Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
900 | Celtic_mythology | Celts mythology is the mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the religion of the Iron Age Celts. Like other Iron Age Europeans, the early Celts maintained a polytheistic mythology and religious structure. Among Celts peoples in close contact with Ancient Rome, such as the Gauls and Celtiberians, their mythology did not survive the Roman empire, their subsequent conversion to Christianity, and the loss of their Celtic languages. Ironically, it is mostly through contemporary Roman and Christian sources that their mythology has been preserved. The Celts peoples who maintained either their political or linguistic identities (such as the Gaels and Brythonic tribes of Great Britain and Ireland) left vestigial remnants of their forebears' mythologies, put into written form during the Middle Ages. Overview Though the Celtic world at its apex covered much of western and central Europe, it was not politically unified nor was there any substantial central source of cultural influence or homogeneity; as a result, there was a great deal of variation in local practices of Celtic religion (although certain motifs, for example the god Lugh, appear to have diffused throughout the Celtic world). Inscriptions to more than three hundred deities, often equated with their Roman counterparts, have survived, but of these most appear to have been genii locorum, local or tribal gods, and few were widely worshipped. However, from what has survived of Celtic mythology, it is possible to discern commonalities which hint at a more unified pantheon than is often given credit. The nature and functions of these ancient gods can be deduced from their names, the location of their inscriptions, their iconography, the Roman gods they are equated with, and similar figures from later bodies of Celtic mythology. Celtic mythology is found in a number of distinct, if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of the Celtic languages: Ancient Celtic religion (known primarily through archaeological sources rather than through written mythology; cf. Ancient Gaulish and British deities) mythology in Goidelic languages, represented chiefly by Irish mythology and Scottish mythology Mythological Cycle Ulster Cycle Fenian cycle Historical Cycle mythology in Brythonic languages, represented chiefly by Welsh mythology (cf. also Breton mythology and folklore) Historical sources Because of the scarcity of surviving materials bearing written Gaulish, it is surmised that the pagan Celts were not widely literate, although a written form of Gaulish using the Greek, Latin and North Italic alphabets was used (as evidenced by votive items bearing inscriptions in Gaulish and the Coligny Calendar). Julius Caesar attests to the literacy of the Gauls, but also wrote that their priests, the druids, were forbidden to use writing to record certain verses of religious significance (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 6.14) while also noting that the Helvetii had a written census (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.29). Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions, and broke the power of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions to deities discovered in Gaul (modern France and Northern Italy), Britain and other formerly (or presently) Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest. And although early Gaels in Ireland and parts of modern Wales used the Ogham script to record short inscriptions (largely personal names), more sophisticated literacy was not introduced to Celtic areas that had not been conquered by Rome until the advent of Christianity. Indeed, many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian monks, albeit without most of their original religious meanings. Mythology of Ireland The oldest body of myths is found only from the early medieval period of Ireland. As Christianity began to take over, the gods and goddeses were slowly eliminated as such from the culture. What has survived includes material dealing with the Tuatha Dé Danann and the Fomorians, which forms the basis for the text Cath Maige Tuireadh (the Battle of Mag Tuireadh), as well as portions of the history-focused Lebor Gabála Érenn (the Book of Invasions). The Tuatha Dé represent the functions of human society such as kingship, crafts and war, while the Fomorians represent chaos and wild nature. The Dagda The leader of the gods for the Irish pantheon appears to have been The Dagda. The Dagda was the figure after which male humans and other gods were based due to his embodiment of the ideal Irish traits. Celtic gods were also considered to be a clan due to their lack of specialization and unknown origins. The particular character of The Dagda describes him as a figure of burlesque lampoonery in Irish mythology, and some authors even conclude that he was trusted to be benevolent enough to tolerate jokes at his own expense. Irish tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a spear. In Dorset there is a famous outline of an ithyphallic giant known as the Cerne Abbas Giant with a club cut into the chalky soil. While this was probably produced in relatively modern times (English Civil War era), it was long thought to be a representation of the Dagda. This has been called into question by recent studies which show that there may have been a representation of what looks like a large drapery hanging from the horizontal arm of the figure, leading to suspicion that this figure actually represents Hercules (Heracles), with the skin of the Nemean Lion over his arm and carrying the club he used to kill it. In Gaul, it is speculated that the Dagda is associated with Sucellos, the striker, equipped with a hammer and cup. The Morrígan The Morrígan was a tripartite battle goddess of the Celts of Ancient Ireland. She was known as the Morrígan, but the different sections she was divided into were also referred to as Nemhain, Macha, and Badb (among other, less common names), with each representing different aspects of combat. She is most commonly known for her involvement in the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Lúgh/Lug The god appearing most frequently in the tales is Lúgh. He is evidently a residual of the earlier, more widespread god Lugus, whose diffusion in Celtic religion is apparent from the number of place names in which his name appears, occurring across the Celtic world. The most famous of these are the cities of Lugdunum (the modern French city of Lyon) and Lugdunum Batavorum (the modern city of Katwijk, 10 kilometers to the west of Leiden). Lug is described in the Celtic myths as the last to be added to the list of deities. In Ireland a festival called the Lughnasa (Modern Irish lúnasa) was held in his honour. Others Other important goddesses include Brigid (or Brigit), the Dagda's daughter; Aibell, Aine, Macha, and the sovereign goddess, Ériu. Significant Irish gods include Nuada Airgetlám, the first king of the Tuatha Dé Danann; Goibniu, the smith and brewer; Dian Cecht, the patron of healing; and the sea god Manannán mac Lir. Mythology of Wales Less is known about the pre-Christian mythologies of Britain than those of Ireland. Important reflexes of British mythology appear in the Four Branches of the Mabinogi, especially in the names of several characters, such as Rhiannon, Teyrnon, and Bendigeidfran (‘Bran [Crow] the Blessed’). Other characters, in all likelihood, derive from mythological sources, and various episodes, such as the appearance of Arawn, a king of the Otherworld seeking the aid of a mortal in his own feuds, and the tale of the hero who cannot be killed except under seemingly contradictory circumstances, can be traced throughout Indo-European myth and legend. The children of Llŷr (‘Sea’ = Irish Lir) in the Second and Third Branches, and the children of Dôn (Danu in Irish and earlier Indo-European tradition) in the Fourth Branch are major figures, but the tales themselves are not primary mythology. While further mythological names and references appear elsewhere in Welsh narrative and tradition, especially in the tale of Culhwch and Olwen, where we find, for example, Mabon ap Modron (‘the Divine Son of the Divine Mother’), and in the collected Triads of the Island of Britain, not enough is known of the British mythological background to reconstruct either a narrative of creation or a coherent pantheon of British deities. Indeed, though there is much in common with Irish myth, there may have been no unified British mythological tradition per se. Whatever its ultimate origins, the surviving material has been put to good use in the service of literary masterpieces that address the cultural concerns of Wales in the early and later Middle Ages. Remnants of Gaulish and other mythology The Celts also worshipped a number of deities of which we know little more than their names. Classical writers preserve a few fragments of legends or myths that may possibly be Celtic. Paul-Marie Duval. 1993. Les dieux de la Gaule. Éditions Payot, Paris. ISBN 2-228-88621-1. pp.94-98. According to the Syrian rhetorician Lucian, Ogmios was supposed to lead a band of men chained by their ears to his tongue as a symbol of the strength of his eloquence. The Roman poet Lucan (1st century AD) mentions the gods Taranis, Teutates and Esus, but there is little Celtic evidence that these were important deities. A number of objets d'art, coins, and altars may depict scenes from lost myths, such as the representations of Tarvos Trigaranus or of an equestrian ‘Jupiter’ surmounting a snake-legged human-like figure. The Gundestrup cauldron has been also interpreted mythically. G.S. Olmsted. "The Gundestrup version of Táin Bó Cuailnge". Antiquity, vol. 50, pp. 95-103. Along with dedications giving us god names, there are also deity representations to which no name has yet been attached. Among these are images of a three headed or three faced god, a squatting god, a god with a snake, a god with a wheel, and a horseman with a kneeling giant. Powell, T.G.E. The Celts. Thames & Hudson, London. 1958. Some of these images can be found in Late Bronze Age peat bogs in Britain, Chadwick, Nora. The Celts. Pelican Books. 1970. indicating the symbols were both pre-Roman and widely spread across Celtic culture. The distribution of some of the images has been mapped and shows a pattern of central concentration of an image along with a wide scatter indicating these images were most likely attached to specific tribes and were distributed from some central point of tribal concentration outward along lines of trade. The image of the three headed god has a central concentration among the Belgae, between the Oise, Marne and Moselle rivers. The horseman with kneeling giant is centered on either side of the Rhine. These examples seem to indicate regional preferences of a common image stock. Julius Caesar’s comments on Celtic religion and their significance The classic entry about the Celtic gods of Gaul is the section in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de bello Gallico (52–51 BC; The Gallic War). In this he names the five principal gods worshipped in Gaul (according to the practice of his time, he gives the names of the closest equivalent Roman gods) and describes their roles. Mercury was the most venerated of all the deities and numerous representations of him were to be discovered. Mercury was seen as the originator of all the arts (and is often taken to refer to Lugus for this reason), the supporter of adventurers and of traders, and the mightiest power concerning trade and profit. Next the Gauls revered Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. Among these divinities the Celts are described as holding roughly equal views as did other populations: Apollo dispels sickness, Minerva encourages skills, Jupiter governs the skies, and Mars influences warfare. In addition to these five, he mentions that the Gauls traced their ancestry to Dis Pater. The problem with Caesar’s ‘equivalent’ Roman gods Typical for a Roman of his day, however, Caesar does not refer to these gods by their Celtic names but by the names of the Roman gods with which he equated them, a process that brings significant confusion to the task of identifying these Gaulish gods with their native names in the insular mythologies. He also presents a tidy schema which equates deity and role in a manner that is quite unfamiliar to the colloquial literature handed down. Still, despite the restrictions, his short list is a helpful and precise observation. Caesar's remarks contrast with the iconography in implying rather dissimilar phases in the history of Gaulish religion. The iconography of Roman times is part of a setting of great social and political developments, and the religion it depicts may actually have been less obviously ordered than that upheld by the druids (the priestly order) in the era of Gaulish autonomy from Rome. Conversely, the want of order is often more ostensible than factual. It has, for example, been noticed that, of the several hundred names including Celtic elements that can be found in Gaul, the greater part crop up only once. This has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic deities and the related cults were local and tribal as opposed to pan-Celtic. Proponents of this view quote Lucan's reference to a divinity called Teutates, which they translate as “tribal spirit” (*teuta is believed to have meant “tribe” in Proto-Celtic). The apparent array of divine names may, nonetheless, be justified differently: many may be mere epithets applied to key gods worshiped in extensive pan-Celtic cults. The concept of the Celtic pantheon as a large number of local deities is supported by certain well-testified gods whose cults seem to have been followed across the Celtic world. See also Triskele Hag of the mist References de Vries, Jan, Keltische Religion (1961) Duval, Paul-Marie, Les Dieux de la Gaule, new ed. updated and enlarged (1976). Green, Miranda J. