps reminding students that a variable is really some 'place' in memory. The quote- this means '"the word is evaluated as itself"', or '"its value after evaluation is the same as it was before"'. This is important. A number is a special case of self evaluation—it really could be written with a quote. 2 is really "2 Variable assignment (eg. x := y + 3) is handled in Logo with the make command: make "x sum :y 3 or make "x sum :y "3 make takes 2 parameters, the second of which here is sum :y "3. sum takes two 'parameters' and is an 'operation', thus the calculation is possible. "3 evaluates to 3, and :y takes the contents of the thing called y, these are summed giving a number. The effect of make is to place the result into the first parameter. From a programmatical perspective, the first argument to make is passed by reference, while the second is passed by value. Scoping Variables don't have to be declared before use; their scope is then global. A variable may be declared local, then its scope is limited to that procedure and any procedures that it calls (a.k.a. dynamic scope). Calling a procedure with inputs (the name usually used for arguments in the Logo literature) also creates local variables that hold the argument values. Lists Logo inherits lists from Lisp, and they are its primary method of storing vectors. Arrays are also provided. Operators exist to convert words into lists, and lists into arrays and back again. This data type has the advantage over arrays that it is infinitely expandable. Data are extracted using the operations first, butfirst, last, butlast, butmember, member and item. Data elements are added using sentence fput and lput. A list can be considered to be a queue with the operators queue and dequeue, or a stack with the operations push and pop. Recursion rather than iteration is the natural method to process lists. Control structure commands Logo provides several common control structures. ifelse test [ do_if_true list ] [do_if_false list] There are iteration commands while condition [instruction list] until condition [instruction list ] repeat number [instruction list] Recursion is Logo's preferred processing paradigm. Template iteration Logo also provides list-based control structures. The basic idea is of two lists: OPERATION [ a list of commands ] [ many data items ] each of the commands is applied in turn to each of the data items. There are several of these template commands with names like MAP, APPLY, FILTER, FOREACH, REDUCE and CASCADE. They represent four flavours of template iteration, known as explicit-slot, named-procedure, named-slot (or Lambda), and procedure-text. Property lists A property list is a special list where the odd number items are property names, and the even are property values. There are three commands to process property list. pprop :listname :name :value ;to add a new pair to the list remprop :listname :name :value ;to remove a pair to the list show gprop :listname :name ;to get the matching value from the list I/O Text may be written to the command window (output stream) using print and to the graphics window using label The standard commands are readlist readword readchar with the normal input stream being the keyboard. In Unix tradition the input stream can be changed, so input can come from a disk file. Similarly, output can be redirected. Syntax Commands may be written on one line, or more. Many commands have mnemonic short forms; for example FORWARD and RIGHT are coded FD and RT respectively. This makes the input less onerous. Anything written after the ; (semicolon) is ignored, allowing the coder to insert comments. FORWARD 100 ; draws a square with sides 100 units long LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FD 100 RT 120 FD 100 RT 120 ; draws a triangle FD 100 RT 120 The Hello World program in Logo looks like this: print [Hello World] Loops There are three loop (repeat) commands; REPEAT is one. This draws a square. REPEAT 4 [FD 100 LEFT 90] The command FD 100 LEFT 90 is executed four times. An approximation of a circle can be constructed easily with 360 small rotations and a step forward: REPEAT 360 [FD 1 RIGHT 1]. Loops may be nested, giving spectacular results with little effort. REPEAT 36[ RT 10 REPEAT 360 [FD 1 RT 1]] FD 25 RT 90 The pen Turtle drawing a dotted Line The analogy of a turtle with a pen attached to its tail is often used. The turtle's pen can be lifted and lowered, thus drawing a rudimentary dotted line. FD 20 ; drawing a line and moving PENUP ; lifting the pen so it won't draw anything FD 20 ; not drawing but moving PENDOWN ; lowering the pen so it draws again FD 20 ; drawing a line and moving PENUP ; lifting the pen so it won't draw anything FD 40 ; not drawing but moving PENDOWN ; lowering the pen so it draws again RT 20 ; drawing a line and moving Logo was designed in spirit of low threshold and no ceiling, which enables easy entry by novices and yet meet the needs of high-powered users. Animations require both the ability to draw shapes and to erase shapes. The process is the same, except that in the former a line is deposited on the display device and in the latter a line is removed. Using the turtle analogy, the turtle's pen must paint, and the turtle's pen must erase. In UCBLogo, the turtle can be set to erase using the command PENERASE (PE). Now any future FD movements will erase anything beneath them. The pen can be restored with the command PENPAINT (PPT). EDALL ;(to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure) TO ERASECHAIR PE BK 200 REPEAT 4 [FD 100 RT 90] PPT END CS CHAIR WAIT 200 ERASECHAIR A WAIT delay between the drawing and the erasing introduces the illusion of motion. CS REPEAT 20 [CHAIR WAIT 200 ERASECHAIR FD 20] Logo can pass extra information to its words, and return information. The procedure, (word) is instructed to expect something and give that something a name. The colon is used for this purpose. It passes the information by value and the colon is pronounced as the value of. When the procedure is run with a command such as CHAIR 200, the word :thesize takes the value 200 so when FD :thesize is executed, the interpreter understands FD, the value of 200. EDALL ;(to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure) TO CHAIR :thesize REPEAT 4 [FD :thesize RT 90] FD :thesize FD :thesize END CS REPEAT 9 [CHAIR 50 RT 20 CHAIR 100 WAIT 50 RT 20] Pattern Functions and procedures Each line is made up of function calls, or subroutines in programming terminology, of which there are two types: commands (which do something—effects—but don't return a value) like print. operations (which just return a value, its output) like sum, first or readlist. A command is similar to a Pascal procedure, and an operation is similar to a Pascal function. (See also: command-query separation, where a query is an operation in Logo). A special subset of operations, called predicates, which just output the word true or false, are conventionally written with a final p. Examples include emptyp, wordp, and listp. Expressions can be primitives, or can be defined by the user. Expressions can take zero, one or more parameters. Basic Chair Procedures can be defined on the command line, using the TO END pair: TO CHAIR REPEAT 4 [FD 100 RT 90] FD 200 END However, in some early Logos the procedure is limited to the physical line length of the input device. All Logos can invoke an Editor, usually by EDALL. In the editor, procedures may be written over many lines, as nothing is interpreted until the edit is complete. EDALL TO CHAIR REPEAT 4 [FD 100 RT 90] FD 200 END The new word is saved into the available vocabulary, but the definition will be lost once the Logo session is over. Internally procedures are words and in this case, any time CHAIR is entered, the sequence REPEAT 4 [FD 100 LEFT 90] FD 200 will be executed. The word CHAIR can be used as a command; for example, REPEAT 4 [CHAIR] would repeat the CHAIR operation four times. Mathematics in Logo uses prefix notation, like: sum :x :y, product :x :y, difference :x :y, quotient :x :y. Infix is also available. help "keyword ;(will bring up a full description of the expression). Recursive Spiral Logo allows for recursion, the process where a procedure calls itself. to spiral :size if :size > 30 [stop] ; an exit condition fd :size rt 15 ; many lines of action spiral :size *1.02 ; the tailend recursive call end spiral 10 Implementations As of March 2009 there were 197 implementations and dialects of Logo, each with its own strengths. The Logo Tree Project Most of those 197 are no longer in wide use, but many are still under active development. As yet there is no single agreed-upon Logo language definition or standard, though there is a broad consensus on core aspects of the language. There are substantial differences between the many dialects of Logo. The situation is confused by the regular appearance of turtle graphics programs that mistakenly call themselves Logo. The most broadly used and prevalent early implementation of Logo was Apple Logo, which was developed by LCSI for the Apple II computer and popular during the 1980s. The closest thing to a de facto Logo standard today is UCBLogo, also known as Berkeley Logo. It is free and cross-platform. UCBLogo has only a rudimentary graphical user interface, so several projects exist that provide a better interface. MSWLogo and its successor FMSLogo, for Microsoft Windows, are commonly used in schools in the United Kingdom and Australia. Commercial Logos that are still widely used in schools include MicroWorlds Logo and Imagine Logo. MSWLogo supports multiple turtles, and 3D Graphics. MSWLogo allows input from COM ports and LPT ports and also hardware ports. MSWLogo also supports a windows interface thus I/O is available through this GUI- and keyboard and mouse events can trigger interrupts. Simple GIF animations may also be produced on MSWlogo version 6.5 with the gifsave command. Some modern derivatives of Logo allow thousands of independently moving turtles. There are two popular implementations: MIT's StarLogo and CCL's NetLogo. They allow for the exploration of emergent phenomena and come with many experiments in social studies, biology, physics, and other areas. Most Logos are 2D, but the Elica interpreter is notable for supporting 3D graphics. Most Logo implementations are interpreted, but some compilers have been built, including the Lhogho compiler, by the same author as Elica. Although most often used for graphics, Logo can also control robots. It was interfaced with Lego bricks, although Lego decided later to use another language in the commercial Lego Mindstorms products. An interface also exists for Cricket robots. ObjectLOGO is a variant with object-oriented extensions. Logo3D is a tridimensional version of LOGO and can be found at http://sourceforge.net/projects/logo3d. TurtleTracks is an opensouce Logo implementation in Java based of BSD Logo (with various extensions). Was designed and implemented by Daniel Azuma. Was ported later on to .NET / J# by George Birbilis. E-Slate Logo is an enhancement of TurtleTracks Logo with Object-oriented programming (OOP) primitives (TELL, ASK, EACH and TELLALL). Was designed and implemented by George Birbilis. Influence LOGO was a primary influence on the Smalltalk programming language. It is also the main influence on the Etoys educational programming environment and language, which is essentially a Logo written in Squeak (a variant of Smalltalk). See also Lego Logo References Further reading Computer Science Logo Style, Brian Harvey, MIT Press (3 volumes) ISBN 0-262-58148-5, ISBN 0-262-58149-3, ISBN 0-262-58150-7. Available online Practical logo for the Atari ST (Paperback), Martin Sims, Glentop ISBN 1851810307 ,ISBN 978-1851810307. Available online How to Think Like a Computer Scientist: Logo Version (Paperback), Allen Downey & Guido Gay, Lulu . The Great Logo Adventure, Jim Muller, Doone Publications ISBN 0-9651934-6-2 (Now out of print but downloadable free of charge in pdf form from The MSWLogo website - from where you can also download the freeware MSWLogo program) To Artificial Intelligence (1976) Early AI textbook where Logo is used extensively. (Using the Edinburgh University dialect, AI2LOGO) Turtle Geometry Abelson and diSessa Children Designers, Idit Harel Caperton, Ablex Publishing Corporation ISBN 0-89391-8788-5. Available online External links FMSLogo (GPL License) MSWLogo (GPL License, older version of FMSLogo) ACSLogo - a Logo Interpreter for Mac OS X Gary Stager's Logo Resources Wiki history of Logo covering the very early days TurtleTracks Logo port to .NET/J# by George Birbilis Syntax-highlighting Logo editor authored in Delphi by George Birbilis | Logo_(programming_language) |@lemmatized logo:67 computer:7 program:5 language:12 use:31 functional:2 programming:6 adaptation:1 dialect:5 lisp:5 call:11 without:2 parenthesis:1 today:2 know:5 mainly:1 turtle:35 graphic:10 also:17 significant:1 facility:2 handle:2 list:24 file:2 recursion:4 create:5 educational:2 constructivist:1 teaching:3 daniel:2 g:1 bobrow:1 wally:2 feurzeig:2 seymour:3 papert:5 teach:1 science:4 concept:2 uc:1 berkeley:2 lecturer:1 brian:3 harvey:3 style:3 trilogy:1 mit:4 press:2 volume:2 isbn:10 available:7 online:4 history:2 bolt:1 beranek:1 newman:1 bbn:3 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 research:2 firm:1 intellectual:1 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1,081 | Adiabatic_process | This article covers adiabatic processes in thermodynamics. For adiabatic processes in quantum mechanics, see adiabatic process (quantum mechanics). For atmospheric adiabatic processes, see lapse rate. In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process or an isocaloric process is a thermodynamic process in which no heat is transferred to or from the working fluid. The term "adiabatic" literally means impassable, coming from the Greek roots ἀ- ("not"), διὰ- ("through"), and βαῖνειν ("to pass"); this etymology corresponds here to an absence of heat transfer. Conversely, a process that involves heat transfer (addition or loss of heat to the surroundings) is generally called diabatic. Although the two terms can often be interchanged, adiabatic processes may be considered a subset of isocaloric processes; the remaining compliment subset of isocaloric processes being processes where net heat transfer does not diverge regionally such as in an idealized case with mediums of infinite thermal conductivity or non-existent thermal capacity. For example, an adiabatic boundary is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically (or thermally) insulated; an insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary. Another example is the adiabatic flame temperature, which is the temperature that would be achieved by a flame in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings. An adiabatic process that is reversible is also called an isentropic process. Additionally, an adiabatic process that is irreversible and extracts no work is in an isenthalpic process, such as viscous drag, progressing towards a nonnegative change in entropy. One opposite extreme—allowing heat transfer with the surroundings, causing the temperature to remain constant—is known as an isothermal process. Since temperature is thermodynamically conjugate to entropy, the isothermal process is conjugate to the adiabatic process for reversible transformations. A transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered adiabatic when it is quick enough that no significant heat is transferred between the system and the outside. At the opposite extreme, a transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered isothermal if it is slow enough so that the system's temperature remains constant by heat exchange with the outside. Adiabatic heating and cooling Adiabatic changes in temperature occur due to changes in pressure of a gas while not adding or subtracting any heat. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased from work done on it by its surroundings, ie a piston. Diesel engines rely on adiabatic heating during their compression stroke to elevate the temperature sufficiently to ignite the fuel. Similarly, jet engines rely upon adiabatic heating to create the correct compression of the air to enable fuel to be injected and ignition to then occur. Adiabatic heating also occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a katabatic wind or Foehn wind flowing downhill. Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure of a substance is decreased as it does work on its surroundings. Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling. Adiabatic cooling also occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds if the air is cooled below the dew point. Rising magma also undergoes adiabatic cooling before eruption. Such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes. It should be noted that no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes are close to adiabatic and can be easily approximated by using an adiabatic assumption, but there is always some heat loss; as no perfect insulators exist. Ideal gas (reversible case only) For a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the internal energy of the working substance must decrease The mathematical equation for an ideal fluid undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process is where P is pressure, V is volume, and being the specific heat for constant pressure, being the specific heat for constant volume and γ is the adiabatic index. is the number of degrees of freedom divided by 2 (3/2 for monatomic gas, 5/2 for diatomic gas). For a monatomic ideal gas, , and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air) . Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose-Einstein or Fermi gases. For reversible adiabatic processes, it is also true that where T is an absolute temperature. This can also be written as Derivation of continuous formula The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, . Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics, where dU is the change in the internal energy of the system and δW is work done by the system. Any work (δW) done must be done at the expense of internal energy U, since no heat δQ is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure-volume work δW done by the system is defined as However, P does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with V. It is desired to know how the values of dP and dV relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas the internal energy is given by where R is the universal gas constant and n is the number of moles in the system (a constant). Differentiating Equation (3) and use of the ideal gas law, , yields Equation (4) is often expressed as because . Now substitute equations (2) and (4) into equation (1) to obtain simplify: and divide both sides by PV: After integrating the left and right sides from to V and from to P and changing the sides respectively, Exponentiate both sides, and eliminate the negative sign to obtain Therefore, and Derivation of discrete formula The change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to At the same time, the work done by the pressure-volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true By the previous derivation, Rearranging (4) gives Substituting this into (2) gives Integrating, Substituting , Rearranging, Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases), By the continuous formula, Or, Substituting into the previous expression for , Substituting this expression and (1) in (3) gives Simplifying, Simplifying, Simplifying, Graphing adiabats An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy on the P-V diagram. Properties of adiabats on a P-V diagram are: Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms). Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once. An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical). If isotherms are concave towards the "north-east" direction (45 °), then adiabats are concave towards the "east north-east" (31 °). If adiabats and isotherms are graphed severally at regular changes of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves towards the axes (towards the south-west), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats grow. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see Nernst's theorem). The following diagram is a P-V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms: Image:Entropyandtemp.PNG The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves. The adiabats are isentropic. Volume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis. See also Cyclic process First law of thermodynamics Isobaric process Isochoric process Isothermal process Polytropic process Thermodynamic entropy Quasistatic equilibrium Total air temperature Adiabatic engine Magnetic refrigeration External links Article in HyperPhysics Encyclopaedia | Adiabatic_process |@lemmatized article:2 cover:1 adiabatic:38 process:35 thermodynamics:4 quantum:2 mechanic:2 see:6 atmospheric:2 lapse:1 rate:1 isocaloric:3 thermodynamic:4 heat:16 transfer:8 work:9 fluid:3 term:2 literally:1 mean:1 impassable:1 come:1 greek:1 root:1 ἀ:1 διὰ:1 βαῖνειν:1 pass:1 etymology:1 correspond:1 absence:2 conversely:1 involve:2 addition:1 loss:3 surroundings:6 generally:1 call:2 diabatic:1 although:1 two:1 often:3 interchange:1 may:1 consider:3 subset:2 remain:4 compliment:1 net:1 diverge:1 regionally:1 idealized:1 case:3 medium:1 infinite:1 thermal:2 conductivity:1 non:1 existent:1 capacity:1 example:3 boundary:3 impermeable:1 system:11 say:1 adiabatically:1 thermally:1 insulate:1 insulated:1 wall:1 approximate:2 another:1 flame:2 temperature:12 would:1 achieve:1 reversible:5 also:7 isentropic:2 additionally:1 irreversible:1 extract:1 isenthalpic:1 viscous:1 drag:1 progress:1 towards:5 nonnegative:1 change:11 entropy:6 one:2 opposite:2 extreme:2 allow:1 cause:1 constant:10 know:2 isothermal:4 since:3 thermodynamically:1 conjugate:2 transformation:3 quick:1 enough:2 significant:1 outside:2 slow:1 exchange:1 heating:5 cool:2 occur:6 due:1 pressure:9 gas:14 add:1 subtract:1 increase:2 ie:1 piston:1 diesel:1 engine:3 rely:2 compression:2 stroke:1 elevate:1 sufficiently:1 ignite:1 fuel:2 similarly:1 jet:1 upon:1 create:1 correct:1 air:5 enable:1 inject:1 ignition:1 earth:2 atmosphere:2 mass:1 descends:1 katabatic:1 wind:2 foehn:1 flow:1 downhill:1 cooling:5 substance:3 decrease:2 technique:1 use:6 reach:1 low:1 thousandth:1 even:1 millionth:1 degree:2 absolute:3 zero:3 demagnetisation:1 magnetic:3 field:1 material:1 provide:1 orographic:1 lifting:1 lee:1 wave:1 form:1 pileus:1 lenticular:1 cloud:1 dew:1 point:1 rise:1 magma:1 undergo:2 eruption:1 quantify:1 ideal:8 law:5 hydrostatic:1 equation:7 note:2 truly:1 many:1 close:1 easily:1 assumption:1 always:1 perfect:1 insulator:1 exist:1 simple:1 volume:6 internal:5 energy:5 must:2 mathematical:1 e:1 generation:1 p:7 v:7 specific:2 γ:1 index:1 number:2 freedom:1 divide:2 monatomic:2 diatomic:2 nitrogen:1 oxygen:1 main:1 component:1 formula:4 applicable:1 classical:1 bose:1 einstein:1 fermi:1 true:2 write:1 derivation:3 continuous:2 definition:1 accord:1 first:2 du:1 δw:3 expense:1 u:1 δq:1 supply:1 define:1 however:1 instead:1 along:1 desire:1 value:1 dp:1 dv:1 relate:1 proceeds:1 give:4 r:1 universal:1 n:1 mole:1 differentiate:1 yield:1 express:1 substitute:5 obtain:2 simplify:4 side:4 pv:1 integrate:2 left:1 right:1 respectively:2 exponentiate:1 eliminate:1 negative:1 sign:1 therefore:1 discrete:1 measure:1 state:2 equal:2 time:1 result:1 require:1 following:2 need:1 previous:2 rearrange:2 assume:1 molar:1 quantity:1 happen:1 practical:1 expression:2 graph:2 adiabats:9 adiabat:5 curve:3 diagram:4 property:1 every:1 asymptotically:1 approach:1 axis:4 like:2 isotherm:9 intersect:1 exactly:1 look:1 similar:1 except:1 expansion:1 lose:1 steep:1 inclination:1 vertical:2 concave:2 north:2 east:3 direction:1 severally:1 regular:1 altitude:1 contour:1 map:1 eye:1 move:1 ax:1 south:1 west:1 density:3 stay:1 grow:1 exception:1 near:1 drop:1 sharply:1 become:1 rare:1 nernst:1 theorem:1 superposition:1 image:1 entropyandtemp:1 png:1 red:1 black:1 horizontal:1 cyclic:1 isobaric:1 isochoric:1 polytropic:1 quasistatic:1 equilibrium:1 total:1 refrigeration:1 external:1 link:1 hyperphysics:1 encyclopaedia:1 |@bigram quantum_mechanic:2 thermal_conductivity:1 non_existent:1 adiabatic_heating:5 add_subtract:1 diesel_engine:1 katabatic_wind:1 adiabatic_cooling:5 magnetic_field:1 monatomic_gas:1 diatomic_gas:2 bose_einstein:1 thermodynamic_entropy:1 external_link:1 |
1,082 | Fatah | Fataḥ () is a major Palestinian political party and the largest faction of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), a multi-party confederation. In Palestinian politics it is on the center-left of the spectrum. It is mainly nationalist although not predominantly socialist. Fatah has maintained a number of militant groups since its founding. Its mainstream military branch is al-Assifa. Fatah is generally considered to have had a strong involvement in terrorism in the past, Terrorism Encyclopedia Britannica Palestine :: Resurgence of Palestinian identity Encyclopedia Britannica Terrorism in Tel Aviv Time Friday, Sep. 13, 1968 Al-Fatah Al-`Asifa GlobalSecurity.org [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6436578/ Arafat’s ‘means’ failed in the end though unlike its rival Islamist faction Hamas, Fatah is not regarded as a terrorist organization by any government. Fatah used to be designated terrorist under Israeli law and was considered terrorist by the United States Department of State and United States Congress until it renounced terrorism in 1988. Israel ministry of Defense Palestine Information Office v. Shultz, 853 F.2d 932 (D.C.Cir. 1988). In the January 25, 2006 parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to Hamas, and resigned all cabinet positions, instead assuming the role as the main opposition party. Etymology The full name of the movement is حركة التحرير الوطني الفلسطيني ḥarakat al-taḥrīr al-waṭanī al-filasṭīnī, meaning the "Palestinian National Liberation Movement". From this was crafted the reverse acronym Fatḥ (or Fatah), meaning "opening", "conquering", or "victory". Encyclopedia Britannica. Fatah. Retrieved July 30, 2006. "Fatah [...] inverted acronym of Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini [...]" (Ḥataf حتف, the non-reverse acronym, would mean "death", and has not been used by the movement.) The word Fatah is used in religious discourse to signify the Islamic expansion in the first centuries of Islamic history -- as in Fath al-Sham, the "opening of the Levant" -- and so has positive connotations for Muslims. History Establishment Yasser Arafat was the main founder of Fatah and led the group until his death in 2004 The Fatah movement, which espoused a Palestinian nationalist ideology in which Palestinian Arabs would be liberated by the actions of Palestinian Arabs, was founded in 1954 by members of the Palestinian diaspora — principally professionals working in the Gulf States who had been refugees in Gaza and had gone on to study in Cairo or Beirut. The founders included Yasser Arafat who was head of the General Union of Palestinian Students (GUPS) (1952–56) in Cairo University, Salah Khalaf, Khalil al-Wazir, Khaled Yashruti was head of the GUPS in Beirut (1958–62). Said K. AbusrishAburish, Said K. (1998) Arafat, From Defender to Dictator. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, pp.41–90. ISBN 1-58234-049-8. Fatah's first major guerrilla attack came on January 3, 1965, when they attempted to sabotage the Israeli National Water Carrier, which had recently started operation and diverted vast amounts of water from the Jordan River which mostly bordered Jordan. The attack was thwarted by the Israeli Security Forces. Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the Six-Day War in 1967. It dealt the coup de grâce to the pre-Baathist Arab nationalism that had inspired George Habash's Arab Nationalist Movement, the former dominant mainly Palestinian political party. The November 1959 edition of Fatah's underground journal, Filastinuna Nida al-Hayat, indicated that the movement was motivated by the status of the Palestinian refugees in the Arab world: The youth of the catastrophe (shibab al-nakba) are dispersed... Life in the tent has become as miserable as death... [T]o die for our beloved Motherland is better and more honorable than life, which forces us to eat our daily bread under humiliations or to receive it as charity at the cost of our honour... We, the sons of the catastrophe, are no longer willing to live this dirty, despicable life, this life which has destroyed our cultural, moral and political existence and destroyed our human dignity. Baumgarten, 2005, p. 32) From the beginning the armed struggle, as manifested in the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine and the military role of Palestinian fighters under the leadership of Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, was central to Fatah's ideology of liberating Palestine by a Palestinian armed struggle. Fatah joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1967. It was immediately allocated 33 of 105 seats in the PLO Executive Committee. Founder Yasser Arafat became Chairman of the PLO in 1969, after the position was ceded to him by Yahya Hammuda. According to the BBC, "Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the executive committee of the PLO in 1969, a year that Fatah is recorded to have carried out 2,432 guerrilla attacks on Israel." Battle of Karameh Throughout 1968, Fatah and other Palestinian armed groups were the target of a major Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) operation in the Jordanian village of Karameh, where the Fatah headquarters – as well as a mid-sized Palestinian refugee camp – were located. The town's name is the Arabic word for "dignity", which elevated its symbolism to the Arab people, especially after the Arab defeat in 1967. The operation was in response to attacks against Israel, including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias into the occupied West Bank. Knowledge of the operation was available well ahead of time, and the government of Jordan (as well as a number of Fatah commandos) informed Arafat of Israel's large-scale military preparations. Upon hearing the news, many guerrilla groups in the area, including George Habash's newly formed group the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and Nayef Hawatmeh's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), withdrew their forces from the town. Fatah leaders were advised by a pro-Fatah Jordanian divisional commander to withdraw their men and headquarters to nearby hills, but on Arafat's orders, Fatah remained, and the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued. On the night of March 21, the IDF attacked Karameh with heavy weaponry, armored vehicles and fighter jets. Fatah held its ground, surprising the Israeli military. As Israel's forces intensified their campaign, the Jordanian Army became involved, causing the Israelis to retreat in order to avoid a full-scale war. By the end of the battle, nearly 150 Fatah militants had been killed, as well as twenty Jordanian soldiers and twenty-eight Israeli soldiers. Despite the higher Arab death toll, Fatah considered themselves victorious because of the Israeli army's rapid withdrawal. Black September In the late 1960s, tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly; heavily armed Arab resistance elements had created a virtual "state within a state" in Jordan, eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country. After their victory in the Battle of Karameh, Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan. They set up roadblocks, publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces, molested women and levied illegal taxes – all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored. Sayigh, Yezid (1997). Armed Struggle and the Search for State, the Palestinian National Movement, 1949–1993. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198296436. The Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory, and the next day, King Hussein declared martial law. By September 25, the Jordanian army achieved dominance in the fighting, and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a series of ceasefires. The Jordanian army inflicted heavy casualties upon the Palestinians – including civilians – who suffered approximately 3,500 fatalities. Two thousand Fatah fighters managed to enter Syria. They crossed the border into Lebanon to join Fatah forces in that country, where they set up their new headquarters. In the 1960s and the 1970s, Fatah provided training to a wide range of European, Middle Eastern, Asian, and African militant and insurgent groups, and carried out numerous attacks against Israeli targets in Western Europe and the Middle East during the 1970s. Some militant groups that affiliated themselves to Fatah, and some of the fedayeen within Fatah itself, carried out civilian plane hijackings and terrorist attacks, attributing them to Black September, Abu Nidal's Fatah-Revolutionary Council, Abu Musa's group, the PFLP, and the PFLP-GC. Fatah received weapons, explosives and training from the USSR and some Communist regimes of East European states. China also provided some weapons. Lebanon Although hesitant at first to take sides in the conflict, Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War. Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub-groups such as the PFLP, DFLP and the Palestine Liberation Front (PLF), Fatah aligned itself with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement (LNM). Although originally aligned with Fatah, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad feared a loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides. He sent his army, along with the Syrian-backed Palestinian factions of as-Sa'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command (PFLP-GC) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside the radical right-wing Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM. The primary component of the Christian militias was the Maronite Phalangists. Phalangist forces killed twenty-six Fatah trainees on a bus in April 1975, marking the official start of the 15 year long Lebanese civil war. Later that year, an alliance of Christian militias overran the Palestinian refugee camp of Quarantina. The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour, a Phalangist stronghold. Over 330 people were killed and many more wounded.. As the civil war progressed over 2 years of savage urban warfare, both parties resorted to massive artillery duels and heavy use of sniper nests, while atrocities and war crimes were committed by both sides. The war appeared to be headed for defeat by the Christian parties after the fighting shifted focus from Beirut to the mountains overlying it. Having secured Syrian Army intervention and seeing their ennemies fold, the Christian militias hurried to secure a more favorable strategic footing for the war's aftermath and accelerated the siege of one of the Palestinian camps, pivotal to Fatah's war effort. In 1976, with strategic planning help from the Lebanese Army, the alliance of Christian militias, spearheaded by the National Liberal Party of former President Cammille Chamoun militant branch, the noumour el ahrar (NLP Tigers), took a pivotal refugee camp in the Eastern part of Beirut, the Tel al-Zaatar camp, after a six-month siege, and heavy civilian casualties ([[Tel al-Zaatar massacre|massacre])] in which hundreds perished. Disputed; In Faces of Lebanon. Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions pp.162–165, William Harris states "Perhaps 3,000 Palestinians, mostly civilians, died in the siege and its aftermath". This source states that 2,000 were killed while this page suggests several thousand. Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort. PLO cross-border raids against Israel grew somewhat during the late 1970s. One of the most severe - known as the Coastal Road Massacre - occurred on March 11, 1978. A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv-Yafo. There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles, killing thirty-seven civilians. In response, the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later, with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to the Litani River. The IDF achieved this goal, and Fatah withdrew to the north into Beirut. After Israel withdrew from Lebanon, Fatah forces resumed firing rockets into the Galilee region of Israel, prompting another invasion in 1982. Beirut was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF; To end the siege, the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and Fatah – guarded by a multinational force – to exile in Tunis. Despite the exile many Fatah commanders and fighters remained in Lebanon. When Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982, the faction was dispersed to several Middle Eastern countries with the help of US and other Western governments: Tunisia, Yemen, Algeria, Iraq and others. In the period 1982–1993, Fatah's leadership resided in Tunisia. Presidential and legislative elections Until his death, Arafat was the head of the Palestinian National Authority - the provisional entity that was created as a result of Oslo. Farouk Kaddoumi is the current Fatah chairman, elected to the post soon after Arafat's death in 2004. Fatah has "Observer Party" status at the Socialist International. Since 2000, the group has been a member of the Palestinian National and Islamic Forces, Statement issued by the National and Islamic Forces February 10, 2001 which includes both PLO and non-PLO factions, including Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad, both listed as terrorist organizations in the West. "Country reports on terrorism", U.S. State Dept., April 27, 2005 Fatah endorsed Mahmoud Abbas in the Palestinian presidential election of 2005. In 2005, Hamas won in nearly all the municipalities it contested. Fatah is "widely seen as being in desperate need of reform", as "the PA's performance has been a story of corruption and incompetence - and Fatah has been tainted." Political analyst Salah Abdel-Shafi told BBC about the difficulties of Fatah leadership: "I think it's very, very serious - it's becoming obvious that they can't agree on anything." Internal dissension On 14, 2005, jailed Intifada leader Marwan Barghouti announced that he had formed a new political list to run in the elections, al-Mustaqbal ("The Future"), mainly composed of members of Fatah's "Young Guard." These younger leaders have repeatedly expressed frustration with the entrenched corruption in the party, which has been run by the "Old Guard" who returned from exile in Tunisia following the Oslo Accords. Al-Mustaqbal was to campaign against Fatah in the January 2006 Palestinian legislative election, presenting a list including Mohammed Dahlan, Kadoura Fares, Samir Mashharawi and Jibril Rajoub on December 14. However, on December 28, 2005, the leadership of the two factions agreed to submit a single list to voters, headed by Barghouti, who began actively campaigning for Fatah from his jail cell. http://www.reut-institute.org/Publication.aspx?PublicationId=1225 Crisis of Representation </ref> There has been numerous other expressions of discontent within Fatah, which has not held a general congress in two decades. Because of this, the movement remains largely dominated by aging cadres from the pre-Oslo area of Palestinian politics. Several of them gained their positions thanks to personal followings or support from Arafat, who balanced above the different factions, and the era after his death in 2004 has seen increased infighting among these groups, who jockey for influence over future development, the political line, funds, and constituencies. The prospect of Abbas leaving power in the coming years has also exacerbated tensions. There have been no significant overt splits within the older generation of Fatah politicians since the 1980s, however. One founding member, Faruq al-Qaddumi (Abu Lutf), continues to openly oppose the post-Oslo arrangements and has intensified his campaign for a more hardline positions from exile in Tunis. Since Arafat's death, he is formally head of Fatah's political bureau and chairman, but his actual political following within Fatah appears limited. He has at times openly challenged the legitimacy of Abbas and harshly criticized both him and Mohammed Dahlan, but despite threats to splinter the movement, he remains in his position, and his challenges have so far come to nothing. Another influential veteran, Hani al-Hassan, has also openly criticized the present leadership. Fatah's internal conflicts have also, due to the creation of the Palestinian Authority, merged with the turf wars between different PA security services, eg. a longstanding rivalry between the West Bank (Jibril Rajoub) and Gaza (Muhammad Dahlan) branches of the powerful Preventive Security Service. Foreign backing for different factions contribute to conflict, eg. with the USA generally seen as supportive of Abbas's overall leadership and of Dahlan's security influence, and Syria alleged to promote Faruq al-Qaddumi's challenge to the present leadership. The younger generations of Fatah, especially within the militant al-Aqsa martyrs' brigades, have been more prone to splits, and a number of lesser networks in Gaza and the West Bank have established themselves as either independent organizations or joined Hamas. However, such overt breaks with the movement have still been rather uncommon, despite numerous rivalries inside and between competing local Fatah groups. As of 2009, a Fatah congress has been slated in the near future, but repeatedly postponed over conflicts ranging from who will be represented, to what venue it is to be held in (eg. Ramallah, Amman or some other location.) Armed factions Fatah has since its inception created, led or sponsored a number of armed groups and militias, some of which have had an official standing as the movement's armed wing, and some of which have not been publicly or even internally recognized as such. The group has also dominated various PLO and Palestinian Authority forces and security services which were/are not officially tied to Fatah, but in practice have served as wholly pro-Fatah armed units, and been staffed largely by members. The original name for Fatah's armed wing was al-Asifa (The Storm), and this was also the name Fatah first used in its communiques, trying for some time to conceal its identity. This name has since been applied more generally to Fatah armed forces, and does not correspond to a single unit today. Other militant groups associated with Fatah include: Force 17 - Force 17 was created by Yassir Arafat, and plays a role akin to the Presidential Guard for senior Fatah leaders, but it has also carried out other assignments. Black September - Black September was a group formed by leading Fatah members in 1971, following the "Black September" events in Jordan, to clandestinely organize attacks that Fatah did not want to be openly associated with. These included strikes against leading Jordanian politicians, as a means of exacting vengeance and raising the price for attacking the Palestinian movement; and also, most controversially, for "international operations" (eg. the Munich Olympics attack), inteded both to put pressure on the US, European countries and Israel, and to raise the visibility of the Palestinian cause, and to upstage radical rivals such as the PFLP. Fatah publicly disassociated itself from the group, but it is widely believed that it enjoyed Arafat's direct or tacit backing. It was discontinued in 1973-1974, as Fatah's political line shifted again, and the Black September operations and the strategy behind them were seen as having become a political liability, rather than an asset. Fatah Hawks - The Fatah Hawks was an armed militia active mainly until the mid-90s. Tanzim - The Tanzim (Organization) was a branch of Fatah under the leadership of Marwan Barghouti, with roots in the activism of the First Intifada, which carried out armed attacks in the early days of the Second Intifada. It has later been subsumed by or sidlined by the al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigade. Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades - The al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades were created in the Second Intifada to bolster the organization's militant standing visavi the rival Hamas movement, which had taken the lead in attacks on Israel after 1993, and was gaining rapidly in popularity with the advent of the Intifada. The Brigades are locally organized and have been said to suffer from poor cohesion and internal discipline, at times ignoring ceasefires and other initiatives announced by the central Fatah leadership. They are generally seen as tied to the "young guard" of Fatah politics, organizing young members on the street level, but it is not clear that they form a faction in themselves inside Fatah politics; rather, different Brigades units may be tied to different Fatah factional leaders. They have carried out suicide bombings against Israel and Israeli civilians, often despite public condemnation from the Fatah leadership. The Brigades, but not Fatah proper, are listed as a terrorist organization by the United States. See also Israeli-Palestinian conflict List of political parties in the Palestinian National Authority List of Fatah members Palestinian Civil War West Bank References Baumgarten, Helga (2005). The three faces/phases of Palestinian nationalism, 1948–2005. Journal of Palestine Studies, 34(4), 25–48. External links Fatah's Intellectual office website Al-Krama Newspaper (Fatah's PR Office) (in Arabic) Definition of Fatah Interview on Radio France International Fatah Central Committee member Abdallah Al Frangi | Fatah |@lemmatized fataḥ:1 major:4 palestinian:40 political:11 party:11 large:2 faction:10 palestine:11 liberation:7 organization:9 plo:12 multi:1 confederation:1 politics:5 center:1 left:1 spectrum:1 mainly:4 nationalist:3 although:3 predominantly:1 socialist:2 fatah:89 maintain:1 number:4 militant:8 group:17 since:6 founding:2 mainstream:1 military:4 branch:4 al:30 assifa:1 generally:4 consider:3 strong:1 involvement:1 terrorism:5 past:1 encyclopedia:3 britannica:3 resurgence:1 identity:2 tel:4 aviv:2 time:5 friday:1 sep:1 asifa:2 globalsecurity:1 org:2 http:2 www:2 msnbc:1 msn:1 com:1 id:1 arafat:19 mean:5 fail:1 end:3 though:1 unlike:1 rival:3 islamist:1 hamas:6 regard:1 terrorist:6 government:6 use:5 designate:1 israeli:12 law:2 united:3 state:12 department:1 congress:3 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1,083 | Annual_plant | Peas are an annual plant. An annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers, and dies in one year. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed. Some seedless plants can also be considered annuals even though they do not grow a flower. Britanica Online In gardening, annual often refers to a plant grown outdoors in the spring and summer and surviving just for one growing season. Many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including most domesticated grains. Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered cold hardy for the local climate. Carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. Tomato, sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals. Ornamental annualer perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens, wax begonia, snapdragon, Pelargonium, coleus and petunia. Some biennials that can be grown as annuals are pansy and hollyhock. One seed-to-seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species, though most last several months. Oilseed rapa can go from seed-to-seed in about five weeks under a bank of fluorescent lamps in a school classroom. Many desert annuals are termed ephemerals because their seed-to-seed life cycle is only many weeks. They spend most of the year as seeds to survive dry conditions. Examples of true annuals include corn, lettuce, pea, cauliflower, watermelon, bean, zinnia and marigold . Summer annuals Summer annuals sprout, flower and die within the same spring/summer/fall. The lawn weed, crabgrass, is a summer annual. Winter annuals Winter Annuals are plants that have an annual life span but tend to germinate in the fall or winter and bloom in late autumn/fall, winter or early spring. The plants grow and bloom during the cool season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for warmer weather to germinate. Winter annuals die after flowering and setting seed, the seeds wait to germinate until the soil temperature is cool again in the fall or winter. Winter annuals typically grow low to the ground, where they are usually sheltered from the coldest nights by snow cover, and make use of warm periods in winter for growth when the snow melts. Some common winter annuals include henbit, deadnettle, chickweed, and winter cress. Winter annuals are important ecologically, as they provide vegetative cover that prevents soil erosion during winter and early spring when no other cover exists and they provide fresh vegetation for animals and birds that feed on them. Although they are often considered to be weeds in gardens, this viewpoint is not always necessary, as most of them die when the soil temperature warms up again in early to late spring when other plants are still dormant and have not yet leafed out. Even though they do not compete directly with cultivated plants, sometimes winter annuals are considered a pest in commercial agriculture, because they can be hosts for insect pests or fungal diseases (ovary smut - Microbotryum sp) which attack crops being cultivated. Ironically, the property that they prevent the soil from drying out can also be problematic for commercial agriculture. Molecular genetics In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in an annual plant leads to the conversion into a perennial plant http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18997783 . Researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, which control flowering time. This switch established phenotypes common in perennial plants, such as wood formation. See also Biennial plant Perennial plant References Notes Bibliography http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18997783 External links | Annual_plant |@lemmatized pea:2 annual:27 plant:16 usually:4 germinate:4 flower:4 dy:1 one:3 year:3 true:3 live:1 long:1 prevent:3 set:2 seed:11 seedless:1 also:3 consider:4 even:2 though:3 grow:11 britanica:1 online:1 gardening:1 often:2 refer:1 outdoors:1 spring:5 summer:5 surviving:1 season:2 many:3 food:1 include:3 domesticated:1 grain:1 perennial:6 biennial:4 garden:2 convenience:1 particularly:1 cold:2 hardy:1 local:1 climate:1 carrot:1 celery:1 parsley:1 crop:2 edible:1 root:1 petiole:1 leaf:2 respectively:1 tomato:1 sweet:1 potato:1 bell:1 pepper:1 tender:1 ornamental:1 annualer:1 commonly:1 impatiens:1 wax:1 begonia:1 snapdragon:1 pelargonium:1 coleus:1 petunia:1 pansy:1 hollyhock:1 life:3 cycle:2 occur:1 little:1 month:2 specie:1 last:1 several:1 oilseed:1 rapa:1 go:1 five:1 week:2 bank:1 fluorescent:1 lamp:1 school:1 classroom:1 desert:1 term:1 ephemeral:1 spend:1 survive:1 dry:2 condition:1 example:1 corn:1 lettuce:1 cauliflower:1 watermelon:1 bean:1 zinnia:1 marigold:1 sprout:1 die:3 within:1 fall:4 lawn:1 weed:2 crabgrass:1 winter:13 span:1 tend:1 bloom:2 late:2 autumn:1 early:3 cool:2 dormant:2 form:1 wait:2 warmer:1 weather:1 soil:4 temperature:2 typically:1 low:1 ground:1 shelter:1 night:1 snow:2 cover:3 make:1 use:1 warm:2 period:1 growth:1 melt:1 common:2 henbit:1 deadnettle:1 chickweed:1 cress:1 important:1 ecologically:1 provide:2 vegetative:1 erosion:1 exists:1 fresh:1 vegetation:1 animal:1 bird:1 fee:1 although:1 viewpoint:1 always:1 necessary:1 still:1 yet:1 compete:1 directly:1 cultivated:1 sometimes:1 pest:2 commercial:2 agriculture:2 host:1 insect:1 fungal:1 disease:1 ovary:1 smut:1 microbotryum:1 sp:1 attack:1 cultivate:1 ironically:1 property:1 problematic:1 molecular:1 genetics:1 discover:1 inactivation:1 two:1 gene:2 lead:1 conversion:1 http:2 www:2 ncbi:2 nlm:2 nih:2 gov:2 pubmed:2 researcher:1 deactivate:1 ful:1 arabidopsis:1 thaliana:1 control:1 flowering:1 time:1 switch:1 establish:1 phenotype:1 wood:1 formation:1 see:1 reference:1 note:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram sweet_potato:1 fluorescent_lamp:1 soil_erosion:1 insect_pest:1 http_www:2 www_ncbi:2 ncbi_nlm:2 nlm_nih:2 nih_gov:2 gov_pubmed:2 arabidopsis_thaliana:1 biennial_plant:1 external_link:1 |
1,084 | Hawkwind | Hawkwind are an English rock band, one of the earliest space rock groups. Their lyrics favour urban and science fiction themes. Notable fantasy and science fiction writer Michael Moorcock was an occasional collaborator. History 1969: Formation Dave Brock and Mick Slattery had been in the London-based psychedelic band Famous Cure, and a meeting with bassist John Harrison revealed a mutual interest in electronic music that kicked off this new venture. Seventeen year old drummer Terry Ollis replied to an advert in one of the music weeklies, while Nik Turner and Michael 'Dik Mik' Davies, old acquaintances of Brock, offered help with transport and gear, but were soon pulled into the band. Gatecrashing a local talent night at the All Saints Hall, Notting Hill, they were so untogether as to not even have a name, plumping for "Group X" at the last minute, nor any songs, choosing to play an extended 20-minute jam on The Byrds "Eight Miles High". Mick Slattery — www.spaceritual.net BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel was in the audience and was impressed enough to tell event organiser, Douglas Smith, to keep an eye on them. Smith signed them up and got them a deal with Liberty Records on the back of a deal he was setting up for Cochise. Douglas Smith — Philm Freax presents... The band settled on the name Hawkwind after briefly being billed as Hawkwind Zoo, Hawkwind being the nickname of Turner derived from his unappealing habit of clearing his throat (hawking) and excessive flatulence (wind) Mojo, September 1999 — The Egos Have Landed . An Abbey Road session took place recording demos of "Hurry On Sundown" and others (included on the remasters version of Hawkwind), after which Slattery left to be replaced by Huw Lloyd-Langton, who had known Brock from his days working in a music shop selling guitar strings to Brock, then a busker. Vintage Guitar Magazine, February 2003 — Huw Lloyd-Langton… Gets on the move again — www.huwlloyd-langton.co.uk 1970-75: United Artists era Pretty Things guitarist Dick Taylor was brought in to produce the 1970 debut album Hawkwind. Although it wasn't a commercial success, it did bring them to the attention of the UK underground scene finding them playing free concerts, benefit gigs and festivals. Playing free outside the Bath Festival, they encountered another Ladbroke Grove based band, the Pink Fairies, who shared similar interests in music and recreational activities, a friendship developed which led to the two bands becoming running partners and performing as "Pinkwind". Their use of drugs, however, led to the departure of Harrison, who didn't imbibe, followed by Lloyd-Langton after a bad LSD trip at the Isle of Wight Festival led to his having a nervous breakdown. Mojo, September 1999 — The Egos Have Landed — www.starfarer.net Their follow up album, 1971's In Search of Space, brought greater commercial success, reaching #18 on the UK album charts, and also saw the band's image and philosophy take shape, courtesy of graphic artist Barney Bubbles and underground press writer Robert Calvert, as depicted in the accompanying Hawklog booklet which would further be developed into the Space Ritual stage show. Science fiction author Michael Moorcock and dancer Stacia also started contributing to the band. Dik Mik had left the band, replaced by sound engineer Del Dettmar, but chose to return for this album giving the band two electronics players. Bass player Dave Anderson, who had been in the German band Amon Düül II had also joined but departed before its release due to personal tensions with some other members of the band. Hawkwind Family Tree, Pete Frame 1979 Meanwhile, Ollis quit, unhappy with the commercial direction the band were heading in. The Saga of Hawkwind (pp95) — Carol Clerk The addition of bassist Lemmy and drummer Simon King propelled the band to greater heights. One of the first gigs this band played was a benefit for the Greasy Truckers at The Roundhouse on 13 February 1972. A live album of the concert Greasy Truckers Party was released, and after re-recording the vocal, a single "Silver Machine" was also released, reaching #3 in the UK charts. This generated sufficient funds for the subsequent album Doremi Fasol Latido Space Ritual tour. The show featured dancers Stacia and Miss Renee, mime artist Tony Crerar and a light show by Liquid Len and is immortalised on the elaborate package Space Ritual. At the height of their success in 1973, the band released the single "Urban Guerrilla" which coincided with an IRA bombing campaign in London, so the BBC refused to play it and the band's management reluctantly decided to withdraw it fearing accusations of opportunism. NME, 1 September 1973 — News www.hawkwindmuseum.co.uk Dik Mik departed during 1973 and Calvert ended his association with the band to concentrate on solo projects. Dettmar also indicated that he was to leave the band, so Simon House was recruited as keyboardist and violinist playing live shows, a North America tour and recording the 1974 album Hall of the Mountain Grill. Dettmar left after a European tour, emigrating to Canada, whilst Alan Powell deputised for an incapacitated King on that European tour, but remained giving the band two drummers. At the beginning of 1975, the band recorded the album Warrior on the Edge of Time in collaboration with Michael Moorcock loosely based on his Eternal Champion figure. However, during a North America tour in May, Lemmy was caught in possession of amphetamine crossing the border from the USA into Canada. The border police mistook the powder for cocaine and he was jailed, forcing the band to cancel some shows. Fed up with his erratic behaviour, the band fired the bass player NME, 28th June 1975 — The Trials Of Lemmy — replacing him with their long standing friend and former Pink Fairies guitarist Paul Rudolph. Lemmy then teamed up with another Pink Fairies guitarist, Larry Wallis, to form Motörhead, named after the last song he had written for Hawkwind. 1976-78: Charisma era Robert Calvert made a guest appearance with band for their headline set at the Reading Festival in August 1975, after which he chose to rejoin the band as a full-time vocalist and front man. Stacia, on the other hand, chose to relinquish her dancing duties and settle down to family life. The band changed record company to Charisma Records and band management from Douglas Smith to Tony Howard. 1976's Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music is the first album of this era and highlights both Calvert's well crafted lyrics written with stage performance in mind and a greater proficiency and scope in the music. But on the eve of recording the follow-up Back on the Streets single, Turner was sacked for his erratic live playing Hawkwind Family Tree, Pete Frame 1979 and Powell was deemed surplus to requirements. After a tour to promote the single and during rehearsals for the next album, Rudolph was also sacked for allegedly trying to steer the band into a musical direction at odds with Calvert and Brock's vision. Adrian "Ade" Shaw, who as the bass player for Magic Muscle had supported Hawkwind on the Space Ritual tour, came in for the 1977 album Quark, Strangeness and Charm. The band continued to enjoy moderate commercial success, but Calvert's mental illness often caused problems. A manic phase saw the band abandon a European tour in France NME, 12th November 1977 — Hawklord in KGB Wedding Affair — Jon's Attic , while a depression phase during a 1978 North American tour convinced Brock to disband the group This Is Hawkwind, Do Not Panic, Chapter 6 — Kris Tait . In between these two tours, the band had recorded the album PXR5 in January 1978, but its release was delayed until 1979. On 23 December 1977 in Barnstaple, Brock and Calvert had performed a one-off gig with Devon band Ark as the Sonic Assassins, and looking for a new project in 1978, bassist Harvey Bainbridge and drummer Martin Griffin were recruited from this event. Steve Swindells was recruited as keyboard player. The band was named Hawklords, probably for legal reasons having recently split with their management, and recording took place on a farm in Devon using a mobile studio resulting in the album 25 Years On. King had originally been the drummer for the project but quit during recording sessions to return to London, while House, who had temporarily left the band to join a David Bowie tour, elected to remain with Bowie fulltime, but nevertheless did contribute violin to these sessions. At the end of the album's UK tour, Calvert, wanting King back in the band, fired Griffin, then promptly resigned himself, choosing to pursue a career in literature Aural Innovations, Issue 18 — Working Down A Diamond Mine . Swindells left to record a solo album after an offer had been made to him by the record company ATCO. 1980s In late 1979, Hawkwind reformed with Brock, Bainbridge and King being joined by Huw Lloyd-Langton (who had played on the debut album) and Tim Blake (formerly of Gong), embarking upon a UK tour despite not having a record deal or any product to promote. Some shows were recorded and a deal was made with Bronze Records resulting in the Live Seventy Nine album, quickly followed by the studio album Levitation. However, during the recording of Levitation King quit and Ginger Baker was drafted in for the sessions, but he chose to stay with the band for the tour, during which Tim Blake left to be replaced by Keith Hale. In 1981 Baker and Hale left after their insistence that Bainbridge should be sacked was declined, This Is Hawkwind, Do Not Panic, Chapter 7 — Kris Tait and Brock and Bainbridge elected to handle synthesizers and sequencers themselves with drummer Griffin from the Hawklords rejoining. Three albums, which again saw Michael Moorcock contributing lyrics and vocals, were recorded for RCA/Active: Sonic Attack, the electronic Church of Hawkwind and Choose Your Masques. This band headlined the 1981 Glastonbury Festival and made an appearance at the 1982 Donnington Monsters of Rock Festival, as well as continuing to play the summer solstice at Stonehenge Free Festival. Nik Turner had returned as a guest for the 1982 Choose Your Masques tour and was invited back permanently. Further tours ensued with Dead Fred Reeves augmenting the line-up on keyboards and violin, but neither Turner nor Reeves would appear on the only recording of 1983/84, The Earth Ritual Preview, but there was a guest spot for Lemmy. The Earth Ritual tour was filmed for Hawkwind's first ever video release, Night of the Hawk. Alan Davey was a young fan of the band who had sent a tape of his playing to Brock, Hawkfan 13 — A Chat With Alan Davey — www.hawkwindmuseum.co.uk and Brock chose to oust Reeves moving Bainbridge from bass to keyboards in order to accommodate Davey. This experimental line-up played at the Stonehenge Free Festival in 1984, which was filmed and release as Stonehenge 84. Subsequent personal and professional tensions between Brock and Turner led to the latter's expulsion at the beginning of 1985. Mojo, December 2005 — Hello Goodbye — www.starfarer.net Brock had started using drum machines for his home demos and became increasingly frustrated at the inability of drummers to keep perfect time, leading to a succession of drummers coming and going. First, Griffin was ousted and the band tried Simon King again, but unhappy with his playing at that time, he was rejected. Andy Anderson filled in while he was also playing for The Cure, as did Robert Heaton prior to the rise of New Model Army. Lloyd Langton Group drummer John Clark did some recording sessions, Rik Martinez started the Earth Ritual tour but failed to end it, being replaced by Clive Deamer, who was deemed "too professional" for the band. Music UK, March 1985 — Hawkwind — HawkFanFare Eventually in 1985 Danny Thompson Jr, a friend of bassist Alan Davey, was drafted in and remained almost to the end of the decade. Hawkwind's association with Moorcock climaxed in their most ambitious project, The Chronicle of the Black Sword, based loosely around the Elric series of books and theatrically staged with Tony Crerar as the central character. Moorcock contributed lyrics, but only performed some spoken pieces on some live dates. The tour was recorded and issued as an album Live Chronicles and video The Chronicle of the Black Sword. A headline appearance at the 1986 Reading Festival was followed by a UK tour to promote the Live Chronicles album which was filmed and released as Chaos. In 1988 the band recorded the album The Xenon Codex with Guy Bidmead, but all was not well in the band and soon after, both Lloyd-Langton and Thompson departed. 1990s Drummer Richard Chadwick, who joined in the summer of '88, had been playing in small alternative free festival bands, most notably Bath's Smart Pils, for a decade and had frequently crossed paths with Hawkwind and Brock. He was initially invited simply to play with the band, but eventually replaced stand in drummer Mick Kirton to become the band's drummer to the present day. Bridget Wishart, an associate of Chadwick's from the festival circuit, also joined to become the band's one and only frontwoman, and this new lineup was rounded off by the return of Simon House playing lead violin. This band produced two albums, 1990s Space Bandits and 1991's Palace Springs and also filmed a 1-hour appearance for the Bedrock TV series. In 1991 Bainbridge,House and Wishart departed and The band continued as a three piece relying heavily on synthesizers and sequencers to create a wall-of-sound. The 1992 album Electric Tepee combined hard rock and light ambient pieces, while It is the Business of the Future to be Dangerous is almost devoid of the rock leanings. The Business Trip is a record of the previous album's tour, but rockier as would be expected from a live outing. The White Zone album was released under the alias Psychedelic Warriors to distance itself entirely from the rock expectancy of Hawkwind. A general criticism of techno music at that time was its facelessness and lack of personality, which the band were coming to feel also plagued them. The Saga of Hawkwind (pp413) — Carol Clerk Ron Tree had known the band on the festival circuit and offered his services as a frontman, and the band duly employed him for the album Alien 4 and its accompanying tour which resulted in the album Love in Space and video Love in Space. Unhappy with the musical direction of the band, bassist Davey left, forming his own Middle-Eastern flavoured hard-rock group Bedouin and a Motörhead tribute act named Ace of Spades. The Saga of Hawkwind (pp418) — Carol Clerk His bass playing role was picked up by singer Tree and the band were joined by lead guitarist Jerry Richards (another stalwart of the festival scene, playing for Tubilah Dog who had merged with Brock's Agents of Chaos during 1988) for the albums Distant Horizons and In Your Area. Rasta chanter Captain Rizz also joined the band for guest spots during live shows. 2000s The concept of a Hawkestra, a reunion event featuring appearances from all past and present members, had originally been intended to coincide with the band's 30th anniversary and the release of the career spanning Epocheclipse – 30 Year Anthology set, but logistical problems delayed it until 21 October 2000. It took place at the Brixton Academy with about 20 members taking part in a 3+ hour set which was filmed and recorded. Guests included Samantha Fox who sang Master of the Universe. BBC Suffolk Feature - Hawkwind: The Leader Speaks However, arguments and disputes over financial recompense and musical input resulted in the prospect of the event being restaged unlikely, and any album or DVD release being indefinitely shelved. The Saga of Hawkwind, Chapter 30: The Great Hawkestra Disaster — Carol Clerk The Hawkestra had set a template for Brock to assemble a core band of Tree, Brock, Richards, Davey, Chadwick and for the use of former members as guests on live shows and studio recordings. The 2000 Christmas Astoria show was recorded with contributions from House, Blake, Rizz, Moorcock, Jez Huggett and Keith Kniveton and released as Yule Ritual the following year. In 2001, Davey agreed to rejoin the band permanently, but only afiter the departure of Tree and Richards. The Saga of Hawkwind (pp486) — Carol Clerk Meanwhile, having rekindled relationships with old friends at the Hawkestra, Turner organised further Hawkestra gigs resulting in the formation of xhawkwind.com, a band consisting mainly of ex-Hawkwind members and playing old Hawkwind songs. An appearance at Guilfest in 2002 led to confusion as to whether this actually was Hawkwind, sufficiently irking Brock into taking legal action to prohibit Turner from trading under the name Hawkwind. Turner lost the case and the band now perform as Space Ritual. The Saga of Hawkwind, Chapter 32: The Hawkwars — Carol Clerk An appearance at the Canterbury Sound Festival in August 2001, resulting in another live album Canterbury Fayre 2001, saw guest appearances from Lloyd-Langton, House, Kniveton with Arthur Brown on "Silver Machine". The band organised the first of their own weekend festivals, named Hawkfest, in Devon in the summer of 2002. Brown joined the band in 2002 for a Winter tour which featured some Kingdom Come songs and saw appearances from Blake and Lloyd-Langton, the Newcastle show being released on DVD as Out of the Shadows and the London show on CD as Spaced Out in London. In 2005 the long anticipated new album Take Me to Your Leader was released. Recorded by the core band of Brock/Davey/Chadwick, contributors included new keyboardist Jason Stuart, Arthur Brown, tabloid writer and TV personality Matthew Wright, 1970s New Wave singer Lene Lovich, Simon House and Jez Huggett. This was followed in 2006 by the CD/DVD disc Take Me to Your Future. The band were the subject of an hour-long television documentary entitled Hawkwind: Do Not Panic that aired on BBC Four as part of the Originals series. It was broadcast on 30 March 2007 and repeated on 10 August 2007. Although Brock participated in its making he did not appear in the programme, it is alleged that he requested all footage of himself be removed after he was denied any artistic control over the documentary. BBC 6 Music, Freakzone, 4 February 2007 — Nik Turner interview . In one of the documentary's opening narratives regarding Brock, it is stated that he declined to be interviewed for the programme due to Nik Turner's involvement, indicating that the two men have still not been reconciled over the xhawkwind.com incident. June 2007 saw the departure of Alan Davey, who left to perform and record with two new bands: Gunslinger and Thunor. He was replaced by "Mr Dibs", a long-standing member of the road crew and bassist for the bands Spacehead and Krel (who had supported Hawkwind during 1992). The band performed at their annual Hawkfest festival and headlined the US festival NEARfest and played gigs in PA and NY. At the end of 2007, Tim Blake once again joined the band filling the lead role playing keyboards and theremin. The band played 5 Christmas dates, the London show being released as an audio CD and video DVD under the title Knights of Space. In January 2008 the band reversed its anti-taping policy, long a sore-point with many fans, announcing that it would allow audio recording and non-commercial distribution of such recordings, provided there was no competing official release. At the end of 2008, Atomhenge Records (a subsidiary of Cherry Red Records) commenced the re-issuing of Hawkwind's back catalogue from the years 1976 through to 1997 with the release of two triple CD anthologies Spirit of the Age (anthology 1976-84) and The Dream Goes On (anthology 1985-97). Atomhenge Records On 8 September 2008 keyboard player Jason Stuart died due to a brain haemorrhage. In October 2008, guitarist Niall Hone (former Tribe of Cro) joined Hawkwind for their Winter 2008 tour, along with returning synth/theremin player Tim Blake. Discography Studio Albums 1970 Hawkwind 1971 In Search of Space 1972 Doremi Fasol Latido 1974 Hall of the Mountain Grill 1975 Warrior on the Edge of Time 1976 Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music 1977 Quark, Strangeness and Charm 1978 25 Years On — Hawklords 1979 PXR5 1980 Levitation 1981 Sonic Attack 1982 Church of Hawkwind 1982 Choose Your Masques 1985 The Chronicle of the Black Sword 1988 The Xenon Codex 1990 Space Bandits 1992 Electric Tepee 1993 It Is the Business of the Future to Be Dangerous 1995 White Zone — Psychedelic Warriors 1995 Alien 4 1997 Distant Horizons 1999 In Your Area — live and studio 2000 Spacebrock — Dave Brock solo 2005 Take Me to Your Leader 2006 Take Me to Your Future Live Albums 1973 Space Ritual 1980 Live Seventy Nine 1986 Live Chronicles 1991 Palace Springs 1994 The Business Trip 1996 Love in Space 1999 Hawkwind 1997 2001 Yule Ritual 2002 Canterbury Fayre 2001 2004 Spaced Out in London 2008 Knights of Space Archive Albums 1980 The Weird Tapes Volumes 1-8 (1966-1983) 1983 The Text of Festival (1970-1971) 1983 Zones (1980 and 1982) 1984 This Is Hawkwind, Do Not Panic (1980 and 1984) 1984 Bring Me the Head of Yuri Gagarin (1973) 1984 Space Ritual Volume 2 (1972) 1985 Hawkwind Anthology (1967-1982) 1987 Out & Intake (1982 and 1986) 1991 BBC Radio 1 Live in Concert (1972) 1992 The Friday Rock Show Sessions (1985) 1992 Hawklords Live (1978) 1992 California Brainstorm (1990) 1995 Undisclosed Files Addendum (1984 and 1988) 1997 The 1999 Party (1974) 1999 Glastonbury 90 (1990) 1999 Choose Your Masques: Collectors Series Volume 2 (1982) 1999 Complete '79: Collectors Series Volume 1 (1979) 2000 Atomhenge 76 (1976) 2002 Live 1990 (1990) 2008 Minneapolis, 4 October 1989 (1989) 2008 Reading University, 19 May 1992 (1992) 2009 Live '78 (1978) Videography 1984 – Night of the Hawks – 60min concert 1984 – Stonehenge (Various Artists video) – 60min concert with The Enid and Roy Harper 1984 – Stonehenge - 60min concert 1985 – The Chronicle of the Black Sword – 60min concert 1986 – Bristol Custom Bike Show – 15min concert with Voodoo Child 1986 – Chaos - 60min concert 1989 – Treworgey Tree Fayre – 90min concert 1990 – Nottingham – 60min TV concert 1990 – Bournemouth Academy – 90min concert 1992 – Brixton Academy – 123min concert 1995 – Love in Space – 90min concert 2002 – Out of the Shadows – 90min concert 2008 – Knights of Space – 90min concert Tributes and remixes There have been numerous bands over the years and across the globe who have set themselves up as a Hawkwind tribute/cover act. Perhaps the most active at the time of writing is the Assassins Of Silence who operate mainly in and around Oxfordshire, often pulling in Huw Lloyd Langton for special appearances. 1993 - Remixes - Spirit Of The Age - Solstice Mixes (4-Real Records, 4R1) 12" & CD single 1995 - Tribute - Assassins of Silence / Hundred Watt Violence (Ceres Records) vinyl & CD album 1996 - Remixes - Future Reconstructions - Ritual Of The Solstice (Emergency Broadcast System Records, EBS117) 2x12" & CD album 1999 - Remixes - Silver Machine - Infected By The Scourge Of The Earth (EMI, DECLIPSE1999) 12" & CD single 2000 - Tribute - Daze Of The Underground (Godreah Records) 2CDs and (Black Widow Records) 3x12" album 2000 - Remixes - The Hawkwind Remix Project (Unknown,WARLORD777CD) CD album Members Dozens of musicians have passed through Hawkwind over the years, but Dave Brock has been at the heart of the band since they formed. Other members have included Lemmy (who went on to form Motörhead), Nik Turner, Harvey Bainbridge, Del Dettmar, Dik Mik, Huw Lloyd Langton, Robert Calvert, Paul Rudolph (former Pink Fairies/The Deviants member) and Twink (another Pink Fairies member) and more recently, Ron Tree as bassist and frontman. Cross-pollination with members of the Pink Fairies led to albums released under the names Pinkwind and the Hawk Fairies. The 1990 album Space Bandits included a female vocalist Bridget Wishart. Other members, who may have been better known for their careers outside of Hawkwind, include Ginger Baker and Arthur Brown. Of all the other band members, bass player Alan Davey has been with the band the longest, joining in 1984 and leaving in 2007 (although he did leave for a few years within this period). Hawkwind have been known for giving credit to non-musician members of their crew, such as Liquid Len, a lighting engineer, and Stacia, a dancer. Their distinctive graphic design was created by Barney Bubbles, who later created the graphic identity for Stiff Records, where Larry Wallis (Pink Fairies and Motörhead with Lemmy) was an in-house producer. YearVocalsSax, FluteLead: Guitar, Violin (v) or Keys (k)Guitar, SynthsBassKeyboards, SynthsDrums1969Nik TurnerMick SlatteryDave BrockJohn HarrisonDik MikTerry Ollis1970Huw Lloyd-LangtonJohn Harrison, Thomas Crimble1971Dave AndersonDik Mik & Del Dettmar1972Robert CalvertLemmySimon King19731974Del Dettmar & Simon House1975(Michael Moorcock)Simon HouseSimon King & Alan Powell1976Robert CalvertPaul Rudolph1977Adrian ShawSimon King1978Harvey BainbridgeSimon House, Steve SwindellsSimon King & Martin Griffin1979Huw Lloyd-LangtonTim BlakeSimon King1980Tim Blake, Keith HaleGinger Baker1981(Michael Moorcock)Martin Griffin1982Nik Turner1983Dead FredAndy Anderson1984Harvey Bainbridge, Alan DaveyDead Fred, Harvey BainbridgeClive Deamer1985Alan DaveyHarvey BainbridgeDanny Thompson Jr1986198719881989Bridget WishartSimon House (v)Richard Chadwick199019911992199319941995Ron Tree(Jerry Richards)19961997(Captain Rizz)Jerry RichardsRon Tree199819992000(Jez Huggett)Jerry Richards & Simon House (v)Tim Blake2001(Arthur Brown)Huw Lloyd-LangtonAlan DaveySimon House2002Lloyd-Langton & Simon House (v)Tim Blake20032004Jason Stuart200520062007Tim Blake (k)Mr Dibs2008 Note Names in brackets indicate significant guest appearances, either live or on recordings. Influence Former Black Flag and current Rollins Band singer Henry Rollins is a fan, as is Jello Biafra. Dez Cadena, Black Flag's third vocalist, covered "Angels of Death" and "Psy Power" on DC3's 1988 live album "VIDA". The Sex Pistols included "Silver Machine" in their reunion performances of 2002; while reviewers may have seen this as "ultra ironic" , John Lydon made it clear that this was a tribute. Another musician who has claimed Hawkwind as an influence is Joy Division/New Order bassist Peter Hook, who took his father to a Hawkwind concert as a teenager in an attempt to help him appreciate rock music in a more visceral fashion. The group were cited as an influence with the advent of electronica in the early 1990s thanks to their pioneering work with synthesizers and Brock's motorik-esque riffs. There is a tangible connection between the sound of Lemmy's later group Motörhead and that of the influential 1971-1975 group, with songs such as "Born to Go" and "Master of the Universe" during that time period played at breakneck tempos live (characteristic of punk) while containing guitar solos more reminiscent of heavy metal and psychedelic rock. With Motörhead, Lemmy would refine this into the sound of speed metal. Early Monster Magnet albums have a distinct Hawkwind feel, they covered "Brainstorm" on their 3rd album, Superjudge and "The Right Stuff" on Monolithic Baby!. Singer-songwriter Sam Roberts has credited Hawkwind as an influence on his music and covers the song "Hurry on Sundown" (originally on 1970s debut album Hawkwind) during concerts. Psychadelic UK based Stoner Rock band Stick Shift have cited Hawkwind as a major influence on their sound - Particularly 1973's The Space Ritual. Kula Shaker's Sound of Drums has a version of "Hurry On Sundown" ("Hari Om Sundown"). JJ Burnel (The Stranglers) regularly performs 1977's "Quark, Strangeness & Charm". Quoted in Carol Clerk's book, JJ says: "Quark...is a song I really...wish I'd written... It's punky as hell, and really clever. I like the energy in it, and the fact that it's just three chords and yet it made a bloody great racket... and the very intelligent lyrics, and they were funny and sexy as hell." The psych-folk band Vetiver covered "Hurry on Sundown" on their album "Thing of the past" Grunge pioneers Mudhoney have expressed their appreciation for Hawkwind's music and covered the Hawkwind song Urban Guerrilla for a Peel Session in 2002. References Further reading There are three biographies of Hawkwind. Kris Tait This is Hawkwind: Do Not Panic (1984, published by the band and now only available second hand) Ian Abrahams Sonic Assassins (Published by SAF publishing; ISBN 0-946719-69-1) Carol Clerk's Saga of Hawkwind (Publisher: Music Sales Limited ISBN 1-84449-101-3) External links Official Band Website Hawkwind Files Comprehensive discography Scot Heller's Review of the Hawkestra Concert Hawkwind at the Windsor Free Festival Hawkwind at the Stonehenge Free Festival Hawkwind at the The Oval 1972 Philm Freax: Hawkwind X-In Search of Space Original photos by Phil Franks from the album sleeve. | Hawkwind |@lemmatized hawkwind:60 english:1 rock:11 band:78 one:6 early:3 space:24 group:8 lyric:5 favour:1 urban:3 science:3 fiction:3 theme:1 notable:1 fantasy:1 writer:3 michael:7 moorcock:9 occasional:1 collaborator:1 history:1 formation:2 dave:4 brock:24 mick:3 slattery:3 london:7 base:5 psychedelic:4 famous:1 cure:2 meeting:1 bassist:8 john:4 harrison:3 reveal:1 mutual:1 interest:2 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1,085 | History_of_Comoros | The History of Comoros is perhaps 1500 years old. It has been inhabited by various groups throughout this time. France colonised the islands in the 19th century. Comoros finally became independent in 1971 Early inhabitants It is thought that the Comoros islands were first visited by Phoenician sailors<ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Comoros-HISTORY.html "Comoros History", Encyclopedia of the Nations"]</ref> Zanzinet Forum . The earliest inhabitants of the islands may have been 5th or 6th Century Melanesian or Polynesian sailors "Comoros History", Encyclopedia Britannica ; a 6th Century settlement on Nzwani was found by archaeologists "Early voyages and settlements", Country Studies . Traces of this original Asian culture have blended with successive waves of African, Arab and Shirazi immigrants. Bantu peoples apparently moved to Comoros before the 14th Century, principally from the coast of what is now southern Mozambique; on the island of Nzwani (French Anjouan) they found earlier Malayo-Indonesian inhabitants. However, locals agree that the islands were first peopled by storm-tossed Arab voyagers. "Comoros Islands", Encyclopedia Britannica (1911) The most notable of these early immigrants were the Shirazi Arab royal clans, who arrived in Comoros in the 15th and 16th centuries and stayed to build mosques, create a royal house and introduce architecture and carpentry. Over the centuries, the Comoro Islands were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indonesia, and Madagascar. Portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505. In 1529 the French Parmentier brothers came, but the first reliable European accounts of this part of the world came from the Portuguese explorers, Diogo Dias and Fernando Soares. The Portuguese failed to capitalise on being the first Europeans to reach the islands, and for the next century or two the islands were used only on voyages up and down the coast of East Africa. In fact, up until the middle of the 19th century, it was not European explorers but pirates from Madagascar who had the largest impact. During this time the fragmentation of power led to the creation of many statelets, each controlled by a sultan and at one stage there were no fewer than 12 sultans on the island of Grande Comore alone. The French turned their attention to the Comoros islands in the middle of the 19th century. The French finally acquired the islands through a cunning mixture of strategies, including the policy of 'divide and conquer', chequebook politics and a serendipitous affair between a sultana and a French trader that was put to good use by the French, who kept control of the islands, quelling unrest and the occasional uprising. "Shirazi" migrants introduced Islam at about the same time.For the history of the native sultanates on several of the major islands, see Sultans on the Comoros. The Comoro Islands: Struggle Against Dependency in the Indian Ocean - Page 34 by M. D. D. Newitt - History - 1984 - 144 pages Until he died in 1877, [William] Sunley was to be the dominant influence on Anjouan, and he single-handedly maintained an informal empire for Britain on the island Colonial Rule Sultan Said Ali bin Said Omar of Grande Comore (1897) On 25 March 1841, France annexed the Mawuti Maore sultanate (the name of the island was corrupted in French to "Mayotte") as Mayotte protectorate (ratified 13 June 1843). In 1852, Andruna is added to Mayotte protectorate and, in 1866, the large sultanate Ndzuwani (on Anjouan island) as well. On 24 June 1886, the islands of Ngazidja (Grande Comore in French) comprised eleven sultanates, but, in 1886, the Sultan tibe (paramount ruler and Sultan) of Bambao unified them, Ndzuwani (Anjouan), and Mwali sultanate (Mohéli island in French) become French protectorates, French résidents are posted on the three islands; on 5 September 1887 they are collectively renamed Protectorate of the Comoros. On 9 April 1908, France declared the Comoros a dependent territory of its Madagascar colony. On 25 July 1912, it was annexed by France and joined with Mayotte as Mayotte and dependencies, after the ratification on 23 February 1914 subordinated to the governor general of Madagascar (Comoros dependent colony). From 16 June 1940 - 1942 the colonial administration remained loyal to Vichy France (from 1942, under Free French), but 25 September 1942 - 13 October 1946 they were, like Madagascar, under British occupation. Until the opening of the Suez Canal, the islands used to be an important refuelling and provisioning station for ships from Europe to the Indian Ocean. Independence came gradually for Comoros. During the middle of the 20th century the French reluctantly began to accede to reasonable requests, and by 1947 Comoros had become a separately administered colony from Madagascar. After World War II, the islands became a French overseas territory and were represented in France's National Assembly. Internal political autonomy was granted in 1961. Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence. The deputies of Mayotte abstained. In two referendums, in December 1974 and February 1976, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively). Mayotte thus remains under French administration, and the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli. In 1961 it was granted autonomous rule and, seven years after the general unrest and left-wing riots of 1968. Comoros broke all ties with France and established itself as an independent republic. From the very beginning Mayotte refused to join the new republic and aligned itself even more firmly to the French Republic, but the other islands remained committed to independence. The first president of Comoros, Ahmed Abdallah Abderemane, did not last long before being ousted in a coup by Ali Solih, an atheist with an Islamic background. Solih began with a set of solid socialist ideals designed to modernize the country. However, the regime faced problems. A French mercenary by the name of Bob Denard, arrived in Comoros at dawn on 13 May 1978, and removed Solih from power. Solih was shot and killed during the coup. Abdallah returned to govern the country and the mercenaries were given key positions in government. Later, French settlers, French-owned companies, and Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. Abdallah regime In 1978, president Ali Soilih, who had a firm anti-French line, was killed and Ahmed Abdallah came to power. Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country. He was trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in South Africa (SA) and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in return for permission to set up a secret listening post on the islands. South-African agents kept an ear on the important ANC bases in Lusaka and Dar es Salaam watched the war in Mozambique, in which SA played an active role. The Comoros were also used for the evasion of arms sanctions. When in 1981 François Mitterrand was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between SA and the Comoros. Besides the military, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, for both the security and construction, and seemed to profit by the arrangement. Between 1985 an 1987 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse. At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not wish to continue to support the mercenary regime and France was in agreement. Also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup resulting in the death of President Abdallah, in which Denard and his men were probably involved. South Africa and the French government subsequently forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989. 1989-1996 Said Mohamed Djohar became president. His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992. On September 28, 1995 Bob Denard and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercenaries) against President Djohar. France immediately severely denounced the coup, and backed by the 1978 defense agreement with the Comoros, President Jacques Chirac ordered his special forces to retake the island. Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion. A new presidential guard was created. Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the island's two airports. On October 3, 1995, 11 p.m., the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force. Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight. Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni were secured. By 3:00 p.m. the next day Bob Denard and his mercenaries had surrendered. This (response) operation, codenamed Azalée'', was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed. Denard was taken to France and jailed. Prime minister Caambi El-Yachourtu became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January, 1996. In March 1996, following presidential elections, Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim, a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president. Secession of Anjouan and Mohéli In 1997, the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to re-establish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the African Union is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This process is largely complete, at least in theory. According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998. In 1999, Anjouan had internal conflicts and on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim resigned, transferring power to a national coordinator, Said Abeid. The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001. Mohamed Bacar soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Bacar’s government remained in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros. Presidential elections were held for all of Comoros in 2002, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which have become a confederation. Most notably, Mohammed Bacar was elected for a 5-year term as president of Anjouan. Grande Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, when President Taki died on November 6, 1998. Colonel Azali Assoumani became president following a military coup in 1999. There have been several coup attempts since, but he gained firm control of the country after stepping down temporarily and winning a presidential election in 2002. In May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi was elected from the island of Anjouan to be the president of the Union of Comoros. He is a well-respected Sunni cleric who studied in the Sudan, Iran and Saudi Arabia. He is respectfully called "Ayatollah" by his supporters but is considered, and is, a moderate Islamist. He has been quoted as stating that Comoros is not ready to become an Islamic state, nor shall the veil be forced upon any women in the Comoros. Reports from allafrica.com . 2007-2008 Anjouan crisis References External links More on the 1995 Azalee Operation WorldStatesmen- Comoros, with relevant links History of Comoros | History_of_Comoros |@lemmatized history:7 comoros:32 perhaps:1 year:5 old:2 inhabit:1 various:1 group:3 throughout:1 time:4 france:12 colonise:1 island:32 century:10 finally:2 become:12 independent:3 early:4 inhabitant:3 think:1 first:6 visit:2 phoenician:1 sailor:2 ref:2 http:1 www:1 nationsencyclopedia:1 com:2 africa:5 html:1 encyclopedia:3 nation:1 zanzinet:1 forum:1 may:3 melanesian:1 polynesian:1 britannica:2 settlement:2 nzwani:2 find:2 archaeologist:1 voyage:2 country:6 study:2 trace:1 original:1 asian:1 culture:1 blend:1 successive:1 wave:1 african:4 arab:4 shirazi:3 immigrant:2 bantu:1 people:2 apparently:2 move:1 principally:1 coast:3 southern:1 mozambique:2 french:24 anjouan:11 earlier:1 malayo:1 indonesian:1 however:4 local:2 agree:1 storm:1 tossed:1 voyager:1 notable:1 royal:2 clan:1 arrive:2 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1,086 | Minerva | Detail from Minerva of Peace, Elihu Vedder, 1896 Minerva was the Roman name of Greek goddess Athena. She was the virgin goddess of riors, poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, weaving, crafts, and the inventor of music. She is often depicted with an owl, her sacred creature and a symbol of wisdom. This article focuses on Minerva in early Rome and in cultic practice. For information on literary mythological accounts of Minerva, which were heavily influenced by Greek mythology, see Pallas Athena where she is one of three virgin goddesses along with Artemis and Hestia. Etruscan Menrva The name "Minerva" is likely imported from the Etruscans who called her Menrva. In Etruscan mythology, Menrva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena. Like Athena, Menrva was born from the head of her father, Tinia (Roman Jupiter). Her name has the "mn-" stem, linked with memory. See Greek "Mnemosyne" (gr. μνημοσύνη) and "mnestis" (gr. μνῆστις): memory, remembrance, recollection. The Romans could have confused her foreign name with their word mens meaning "mind" since one of her aspects as goddess pertained not only to war but also to the intellectual. Cult of Minerva in Rome Menrva was part of a holy triad with Tinia and Uni, equivalent to the Roman Jupiter-Juno-Minerva triad. Minerva was the daughter of Jupiter As Minerva Medica, she was the goddess of medicine and doctors. As Minerva Achaea, she was worshipped at Luceria in Apulia where votive gifts and arms said to be those of Diomedes were preserved in her temple. Aristot. Mirab. Narrat. 117 A head of "Sulis-Minerva" found in the ruins of the Roman baths in Bath Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works." Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, though only in Rome did she take on a warlike character. Her worship was also taken out to the empire — in Britain, for example, she was conflated with the wisdom goddess Sulis. The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day which is called, in the feminine plural, Quinquatria, the fifth after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, the artisans' holiday. A lesser version, the Minusculae Quinquatria, was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, who were particularly useful to religion. In 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine hill. Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus. The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic. Minerva was worshipped on the Capitoline Hill as one of the Capitoline Triad along with Jupiter and Juno, at the Temple of Minerva Medica, and at the "Delubrum Minervae" a temple founded around 50 BC by Pompey on the site of the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva (near the present-day Piazza della Minerva and the Pantheon). Minerva in modern usage Universities and educational establishments As patron goddess of wisdom, Minerva frequently features in statuary, an image on seals, and in other forms, at educational establishments, including: The Minerva head has been associated with the Chartered Society of Designers since its inception in 1930 and has been redefined several times during the history of the Society by notable graphic designers. The current logo was established in 1983. Minerva is the symbol of the University of Porto. A statue of Minerva is located in the center of La Sapienza University, the most important university of Rome. Minerva is displayed in front of Columbia University's Low Memorial Library as "Alma Mater." Minerva is the name of a language school in Ruse, Bulgaria. Minerva is the name of a female residence at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa. Minerva is the name of the registration and student records software at McGill University Minerva is the name of a computer science server used by students at the Harvard Extension School. Minerva is displayed to the East of University of North Carolina at Greensboro's Elliot University Center as a statue. The SUNY Potsdam campus in Potsdam, NY is home to multiple statues of Minerva and a cafe named after her. Statue of Minerva on the Alten Brücke in Heidelberg Temple of Minerva in Sbeitla, Tunisia Minerva is featured on the seals and logos of many institutions of higher learning: University of Lincoln. Minerva's head is used as the logo of this UK University. There is a tradition within the Lincoln rugby union team and it is thought they are the Knights of Minerva, each match being won in her honour. University at Albany, The State University of New York. Minerva is still venerated by seniors and their 'torch bearers' during a pre-graduation ritual called "Torch Night" there. the University of Alabama Union College, New York. Union College has also used Minerva as the name of their new academic and social "Third Space" program, the Minerva House System; and, also here, Minerva is the goddess of Theta Delta Chi. UFRJ, the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. Escola Politécnica of USP, Polytechnical School of University of São Paulo, in Brazil. Ghent University, in Belgium American Academy of Arts & Sciences, in Cambridge, Mass. The seal's principal figure is Minerva - a symbol appropriate for an organization created in the midst of the American Revolution and dedicated to the cultivation of every art and science to "advance the interest, honour, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people." Minerva is also the name of the oldest student-association in the Netherlands (Leiden University). Minerva decorates the keystone over the main entrance to the Boston Public Library beneath the words, "Free to all." BPL was the original public-financed library in America and, with all other libraries, is the long-term memory of the human race. Minerva is the Goddess of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon Fraternity. Fraternity Brothers are known as Loyal Sons of Minerva. Minerva is the name of a remote learning facility at Bath Spa University in England, UK. Minerva is featured on the seal of the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma. A statue of Minerva standsin the entrance to Main Building at Wells College in Aurora, NY. Minerva is the patroness of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Minerva is the name of the statue on the campus of Texas Woman's University that represents the school mascot, The Pioneer Woman Minerva is featured in the logo of The Mac.Robertson Girls' High School, Australia. Minerva is featured in the logo of Kelvinside Academy, Glasgow, Scotland Minerva is featured on the seals of many schools and colleges: on that of Union College in Schenectady, NY, the motto is (translated from the French) "Under the laws of Minerva, we are all brothers." Minerva is the patroness of the Union Philosophical Society of Dickinson College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The Yale School of Architecture in New Haven, Connecticut, features a Roman marble statue of Minerva in its 4th floor atrium. The Minerva head is displayed outside The Natural History Museum, Bergen, Norway Societies and governmental use The Minerva head has been associated with the Chartered Society of Designers since its inception in 1930 and has been redefined several times during the history of the Society by notable graphic designers. The current logo was established in 1983. The Great Seal of California Medal of Honor The Seal of California depicts the Goddess Minerva having sprung full grown from the brain of Jupiter. This was interpreted as analogous to the political birth of the State of California without having gone through the probation period of being a Territory. In the early 20th century, Manuel José Estrada Cabrera, President of Guatemala, tried to promote a "Cult of Minerva" in his country; this left little legacy other than a few interesting Hellenic style "Temples" in parks around Guatemala. According to John Robison's Proofs of a Conspiracy (1798), the third degree of the Bavarian Illuminati was called Minerval or Brother of Minerva, in honor of the goddess of learning. Later, this title was adopted for the first initiation of Aleister Crowley's OTO rituals. Minerva is the logo of the world famous German "Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science" (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft) The helmet of Minerva serves as the crest of the distinctive unit insignia for Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C. Minerva is displayed on the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. A large mozaic of Menerva is the focal art piece in the great room of the U.S. Library of Congress. Public monuments and places The Minerva Roundabout in Guadalajara, Mexico A small Roman shrine to Minerva (the only one still in situ in the UK) stands in Handbridge, Chester. It sits in a public park, overlooking the River Dee. Minerva circle is one of the famous and busiest circles in Bangalore. The Minerva Roundabout in Guadalajara, Mexico, located at the crossing of the López Mateos, Vallarta, López Cotilla, Agustín Yáñez and Golfo de Cortez avenues, features the goddess standing on a pedestal, surrounded by a large fountain, with an inscription which says "Justice, wisdom and strength guard this loyal city". Minerva is displayed as a statue in the Minneapolis Central Library in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota. Minerva is displayed as a statue in Pavia near the train station, and is considered as an important landmark in the city. A statue of Minerva stands atop the dome of the Mitchell Library in Glasgow, Scotland. A seven foot statue of Minerva stands at the highest point in Brooklyn, overlooking New York Harbor, located in Green-Wood Cemetery. A bronze statue of Minerva lies in monument square Portland, Maine. "Our Lady of Victories Monument" dedicated 1891, Richard Morris Hunt and Franklin Simmons. See also Sulis Celtic mythology Second French Empire Footnotes and references Origins of English History see Chapter Ten. Romans in Britain - Roman religion and beliefs see The Roman gods. 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1,087 | E._T._A._Hoffmann | Ernst Theodor Wilhelm Hoffmann (January 24, 1776 – June 25, 1822), better known by his pen name E.T.A. Hoffmann (Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann), was a German Romantic author of fantasy and horror, a jurist, composer, music critic, draftsman and caricaturist. He is the subject and hero of Jacques Offenbach's famous but fictional opera The Tales of Hoffmann. Hoffmann's stories were tremendously influential in the 19th century, and he is one of the key authors of the Romantic movement. Life Youth Hoffmann's ancestors, both maternal and paternal, were jurists. His father, Christoph Ludwig Hoffmann (1736–97) was a barrister in Königsberg, Prussia, and also a poet and amateur musician who played the viola da gamba. In 1767 he married his cousin Lovisa Albertina Doerffer (1748–96). Ernst Theodor Wilhelm, born on January 24, 1776, was the youngest of three children, of whom the second died in infancy. His parents separated in 1778, the father going to Insterburg (now Chernyakhovsk) with his elder son, Johann Ludwig Hoffmann (1768–after 1822), while Ernst's mother stayed in Königsberg with her relatives: two aunts, Johanna Sophie Doerffer (1745-1803) and Charlotte Wilhelmine Doerffer (c. 1754-79) and their brother, Otto Wilhelm Doerffer (1741–1811), who were all unmarried. This trio took it upon themselves to educate the youngster. The household, dominated by the uncle (whom Ernst nicknamed O Weh or "Oh dear" in a play on his initials), was pietistic and uncongenial. Hoffmann was to regret his estrangement from his father. Nevertheless, he remembered his aunts with great affection, especially the younger, Charlotte, whom he nicknamed Tante Füßchen ("Aunt Littlefeet"). Although she died when he was only three years old, he treasured her memory (e.g. see Kater Murr) and embroidered stories about her to such an extent that later biographers sometimes assumed her to be imaginary, until proofs of her existence were found after World War II. Friedrich Schnapp. "Hoffmanns Verwandte aus der Familie Doerffer in Königsberger Kirchenbüchern der Jahre 1740-1811." Mitteilungen der E. T. A. Hoffmann-Gesellschaft. 23 (1977), 1-11. Between 1781 and 1792 he attended the Lutheran school or Burgschule, where he made good progress in classics. He was taught drawing by one Saemann, and counterpoint by a Polish organist named Podbileski, who was to be the prototype of Abraham Liscot in Kater Murr. Ernst showed great talent for piano-playing, and busied himself with writing and drawing. The provincial setting was not, however, conducive to technical progress, and despite his many-sided talents he remained relatively ignorant, both of classical forms and of the new artistic ideas that were then developing in Germany. He had however read Schiller, Goethe, Swift, Sterne, Rousseau, and Jean Paul, and wrote part of a novel called Der Geheimnisvolle. Around 1787 he became friends with Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel (1775-1843), the son of a pastor and nephew of Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel, the well-known writer friend of Immanuel Kant. In 1792, both attended some of Kant's lectures at the University of Königsberg. Their friendship, although often tested by a widening social gulf, was to be life-long. In 1794, Hoffmann fell in love with Dora Hatt, a married woman to whom he had given music lessons. She was ten years older, and in 1795 gave birth to her sixth child. In February 1796, her family protested against his attentions, and, with his faltering consent, they asked another of his uncles to arrange employment for him in Glogau (Głogów), Prussian Silesia. Rüdiger Safranski. E. T. A. Hoffmann: Das Leben eines skeptischen Phantasten. Carl Hanser, Munich, 1984. ISBN 3446138226Gerhard R. Kaiser. E. T. A. Hoffmann. J. B. Metzlersche, Stuttgart, 1988. ISBN 3476102432 The provinces From 1796 Hoffmann obtained employment as a clerk for his uncle, Johann Ludwig Doerffer, who lived in Glogau with his daughter Minna. After passing further examinations he visited Dresden, where he was amazed by the paintings in the gallery, particularly those of Correggio and Raphael. In the summer of 1798 his uncle was promoted to a court in Berlin, and the three of them moved there in August — Hoffmann's first residence in a large city. It was there that Hoffmann first attempted to promote himself as a composer, writing an operetta called Die Maske and sending a copy to Queen Luise of Prussia. The official reply advised to him to write to the director of the Royal Theatre, a man named Iffland. By the time the latter responded, Hoffmann had passed his third round of exams and had already left for Posen (Poznań) in South Prussia in the company of his old friend Hippel, with a brief stop in Dresden to show him the gallery. From June 1800 to 1803 he worked in Prussian provinces in the area of Greater Poland and Masovia. This was the first time he had lived without supervision by members of his family, and he started to become "what school principals, parsons, uncles, and aunts call dissolute." His first job, at Posen, was put in jeopardy after Carnival on Shrove Tuesday 1802, when caricatures of military officers were distributed at a ball. It was immediately deduced who had drawn them, and complaints were made to authorities in Berlin, who were reluctant to punish the promising young official. The problem was solved by "promoting" Hoffmann to Płock in New East Prussia, the former capital of Poland (1079-1138) where administrative offices were moved from Thorn (Toruń). He visited the place to arrange lodging, before returning to Posen where he married "Mischa" (Maria, or Marianna Tekla Michalina Rorer, whose Polish surname was Trzcińska). They moved to Płock in August 1802. Hoffmann despaired over his exile, and drew caricatures of himself drowning in mud alongside ragged villagers. One of his tasks was to devise surnames for Jews. He found some poetic ones like Goldbaum and Apfelbaum. He did make use, however, of his isolation, by writing and composing. He started a diary on 1 October 1803. An essay on the theatre was published in Kotzebue's periodical, Die Freimüthige, and he entered a competition in the same magazine to write a play. Hoffmann's was called Der Preis ("The Prize"), and was itself about a competition to write a play. There were fourteen entries, but none was judged worthy of the award: 100 Friedrichs d'or. Nevertheless, his entry was singled out for praise. Die Freimüthige, 11 February 1804. Volume II, no. 6, pages xxi-xxiv. This was one of the few high points in a sad period in his life, which saw the deaths of his uncle J. L. Hoffmann in Berlin, his Aunt Sophie, and Dora Hatt in Königsberg. At the beginning of 1804 he obtained a post at Warsaw. On his way there, he passed through his hometown and met one of Dora Hatt's daughters. He was never to return to Königsberg. Warsaw Hoffmann assimilated well in Polish society; the years spent in Prussian Poland he recognized as the happiest in his life. In Warsaw he found the same atmosphere he had enjoyed in Berlin, renewing his friendship with Zacharias Werner, and meeting his future biographer, a neighbour and fellow jurist called Julius Eduard Itzig (who changed his name to Hitzig after his baptism). Itzig had been a member of the Berlin literary group called the Nordstern, and he gave Hoffmann the works of Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, Achim von Arnim, Clemens Brentano, Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert, Carlo Gozzi, and Calderon. These relatively late introductions marked his work profoundly. He moved in the circles of August Wilhelm Schlegel, Adelbert von Chamisso, Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, Rahel Levin, and David Ferdinand Koreff. Unfortunately, his fortunate position was not to last: on 28 November 1806 during the War of the Fourth Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte's troops liberated Warsaw, and the Prussian bureaucrats lost their positions at a stroke. They divided the contents of the treasury between them and fled. In January 1807 his wife and two-year-old daughter Cäcilia returned to Posen, while he pondered whether to move to Vienna or go back to Berlin. A delay of six months was caused by severe illness. Eventually the French authorities demanded that all former officials swear allegiance or leave the country. As they refused to grant him a passport to Vienna, he was forced to return to Berlin. He visited his family in Posen before arriving in Berlin on 18 June 1807, hoping to further his career there as an artist and writer. Berlin and Bamberg The next fifteen months were some of the worst in Hoffmann's life. The city of Berlin was also occupied by Napoleon's troops, and it was in vain that he tried to pick up the pieces. Obtaining only meagre allowances, he had frequent recourse to his friends, constantly borrowing money and still going hungry for days at a time; he learned that his daughter had died. Nevertheless, he managed to compose his Six Canticles for a cappella choir: one of his best compositions, which he would later attribute to Kreisler in Lebensansichten des Katers Murr. On 1 September 1808 he arrived with his wife in Bamberg, where he took up a position as theatre manager. The director, Count Soden, left almost immediately for Würzburg, leaving a man named Heinrich Cuno in charge. Hoffmann was unable to improve standards of performance, and his efforts led to intrigues against him which resulted in him losing his job to Cuno. He began work as music critic for the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, a newspaper in Leipzig, and his articles on Beethoven were especially well received, and highly regarded by the composer himself. It was in its pages that the "Kapellmeister Johannes Kreisler" character made his first appearance. Hoffmann's breakthrough came in 1809, with the publication of Ritter Gluck, a story about a man who meets, or believes he has met, the composer Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-87) more than twenty years after the latter's death. The theme alludes to the work of Jean Paul, who coined the term Doppelgänger the previous decade, and continued to exact a powerful influence over Hoffmann, becoming one of his earliest admirers. With this publication, Hoffmann began to use the pen name E. T. A. Hoffmann, telling people that the "A" stood for Amadeus, in homage to the composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–91). However, he continued to use Wilhelm in official documents throughout his life, and the initials E. T. W. also appear on his gravestone. The next year, he was employed at the Bamberg Theatre as stagehand, decorator, and playwright, while also giving private music lessons. He fell so deeply in love with a young singing student, Julia Marc, that his feelings were obvious whenever they were together, and Julia's mother quickly found her a more suitable match. When Joseph Seconda offered Hoffmann a position as musical director for his opera company (then performing in Dresden), he accepted, leaving on 21 April 1813. Dresden and Leipzig Prussia had declared war against France on 16 March during the War of the Sixth Coalition, and their journey was fraught with difficulties. They arrived on the 25th, only to find that Seconda was in Leipzig; on the 26th, they sent a letter pleading for temporary funds. That same day Hoffmann was surprised to meet Hippel, whom he had not seen in nine years. The situation deteriorated, and in early May Hoffmann tried in vain to find transport to Leipzig. On 8 May, the bridges were destroyed, and his family were marooned in the city. During the day, Hoffmann would roam, watching the fighting with curiosity. Finally, on 20 May, they left for Leipzig, only to be involved in an accident which killed one of the passengers in their coach and injured his wife. They arrived on 23 May, and Hoffmann started work with Seconda's orchestra, which he found to be of the highest quality. On 4 June an armistice began, which allowed the company to return to Dresden. But on 22 August, after the end of the armistice, the family was forced to move from their pleasant house in the suburbs into the town, and over the next few days the Battle of Dresden raged. The city was bombarded; many people were killed by bombs directly in front of him. After the main battle was over, he visited the gory battlefield. His account can be found in Vision auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Dresden. After a long period of continued disturbance the town surrendered on 11 November, and on 9 December the company travelled to Leipzig. On 25 February Hoffmann quarrelled with Seconda, and the next day he was given notice of twelve weeks. When asked to accompany them on their trip to Dresden in April, he refused, and they left without him. But in July his friend Hippel visited, and soon he found himself being guided back into his old career as a jurist. Berlin Grave of E. T. A. Hoffmann. Translated, the inscription reads: E. T. W. Hoffmann, born on January 24th, 1776, in Königsberg, died on June 25th, 1822, in Berlin, Counsillor of the Court of Justice, excellent in his office, as a poet, as a musician, as a painter, dedicated by his friends. At the end of September 1814, in the wake of Napoleon's defeat, Hoffmann returned to Berlin and succeeded in regaining a position at the Kammergericht, the chamber court. His opera Undine was performed by the Berlin Theatre. Its successful run came to an end only after a fire on the night of the 25th performance. Magazines clamoured for his contributions, and after a while his standards started to decline. Nevertheless, many masterpieces date from this time. The period from 1819 saw Hoffmann embroiled in legal disputes, while battling ill health. Alcohol abuse and syphilis led eventually to weakening of the limbs in 1821, and paralysis from the beginning of 1822. His last works were dictated to his wife or to a secretary. Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich's anti-liberal crusades began to put Hoffmann in situations that tested his conscience. Thousands of people were accused of treason for having certain political opinions, and university professors were monitored during their lectures. King Frederick William III of Prussia appointed an Immediate Commission for the investigation of political dissidence; when he found its observance of the rule of law too frustrating, he established a Ministerial Commission to interfere with its processes. The latter was greatly influenced by Commissioner Kamptz. During the trial of "Turnvater" Jahn, the founder of the gymnastics association movement, Hoffmann found himself crossing the will of Kamptz, and became a political target. When Hoffmann caricatured Kamptz in a story (Meister Floh), Kamptz began legal proceedings. These petered out when Hoffmann's illness was seen to be life-threatening. The King asked for a reprimand only, but no action was ever taken. Eventually Meister Floh was published with the offending passages removed. Hoffmann died in Berlin on 25 June 1822 at the age of 46, his grave is preserved in the Protestant Friedhof III der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde (Cemetery No. III of the congregations of Jerusalem's Church and New Church) in Berlin-Kreuzberg, south of Hallesches Tor. Works Literary Fantasiestücke in Callots Manier (collection of previously published stories, 1814) "Ritter Gluck", "Kreisleriana", "Don Juan", "Nachricht von den neuesten Schicksalen des Hundes Berganza" "Der Magnetiseur", "Der goldne Topf" (revised in 1819), "Die Abenteuer der Silvesternacht" Die Elixiere des Teufels (1815) Nachtstücke (1817) "Der Sandmann", "Das Gelübde", "Ignaz Denner", "Die Jesuiterkirche in G." "Das Majorat", "Das öde Haus", "Das Sanctus", "Das steinerne Herz" Seltsame Leiden eines Theater-Direktors (1819) Klein Zaches, genannt Zinnober (1819) Die Serapionsbrüder (1819) "Der Einsiedler Serapion", "Rat Krespel", "Die Fermate", "Der Dichter und der Komponist" "Ein Fragment aus dem Leben dreier Freunde", "Der Artushof", "Die Bergwerke zu Falun", "Nußknacker und Mausekönig" (1816) "Der Kampf der Sänger", "Eine Spukgeschichte", "Die Automate", "Doge und Dogaresse" "Alte und neue Kirchenmusik", "Meister Martin der Küfner und seine Gesellen", "Das fremde Kind" "Nachricht aus dem Leben eines bekannten Mannes", "Die Brautwahl", "Der unheimliche Gast" "Das Fräulein von Scuderi", "Spielerglück" (1819), "Der Baron von B." "Signor Formica", "Zacharias Werner", "Erscheinungen" "Der Zusammenhang der Dinge", "Vampirismus", "Die ästhetische Teegesellschaft", "Die Königsbraut" Prinzessin Brambilla (1820) Lebensansichten des Katers Murr (1820) "Die Irrungen" (1820) "Die Geheimnisse" (1821) "Die Doppeltgänger" (1821) Meister Floh (1822) "Des Vetters Eckfenster" (1822) Letzte Erzählungen (1825) Musical Vocal Music Messa d-moll (1805) Trois Canzonettes à 2 et à 3 voix (1807) 6 Canzoni per 4 voci alla capella (1808) Miserere b-moll (1809) In des Irtisch weiße Fluten (Kotzebue), Lied (1811) Recitativo ed Aria „Prendi l’acciar ti rendo“ (1812) Tre Canzonette italiane (1812); 6 Duettini italiani (1812) Nachtgesang, Türkische Musik, Jägerlied, Katzburschenlied für Männerchor (1819-21) Works for stage Die Maske (Libretto: E. T. A. Hoffmann), Singspiel (1799) Die lustigen Musikanten (Libretto: Clemens Brentano), Singspiel (1804) Bühnenmusik zu Zacharias Werners Trauerspiel „Das Kreuz an der Ostsee“ (1805) Liebe und Eifersucht (Calderón and August Wilhelm Schlegel) (1807) Arlequin, Ballettmusik (1808) Der Trank der Unsterblichkeit (Libretto: Julius von Soden), romantische Oper (1808) Wiedersehn! (Libretto: E. T. A. Hoffmann), Prolog (1809) Dirna (Libretto: Julius von Soden), Melodram (1809) Bühnenmusik zu Julius von Sodens Drama „Julius Sabinus“ (1810) Saul, König von Israel (Libretto: Joseph von Seyfried), Melodram (1811) Aurora (Libretto: Franz von Holbein) heroische Oper (1812) Undine (Libretto: Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué), Zauberoper (1816) Der Liebhaber nach dem Tode (beginning only) Instrumental Rondo für Klavier (1794/95) Ouvertura. Musica per la chiesa d-moll (1801) Klaviersonaten: A-Dur, f-moll, F-Dur, f-moll, cis-moll (1805-1808) Große Fantasie für Klavier (1806) Sinfonie Es-Dur (1806) Harfenquintett c-moll (1807) Grand Trio E-Dur (1809) Walzer zum Karolinentag (1812) Teutschlands Triumph in der Schlacht bei Leipzig, (by "Arnulph Vollweiler", 1814; lost) Serapions-Walzer (1818-1821) Nutcracker The White House 2003 Christmas decoration using E. T. A. Hoffmann's Nutcrackers as the theme. Hoffmann wrote novels and short stories, and he composed music, including an opera, Undine (1814). However, when reading the original text of E. T. A. Hoffmann's stories, one soon realizes that these stories were conceived and written at a very sensitive time politically. Comparable messages were expressed in earlier animal stories such as Reinicke Fuchs or Aesop's Fables. His most familiar story is Nussknacker und Mausekönig ("The Nutcracker and the Mouse King", 1816), which inspired Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker (1892). His story Der Sandmann ("The Sandman", 1816) similarly inspired Léo Delibes's ballet Coppélia (1870). The Nutcracker story is full of charming mimed phantasies with Marie (Clara in the ballet), Fritz and Pate Drosselmayr, the mean Mouse King and the popular Nutcracker. Many versions of the story have been published as children's books. Nutcracker performances have become a yearly feature in many cities around Christmas. Yet these stories, as with the majority of his literary work, point beyond themselves in philosophical terms; Hoffmann invariably moves into territory where an exploration of the nature of Selfhood, Art and value-judgements are required in order for the reader to enjoy Hoffmann's writings more fully. Stories are, in their various media, the ultimate form of self-definition and world-interpretation; it is through stories that Hoffmann expresses his aesthetic, ethical and political concerns. Moreover, the original Hoffmann stories (including the Nutcracker) often have dark themes. Assessment Hoffmann is one of the best-known representatives of German Romanticism, and a pioneer of the fantasy genre, with a taste for the macabre combined with realism that influenced such authors as Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), Nikolai Gogol (1809–1852), Charles Dickens (1812–1870), Charles Baudelaire (1821–1867), Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), and Franz Kafka (1883–1924). Hoffmann's story Das Fräulein von Scuderi is sometimes cited as the first detective story and a direct influence on Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue". The Seven Basic Plots, Christopher Booker, Continuum, 2004, page 507 Hoffmann's work illuminates the darker side of the human spirit found behind the hypocritical harmony of bourgeois life, yet his wide-ranging influence upon and creative significance within the later German romantic period is frequently underestimated. The twentieth-century Russian literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin characterised Hoffmann's works as Menippea, essentially satirical and self-parodying in form, thus placing him in a tradition that includes Cervantes, Diderot and Voltaire. Robert Schumann's piano suite Kreisleriana (1838) takes its title from one of Hoffmann's books (and according to Charles Rosen's The Romantic Generation, is possibly also inspired by "The Life and Opinions of Tomcat Murr", in which Kreisler appears). Jacques Offenbach's masterwork, the opera Les contes d'Hoffmann ("The Tales of Hoffmann", 1881), is based on the stories Der Sandmann ("The Sandman", 1816), Rat Krespel ("Councillor Krespel", 1818), and Das verlorene Spiegelbild ("The Lost Reflection") from Die Abenteuer der Silvester-Nacht ("The Adventures of New Year's Eve", 1814). Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker (1892) is based on "Nutcracker and Mouse King". Hoffmann also influenced 19th century musical taste directly through his music criticism. His reviews of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C minor, Op. 67 (1808) and other important works set new literary standards for writing about music, and encouraged later writers to see music as "the most Romantic of all the arts." Hoffmann's reviews were first collected for modern readers by Friedrich Schnapp, ed., in E.T.A. Hoffmann: Schriften zur Musik; Nachlese (1963) and have been made available in an English translation in E.T.A. Hoffmann's Writings on Music, Collected in a Single Volume (2004). Hoffmann strove for artistic polymathy. He created far more in his works than mere political commentary achieved through satire. His masterpiece (it is generally agreed) is Lebensansichten des Katers Murr ("The Life and Opinions of Tomcat Murr", 1819–1821). This novel deals with such issues as the aesthetic status of 'true' artistry, and the modes of self-transcendence that accompany any genuine endeavour to create. Hoffmann's portrayal of the character Kreisler (a genius musician) is wittily counterpointed with the character of the tomcat Murr — a virtuoso illustration of artistic pretentiousness that many of Hoffmann's contemporaries found offensive and subversive of Romantic ideals. Hoffmann's literature points to the failings of many so-called artists to differentiate between the superficial and the authentic aspects of such Romantic ideals. The self-conscious effort to impress must, according to Hoffmann, be divorced from the self-aware effort to create. This essential duality in Kater Murr is structurally conveyed through a discursive 'splicing together' of two biographical narratives. Such a framework warrants an extensive exploration of its philosophical implications. Later influence and references Robertson Davies invokes Hoffmann as a character (with the pet name of 'ETAH') trapped in Limbo, within his novel The Lyre of Orpheus (1988). Andrew Crumey's novel Mobius Dick also mentions Hoffmann, and specifically The Life and Opinions of Tomcat Murr. Angela Carter - The Infernal Desire Machines of Doctor Hoffman (1972) Alexandre Dumas, père referenced Hoffmann in The Count of Monte Cristo. The exotic and supernatural elements in the storyline of Ingmar Bergman's 1982 film Fanny and Alexander derive largely from the stories of Hoffmann. Andrei Tarkovsky wrote a script entitled Hoffmaniana in which the writer himself is the main protagonist. Unfortunately, due to Tarkovsky's premature death, the film was never made. See also Gofmaniada, an upcoming Russian puppet-animated feature film centred on Hoffman and several of his stories. References The following references are cited by the German-language article: Braun, Peter (2004). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Dichter, Zeichner, Musiker: Biographie. D/Düsseldorf: Artemis und Winkler. ISBN 3-538-07175-6. Deterding, Klaus (1991). Die Poetik der inneren und äußeren Welt bei E. T. A. Hoffmann: Zur Konstitution des Poetischen in den Werken und Selbstzeugnissen. Ph.D. dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin. Berliner Beiträge zur neueren deutschen Literaturgeschichte, 15. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-631-44062-6. ———— (1999). Magie des poetischen Raums. [Vol. 1? of] E.T.A. Hoffmanns Dichtung und Weltbild. Beiträge zur neueren Literaturgeschichte, 3rd ser., no. 152. D/Heidelberg: Winter. ISBN 3-8253-0541-4. ———— (20031). Das allerwunderbarste Märchen. Vol. 3 of E.T.A. Hoffmanns Dichtung und Weltbild. D/Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 3-8260-2389-7. ———— (20032). Hoffmanns poetischer Kosmos. Vol. 4 of E.T.A. Hoffmanns Dichtung und Weltbild D/Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 3-8260-2615-2. Ettelt, Wilhelm (1981). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Der Künstler und Mensch. D/Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 3-88479-031-5. Feldges, Brigitte, & Ulrich Stadler (1986), ed. E. T. A. Hoffmann: Epoche – Werk – Wirkung. D/München: Beck. ISBN 3-406-31241-1. Fricke, Ronald (2000). Hoffmanns letzte Erzählung: Roman. D/Berlin: Rütten und Loening. ISBN 3-352-00561-3. Götting, Ronald (1992). E. T. A. Hoffmann und Italien. Europäische Hochschulschriften, ser. 1, Deutsche Sprache und Literatur, no. 1347. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-631-45371-X. Gröble, Susanne (2000). E. T. A. Hoffmann. Universal-Bibliothek, no. 15222. D/Stuttgart: Reclam. ISBN 3-15-015222-4. Günzel, Klaus (1976). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Leben und Werk in Briefen, Selbstzeugnissen und Zeitdokumenten. D/Berlin: Bibliographie. Harnischfeger, Johannes (1988). Die Hieroglyphen der inneren Welt: Romantikkritik bei E. T. A. Hoffmann. D/Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag. ISBN 3-531-12019-0. Hoffmann, Alfred (1990). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Leben und Arbeit eines preußischen Richters. D/Baden-Baden: Nomos-Verlag. ISBN 3-7890-2125-3. Jürgens, Christian (2003). Das Theater der Bilder: Ästhetische Modelle und literarische Konzepte in den Texten E. T. A. Hoffmanns. D/Heidelberg: Manutius-Verlag. ISBN 3-934877-29-X. Kaiser, Gerhard R. (1988). E. T. A. Hoffmann. Sammlung Metzler, no. 243, Realien zur Literatur. D/Stuttgart: Metzler. ISBN 3-476-10243-2. Keil, Werner (1986). E. T. A. Hoffmann als Komponist: Studien zur Kompositionstechnik an ausgewählten Werken. Neue musikgeschichtliche Forschungen, no. 14. D/Wiesbaden: Breitkopf und Härtel. ISBN 3-7651-0229-6. Klein, Ute (2000). Die produktive Rezeption E. T. A. Hoffmanns in Frankreich. Kölner Studien zur Literaturwissenschaft, no. 12. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-631-36535-7. Kleßmann, Eckart (1995). E. T. A. Hoffmann oder die Tiefe zwischen Stern und Erde: Eine Biographie. Insel-Taschenbuch, no. 1732. D/Frankfurt (Main): Insel-Verlag. ISBN 3-458-33432-7. Kohlhof, Sigrid (1988). Franz Fühmann und E. T. A. Hoffmann: Romantikrezeption und Kulturkritik in der DDR. Europäische Hochschulschriften, ser. 1, Deutsche Sprache und Literatur, no. 1044. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-8204-0286-1. Kremer, Detlef (1993). Romantische Metamorphosen: E. T. A. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. d/Stuttgart: Metzler. ISBN 3-476-00906-8. ———— (1998). E. T. A. Hoffmann zur Einführung. Zur Einführung, no. 166. D/Hamburg: Junius. ISBN 3-88506-966-0. Lewandowski, Rainer (1995). E. T. A. Hoffmann und Bamberg: Fiktion und Realität: Über eine Beziehung zwischen Leben und Literatur. D/Bamberg: Fränkischer Tag. ISBN 3-928648-20-9. Mangold, Hartmut (1989). Gerechtigkeit durch Poesie: Rechtliche Konfliktsituationen und ihre literarische Gestaltung bei E.T.A. Hoffmann. D/Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universal-Verlag. ISBN 3-8244-4030-X. Meier, Rolf (1994). Dialog zwischen Jurisprudenz und Literatur: Richterliche Unabhängigkeit und Rechtsabbildung in E.T.A. Hoffmanns “Das Fräulein von Scuderi”. D/Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlags-Gesellschaft. ISBN 3-7890-3428-2. Ménardeau, Gabrielle “Wittkop-” (1966). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Mit Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. 12th printing. Rowohlts Monografien, no. 113. D/Reinbek (Hamburg): Rowohlt, 1992. ISBN 3-499-50113-9. Milovanovic, Marko (2005). “‘Die Muse entsteigt einem Fass’: Was E.T.A. H. tatsächlich in Berliner Kneipen trieb”. Pg. 17ff. Kritische Ausgabe, vol. 1. ISSN 1617-1357. Orosz, Magdolna (2001). Identität, Differenz, Ambivalenz: Erzählstrukturen und Erzählstrategien bei E.T.A. Hoffmann. Budapester Studien zur LIteraturwissenschaft, no. 1. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-631-38248-0. Pietsch, Volker: Persönlichkeitsspaltung in Literatur und Film. Zur Konstruktion dissoziierter Identitäten in den Werken E.T.A. Hoffmanns und David Lynchs. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 2008, ISBN 978-3-631-58268-8 Ringel, Stefan (1997). Realität und Einbildungskraft im Werk E. T. A. Hoffmanns. D/Köln [‘Cologne’]: Böhlau. ISBN 3-412-04697-3. Safranski, Rüdiger (2000). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Das Leben eines skeptischen Phantasten. Fischer-Taschenbücher, no. 14301. D/Frankfurt (Main): Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag. ISBN 3-596-14301-2. Schaukal, Richard von (1923). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Sein Werk aus seinem Leben. CH/Zürich, D/Leipzig, and A/Wien: Amalthea-Verlag. Schmidt, Dirk (1996). Der Einfluß E.T.A. Hoffmanns auf das Schaffen Edgar Allan Poes. Edition Wissenschaft, Reihe vergleichende Literaturwissenschaft, no. 2. D/Marburg: Tectum-Verlag. 1996. ISBN 3-89608-592-1. Schmidt, Olaf (2003). “Callots fantastisch karikierte Blätter”: Intermediale Inszenierungen und romantische Kunsttheorie im Werk E. T. A. Hoffmanns. Philologische Studien und Quellen, no. 181. D/Berlin: Schmidt. ISBN 3-503-06182-7. Segebrecht, Wulf (1996). Heterogenität und Integration: Studien zu Leben, Werk und Wirkung E. T. A. Hoffmanns. Helicon, no. 20. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-631-47202-1. Steigerwald, Jörn (2001). Die fantastische Bildlichkeit der Stadt. Zur Begründung der literarischen Fantastik im Werk E.T.A. Hoffmanns. Stiftung für Romantikforschung XIV. D/Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 3-8260-2010-3. Steinecke, Hartmut (1997). E. T. A. Hoffmann. Universal-Bibliothek, no. 17605. D/Stuttgart: Reclam. ISBN 3-15-017605-0. ———— (2004). Die Kunst der Fantasie: E.T.A. Hoffmanns Leben und Werk. D/Frankfurt (Main): Insel-Verlag. ISBN 3-458-17202-5. Triebel, Odila (2003). Staatsgespenster: Fiktionen des Politischen bei E. T. A. Hoffmann. Literatur und Leben, new ser., no. 60. D/Köln [‘Cologne’]: Böhlau. ISBN 3-412-07802-6. Weinholz, Gerhard (1991). E. T. A. Hoffmann: Dichter, Psychologe, Jurist. Literaturwissenschaft in der Blauen Eule, no. 9. D/Essen: Verlag Die Blaue Eule. ISBN 3-89206-431-8. Woodgate, Kenneth B. (1999). Das Phantastische bei E. T. A. Hoffmann. Helicon, no. 25. D/Frankfurt (Main): Lang. ISBN 3-631-34453-8. External links Hoffman's Review of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony A translation of Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober and an essay on translating Hoffmann into English Choral works at Choral Public Domain Library E. T. A. 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1,088 | Instruction_register | In computing, an instruction register is the part of a CPU's control unit that stores the instruction currently being executed or decoded. In simple processors each instruction to be executed is loaded into the instruction register which holds it while it is decoded, prepared and ultimately executed, which can take several steps. More complicated processors use a pipeline of instruction registers where each stage of the pipeline does part of the decoding, preparation or execution and then passes it to the next stage for its step. Modern processors can even do some of the steps of out of order as decoding on several instructions is done in parallel. Decoding the opcode in the instruction register includes determining the instruction, determining where its operands are in memory, retrieving the operands from memory, allocating processor resources to execute the command (in superscalar processors), etc.it holds the instruction and tells what instruction to be executed. Its main work is to hold the instruction. Without this, it does not perform any task. | Instruction_register |@lemmatized compute:1 instruction:11 register:4 part:2 cpu:1 control:1 unit:1 store:1 currently:1 execute:5 decode:4 simple:1 processor:5 load:1 hold:3 prepared:1 ultimately:1 take:1 several:2 step:3 complicated:1 use:1 pipeline:2 stage:2 decoding:1 preparation:1 execution:1 pass:1 next:1 modern:1 even:1 order:1 parallel:1 opcode:1 include:1 determine:2 operand:2 memory:2 retrieve:1 allocate:1 resource:1 command:1 superscalar:1 etc:1 tell:1 main:1 work:1 without:1 perform:1 task:1 |@bigram |