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992. ISBN 0-500-27975-6. MacCana, Proinsias. Celtic Mythology. New York: Hamlyn, 1970. ISBN 0-600-00647-6. Mac Cana, Proinsias, The Learned Tales of Medieval Ireland (Irish Literature - Studies), Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (1980): ISBN 1-85500-120-9 MacKillop, James. Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-280120-1. Monaghan, Patricia. The Red-Haired Girl from the Bog: The Landscape of Celtic Myth and Spirit. New World Library, 2002. ISBN 1-57731-190-6. O'Rahilly, Thomas F. Early Irish History and Mythology (1946, reissued 1971) Rhys, John, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathendom 3rd ed. (1898, reprinted 1979). Sjoestedt, M. L. Gods and Heroes of the Celts. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1-85182-179-1. Stercks, Claude, Éléments de cosmogonie celtique (1986) Vendryès, Joseph, Ernest Tonnelat, and B.-O. Unbegaun Les Religions des Celtes, des Germains et des anciens Slaves (1948). Wood, Juliette The Celts: Life, Myth, and Art Thorsons Publishers (2002): ISBN 0-00-764059-5 External links Celtic Art & Cultures: a detailed description of the Gundestrup cauldron Celtic Religion - What Information do we really have Pretanic World - Celtic Pantheons What We Don't Know About the Ancient Celts Timeless Myths: Celtic Mythology Myths and legends from Celtic Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Brittany. | Celtic_mythology |@lemmatized celt:13 mythology:28 celtic:39 polytheism:1 apparently:1 religion:11 iron:2 age:5 like:3 european:3 early:6 maintain:2 polytheistic:1 religious:3 structure:1 among:5 celts:1 people:2 close:2 contact:1 ancient:6 rome:4 gaul:9 celtiberians:1 survive:6 roman:12 empire:1 subsequent:1 conversion:1 christianity:3 loss:1 language:4 ironically:1 mostly:1 contemporary:1 christian:3 source:5 preserve:2 either:3 political:2 linguistic:1 identity:1 gael:2 brythonic:2 tribe:3 great:4 britain:5 ireland:9 leave:1 vestigial:1 remnant:2 forebear:1 put:2 write:7 form:3 middle:2 overview:1 though:2 world:6 apex:1 cover:1 much:2 western:1 central:5 europe:1 politically:1 unified:3 substantial:1 cultural:2 influence:2 homogeneity:1 result:1 deal:2 variation:1 local:4 practice:2 although:3 certain:3 motif:1 example:4 god:29 lugh:1 appear:7 diffuse:1 throughout:2 inscription:6 three:4 hundred:2 deity:12 often:4 equate:4 counterpart:1 genii:1 locorum:1 tribal:4 widely:3 worship:4 however:2 possible:1 discern:1 commonality:1 hint:1 pantheon:5 give:3 credit:1 nature:2 function:2 deduce:1 name:17 location:1 iconography:3 similar:1 figure:8 late:2 body:2 find:5 number:5 distinct:1 relate:1 subgroup:1 largely:2 correspond:1 branch:4 know:8 primarily:1 archaeological:1 rather:2 cf:2 gaulish:8 british:5 goidelic:1 represent:6 chiefly:2 irish:12 scottish:1 mythological:5 cycle:4 ulster:1 fenian:1 historical:2 welsh:2 also:10 breton:1 folklore:1 scarcity:1 material:3 bear:2 surmise:1 pagan:1 literate:1 use:6 greek:1 latin:1 north:1 italic:1 alphabet:1 evidence:2 votive:1 item:1 coligny:1 calendar:1 julius:3 caesar:8 attest:1 literacy:2 priest:1 druid:3 forbid:1 record:3 verse:1 significance:2 de:10 bello:3 gallico:3 note:1 helvetii:1 census:1 introduce:2 widespread:2 habit:1 public:1 break:1 power:3 area:3 conquer:2 fact:1 discover:2 modern:6 france:1 northern:1 italy:1 formerly:1 presently:1 speak:1 post:1 date:1 conquest:1 part:3 wale:4 ogham:1 script:1 short:2 personal:1 sophisticated:1 advent:1 indeed:2 many:2 gaelic:1 myth:12 first:2 monk:1 albeit:1 without:1 original:1 meaning:1 old:1 medieval:2 period:1 begin:1 take:2 goddeses:1 slowly:1 eliminate:1 culture:3 include:4 tuatha:3 dé:3 danann:2 fomorian:2 basis:1 text:1 cath:1 maige:1 tuireadh:2 battle:2 mag:1 well:2 portion:1 history:3 focused:1 lebor:1 gabála:1 érenn:1 book:2 invasion:1 human:3 society:1 kingship:1 craft:1 war:3 chaos:1 wild:1 dagda:8 leader:1 male:1 base:1 due:2 embodiment:1 ideal:1 trait:1 consider:1 clan:1 lack:1 specialization:1 unknown:1 origin:3 particular:1 character:3 describe:4 burlesque:1 lampoonery:1 author:1 even:1 conclude:2 trust:1 benevolent:1 enough:2 tolerate:1 joke:1 expense:1 tale:6 depict:3 arm:3 spear:1 dorset:1 famous:2 outline:1 ithyphallic:1 giant:4 cerne:1 abbas:1 club:2 cut:1 chalky:1 soil:1 probably:1 produce:1 relatively:1 time:3 english:1 civil:1 era:2 long:1 think:1 representation:5 call:3 question:1 recent:1 study:3 show:2 may:7 look:1 large:2 drapery:1 hanging:1 horizontal:1 lead:3 suspicion:1 actually:2 hercules:1 heracles:1 skin:1 nemean:1 lion:1 carry:1 kill:2 speculate:1 associate:1 sucellos:1 striker:1 equip:1 hammer:1 cup:1 morrígan:3 tripartite:1 goddess:3 different:2 section:2 divide:1 refer:3 nemhain:1 macha:2 badb:1 less:3 common:3 aspect:1 combat:1 commonly:1 involvement:1 táin:2 bó:2 cúailnge:1 lúgh:2 lug:2 frequently:1 evidently:1 residual:1 lugus:2 whose:2 diffusion:1 apparent:2 place:1 occur:1 across:3 city:3 lugdunum:2 french:1 lyon:1 batavorum:1 katwijk:1 kilometer:1 west:1 leiden:1 last:1 add:1 list:2 festival:1 lughnasa:1 lúnasa:1 hold:2 honour:1 others:1 important:3 brigid:1 brigit:1 daughter:1 aibell:1 aine:1 sovereign:1 ériu:1 significant:2 nuada:1 airgetlám:1 king:2 goibniu:1 smith:1 brewer:1 dian:1 cecht:1 patron:1 healing:1 sea:2 manannán:1 mac:2 lir:2 pre:2 reflex:1 four:1 mabinogi:1 especially:2 several:2 rhiannon:1 teyrnon:1 bendigeidfran:1 bran:1 crow:1 bless:1 likelihood:1 derive:1 various:1 episode:1 appearance:1 arawn:1 otherworld:1 seek:1 aid:1 mortal:1 feud:1 hero:2 cannot:1 except:1 seemingly:1 contradictory:1 circumstance:1 trace:2 indo:2 legend:4 child:2 llŷr:1 second:1 third:1 dôn:1 danu:1 earlier:1 tradition:3 fourth:1 major:1 primary:1 reference:3 elsewhere:1 narrative:2 culhwch:1 olwen:1 mabon:1 ap:1 modron:1 divine:3 son:1 mother:1 collected:1 triad:1 island:1 background:1 reconstruct:1 creation:1 coherent:1 per:1 se:1 whatever:1 ultimate:1 good:1 service:1 literary:1 masterpiece:1 address:1 concern:2 later:1 little:2 classical:1 writer:1 fragment:1 possibly:1 paul:2 marie:2 duval:2 le:2 dieux:2 la:2 gaule:2 éditions:1 payot:1 paris:1 isbn:8 pp:2 accord:2 syrian:1 rhetorician:1 lucian:1 ogmios:1 suppose:1 band:1 men:1 chain:1 ear:1 tongue:1 symbol:2 strength:1 eloquence:1 poet:1 lucan:2 century:1 ad:1 mention:2 taranis:1 teutates:2 esus:1 objets:1 art:4 coin:1 altar:1 scene:1 lose:1 tarvos:1 trigaranus:1 equestrian:1 jupiter:3 surmount:1 snake:2 legged:1 gundestrup:3 cauldron:2 interpret:1 mythically:1 g:2 olmsted:1 version:1 cuailnge:1 antiquity:1 vol:1 along:3 dedication:1 u:1 yet:1 attach:2 image:7 head:2 face:1 squatting:1 wheel:1 horseman:2 kneeling:1 powell:1 e:1 thames:2 hudson:2 london:1 bronze:1 peat:1 bog:2 chadwick:1 nora:1 pelican:1 indicate:3 spread:1 distribution:1 map:1 pattern:1 concentration:3 wide:1 scatter:1 likely:1 specific:1 distribute:1 point:1 outward:1 line:1 trade:2 belgae:1 oise:1 marne:1 moselle:1 river:1 kneel:1 center:1 side:1 rhine:1 seem:2 regional:1 preference:1 stock:1 comment:1 classic:1 entry:1 commentarii:1 bc:1 gallic:1 five:2 principal:1 equivalent:2 role:2 mercury:2 venerated:1 numerous:1 see:2 originator:1 reason:1 supporter:1 adventurer:1 trader:1 mighty:1 profit:1 next:1 revere:1 apollo:2 mar:2 minerva:2 divinity:2 roughly:1 equal:1 view:2 population:1 dispels:1 sickness:1 encourages:1 skill:1 govern:1 sky:1 warfare:1 addition:1 ancestry:1 dis:1 pater:1 problem:1 typical:1 day:1 process:1 bring:1 confusion:1 task:1 identify:1 native:1 insular:1 present:1 tidy:1 schema:1 manner:1 quite:1 unfamiliar:1 colloquial:1 literature:2 hand:1 still:1 despite:1 restriction:1 helpful:1 precise:1 observation:1 remark:1 contrast:1 imply:1 dissimilar:1 phase:1 setting:1 social:1 development:1 obviously:1 order:3 upheld:1 priestly:1 autonomy:1 conversely:1 want:1 ostensible:1 factual:1 notice:1 element:1 crop:1 scholar:1 related:1 cult:3 oppose:1 pan:2 proponent:1 quote:1 translate:2 spirit:2 teuta:1 believe:1 mean:1 proto:1 array:1 nonetheless:1 justify:1 differently:1 mere:1 epithet:1 apply:1 key:1 extensive:1 concept:1 support:1 testify:1 follow:1 triskele:1 hag:1 mist:1 vries:1 jan:1 keltische:1 les:1 new:4 ed:2 update:1 enlarge:1 green:1 miranda:1 j:1 dictionary:2 york:2 maccana:1 proinsias:2 hamlyn:1 cana:1 learned:1 dublin:1 institute:1 advanced:1 mackillop:1 james:1 oxford:2 university:1 press:2 monaghan:1 patricia:1 red:1 haired:1 girl:1 landscape:1 library:1 rahilly:1 thomas:1 f:1 reissue:1 rhys:1 john:1 lecture:1 growth:1 illustrate:1 heathendom:1 reprint:1 sjoestedt:1 l:1 myles:1 dillon:1 repr:1 berkeley:1 ca:1 turtle:1 stercks:1 claude:1 éléments:1 cosmogonie:1 celtique:1 vendryès:1 joseph:1 ernest:1 tonnelat:1 b:1 unbegaun:1 celtes:1 germains:1 et:1 anciens:1 slave:1 wood:1 juliette:1 life:1 thorsons:1 publisher:1 external:1 link:1 detailed:1 description:1 information:1 really:1 pretanic:1 timeless:1 scotland:1 brittany:1 |@bigram celtic_polytheism:1 god_lugh:1 fenian_cycle:1 italic_alphabet:1 coligny_calendar:1 julius_caesar:3 de_bello:3 bello_gallico:3 tuatha_dé:3 dé_danann:2 nemean_lion:1 táin_bó:2 bó_cúailnge:1 indo_european:2 tale_culhwch:1 culhwch_olwen:1 per_se:1 la_gaule:2 objets_art:1 gundestrup_cauldron:2 thames_hudson:2 peat_bog:1 caesar_commentarii:1 commentarii_de:1 proto_celtic:1 de_vries:1 mackillop_james:1 external_link:1 |