1,089 | Colin_Maclaurin | Colin Maclaurin (February, 1698 – June 14, 1746) was a Scottish mathematician. Due to changes in orthography since that time (his name was originally rendered as e.g. "M'Laurine" "Colin Maclaurin: A Biographical Note" by Robin Schlapp (6 December 1946). (Note that the quotation in has been altered.) ), his surname is alternatively written MacLaurin. http://www.m-a.org.uk/docs/library/2064.pdf In Gaelic the name is "Cailean MacLabhruinn", which is literally 'Colin, the son of Laurence.' http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Extras/Turnbull_Maclaurin_1.html Turnbull lectures on Colin Maclaurin (4 February 1947), Part I Life and work Maclaurin was born in Kilmodan, Argyll. His father, Reverend and Minister of Glendaruel John Maclaurin, died when Maclaurin was in infancy, and his mother before he reached nine years of age. He was then educated under the care of his uncle, the Reverend Daniel Maclaurin, minister of Kilfinnan. At eleven, Maclaurin entered the University of Glasgow. He would graduate MA three years later by defending a thesis on the Power of Gravity, and remain at Glasgow to study divinity until 1717, when he was elected professor of mathematics in a ten-day competition at the Marischal College in the University of Aberdeen. He would hold the record as the world's youngest professor until March 2008, when the record was officially given to Alia Sabur. In the vacations of 1719 and 1721, Maclaurin went to London, where he became acquainted with Sir Isaac Newton, Dr. Hoadley, Dr. Samuel Clarke, Martin Folkes, and other eminent philosophers. He was admitted a member of the Royal Society. In 1722, having provided a substitute for his class at Aberdeen, he traveled on the Continent as tutor to George Hume, the son of Alexander Hume, 2nd Earl of Marchmont. During their time in Lorraine, he wrote his essay on the Percussion of Bodies, which would gain the prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences in 1724. Upon the death of his pupil at Montpellier, Maclaurin returned to Aberdeen. In 1725 Maclaurin was appointed deputy to the mathematical professor at Edinburgh, James Gregory (brother of David Gregory and nephew of the esteemed James Gregory), upon the recommendation of Isaac Newton. On November 3 of that year Maclaurin would succeed Gregory, and be credited with raising the character of that university as a school of science. Newton was so impressed with Maclaurin that he had offered to pay his salary himself. Though Taylor series were known before Newton and Gregory , and in special cases by Madhava of Sangamagrama in fourteenth century India, Maclaurin attributed Taylor in his work on approximating functions by series. . At the time, Maclaurin was unaware and published his work in in Methodus incrementorum directa et inversa, Maclaurin series which are Taylor series expanded around 0, and are not attributed to Maclaurin due to the past discoveries, but still receive credit because of his use of them. In particular, he used these series to characterize maxima, minima, and points of inflection for infinitely differentiable functions. Maclaurin also made significant contributions to the gravitation attraction of ellipsoids, a subject that furthermore attracted the attention of d'Alembert, A.-C. Clairaut, Euler, Laplace, Legendre, Poisson and Gauss. Maclaurin showed that an oblate spheroid was a possible equilibrium in Newtons theory of gravity. The subject continues to be of scientific interest, and Nobel Laureate Subramanyan Chandrasekhar dedicated a chapter of his book Ellipsoidal Figures of Equilibrium to Maclaurin spheroids. Independently from Euler and using the same methods, Maclaurin discovered the Euler–Maclaurin formula. He used it to sum powers of arithmetic progressions, derive Stirling's formula, and to derive the Newton-Cotes numerical integration formulas which includes Simpsons rule as a special case. Maclaurin contributed to the study of elliptic integrals, reducing many intractable integrals to problems of finding arcs for hyperbolas. His work was continued by d'Alembert and Euler, who gave a more concise approach. In 1733, Maclaurin married Anne Stewart, the daughter of Walter Stewart, the Solicitor General for Scotland, by whom he had seven children. Maclaurin actively opposed the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745 and superintended the operations necessary for the defence of Edinburgh against the Highland army. Upon entry into the city, however, he fled to York, where he was invited to stay by the Archbishop of York. Memorial, Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh On his journey south, Maclaurin fell from his horse, and the fatigue, anxiety, and cold to which he was exposed on that occasion laid the foundations of dropsy. He returned to Edinburgh after the Jacobite army marched south, but died soon after his return. He is buried at Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh. Some of his important works are: Geometria Organica - 1720 De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus - 1720 Treatise on Fluxions - 1742 (763 pages in two volumes. The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods.) Treatise on Algebra - 1748 (two years after his death.) Account of Newton's Discoveries - Incomplete upon his death and published in 1750 or 1748 (sources disagree.) Mathematician and MIT President Richard Cockburn Maclaurin is from the same family. See also Trisectrix of Maclaurin References Sources Anderson, William, The Scottish Nation, Edinburgh, 1867, vol.VII, p.37. Sageng, Erik, 2005, "A treatise on fluxions" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 143-58. Further reading Bruce A. Hedman, "Colin Maclaurin's quaint word problems," College Mathematics Journal 31 (2000), 286-288. | Colin_Maclaurin |@lemmatized colin:5 maclaurin:30 february:2 june:1 scottish:2 mathematician:2 due:2 change:1 orthography:1 since:1 time:3 name:2 originally:1 render:1 e:1 g:1 laurine:1 biographical:1 note:2 robin:1 schlapp:1 december:1 quotation:1 alter:1 surname:1 alternatively:1 write:2 http:2 www:2 org:1 uk:2 doc:1 library:1 pdf:1 gaelic:1 cailean:1 maclabhruinn:1 literally:1 son:2 laurence:1 group:1 dc:1 st:1 ac:1 history:1 extras:1 html:1 turnbull:1 lecture:1 part:1 life:1 work:5 bear:1 kilmodan:1 argyll:1 father:1 reverend:2 minister:2 glendaruel:1 john:1 die:2 infancy:1 mother:1 reach:1 nine:1 year:4 age:1 educate:1 care:1 uncle:1 daniel:1 kilfinnan:1 eleven:1 enter:1 university:3 glasgow:2 would:4 graduate:1 three:1 later:1 defend:1 thesis:1 power:2 gravity:2 remain:1 study:2 divinity:1 elect:1 professor:3 mathematics:3 ten:1 day:1 competition:1 marischal:1 college:2 aberdeen:3 hold:1 record:2 world:1 youngest:1 march:2 officially:1 give:2 alia:1 sabur:1 vacation:1 go:1 london:1 become:1 acquaint:1 sir:1 isaac:2 newton:8 dr:2 hoadley:1 samuel:1 clarke:1 martin:1 folkes:1 eminent:1 philosopher:1 admit:1 member:1 royal:2 society:1 provide:1 substitute:1 class:1 travel:1 continent:1 tutor:1 george:1 hume:2 alexander:1 earl:1 marchmont:1 lorraine:1 essay:1 percussion:1 body:1 gain:1 prize:1 academy:1 science:2 upon:4 death:3 pupil:1 montpellier:1 return:3 appoint:1 deputy:1 mathematical:1 edinburgh:6 james:2 gregory:5 brother:1 david:1 nephew:1 esteem:1 recommendation:1 november:1 succeed:1 credit:2 raise:1 character:1 school:1 impressed:1 offer:1 pay:1 salary:1 though:1 taylor:3 series:5 know:1 special:2 case:2 madhava:1 sangamagrama:1 fourteenth:1 century:1 india:1 attribute:2 approximate:1 function:2 unaware:1 publish:2 methodus:1 incrementorum:1 directa:1 et:1 inversa:1 expand:1 around:1 past:1 discovery:2 still:1 receive:1 use:4 particular:1 characterize:1 maximum:1 minimum:1 point:1 inflection:1 infinitely:1 differentiable:1 also:2 make:1 significant:1 contribution:1 gravitation:1 attraction:1 ellipsoid:1 subject:2 furthermore:1 attract:1 attention:1 alembert:2 c:1 clairaut:1 euler:4 laplace:1 legendre:1 poisson:1 gauss:1 show:1 oblate:1 spheroid:2 possible:1 equilibrium:2 theory:1 continue:2 scientific:1 interest:1 nobel:1 laureate:1 subramanyan:1 chandrasekhar:1 dedicate:1 chapter:1 book:1 ellipsoidal:1 figure:1 independently:1 method:2 discover:1 formula:3 sum:1 arithmetic:1 progression:1 derive:2 stirling:1 cotes:1 numerical:1 integration:1 include:1 simpson:1 rule:1 contribute:1 elliptic:1 integral:2 reduce:1 many:1 intractable:1 problem:2 find:1 arc:1 hyperbola:1 concise:1 approach:1 marry:1 anne:1 stewart:2 daughter:1 walter:1 solicitor:1 general:1 scotland:1 seven:1 child:1 actively:1 oppose:1 jacobite:2 rebellion:1 superintend:1 operation:1 necessary:1 defence:1 highland:1 army:2 entry:1 city:1 however:1 flee:1 york:2 invite:1 stay:1 archbishop:1 memorial:1 greyfriars:2 kirkyard:2 journey:1 south:2 fell:1 horse:1 fatigue:1 anxiety:1 cold:1 expose:1 occasion:1 lay:1 foundation:1 dropsy:1 soon:1 bury:1 important:1 geometria:1 organica:1 de:1 linearum:1 geometricarum:1 proprietatibus:1 treatise:3 fluxion:2 page:1 two:2 volume:1 first:1 systematic:1 exposition:1 algebra:1 account:1 incomplete:1 source:2 disagree:1 mit:1 president:1 richard:1 cockburn:1 family:1 see:1 trisectrix:1 reference:1 anderson:1 william:1 nation:1 vol:1 vii:1 p:1 sageng:1 erik:1 grattan:1 guinness:1 ed:1 landmark:1 writing:1 western:1 elsevier:1 reading:1 bruce:1 hedman:1 quaint:1 word:1 journal:1 |@bigram colin_maclaurin:4 http_www:2 marischal_college:1 isaac_newton:2 madhava_sangamagrama:1 infinitely_differentiable:1 oblate_spheroid:1 nobel_laureate:1 euler_maclaurin:1 maclaurin_formula:1 elliptic_integral:1 jacobite_rebellion:1 grattan_guinness:1 |
1,090 | Alexander_Kerensky | Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky (, Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerenskii) ( June 11, 1970) served as the second Prime Minister of the Russian Provisional Government until Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, known commonly as Lenin, was elected by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets following the October Revolution. Biography Early life and activism Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk) on the Volga River into the family of a secondary school principal, Fyodor Kerensky, whose father was a priest in the Russian Orthodox Church. His mother, Nadezhda Adler, was the daughter of a nobleman, Alexander Adler, head of the Topographical Bureau of the Kazan Military District. Her mother, Nadezhda Kalmykova, was the daughter of a former serf who had bought his freedom before serfdom was abolished in the 19th century, allowing him to become a wealthy Moscow merchant. Encylopedia of Cyril and Method Kerensky's father was a teacher of Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) at a secondary school for boys in Simbirsk, and members of the Kerensky and Ulyanov families were friends. In 1889,when Kerensky was eight, his family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools. Kerensky graduated with honors from a Tashkent secondary school in 1899. The same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology in his first year. The next year he switched to the Law Department and received a law degree in 1904. He worked as a legal counsel to victims of government violence in early December 1905. At the end of the month he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group. Afterwards he gained a reputation for his work as a defense lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries. Political Figures of Russia, 1917, Biographical Dictionary, Large Russian Encyclopedia, 1993, p. 143. He was elected to the Fourth Duma in 1912 as a member of the Trudoviks, a moderate labour party who were associated with the Socialist Revolutionary Party. A brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader as a Socialist Revolutionary and a leader of the socialist opposition to the regime of the ruling Tsar, Nicholas II. February Revolution of 1917 When the February Revolution broke out in 1917, Kerensky was one of its most prominent leaders: he was member of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was elected vice-chairman of the Petrograd Soviet. He simultaneously became the first Minister of Justice in the newly-formed Provisional Government. When the Soviet passed a resolution prohibiting its leaders from joining the government, Kerensky delivered a stirring speech at a Soviet meeting. Although the decision was never formalized, he was granted a de facto exemption and continued acting in both capacities. The New York banker Jacob Schiff made large loans to Kerensky's government. After the first government crisis over Pavel Milyukov's secret note re-committing Russia to its original war aims on May 2-4, Kerensky became the Minister of War and the dominant figure in the newly formed socialist-liberal coalition government. On May 10(23), Kerensky started for the front, and visited one division after another, urging the men to do their duty. His speeches were impressive and convincing for the moment, but had little lasting effect. Under Allied pressure to continue the war, he launched what became known as the Kerensky Offensive against the Austro-Hungarian/German South Army on June 17, Old Style. At first successful, the offensive was soon stopped and then thrown back by a strong counter-attack. The Russian Army suffered heavy losses and it was clear - from many incidents of desertion, sabotage, and mutiny - that the Russian Army was no longer willing to attack. Kerensky was heavily criticised by the military for his liberal policies, which included stripping officers of their mandate (handing overriding control to revolutionary inclined "soldier committees" instead), the abolition of the death penalty, and the presence of various revolutionary agitators at the front. Many officers jokingly referred to commander in chief Kerensky as "persuader in chief". On July 2, 1917, the first coalition collapsed over the question of Ukraine's autonomy. Following July Days unrest in Petrograd and suppression of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky succeeded Prince Lvov as Russia's Prime Minister. Following the Kornilov Affair at the end of August and the resignation of the other ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief as well. Kerensky next move, on September 15th, was to proclaim Russia a republic, which was quite contrary to the understanding that the Provisional Government should only hold pover until the Constituent Assembly should meet to decide Russia's form of rule. He formed five-member Directory, which consisted of Kerensky himself, minister of foreign affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko, minister of war general Verkhovsky, minister of navy admiral Dmitry Verderevsky and minister of post and telegraph Nikitin. He retained his post in the final coalition government in October 1917 until it was overthrown by the Bolsheviks. Kerensky's major challenge was that Russia was exhausted after three years of war, while the provisional government did not offer much motivation for a victory outside of continuing Russia's obligations towards its allies. Furthermore, Lenin and his Bolshevik party were promising "peace, land, and bread" under a communist system. The army was disintegrating due to a lack of discipline, which fostered desertion in large numbers. Kerensky and the other political leaders continued their obligation to Russia's allies by continuing involvement in World War I - fearing that the economy, already under huge stress from the war effort, might become increasingly unstable if vital supplies from France and the United Kingdom were to be cut off. Some also feared that Germany would demand enormous territorial concessions as the price for peace (which indeed happened in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk). The dilemma of whether to withdraw was a great one, and Kerensky's inconsistent and impractical policies further destabilized the army and the country at large. Furthermore, Kerensky adopted a policy that isolated the right-wing conservatives, both democratic and monarchist-oriented. His philosophy of "no enemies to the left" greatly empowered the Bolsheviks and gave them a free hand, allowing them to take over the military arm or "voyenka" of the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets. His arrest of Kornilov and other officers left him without strong allies against the Bolsheviks, who ended up being Kerensky's strongest and most determined adversaries, as opposed to the right wing, which evolved into the White movement. October Revolution of 1917 During the Kornilov Affair, Kerensky had distributed arms to the Petrograd workers, and by October most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks. On October 25 1917 - October 27 1917 the Bolsheviks launched the second Russian revolution of the year. Kerensky's government in Petrograd had almost no support in the city. Only one small force, the First Petrograd Women's Battalion, was willing to fight for the government against the Bolsheviks, but this force too crossed over to the revolution without firing a single shot. It took less than 20 hours before the Bolsheviks had taken over the government. Kerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and went to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to retake the capital. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoe Selo, but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky narrowly escaped, and spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country, eventually arriving in France. During the Russian Civil War he supported neither side, as he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the White Movement. Kerensky's grave in Putney Vale Cemetery in London Life in exile Kerensky lived in Paris until 1940, engaged in the endless splits and quarrels of the exiled Russian democratic leaders. In 1939, Kerensky married the former Australian journalist Lydia ‘Nell' Tritton. Tritton, Lydia Ellen (1899 - 1946) Biographical Entry - Australian Dictionary of Biography Online When the Germans overran France at the start of World War II, they escaped to the United States. Tritton and Kerensky married at Martins Creek, Pennsylvania. In 1945, his wife became terminally ill. He traveled with her to Brisbane, Australia and lived there with her family; she suffered a stroke in February, and they remained there until her death on 10 April 1946. Thereafter Kerensky returned to the United States, where he spent the rest of his life. When Adolf Hitler's forces invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to Stalin, but received no reply. Instead, he made broadcasts in Russian in support of the war effort. Kerensky eventually settled in New York City, but spent much of his time at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in California, where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on Russian history, and where he taught graduate courses. He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian politics and history. His last public speech was delivered at Kalamazoo College, in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Kerensky died at his home in New York City in 1970, one of the last surviving major participants in the turbulent events of 1917. The local Russian Orthodox Churches in New York refused to grant Kerensky burial, seeing him as being a freemason and being largely responsible for Russia falling to the Bolsheviks. A Serbian Orthodox Church also refused. Kerensky's body was then flown to London where he was buried at Putney Vale's non-denominational cemetery. One of Kerensky's sons was the engineer Oleg Kerensky. Footnotes Additional Reading Kerensky's works The Prelude to Bolshevism (1919) ISBN 0-8383-1422-8, The Catastrophe (1927), The Crucifixion of Liberty (1934), Russia and History's Turning Point (1965). Books R. Abraham, Kerensky: First Love of the Revolution, Columbia University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-231-06108-0 M. Nissenson, The Lady Upstairs: Dorothy Schiff and the New York Post, St. Martin's Press, 2007. 13-ISBN 978-0312313104 External links An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s Alexander Kerensky Museum in London The Prelude To Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rising (1919) The Catastrophe (1927) | Alexander_Kerensky |@lemmatized alexander:4 fyodorovich:2 kerensky:43 aleksandr:1 kerenskii:1 june:2 serve:1 second:2 prime:2 minister:9 russian:13 provisional:5 government:13 vladimir:2 ilyich:1 ulyanov:3 know:2 commonly:1 lenin:3 elect:3 congress:1 soviet:6 follow:3 october:6 revolution:7 biography:2 early:2 life:3 activism:1 bear:1 simbirsk:2 ulyanovsk:1 volga:1 river:1 family:4 secondary:3 school:4 principal:1 fyodor:1 whose:1 father:3 priest:1 orthodox:3 church:3 mother:2 nadezhda:2 adler:2 daughter:2 nobleman:1 head:1 topographical:1 bureau:1 kazan:1 military:3 district:1 kalmykova:1 former:2 serf:1 buy:1 freedom:1 serfdom:1 abolish:1 century:1 allow:2 become:6 wealthy:1 moscow:2 merchant:1 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1,091 | Armed_Forces_of_Liberia | The Armed Forces of Liberia (AFL) is the military of Liberia. Liberia's military was first constituted in 1908 as the Liberian Frontier Force, before becoming the AFL in 1962. Nelson, Harold D., ed., Liberia: A Country Study, Area Handbook Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1984). For most of its history, the AFL has received considerable materiel and training assistance from the United States. By law, Liberia's president is the commander-in-chief of the AFL. Article 50, 1984 Constitution of the Republic of Liberia It is in the process of being reformed and retrained after being completely demobilised following the Second Liberian Civil War. The AFL currently consists of two infantry battalions, though the reconstitution of a coast guard and air wing is also planned. History Prewar The modern Armed Forces of Liberia grew out of a home guard that was formed by the first black colonists from the United States. In 1908, this force was established on a permanent basis as the 500 strong Liberian Frontier Force (LFF). The LFF's original mission was which was “to patrol the border in the Hinterland [against British and French territorial ambitions] and to prevent disorders.” Quoted in Aboagye and Rupiya, 2005, p.258 The LFF in its early years was frequently recruited by forced conscription. When despatched to the interior units often lived off the areas that they were pacifying, as a form of communal punishment. The Force's officers were drawn from either the coastal aristocracy or tribal elites. United States military assistance for the LFF began during World War II. John Keegan, "World Armies" page 435, ISBN 0-333-17236-1 The LFF was re-organised as the Armed Forces of Liberia under the Amended National Defense Law of 1956, Brownie J. Samukai, Armed Forces Of Liberia: Reality Check For A New Military With A Redefined Constitutional Mission, February 17, 2004 though other sources say 1962. Brief History Of The Armed Forces Of Liberia | NewLiberian.com From this period, Liberia's armed forces consisted of the AFL and the Liberian Militia, whose ostensible structure is depicted at right. The regular AFL was not a high status force. 'It was a skeleton brigade of soldiers who were predominantly from the lower economic and social stratum of society. They were poorly paid, and had less than decent facilities for accommodation and care.' Samukai, 2004 From before 1908 to 1980, the Liberian Militia served as a reserve for the armed forces. Syrulwa Somah, PhD, Reorganizing the Liberian Military for External Defense & Internal Peacekeeping, A Speech Delivered at the African Methodist Episcopal University, Monrovia, Liberia, March 2005. By law every able-bodied male between the ages of 16 and 45 years was to serve in the militia. Liberia Country Study 1984, accessed via Globalsecurity.org, April 2008 This stricture was not enforced, however, and by the early 1970s the militia reported a strength of only some 4,000 poorly trained and ill-equipped men. In its later years, members of the militia met only quarterly for sparsely attended drill practice. The 1978 Annual Report of the Liberian Ministry of National Defense said that 'The various militia regiments, in accordance with the law, held quarterly parades. ...Furthermore, the entire Regiments were out in full strength during burial occasions.' Annual Report of the Ministry of National Defense to the Fourth Session of the Forty-Eighth Legislature of the Republic of Liberia, Year Ending December 31, 1978, accessed at New York Public Library, October 2007 By the time it was disbanded, the militia was considered to be completely ineffective as a military force. From 1952 onwards, Chiefs of Staff of the AFL included Maj. Gen. Alexander Harper (1952-54), Lt. Gen Abraham Jackson (1954-60), Albert T. White (1964-65), Lt. Gen. George T. Washington (late 1960s), Lt. Gen. Henry Johnson (1970-74), Lt. Gen. Franklin Smith, Lt. Gen. Henry Dubar (1980-1990), Brig. Gen. Charles Julu (c.1990), Lt. Col. Davis S. Brapoh, Lt. Gen. Hezekiah Bowen (later Minister of Defense), Lt. Gen. A.M.V. Doumuyah, Lt. Gen. Kalilu Abe Kromah, Lt. Gen. Prince C. Johnson, and Lt. Gen Kpenkpa Y. Konah (from 1999), who was succeeded in 2006 by a Nigerian Army Command Officer-in-Charge. [[Ministry of National Defense (Liberia), Armed Forces Today, Vol. 2, No.1, February 11, 2008, p.63 Doe Regime The AFL became involved in politics when seventeen soldiers launched a coup on April 12, 1980. They found President William Tolbert sleeping in his office in the Executive Mansion and there they killed him. While then-Sergeant Thomas Quiwonkpa lead the plotters, it was the group led by Samuel Doe that found Tolbert in his office, and it was Doe, as a Master Sergeant the highest-ranking, who went on the radio the next day to announce the overthrow of the long-entrenched True Whig Party government. Stephen Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy, Hurst and Company, London, 2001, p.53 Doe became Head of State and co-chair of the new People's Redemption Council government. Quiwonkpa became commander of the army and the other co-chair of the PRC. From 1980 onward, ethnic rivalry between Doe's Krahn, who he systematically promoted to positions of importance, and Quiwonkpa's Gio began to drive deepening divisions within the AFL and to hamper morale. Ellis, 2001, p.56 In 1984 the AFL included the Liberian National Guard (LNG) Brigade and related units (6300 men), and the Liberian National Coast Guard (about 450 men). The important LNG Brigade was based at the Barclay Training Center (BTC) in Monrovia, and was composed of six infantry battalions, a military engineer battalion, a field artillery battalion, and a support battalion. US Library of Congress Country Study:Liberia via GlobalSecurity.org, Organization and Strength, accessed August 2007 By this time the AFL was essentially the personal army of President Samuel Doe, who ruled as an autocrat during his time in office from 1986 to 1990. Three of the infantry units - the First Infantry Battalion, stationed at Camp Schieffelin, 35 miles east of Monrovia, the Second Infantry Battalion at Camp Todee in northern Montserrado County, and the Sixth Infantry Battalion at Bomi Hills - were tactical elements designed to operate against hostile forces. The other battalions, the Third Infantry Battalion based at the Barclay Training Centre in Monrovia, the Fourth Infantry Battalion at Zwedru in Grand Gedeh County, and the Fifth Infantry Battalion at Gbarnga in Bong County served mostly as providers of personnel for non-military duties. Soldiers in these units were used extensively as policemen, customs and immigration officials, and as tax collectors. Charles Taylor invaded the country at Butuo in Nimba County on Christmas Eve 1989 with a force of around 150 men, initiating the First Liberian Civil War. Doe responded by sending two AFL battalions to Nimba in December 1989-January 1990, Charles Hartung, 'Peacekeeping in Liberia: ECOMOG and the Struggle for Order,' Liberian Studies Journal, Volume XXX, No.2, 2005 under then-Colonel Hezekiah Bowen. Mark Hubard, The Liberian Civil War, p.115, 118-119. Then Lieutenant General Hezekiah Bowen was later mentioned in the Abuja Accords of 1996. The Liberian government forces assumed that most of the Mano and Gio peoples in the Nimba region were supporting the rebels. They thus acted in a very brutal and scorched-earth fashion which quickly alienated the local people. Taylor's support rose rapidly, as the Mano and Gio flocked to his National Patriotic Front of Liberia seeking revenge. By May 1990 the AFL had been forced back to Gbarnga, still under the control of Bowen's troops, but they lost the town to a NPFL assault on 28 May 1990. Taylor Regime When Taylor finally took office in 1998, he ran down the Armed Forces, letting go 2,400-2,600 former personnel, many of whom were Krahn brought in by former President Doe, in December 1997-January 1998, Adebayo, Liberia's Civil War, International Peace Academy, 2002, p.235 and building up instead the Anti-Terrorist Unit (ATU), the Special Operations Division of the Liberian National Police, and the Special Security Service. On November 19, 1999, Taylor named General Kpenkpah Konah as new chief of the armed forces and John Tarnue as head of the army. BBC , 19 November 1999 Tarnue was later implicated in a land dispute in 1999, while acting as AFL commander. Liberian Truth and Reconcilation Commission, https://www.trcofliberia.org/news-1/press-releases/un-lutheran-massacres-victim-testify-1, accessed February 2009 The International Crisis Group writes that the AFL was reduced practically to the point of non-existence by Fall 2001, by which time a total of 4,000 personnel had been retired. ICG April 2002 on Liberia Konah was still acting as chief of staff in February 2003 as LURD rebels threatened Monrovia during the Second Liberian Civil War. Weekly anb02065.txt #6 Rebuilding the AFL Part 4 (Articles VI and VII) of the August 2003 Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) which ended the Second Liberian Civil War addressed security sector reform. Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement, 18 August 2003, reproduced by the United States Institute of Peace It declared that future recruits for the new AFL would be screened for their fitness for service as well as prior human rights violations, that the new force would be ethnically balanced and without political bias, and that the new force's mission would be to defend national sovereignty and in extremis respond to natural disasters. By March 1, 2005, over a year after the war ended, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) had disarmed and demobilized 103,018 people National Commission on Disarmament, Demobilisation, Rehabilitation and Reintegration, DDRR Consolidated Report Phase (Status of Disarmament and Demobilisation Activities as at 1/16/2005). 1,2 & 3, cited in Ebo, 2005. The UN Secretary-General's 6th Report on UNMIL, S/2005/177, dated March 17, 2005, paragraph 22, gives 101,495. who claimed to have fought for former president Charles Taylor or the two rebel groups, Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) or the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL). That year most former AFL elements were concentrated at Camp Schiefflin, situated midway between Monrovia, Roberts International Airport and the American-owned Firestone Rubber Plantation in Harbel. Location of the camp provided by GlobalSecurity.org, Camp Schiefflin, accessed mid September 2007. See also IRIN, LIBERIA: Soldiers refuse to quit camp needed for new army, 4 January 2006, mirrored at GlobalSecurity.org The previous AFL personnel were slowly retired with pensions. In 2005, the United States provided funding for DynCorp International and Pacific Architects & Engineers, private military contractors, to train a new 4000-man Liberian military. IRINNEWS.org, ‘Liberia: US Hires Private Company to Train 4,000 strong military,’ Tuesday, February 15, 2005, UN OCHA, accessed at http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2005/02/mil-050215-irin01.htm, April 25, 2009. DynCorp was made responsible for individual training and PA&E unit training. The projected force strength was later reduced to 2000 men. DynCorp and the U.S. Embassy scrutinized the personnel for the new armed forces thoroughly. Recruits had to pass a literacy test, an aptitude test, a drug test and an HIV test, and their names and faces are put on posters which are distributed to try and make sure none have a history of war crimes or other human rights violations. Michael M. Phillips, An Army unsullied by past Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2007 A new batch of 500 screened personnel started to arrive at the Camp Ware base at VOA Careysburg, inland from Monrovia, for initial training in early November 2007, allAfrica.com: Liberia: New AFL Recruits Go Into Training (Page 1 of 1) joining 608 others who had graduated earlier. The Analyst Newspaper : Liberia : 2007 Much U.S. assistance has been poured into this effort: U.S. Foreign Military Assistance was US $2.9 million in 2005, $2.0 million in 2006, and $1.6 million in 2007. IISS Military Balance 2007, Routledge for the IISS, p.280 There appears to be some lack of coordination, at least according to the Wall Street Journal, between the Ministry of National Defense and DynCorp, who is training the new army. Michael M. Phillips, An Army unsuilled by past Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2007 The newspaper said in an August 2007 report: Mr. Samukai also complains that he feels sidelined from the formation of an army that, as defense minister, he is supposed to oversee. Neither the State Department nor DynCorp will let him see the company's contract, for instance. And the U.S. insists that instead of talking directly to DynCorp managers, he go through Major Wyatt [chief of the Office of Defense Cooperation at the U.S. Embassy in Monrovia] on all matters related to the training. The Minister of Defense that President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf appointed in early 2006 is well-regarded; IRIN said of Brownie Samukai in a January 2006 story: Samukai is regarded as a safe pair of hands for the crucial Defence Ministry. As chief of police in the mid-1990s Samukai pioneered a rapid reaction force to crack down on armed robbery. Since fleeing Liberia when former warlord Charles Taylor came to power, Samukai has worked for the UN in East Timor and Tanzania. IRIN, LIBERIA: Sirleaf unveils first members of new peacetime government, January 17, 2006 However, Samukai has been accused of misusing his power; there have been allegations that he has ordered soldiers to manhandle other senior Liberian government officials - the Comptroller General of the Ministry of Finance in August 2008. http://theinquirer.com.lr/news_details.php?recordID=5331 On January 11, 2008 a total 485 soldiers graduated from Initial Entry Training class 08-01. The addition of this third class of soldiers, consisting of 468 men and 17 women, raised the total strength of the AFL from 639 to 1,124. The graduation marked a significant milestone in the U.S.-led Security Sector Reform for National Defense program, as the total number of soldiers who have completed basic training exceeds 50% for the first time. Lieutenant Colonel Wyatt, chief of the Office of Defense Cooperation, 11 January 2008. See also http://www.analystliberia.com/4_experts_in_for_angel_autopsy_jan14_08.html As the new Liberian force developed, UNMIL started winding down its initially 15,000 strong peacekeeping mission; by 2008 the force had been reduced to 11,000. In the interim buildup period, President Johnson-Sirleaf decided that a Nigerian officer would act as the Command Officer-In-Charge of the new armed forces. Major General Suraj Alao Abdurrahman succeeded the previous incumbent, Lieutenant General Luka Yusuf, in early June 2007; Lieutenant General Yusuf had been posted home to Nigeria to become Chief of Army Staff. Charles B. Yates, Liberia: Army Gets New Commander, The Inquirer (Monrovia), 11 June 2007 See also http://www.afriquejet.com/news/africa-news/liberia-gets-new-nigerian-chief-of-staff-2009011119309.html In mid July 2008, five reinstated AFL officers returned from the Nigerian Armed Forces Command and Staff College after training there. These officers include Lt Cols. Sekou S. Sheriff, Boakai B. Kamara, Aaron T. Johnson, Daniel K. Moore and Major Andrew J. Wleh. New Liberian, Five Reinstated AFL Officers Complete Senior Leadership Training in Nigeria, July 16, 2008 Subsequently Aaron T. Johnson was promoted to Colonel and confirmed by the Liberian Senate as Deputy Chief of Staff of the AFL, immediately subordinate to General Abdurrahman. Ministry of National Defense (Liberia), 'Profile of AFL Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS),' Armed Forces Today, Vol. 3, No. 1, February 11, 2009 Facility reconstruction has not been limited to VOA/Camp Ware and Schiefflin/EBK. The Chinese Government offered in 2006 to rebuild Camp Tubman in Gbarnga, AllAfrica, Liberia: Chinese to Build Camp Tubman, link verified April 2009, and AllAfrica, Liberia: GOL breaks ground for military barracks, July 2007 and the new facility was opened in April 2009. There is also a plan to rebuild Camp Todee in Bomi County. Organisation Ground forces The Liberian ground forces currently consist of two infantry battalions and supporting units. The 1st Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade, was formed on August 29, 2008, at the Barclay Training Center in Monrovia, United States Africa Command, , accessed February 2009 and the 2nd Battalion, 23rd Infantry Brigade in December that year. Both battalions are currently based at the former Camp Schiefflin, which has now been renamed the Edward Beyan Kesselly Barracks, often known simply as 'EBK Barracks.' The two battalions and supporting units are currently going through training and preparation for a assessment exercise, a modified US Army Readiness Training Evaluation Program (ARTEP) in late 2009 or early 2010, after which they will be declared initially operationally capable. United States Marine Corps, Diggin' In, March 2009 When declared operational, the 23rd Infantry Brigade will be commanded by a colonel with a headquarters of 113 personnel. Supporting units include a band platoon (40 members), engineer company (220 strong), Brigade Training Unit (162 strong), and military police company (105 strong). , pages 36-37 The force is organised according to slightly modified United States Army practices, and uses U.S. doctrine. Coast Guard Department of the Army Country Studies for Liberia written in the 1960s confirm the existence of what was then the Liberian Coast Guard, which was still in operation in 1978, confirmed by the Annual Report. The Coast Guard, throughout the Tubman period, was little more than a few mostly unserviceable patrol craft manned by ill-trained personnel. Under Samuel Doe however the force was retitled the Liberian Navy in 1986 through the passage of the The Liberian Navy Act Of 1986. "Ellen Signs Anti-Corruption Act, Commissions Several Officials", The Inquirer (Monrovia), 22 August 2008 During the Taylor era, the Navy consisted of a couple of small patrol craft. One of the surviving patrol craft may have been captured and scuttled by MODEL rebels in Buchanan harbor in 2003. At some point later, the force may have been renamed the Coast Guard again; in any case, by 2005, it was no more than another of the many loose 'units' of fighters clamouring for postwar demobilisation and resettlement benefits. The Liberian Coast Guard will reform in 2009, according to the Liberian government. "Government Reactivates 2nd Battalion", The Inquirer (Monrovia), 22 December 2008. Air Wing The Liberian Air Force (LAF) was formally dissolved in 2005 as part of the country's security sector reform (SSR) programme, though it had effectively ceased to exist, except perhaps in name, several years earlier. Currently, only the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) operates military aircraft in Liberia, [http://www.mofliberia.org/budget0607.xls 2006/2007 Budget, Republic of Liberia Mi-8s and Mi-24s based at Roberts International Airport. Originally formed as the army aviation unit, and later the Air Reconnaissance Unit, which operated Cessna 172s, Andrade, John (1982). Militair 1982. London: Aviation Press Limited. ISBN 0-907898-01-7, p.147 the LAF was established by an Act of Legislature on 12 August, 1987. Its statutory responsibilities were to: protect and defend the air space of the Republic of Liberia; protect lives and properties; provide air mobility for military and civil personnel; assist in search and rescue operations; undertake emergency operations; conduct reconnaissance patrols; participate in joint military operations and perform other duties as may be designated by the Ministry of Defense. The LAF was headed by a Colonel in his capacity as Assistant Chief of Defense Staff for the Air Force and was mandated to do the following: to train personnel and develop doctrine; advise the Chief of Staff of the AFL on matters relating to the Air Force. As a result of the Civil War, all aircraft, equipment, materiel, and facilities belonging to the LAF were badly damaged, rendering the force inoperable. During the Civil War the Taylor government made a variety of different air support arrangements; a seemingly inoperable Mil Mi-2 and Mil Mi-8, one in Anti-Terrorist Unit markings, could be seen at Spriggs Payne Airport in central Monrovia in mid 2005, apparently a hangover from the war. References Bibliography Adedeji Ebo, The Challenges And Opportunities Of Security Sector Reform in post-conflict Liberia, Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2005 Brownie J. Samukai, Armed Forces Of Liberia: Reality Check For A New Military With A Redefined Constitutional Mission, February 17, 2004 Festus B Aboagye and Martin R Rupiya, PhD, Enhancing post-Conflict Democratic Governance through effective Security Sector Reform in Liberia, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, RSA, 2005 (Chapter 11 of larger book) International Crisis Group, Liberia: Staying Focused, Africa Report No. 36, 13 January 2006 by Sean McFate in Military Review, July-August 2007. Also in Nelson, Harold D., ed., Liberia: A Country Study, Area Handbook Series (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1984). 