901 | Ames,_Iowa | Ames is a city located in the central part of the U.S. state of Iowa in Story County, and approximately north of Des Moines. It is the principal city of the Ames, Iowa Metropolitan Statistical Area which encompasses all of Story County, and which, when combined with the Boone, Iowa Micropolitan Statistical Area, comprises the larger Ames-Boone Combined Statistical Area. As of the 2000 Census, the city population was 50,731. While Ames is the largest city in Story County, the county seat is in Nevada which is east of Ames. Ames is the home of Iowa State University of Science and Technology, a major public research institution with leading Agriculture, Design, Engineering, and Veterinary Medicine colleges. It is also the site of the Ames Straw Poll, an important straw poll in the Republican party presidential nomination process as well as the first in the nation Democratic and Republican caucuses (see Politics, below). The city is featured in the bestselling book The Girls from Ames written by Wall Street Journal columnist Jeffrey Zaslow. It examines the lives and friendships of several young girls who grew up in Ames and have moved on with their adult lives but still remain close. History The city was founded in 1864 as a station stop on the Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad and was named after 19th century U.S. Congressman Oakes Ames of Massachusetts, who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad. Ames was founded near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the Skunk River. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 21.6 square miles (55.9 km²), of which, 21.6 square miles (55.9 km²) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km²) of it (0.09%) is water. Ames is located on Interstate 35, U.S. Route 30 & 69, and the cross country line of the Union Pacific Railroad, located roughly 30 miles (48 km) north of the state capital Des Moines. Two small rivers run through the town, the Skunk River and Squaw Creek. Climate Ames has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa). Demographics Location of the Ames-Boone CSA and its components: Ames is the larger principal city of the Ames-Boone CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Ames metropolitan area (Story County) and the Boone micropolitan area (Boone County), Metropolitan Statistical Areas and Components, Office of Management and Budget, 2007-05-11. Accessed 2008-08-01. Micropolitan Statistical Areas and Compontents, Office of Management and Budget, 2007-05-11. Accessed 2008-08-01. Combined Statistical Areas and Component Core Based Statistical Areas, Office of Management and Budget, 2007-05-11. Accessed 2008-08-01. which had a combined population of 106,205 at the 2000 census. As of the census of 2000, there were 50,731 people, 18,085 households, and 8,970 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,352.3 people per square mile (908.1/km²). There were 18,757 housing units at an average density of 869.7/sq mi (335.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 87.34% White, 7.70% Asian, 2.65% African American, 0.04% American Indian, 0.76% Pacific Islander and other races, and 1.36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.98% of the population. There were 18,085 households out of which 22.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% were married couples living together, 5.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.85. In the city, the population was spread out with 14.6% under the age of 18, 40.0% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 13.9% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females there were 109.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $36,042, and the median income for a family was $56,439. Males had a median income of $37,877 versus $28,198 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,881. About 7.6% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.2% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over. Politics City power plant at night Iowa is a "battleground state" that has trended slightly Democratic in recent years, and Ames, like Iowa City, also trends Democratic. Because Iowa is the first caucus state and Ames is a college town, it is the site of many political appearances, debates and events, especially during election years. During every August in which the Republican presidential nomination is undecided (meaning there is no incumbent Republican president—as in, most recently, 2007, 1999, 1995 and 1987), the town plays host to the Ames Straw Poll, which gauges support for the various Republican candidates amongst attendees of a fundraising dinner benefiting the Iowa Republican Party. The straw poll dates back to 1979, and is frequently seen as a first test of organizational strength in Iowa by the national media and party insiders; as such, it can be very beneficial for a candidate to win the straw poll and thus enhance his aura of inevitability or show off a superior field operation. Transportation The town is served by U.S. Highways 30 and 69 and Interstate 35. Ames is the only town in Iowa with a population of greater than 50,000 that does not have a state highway serving it. Ames was serviced by the Fort Dodge, Des Moines and Southern Railroad via a branch from Kelley to Iowa State University and to downtown Ames. The tracks were removed in the 1960s. The Chicago and Northwestern twin mainline runs east and west bisecting the town and running just south of the downtown business district. The C&NW used to operate a branch to Des Moines. This line was removed in the 1980s when the Spine Line through Nevada was purchased from the Rock Island Railroad after its bankruptcy. The Union Pacific, successor to the C&NW, still runs 60-70 trains a day through Ames on twin mainlines, which leads to some traffic delays. There is also a branch to Eagle Grove that leaves Ames to the north. The Union Pacific maintains a small yard called Ames Yard east of Ames between Ames and Nevada. Ames has been testing automatic train horns at several of its crossings. These directional horns which are focused down the streets are activated when the crossing signals turn on and are shut off after the train crosses the crossing. This system cancels out the need for the trains to blow their horns. Train noise had been a problem in the residential areas to the west and northwest of downtown. Ames has a municipal airport located southeast of the city. The current (and only) FBO is Hap's Air Service, a company which has been based at the airport since 1975. The airport has two runways - 01/19, which is 5700x100 feet, and 13/31, which is 3492x100 feet. The City of Ames offers a transit system throughout town, called CyRide, that is funded jointly by Iowa State University, the ISU Government of the Student Body, and the City of Ames. Rider fares are subsidized through this funding, and are free to students and youth. Economy Ames is home of Iowa State University of Science and Technology, a public land-grant and space-grant research university, and member of the prestigious American Association of Universities. At its founding in 1858, Iowa State was formerly known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Ames is the home of the closely allied U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Animal Disease Center, the U.S. Department of Energy's Ames Laboratory (a major materials research and development facility), and the main offices of the Iowa State Department of Transportation. State and Federal institutions are the largest employers in Ames. Other area employers include a 3M manufacturing plant; Sauer-Danfoss, a hydraulics manufacturer; Barilla, a pasta manufacturer; and Ball, a manufacturer of canning jars and plastic bottles. Campustown Café Beaudelaire in CampustownLeedzsalon in Campustown Campustown is the neighborhood directly south of Iowa State University Central Campus bordered by Lincoln Way on the north. Campustown is a high-density mixed-use neighborhood that is home to many student apartments, nightlife venues, restaurants, and numerous other establishments, most of which are unique to Ames. Medical Ames is served by Mary Greeley Medical Center, a 220-bed regional referral hospital which is adjacent to McFarland Clinic PC, central Iowa's largest physician-owned multi-specialty clinic, and also Iowa Heart Center. Ames is also the home of the National Animal Disease Center (NADC) where all American Mad Cow Disease samples are tested. Iowa State University The Iowa State University of Science and Technology, more commonly known as Iowa State University (ISU), is a public land-grant and space-grant research university located in Ames. Iowa State has produced a number of astronauts, scientists, Nobel laureates, Pulitzer Prize winners, and a variety of other notable individuals in their respective fields. Until 1945 it was known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The university is a member of the prestigious American Association of Universities and the Big 12 Conference. In 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the State Agricultural College and Model Farm. Story County was chosen as the location on June 21, 1859, from proposals by Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall, Polk, and Story counties. When Iowa accepted the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862, Iowa State became the first institution in nation designated as a land-grant college. The institution was coeducational from the first preparatory class admitted in 1868. The formal admitting of students began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and 2 women. Iowa State University Time Line, 1858-1874. Iowa State University Website The first building on the Iowa State campus was Farm House. Built in the 1860s, it currently serves as a museum and National Historic Landmark. Today, Iowa State has over 60 notable buildings, including Beardshear Hall, Morrill Hall, Memorial Union, Catt Hall, Curtiss Hall, Carver Hall, Parks Library, the Campanile, Hilton Coliseum, C.Y. Stephens Auditorium, Fisher Theater, Jack Trice Stadium, Lied Recreation Center, numerous residence halls, and many buildings specific to ISU's many different majors and colleges. Iowa State is home to 25,312 students (Spring 2009) and makes up approximately one half of the city's population. The official mascot for ISU is , the cardinal. The official school colors are cardinal and gold. The Iowa State Cyclones play in the NCAA's Division I-A as a member of the Big 12 Conference. Points of interest Ada Hayden Park Ames High School Ames Middle School Brunnier Art Museum Christian Petersen Art Gallery Farm House Hilton Coliseum Iowa State Center Iowa State University Jack Trice Stadium North Grand Mall Reiman Gardens People Kate Austen, fictional character from ABC's Lost tv series; lived in Ames Howard Bannister, fictional character from What's Up Doc?; lived in Ames and worked at the (fictional) Conservatory of Music John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry, inventors of world's first electronic digital computer Atanasoff-Berry Computer at Iowa State University from 1937-1942 Robert Bartley, editorial page editor of The Wall Street Journal and a Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient; raised in Ames and graduated from ISU in 1957 George Washington Carver, inventor; ISU alumnus and professor Carrie Chapman Catt, women's rights activist; founder of League of Women Voters; ISU graduate Laurel Blair Salton Clark, astronaut; died on STS-107 John Darnielle, musician from indie rock band The Mountain Goats; former Ames resident David M. Dobson, creator of Snood (video game); grew up in Ames Charles W. "Chuck" Durham, civil engineer; philanthropist; civic leader; and former CEO and Chairman Emeritus of HDR, Inc; raised in Ames and three-time graduate of Iowa State Dan Gable, U.S. Olympic gold medalist, NCAA wrestling champion; coach; and ISU alumnus Michael Gartner, former president of NBC News; retired to own and operate Ames' The Daily Tribune Leslie Hall, internet celebrity Fred Hoiberg, retired NBA basketball player; raised in Ames and ISU graduate Jake Johannsen, comedian-actor; attended ISU for three years Ted Kooser, U.S. Poet Laureate; raised in Ames and attended Iowa State University Ministry of Magic, an electronica/pop wizard rock band that was formed in Ames Neva Morris, born in Ames; fifth oldest woman in the world currently at 113 years 249 days old Sara Paretsky, author of the V.I. Warshawski mysteries; born in Ames in 1947 Chris Rasmussen, professor of history at Fairleigh Dickinson University Christine Romans, CNN business news anchor; 1993 ISU graduate Justin Sacher, KGPE meteorologist; former weather anchor at WHO 13 in Des Moines; born in Ames Cael Sanderson, U.S. Olympic gold medalist; undefeated, four-time NCAA wrestling champion; former ISU wrestling coach and alumnus Peter Schickele, musician; born in Ames in 1935 Jane Smiley, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist; instructor at ISU from 1981-1996 and used ISU as the basis for her novel Moo Brian Smith, photographer; grew up in Ames Ken Smith, architect; ISU graduate in landscape architecture George W. Snedecor, statistician; founder of first academic department of statistics in the United States at Iowa State University Neal Stephenson, author; grew up in Ames Billy Sunday, evangelist and Major League Baseball player; born in Ames in 1863 The Girls from Ames, a group of women from Ames who are the subject of Jeffrey Zaslow's 2009 nonfiction bestseller The Girls from Ames References External links City of Ames The Main Street Cultural District | Ames,_Iowa |@lemmatized ames:63 city:20 locate:5 central:3 part:1 u:9 state:35 iowa:39 story:6 county:8 approximately:2 north:5 de:3 moines:5 principal:2 metropolitan:3 statistical:8 area:13 encompass:1 combine:3 boone:6 micropolitan:3 comprise:1 large:5 census:4 population:8 seat:1 nevada:3 east:3 home:6 university:20 science:3 technology:3 major:4 public:3 research:4 institution:4 leading:1 agriculture:4 design:1 engineering:1 veterinary:1 medicine:1 college:7 also:5 site:2 straw:5 poll:5 important:1 republican:6 party:3 presidential:3 nomination:2 process:1 well:1 first:9 nation:2 democratic:3 caucus:2 see:2 politics:2 feature:1 bestselling:1 book:1 girl:4 write:1 wall:2 street:4 journal:2 columnist:1 jeffrey:2 zaslow:2 examine:1 life:2 friendship:1 several:2 young:1 grow:4 move:1 adult:1 still:2 remain:1 close:1 history:2 found:2 station:1 stop:1 cedar:1 rapid:1 missouri:1 railroad:6 name:1 century:1 congressman:1 oakes:1 massachusetts:1 influential:1 building:4 transcontinental:1 near:1 location:3 deem:1 favorable:1 crossing:4 skunk:2 river:3 geography:1 accord:1 united:2 bureau:1 total:1 square:4 mile:5 land:4 water:1 interstate:2 route:1 cross:2 country:1 line:5 union:4 pacific:4 roughly:1 km:1 capital:1 two:3 small:2 run:3 town:7 squaw:1 creek:1 climate:3 humid:1 continental:1 köppen:1 classification:1 dfa:1 demographic:1 csa:2 component:3 combined:2 include:4 office:4 management:3 budget:3 accessed:3 compontents:1 core:1 base:2 people:3 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:3 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 asian:1 african:1 american:5 indian:1 islander:1 race:3 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:4 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:2 individual:2 someone:1 alone:1 year:8 old:4 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:3 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 power:1 plant:2 night:1 battleground:1 trend:2 slightly:1 recent:1 like:1 many:4 political:1 appearance:1 debate:1 event:1 especially:1 election:1 august:1 undecided:1 mean:1 incumbent:1 president:2 recently:1 play:2 host:1 gauge:1 support:1 various:1 candidate:2 amongst:1 attendee:1 fundraising:1 dinner:1 benefit:1 date:1 back:1 frequently:1 test:3 organizational:1 strength:1 national:4 medium:1 insider:1 beneficial:1 win:2 thus:1 enhance:1 aura:1 inevitability:1 show:1 superior:1 field:2 operation:1 transportation:2 serve:4 highways:1 great:1 highway:1 service:2 fort:1 dodge:1 des:2 southern:1 via:1 branch:3 kelley:1 downtown:3 track:1 remove:2 chicago:1 northwestern:1 twin:2 mainline:1 west:2 bisect:1 running:1 south:2 business:2 district:2 c:3 nw:2 use:3 operate:2 spine:1 purchase:1 rock:3 island:1 bankruptcy:1 successor:1 train:5 day:2 mainlines:1 lead:1 traffic:1 delay:1 eagle:1 grove:1 leave:1 maintain:1 yard:2 call:2 automatic:1 horn:3 directional:1 focus:1 activate:1 signal:1 turn:1 shut:1 system:2 cancel:1 need:1 blow:1 noise:1 problem:1 residential:1 northwest:1 municipal:1 airport:3 southeast:1 current:1 fbo:1 hap:1 air:1 company:1 since:1 runway:1 foot:2 offer:1 transit:1 throughout:1 cyride:1 fund:1 jointly:1 isu:15 government:1 student:5 body:1 rider:1 fare:1 subsidize:1 funding:1 free:1 youth:1 economy:1 grant:5 space:2 member:3 prestigious:2 association:2 founding:1 formerly:1 know:3 mechanic:2 art:4 closely:1 allied:1 department:4 animal:2 disease:3 center:6 energy:1 laboratory:1 material:1 development:1 facility:1 main:2 federal:1 employer:2 manufacturing:1 sauer:1 danfoss:1 hydraulics:1 manufacturer:3 barilla:1 pasta:1 ball:1 jar:1 plastic:1 bottle:1 campustown:4 café:1 beaudelaire:1 campustownleedzsalon:1 neighborhood:2 directly:1 campus:2 border:1 lincoln:1 way:1 high:2 mixed:1 apartment:1 nightlife:1 venue:1 restaurant:1 numerous:2 establishment:1 unique:1 medical:2 mary:1 greeley:1 bed:1 regional:1 referral:1 hospital:1 adjacent:1 mcfarland:1 clinic:2 pc:1 physician:1 multi:1 specialty:1 heart:1 nadc:1 mad:1 cow:1 sample:1 commonly:1 produce:1 number:1 astronaut:2 scientist:1 nobel:1 laureate:2 pulitzer:2 prize:2 winner:1 variety:1 notable:2 respective:1 big:2 conference:2 general:1 assembly:1 enact:1 legislation:1 establish:1 agricultural:1 model:1 farm:3 choose:1 june:1 proposal:1 johnson:1 kossuth:1 marshall:1 polk:1 accept:1 provision:1 morrill:2 act:1 become:1 designate:1 coeducational:1 preparatory:1 class:2 admit:1 formal:1 admitting:1 begin:1 following:1 graduate:7 consist:1 men:1 woman:5 time:3 website:1 house:2 build:1 currently:2 museum:2 historic:1 landmark:1 today:1 beardshear:1 hall:7 memorial:1 catt:2 curtiss:1 carver:2 park:2 library:1 campanile:1 hilton:2 coliseum:2 stephen:1 auditorium:1 fisher:1 theater:1 jack:2 trice:2 stadium:2 lie:1 recreation:1 residence:1 specific:1 different:1 spring:1 one:1 half:1 official:2 mascot:1 cardinal:2 school:3 color:1 gold:3 cyclone:1 ncaa:3 division:1 point:1 interest:1 ada:1 hayden:1 middle:1 brunnier:1 christian:1 petersen:1 gallery:1 grand:1 mall:1 reiman:1 garden:1 kate:1 austen:1 fictional:3 character:2 abc:1 lose:1 tv:1 series:1 howard:1 bannister:1 doc:1 work:1 conservatory:1 music:1 john:2 vincent:1 atanasoff:2 clifford:1 berry:2 inventor:2 world:2 electronic:1 digital:1 computer:2 robert:1 bartley:1 editorial:1 page:1 editor:1 medal:1 freedom:1 recipient:1 raise:4 george:2 washington:1 alumnus:3 professor:2 carrie:1 chapman:1 right:1 activist:1 founder:2 league:2 voter:1 laurel:1 blair:1 salton:1 clark:1 die:1 sts:1 darnielle:1 musician:2 indie:1 band:2 mountain:1 goat:1 former:5 resident:1 david:1 dobson:1 creator:1 snood:1 video:1 game:1 charles:1 w:2 chuck:1 durham:1 civil:1 engineer:1 philanthropist:1 civic:1 leader:1 ceo:1 chairman:1 emeritus:1 hdr:1 inc:1 three:2 dan:1 gable:1 olympic:2 medalist:2 wrestle:2 champion:2 coach:2 michael:1 gartner:1 nbc:1 news:2 retire:2 daily:1 tribune:1 leslie:1 internet:1 celebrity:1 fred:1 hoiberg:1 nba:1 basketball:1 player:2 jake:1 johannsen:1 comedian:1 actor:1 attend:2 ted:1 kooser:1 poet:1 ministry:1 magic:1 electronica:1 pop:1 wizard:1 form:1 neva:1 morris:1 bear:5 fifth:1 sara:1 paretsky:1 author:2 v:1 warshawski:1 mystery:1 chris:1 rasmussen:1 fairleigh:1 dickinson:1 christine:1 roman:1 cnn:1 anchor:2 justin:1 sacher:1 kgpe:1 meteorologist:1 weather:1 cael:1 sanderson:1 undefeated:1 four:1 wrestling:1 peter:1 schickele:1 jane:1 smiley:1 novelist:1 instructor:1 basis:1 novel:1 moo:1 brian:1 smith:2 photographer:1 ken:1 architect:1 landscape:1 architecture:1 snedecor:1 statistician:1 academic:1 statistic:1 neal:1 stephenson:1 billy:1 sunday:1 evangelist:1 baseball:1 group:1 subject:1 nonfiction:1 bestseller:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cultural:1 |@bigram de_moines:3 ames_iowa:2 metropolitan_statistical:2 micropolitan_statistical:2 veterinary_medicine:1 straw_poll:5 cedar_rapid:1 transcontinental_railroad:1 census_bureau:1 mile_km:1 humid_continental:1 climate_köppen:1 köppen_climate:1 classification_dfa:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 fort_dodge:1 des_moines:2 ames_laboratory:1 plastic_bottle:1 mad_cow:1 nobel_laureate:1 pulitzer_prize:2 enact_legislation:1 historic_landmark:1 ncaa_division:1 atanasoff_berry:1 washington_carver:1 gold_medalist:2 poet_laureate:1 fairleigh_dickinson:1 neal_stephenson:1 league_baseball:1 external_link:1 |
902 | Jetsprint | Jetsprint, or Sprint Boat Racing is a form of racing sport in which jetboats with a crew of two race individually against the clock through twisting series of channels in less than a metre of water Racing Format . Tracks are typically designed for spectators, and racing is fast and loud, with boat motors usually V8s developing well over 500hp . History Jetsprinting as an organised sport originated in New Zealand in 1981, and events were originally held in the same natural braided rivers that had inspired Sir William Hamilton to develop the jetboat, but when the sport was introduced to Australia in the mid-1980s permanent artificial courses were used—and this is now the norm even in New Zealand. A fiercely contested Tasman championship has now led to a three way world championship (with the introduction of the sport into the USA}, under the auspices of the Union Internationale Motonautique UIM: Jetsprint . The host nation rotates between New Zealand, Australia and the U.S.A Format The race itself will consist of a predefined course through the channels with 25 to 30 changes of direction. These races generally take just 45-60 seconds. Once qualifying is completed the competitors each run the course with the fastest qualifiers running last. The fastest 16 (typically depending on the number of competitions) proceed to the next round. This is then reduced to the top 8, then the top 4 and then the fastest two. Boats A jetsprint hull is typically short - just 4 to 4.5 metres (13 to 15 feet) long. The hull's vee is usually 21 to 23 degrees with several strakes on each side. A short hull is preferred, as a longer hull takes more distance to turn and usually must be turned at a slower speed. The strakes provide "traction' by stopping the boat sliding sideways across the water when turning at high speed. A rollcage must be fitted to the boat. Crew A crew consists of the driver and a navigator whose responsibility is to guide the driver through the course - typically via simple hand signals, pointing the hand in the direction that the boat must go at the next intersection. Classes There are two internationally recognised classes Class A - Engines in Class A boats are restricted to either 6.7-litre (412 cubic inch) engines with cast iron blocks and heads or 6-litre (365 cubic inch) engines with aluminium heads. Both size engines are only allowed two pushrod operated valves per cylinder. Furthermore the engine must be normally aspirated, using a 4-barrel carburettor. Fuel is 100+ octane aviation fuel. Typically these engines produce up to 650 horsepower Superboats - Engines in the superboat class have no maximum size but instead have a minimum size restriction. Normally aspirated engines must have a displacement of 6.5 litres (400 cubic inch) or while forced induction (turbocharged or supercharged) engines must be at least 3.8 litres (235 cubic inch) in displacement. These engines typically are fuel injected and run methanol fuel. The small-block engines typically produce 950+ horsepower, while the big blocks can typically produce between 1000 to 1400 horsepower. Nitromethane and nitrous oxide are not allowed. See also Jetboat River marathon Offshore Powerboat racing External links New Zealand Jetsprint Association Australian V8 Superboats Jet Sprint Championship Jetsprint Legends online jet boat racing Union Internationale Motonautique USSBA Racing References | Jetsprint |@lemmatized jetsprint:5 sprint:2 boat:8 racing:3 form:1 race:7 sport:4 jetboats:1 crew:3 two:4 individually:1 clock:1 twist:1 series:1 channel:2 less:1 metre:2 water:2 format:2 track:1 typically:8 design:1 spectator:1 fast:4 loud:1 motor:1 usually:3 develop:2 well:1 history:1 jetsprinting:1 organised:1 originate:1 new:4 zealand:4 event:1 originally:1 hold:1 natural:1 braid:1 river:2 inspire:1 sir:1 william:1 hamilton:1 jetboat:2 introduce:1 australia:2 mid:1 permanent:1 artificial:1 course:4 use:2 norm:1 even:1 fiercely:1 contested:1 tasman:1 championship:3 lead:1 three:1 way:1 world:1 introduction:1 usa:1 auspex:1 union:2 internationale:2 motonautique:2 uim:1 host:1 nation:1 rotate:1 u:1 consist:2 predefined:1 change:1 direction:2 generally:1 take:2 second:1 qualifying:1 complete:1 competitor:1 run:3 qualifier:1 last:1 depend:1 number:1 competition:1 proceed:1 next:2 round:1 reduce:1 top:2 hull:4 short:2 foot:1 long:1 vee:1 degree:1 several:1 strake:2 side:1 prefer:1 longer:1 distance:1 turn:3 must:6 slow:1 speed:2 provide:1 traction:1 stop:1 slide:1 sideways:1 across:1 high:1 rollcage:1 fit:1 driver:2 navigator:1 whose:1 responsibility:1 guide:1 via:1 simple:1 hand:2 signal:1 point:1 go:1 intersection:1 class:5 internationally:1 recognised:1 engine:9 restrict:1 either:1 litre:4 cubic:4 inch:4 engines:2 cast:1 iron:1 block:3 head:2 aluminium:1 size:3 allow:2 pushrod:1 operate:1 valve:1 per:1 cylinder:1 furthermore:1 normally:2 aspirate:1 barrel:1 carburettor:1 fuel:4 octane:1 aviation:1 produce:3 horsepower:3 superboats:2 superboat:1 maximum:1 instead:1 minimum:1 restriction:1 aspirated:1 displacement:2 force:1 induction:1 turbocharged:1 supercharge:1 least:1 inject:1 methanol:1 small:1 big:1 nitromethane:1 nitrous:1 oxide:1 see:1 also:1 marathon:1 offshore:1 powerboat:1 external:1 link:1 association:1 australian:1 jet:2 legends:1 online:1 ussba:1 reference:1 |@bigram internationally_recognised:1 litre_cubic:4 cubic_inch:4 nitrous_oxide:1 offshore_powerboat:1 powerboat_race:1 external_link:1 |