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1,092 | Fay_Wray | Vina Fay Wray (September 15, 1907 – August 8, 2004) was a Canadian-American actress and the first ever scream queen, originating from her appearances in the 1932 film Doctor X and the 1933 film King Kong. Early life Wray was born on a ranch near Cardston, Alberta, Canada to Elvina Marguerite Jones, who was from Salt Lake City, and Joseph Heber Wray, who was from Kingston upon Hull, England. Ancestry of Fay Wray Her family returned to the United States a few years after she was born; they moved to Salt Lake City in 1912 The Salt Lake Tribune, 26 January 2009, "Utah-Hollywood connection runs deep", p. B2 and moved to Lark, Utah in 1914. In 1919 they again moved to Salt Lake City, where Wray landed a role in a short historical movie sponsored by a local newspaper. SL Tribune, 26 Jan. 2009 Wray gained media attention when she was selected as one of the WAMPAS Baby Stars in 1926 (with Joan Crawford, Dolores del Rio and Mary Astor), which resulted in a contract at Paramount Pictures. In 1928, director Erich von Stroheim cast Wray as the main female lead in his troubled production of The Wedding March, which sent Hollywood in a buzz for its high budget and production values. It was a financial failure, but it gave Wray her first lead role. She is best remembered for her role as Ann Darrow, the blonde captive of the gigantic gorilla in the classic horror/adventure film King Kong (1933). She wore a blonde wig over her naturally dark hair for the role. She continued in films but by the early 1940s her appearances grew sporadic. She appeared frequently on television making her final appearance in 1980. Her autobiography, On the Other Hand, was published in 1988. In the later years of her life, Wray continued to make public appearances, and was a guest at the 70th Academy Awards, where the show's host, Billy Crystal introduced her and paid tribute to her film legacy. Wray was approached to appear in a small cameo for the 2005 remake of King Kong, and also met with Naomi Watts who was to play the Ann Darrow role. Before filming commenced, however, Wray died in her sleep on August 8, 2004, in her Manhattan apartment of natural causes (writers of the remake did honor her, however, with a comical mention in that film). She was 96 years old, only 38 days shy of her 97th birthday. Wray was interred at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California. After her death was announced the lights on the Empire State Building were extinguished for 15 minutes in her memory. For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Fay Wray has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6349 Hollywood Blvd. She received a posthumous star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto on June 5, 2005. A small park near Lee's Creek on Main Street in Cardston, Alberta, is named "Fay Wray Park" in her honor. The small sign at the edge of the park on Main Street has a silhouette of King Kong on it. A large oil portrait of Wray by Alberta artist Neil Boyle is on display in the Empress Theatre in Fort Macleod, Alberta. In May 2006, Wray became one of the first four entertainers to ever be honored by Canada Post by being featured on a postage stamp. Personal life Wray was married three times - to the writers John Monk Saunders and Robert Riskin and to the neurosurgeon Dr. Sanford Rothenberg. She had three children: Susan Saunders, Victoria Riskin, and Robert Riskin Jr. She became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1935. Filmography Blind Husbands (1919) Gasoline Love (1923) (short subject) Thundering Landlords (1925) (short subject) No Father to Guide Him (1925) (short subject) The Coast Patrol (1925) Sure-Mike (1925) (short subject) What Price Goofy (1925) (short subject) Isn't Life Terrible? (1925) (short subject) Chasing the Chaser (1925) (short subject) Madame Sans Jane (1925) (short subject) Unfriendly Enemies (1925) (short subject) Your Own Back Yard (1925) (short subject) Moonlight and Noses (1925) (short subject) Should Sailors Marry? (1925) (short subject) WAMPAS Baby Stars of 1926 (1926) (short subject) One Wild Time (1926) (short subject) Don Key (A Son of a Burro) (1926) (short subject) The Man in the Saddle (1926) Don't Shoot (1926) (short subject) The Wild Horse Stampede (1926) The Saddle Tramp (1926) (short subject) The Show Cowpuncher (1926) (short subject) Lazy Lightning (1926) Loco Luck (1927) A One Man Game (1927) Spurs and Saddles (1927) A Trip Through the Paramount Studio (1927) (short subject) The Honeymoon (1928) (unreleased) The Legion of the Condemned (1928) Street of Sin (1928) The First Kiss (1928) The Wedding March (1928) Thunderbolt (1929) The Four Feathers (1929) Pointed Heels (1929) Behind the Make-Up (1930) Paramount on Parade (1930) The Texan (1930) The Border Legion (1930) The Sea God (1930) Captain Thunder (1930) The Conquering Horde (1931) Three Rogues (1931) The Slippery Pearls (1931) (short subject) Dirigible (1931) The Finger Points (1931) The Lawyer's Secret (1931) The Unholy Garden (1931) Hollywood on Parade (1932) (short subject) Stowaway (1932) Doctor X (1932) The Most Dangerous Game (1932) The Vampire Bat (1933) Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933) King Kong (1933) Below the Sea (1933) Ann Carver's Profession (1933) The Woman I Stole (1933) Shanghai Madness (1933) The Big Brain (1933) One Sunday Afternoon (1933) The Bowery (1933) Master of Men (1933) The Clairvoyant (1934) Madame Spy (1934) The Countess of Monte Cristo (1934) Once to Every Woman (1934) Viva Villa! (1934) The Affairs of Cellini (1934) Black Moon (1934) The Richest Girl in the World (1934) Cheating Cheaters (1934) Woman in the Dark (1934) Come Out of the Pantry (1935) Mills of the Gods (1935) Bulldog Jack (1935) White Lies (1935) When Knights Were Bold (1936) Roaming Lady (1936) They Met in a Taxi (1936) It Happened in Hollywood (1937) Murder in Greenwich Village (1937) The Jury's Secret (1938) Smashing the Spy Ring (1939) Navy Secrets (1939) Wildcat Bus (1940) Melody for Three (1941) Adam Had Four Sons (1941) Not a Ladies' Man (1942) Treasure of the Golden Condor (1953) Small Town Girl (1953) Hell on Frisco Bay (1955) The Cobweb (1955) Queen Bee (1955) Rock, Pretty Baby (1956) Crime of Passion (1957) Tammy and the Bachelor (1957) Summer Love (1958) Dragstrip Riot (1958) Murder by Death (1976) (Arcival Sound) Gideons Trumpet(1980) Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's (1997) (documentary) Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There (2003) (documentary) Television appearances Wray appeared in the first season of the CBS series Perry Mason in "The Case Of The Prodigal Parent" As of March 2008 "The Case Of The Prodigal Parent" is viewable in the US on the internet at VEOH.com (Episode 1-36) aired June 7, 1958. In 1959, she appeared as Tula Marsh in the episode "The Second Happiest Day" of the CBS anthology Playhouse 90. In 1960, she appeared as Clara in the episode "Who Killed Cock Robin?" of the ABC detective series 77 Sunset Strip. In 1963, she appeared as Mrs. Brubaker in the episode "You're So Smart, Why Can't You Be Good?" episode of the NBC medical drama about psychiatry, The Eleventh Hour. Autobiography In 1989 Fay Wray released her autobiography titled 'On the other hand'. Cultural references Sings extraterrestrial transvestite mad scientist Frank N. Furter in The Rocky Horror Picture Show: "Whatever happened to Fay Wray? / That delicate satin-draped frame / As it clung to her thigh / How I started to cry / 'Cause I wanted to be dressed just the same" Mentioned in the chorus of the Jimmy Ray song "Who Wants To Know?" Type O Negative, on their album Bloody Kisses, has a track titled "Fay Wray Come Out to Play" Mentioned repeatedly in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow See also Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood Daniel Webster Jones (Mormon), Wray's grandfather Footnotes External links Fay Wray at Northern Stars CBC.ca News: Fay Wray dies at 96 A more complete biography Bellaonline.com article: Hollywood's First Scream Queen | Fay_Wray |@lemmatized vina:1 fay:9 wray:24 september:1 august:2 canadian:2 american:1 actress:1 first:6 ever:2 scream:2 queen:3 originate:1 appearance:5 film:7 doctor:2 x:2 king:5 kong:5 early:3 life:4 bear:2 ranch:1 near:2 cardston:2 alberta:4 canada:3 elvina:1 marguerite:1 jones:2 salt:4 lake:4 city:3 joseph:1 heber:1 kingston:1 upon:1 hull:1 england:1 ancestry:1 family:1 return:1 united:2 state:3 year:3 move:3 tribune:2 january:1 utah:2 hollywood:10 connection:1 run:1 deep:1 p:1 lark:1 land:1 role:5 short:22 historical:1 movie:1 sponsor:1 local:1 newspaper:1 sl:1 jan:1 gain:1 medium:1 attention:1 select:1 one:5 wampas:2 baby:3 star:5 joan:1 crawford:1 dolores:1 del:1 rio:1 mary:1 astor:1 result:1 contract:1 paramount:3 picture:3 director:1 erich:1 von:1 stroheim:1 cast:1 main:3 female:1 lead:2 troubled:1 production:2 wedding:2 march:3 send:1 buzz:1 high:1 budget:1 value:1 financial:1 failure:1 give:1 best:1 remember:1 ann:3 darrow:2 blonde:2 captive:1 gigantic:1 gorilla:1 classic:1 horror:2 adventure:1 wear:1 wig:1 naturally:1 dark:2 hair:1 continue:2 grow:1 sporadic:1 appear:6 frequently:1 television:2 make:3 final:1 autobiography:3 hand:2 publish:1 late:1 public:1 guest:1 academy:1 award:1 show:3 host:1 billy:1 crystal:1 introduce:1 pay:1 tribute:1 legacy:1 approach:1 small:4 cameo:1 remake:2 also:2 meet:2 naomi:1 watt:1 play:2 commence:1 however:2 die:2 sleep:1 manhattan:1 apartment:1 natural:1 cause:2 writer:2 honor:3 comical:1 mention:3 old:1 day:3 shy:1 birthday:1 inter:1 forever:1 cemetery:1 california:1 death:2 announce:1 light:1 empire:1 building:1 extinguish:1 minute:1 memory:1 contribution:1 motion:1 industry:1 walk:2 fame:2 blvd:1 receive:1 posthumous:1 toronto:1 june:2 park:3 lee:1 creek:1 street:3 name:1 sign:1 edge:1 silhouette:1 large:1 oil:1 portrait:1 artist:1 neil:1 boyle:1 display:1 empress:1 theatre:1 fort:1 macleod:1 may:1 become:2 four:3 entertainer:1 post:1 feature:1 postage:1 stamp:1 personal:1 marry:2 three:4 time:2 john:1 monk:1 saunders:2 robert:2 riskin:3 neurosurgeon:1 dr:1 sanford:1 rothenberg:1 child:1 susan:1 victoria:1 jr:1 naturalized:1 citizen:1 filmography:1 blind:1 husband:1 gasoline:1 love:2 subject:21 thundering:1 landlord:1 father:1 guide:1 coast:1 patrol:1 sure:1 mike:1 price:1 goofy:1 terrible:1 chase:1 chaser:1 madame:2 sans:1 jane:1 unfriendly:1 enemy:1 back:1 yard:1 moonlight:1 nose:1 sailors:1 wild:2 key:1 son:2 burro:1 man:3 saddle:3 shoot:1 horse:1 stampede:1 tramp:1 cowpuncher:1 lazy:1 lightning:1 loco:1 luck:1 game:2 spur:1 trip:1 studio:1 honeymoon:1 unreleased:1 legion:2 condemn:1 sin:1 kiss:2 thunderbolt:1 feather:1 point:2 heel:1 behind:1 parade:2 texan:1 border:1 sea:2 god:2 captain:1 thunder:1 conquer:1 horde:1 rogue:1 slippery:1 pearl:1 dirigible:1 finger:1 lawyer:1 secret:3 unholy:1 garden:1 stowaway:1 dangerous:1 vampire:1 bat:1 mystery:1 wax:1 museum:1 carver:1 profession:1 woman:3 stole:1 shanghai:1 madness:1 big:1 brain:1 sunday:1 afternoon:1 bowery:1 master:1 men:1 clairvoyant:1 spy:2 countess:1 monte:1 cristo:1 every:1 viva:1 villa:1 affair:1 cellini:1 black:1 moon:1 rich:1 girl:2 world:1 cheat:1 cheater:1 come:2 pantry:1 mill:1 bulldog:1 jack:1 white:1 lie:1 knight:1 bold:1 roam:1 lady:2 taxi:1 happen:2 murder:2 greenwich:1 village:1 jury:1 smash:1 ring:1 navy:1 wildcat:1 bus:1 melody:1 adam:1 treasure:1 golden:2 condor:1 town:1 hell:1 frisco:1 bay:1 cobweb:1 bee:1 rock:1 pretty:1 crime:1 passion:1 tammy:1 bachelor:1 summer:1 dragstrip:1 riot:1 arcival:1 sound:1 gideons:1 trumpet:1 menu:1 last:1 chasen:1 documentary:2 broadway:1 age:1 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1,093 | Arthur_Jensen | Arthur Jensen, 2002 at ISIR Arthur Jensen (born August 24 1923) is a Professor Emeritus of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. http://www.edb.utexas.edu/robinson/danr/JEBS%2031(3)%20-06_Jensen%20profile.pdf Jensen is known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, which is concerned with how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another. He is a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature versus nurture debate, the position that concludes genetics play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as intelligence and personality. He is the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals Sailer 1998 and currently sits on the editorial boards of the scientific journals Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences. Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences publisher's pages. While he has been rated an eminent psychologist, Jensen is listed in a study by Haggblom et al. (2002), of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century, at number 47. Jensen remains a controversial figure, largely for his conclusions based on his and other research showing significant race-based differences in intelligence. Biography Jensen was born August 24, 1923, to a father of Danish ancestry and a mother who was half Polish Jewish and half German (non-Jewish). Miele 2002 . Jensen studied at University of California, Berkeley (B.A. 1945), San Diego State College (M.A., 1952) and Columbia University (Ph.D., 1956). Jensen did his doctoral thesis on the Thematic Apperception Test. From 1956 through 1958, Jensen did his postdoctoral research at the University of London, Institute of Psychiatry. Upon returning to the United States, Jensen became a researcher and professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he focused on individual differences in learning, especially the influences of culture, development, and genetics on intelligence and learning. Jensen received tenure at Berkeley in 1962 and was given his first sabbatical in 1964. He has concentrated much of his work on the learning difficulties of culturally disadvantaged students. In 2003, Jensen was awarded the Kistler Prize for original contributions to the understanding of the connection between the human genome and human society. Jensen has had a lifelong interest in classical music and was, early in his life, attracted by the idea of becoming a conductor himself. At fourteen, Jensen conducted a band that won a nationwide contest held in San Francisco. Later, Jensen conducted orchestras and attended a seminar given by Nikolai Sokoloff. Soon after graduating from Berkeley, Jensen moved to New York, mainly to be near the conductor Arturo Toscanini. Jensen was also deeply interested in the life and example of Gandhi, producing an unpublished book-length manuscript on his life. During Jensen's period in San Diego he spent time working as a social worker with the San Diego Department of Public Welfare. IQ and academic achievement Jensen's interest in learning differences directed him to the extensive testing of black, Mexican-American, and other minority-group school children. The results led him to distinguish between two separate types of learning ability. Level I, or associative learning, may be defined as retention of input and rote memorization of simple facts and skills. Level II, or conceptual learning, is roughly equivalent to the ability to manipulate and transform inputs, that is, the ability to solve problems. Statistical analysis of his findings led Jensen to conclude that Level I abilities were distributed equally among members of all races, but that Level II occurred with significantly greater frequency among whites and Asian-Americans than among African-Americans and Mexican-Americans. Later, Jensen was an important advocate in the mainstream acceptance of general intelligence factor, a concept which was essentially synonymous with his Level II conceptual learning. General intelligence factor, or g, is an abstraction that stems from the observation that scores on all forms of cognitive tests correlate positively with one another. Jensen claimed, on the basis of his research, that general cognitive ability is essentially an inherited trait, determined predominantly by genetic factors rather than by environmental conditions. He also contended that while associative learning, or memorizing ability, is equally distributed among the races, conceptual learning, or synthesizing ability, occurs with significantly greater frequency in whites than in blacks. He suggested that from the data, one might conclude that on average, white Americans are more intelligent than African-Americans. Encyclopedia of Psychology Jensen's most controversial work, published in February 1969 in the Harvard Educational Review, was titled "How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?" It concluded, among other things, that Head Start programs designed to boost African-American IQ scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, heritability of IQ was over 0.7 of the within-race IQ variability, and the 0.3 left over was due to non-shared environmental influences. The work became one of - if not the most - cited papers in the history of psychological testing and intelligence research. While only limited inference can be drawn from citation analysis, the paper has received over 1262 citations according to the ISI citation index (Aug. 2006), compared with the other influential figures in the area, Hans J. Eysenck's 821 citations of "A Revised Version of the Psychoticism Scale" (1987; lead author Eysenck, S. B.G.), Charles Spearman's 644 of "General Intelligence Objectively Determined and Measured" (1904), James Flynn's 402 citations of "Massive IQ gains in 14 Nations - What IQ Tests Really Measure" (1987), J. Phillipe Rushton's 394 of "Behavioral-Development and Construct-Validity: the Principle of Aggregation" (1983; lead author with Brainderd C. J., Pressley M.), "Linda Gottfredson's 358 of "Circumscription and Compromise: A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations" (1981), and Robert J. Sternberg's 239 of "People's Conceptions of Intelligence" (1981; lead author with Conway, BE, Ketron, JL, et al.). The release of Jensen's paper, How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?, sparked a huge academic controversy. Although his paper was widely cited, a random selection of 60 of these citations revealed that 29 of the papers were direct rebuttals or criticisms of Jensen's arguments, 8 cited the paper as an "example of controversy," 8 used it as a background reference. Only 15 citations of Jensen's paper were in any way supportive of his theories, and 7 of these 15 were only in relation to minor points. High Impact Science and the case of Arthur Jensen After the paper was released, students and faculty staged large protests outside Jensen's U.C. Berkeley office. There may have been death threats against him. Jensen was denied reprints of his work by his publisher and was not permitted to reply in response to letters of criticism—both extremely unusual policies for their day. Many colleagues at the time felt that even if Jensen's work contained no scientific merit, his treatment was itself against the spirit of science and the free exchange of ideas. In a later article, Jensen argued that his claims had been misunderstood: ...nowhere have I "claimed" an "innate deficiency" of intelligence in blacks. My position on this question is clearly spelled out in my most recent book: "The plain fact is that at present there exists no scientifically satisfactory explanation for the differences between the IQ distributions in the black and white populations. The only genuine consensus among well-informed scientists on this topic is that the cause of the difference remains an open question" (Jensen, 1981a, p. 213). Thomas Sowell wrote: Professor Jensen pointed out back in 1969 that black children's IQ scores rose by 8 to 10 points after he met with them informally in a play room and then tested them again after they were more relaxed around him. He did this because "I felt these children were really brighter than their IQ would indicate." What a shame that others seem to have less confidence in black children than Professor Jensen has had. However, Jensen's 1998 The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability gives his position suggesting a genetic component is implicated in the white-black difference in IQ: In Chapter 12: Population Differences in g: Causal Hypotheses, Jensen writes: "The relationship of the g factor to a number of biological variables and its relationship to the size of the white-black differences on various cognitive tests (i.e., Spearman's hypothesis) suggests that the average white-black difference in g has a biological component. Human races are viewed not as discrete, or Platonic, categories, but rather as breeding populations that, as a result of natural selection, have come to differ statistically in the relative frequencies of many polymorphic genes. The genetic distances between various populations form a continuous variable that can be measured in terms of differences in gene frequencies. Racial populations differ in many genetic characteristics, some of which, such as brain size, have behavioral and psychometric correlates, particularly g." In 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an editorial written by Linda Gottfredson and published in the Wall Street Journal, which defended the findings on race and intelligence in The Bell Curve. Gottfredson, Linda (December 13, 1994). Mainstream Science on Intelligence. Wall Street Journal, p A18. In 1995 an American Psychological Association task force published a paper titled "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" which concluded that within the white population the heritability of IQ is "around .75" but also "It is sometimes suggested that the Black/White differential in psychometric intelligence is partly due to genetic differences (Jensen, 1972) There is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis." Criticism Melvin Konner wrote in the notes to his book The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit: "Statements made by Arthur Jensen, William Shockley, and other investigators in the late 1960s and early 1970s about race and IQ or social class and IQ rapidly passed into currency in policy discussions. Many of these statements were proved wrong, but they had already influenced some policymakers, and that influence is very difficult to recant." Many studies that purport to be both science-based and attempt to influence public policy have been accused of scientific racism. Konner wrote: "What of the latest currents of thought? Are they likely to lead to, or at least encourage, further distortions of social policy? The indications are not all encouraging. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray published a book in 1994 clearly directed at policy, just as Jensen and others had in the 1960s and 1970s. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press, 1994) teamed a psychologist with a conservative policy advocate to try to prove that both the class structure and the racial divide in the United States result from genetically determined differences in intelligence and ability." "Their general assertions about genes and IQ were not very controversial, but their speculations on race were something else again." Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote in 2005 that Jensen has largely ignored evidence that fails to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent a genetic racial hierarchy unwaveringly for over 30 years. The cultural malleability of intelligence and its impact on the racial/ethnic hierarchy L Suzuki, J Aronson - Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2005 During this time Jensen has received more than a million dollars from the often-criticized Pioneer fund. The Pioneer Fund: Bankrolling the Professors of Hate Adam Miller The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 6 (Winter, 1994-1995), pp. 58-61 Paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould, attacked Jensen's work in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. Gould writes that Jensen misapplies the concept of "heritability", which is defined as a measure of the variation of a trait due to inheritance within a population (Gould 1981: 127; 156-157). Jensen uses heritability to measure differences between populations. Gould also disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, g, or "the general factor common to a large number of cognitive abilities" which can be measured along a unilinear scale. This is a claim most closely identified with Charles Spearman. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of L. L. Thurstone to ultimately support this claim; Gould, however, argues that Thurstone's factor analysis of intelligence revealed g to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314). Gould criticizes Jensen's sources including his use of Catharine Cox's 1926 Genetic Studies of Genius, which examines historiometrically the IQs of historic intellectuals after their deaths (Gould 1981: 153-154). In 1980 Jensen published a detailed book in defense of the tests used to measure mental abilities, entitled Bias in Mental Testing, in which he dropped the argument based on heritability. Reviewing this book, psychologist Kenneth Kaye endorsed Jensen's distinction between bias and discrimination. The purpose of tests is to discriminate (that is, reveal actual differences) on the basis of ability; bias constitutes error. K. Kaye, The Sciences, January 1981, pp. 26-28. Jensen defined any test as biased for a particular group if that group differs significantly from the majority group in the slopes, intercepts, or standard error of the estimates of their regression lines. Most studies found no difference in the regression lines between black and white groups, but those differences that had been found to be biased had overpredicted rather than underpredicted the minority group's performance (for example, grades in Officer Candidate courses. Jensen's conclusion: "Until we find out what the relevant psychological predictors are for which racial classification per se is merely a 'stand-in' variable, we have no choice but to include race (or other group membership) as a predictive variable along with the test scores or other predictive measures. On the other hand, if the overprediction of the minority group's criterion performance is not too extreme, it may seem reasonable to many to leave it uncorrected, thereby giving the benefit of the slight predictive bias to the presumably disadvantaged group." A. Jensen, Bias in Mental Testing. Free Press, 1980 Pointing out that "many of Jensen's opponents allowed their scientific conclusions to be far more biased by their political views than he did, Kaye quoted 18th-century David Hume: "There is no Method of Reasoning more Common, and yet none more blameable, than in philosophical Debates, to endeavor the Refutation of any Hypothesis, by a Pretext of its dangerous Consequences to Religion and Morality." In a 1982 review of The Mismeasure of Man, Jensen gives point-by-point rebuttals to much of Gould's critique, including Gould's treatment of heritability, the "reification" of g, and the use of Thurstone's analysis. Gould responded to Jensen's rebuttals in a revised edition of the book, published in 1996. Jensen's response and criticism In Arthur Jensen's response to Gould's criticisms, in the paper titled The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons. http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils , Jensen begins his paper with this observation "Stephen Jay Gould is a paleontologist at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology and offers a course at Harvard entitled, "Biology as a Social Weapon." Apparently the course covers much the same content as does the present book. Having had some personal cause for interest in ideologically motivated attacks on biologically oriented behavioral scientists, I first took notice of Gould when he played a prominent role in a group called Science for the People and in that group's attack on the theories of Harvard zoologist Edward O. Wilson, a leader in the development of sociobiology..." While Jensen recognizes the validity of some of Gould's claims, in many places, he criticizes Gould's general approach "This charge of a social, value-laden science undoubtedly contains an element of truth. In recent years, however, we recognize this charge as the keystone of the Marxist interpretation of the history of science." Jensen adds that Gould made a number of misrepresentations, whether intentional or unintentional, while purporting to present Jensen's own positions "In his references to my own work, Gould includes at least nine citations that involve more than just an expression of Gould's opinion; in these citations Gould purportedly paraphrases my views. Yet in eight of the nine cases, Gould's representation of these views is false, misleading, or grossly caricatured. Nonspecialists could have no way of knowing any of this without reading the cited sources. While an author can occasionally make an inadvertent mistake in paraphrasing another, it appears Gould's paraphrases are consistently slanted to serve his own message." See also: the discussion of intelligence testing, Science wars, and race and intelligence. Recent books The g FactorThe g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (1998) is considered by supporters to be Jensen's magnum opus on the general intelligence factor (g). The book deals with the intellectual history of the discovery of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power. Clocking the MindClocking the Mind : Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences (2006) deals with mental chronometry (MC), and covers a variety of techniques for measuring the speed with which the brain processes information. Whereas IQ merely represents an ordinal (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true ratio scale properties, Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability. Further reading Interviews SASP Interviews: Arthur R. Jensen. Beaujean, A. A. (2002, July). SASP News, 2 (4). (pdf) "A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 1)". (1992). American Renaissance, 3(8). "A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 2". (1992). American Renaissance, 3(9). Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen. (2002) Frank Miele (of Skeptic Magazine). Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4008-X Selected Articles, Books, & Book Chapters Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R.. (2005). Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, & the Law, 11, 235-294. (pdf) Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race-realism, less moralistic fallacy. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 328-336. (pdf) Rushton, J. P., & Jensen, A. R. (2003). African-White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the g factor. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 177-183. (pdf) Jensen, A. R. (2002). Galton's legacy to research on intelligence. Journal of Biosocial Science, 34, 145-172. Jensen, A. R. (2002). Psychometric g: Definition and substantiation. In R. J. Sternberg, & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? (pp. 39–53). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jensen, A. R. (2000). Testing: The dilemma of group differences. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6, 121-128. Jensen, A. R. (1998) The g factor and the design of education. In R. J. Sternberg & W. M. Williams (Eds.), Intelligence, instruction, and assessment: Theory into practice. (pp. 111–131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jensen, A. R. (1996). Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences. In C. P. Benbow, & D. J. Lubinski (Eds), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues (pp. 393–411). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Jensen, A. R. (1995). Psychological research on race differences. American Psychologist, 50, 41-42. Jensen, A. R. (1993). Spearman's g: Links between psychometrics and biology. In F. M. Crinella, & J. Yu (Eds.), Brain mechanisms: Papers in memory of Robert Thompson (pp. 103–129). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. Jensen, A. R. (1993). Why is reaction time correlated with psychometric g? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 53-56. Jensen, A. R. (1989). The relationship between learning and intelligence. Learning and Individual Differences, 1, 37-62. Kranzler, J. H., & Jensen, A. R.(1989). Inspection time and intelligence: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 13, 329-347. Jensen, A. R. (1974). Ethnicity and scholastic achievement. Psychological Reports, 34, 659-668. Jensen, A. R. (1974). Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt. Behavior Genetics, 4,'' 1-28. 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1,094 | Economy_of_New_Zealand | The Economy of New Zealand is a market economy which is greatly dependent on international trade, mainly with Australia, the European Union, the United States, China and Japan. It is also strongly focused on tourism and primary industries like agriculture (though both sectors are highly profitable), while having only small manufacturing and high-tech components. Economic free-market reforms of the last decades have removed many barriers to foreign investment, and the World Bank in 2005 praised New Zealand as being the most business-friendly country in the world, before Singapore. New Zealand rated most business-friendly - International Herald Tribune, Wednesday, September 14, 2005 Profile This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of New Zealand at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of New Zealand Dollars. Year Gross Domestic Product 1 US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1980 22,976 NZD 1.02 30 1985 45,003 NZD 2.00 53 1990 73,745 NZD 1.67 84 1995 91,881 NZD 1.52 93 2000 114,563 NZD 2.18 100 2005 154,108 NZD 1.41 113 Traditionally, New Zealand's economy was built upon on a narrow range of primary products, such as wool, meat and dairy products. As an example, from approximately 1920 to approximately 1940, the dairy export quota was usually around 35% of the total exports, and in some years made up almost 45% of all New Zealand's exports. New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 61 Due to the high demand for these primary products - such as the New Zealand wool boom of 1951 - New Zealand enjoyed high standards of living. However, commodity prices for these exports declined, and New Zealand lost its preferential trading position with the United Kingdom in 1973, due to the latter joining the European Economic Community. Partly as a result, from 1970 to 1990, the relative New Zealand purchasing power adjusted GDP per capita declined from about 115% of the OECD average to 80%. New Zealand’s productivity performance and prospects - Drew, Aaron; Bulletin, Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Vol.70, No. 1. Accessed 2008-02-10. Since 1984, the government of New Zealand has accomplished major economic restructuring, moving an agrarian economy dependent on concessionary British market access toward a more industrialised, free market economy that can compete globally. This growth has boosted real incomes, broadened and deepened the technological capabilities of the industrial sector, and contained inflationary pressures. Inflation remains among the lowest in the industrial world. Per capita GDP has been moving up towards the levels of the big West European economies since the trough in 1990, but the gap remains significant. New Zealand's heavy dependence on trade leaves its growth prospects vulnerable to economic performance in Asia, Europe, and the United States. New Zealand's economy has traditionally been based on a foundation of exports from its very efficient agricultural system. Leading agricultural exports include meat, dairy products, forest products, fruit and vegetables, fish, and wool. New Zealand was a direct beneficiary of many of the reforms achieved under the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, with agriculture in general and the dairy sector in particular enjoying many new trade opportunities in the long term. The country has substantial hydroelectric power and sizable reserves of natural gas, much of which is exploited due primarily to major Keynesian import substitution-oriented industrial projects (See Think Big). Leading manufacturing sectors are food processing, metal fabrication, and wood and paper products. Some manufacturing industries, many of which had only been established in a climate of import substitution with high tariffs and subsidies, such as car assembly, have completely disappeared, and manufacturing's importance in the economy is in a general decline. The New Zealand economy has recently been perceived as successful. However, the generally positive outlook includes some challenges. New Zealand income levels, which used to be above much of Western Europe prior to the deep crisis of the 1970s, have never recovered in relative terms. The New Zealand GDP per capita is for instance less than that of Spain and about 60% that of the United States. Income inequality has increased greatly, implying that significant portions of the population have quite modest incomes. Further, New Zealand has a very large current account deficit of 8-9% of GDP. However, despite this, its public debt stands at only 21.2% (2006 est.) of the total GDP, which is small compared to many developed nations. However, It has also been noted that net foreign debt has increased 11-fold between 1984 and 2006, now reaching NZ $182 billion, NZ $45,000 for each person. The combination of a modest public debt and a large net foreign debt reflects that most of the net foreign debt is held by the private sector. One reason why New Zealand runs persistent current account deficits, that drives the net foreign debt upwards, is that earnings from agricultural exports and tourism fail to cover the imports of advanced manufactured goods required to sustain the New Zealand economy. However, this trade imbalance is much smaller than the investment income imbalance which makes up the vast majority of New Zealand's current account deficit. History 1900s-1970s - Regulation and welfare state Historically, New Zealand had a highly protected, regulated and subsidised economy. This stemmed at least partly from trends started in the first half of the 20th century, when the First Liberal Government and later the First Labour Government introduced both social security systems with for the time very wide-ranging scope (from state pensions to unemployment benefits and free education and health care), while also regulating industry, mandating trade unionism and industrial arbitration. Imports were also heavily regulated. While called 'welfare statism' by some, it was accepted that until at least the 1950s, both main parties (Labour and National) generally supported this trend, even though critics pointed to negative effects on the general economy and argued that increasing emigration could be blamed to a large degree on these policies. Revolt of the Guinea Pigs - Time, Monday 12 December 1949 By the 1960s, the New Zealand economy's terms of trade began to decline. This was largely due to the decline in export receipts from the United Kingdom, which in 1955 took 65.3 percent of New Zealand's exports. By the year ended June 1973, during which Britain formally entered the European Economic Community, this had fallen to 26.8 percent. By the year ended June 1990 its share had fallen to 7.2 percent and in the year ended June 2000 its share was 6.2 percent . To a substantial degree, the economic restrictions remained in place or were even sometimes extended in the early second half of the 20th century. However, reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s were then to turn this situation into its opposite. As an example of deregulation, several postal operators now exist in New Zealand. 1980s-1990s - Reform and liberalisation Since 1984, government subsidies including those for agriculture have been eliminated; import regulations have been liberalised; exchange rates have been freely floated; controls on interest rates, wages, and prices have been removed; and marginal rates of taxation reduced. Tight monetary policy and major efforts to reduce the government budget deficit brought the inflation rate down from an annual rate of more than 18% in 1987. The deregulation of government-owned enterprises in the 1980s and 1990s reduced government's role in the economy and permitted the retirement of some public debt, but simultaneously massively increased the necessity for greater welfare spending and has led to considerably higher rates of unemployment than were standard in New Zealand in earlier decades. However, unemployment in New Zealand is again low, hovering around 3.5% to 4%. Deregulation created a very business-friendly regulatory framework. A survey 2008 study ranked it 99.9% in "Business freedom", and 80% overall in "Economic freedom", noting amongst other things that it only takes 12 days to establish a business in New Zealand on average, compared with a world-wide average of 43 days. Other indicators measured were property rights, labour market conditions, government controls and corruption, the last being considered "next to non-existent" in the Heritage Foundation and Wall Street Journal study. Survey ranks NZ in top six for economic freedom - The New Zealand Herald, Wednesday 16 January 2008 In its 'Doing Business 2008' survey, the World Bank (which in that year rated New Zealand as the second-most business-friendly country worldwide), gave New Zealand rank 13 out of 178 in the business-friendliness of its hiring laws. Economy Rankings (from the 'Doing Business' website of the World Bank. Accessed 2008-08-13.) 