903 | Felsic | Felsic is a term used in geology to refer to silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which are enriched in the lighter elements such as silicon, oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. The term combines the words "feldspar" and "silica." Felsic minerals are usually light in color and have specific gravities less than 3. Common felsic minerals include quartz, muscovite, orthoclase, and the sodium-rich plagioclase feldspars. The most common felsic rock is granite. On the opposite side of the rock spectrum are the iron and magnesium-rich mafic and ultramafic minerals and rocks. In modern usage, the term acid rock, although sometimes used as a synonym, refers to a high silica content (greater than 63% SiO2 by weight) volcanic rock such as rhyolite. The term was used more broadly in older geologic literature. It is considered archaic as the terms acidic and basic rock were based on an incorrect idea dating from the 1800s that silicic acid was the chief form of silicon occurring in rocks. The term felsic is related to but not derived from the German adjective felsig ("rocky"). Classification of felsic rocks In order for a rock to be classified as felsic it generally needs to contain >75% felsic minerals; namely quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase. Rocks with greater than 90% felsic minerals can also be called leucocratic, meaning 'light-coloured'. Felsite is a petrologic field term used to refer to very fine grained or aphanitic, light colored volcanic rocks that may be later reclassified after a more detailed microscopic or chemical analysis. In some cases, felsic volcanic rocks may contain phenocrysts of mafic minerals, usually hornblende, pyroxene or a feldspar mineral, and may need to be named after their phenocryst mineral, such as 'hornblende-bearing felsite'. The chemical name of a felsic rock is given according to the TAS classification of Le Maitre (1975). However, this only applies to volcanic rocks. If the rock is analyzed and found to be felsic but is metamorphic and has no definite volcanic protolith it may be sufficient to simply call it a 'felsic schist'. There are examples known of highly sheared granites which can be mistaken for rhyolites. For phaneritic felsic rocks, the QAPF diagram should be used, and a name given according to the granite nomenclature. Often the species of mafic minerals is included in the name, for instance hornblende-bearing granite, pyroxene tonalite or augite megacrystic monzonite as the term granite already assumes feldspar and quartz. The rock texture thus determines the basic name of a felsic rock. Close-up of granite from Yosemite National Park A specimen of Rhyolite Rock TextureName of Felsic Rock PegmatiticGranite pegmatite Coarse grained (phaneritic)Granite Coarse grained and porphyriticPorphyritic granite Fine grained (aphanitic)Rhyolite Fine grained and porphyriticPorphyritic rhyolite PyroclasticRhyolitic tuff or breccia VesicularPumice AmygdaloidalNone Vitreous (Glassy)Obsidian or porcellanite References Le Maitre, L.E., ed. 2002. Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms 2nd edition, Cambridge. See also QAPF diagram List of minerals List of rock types Granite Mafic | Felsic |@lemmatized felsic:16 term:9 use:5 geology:1 refer:2 silicate:1 mineral:11 magma:1 rock:23 enrich:1 light:4 element:1 silicon:2 oxygen:1 aluminium:1 sodium:2 potassium:1 combine:1 word:1 feldspar:4 silica:2 usually:2 color:2 specific:1 gravity:1 less:1 common:2 include:2 quartz:3 muscovite:1 orthoclase:2 rich:2 plagioclase:2 granite:9 opposite:1 side:1 spectrum:1 iron:1 magnesium:1 mafic:4 ultramafic:1 modern:1 usage:1 acid:2 although:1 sometimes:1 synonym:1 refers:1 high:1 content:1 great:2 weight:1 volcanic:5 rhyolite:5 broadly:1 old:1 geologic:1 literature:1 consider:1 archaic:1 acidic:1 basic:2 base:1 incorrect:1 idea:1 date:1 silicic:1 chief:1 form:1 occur:1 relate:1 derive:1 german:1 adjective:1 felsig:1 rocky:1 classification:3 order:1 classify:1 generally:1 need:2 contain:2 namely:1 also:2 call:2 leucocratic:1 mean:1 coloured:1 felsite:2 petrologic:1 field:1 fine:3 grain:5 aphanitic:2 may:4 later:1 reclassify:1 detailed:1 microscopic:1 chemical:2 analysis:1 case:1 phenocrysts:1 hornblende:3 pyroxene:2 name:5 phenocryst:1 bearing:2 give:2 accord:2 tas:1 le:2 maitre:2 however:1 apply:1 analyze:1 find:1 metamorphic:1 definite:1 protolith:1 sufficient:1 simply:1 schist:1 example:1 know:1 highly:1 shear:1 mistake:1 phaneritic:2 qapf:2 diagram:2 nomenclature:1 often:1 specie:1 instance:1 tonalite:1 augite:1 megacrystic:1 monzonite:1 already:1 assume:1 texture:1 thus:1 determine:1 close:1 yosemite:1 national:1 park:1 specimen:1 texturename:1 pegmatiticgranite:1 pegmatite:1 coarse:2 porphyriticporphyritic:2 pyroclasticrhyolitic:1 tuff:1 breccia:1 vesicularpumice:1 amygdaloidalnone:1 vitreous:1 glassy:1 obsidian:1 porcellanite:1 reference:1 l:1 e:1 ed:1 igneous:1 glossary:1 edition:1 cambridge:1 see:1 list:2 type:1 |@bigram silicate_mineral:1 sodium_potassium:1 felsic_mineral:4 felsic_rock:6 mafic_mineral:2 feldspar_quartz:1 coarse_grain:2 igneous_rock:1 |
904 | Donald_Dewar | Donald Campbell Dewar (21 August 1937 – 11 October 2000) was the original First Minister of Scotland, following the establishment of the Scottish Parliament, from May 1999 until his sudden death in October 2000. Early life Born at 194 Renfrew Street, Glasgow on 21 August 1937 to mature parents, Dewar was an only child. His father Alisdair was a distinguished consultant dermatologist but suffered from tuberculosis. His mother Mary (née Bennett) suffered a brain tumour when Donald was very young. He attended the Glasgow Academy before studying at the University of Glasgow, where he gained both LLB and MA degrees as well as editing the Glasgow University Guardian. Here, he met his close friend, John Smith (who would later become leader of the Labour Party), Sir Menzies Campbell (who would later become leader of the Liberal Democrats) and Lord Irvine of Lairg (who would serve as Lord Chancellor in the same cabinet as Dewar) through the Dialectic Society. In his time at university he also served as President of the Glasgow University Union and was a member of the Glasgow University Labour Club. Member of Parliament A member of the Labour Party, Dewar worked as a solicitor in Glasgow before being elected at the age of 28 in the 1966 general election to the Parliament of the United Kingdom at Westminster to represent the marginal constituency of Aberdeen South. In his maiden speech in the Commons Dewar railed against proposed increase on potato tax. This was his first notable success - the tax was repealed in 1967. That year he was made Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Education Secretary Anthony Crosland, with whom Dewar later confessed to never really establishing a rapport. He held that position until 1969. In April 1968 he was proposed for a Minister of State position by Roy Jenkins but nothing came of it. Shadow Cabinet After a political hiatus during the 1970s, Donald Dewar was returned to Westminster as the Member of Parliament for Glasgow Garscadden at a by-election in 1978 following the death of Labour MP William Small. He rose quickly through the ranks, becoming a member of the Shadow Cabinet in 1984. On 21 December 1988, Dewar was in Lockerbie after the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/1998/12/1720274b-e2eb-46f2-89fd-2207859e15e6 as the member of the Shadow Cabinet in charge of Scottish affairs. In 1992 John Smith made him Shadow Social Security Secretary. In 1995, Dewar was made a Chief Whip for the Labour Party by Tony Blair, and when the Labour Party was declared the majority party in the 1997 election, he was given the post of Secretary of State for Scotland. In government After the 1997 General Election, Dewar was in a position which the late John Smith would never have thought possible. He was able to start the devolution process, and worked endlessly on creating the Scotland Act, popularly known as Smith's "unfinished business". When ratified, this was to give Scotland its first Parliament for nearly 300 years. First Minister of Scotland The first elections to the Scottish Parliament were held on 6 May 1999, with Dewar leading the Scottish Labour Party against their main opponents, the SNP under Alex Salmond. He was elected as the MSP for Glasgow Anniesland. Although Scottish Labour won the most seats, they did not have a majority in Parliament to allow them to form an Executive without the help of a smaller party. A deal was agreed with the Scottish Liberal Democrats to form a coalition, with Dewar agreeing to their demand for the abolition of up-front tuition fees for university students. "PR deal will end councils stranglehold", The Guardian On 13 May, Dewar was nominated as First Minister, and was officially appointed by the Queen on 17 May at a ceremony in the Palace of Holyroodhouse. He later travelled to the Court of Session to be sworn in by the Lord President and receive the Great Seal of Scotland. "UK Politics- Dewar appointed as first minister", BBC News, 17 May 1999 On 16 June, Dewar set out the legislative programme for the Executive which included: an Education bill to improve standards in Scottish schools; land reform to give right of access to the countryside, a bill to abolish the feudal system of land tenure; and a bill to establish National Parks in Scotland. Dewar's statement to Parliament, BBC News] Death and funeral In April 2000, Dewar was admitted to hospital for tests on his heart, following a previous test where a minor irregularity was discovered. "Dewar undergoes heart tests", BBC News, 25 April 2000 . In May 2000, he later had surgery to repair a leaking heart valve, and was forced to take a three month break from Parliament, with Deputy First Minister, Jim Wallace taking over as Acting First Minister. "Dewar takes post-op steps", BBC News, 11 May 2000 . He returned to work on 14 August 2000 "First Minister returns to the fray", BBC News, 14 August 2000 . Dewar dealt with the exams results fiasco and the lorry drivers strike, and attended the Labour party conference in Brighton in September, but at the end of September told the historian Tom Devine in Dublin that if there was no surge of the energy of old, he would have to reappraise the situation within a few months time<ref>"Donald Dewar", Electronic Scotland, October 2000</ref>. On 10 October 2000 around lunchtime, Dewar sustained a fall. He seemed fine at first but later that day suffered a massive brain hemorrhage which was possibly triggered by the anticoagulant medication he was taking after the heart surgery. Donald Dewar died one day later, at 12.18pm, in Edinburgh's Western General Hospital. He was 63 years old. Dewar's funeral service was held at Glasgow Cathedral, amid scenes of mourning unknown for a politician in Scotland's largest city. He was cremated on 18 October 2000, and his ashes were scattered at Lochgilphead. Although he has become something of a political legend, Donald would have abhorred any attempt to turn him into some kind of secular saint. He would have been horrified at a Diana-style out-pouring of synthetic grief at his untimely death. -- Iain MacWhirter, Sunday Herald, 15 October 2000. Personal life Despite his early political success, his personal life was less happy. He married Alison Mary McNair on 20 July 1964. They had two children together - a daughter, Marion, and a son, Ian. But in 1970 she left him for the Scottish lawyer Derry Irvine. The two men remained unreconciled, even though they later served in the same Cabinet from May 1997 until 1999, when Dewar left Westminster to become First Minister. 1970 was a black year for Dewar. As well as his wife leaving him, he lost his parliamentary seat in the 1970 general election and was laid up with back trouble. He and his wife divorced in 1973 and Dewar never remarried. Controversies One of the first scandals to hit the new Parliament occurred when allegations that the lobbying arm of public relations company Beattie Media had privileged access to ministers were published, prompting Dewar to ask the standards committee to investigate the reports. "Probe launched into lobbying allegations", BBC News The Minister for Finance, Jack McConnell, was called to appear before the standards committee during the investigation although he was later cleared of any wrongdoing and the committee declared there was no evidence he had been influenced from lobbying by Beattie Media. "Scotland Standards watchdog clears McConnell" BBC News Dewar also threatened to sack any Minister or aide who briefed the media against another member of the Executive, following public rows between Jack McConnell and the Minister of Health and Community Care, Susan Deacon over the budget allocated to health . Public Finance- 14/07/2000 Legacy Dewar's work for the Scottish Parliament has led him to be called by some the "Father of the Nation" despite some of the difficulties that the Scottish Parliament has suffered in its early years http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/966880.stm , http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/the-father-of-the-nation-who-made-good-on-the-unfinished-business-of-devolution-634618.html . In May 2002, the Prime Minister, Tony Blair unveiled a statue of Dewar at the top of Glasgow's Buchanan Street — and in keeping with his famous unkempt appearance, it showed Dewar wearing a slightly crushed jacket. The statue was taken down in October 2005 to be cleaned and was re-erected on high plinth in December of the same year in an effort to protect it. On the base of the statue were inscribed the opening words of the Scotland Act: "There Shall Be A Scottish Parliament", a phrase to which Dewar himself famously said, "I Like That!" . Dewar notoriously called the Royal High School on Calton Hill in Edinburgh a "nationalist shibboleth", mainly because it had been the proposed site of the Scottish Assembly if the 1979 referendum had passed. Dewar's opposition to the Calton Hill site partly contributed to the selection of the Holyrood site, which proved massively expensive. References Torrance, David, The Scottish Secretaries'' (Birlinn 2006) | Donald_Dewar |@lemmatized donald:6 campbell:2 dewar:35 august:4 october:7 original:1 first:13 minister:14 scotland:13 follow:4 establishment:1 scottish:13 parliament:13 may:9 sudden:1 death:4 early:3 life:3 bear:1 renfrew:1 street:2 glasgow:11 mature:1 parent:1 child:2 father:3 alisdair:1 distinguish:1 consultant:1 dermatologist:1 suffer:4 tuberculosis:1 mother:1 mary:2 née:1 bennett:1 brain:2 tumour:1 young:1 attend:2 academy:1 study:1 university:6 gain:1 llb:1 degree:1 well:2 edit:1 guardian:2 meet:1 close:1 friend:1 john:3 smith:4 would:7 later:8 become:5 leader:2 labour:9 party:8 sir:1 menzies:1 liberal:2 democrat:2 lord:3 irvine:2 lairg:1 serve:3 chancellor:1 cabinet:5 dialectic:1 society:1 time:2 also:2 president:2 union:1 member:7 club:1 work:4 solicitor:1 elect:2 age:1 general:4 election:6 united:1 kingdom:1 westminster:3 represent:1 marginal:1 constituency:1 aberdeen:1 south:1 maiden:1 speech:1 common:1 rail:1 propose:3 increase:1 potato:1 tax:2 notable:1 success:2 repeal:1 year:6 make:4 parliamentary:2 private:1 secretary:5 education:2 anthony:1 crosland:1 confess:1 never:3 really:1 establish:2 rapport:1 hold:3 position:3 april:3 state:2 roy:1 jenkins:1 nothing:1 come:1 shadow:4 political:3 hiatus:1 return:3 garscadden:1 mp:1 william:1 small:2 rise:1 quickly:1 rank:1 december:2 lockerbie:1 bombing:1 pan:1 flight:1 http:3 www:2 gov:1 uk:5 news:10 release:1 charge:1 affair:1 social:1 security:1 chief:1 whip:1 tony:2 blair:2 declare:2 majority:2 give:3 post:2 government:1 late:2 think:1 possible:1 able:1 start:1 devolution:2 process:1 endlessly:1 create:1 act:3 popularly:1 know:1 unfinished:2 business:2 ratify:1 nearly:1 lead:2 main:1 opponent:1 snp:1 alex:1 salmond:1 msp:1 anniesland:1 although:3 win:1 seat:2 allow:1 form:2 executive:3 without:1 help:1 deal:2 agree:2 coalition:1 demand:1 abolition:1 front:1 tuition:1 fee:1 student:1 pr:1 end:2 council:1 stranglehold:1 nominate:1 officially:1 appoint:2 queen:1 ceremony:1 palace:1 holyroodhouse:1 travel:1 court:1 session:1 swear:1 receive:1 great:1 seal:1 politics:2 bbc:8 june:1 set:1 legislative:1 programme:1 include:1 bill:3 improve:1 standard:4 school:2 land:2 reform:1 right:1 access:2 countryside:1 abolish:1 feudal:1 system:1 tenure:1 national:1 park:1 statement:1 funeral:2 admit:1 hospital:2 test:3 heart:4 previous:1 minor:1 irregularity:1 discover:1 undergoes:1 surgery:2 repair:1 leaking:1 valve:1 force:1 take:5 three:1 month:2 break:1 deputy:1 jim:1 wallace:1 op:1 step:1 fray:1 dealt:1 exams:1 result:1 fiasco:1 lorry:1 driver:1 strike:1 conference:1 brighton:1 september:2 tell:1 historian:1 tom:1 devine:1 dublin:1 surge:1 energy:1 old:2 reappraise:1 situation:1 within:1 ref:2 electronic:1 around:1 lunchtime:1 sustain:1 fall:1 seem:1 fine:1 day:2 massive:1 hemorrhage:1 possibly:1 trigger:1 anticoagulant:1 medication:1 die:1 one:2 edinburgh:2 western:1 service:1 cathedral:1 amid:1 scene:1 mourn:1 unknown:1 politician:1 large:1 city:1 cremate:1 ash:1 scatter:1 lochgilphead:1 something:1 legend:1 abhor:1 attempt:1 turn:1 kind:1 secular:1 saint:1 horrify:1 diana:1 style:1 pouring:1 synthetic:1 grief:1 untimely:1 iain:1 macwhirter:1 sunday:1 herald:1 personal:2 despite:2 less:1 happy:1 marry:1 alison:1 mcnair:1 july:1 two:2 together:1 daughter:1 marion:1 son:1 ian:1 leave:3 lawyer:1 derry:1 men:1 remain:1 unreconciled:1 even:1 though:1 black:1 wife:2 lose:1 lay:1 back:1 trouble:1 divorce:1 remarry:1 controversy:1 scandal:1 hit:1 new:1 occur:1 allegation:2 lobbying:1 arm:1 public:3 relation:1 company:1 beattie:2 medium:3 privilege:1 publish:1 prompt:1 ask:1 committee:3 investigate:1 report:1 probe:1 launch:1 lobby:2 finance:2 jack:2 mcconnell:3 call:3 appear:1 investigation:1 clear:2 wrongdoing:1 evidence:1 influence:1 watchdog:1 threaten:1 sack:1 aide:1 brief:1 another:1 row:1 health:2 community:1 care:1 susan:1 deacon:1 budget:1 allocate:1 legacy:1 nation:2 difficulty:1 co:2 hi:1 stm:1 independent:1 good:1 html:1 prime:1 unveil:1 statue:3 top:1 buchanan:1 keep:1 famous:1 unkempt:1 appearance:1 show:1 wear:1 slightly:1 crush:1 jacket:1 clean:1 erect:1 high:2 plinth:1 effort:1 protect:1 base:1 inscribe:1 opening:1 word:1 shall:1 phrase:1 famously:1 say:1 like:1 notoriously:1 royal:1 calton:2 hill:2 nationalist:1 shibboleth:1 mainly:1 site:3 assembly:1 referendum:1 pass:1 opposition:1 partly:1 contribute:1 selection:1 holyrood:1 prove:1 massively:1 expensive:1 reference:1 torrance:1 david:1 birlinn:1 |@bigram brain_tumour:1 liberal_democrat:2 roy_jenkins:1 http_www:2 tony_blair:2 tuition_fee:1 bbc_news:7 brain_hemorrhage:1 ash_scatter:1 untimely_death:1 uk_hi:1 prime_minister:1 calton_hill:2 |
905 | Lexus | is the luxury vehicle division of Japanese automaker Toyota Motor Corporation. First introduced in 1989 in the United States, where Lexus has become the highest-selling make of luxury car, as of 2006 Lexus vehicles are sold in 68 countries and territories worldwide. In 2005, the division launched in Japan, becoming the first Japanese luxury car marque to be introduced in its home market. The Lexus marque has since debuted in additional export markets as part of the division's ongoing global expansion. Lexus originated from a clandestine flagship sedan project that began in 1983. This effort developed into the original Lexus LS, which was the first vehicle to wear the Lexus marque upon its launch in 1989. In following years, Lexus added sedan, coupe, convertible, and SUV models. In 2005, a hybrid version of the RX crossover debuted, and additional hybrid models were subsequently introduced to the Lexus lineup. In 2007, Lexus launched its F marque performance division with the arrival of the IS F sport sedan. From the start of production, Lexus vehicles have been consistently produced in Japan, with manufacturing centered in the Chūbu and Kyūshū regions, and in particular at Toyota's Tahara, Aichi, Chūbu and Miyata, Fukuoka, Kyūshū plants. Assembly of the first Lexus built outside the country, the Ontario, Canada-produced RX 330, began in 2003. Following a corporate reorganization from 2001 to 2005, Lexus operates its own design, engineering, and manufacturing centers, solely responsible for the division's vehicles. Since 1989, Lexus has developed a reputation for vehicle reliability and customer service, as measured by independent surveys. Consumer ratings firm J.D. Power and Associates has named Lexus the most reliable brand in the U.S. fourteen times, most recently in 2008, based on its Vehicle Dependability Survey of over 53,000 vehicle owners and problems experienced in the first three years of ownership. Through 2008, Consumer Reports has also named Lexus among the top five most reliable brands in its Annual Car Reliability Surveys of over one million vehicles across the U.S. The Lexus slogan is "The Pursuit of Perfection." History The F1 project The first LS 400 flagship sedan debuted in 1989, introducing Lexus to the world. In 1983, Toyota chairman Eiji Toyoda summoned a secret meeting of company executives, to whom he posed the question, “Can we create a luxury vehicle to challenge the world's best?” May, Matthew E. (2006) "The Elegant Solution: Toyota's Formula for Mastering Innovation", p. 43. Free Press, NY. ISBN 0743290178. This question prompted Toyota to embark on a top-secret project, code-named F1 (“Flagship” + “No. 1 vehicle”). May 2006, p. 42. The F1 project, whose finished product was ultimately the Lexus LS 400, aimed to develop a luxury car that would expand Toyota’s product line, giving it a foothold in the premium segment and offering both longtime and new customers an upmarket product. The F1 project followed the success of the Toyota Supra sports car and the luxury Toyota Cressida models. White, John. New Route for Japanese Cars: Luxury. The Boston Globe. (1989-10-23) Both the Supra and Cressida were rear-wheel drive cars with a powerful 7M-GE/7M-GTE engine. The U.S. launch of the Acura marque by Honda three years prior also influenced Toyota in its plans for a luxury division. Dawson 2004, p. 109. Around this same time, Nissan would unveil plans to create its own luxury division, Infiniti, while Mazda also considered developing a luxury division, to be called Amati. Dawson, Chester (2004). "Lexus: The Relentless Pursuit", pp. 72, 116. John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd., Singapore. ISBN 0470821108. Toyota researchers visited the U.S. in May 1985 to conduct focus groups and market research on luxury consumers. Dawson 2004, pp. 35, 41. That summer, several F1 designers rented a home in Laguna Beach, California to observe the lifestyles and tastes of American upper-class consumers. Toyota’s market research concluded that a separate brand and sales channel were needed to present its new luxury flagship, and plans were made to develop a new network of dealerships in the U.S. market. Morgan, James M. & Liker, Jeffrey K. "The Toyota Product Development System: Integrating People, Process and Technology", p. 121. Productive Press, NY, ISBN 1563272822. Brand development The grille of a Lexus IS, featuring the Lexus emblem. In 1986, Toyota’s longtime advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi formed a specialized unit, Team One, to handle marketing for the new luxury brand. Image consulting firm Lippincott & Margulies was hired to develop a list of 219 prospective names; Vectre, Verone, Chaparel, Calibre, and Alexis were chosen as top candidates. Mahler, Jonathan (2004). "The Lexus Story: The Behind the Scenes Story of the #1 Automotive Luxury Brand in America", pp. 56-57. DK Melcher Media, NY. ISBN 0971793573. While Alexis quickly became the front runner (also associated with the Alexis Carrington character on the popular 1980s primetime drama Dynasty) and later morphed to Lexus, the name has been attributed to the combination of the words "luxury" and "elegance," and another theory claims it is an acronym for "luxury exports to the U.S." According to Team One interviews, the name has no specific meaning and simply denotes a luxurious and technological image. Just prior to the release of the first vehicles, database service LexisNexis obtained a temporary injunction forbidding the name Lexus from being used as they stated it might cause confusion. Dawson 2004, pp. 128-30. The injunction threatened to delay the division's launch and marketing efforts. Upon reflection, a U.S. appeals court lifted the injunction, deciding that there was little likelihood of confusion between the two products. The original Lexus slogan, developed after Team One representatives visited Lexus designers in Japan and noted their obsessive attention to detail, became "The Relentless Pursuit of Perfection." Dawson 2004, pp. 113-14. The Lexus logo was developed by Molly Designs and Hunter Communications. The final design for the Lexus logo featured a stylized “L” within an oval, and according to Toyota, was rendered using a precise mathematical formula. The first teaser ads featuring the Lexus name and logo, designed by Team One, appeared at the Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York auto shows in 1988. Dawson 2004, p. 115. Launch In 1989, Lexus showcased the smoothness of its V8 engines by placing champagne glasses on the hood of a