2000s - Recent trends Economic growth, which had slowed in 1997 and 1998 due to the negative effects of the Asian financial crisis and two successive years of drought, rebounded in 1999. A low New Zealand dollar, favourable weather, and high commodity prices boosted exports, and the economy is estimated to have grown by 2.5% in 2000. Growth resumed at a higher level from 2001 onwards due primarily to the lower value of the New Zealand dollar which made exports more competitive. The return of substantial economic growth led the unemployment rate to drop from 7.8% in 1999 to 3.4% in late 2005, the lowest rate in nearly 20 years. However, the large current account deficit, which stood at more than 6.5% of GDP in 2000, has been a constant source of concern for New Zealand policymakers and hit 9% as of March 2006. The rebound in the export sector is expected to help narrow the deficit to lower levels, especially due to decreases in the exchange rate of the New Zealand dollar during 2008. Foreign business relations New Zealand's economy has been helped by strong economic relations with Australia. Australia and New Zealand are partners in "Closer Economic Relations" (CER), which allows for free trade in goods and most services. Since 1990, CER has created a single market of more than 25 million people, and this has provided new opportunities for New Zealand exporters. Australia is now the destination of 19% of New Zealand's exports, compared to 14% in 1983. Both sides also have agreed to consider extending CER to product standardization and taxation policy. New Zealand initiated a free trade agreement with Singapore in September 2000 which was extended in 2005 to include Chile and Brunei and is now known as the P4 agreement. New Zealand is seeking other bilateral/regional trade agreements in the Pacific area. U.S. goods and services have been competitive in New Zealand, though the strong U.S. dollar created challenges for U.S. exporters in 2001. The market-led economy offers many opportunities for U.S. exporters and investors. Investment opportunities exist in chemicals, food preparation, finance, tourism, and forest products, as well as in franchising. The best sales prospects are for medical equipment, information technology, and consumer goods. On the agricultural side, the best prospects are for fresh fruit, snack foods, specialised grocery items (eg. organic foods), and soybean meal. A number of U.S. companies have subsidiary branches in New Zealand. Many operate through local agents, with some joint venture associations. The American Chamber of Commerce is active in New Zealand, with its main office in Auckland and a branch committee in Wellington. New Zealand welcomes and encourages foreign investment without discrimination. The Overseas Investment Commission (OIC) must give consent to foreign investments that would control 25% or more of businesses or property worth more than NZ$50 million. Restrictions and approval requirements also apply to certain investments in land and in the commercial fishing industry. In practice, OIC approval requirements have not hindered investment. OIC consent is based on a national interest determination, but no performance requirements are attached to foreign direct investment after consent is given. Full remittance of profits and capital is permitted through normal banking channels. This free investment by foreign capital has also been criticised. Groups like Campaign Against Foreign Control of Aotearoa (CAFCA) consider that New Zealand's economy is substantially overseas-owned, noting that direct ownership of New Zealand companies by foreign parties increased from $9.7 billion in 1989 to $83 billion in 2007 (an over 700% increase), while 41% of the New Zealand sharemarket valuation is now overseas-owned, compared to 19% in 1989. Around 7% of all New Zealand agriculturally productive land is also foreign-owned. CAFCA considers that the effect of such takeovers has generally been negative in terms of jobs and wages. Matt McCarten: Foreign owners muscle in as New Zealand sells off all its assets - The New Zealand Herald, Sunday 14 January 2007 Unemployment New Zealand unemployment (at 3.4% as of December 2007) stands at its historically lowest level since the current method of surveying began in 1986, and has been very low for several years. This gives the country the 5th-best ranking in the OECD (with an OECD average of 5.5%), with the low numbers attributed to the robust economy with its large backlog of job positions at all levels. The unemployment numbers of the compared OECD nations do not take into consideration sickness, invalid or single parent (domestic) beneficiaries. Before economic shocks of the 1970s in particular (Britain joining the EEC), actual unemployment was also very low, possibly even lower than today - in 1959, only 21 people were officially unemployed, and the joke went around that the Prime Minister knew the name of every unemployed person. The percentage of the population employed also increased in recent years, to 68.8% of all inhabitants, with full-time jobs increasing slightly, and part-time occupations decreasing in turn. The increase in the working population percentage is attributed to increasing wages and higher costs of living moving more people into employment. Unemployment at record low as job growth surges - The New Zealand Herald, Thursday 07 February 2008 The low unemployment does however also have disadvantages, with many companies unable to fill jobs. Other indicators The Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter has been noted as providing a significant boost for the country's overall trade balance, and is one of the country's largest industrial sites. Tourism, like here on the Milford Sound (special bus with viewing gallery), is New Zealand's largest 'export' earner. Corporate Overview (from the Tourism New Zealand corporate website. Retrieved 2007-09-30) Agriculture (especially dairy farming - such as for the Fonterra plant shown) is another major export earner. Industrial Production Growth Rate: 5.9% (2004) / 1.5% (2007) Household income or consumption by percentage share: Lowest 10%: 0.3% (1991) Highest 10%: 29.8% (1991) Agriculture - Products: wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, fruits, vegetables; wool, beef, dairy products; fish Exports - commodities: dairy products, meat, wood and wood products, fish, machinery Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, vehicles and aircraft, petroleum, electronics, textiles, plastics Electricity: Electricity - consumption: 34.88 TWh (2001) / 37.39 TWh (2006) Electricity - production: 38.39 TWh (2004) / 42.06 TWh (2006) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2006) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2006) Electricity - Production by source: Fossil Fuel: 31.6% (2001) Hydro: 57.8% (2001) Nuclear: 0% (2001) Other: 10.7% (2001) Oil: Oil - production: 42,160 barrel/day (6,703 m³/d) 2001 / 25,880 barrel/day (6,703 m³/d) 2006 Oil - consumption: 132,700 barrel/day (21,100 m³/d) 2001 / 156,000 barrel/day (21,100 m³/d) 2006 Oil - exports: 30,220 barrel/day (4,800 m³/d) 2001 / 15,720 barrel/day (4,800 m³/d) 2004 Oil - imports: 119,700 barrel/day (19,000 m³/d) 2001 / 140,900 barrel/day (19,000 m³/d) 2004 Oil - proven reserves: 89.62 million barrel (14,250,000 m³) January 2002 Exchange rates: New Zealand Dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.3869 (2005), 1.5248 (2004), 1.9071 (2003), 2.1622 (2002), 2.3788 (2001), 2.2012 (2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995) See also Agriculture in New Zealand Communications in New Zealand Energy in New Zealand Transport in New Zealand Reserve Bank of New Zealand New Zealand Electricity Market Economy of Oceania New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development References Harcourt, T. (2005). Closer Economic Relations. 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1,095 | MDMA | MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, also known as ecstasy) is a semisynthetic member of the amphetamine class of psychoactive drugs. It is considered unusual for its tendency to produce a sense of intimacy with others and diminished feelings of fear and anxiety. These effects have led some to suggest it might have therapeutic benefits to some individuals. Before it was made a controlled substance, MDMA was used to aid psychotherapy, often couples therapy, and to help treat clinical depression, the results of which are poorly documented. Studies have also recently been initiated to examine the therapeutic potential of MDMA for post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety associated with cancer. MDMA is criminalized in most countries in the world under a UN agreement, "Where is Ecstasy Legal?" and its possession, manufacture, or sale may result in criminal prosecution, although some limited exceptions exist for scientific and medical research. MDMA is one of the most widely used illicit drugs in the world Ecstasy Abuse Information and is taken in a variety of contexts far removed from its roots in psychotherapeutic settings. It is commonly associated with the rave culture and its related genres of music. There have been debates within science, health care, and drug policy circles about the risks of MDMA, specifically the possibility of neurotoxic damage to the central nervous system. Regulatory authorities in several locations around the world have approved studies administering MDMA to humans to examine either its therapeutic potential or, more commonly, its basic effects. MAPS: Psychedelic Research Worldwide History MDMA was first prepared in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch. At the time, Merck was interested in developing substances that stopped abnormal bleeding. Merck wanted to evade an existing patent for one such compound hydrastinine, which was held by Bayer. At the behest of his superiors, Walther Beckh and Otto Wolfes, Köllisch developed a preparation of a hydrastinine analogue, methylhydrastinine. MDMA was only an intermediate compound on the route to methylhydrastinine, and Merck was not interested in its properties. On December 24, 1912 Merck filed two patent applications that described the synthesis of MDMA and its subsequent conversion to methylhydrastinine. Over the following 65 years, MDMA was largely forgotten. Merck records indicate that its researchers would return to the compound sporadically. In 1927, Max Oberlin studied the pharmacology of MDMA and observed that its effects on the blood sugar and smooth muscles were similar to ephedrine's but MDMA did not produce pupil dilation. Some experiments with MDMA were also conducted at Merck KGaA in 1952 and 1959. In 1953–54, the United States Army commissioned a study of toxicity and behavioral effects of injected mescaline and several analogues including MDMA in animals. These classified investigations were declassified and published in 1973. The first scientific paper on MDMA appeared in 1958 in Yakugaku Zasshi, the Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan. In this paper, Yutaka Kasuya desribed the synthesis of MDMA, which was a part of his research on antispasmodics. Quoted from Chemical Abstracts, 1958, 97822 The MDMA molecule MDMA first appeared as a street drug in the early 1970s after its counterculture analogue, MDA, became criminalized in the United States in 1970. The first confirmed sample was seized and identified by Chicago Police in 1970, see In the mid-1970s, Alexander Shulgin, then at University of California, heard from his students about unusual effects of MDMA. The drug even helped one of them to overcome his stutter. Intrigued, Shulgin synthesized MDMA and tried it himself in 1976. Two years later, he and David Nichols published the first report on the drug’s psychotropic effect in humans. They described "altered state of consciousness with emotional and sensual overtones" that can be compared "to marijuana, to psilocybin devoid of the hallucinatory component". Shulgin had taken to using MDMA occasionally, for relaxation, referring to it as "my low-calorie martini" and giving the drug to his friends, researchers and other people who he had thought could benefit from it. One such person was psychotherapist Leo Zeff who had been known to use psychedelics in his practice. Zeff was so impressed with the action of MDMA that he came out of his semi-retirement to proselytize for it. Over the following years, Zeff traveled around the US and occasionally to Europe training other psychotherapists in the use of MDMA. Among the underground psychotherapists, MDMA developed a reputation for enhancing communication during clinical sessions, reducing patients' psychological defenses, and increasing capacity for therapeutic introspection. Although some therapists continued to conduct therapy illegally, MDMA was not legally given to humans until Charles Grob initiated an ascending-dose safety study in healthy volunteers. Subsequent legally approved MDMA studies in humans have taken place in the U.S. in Detroit (Wayne State University), Chicago (University of Chicago), San Francisco (UCSF and California Pacific Medical Center), Baltimore (NIDA-NIH Intramural Program), and South Carolina, as well as in Switzerland (University Hospital of Psychiatry, Zürich), the Netherlands (Maastricht University), and Spain (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona). Bibliography of psychadelic research studies collected by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies Due to the wording of the United Kingdom's existing Misuse of Drugs Act of 1971, MDMA was automatically classified as a Class A drug in 1977. In the early 1980s in the United States, MDMA rose to prominence as "Adam" in trendy nightclubs and gay dance clubs. in the Dallas area. The Austin Chronicle - "Countdown to Ecstasy" by Marc Savlov From there, use spread to rave clubs in major cities around the country, and then to mainstream society. The drug was first proposed for scheduling by the DEA in July 1984, and was classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States from May 31, 1985. Erowid MDMA Vault : Info #3 on scheduling In the late 1980s MDMA as "ecstasy" began to be widely used in the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, becoming an integral element of rave culture and other psychedelic/dancefloor-influenced music scenes, such as Madchester and Acid House. Spreading along with rave culture, illicit MDMA use became increasingly widespread among young adults in universities and later in high schools. MDMA became one of the four most widely used illicit drugs in the United States, along with cocaine, heroin and marijuana. Today in the US, according to some estimates, only marijuana will attract more first-time users. Primetime with Peter Jennings Therapeutic uses There have long been suggestions that MDMA might be useful in psychotherapy, facilitating self-examination with reduced fear. Greer G. Tolbert R. "The Therapeutic Use of MDMA in Ecstasy: The clinical, pharmacological and neurotoxicological effects of the drug MDMA" 1990 (ed Peroutka, SJ) Boston, p. 21-36 Indeed, some therapists, including Leo Zeff, Claudio Naranjo, George Greer, Peter Mandelson, Joseph Downing, and Philip Wolfson, used MDMA in their practices until it was made illegal. George Greer synthesized MDMA in the lab of Alexander Shulgin and administered it to about 80 of his clients over the course of the remaining years preceding MDMA's Schedule I placement in 1985. In a published summary of the effects, the authors reported patients felt improved in various, mild psychiatric disorders and other personal benefits, especially improved intimate communication with their significant others. In a subsequent publication on the treatment method, the authors reported that one patient with severe pain from terminal cancer experienced lasting pain relief and improved quality of life. However, few of the results in this early MDMA psychotherapy were measured using methods considered reliable or convincing in scientific practice. For example, the questionnaires used might not have been sensitive to negative changes and it is not known to what extent similar patients might improve from chance or from psychotherapy. The therapeutic potential of MDMA is currently being tested in several ongoing studies, some sponsored by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. Studies in the US and other countries are evaluating the efficacy of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for treating those diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or anxiety related to cancer. In a newspaper interview, the researchers from the South Carolina PTSD study report tendencies for some participants to have reduced disease severity after MDMA psychotherapy. However, these reports focus on individual participants. Statistical results from the entire study will need to be published and, ultimately, results will need to be confirmed in studies by other scientists to demonstrate the efficacy of MDMA as a psychotherapeutic agent. Mechanism of action The mechanism of MDMA's unusual effects has yet to be fully understood, although it is generally thought that the primary relevant pharmacological characteristic of the drug is its affinity for SERTs. SERTs are the part of the serotonergic neuron which remove serotonin from the synapse to be recycled or stored for later use. Not only does MDMA inhibit the reuptake of serotonin into this pump, but it reverses the action of the transporter so that it begins pumping serotonin into the synapse from inside the cell. In addition, MDMA induces the release of norepinephrine and dopamine. MDMA's unusual empathic/entactogenic effects have been hypothesized to be at least partly the result of the release of oxytocin, a hormone usually released following such events as orgasm and childbirth, which is thought to facilitate bonding and the establishment of trust. MDMA is thought to cause this release by indirectly stimulating 5-HT1A receptors. However, the evidence that oxytocin is involved in the effects of MDMA is derived from studies conducted on rats where the emotional effects can only be indirectly measured, in this case by the time animals spend in close proximity to one another. Controlled human studies have not yet been carried out, and it is not known conclusively if MDMA has oxytocinergic action in humans. The question of why other serotonergic drugs do not produce a similarly profound emotional state like MDMA also remains unanswered. Effects Acute effects The primary effects attributable to MDMA consumption are predictable and fairly consistent amongst users. Generally, users report feeling effects with 30–60 minutes of consumption, reaching a plateau that lasts about 4–6 hours, followed by a "comedown" period of a few hours which may be accompanied by fatigue and minor effects lasting for anywhere from a few hours to a few days. The most common subjective effects reported by users include: Euphoria Decreased hostility and insecurity Increased feelings of intimacy with others Feelings of empathy towards others Ability to discuss anxiety-provoking topics with markedly increased ease A strong sense of inner peace and self-acceptance Feelings of insightfulness and mental clarity Intensification of sensory experience, particularly proprioception, hearing and touch Decreased appetite Short-term memory lapses The most common physical side effects reported by users include: Urinary retention (also see hyponatremia) Mydriasis (abnormal pupil dilation) Increased physical energy Increased heart rate and blood pressure Increased mean body temperature Trisma (lockjaw) Bruxia (involuntary teeth grinding) Gurning (projecting the lower jaw forward. Usually caused by higher doses) Nystagmus (rapid, uncontrollable eye movements) The most common lingering side effects (i.e., following primary subjective effects) reported by users include: Several hours of restlessness, sometimes accompanied by residual euphoria Fatigue A period of general malaise, normally resolving within a few days Mildly blurred vision, gradually resolving over a period of up to several days Serious complications increasing in likelihood with dose, environmental severity, degree of physical activity, and/or certain drug interactions include: Hyperthermia (due to an intemperate environment and/or lack of hydration and/or rest from physical activity, usually dancing) Dehydration (due to an intemperate environment and/or rest from physical activity, usually dancing) Hyponatremia (due to drug induced antidiuretic hormone release and/or excess compensatory intake of fluids, a rare complication) Serotonin syndrome (believed to be due to excess release of serotonin, sometimes triggered by coadministration of other serotonergic drugs) Effects of chronic use Some further studies have also shown that this damage causes increased rates of depression and anxiety, even after quitting the drug. In addition to this, some studies have indicated that MDMA may cause long-term memory and cognition impairment. Many factors, including total lifetime MDMA consumption, the duration of abstinence between uses, the environment of use, poly-drug use/abuse, quality of mental health, various lifestyle choices, and predispositions to develop clinical depression and other disorders may contribute to various possible health consequences. MDMA use has been occasionally associated with liver damage, excessive wear of teeth, and (very rarely) Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. Recreational use MDMA, which has been made criminally illegal worldwide, is taken most commonly in pill form. MDMA hydrochloride is used to manufacture ecstasy pills. Some users take this powdered form for recreation. The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction notes that although there are some reports of tablets being sold for as little as €1, most countries in Europe now report typical retail prices in the range of €3 to €9 per tablet. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claimed in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical US retail prices are higher, at 15 to 20 dollars per tablet, or can be from 5 to 10 dollars per tablet if bought in stacks of 10 or more. Legal alternatives A substantial number of "ecstasy" tablets sold for recreational use (in the UK especially]) are actually piperazine (mCPP or BZP) pills. http://www.pillreports.com/index.php?page=search_reports&sent=1&name=&logo=&colour=®ion=2&sub_region=7&percent_rating=0&pp=10&submit.x=75&submit.y=16 These substances crudely mimic some of the positive effects of ecstasy, yet feature far greater negative side-effects (insomnia, migraines, nausea etc). mCPP is known to induce headaches in humans, Martin RS & Martin GR. Investigations into migraine pathogenesis: time course for effects of mCPP, BW723C86 or glyceryl trinitrate on appearance of Fos-like immunoreactivity in rat trigeminal nucleus caudalis (TNC). Cephalalgia 2001; 21:46–52. London. ISSN 0333-10245 and has been used for testing potential anti-migraine medications. Petkov VD, Belcheva S, Konstantinova E. Anxiolytic effects of dotarizine, a possible antimigraine drug. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 1995 December;17(10):659-68. These "legal highs" represent a considerable profit for the dealer; they are cheaply acquired online (with custom logos to mimic known "good" pills) and, given mCPP's legal status, there is limited risk of prosecution if caught. BZP possession does entail a greater risk. However in Amsterdam, MDMA is used to aid marriage counseling as the effects of the drug help people share and overcome emotional problems and make people more receptive to the problems of others. Chemistry Safrole, a colorless or slightly yellow oil, extracted from the root-bark or the fruit of sassafras plants is the primary precursor for all manufacture of MDMA. There are numerous synthetic methods available in the literature to convert safrole into MDMA via different intermediates. Analytica Chimica Acta, 596(2), 231-241; 2007 Chemical Research in Toxicology, 19(10), 1294-1304; 2006 Reductive aminations of carbonyl compounds with borohydride and borane reducing agents. Baxter, Ellen W.; Reitz, Allen B. Organic Reactions (Hoboken, NJ, United States) (2002), 59 Forensic Science International, 155(2-3), 141-157; 2005 One common route is via the MDP2P (3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone, also known as piperonyl acetone) intermediate. This intermediate can be produced in at least two different ways. One method is to isomerize safrole in the presence of a strong base to isosafrole and then oxidize isosafrole to MDP2P. Another, reportedly better method, is to make use of the Wacker process to oxidize safrole directly to the MDP2P (3,4-methylenedioxy phenyl-2-propanone) intermediate. This can be done with a palladium catalyst. Once the MDP2P intermediate has been produced it is then consumed via a reductive amination to form MDMA as the product. Industrial scale methamphetamine/MDMA factory in Cikande, Indonesia Relatively small quantities of essential oil are required to make large numbers of MDMA pills. The essential oil of Ocotea cymbarum typically contains between 80 and 94 percent safrole. This would allow 500mL of the oil, which retails at between $20 and $100, to be used to produce an estimated 1,300 to 2,800 tablets containing 120mg of MDMA. Nov 05 DEA Microgram newsletter Legal issues MDMA is legally controlled in most of the world under the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances and other international agreements, although exceptions exist for research. Generally, the unlicensed use, sale or manufacture of MDMA are all criminal offenses. In the United States, MDMA was legal and unregulated until May 31, 1985, at which time it was emergency scheduled to DEA Schedule I, for drugs deemed to have no medical uses and a high potential for abuse. During DEA hearings to schedule MDMA, most experts recommended DEA Schedule III prescription status for the drug, due to beneficial usage of MDMA in psychotherapy. The judge overseeing the hearings, Francis Young, also recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule III. Nonetheless, the DEA chose to ignore the ruling of its own Administrative Law Judge and unilaterally classified MDMA as Schedule I. In 2001, responding to a mandate from the U.S. Congress, the U.S. Sentencing Commission, resulted in an increase in the penalties for MDMA by nearly 3,000%, SF Gate News March 21, 2001 despite scientific protest calling for a decrease in the penalties for MDMA possession and distribution. Federation of American Scientists MDMA Testimony (PDF) The increase makes 1 gram of MDMA (four pills at 250 mg per pill's total weight regardless of purity, standard for Federal charges) equivalent to 1 gram of heroin (approximately fifty doses) or 2.2 pounds (1 kg) of marijuana for sentencing purposes at the federal level. U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines (2007) That same year, 1985, the World Health Organization's Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule I of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Convention has a provision in Article 7(a) that allows use of Schedule I drugs for "scientific and very limited medical purposes." The committee's report stated: E for Ecstasy by Nicholas Saunders, Appendix 1: Reference Section The Expert Committee held extensive discussions concerning therapeutic usefulness of 3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. While the Expert Committee found the reports intriguing, it felt that the studies lacked the appropriate methodological design necessary to ascertain the reliability of the observations. There was, however, sufficient interest expressed to recommend that investigations be encouraged to follow up these preliminary findings. To that end, the Expert Committee urged countries to use the provisions of article 7 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances to facilitate research on this interesting substance. In the United Kingdom, MDMA is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, making it illegal to sell, buy, or possess without a license. Penalties include a maximum of seven years and/or unlimited fine for possession; life and/or unlimited fine for production or trafficking. Health concerns While the short-term adverse effects and contraindications of MDMA are fairly well known, there is significant debate within the scientific and medical communities possible regarding long-term physical and psychological effects of MDMA. Short-term physical health risks of MDMA consumption include hyperthermia, and hyponatremia. Continuous activity without sufficient rest or rehydration may cause body temperature to rise to dangerous levels, and loss of fluid via excessive perspiration puts the body at further risk as the stimulatory and euphoric qualities of the drug may render the user oblivious to their energy expenditure for quite some time. Diuretics such as alcohol may exacerbate these risks further. MDMA causes a reduction in the concentration of serotonin transporters (SERTs) in the brain. The rate at which the brain recovers from serotonergic changes is unclear. A number of studies have demonstrated lasting serotonergic changes occurring due to MDMA exposure. Other studies have suggested that the brain may recover from serotonergic damage; however, damage caused by heavy, prolonged use of MDMA may be long lasting. Some studies show that MDMA may be neurotoxic in humans. Neurotoxicity at Dancesafe.org Does MDMA Cause Brain Damage?, Matthew Baggott, and John Mendelson Other studies, however, suggest that any potential brain damage may be at least partially reversible following prolonged abstinence from MDMA. Research on Ecstasy Is Clouded by Errors, Donald G. McNeil Jr., New York Times, December 2, 2003. However, other studies suggest that SERT-depletion arises from long-term MDMA use due to receptor down-regulation, rather than true neurotoxicity. "p-Chlorophenylalanine Changes Serotonin Transporter mRNA Levels and Expression of the Gene Product", Journal of Neurochemistry, 1996. Online copy (pdf) Depression and deficits in memory have been shown to occur more frequently in long-term MDMA users. Depression at DanceSafe.org However, some recent studies have suggested that MDMA use may not be associated with chronic depression. Study claims recreational ecstasy use and depression unrelated, Wikinews, April 26, 2006] One study on MDMA toxicity, by George A. Ricaurte of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, which claimed that a single recreational dose of MDMA could cause Parkinson's Disease in later life due to severe dopaminergic stress, was actually retracted by Ricaurte himself after he discovered his lab had administered not MDMA but methamphetamine, which is known to cause dopaminergic changes similar to the serotonergic changes caused by MDMA. Ecstasy Study Botched, Retracted, Kristen Philipkoski, Wired.com, 09.05.03 Ricaurte blamed this mistake on the chemical supply company that sold the material to his lab. Most studies have found that levels of the dopamine transporter (or other markers of dopamine function) in MDMA users deserve further study or are normal. Aghajanian & Liebermann (2001) 'Caveat Emptor: Reseearchers Beware' Neuropsychopharmacology 24,3:335-6 Another concern associated with MDMA use is toxicity from chemicals other than MDMA in ecstasy tablets. Due to its near-universal illegality, the purity of a substance sold as ecstasy is unknown to the typical user. The MDMA content of tablets varies widely between regions and different brands of pills and fluctuates somewhat each year. Pills may contain other active substances meant to stimulate in a way similar to MDMA, such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, ephedrine, or caffeine, all of which may be comparatively cheap to produce and can help to boost profit overall. In some cases, tablets sold as ecstasy do not even contain any MDMA. Instead they may contain an assortment of presumably undesirable drugs such as paracetamol, ibuprofen, etc. Summary Statistics for EcstasyData.org Lab Testing Results There have been a number of deaths attributed to PMA, a potent and highly neurotoxic hallucinogenic amphetamine, being sold as Ecstasy. PMA is unique in its ability to quickly elevate body temperature and heart rate at relatively low doses, especially in comparison to MDMA. Club Drug Update, Jeff Morelock, PRP Online, Spring 2003 Hence, a user who believes he is consuming two 120 mg pills of MDMA could actually be consuming a dose of PMA that is potentially lethal, depending on the purity of the pill. Not only does PMA cause the release of serotonin, but also acts as an MAO-A inhibitor. When combined with an ecstasy-like substance, serotonin syndrome can result. UK government assessment of overall harm The chief executive of the UK Medical Research Council stated that MDMA is "on the bottom of the scale of harm," and was rated to be of lesser concern than alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis, as well as several classes of prescription medications, when examining the harmfulness of twenty popular recreational drugs. The UK study placed great weight on the risk for acute physical harm, the propensity for physical and psychological dependency on the drug, and the negative familial and societal impacts of the drug. Based on these factors, the study placed MDMA at number 18 in the list. Scientists want new drug rankings, BBC News, 23 March 2007 David Nutt, chairman of the UK Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, stated in the Journal of Psychopharmacology in January 2009 that ecstasy use compared favorably with horse riding in terms of risk, leading to around 50 deaths a year compared to about 100 from horse riding. The ACMD subsequently made clear that Professor Nutt's comments were not made on behalf of the ACMD. Ecstasy 'not worse than riding', BBC News, 7 February 2009 An investigation is also currently being run to reclassify ecstasy as a class B drug in the United Kingdom. It is currently a class A drug, the same class as heroin. Drug interactions Individuals who have stopped taking any type of SSRI after prolonged medication may not be able to experience the desired effects of MDMA for as long as several months following discontinuation of the medication. This is due to the fact that SSRIs decrease the brain's sensitivity to the presence of serotonin as the brain seeks to reestablish a normalized neuro-electrical balance. Most people who die while under the influence of MDMA have also consumed significant quantities of at least one other drug. The risk of MDMA-induced death overall is minimal. Primetime video The use of MDMA can be dangerous when combined with other drugs (particularly monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and antiretroviral drugs, in particular ritonavir). Combining MDMA with MAOIs can precipitate hypertensive crisis, as well as serotonin syndrome which can be fatal. MAO-B inhibitors such as deprenyl do not seem to carry these risks when taken at selective doses, and have been used to completely block neurotoxicity in rats. The Prozac Misunderstanding, at TheDEA.org Pharmacokinetics MDMA reaches maximal concentrations in the blood between 1.5 and 3 hours after ingestion. It is then slowly metabolized and excreted, with levels decreasing to half their peak concentration over approximately 8 hrs. Thus, there are still high MDMA levels in the body when the experiential effects have mostly ended, indicating that the brain has developed short-term tolerance to the presence of MDMA. Taking additional MDMA at this point therefore produces higher concentrations of MDMA in the blood and brain than might be expected based on the perceived effects. Metabolites of MDMA that have been identified in humans include 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-methamphetamine (HMMA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (DHA, also called alpha-methyldopamine), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone (MDP2P), and N-hydroxy-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDOH). The contributions of these metabolites to the psychoactive and toxic effects of MDMA are an area of active research. 65% of MDMA is excreted unchanged in the urine (additionally 7% is metabolised into MDA) during 24 hours after usage. MDMA is known to be metabolized by two main metabolic pathways: (1) O-demethylenation followed by catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)-catalyzed methylation and/or glucuronide/sulfate conjugation; and (2) N-dealkylation, deamination, and oxidation to the corresponding benzoic acid derivatives conjugated with glycine. The metabolism may be primarily by cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP2D6 (in humans, but CYP2D1 in mice), and CYP3A4) and COMT. Complex, nonlinear pharmacokinetics arise via autoinhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2D8, resulting in zeroth order kinetics at higher doses. It is thought that this can result in sustained and higher drug concentrations if the user takes consecutive doses of the drug. Because the enzyme CYP2D6 is deficient or totally absent in some people eMedicine - Toxicity, MDMA : Article by David Yew , it was once hypothesized that these people might have elevated risk when taking MDMA. However, there is still no evidence for this theory and available evidence argues against it. It is now thought that the contribution of CYP2D6 to MDMA metabolism in humans is less than 30% of the metabolism. Indeed, an individual lacking CYP2D6 was given MDMA in a controlled clinical setting and a larger study gave MDMA to healthy volunteers after inhibiting CYP2D6 with paroxetine. Lack of the enzyme caused a modest increase in drug exposure and decreases in some metabolites, but physical effects did not appear appreciably elevated. While there is little or no evidence that low CYP2D6 activity increases risks from MDMA, it is likely that MDMA-induced CYP2D inhibition will increase risk of those prescription drugs that are metabolized by this enzyme. MDMA-induced CYP2D inhibition appears to last for up to a week after MDMA exposure. There are a number of reported potentially dangerous possible interactions between MDMA and other drugs. Several cases have been reported of death in individuals who ingested MDMA while taking ritonavir, which inhibits multiple CYP450 enzymes. Toxicity or death has also been reported in people who took MDMA in combination with monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as phenelzine or moclobemide. MDMA and metabolites are primarily excreted as conjugates, such as sulfates and glucuronides. MDMA is a chiral compound and has been almost exclusively administered as a racemate. However, an early uncontrolled report suggests that the S-enantiomer is significantly more potent in humans than the R-enantiomer (Anderson et al. 1978). Studies in humans indicate that the disposition of MDMA is stereoselective, with the S-enantiomer having a shorter elimination half-life and greater excretion than the R-enantiomer. For example, Fallon et al. reported that the area under the blood plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was two to four times higher for the R-enantiomer than the S-enantiomer after a 40 mg oral dose in human volunteers. Similarly, the plasma half-life of (R)-MDMA was significantly longer than that of the S-enantiomer (5.8 ± 2.2 hours vs 3.6 ± 0.9 hours). However, because MDMA has dose dependent kinetics, it is likely that these half lives would be higher at more typical doses (100 mg is sometimes considered a typical dose). Given as the racemate, MDMA has a half-life of around 8 hours. Poly substance use MDMA is occasionally known for being taken in conjunction with psychedelic drugs, such as LSD or psilocybin mushrooms. As this practice has become more prevalent, most of the more common combinations have been given nicknames, such as "candy flipping", for MDMA combined with LSD, and "hippie flipping" when combined with psilocybin mushrooms. Such combinations have the ability to produce an extremely powerful experience and may carry an increased risk of neurotoxicity, complications and/or injury when compared to any individual substance. Many users use mentholated products while taking MDMA for its cooling sensation while experiencing the drug's effects. Examples include menthol cigarettes, Vicks and lozenges. This sometimes has deleterious results on the upper respiratory tract. Erowid Experience Vaults: Vicks used with Ecstasy - Important Warning About Vicks on Ecstasy - 4287 References Further reading Julie Holland, Ecstasy: The Complete Guide: a Comprehensive Look at the Risks and Benefits of MDMA Park Street Press (2001). Jerome Beck, Marsha Rosenbaum, Pursuit of Ecstasy: The MDMA Experience SUNY Press (1994). Leslie Iversen, Speed, Ecstasy, Ritalin: The Science of Amphetamines Oxford University Press (2008). David Pearce - "Utopian Pharmacology: Mental Health in the Third Millenium: MDMA and Beyond." (2008). Kobie Whetstone - "An Analysis of MDMA-induced Neurotoxicity." (2009). Erowid, Earth. “Do Antioxidants Protect Against MDMA Hangover, Tolerance, and Neurotoxicity?” Erowid Extracts (December 2001). NIDA InfoFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy) (August 2008). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Drug Profiles: Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Nature News, Ecstasy could augment the benefits of psychotherapy (19 November 2008). Marsha Rosenbaum, Rick Doblin, Why MDMA Should Not Have Been Made Illegal. SAGE Publications (1991). Reuters Health, Ecstasy may help PTSD victims get better (20 March 2009). The Economist, Agony and ecstasy: Ecstasy may be good for those who can’t get over something truly horrible (18 December 2008). New Scientist, Ecstasy's long-term effects revealed (11 February 2009). Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, MDMA (‘ecstasy’): a review of its harms and classification under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 UK Home Office (2009). External links MDMA PiHKAL entry MDMA PiHKAL • info entry Erowid Vaults: MDMA Jennings, Peter. "Primetime Special: Peter Jennings — Ecstasy Rising." ABC News, April 1, 2004. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies MDMA Research Page - A regularly updated information source about MDMA research, including efforts to get MDMA approved as a prescription medicine. EcstasyData.org A database of photos and lab-test results of over 1500 pills of "Ecstasy." 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1,096 | Lupercalia | For the saint by the name 'Lupercus', see Marcellus of Tangier. Lupercalia was a very ancient, possibly pre-Roman pastoral festival, observed on February 15 to avert evil spirits and purify the city, releasing health and fertility. The Lupercalia was believed in antiquity to have some connection with the Ancient Greek festival of the Arcadian Lykaia (from Ancient Greek: λύκος — lykos, "wolf", Latin lupus) and the worship of Lycaean Pan, the Greek equivalent to Faunus, as instituted by Evander. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 1.32.3–5, 1.80; Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus 43.6ff; Livy, History of Rome 1.5; Ovid, Fasti 2.423–42; Plutarch, Life of Romulus 21.3, Life of Julius Caesar, Roman Questions 68; Virgil, Aeneid 8.342–344; Lydus, De mensibus 4.25. In Roman mythology, Lupercus is a god sometimes identified with the Roman god Faunus, who is the Roman equivalent of the Greek god Pan. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s.v. "Lupercus" Lupercus is the god of shepherds. His festival, celebrated on the anniversary of the founding of his temple on February 15, was called the Lupercalia. His priests wore goatskins. The second-century Christian apologist Justin Martyr mentions an image of "the Lycaean god, whom the Greeks call Pan and the Romans Lupercus," Justin Martyr, XLIII.1.7. Justin, following the euhemerist interpretation common to Christians, considered Faunus to have been an archaic king; he did not identify Faunus with Lupercus. nude save for the girdle of goatskin, which stood in the Lupercal, the cave where Romulus and Remus were suckled by a she-wolf. There, on the Ides of February, a goat and a dog were sacrificed, and salt mealcakes prepared by the Vestal Virgins were burnt. The celebration during the Late Republic and Empire Plutarch described Lupercalia: Lupercalia, of which many write that it was anciently celebrated by shepherds, and has also some connection with the Arcadian Lycaea. At this time many of the noble youths and of the magistrates run up and down through the city naked, for sport and laughter striking those they meet with shaggy thongs. And many women of rank also purposely get in their way, and like children at school present their hands to be struck, believing that the pregnant will thus be helped in delivery, and the barren to pregnancy. Plutarch • Life of Caesar The Lupercalia festival was partly in honor of Lupa, the she-wolf who suckled the infant orphans, Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, Ovid, Fasti: Lupercalia explaining the name of the festival, Lupercalia, or "Wolf Festival." The festival was celebrated near the cave of Lupercal on the Palatine (where Rome was founded, see Livy, Book I), to expiate and purify new life in the Spring. The Lupercal cave, which had fallen into a state of decay, was rebuilt by Augustus; the celebration of the festival had been maintained, as we know from the famous occurrence of it in 44 BC. A highly decorated cavern 50 feet below Augustus' palace in the correct approximate location was discovered by archeologists in October 2007, which may prove to be the Lupercal cave when analyzed. The religious ceremonies were directed by the Luperci, the "brothers of the wolf (lupus)", a corporation of priests of Faunus, dressed only in a goatskin, whose institution is attributed either to the Arcadian Evander, or to Romulus and Remus. The Luperci were divided into two collegia, called Quinctiliani (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from the gens Quinctilia (or Quinctia) and gens Fabia; at the head of each of these colleges was a magister. In 44 BC. a third college, the Julii, was instituted in honor of Julius Caesar, the first magister of which was Mark Antony. In imperial times the members were usually of equestrian standing. The festival began with the sacrifice by the Luperci (or the flamen dialis) of two male goats and a dog. One of Plutarch's Roman Questions was "68. Why do the Luperci sacrifice a dog?" His best response was "Nearly all the Greeks used a dog as the sacrificial victim for ceremonies of purification; and some, at least, make use of it even to this day. They bring forth for Hecate puppies along with the other materials for purification." (on-line text in English). Next two young patrician Luperci were led to the altar, to be anointed on their foreheads with the sacrificial blood, which was wiped off the bloody knife with wool soaked in milk, after which they were expected to smile and laugh. The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut thongs from the skins of the victims, which were called Februa, dressed themselves in the skins of the sacrificed goats, in imitation of Lupercus, and ran round the walls of the old Palatine city, the line of which was marked with stones, with the thongs in their hands in two bands, striking the people who crowded near. Girls and young women would line up on their route to receive lashes from these whips. This was supposed to ensure fertility, prevent sterility in women and ease the pains of childbirth. This tradition itself may survive (Christianised, and shifted to Spring) in certain ritual Easter Monday whippings. The Lupercalia in the fifth century By the fifth century, when the public performance of pagan rites had been outlawed, a nominally Christian Roman populace still clung to the Lupercalia in the time of Gelasius (494–96). It had been literally degraded since the first century, when in 44 BC the consul Mark Antony did not scruple to run with the Luperci; Plutarch, Life of Antony, Cicero, Philippics II.85. now the upper classes left the festivities to the rabble. ad viles trivialesque personas, abiectos et infimos. (Gelasius) Whatever the fortunes of the rites in the meantime, in the last decade of the fifth century they prompted Pope Gelasius I's taunt to the senators who were intent on preserving them: "If you assert that this rite has salutary force, celebrate it yourselves in the ancestral fashion; run nude yourselves that you may properly carry out the mockery." Gelasius, Epistle to Andromachus, quoted in Green 1931:65. The remark was addressed to the senator Andromachus by Gelasius in an extended literary epistle that was virtually a diatribe against the Lupercalia. Gelasius finally abolished the Lupercalia after a long dispute. References in art William Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar begins during the Lupercalia, with the tradition described above. Mark Antony is instructed by Caesar to strike his wife Calpurnia, in the hope that she will be able to conceive: CAESAR (to Calpurnia) ANTONY CAESAR See also Roman festivals Roman mythology Notes References Liebler, Naomi Conn (1988). The Ritual Ground of Julius Caesar. Pauly-Wissowa www.collegeofthecrossroads.org Further reading Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon. Religions of Rome: A History. Cambridge University Press, 1998, vol. 1, limited preview online; search "Lupercalia." Lincoln, Bruce. Authority: Construction and Corrosion. University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp. 43–44 online on Julius Caesar and the politicizing of the Lupercalia; valuable list of sources pp. 182–183. North, John. Roman Religion. The Classical Association, 2000, pp. 47 online and 50 on the problems of interpreting evidence for the Lupercalia. Markus, R.A. The End of Ancient Christianity. Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 131–134 online, on the continued celebration of the Lupercalia among "uninhibited Christians" into the 5th century, and the reasons for the "brutal intervention" by Pope Gelasius. Wiseman, T.P. "The Lupercalia." In Remus: A Roman Myth. Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 77–88, limited preview online, arguably the fullest modern discussion of the Lupercalia in the context of myth and ritual. External links William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1875: Lupercalia. 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1,097 | Dayton,_Ohio | Dayton is a city in and the county seat of Montgomery County, Ohio, United States, in the southwestern part of the state. The population was 166,179 at the 2000 census. The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Montgomery, Miami, Greene, and Preble counties, had a population of 835,535 in 2007. U.S. Census Bureau - Population Estimates for Metropolitan Statistical Areas (2007) Dayton is the fourth largest metropolitan area in Ohio and the third fastest growing metropolitan area in the Midwest. The Dayton-Springfield-Greenville Combined Statistical Area had a population of 1,085,094 in 2000. Dayton is situated within the Miami Valley region of Ohio, just north of the Cincinnati metropolitan area. Dayton plays host to significant industrial, aerospace, and technological/engineering research activity and is known for the many technical innovations and inventions developed there. Much of this innovation is due in part to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and its place within the community. The city was the home of the signing of the Dayton Peace Accords, which brought an end to the war in Bosnia. Orville Wright, poet Paul Laurence Dunbar, and entrepreneur John H. Patterson were born in Dayton. History Dayton in 1870 Dayton was founded on April 1, 1796 by a small group of US settlers seven years before the admission of Ohio to the Union in 1803. The town was incorporated in 1805 and given its name after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War and signatory of the U.S. Constitution. In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out the Mad River Road, the first overland connection between Cincinnati, Ohio and Dayton. This opened up the "Mad River Country" at Dayton and the upper Miami Valley to settlement. The Miami and Erie Canal, built in the 1830s, connected the Dayton commerce from Lake Erie via the Great Miami River and served as the principal route of transportation for western Ohio until the 1850s. The catastrophic Great Dayton Flood of March 1913 severely affected much of the city, stimulated the growth of suburban communities outside central Dayton in areas lying further from the Miami River and on higher ground, and led to the establishment of the Miami Conservancy District in 1914. The flood remains an event of note in popular memory and local histories. The high waters damaged some of the Wright Brothers' glass plate photographic negatives of their glider flights at Kitty Hawk and power flights over Huffman Prairie near Dayton. On November 29, 1964, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered a speech to more than 6,200 people at the UD Fieldhouse (now called Thomas J. Frericks Center) on the University of Dayton campus. A reel-to-reel recording of this speech was discovered at the University of Dayton. The audio recording was discovered in January 2009 by filmmaker David Schock of Grand Haven, Michigan. He found the unlabeled tape in a box of recordings. Patents and inventions Dayton, Ohio has been the site for many patents and inventions since the 1870s. Dayton Inventions Fast facts and inventors Famous inventors such as the Wright Brothers who invented the airplane and Charles F. Kettering who had numerous inventions also came from Dayton. According to the National Park Service who cited information from the U.S. Patent Office Dayton had more granted patents per capita than any other U.S. city in 1890 and ranked fifth in the nation as early as 1870. Involvement in World War II During World War II Dayton, like many other American cities, was heavily involved in the war effort. Residential neighborhoods in Dayton and in nearby Oakwood hosted the Dayton Project, in which the Monsanto Chemical Company developed methods to industrially produce polonium for use in the triggers of early atomic bombs, including those dropped by the United States on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Dayton was also home to the National Cash Register Company whose employees built airplane engines, bomb sights and code-breaking machines, including the American bombe designed by Joseph Desch which helped crack the Enigma machine. Peace accords The Dayton Agreement, a peace accord between the parties to the hostilities of the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the former Yugoslavia, was negotiated in the Dayton area. Negotiations took place from November 1, 1995 to November 21, 1995 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton. Nicknames Dayton's primary nickname is the "Gem City". The origin of the name is no longer clear; it appears to stem either from a well-known racehorse named "Gem" that hailed from Dayton, or from descriptions of the city likening it to a gem. The most likely origin appears to be an 1845 article in the Cincinnati Daily Chronicle newspaper, by an author writing with the byline "T", which reads In a small bend of the Great Miami River, with canals on the east and south, it can be fairly said, without infringing on the rights of others, that Dayton is the gem of all our interior towns. It possesses wealth, refinement, enterprise, and a beautiful country, beautifully developed. Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872–1906) later acknowledged the nickname in his poem, "Toast to Dayton", which contains this stanza: She shall ever claim our duty, For she shines—the brightest gem That has ever decked with beauty Dear Ohio's diadem. Historical Sacred Heart Church Another explanation for the nickname "Gem", is from Dayton's sister city to the south, Cincinnati. Cincinnati is known as the "Queen City", and Dayton would be the "Gem" in the queen's crown. The city was advertised as "The Gem City, the Cleanest City in America" in the 1950s, 60s and into the 70s. The phrase was often seen on public trash cans, and other places throughout the city during this time period. Additionally, Dayton has one of the most consistent street cleaning schedules. Every morning, street cleaners sweep downtown Dayton of any trash from the previous day. Dayton has also been called "Dragons City." This nickname came from the popular minor league baseball team for which Dayton has become famous. The nickname is most popular among younger crowds in Dayton such has the various college campuses and on the military base. Ohio's nickname "Birthplace of Aviation" is also frequently seen due to Dayton being the hometown of the Wright Brothers. In their bicycle shop in Dayton, the Wrights developed the principles of aerodynamics, and designed and constructed a number of gliders and portions of their first airplane. After their first manned flights in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, which had been chosen due to its constant predictable winds and desolation, the Wrights continued testing at nearby Huffman Prairie. The Wright Brothers | The First Circular Geography Dayton is located at (39.762708, -84.196665). The city sits in the Miami River Valley, north of Cincinnati, well south of Toledo, south-west of Columbus, and east of Richmond, Indiana, in the southwest quadrant of the state. Most official and government designations place it in west-central Ohio (a term which colloquially often refers to Lima, Ohio). It is at the confluence of the Great Miami River, the Stillwater and Mad rivers, and Wolf Creek. Greater Dayton is generally referred to by locals as the Miami Valley, which is understood to mean the area south of Sidney and north of Middletown, and west of Springfield to the Indiana border Dayton Aerial According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 56.6 square miles (146.7 km²), of which, 55.8 square miles (144.5 km²) of it is land and 0.9 square miles (2.2 km²) of it (1.55%) is water. Climate Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F 71 73 82 89 93 102 102 102 101 89 79 72 Norm High °F 33.7 38.2 49.3 60.7 71.2 80.1 84.2 82.3 75.6 63.5 50.1 38.5 Norm Low °F 19 22.4 31.2 40.4 51.1 60.2 64.4 62.2 54.6 43.5 34.3 24.4 Rec Low °F -25 -16 -7 15 27 40 44 39 32 21 -2 -20 Precip (in) 2.6 2.29 3.29 4.03 4.17 4.21 3.75 3.49 2.65 2.72 3.3 3.08Source: USTravelWeather.com The region is dominated by a humid continental climate, characterized by hot, muggy summers and cold, dry winters. The highest temperature ever recorded in Dayton was 105 °F in July 1934, and the coldest was -21 °F in January 1985. Dayton is subject to severe weather typical to the Midwestern United States. Tornadoes are possible from the spring to the fall. Floods, blizzards, and severe thunderstorms can also occur from time to time. Suburbs Dayton's suburbs with a population of 10,000 or more: Demographics Note: the following demographic information applies only to the city of Dayton proper. For other Dayton-area communities, see their respective articles. As of the census of 2000, there were 166,179 people, 67,409 households, and 37,614 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,979.3 people per square mile (1,150.3/km²). There were 77,321 housing units at an average density of 1,386.3/sq mi (535.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 53.40% White, 43.10% Black, 0.30% Native American, 0.65% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.70% from other races, and 1.83% from two or more races. 1.58% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The population of Dayton has been declining since the 1970s, as can be observed from portrayal of historical population data. This is in part due to the slowdown of manufacturing in the region and the growth of Dayton's suburbs including Englewood, Vandalia, Beavercreek, Miamisburg, and Centerville. Dayton ranked fifth in Forbes magazine's list of America's Emptiest Cities in February 2009. Households There were 67,409 households out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% were married couples living together, 20.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.2% were non-families. 36.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 3.04. Age structure and gender ratio The age structure of Dayton's population is: under 18 years: 25.1% 18 to 24 years: 14.2% 25 to 44 year: 29.0% 45 to 64 years: 19.6% 65 years of age or older: 12.0% The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there were 93.1 males, while for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males. Income The median income for a household in the city was $27,523, and the median income for a family was $34,978. Males had a median income of $30,816 versus $24,937 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,547. About 18.2% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 32.0% of those under age 18 and 15.3% of those age 65 or over. Political structure Civil War memorial in Dayton, Ohio. Electric trolley bus cables are visible in the photo. In 1913, Dayton became the first large city in the United States to adopt the council-manager system of city government. In this system, the mayor is merely the chairperson of the city commission and has one vote on the commission just like the other commissioners. The commission hires a separate city manager, who holds administrative authority over the city government. The city also encourages resident participation through the use of neighborhood associations and priority boards. A total of 65 neighborhoods comprise seven priority board districts. See also: Neighborhoods of Dayton, Ohio Public safety Dayton has experienced an improving public safety environment since 2003, with crime declining in key categories according to FBI Uniform Crime Reports and Dayton Police Department data. City officials reported in January 2008 a decline of 6.1 percent in crime for 2007 when compared to 2006. From 2003 to 2007, crime decreased by 10.7 percent. Among violent crimes (homicide, rape, robbery and aggravated assault), Dayton saw a decline of 17.3 percent over the five years ending December 31, 2007. Targeted crimes in Dayton declined 39 percent over the five-year period. Despite these statiscal gains, Dayton remains only the 147th largest city in America by population, yet is the 19th most violent according to the FBI. A new police chief, Richard S. Biehl, joined the Dayton Police Department in January 2008. Biehl brought more than 25 years of law enforcement experience (with expertise in prevention and community policing) to Dayton following a career with the Cincinnati Police Department and the Community Police Partnering Center (where he served as Executive Director), also in Cincinnati. Mayor Rhine McLin is a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, a bi-partisan group with a stated goal of "making the public safer by getting illegal guns off the streets." The Coalition is co-chaired by Boston, Massachusetts Mayor Thomas Menino and New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg. Economy C-5 Galaxy at Wright Patterson AFB Dayton is home to many major corporations and companies such as NCR, Reynolds and Reynolds, CareSource, Cargill, ChemStation International, NewPage Corporation, Standard Register, WorkflowOne (formerly Relizon), Huffy Bicycles, LexisNexis, Kettering Health Network, Premier Health Partners, and Mead prior to becoming MeadWestvaco. It was formerly home of Speedwell Motor Car Company. Two of these companies, NCR and NewPage Corporation, are both Fortune 500 companies. The research and development arm of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is the fifth largest employer in the state of Ohio and the largest employer at a single location. The hospitals contained within the Kettering Health Network and the Premier Health Partner Network have a major role on the Dayton area's economy. Hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000, a yearly economic impact of $5 billion, and are the two main compeating hospital networks in the Dayton area. In addition, two Dayton area hospitals, Miami Valley Hospital and Kettering Medical Center, consistantly earn top national ranking from U.S. News & World Report's list of "America's Best Hospitals." Below is a list of the Dayton region's largest employers: Largest employers and Number of employees: Wright-Patterson Air Force Base 22,000 Premier Health Partners 9,000 Delphi Automotive Systems 8,700 AK Steel Corp. 3,800 Good Samaritan Hospital 3,000 Urban design and architecture <center>Panorama of Dayton Unlike many midwestern cities of its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two or three full lanes in each direction), facilitating access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning: streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. In addition, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths. Right|Mutual Home Savings Building A courthouse building was constructed in downtown Dayton in 1888 to supplement Dayton's original Neoclassical courthouse, which still stands. This second, "new" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park. The Old Court House has also been a favorite campaign stop. On September 17, 1859, future President Abraham Lincoln delivered an address on the steps of the building. Eight other presidents have visited the courthouse, either as presidents or during presidential campaigns. They include Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. Dayton's ten historic neighborhoods — Oregon District, Wright Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Kenilworth,St. Anne's Hill, and South Park — feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, Jacobethan, Tudor Revival, English Gothic, Chateauesque, Craftsman, Queen Anne, Georgian Revival, Colonial Revival, Renaissance Revival Architecture, Shingle Style Architecture, Prairie, Mission Revival, Eastlake/Italianate, American Foursquare, and Federal styles of architecture. Preservation Dayton - News & Events In 2009, The CareSource Management Group completed construction of a $55 million corporate headquarters at the corner of Main Street and Monument Avenue in downtown Dayton. The 300,000-square-foot, 10-story building marks downtown's first new office tower in more than a decade. The two tallest buildings of the Dayton skyline are the Kettering Tower at 408 ft (124 m) and the KeyBank Tower at 385 ft (117 m). Kettering Tower was originally Winters Tower, the headquarters of Winters Bank. The building was renamed after Virginia Kettering when Winters was merged into BankOne. KeyBank Tower was formerly known as the MeadWestvaco Tower before KeyBank gained naming rights to the building in 2008. Culture and recreation Fine arts Dayton is also home to a variety of performing arts venues. The Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center at the corner of Second and Main, is a world class performing arts center and the home performance venue of the Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra and the Dayton Opera. In addition to Philharmonic and Opera performances, the Schuster Center hosts concerts, lectures, traveling Broadway shows, and is a popular spot for weddings and other events. The historic Victoria Theatre, located at the corner of First and Main, hosts concerts, traveling Broadway shows, ballet, a summertime classic film series, and more. The Loft Theatre, also on Main Street, is the home of the Human Race Theatre Company. The Dayton Playhouse, located in West Dayton, is also the site of numerous plays and theatrical production. Dayton is also the home to the Gem City Ballet and Progressive Dance Theater, companies in residence at the Pontecorvo Ballet Studio. Food Marion's Piazza Dayton is home to a variety of popular pizza chains that have become woven into local culture, the most notable of which are Cassano's and Marion's Piazza. Dayton is also home to the Mexican Restaurant chain Hot Head Burritos. Hot Head Burritos was ranked by AOL.com in 2009 as one of America's next big chains. Super Subby's is also a Dayton-based restaurant chain which specializes in submarine sandwiches and chili. Museums and historical parks The National Museum of the United States Air Force is at nearby Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and is the largest and oldest military aviation museum in the world. The museum draws over 1.3 million visitors per year and is the single most visited tourist attraction in Ohio. The museum houses the National Aviation Hall of Fame. Dayton is home to the Dayton Art Institute, a museum of fine arts that has collections containing more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years. . The Dayton Art Institute was rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for kids. . The Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar. America's Packard Museum is the world's only restored Packard Dealership operating as a museum. The museum contains over 50 restored Packard vehicles, and in addition, significant artifacts from the Packard Motor Car Company are on display. . SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park is located on the south end of Dayton. SunWatch is the location of a 12th century American Indian village that has been partially reconstructed and includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley. The Boonshoft Museum of Discovery is a local children's museum of science with numerous exhibits, one of which includes an indoor zoo. Entertainment South of Dayton in Kettering is the Fraze Pavilion which hosts many nationally and internationally known musicians for concerts. South of downtown, on the banks of the Great Miami River, is the University of Dayton Arena, home venue for the University of Dayton Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts. North of Dayton is the Hara Arena that frequently hosts expo events and concerts. The Nutter Center, which is east of Dayton in the suburb of Fairborn is the home arena for athletics of Wright State University and the Dayton Bombers hockey team. This venue is also used for many concerts and community events. From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the National Folk Festival. Since then, the annual Cityfolk Festival has continued to bring the best in folk, ethnic and world music and arts to Dayton. The Dayton Amateur Radio Association annually hosts North America's largest hamfest at Hara Arena in Trotwood, 2008 Dayton Hamvention - The Greatest Amateur Radio Convention in the World! a neighboring suburb. Amateur radio operators are commonly referred to as "hams" with as many as 25,000 traveling from around the world to attend this convention. Dayton hosts the Winter Guard International championships, at which hundreds of percussion and color guard ensembles compete from around the world. The Dayton area is served by Five Rivers Metroparks, encompassing 11,500 acres over 23 facilities for year-round recreation, education and conservation. The Oregon District is a historic residential and commercial district located in southeast downtown Dayton. The district is populated with art galleries, specialty shops, pubs, nightclubs, and coffee houses. Sports UD Arena Club League Venue Established Championships Dayton Dragons MWL, Baseball Fifth Third Field 1998 0 Dayton Bombers ECHL, Ice hockey Nutter Center 1991 0 Dayton Diamonds NWFA, Women's football Chester A. Roush Stadium, Fairmont High School 2008 0 Dayton Flyers NCAA basketball & football UD Arena (basketball), Welcome Stadium (football)19950,0 Wright State Raiders NCAA Men's and Women's Basketball, Baseball, Softball, & Men's and Women's Soccer Ervin J. Nutter Center (Basketball), Nischwitz Field (Baseball), Alumni Field (Soccer)1990 (Nutter Center), 2000 (Nischwitz Field), 1999 (Alumni Field)1 (Men's Basketball, 1983 D-II), 0, 0 BaseballThe Dayton Dragons is Dayton's only professional baseball team and is the minor league affiliate for the Cincinnati Reds. The Dayton Dragons are the first (and only) team in minor league baseball history to sell out an entire season before it began and was voted as one of the top ten hottest tickets to get in all of professional sports by Sports Illustrated. Collegiate The University of Dayton and Wright State University both host NCAA basketball. The University of Dayton Arena hosted 82 games in the NCAA men's basketball tournament over its history, the second most prolific venue in NCAA history and the most prolific among active venues, http://web1.ncaa.org/web_files/stats/m_final4/2009/06Attendance%20&%20Sites.pdf with the most recent being first and second round games of the 2009 tournament. Hockey The Dayton Bombers is an ECHL ice hockey team that is is in the North Division of the ECHL's American Conference. On March 30, 2009, it was announced that the Bombers would not be playing during the 2009-2010 season due to low ticket sales. http://www.daytondailynews.com/s/content/oh/story/sports/pro/bombers/2009/03/30/ddn033009bombersweb.html . Football Football teams in the Dayton area are the Dayton Flyers Football and the Dayton Diamonds women's football. Dayton hosted the first American Professional Football Association game (precursor to the NFL). The game was played at Triangle Park between the Dayton Triangles and the Columbus Panhandles on October 3, 1920. Football Firsts Media The sculpture Flyover (David Evans Black, 1996) on Main Street downtown. The sculpture tracks the path of the Wright Brothers' first powered aircraft flight. Newspapers The principal general-circulation daily newspaper in the region is the Dayton Daily News, which is owned by Cox Enterprises. Christian Citizen USA (currently doing business as Citizen USA), which claims to uphold traditional values and distances itself from secular media, Citizen USA - Commentary is a newspaper with circulation in greater Dayton and its surrounding suburban communities. The Dayton City Paper is a free weekly circulation newspaper formerly known as the Impact Weekly. The Kettering-Oakwood Times, part of the Brown Publishing family, is a weekly with circulation primarily in the south suburban communities. Brown weeklies have a circulation of over 100,000 in the Metro-Dayton area. Community Xpress is a weekly publication distributed in several Miami Valley communities. Flyer News is the semiweekly student newspaper at the University of Dayton and serves the campus community. The Guardian is the weekly student newspaper at Wright State University. And, the Clarion is the student newspaper of Sinclair Community College. Television The Dayton metro area's broadcast television stations are as follows: WDTN, Channel 2 – NBC, operated by LIN TV WHIO-TV, Channel 7 – CBS, operated by Cox Communications WPTD, Channel 16 – PBS, operated by ThinkTV (formerly known as Greater Dayton Public Television), which also operates WPTO, assigned to Oxford, Ohio WKEF, Channel 22 – ABC, operated by Sinclair Broadcasting WBDT, Channel 26 – The CW, operated by Acme Television WRGT-TV, Channel 45 – Fox/My Network TV, operated under a local marketing agreement by Sinclair Broadcasting The Dayton television market is ranked the #62 Nielsen DMA in the United States. Nationally syndicated morning talk show The Daily Buzz originated from WBDT-TV, the Acme property in Miamisburg, Ohio before moving to its current home in Florida. Radio AM format WLW 700 - news and talk (Cincinnati) WPFB 910 - Classic Country (Middletown) WONE 980 – sports (Fox Sports) WGNZ 1110 - gospel hit radio (Fairborn) WDAO 1210 – black contemporary, soul music, local news and talk WHIO 1290 – news and talk (Cox Communications-owned, Fox News Radio affiliate) WIZE 1340 - repeater for WONE 980 (Springfield) WING 1410 – sports (ESPN Radio) WBZI 1500 - country (Xenia) plus repeaters WEDI 1130 in Eaton and WKFI 1090 in Wilmington WPTW 1570 - high school sports (Piqua) WULM 1600 - "Radio Maria USA" Catholic radio, repeater of KJMJ (Alexandria, Louisiana transmitting in Springfield) 1660 - informational radio (Kettering) FM format WDPR 88.1 – Dayton Public Radio, classical WCSU-FM 88.9 – Urban jazz and gospel WQRP 89.5 – Praise 89.5, Christian Praise and Worship WCDR 90.3 – Christian (based in nearby Cedarville, Ohio) WYSO 91.3 – National Public Radio (based in nearby Yellow Springs, Ohio) WROU 92.1 – Urban adult contemporary WGTZ 92.9 – Jack Format 50's-90's "We Play Anything" (Fly 92.9) WFCJ 93.7 – Christian (WFCJ Inspiration!) WDKF 94.5 – Top 40 rhythmic pop (Channel 945) WYGY 94.9 - Classic Country (94.9 The Wolf - based in Fairfield, Ohio) WZLR 95.3 – Classic hits (95.3 The Eagle) WHIO 95.7 – News and talk (WHIO FM) (Simulcasts with WHIO 1290AM) WFTK 96.5 - Rock (96Rock - based in Lebanon, Ohio) WOKL 96.9 - Contemporary Christian (based in Troy, repeater of K-LOVE 89.3 FM in Winchester, Oregon) WSWO 97.7/101.5 - Ultimate Oldies (based in Huber Heights) WUDR 98.1/99.5 - Flyer Radio (University of Dayton) WKET 98.3 - "The Bird" Student run station out of Fairmont High School (Impact 98.3) (Based in Kettering) WHKO 99.1 – Country (K99.1FM) WLQT 99.9 – Soft adult contemporary (Lite 99.9) WEEC 100.7 - Christian WCWT 101.5 - "The Beef" Student run station out of Centerville High School (Based in Centerville) WUFM 102.5 - RadioU - Christian alternative and hardcore (based in Columbus) WDHT 102.9 – Urban (Hot 102.9) WGRR 103.5 - Oldies (Based in Cincinnati, Ohio) WXEG 103.9 – Modern rock (The X) WTUE 104.7 – Classic rock WPFB 105.9 - Country (The Rebel 105.9) WDSJ 106.5 – Smooth jazz (Smooth Jazz 106.5) WWSU 106.9 – College radio (Wright State University) WMMX 107.7 – Hot adult contemporary (Mix 107.7) Some Cincinnati and other southwest Ohio radio and television stations can be received in parts of Dayton, as well. Transportation Public transit The Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority (RTA) operates public bus routes in the Dayton metro area. In addition to routes covered by traditional diesel-powered buses, RTA has a number of electric trolley bus routes. In continuous operation since 1888 with some form of electric transit, Dayton is the second longest-running of the five remaining trolleybus systems in the U.S., having started them in 1933. They are behind Philadelphia, which started trolleybuses in 1923 North American Trackless Trolley Association's DATA BOOK II (1979), pages 9 & 10 of the All Time Operators List, v4. There is currently no RTA bus route serving the Dayton International Airport. Dayton also operates a Greyhound Lines bus station located downtown near the Dayton Convention Center. This provides national inter-city scheduled bus service to and from the Dayton area. Airports Air transportation is available via the Dayton International Airport, located in nearby Vandalia, just north of Dayton proper. People from nearby cities such as Cincinnati, Columbus, and Indianapolis travel and fly out of Dayton due to lower costs. The Dayton International Airport, ranking among the nation's busiest air-freight facilities, is the midwestern hub for Emery Worldwide, a CF company. Dayton's central location means that the Airport is within 90 minutes by air from 55 percent of the nation's population. The Dayton International Airport is also a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, United States Postal Service, and major commercial freight carriers. The Dayton-Wright Brothers Airport is a general aviation airport that is owned and operated by the City of Dayton and serves as the reliever airport for Dayton International Airport. The airport primarily serves corporate and personal aircraft users. Major highways Interstate 75 runs north to south though the city of Dayton and many of Dayton's north and south suburbs. Interstate 70 is a major east-west insterstate that runs through many of Dayton's east and west suburbs and intersects with I-75 in Vandalia, Ohio just north of the city. This intersection is also known as "Freedom Veterans Crossroads." I-70 is the major route to the airport. Interstate 675 is a partial interstate ring along the eastern suburbs of Dayton. It runs north to south and connects I-70 to the north and I-75 to the south. Route 4 runs through downtown Dayton and connects at I-70. The intersection of Route 4 and I-75 is also known to locals as Malfunction Junction, because of the sharp turn in the Northbound lanes of I-75 that causes heavy traffic delays during rush hour. That section of interstate is also known for traffic accidents. US 35 is also a major east-west highway passing through downtown Dayton. It intersects with I-75 in downtown Dayton. US 35 carries commuters east to Xenia, Ohio or west to the Ohio-Indiana border. The stretch of US 35 through downtown just recently underwent major reconstruction, extending the third lane past Steve Whalen Blvd to the east. Route 49 is another major by-way for Dayton. It begins on the west side of the city at US 35 and ends at M-49 in Michigan. The most widely used portion of this route for the Dayton area is from US 35 north to I-70. Route 49 is also known as the Trotwood Connector in the Dayton area. The Ohio Department of Transportation is currently in the process of $533 million worth of construction to modify and reconstruct I-75 through downtown Dayton. ODOT will be reconstructing OH-4 and I-75, US 35 and I-75, and 12 other interchanges along I-75 in Dayton. Rail freight Dayton has been identified as a hub in the proposed Ohio Hub project, which would bring high-speed rail to Ohio. The Ohio Hub. Ohio Rail Development Commission. Retrieved on 2006-11-04. Dayton also hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals. Three Class I railroads both CSX, Norfolk Southern Railway, and Conrail operate switching yards in the city. Because of its transportation system, which affords direct access to major markets, Dayton has become an important warehouse and distribution center. Education Public schools The Dayton Public High Schools operates 34 schools that serve 16,855 students. Paul Laurence Dunbar High Thurgood Marshall High Meadowdale High Patterson Career Center Belmont High Stivers School for the Arts Private schools The city of Dayton has 35 private schools located within the city. Chaminade-Julienne Catholic High School The Miami Valley School Carroll High School St. Mary's Hall and the Immaculate Conception Chapel at the University of Dayton Colleges and universities Dayton is home to two major universities: the University of Dayton, a private, Catholic institution founded in 1850 by the Marianist order, and the public Wright State University, which became a state university in 1967. Wright State University has the only medical school in the Dayton area. The University of Dayton has the only American Bar Association (ABA) approved law school in the Dayton area. http://www.law.udayton.edu UDSL The University of Dayton is also Ohio's largest private University and is one of the top 10 Catholic Universities in the United States. Dayton is also home to Sinclair Community College one of the largest community colleges in the nation. Sinclair is also one of the country's leading community colleges. http://www.sinclair.edu/about/index.cfm About Sinclair Community College Sinclair was originally founded as the YMCA college in 1887. Dayton is also home to Miami-Jacob's College, the International School of Broadcasting, and the Dayton School of Medical Massage. Other schools just outside of Dayton that shape the educational landscape are Kettering College of Medical Arts in Kettering, DeVry University in Beavercreek (Dayton), and Clark State Community College in Springfield. Points of interest Cox Arboretum and Gardens MetroPark Woodland Cemetery and Arboretum Carillon Historical Park Dayton International Peace Museum Montgomery County Historical Society Aullwood Audubon Center and Farm Sister cities Dayton City Seal in sister city Holon, Israel (4th from the left) Augsburg, Germany Holon, Israel Monrovia, Liberia Oiso, Japan Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina See also List of people from Dayton, Ohio List of tallest buildings in Dayton, Ohio National Aviation Hall of Fame References External links Official city website Dayton Daily News Five Rivers Metroparks Dayton Metro Library Dayton History Books Online Dayton Public Schools Greater Dayton RTA Bus Lines History of NCR Visitors' information (from Wright State University) What Dreams We Have, The Wright Brothers and Their Hometown of Dayton, OH | Dayton,_Ohio |@lemmatized dayton:190 city:47 county:4 seat:1 montgomery:3 ohio:34 united:10 state:23 southwestern:1 part:5 population:13 census:4 metropolitan:5 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1,098 | Asbestos | Fibrous asbestos on muscovite Asbestos Asbestos Blue asbestos (crocidolite) from Wittenoom, Western Australia. The ruler is 1 cm. Blue asbestos showing the fibrous nature of the mineral Asbestos is a naturally occurring silicate mineral with long, thin fibrous crystals. The word asbestos (ἄσβεστος) is derived from a Greek adjective meaning inextinguishable. The Greeks termed asbestos the miracle mineral because of its soft and pliant properties, as well as its ability to withstand heat. Asbestos is toxic. The inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause serious illnesses, including malignant mesothelioma, lung cancer, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis). Since the mid 1980s, many uses of asbestos have been banned in several countries. Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its resistance to heat, electricity and chemical damage, its sound absorption and tensile strength. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement or woven into fabric or mats. Asbestos was used in some products for its heat resistance, and in the past was used on electric oven and hotplate wiring for its electrical insulation at elevated temperature, and in buildings for its flame-retardant and insulating properties, tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to chemicals. Types and associated fibres Chrysotile asbestos Asbestos fibers Six minerals are defined as "asbestos" including: chrysotile, amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. White Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentine rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg(SiO)(OH). Chrysotile fibers are curly as opposed to fibers from amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, actinolite, and anthophyllite which are needlelike. American Cancer Society Chrysotile, along with other types of asbestos, has been banned in dozens of countries and is only allowed in the United States and Europe in very limited circumstances. Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Applications where chrysotile might be used include the use of joint compound. It is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos; it can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use is within corrugated asbestos cement roof sheets typically used for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It is also found as flat sheets used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, cloth behind fuses (for fire protection), pipe insulation, floor tiles, and rope seals for boilers. Brown Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the Cummingtonite - Grunerite solid solution series, commonly from Africa, named as an acronym from Asbestos Mines of South Africa. One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products and ceiling tiles. Blue Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4 is an amphibole found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia. It is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2. Notes: chrysotile commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with widths less than 1 micrometer that occur in bundles and have very long lengths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus". Amphiboles such as tremolite have a crystal structure containing strongly bonded ribbonlike silicate anion polymers that extend the length of the crystal. Serpentine (chrysotile) has a sheetlike silicate anion which is curved and which rolls up like a carpet to form the fiber. Other materials Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos (or smaragdite), CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been reported in the past to occur in a few consumer products. Other natural and not currently regulated asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2, may be found as a contaminant in products such as the vermiculite containing zonolite insulation manufactured by W.R. Grace and Company. These minerals are thought to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite, but since they are not regulated, they are referred to as "asbestiform" rather than asbestos although may still be related to diseases and hazardous. Nations Producing Asbestos Asbestos output in 2005 In 2006, 2.3 million tons of asbestos were mined worldwide, in 11 or 12 countries. Russia was the largest producer with about 40% world share followed by China, Kazakhstan, and Canada (the last of which produces 10% of the world's asbestos). Uses Historic usage Asbestos was named by the ancient Greeks, although the naming of minerals was not very consistent yet at that time (the modern Greek word ἀσβεστος stands for lime, not for the material known as asbestos in English). The ancients already recognized certain hazards of the material. The Greek geographer Strabo and the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder noted that the material damaged lungs of slaves who wove it into cloth. History of Asbestos Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor, is said to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos. Time Magazine Understanding Asbestos Mesothelioma Applied Research Center Wealthy Persians, who bought asbestos imported over the Hindu Kush, amazed guests by cleaning the cloth by simply exposing it to fire. According to Biruni in his book of Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (, āzarshast or , āzarshab) were called () shastakeh Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary . Some of the Persians believed the fiber was fur from an animal (named samandar, ) that lived in fire and died when exposed to water. University of Calgary A Brief History of Asbestos Use and Associated Health Risks EnvironmentalChemistry.com website While traveling to China, Marco Polo described observing miraculous garments that were cleaned by being placed in fires. These garments were without a doubt made from asbestos. Some archeologists believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings, in order to preserve only their ashes, and prevent their being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in funeral pyres. History of science This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain. Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral or other lamps. In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term asbestos for alumen plumosum, because the two terms have often been confused throughout history. Asbestos became more widespread during the industrial revolution; in the 1860s it was used as insulation in the U.S. and Canada. Development of the first commercial asbestos mine began in 1879 in the Appalachian foothills of Quebec. Shipyards, a Crucible for Tragedy By the mid 20th century uses included fire retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or will die, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate. Horrible Toll Could Have Been Avoided Thousands of metric tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to wrap the pipes, line the boilers, and cover engine and turbine parts. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during WWII; for every thousand workers about fourteen died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis. Asbestos fibers were once used in automobile brake pads and shoes. Since the mid-1990s, a majority of brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic and Aramid fiber (Twaron or Kevlar—the same material used in bulletproof vests). Kent, the first filtered cigarette on the market, used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956. Cancer Research The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906. In the early 1900s researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos mining towns. The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in England in 1924. By the 1930s, England regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work related disease, about ten years sooner than the U.S. The term Mesothelioma was not used in medical literature until 1931, and was not associated with asbestos until sometime in the 1940s. The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers and tried to conceal them. In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990, when production began to drop severely. Asbestos in Japan Specific products Serpentine group Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile is the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States, chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United States. Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of materials, including: joint compound mud and texture coats vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles "transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes fireproofing caulk gaskets brake pads and shoes clutch plates stage curtains fire blankets interior fire doors fireproof clothing for firefighters thermal pipe insulationA household heat spreader for cooking on gas stoves, made of asbestos (probably 1950s; "Amiante pur" is French for "Pure Asbestos") In the European Union and Australia it has recently been banned as a potential health hazard Australian prohibition on use of chrysotile asbestos and is not used at all. Japan is moving in the same direction, but more slowly. Revelations that hundreds of workers had died in Japan over the previous few decades from diseases related to asbestos sparked a scandal in mid-2005. Asbestos deaths just the tip of the iceberg Japan Times Online Tokyo had, in 1971, ordered companies handling asbestos to install ventilators and check health on a regular basis; however, the Japanese government did not ban crocidolite and amosite until 1995, and a full-fledged ban on asbestos was implemented in October 2004. Amphibole group Five types of asbestos are found in the amphibole group: amosite, crocidolite, anthophyllite, tremolite, and actinolite. Amosite, the second most likely type to be found in buildings, according to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Guide, is the "brown" asbestos. Amosite and crocidolite were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and by Japan in 1995. These products were mainly: Low density insulation board and ceiling tiles Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services Thermal and chemical insulation (i.e., fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets) Health issues Chrysotile asbestos, like all other forms of industrial asbestos, has produced tumors in animals. Mesotheliomas have been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines. Brown asbestos, like all asbestos, is hazardous. Amosite is the most hazardous of the asbestos minerals because of its hollow straight fiber structure that can stay airborne for up to 72 hours. It also does not get trapped by water as easily as the serpentine fibers do of chrysotile. Tremolite often contaminates chrysotile asbestos, thus creating an additional hazard. Asbestos exposure becomes a health concern when high concentrations of asbestos fibers are inhaled over a long time period. 2001.09.16: (Fact Sheet) Asbestos People who become ill from asbestos are almost always those who are exposed on a day-to-day basis in a job where they work directly with the material. As a person's exposure to fibers increases, either by breathing more fibers or by breathing fibers for a longer time, that person's risk of disease also increases. Disease is very unlikely to result from a single, high-level exposure, or from a short period of exposure to lower levels. Other asbestos-related diseases Asbestos warts – caused when the sharp fibers lodge in the skin and are overgrown causing benign callus-like growths. Pleural plaques – discrete fibrous or partially calcified thickened area which can be seen on X-rays of individuals exposed to asbestos. They do not become malignant or cause other lung impairment. Diffuse pleural thickening – similar to above and can sometimes be associated with asbestosis. Usually no symptoms shown but if exposure is extensive, it can cause lung impairment. Asbestos as a contaminant Asbestos fibres (SEM micrograph) Most respirable asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided human eye because their size is about 3.0-20.0 µm in length and can be as thin as 0.01 µm. Human hair ranges in size from 17 to 181 µm in width. Fibers ultimately form because when these minerals originally cooled and crystallized, they formed by the polymeric molecules lining up parallel with each other and forming oriented crystal lattices. These crystals thus have three cleavage planes, just as other minerals and gemstones have. But in their case, there are two cleavage planes that are much weaker than the third direction. When sufficient force is applied, they tend to break along their weakest directions, resulting in a linear fragmentation pattern and hence a fibrous form. This fracture process can keep occurring and one larger asbestos fiber can ultimately become the source of hundreds of much thinner and smaller fibers. As asbestos fibers get smaller and lighter, they more easily become airborne and human respiratory exposures can result. Fibers will eventually settle but may be re-suspended by air currents or other movement. Friability of a product containing asbestos means that it is so soft and weak in structure that it can be broken with simple finger crushing pressure. Friable materials are of the most initial concern because of their ease of damage. The forces or conditions of usage that come into intimate contact with most non-friable materials containing asbestos are substantially higher than finger pressure. Environmental asbestos Asbestos can be found naturally in the air outdoors and in some drinkable water, including water from natural sources. Centre for disease control article on asbestos Studies have shown that members of general (non-occupationally exposed) population have tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of asbestos fibers in each gram of dry lung tissue, which translates into millions of fibers and tens of thousands of asbestos bodies in every person's lungs. Medscape article on asbestos Asbestos from natural geologic deposits is known as "Naturally Occurring Asbestos" (NOA). Health risks associated with exposure to NOA are not yet fully understood, and current US federal regulations do not address exposure from NOA. Many populated areas are in proximity to shallow, natural deposits which occur in 50 of 58 California counties and in 19 other U.S. states. In one study, data was collected from 3,000 mesothelioma patients in California and 890 men with prostate cancer, a malignancy not known to be related to asbestos. The study found a correlation between the incidence of mesotheliomas and the distance a patient lived from known deposits of rock likely to include asbestos, the correlation was not present when the incidence of prostate cancer was compared with the same distances. According to the study, risk of mesothelioma declined by 6 percent for every 10 kilometers that an individual had lived away from a likely asbestos source. Portions of El Dorado County, California are known to contain natural asbestos formations near the surface. "Not in Their Back Yard", Mother Jones, May/June 2007. The USGS studied amphiboles in rock and soil in the area in response to an EPA sampling study and subsequent criticism of the EPA study. The study found that many amphibole particles in the area meet the counting rule criteria used by the EPA for chemical and morphological limits, but do not meet morphological requirements for commercial-grade-asbestos. The executive summary pointed out that even particles that do not meet requirements for commercial-grade-asbestos may be a health threat and suggested a collaborative research effort to assess health risks associated with "Naturally Occurring Asbestos". Large portions of Fairfax County, Virginia were also found to be underlain with tremolite. The county monitored air quality at construction sites, controlled soil taken from affected areas, and required freshly developed sites to lay of clean, stable material over the ground. History of health concerns and regulation Prior to 1900 By the first century AD, Greeks and Romans had already observed, at least in passing, that slaves involved in the weaving of asbestos cloth were afflicted with a sickness of the lungs. P. Brodeur, "Annals of Law, The Asbestos Industry on Trial, 1-A Failure to Warn, The New Yorker, June 10, 1985, pp 57 Early concern in the modern era on the health effects of asbestos exposure can be found in several sources. Among the earliest were reports in Britain. The annual reports of the Chief Inspector of Factories reported as early as 1898 that asbestos had 'easily demonstrated' health risks. Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, "Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops for the Year 1898", 1899, cited in Tweedale referenced below At about the same time, what was probably the first study of mortality among asbestos workers was reported in France. D. Auribault, "Note sur l'Hygiène et la Sécurité des Ouvriers dans les Filatures et Tissages d'Amianté (On hygiene and security of the workers in the spinning and weaving of asbestos)" in Le Bulletin de l'Inspection du Travail, 1906, pp 120 - 132. This summary was given by Broduer and roughly confirmed by Merewether & Price in the report cited below. While the study describes the cause of death as chalicosis, a generalized pneumoconiosis, the circumstances of the employment of the fifty workers whose death prompted the study suggest that the root cause was asbestos or mixed asbestos-cotton dust exposure. 1900s–1910s Further awareness of asbestos-related diseases can be found in the early 1900s, when London doctor H. Montague Murray conducted a post mortem exam on a young asbestos factory worker who died in 1899. Dr. Murray gave testimony on this death in connection with an industrial disease compensation hearing. The post-mortem confirmed the presence of asbestos in the lung tissue, prompting Dr. Murray to express as an expert opinion his belief that the inhalation of asbestos dust had at least contributed to, if not actually caused, the death of the worker H. M. Murray, testimony before the Departmental Committee on Compensation for Industrial Diseases "Minutes of Evidence, Appendices and Index", 1907. pg 127 cited and summarized in Merewether & Price referenced below . The record in the United States was similar. Early observations were largely anecdotal in nature and did not definitively link the occupation with the disease, followed by more compelling and larger studies that strengthened the association. One such study, published in 1918, noted: All of these processes unquestionably involve a considerable dust hazard, but the hygienic aspects of the industry have not been reported upon. It may be said, in conclusion, that in the practice of American and Canadian life insurance companies, asbestos workers are generally declined on account of the assumed health-injurious conditions of the industry F. L. Hoffman, "Mortality from Respiratory Diseases in Dusty Trades", Bulletin of the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Vol. 231, pp 176 - 180. Mr. Hoffman was a professional statistician, employed by Prudential with an international reputation on public health matters . 1920s and 1930s Widespread recognition of the occupational risks of asbestos in Britain was reported in 1924 by a Dr. Cooke, a pathologist, who introduced a case description of a 33-year old female asbestos worker with the following: 'Medical men in areas where asbestos is manufactured have long suspected the dust to be the cause of chronic bronchitis and fibrosis... W. E. Cooke, "Fibrosis of the Lungs Due to the Inhalation of Asbestos Dust," British Medical Journal, 1927, pg. 487 ." Dr. Cooke then went on to report on a case in 1927 involving a 33-year old male worker who was the only survivor out of ten workers in an asbestos carding room. In the report he named the disease "asbestosis W. E. Cooke, "Pulmonary Asbestosis," British Medical Journal, 1927, pp. 1024 - 1025, cited in G. Peters & B. Peters, Sourcebook on Asbestos Diseases, Volume 1, 1980, pg. G1 ." Dr. Cooke's second case report was followed, in the late 1920s, by a large public health investigation (now known as the Merewether report after one of its two authors) that examined some 360 asbestos-textile workers (reported to be about 15% of the total comparable employment in Britain at the time) and found that about a quarter of them suffered from pulmonary fibrosis E.R.A. Merewether & C. W. Price, "Report on Effects of Asbestos Dust on the Lung" H.M. Stationery Office, 1930 . This investigation resulted in improved regulation of the manufacturing of asbestos-containing products in the early 1930s. Regulations included industrial hygiene standards, medical examinations, and inclusion of the asbestos industry into the British Workers' Compensation Act Geoffrey Tweedale, Magic Mineral to Killer Dust, Turner & Newall and the Asbestos Hazard, Oxford University Press, 2001, page 21 ISBN 0199243999 . The first known US workers' compensation claim for asbestos disease was in 1927 Broduer, pp 59 - 60 . In 1930, the first reported autopsy of an asbestosis sufferer was conducted in the United states and later presented by a doctor at the Mayo Clinic, although in this case the exposure involved mining activities somewhere in South America R. G. Mills, "Pulmonary Asbestosis: Report of a Case", Minnesota Medicine, July 1930, pp 495 - 499 . In 1930, the major asbestos company Johns-Manville produced a report, for internal company use only, about medical reports of asbestos worker fatalities. In 1932, A letter from U.S. Bureau of Mines to asbestos manufacturer Eagle-Picher stated, in relevant part, "It is now known that asbestos dust is one of the most dangerous dusts to which man is exposed". In 1933, Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. doctors found that 29% of workers in a Johns-Manville plant had asbestosis. Likewise, in 1933, Johns-Manville officials settled lawsuits by 11 employees with asbestosis on the condition that the employees' lawyer agree to never again "directly or indirectly participate in the bringing of new actions against the Corporation." In 1934, officials of two large asbestos companies, Johns-Manville and Raybestos-Manhattan, edited an article about the diseases of asbestos workers written by a Metropolitan Life Insurance Company doctor. The changes downplayed the danger of asbestos dust. In 1935, officials of Johns-Manville and Raybestos-Manhattan instructed the editor of Asbestos magazine to publish nothing about asbestosis. In 1936, a group of asbestos companies agreed to sponsor research on the health effects of asbestos dust, but required that the companies maintain complete control over the disclosure of the results. 1940s In 1942, an internal Owens-Corning corporate memo referred to "medical literature on asbestosis . . . . scores of publications in which the lung and skin hazards of asbestos are discussed." Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1996, p.195 Either in 1942 or 1943, the president of Johns-Manville, Lewis H. Brown, said that the managers of another asbestos company were "a bunch of fools for notifying employees who had asbestosis." When one of the managers asked, "do you mean to tell me you would let them work until they dropped dead?" the response is reported to have been, "Yes. We save a lot of money that way." Testimony of Charles H. Roemer, Deposition taken April 25, 1984, Johns-Manville Corp., et al. v. the United States of America, U.S. Claims Court Civ. No. 465-83C, cited in Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1996, p.581 In 1944, a Metropolitan Life Insurance Company report found 42 cases of asbestosis among 195 asbestos miners. 1950s In 1951, asbestos companies removed all references to cancer before allowing publication of research they sponsored. Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1996, p.71 In 1952, Dr. Kenneth Smith, Johns-Manville medical director, recommended (unsuccessfully) that warning labels be attached to products containing asbestos. Later, Smith testified: "It was a business decision as far as I could understand . . . the corporation is in business to provide jobs for people and make money for stockholders and they had to take into consideration the effects of everything they did and if the application of a caution label identifying a product as hazardous would cut into sales, there would be serious financial implications." Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1996, p.666 In 1953, National Gypsum's safety director wrote to the Indiana Division of Industrial Hygiene, recommending that acoustic plaster mixers wear respirators "because of the asbestos used in the product." Another company official noted that the letter was "full of dynamite" and urged that it be retrieved before reaching its destination. A memo in the files noted that the company "succeeded in stopping" the letter, which "will be modified." Barry I. Castleman, Asbestos: Medical and Legal Aspects, 4th edition, Aspen Law and Business, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1996, p.669-70 1960s–early 1980s Through the 1970s, asbestos was used to fireproof roofing and flooring, for heat insulation, and for a variety of other purposes Modern regulation See main article at Asbestos and the law United States In 1989 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the Asbestos Ban and Phase Out Rule which was subsequently overturned in the case of Corrosion Proof Fittings v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1991. This ruling leaves many consumer products that can still legally contain trace amounts of asbestos. For a clarification of products which legally contain asbestos read the EPA's clarification statement. EPA clarification statement on asbestos (PDF format) The EPA has proposed a concentration limit of seven million fibers per liter of drinking water for long fibers (lengths greater than or equal to 5 µm). The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), has set limits of 100,000 fibers with lengths greater than or equal to 5 µm per cubic meter of workplace air for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks. Agency for toxic substances and disease registry article on asbestos New Zealand In 1984, the import of raw amphibole (blue and brown) asbestos into New Zealand was banned. In 2002 the import of chrysotile (white) asbestos was banned Journal of the New Zealand Medical Association, 05-November-2004, Vol 117 No 1205 . Australia A complete ban on asbestos containing material in Australia was introduced in 1991 although some building materials in storage were still being used in the years that followed. Queensland began regulation of asbestos removal and disposal in 2005. Handlers of asbestos materials must have a B-Class license for bonded asbestos and an A-Class license for friable asbestos. The town of Wittenoom, in Western Australia was built around a (blue) asbestos mine. The town has since been closed, and is contaminated. However one couple remains there, refusing to leave the area and refusing to believe in current medical advice. Contamination of other products Asbestos and vermiculite Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate which resembles mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as a replacement for asbestos. Some ore bodies of vermiculite have been found to contain small amounts of asbestos. EPA Asbestos Contamination In Vermiculite One vermiculite mine operated by W. R. Grace and Company in Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining contaminated vermiculite, in 1999 the EPA began cleanup efforts and now the area is a superfund cleanup area. Libby Asbestos - US EPA Region 8 The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area. Risk Assessment - US EPA Asbestos and talc Talc is sometimes contaminated with asbestos. A USGS Study of Talc Deposits and Associated Amphibole Asbestos Within Mined Deposits of the Southern Death Valley Region, California In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos in three out of eight major brands of children's crayons (oil pastels) that are made partly from talc — Crayola, Prang, and Rose Art. In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels from 0.05% in Carnation Pink to 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands contained more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The Art and Creative Materials Institute, a trade association which tests the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must be incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos. In May 2000, Crayola said tests by a materials analyst, Richard Lee, of two of its crayons were negative for asbestos, although it later emerged that Lee had testified in lawsuits over 250 times on behalf of the asbestos industry, which paid him US$7 million. In June 2000, Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States. The mining company, R T Vanderbilt Co of Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, insists there is no asbestos in its talc "to the best of our knowledge and belief", but tests by the United States Mine Safety and Health Administration found asbestos in all four talc samples that it tested in 2000. Asbestos in construction Asbestos construction in developed countries The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries, including the European Union, Australia, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. Until the mid-1980s, white asbestos was used in the manufacture of Artex, a decorative stipple finish. Where can asbestos be found, Asbestos Surveying Ltd, Birmingham, UK, 02-08-2008.Accessed: 12-29-2008. Prior to the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry. Many older buildings contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by ASTM Standard E 2356-04. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency includes some but not all asbestos-contaminated facilities on the Superfund National Priorities list (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos contaminated buildings is subject to EPA NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and of substances containing it are covered by the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006 Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006, Health and Safety Exceutive, London, UK, Undated.Accessed: 12-29-2008. Asbestos construction in developing countries Some developing countries, such as India and China, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C Sheets" for roofing and for side walls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C Sheets in developing countries following the widespread restrictions in developed nations. Litigation Asbestos litigation is the longest, most expensive mass tort in U.S. history, involving more than 8,400 defendants and 730,000 claimants as of 2002 according to the RAND Corporation RAND 2002 , and at least one defendant reported claim counts in excess of 800,000 in 2006 Enpro Public Filings . Current trends indicate that the worldwide rate at which people are diagnosed with asbestos-related diseases will likely increase through the next decade Bianchi and Bianchi, "Malignant Mesothelioma: Global Incidence and Relationship with Asbestos, Industrial Health 2007, 45. 379-387. This article identifies sources for data in 37 countries including the US. Most of these sources are inadequate to directly measure mesothelioma incidence over time, but it is clear that rates vary, and are influenced by the amount of asbestos used, how it was used, and when it was last used. See also Peto, Decarli, LaVecchia, Levi, and Negri "The European Mesothelioma Epidemic" British Journal of Cancer (1999), 79 (3/4), 666-672 which projects mesothelioma incidence in six countries in Europe (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Netherlands, and Switzerland) as modified in Pelucci, Malvezzi, LaVecchia, Levi, Decarli and Negri, "The Mesothelioma Epidemic in Western Europe: an Update" Brit. J. of Cancer (2004) 90, 1022-1024 . Analysts have estimated that the total costs of asbestos litigation in the USA alone is over $250 billion. The Economist, January 26, 2005 The Federal legal system in the United States has been faced with numerous counts of asbestos related suits, which often included multiple plaintiffs with similar symptoms. The concern with these court cases are the staggering numbers, which in 1999 recorded 200,000 cases pending in the Federal court system of the United States United States. Cong. Hearing: Asbestos Litigation. 107th Cong., 2nd sess. HRG.107-993. Washington: GPO, 2002. . Further, it is estimated that within the next 40 years, cases may balloon to seven hundred thousand cases. These numbers help explain how there are thousands of current pending cases. Litigation of asbestos materials has been a difficult entity to muster because of the multiple factors which play a role in every case. The company that often is being exposed for their negligence of working conditions and the worker or in many cases, workers who were exposed to asbestos and did not know that they were, or knew and now fear future medical problems, have current symptoms or were upset for the negligence of the company. Companies sometimes counter saying that health issues do not currently appear in their worker or workers, or sometimes are settled out of court Carroll, Stephen J., Deborah Hensler, Allan Abrahamse, Jennifer Gross, Michelle White, Scott Ashwood, and Elizabeth Sloss. Asbestos Litigation Costs and Compensation. Santa Monica,CA: RAND, 2002. . The Research and Development (RAND) think-tank has appropriated certain legal information which is readily available for proclaimed victims of natural resource accidents. This information, although sometimes deemed radical, has helped many workers, regardless of health condition, earn compensation through companies. RAND, along with the Institute for Civil Justice (ICJ) have been proponents of the organization of past cases in order to determine one aspect of fair compensation for workers. 1999 saw the introduction of the Fairness in Asbestos Compensation Act United States. Cong. Senate. Finding Solutions to the Asbestos Litigation Problem: the Fairness in Asbestos Compensation Act of 1999. 106nd Cong., 1st sess. S.758. Washington: GPO, 1999. . This Act was used as a tool in order to determine which of the numerous federal cases were true, and if the plaintiff’s were actually suffering from asbestos related illness. This process was necessary as thousands of false insurance claims were costing companies billions and ultimately many companies were forced to file for bankruptcy. While companies filed for bankruptcy, this limited payouts to those who were actually affected by the material. What the 1999 Act ultimately determined was “a judgment that those resources should be spent on delivering full and prompt compensation to those who are, and will become, impaired by asbestos disease, and not dissipated on payments to those who are not sick and may never become sick, on punitive damages that seek retribution for the decisions of long-dead executives for conduct that took place decades ago and on the extraordinary transaction costs (Professor Christopher Edley, Jr.).” With this litigation, it was recommended by many that the framework of the Act was set in a manner that was fair towards most parties. There is no effective way to allocate funding to every claimant with the fair treatment of companies in question. Although a majority of companies involved with numerous asbestos cases are household names, they are also at the highest risk while faced with workers health concerns. The 1999 Act has effectively helped save time, money and aggravation for both sides of every asbestos case. There are fewer cases of bankruptcy and fewer cases of fraudulent medical concerns. Notable concerns with bankruptcy include the fact that once a company is forced to divide funding amongst its workers, it has a limited budget which lags on the economy and ultimately cannot contribute back the way it once was. This was a main reason for the hesitation of any strict enforcement policy. However, the Act of 1999 helps to alleviate exuberant payouts to unqualified claimants, all while safely and legally protecting those who were, are and will be affected by asbestos related illnesses. Litigation exists outside the United States in England, Scotland, Ireland, the Netherlands, France, Australia, and Japan among other nations. See the companion article for further information. The volume of the asbestos liability has concerned manufacturers and insurers and reinsurers American Academy of Acturaries' Mass Torts Subcomittee, "Overview of Asbestos Claims Issues and Trends, August 2007 pp 7 - 8 . The amounts and method of allocating compensation have been the source of many court cases, and government attempts at resolution of existing and future cases. Critics of safety regulations EU-Canada dispute According to Natural Resources Canada, chrysotile asbestos is not as dangerous as once thought. According to their fact sheet, "...current knowledge and modern technology can successfully control the potential for health and environmental harm posed by chrysotile". Chrysolite Asbsetos Fact Sheet In May 1998, Canada requested consultations before the WTO with the European Commission concerning France's 1996 prohibition of the importation and sale of asbestos. Canada claimed that the French measures contravened provisions of the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and on Technical Barriers to Trade, and the GATT 1994. EC measures affecting asbestos products World Trade Organization The EC said that substitute materials had been developed in place of asbestos, which are safer to human health. It stressed that the French measures were not discriminatory, and were fully justified for public health reasons. The EC said that in the July consultations, it had tried to convince Canada that the measures were justified, and that just as Canada broke off consultations, it was in the process of submitting substantial scientific data in favour of the asbestos ban. Critics of Canada's support of the use of chrysotile asbestos argue that Canada is ignoring the risks associated with the material. The CFMEU pointed out that selling asbestos is illegal in Canada, but it is exported and most exports go to developing countries. Canada has pressured countries, including Chile, and the UN to avoid asbestos bans. Stop Canada's Export Of Asbestos CFMEU Other criticism Asbestos regulation critics include Junkscience.com author and Fox News columnist Steven Milloy and the asbestos industry. Multinational Monitor article on Corporate junk science, retrieved December 16th, 2006 Critics sometimes argue that increased regulation does more harm than good and that replacements to asbestos are inferior. An example is the suggestion by Dixy Lee Ray and others that the shuttle Challenger exploded because the maker of O-ring putty was pressured by the EPA into ceasing production of asbestos-laden putty. Asbestos and Challenger Disaster However, scientists point out that the putty used in Challengers final flight did contain asbestos, and failures in the putty were not responsible for the failure of the O-ring that led to loss of the shuttle. MSNBC article on myths of the Challenger disaster, retrieved December 16th, 2006 Asbestos was used in the first forty floors of the World Trade Center towers causing an airborne contamination among lower Manhattan after the towers collapsed in the attacks on September 11th, 2001. The Junkman's Answer to Terrorism: Use More Asbestos, retrieved July 16th, 2007 Steven Milloy suggests that the World Trade Center towers could still be standing or at least would have stood longer had a 1971 ban not stopped the completion of the asbestos coating above the 64th floor Fox News - Asbestos Fireproofing Might Have Prevented World Trade Center Collapse, retrieved July 27th, 2007 . This was not mentioned in the National Institute of Standards and Technology's report on the towers' collapse. All fireproofing materials, regardless of what they are made of are required to obtain a fire-resistance rating prior to installation. All fibre-based lightweight commercial spray fireproofing materials are vulnerable to kinetic energy impacts that are outside of the fire testing upon which their ratings are based, including asbestos-based materials, and would have been removed in large areas by the impact of the planes. Asbestos and the WTC collapse, retrieved December 16th, 2006 Center for Fire Research PDF, retrieved December 16th, 2006 Why Did the World Trade Center Collapse? Science, Engineering, and Speculation, retrieved December 16th, 2006 Substitutes for asbestos in construction Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of insulation material. The safety of this material is also being called into question, as research shows that the composition of this material causes similar toxicity as asbestos. In Europe stone- and glasswool are the main insulators in houses. Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibres have developed products incorporating organic fibres. One such product was known as Eternit and another "Everite" now use "Nutec" fibres which consist of organic fibres, portland cement and silica. Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stonefibres are used in gaskets and friction materials. Another potential fiber is polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber is a synthetic fiber with high melting point of 760 °C that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by fire departments and space agencies. Old Wailuku Post Office sealed off for Asbestos Removal. Asbestos alternatives for industial use include sleeves, rope, tape, fabric and insulation batt materials made from fiberglass and silica. These products, including firesleeve, are available to protect wiring, cables, hoses, lines and pipe from AB Technology Group. (http://www.firesleeveandtape.com). Recycling and disposal In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in landfill sites. Asbestos can also be recycled by transforming it into harmless silicate glass. A process of thermal decomposition at 1000-1250 °C produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at temperatures above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass. Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks. See also Mineralogy Asbestine List of minerals Other asbestos-related topics Adequately wet Adswood tip (in Greater Manchester in England) Ambler, Pennsylvania Artex Asbestos abatement Asbestos and the law Asbestos fibers Asbestos-Ceramic Asbestosis Asbestos, Quebec Avondale Landfill (in Polmont in Scotland) Brominated flame-retardant Cemesto Eternit Fibro Fireproofing Hunt v. T&N plc Institute of Occupational Medicine Turner & Newall Wittenoom, former asbestos mining town Medical geology Mesothelioma References Additional reading George B. Guthrie and Brooke T. Mossman, editors, Health Effects of Mineral Dusts, Mineralogical Society of America Reviews in Mineralogy v. 28, 584 pages (1993) ISBN 0-939950-33-2 External links Regulatory and government links U.S. EPA Asbestos Home Page ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Asbestos Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Asbestos and Occupational Health in the World British Government Health and Safety Executive (HSE) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Asbestos Page Control of Asbestos in Singapore Mineral and mining links Parachrysotile (asbestos) at the webmineral.com Mineral Database Univ. of Minn.: Asbestos Asbestos Newspaper Articles Archive White Gold Pioneers: Asbestos Mining—The origins of asbestos mining, illustrated with many early photographs Health and the environment About Your House — General Series — Asbestos Hazards magazine's comprehensive asbestos resource pages The Miracle Mineral Fiber - Asbestos CBC Digital Archives - Asbestos: Magic mineral or deadly dust? An article on the health impact of asbestos from Liverpool's 'Nerve' magazine The Wittenoom Tragedy, Asbestos Diseases Society of Australia. Health and Safety - Asbestosis (TUC Resources, UK) International Asbestos Victims Memorial About Asbestos European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (OSHA) Asbestos contamination near abandoned mine Asbestos Health Risk Assessment A USGS map of "Naturally Occurring Asbestos" in Eastern America Shipbuilding's Deadly Legacy (series of articles from a Newspaper local to Hampton Roads, VA) EPA refused to warn of asbestos dangers Asbestos Danger: Do You Have Zonolite In Your Attic? 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1,099 | Davy_lamp | Davy lamp The Davy lamp' is a safety lamp containing a candle, devised in 1815 by Sir Humphry Davy. It was created for use in coal mines, allowing deep seams to be mined despite the presence of methane and other flammable gases, called firedamp or minedamp. Davy had discovered that a flame enclosed inside a mesh of a certain fineness cannot ignite firedamp. The screen acts as a flame arrestor; air (and any firedamp present) can pass through the mesh freely enough to support combustion, but the holes are too fine to allow a flame to propagate through them and ignite any firedamp outside the mesh. The first trial of a Davy lamp with a wire sieve was at Hebburn Colliery on 9 January 1816. Gas Detector The lamp also provided a crude test for the presence of gases. If flammable gas mixtures were present, the flame of the Davy lamp burned higher with a blue tinge. Miners could also place a safety lamp close to the ground to detect gases, such as carbon dioxide, that are denser than air and so could collect in depressions in the mine; if the mine air was oxygen-poor (asphyxiant gas), the lamp flame would be extinguished (black damp or chokedamp''). Comparison with Geordie lamp There was some controversy, since George Stephenson also produced a similar safety lamp in 1816 called the Geordie lamp. Supporters of both men seem to have regarded the other as having plagiarised their man's idea. The Geordie lamp (with no gauze around the flame) gave a brighter light and was popular with the miners. The Davy lamp was simpler and cheaper, and was popular with mine owners. There were safety arguments on both sides: in principle, a poorly maintained (or badly designed) Davy lamp could overheat the gauze if it met a high concentration of methane. The gauze rusted easily in the damp mines, making the lamp hazardous. The Geordie lamp could become unsafe if the glass was broken. Both original lamps were faulty, and led to attempts at improvement, by using multiple gauzes above the flame, and with a glass surround to improve illumination. They were poor sources of light and the situation did not improve until the introduction of electric hand lamps in the Victorian period. Accident rate The introduction of the Davy lamp actually led to an increase in accidents in mines, as the lamp encouraged working mines that had previously been closed for safety reasons. Christopher Lawrence, The power and the glory: Humphry Davy and Romanticism, reference in Andrew Cunningham and Nicholas Jardine, Romanticism and the Sciences Cambridge: University Press, 1990 page 224 One reason why the lamp caused an increase in the accident rate was that the men continued to work in unsafe conditions due to the presence of methane gas. The other reason why there was an increase, was that there should have been the installation of extractor ventilation fans installed at each mine, thus reducing the percentage methane in the workings. This would have been expensive and was resisted by the owners. The lamps also had to be provided by the miners not the owners as traditionally the miners bought their own candles at top price in the company store. The installation of fans became required after law requiring minimum air quality standards was introduced following many huge explosions and loss of lives. Modern Lamps The modern day equivalent of the Davy lamp is the Protector Garforth GR6S flame safety lamp Methonometer.com Flame Safety Lamp which is used for firedamp testing in all coal mines. A modified version of this lamp is used to transport the Olympic Flame for the torch relays. They have recently been used for the Sydney, Athens, and Turin torch relays and have been used for the Special Olympics Beijing relay, they will also be used for the London 2012 relay. The lamps are still made in Eccles. 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