revving LS 400. In 1989, after an extended development process involving 60 designers, 24 engineering teams, 1,400 engineers, 2,300 technicians, 220 support workers, around 450 prototypes, and over US$1-billion in costs, the F1 project was completed. Dawson 2004, p. 24. The resulting flagship, the Lexus LS 400, had a unique design that shared no major elements with previous Toyota vehicles, with a new 4.0 L V8 gasoline engine and rear-wheel drive. Dawson 2004, pp. xxi, 69. Mahler 2004, p. 31. Testing locations for the LS 400 included the German autobahn. The LS 400 debuted in January 1989 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit. The following September, Lexus vehicles officially went on sale at a network of 81 new Lexus dealerships across the U.S. May 2006, p. 47. The LS 400 was sold along with a smaller sibling, the Toyota Camry-based ES 250. The launch of Lexus was heralded by a multimillion dollar advertising campaign in both television and print media. Dawson 2004, pp. 117-18. Lexus subsequently began exports to the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Canada, and Australia, starting in 1990. Long 2001, pp. 41-42. The LS 400 was widely praised for its quietness, well-appointed and ergonomic interior, engine performance, build quality, aerodynamics, fuel economy, and value, Dawson 2004, pp. 68-76. although it was criticized by some automobile columnists for derivative styling and a suspension regarded as too compromising of handling for ride comfort. Dawson 2004, pp. 72-6. The LS 400 debuted at US$38,000 in the U.S. (in some markets, it was priced against midsize six-cylinder Mercedes-Benz and BMW models) and was rated by Car and Driver magazine as better than both the US$63,000 Mercedes-Benz 420 SEL and the US$55,000 BMW 735i in terms of ride, handling, and performance. The LS 400 also won major motoring awards from publications including Automobile Magazine and Wheels Magazine. Davis, David E. 1990 All-Stars, Automobile Magazine. (1990-01). Lexus' debut was generally regarded as a major shock to the European marques; BMW's and Mercedes-Benz's U.S. sales figures dropped 29% and 19%, respectively, with BMW executives accusing Lexus of dumping in that market. In December 1989, Lexus initiated a voluntary recall of all 8,000 LS 400s sold to date, based upon two customer complaints over defective wiring and an overheated brake light. In a sweeping operation which replaced the affected parts on all vehicles over a period of 20 days, Lexus sent technicians to pick up, repair, and return cars to customers free of charge, and also flew in personnel and rented garage space for owners in remote locations. This response was lauded in media publications and helped establish the marque's early reputation for customer service. Long 2001, pp. 38-39. In 1990, during its first full year of sales, Lexus sold 63,594 LS 400 and ES 250 sedans in the U.S., Dawson 2004, pp. 139-41. the vast majority being the LS model. By 1991, sales had increased to 71,206 cars in the U.S. market, making Lexus the country's top-selling luxury import. Long 2001, p. 51. That same year, Lexus received first place in J.D. Power’s studies on initial vehicle quality, customer satisfaction, and sales satisfaction. Dawson 2004, p. 75. Growth and expansion The Lexus RX 400h, the first hybrid version of Lexus' best-selling vehicle. Lexus introduced two new models in June and September 1991, the SC 400 coupe and ES 300 sedan. The SC 400 shared the LS 400’s V8 engine and rear-wheel drive design, while the ES 300 replaced the ES 250 and became Lexus’ best-selling sedan. Dawson 2004, pp. 141-46. In 1993, the GS series came to America, based on the Toyota Aristo, which had sold for two years prior in Japan. That same year, Lexus also became one of the first marques to debut a certified pre-owned program, with the aim of improving trade-in model values. Dawson 2004, p. 149. In 1994, the marque introduced the second generation LS 400, a complete redesign of its flagship model. Long 2001, p. 89. In May 1995, sales were threatened by the U.S. government's proposal of 100 percent tariffs on Japanese luxury cars in response to the widening U.S.-Japan trade deficit. Normal sales operations resumed a month later when the Japanese auto manufacturers collectively agreed to greater American investments, and the tariffs were not enacted. In 1996, Lexus added its first luxury sport utility vehicle, the LX 450. Long 2001, pp. 105-07. Two years later, Lexus debuted the first luxury crossover SUV, the RX 300; the second generation of the GS 300 and GS 400 sedans; and a new entry-level sedan, the IS 300. The RX quickly became the marque's best-selling model, displacing the ES, its previous best-seller. Dawson 2004, pp. 171-72. In 1999, Lexus recorded its one-millionth vehicle sold in the U.S. market, and was ranked the top-selling luxury automobile make in the U.S. overall. In 2001, Lexus introduced its first convertible, the SC 430, and the third generation LS 430. Mahler 204, pp. 27, 196. The second generation RX 330 debuted in 2003. Dawson 2004, p. 189. In 2005, Lexus debuted the first production hybrid luxury SUV, the RX 400h. The vehicle used a Lexus Hybrid Drive system which combined gasoline and electric motors for increased power, fuel efficiency, and lower emissions relative to gasoline-only equivalents. In 2006, Lexus unveiled the GS 450h, a V6 hybrid performance sedan. That same year, the marque premiered the fourth generation flagship LS series, comprising both standard- and long-wheelbase V8 (LS 460 and LS 460 L) and hybrid (LS 600h and LS 600h L) versions. The LS 600h L subsequently went on sale as the most expensive luxury vehicle ever produced in Japan, with a sticker price of approximately US$125,000. In 2006, Lexus sales reached 475,000 vehicles worldwide. The F marque Lexus LF-A concept premiered in 2007. In 2007, Lexus announced a new F marque performance division, which would produce racing-inspired versions of its performance models. The first of this line, the IS F, made its debut at the 2007 North American International Auto Show, accompanied by a supercar concept, the LF-A. By the end of 2007, Lexus' annual U.S. sales had risen to 329,177 vehicles, and total worldwide sales reached 500,000 vehicles. In 2008, amidst the late-2000s recession, sales dropped 21% in the U.S., with an annual total of 260,087, and global sales fell 14% to 430,000. In terms of volume, Lexus was the number-one-selling luxury car marque in the largest automotive market for the past eight years consecutively van Loon, Jeremy (2007-05-04). "BMW Luxury Lead Threatened by Lexus, Stagnant Margins." Bloomberg. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. and the fourth-largest luxury car brand in the world by volume. Global development + Total sales and production Global sales, 2008 UnitsJapan20,000Europe 45,000North America270,000Other regions95,000 Total430,000 U.S. sales, 2008 UnitsPassenger vehicles151,567 Sport utility vehicles108,520 Total260,087 Line production, 2007 Units Japan production 414,400 Canada production 78,070 Total 492,470 In 2005, Lexus completed a full organizational separation from parent company Toyota, with dedicated design, engineering, training, and manufacturing centers working exclusively for the division. Dawson 2004, pp. 199-00. This effort coincided with Lexus' launch in its home market of Japan and an expanded global launch of the brand in major world markets. Executives aimed to grow the marque's sales outside of its largest market in the U.S. The next generation IS, GS, and LS sedans were subsequently designed as "global models" for worldwide markets. Dawson 2004, p. 210. Lexus launched in China in 2005, Malaysia in 2006, Indonesia in 2007, "Toyota Indonesia plans to introduce Lexus vehicles". Reuters. 2007-02-21. Retrieved on 2008-06-21. Chile in 2008, and the Philippines in 2009. Mendoza, Al (2009-01-22). "Lexus unleashed in historic glory". Business Mirror. Retrieved on 2009-02-02. Plans called for an expansion from a total of 68 countries in 2006 to 76 worldwide by 2010. The largest 2007 sales markets, in order of size, were the U.S., Japan, the UK, China, Canada, and Russia. In 2008, sales growth was limited by a weakened luxury car market in major world regions, including North America, Asia, and Europe. Japan Lexus' arrival in the Japanese market in July 2005 marked the first introduction of a Japanese luxury marque in the domestic market. The IS, GS, and SC models became available in Japan in 2005. Sales were initially slower than expected, but increased the following year. In particular, the introduction of the LS 460 in September 2006 exceeded expectations, with over 12,000 orders in its first month on sale. Lexus Japan's network of 143 new dealerships became profitable in 2007. The marque's Japanese debut ended domestic sales of previous generation Toyota-equivalent models; Dawson 2004, pp. 192-93. right-hand drive versions of the LS, SC, RX, IS, and GS were previously sold in Japan under Toyota's Celsior, Soarer, Harrier, Altezza, and Aristo nameplates, respectively. With next generation models, these nameplates were no longer used and new models realigned to Lexus Japan dealerships. The dramatic price increase (from ¥1-million and up) on models previously sold under the Toyota badge and shifted to Lexus with the next generation was considered a main reason for initial slow Japanese sales, along with the overall contraction of the domestic auto market. The Lexus IS series added a diesel engine in 2006. Europe In the European market, Lexus has long struggled with smaller brand recognition; perceived lack of prestige compared to domestic luxury brands; minor market share; and the absence of an independent dealership network. Dawson 2004, p. 195. "Lexus Magic Fails to Capture Europeans". Detroit News. 2005-11-23. Retrieved on 2006. After import quotas were relaxed in 1998, the marque remained a small player on the continent. Dawson 2004, p. 194. In 2005, Lexus announced plans to introduce its first hybrid and diesel vehicles and expand the number of dedicated dealerships in Europe. In 2006, the newly introduced diesel IS 220d mainly accounted for sales increases in the UK; hybrids accounted for a quarter of total sales and outsold their petrol counterparts. Hughes, Steve. (2006-10-06) Successful Mix. Daily Record, Retrieved on 2007-09-28. The London congestion charge has added incentive by excluding hybrid vehicles. An emerging market for Lexus Europe is Russia, where the marque ranked fourth in luxury car sales in 2007, and received its largest sales increases on the continent that year. Total Europe sales increased 72% in 2006 to over 50,000 vehicles; held flat in 2007, and dropped 27.5% in 2008. The fourth generation LS 460/LS 600h was launched globally in 2006. Asia and Oceania In South Korea, with sales of the ES leading its lineup, Lexus was ranked as the top-selling import in 2005; "Toyota's Lexus Remains Best-Selling Foreign Car in Korea". The Korea Times. 2007-01-05. Retrieved on 2007-01-07. in Taiwan, Lexus also became the top-selling luxury import in 2005. In 2007, Lexus captured the import sales lead in the China's emerging luxury car market, which along with Russia saw higher per-dealership sales than any other region. The number of Lexus dealerships in China expanded to 23 in 2007, and increased demand for luxury SUVs contributed to sales growth that year. In Australia, Lexus ranked third in luxury car sales through the late 2000s, with the RX model generating the greatest demand. "Australia Vehicle Sales - 2006 YTD". Driving Australia. 2006-12. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. Latin America Lexus officially launched sales in Brazil in January 1998, making its debut in South America's most populous country. The Brazil model lineup consisted of the LS and ES sedans, and were sold through existing Toyota dealers. The marque has also been marketed in Costa Rica via regional distributor Purdy Motors S.A., with the country being one of the first in Central America to receive the brand. During the Santiago Auto Salon in 2006, Lexus officials announced plans to begin sales in Chile in mid-2007. After an apparent delay, the marque officially launched in Chile in April 2008 with the opening of its first salesroom in Las Condes, Santiago, with models sold including the IS, GS, LS, SC, and LX vehicles. Corporate affairs Lexus College, the training facility for Lexus dealers in Japan. As of 2009, coordination of global Lexus Division product strategy involves Yasuhiko Ichihashi, chief officer, and Kiyotaka Ise, general manager, of the Lexus Development Center in Japan. Ise, a managing officer in Toyota Motor Corporation's executive leadership, succeeded previous general manager Takeshi Yoshida, who was promoted to senior managing director on the Toyota board in June 2007. Other Lexus Japan executives include Yoichiro Ichimaru, senior managing director of Lexus Japan Sales and Marketing, and Toshio Furutani, managing officer at the Lexus Product and Marketing Planning Division. In the U.S., Lexus operations are headed by Mark Templin, group vice president and general manager of the U.S. Lexus Division. In Europe, Lexus operations are headed by Andy Pfeiffenberger, vice president of Lexus Europe. Lexus Japan headquarters are located in Toyota, Aichi, Japan. Companion Lexus design facilities are located in Southern California Sexy Lexus is a huge hit. Sunday Mail, Glasgow (2004-09-26) and Toyota, Aichi. State to Get Acura Site for Design (separate design center for Lexus). The Los Angeles Times, p. C2 (2006-01-09) Financial data of Lexus operations are not disclosed publicly. However, automotive analysts estimate that the Lexus Division contributes a disproportionate share of Toyota's profits, relative to its limited production and sales volume. Interviews with retired division officials indicate that depending on sales volume, vehicle product development cycles, and exchange rates, Lexus sales have accounted for as much as half of Toyota's annual U.S. profit in certain years. In 2006, Lexus entered Interbrand's list of the Top 100 Global Brands for the first time, with an estimated brand value of approximately US$3 billion annually. In 2009, responding to industry-wide sales declines, U.S. division executives opted against increasing price incentives to match those of rival brands, with the stated goal of maintaining profit margins rather than sales volume. Models Current models The ES. The GS. IS: compact car RWD/AWD 2009 IS 250/IS 250 AWD/IS 300/IS 350/IS 220d/IS F 2010 IS 250 C/IS 300 C/IS 350 C HS: compact car FWD 2010 HS 250h ES: midsize FWD 2009 ES 350 GS: midsize RWD/AWD 2009 GS 350/GS 350 AWD/GS 460 2009 GS 450h LS: full-size RWD/AWD 2009 LS 460/LS 460 AWD/LS 460 L/LS 460 L AWD 2009 LS 600h/LS 600h L SC: coupé/coupé convertible RWD 2009 SC 430 RX: midsize crossover SUV 2010 RX 350 2008 RX 400h GX: midsize sport utility vehicle 2009 GX 470 LX: full-size sport utility vehicle 2009 LX 570 Production model history IS: compact RWD/AWD 2000 IS 200/IS 300 2006 IS 250/IS 250 AWD/IS 350/IS 220d 2008 IS F 2010 IS 250 C/IS 350 C HS: compact FWD 2010 HS 250h The SC and other Lexus vehicles on showroom display. Shown from left to right: The 2007 LX, GX, and RX. ES: midsize FWD 1990 ES 250 1992 ES 300 1997 ES 300 2004 ES 330 2007 ES 350 GS: midsize RWD/AWD 1993 GS 300 1998 GS 300/GS 400 2001 GS 430 2006 GS 300/GS 300 AWD/GS 430/GS 450h 2008 GS 350/GS 350 AWD/GS 460 LS: full-size RWD/AWD 1990 LS 400 2001 LS 430 2007 LS 460/LS 460 L 2008 LS 600h/LS 600h L 2009 LS 460 AWD/LS 460 L AWD SC: coupé/coupé convertible RWD 1992 SC 300/SC 400 2002 SC 430 RX: midsize crossover SUV 1998 RX 300 2004 RX 330 2006 RX 400h 2007 RX 350 2010 RX 350/RX 450h GX: midsize sport utility vehicle 2003 GX 470 LX: full-size sport utility vehicle 1997 LX 450 1999 LX 470 2008 LX 570 Concept vehicles The Lexus LF-S concept. The Lexus LF-Xh concept. LF series concepts 2003 LF-X: crossover 2003 LF-S: luxury sedan 2004 LF-C: convertible 2005 LF-A: sports coupe 2006 LF-Sh: hybrid luxury sedan 2007 LF-Xh: hybrid crossover 2008 LF-AR: roadster Past concept vehicles 1994 Italdesign Lexus Landau: hatchback 1995 Lexus FLV: minivan 1997 Lexus Street Rod: roadster 1997 Lexus SLV: sport luxury vehicle 1997 Lexus HPS: sports sedan 2003 Lexus IS 430: sports sedan Nomenclature Lexus production models are named alphanumerically using two-letter designations followed by three digits. The first letter indicates relative status in the Lexus model range (ranking), and the second letter refers to car body style or type (e.g. LS for 'luxury sedan'). The three digits indicate engine displacement in liters multiplied by a factor of one hundred (e.g. 350 for a 3.5 L engine). A space is used between the letters and numbers. The same letter may be used differently depending on the model; 'S' can refer to 'sedan' or 'sport' (e.g. in LS and SC), while 'X' refers to 'luxury utility vehicle' or SUV. On hybrids, the three digits refer to the combined gas-electric output. For certain models, a lower case letter placed after the alphanumeric designation indicates powerplant type ('h' for hybrid, 'd' for diesel), while capital letter(s) placed at the end indicates a class subtype (e.g. 'L' for long-wheelbase, 'C' for coupe, 'AWD' for all-wheel drive). On F marque models, the two-letter designation and the letter 'F' are used with no numbers or hyphens (e.g. IS F). Design and technology Lexus touchscreen navigation system. Lexus design has traditionally placed an emphasis on targeting specific luxury vehicle standards. Dawson 2004, p. 33. Since the marque's inception, design targets have ranged from aerodynamics and ride quality to interior ergonomics. May 2006, pp. 42-43. The acronym "IDEAL" ("Impressive, Dynamic, Elegant, Advanced, and Lasting") is used in the development process. Each vehicle is designed according to approximately 500 specific product standards, known as "Lexus Musts," on criteria such as leather seat stitching. Design elements from the marque's concept vehicle line, the LF series (including the 2003 LF-S and 2004 LF-C), have been incorporated in production models. Dawson 2004, p. 206. Geneva debut, Lexus finesses next IS sedan. AutoWeek (2005-03-07) Vehicle cabins have incorporated touchscreen navigation system interfaces (through the 2009 model year), a smart key entry and startup system, SmartAccess, and electroluminescent Optitron gauges. Dawson 2004, p. 71. In 1989, Lexus became among the first luxury marques to equip models with premium audio systems, in partnership with stereo firm Nakamichi. Since 2001, optional surround sound systems are offered via high-end audio purveyor Mark Levinson. For reduced cabin noise, the first LS 400 introduced sandwich steel plating, and later models added acoustic glass. In 2006, the LS 460 debuted the first ceiling air diffusers and infrared body temperature sensors in a car. For the 2010 RX and HS models, the Remote Touch system, featuring a computer mouse-like controller with haptic feedback, was introduced. The eight-speed automatic transmission in the Lexus IS F. In 2006, Lexus incorporated the first production eight-speed automatic transmission in an automobile with the LS 460, and the gearbox was later adapted for the GS 460 and IS F models. Continuously variable transmissions, regenerative braking, and electric motors have been used on all Lexus hybrid models. In 2007, Lexus executives signaled intentions to equip further models with hybrid powertrains, catering to demands for a decrease in both carbon pollution and oil reliance. Hybrid models have been distinguished by different badging and lighting technology; in 2008, the LS 600h L became the first production vehicle to use LED headlamps. Safety features on Lexus models range from stability systems (Vehicle Stability Control and Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management) to backup cameras, swivel headlights, and sonar warning systems. The Lexus Pre-Collision System (PCS) integrates multiple safety systems. In 2007, Lexus introduced the first car safety systems with infrared and pedestrian detection capabilities, lane keep assist, a Driver Monitoring System with facial recognition monitoring of driver attentiveness, and rear pre-collision whiplash protection, as part of the LS 460 PCS. As a safety precaution, Lexus GPS navigation systems feature a motion lockout when the vehicle reaches a set speed; to prevent distraction, navigation inputs are limited, while voice input and certain buttons are still accessible. This safety feature has attracted criticism because passengers cannot use certain functions when the vehicle is in motion. Pre-2007 models came with a hidden manufacturer override option. Lexus Hybrid Drive display at Toronto, Ontario, Canada. New Lexus vehicles in development include convertibles, crossovers, and dedicated hybrids. In 2007, Lexus managing officer Takeshi Yoshida further stated Lexus' intentions to produce future production models using more dedicated Lexus platforms, as is the case for the LS flagship. The entry-level Lexus ES, in particular, had been chided for being too similar to the Toyota Camry, its shared platform cousin, in both styling and powertrain design. Lexus prototypes have been spotted testing at the Nürburgring test track in Germany. L-finesse Lexus introduced a new design language known as "L-finesse" with its LF series concepts and later with the 2006 Lexus GS. L-finesse is represented by three Japanese kanji characters which translate as "Intriguing Elegance, Incisive Simplicity, and Seamless Anticipation". Design characteristics, including a fastback profile, lower-set grille, Rechtin, Mark. Lexus Finally Gets a Design of its Own. Automotive News, 2003-10-27. and the use of both convex and concave surfaces, are derived from Japanese cultural motifs (e.g. the phrase kirikaeshi in arrowhead shapes). Morrison, Mac. Mountain Climber: Lexus unveils the next IS sport sedan. AutoWeek, 2005-03-21 While earlier Lexus models were criticized for reserved and derivative styling, and often mistaken for understated domestic market cars, automotive design analyses described L-finesse's debut as adding a distinctive nature and embrace of Japanese design identity. Opinions varied for L-finesse's debut on the 2006 GS; Sports Car International'''s analysis praised the vehicle's in-person appearance; Coates, Del. Design Matters. Sports Car International, 2005-09. Automobile Magazine criticized the daring of its forward styling, Cumberford, Robert. Not There Yet But Getting Closer. Automobile Magazine. (2004-05). and later suggested that the Jaguar XF was designed with similarities to the GS. L-finesse exhibitions were presented at the Milan Design Week from 2005 through 2009. Production Lexus models produced by the Tahara plant in Japan.Many Lexus vehicles are manufactured in Toyota's flagship Tahara plant, a highly sophisticated, computerized manufacturing plant in Japan. Tierney, Christine (2004-02-22). "Robot-filled Tahara sets standard for Toyota, World".Detroit News. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. Lexus production techniques include methods and standards of quality control that differ from Toyota models. Dawson 2004, pp. 88-94. Mahler 2004, p. 90. At the Tahara plant, separate assembly lines were developed for Lexus vehicles, Dawson 2004, pp. 88-95. Mahler 2004, p. 78. along with new molds and specialized manufacturing equipment. Welding processes, body panel fit tolerances, and paint quality requirements are more stringent. Lexus plant workers, typically veteran technicians, are identified via repeated performance evaluations and ranked according to skill grade, with limited applicants accepted. The highest level takumi (Japanese for "artisan") engineers are responsible for maintaining production standards at key points in the assembly process, such as testing engine performance. Production vehicles are given visual inspections for flaws, individually test-driven at high speeds, and subjected to vibration tests. The North American-market RX 350 (since the 2004 model year) is produced in the city of Cambridge, in Ontario, Canada, which is the first Lexus production site located outside of Japan. In addition to the Tahara factory, Lexus vehicles have been produced at the Miyata plant (Toyota Motor Kyushu) in Miyawaka, Fukuoka, Higashi Fuji plant (Kanto Auto Works) in Susono, Shizuoka, and Sanage plant (Toyota Boshoku; Araco) in Toyota, Aichi. As of 2008, most sedan and SUV production occurs in Japan at the Tahara plant in Aichi and Miyata plant in Fukuoka. In 2005, J.D. Power and Associates bestowed its Platinum award for worldwide plant quality on the Tahara plant, stating that it has the fewest defects of any manufacturing plant in the world. It was the fourth consecutive year that the Tahara plant captured this award. In 2006, J.D. Power named the Miyata plant, then the site of ES and IS model production, as its recipient of the Platinum award for worldwide plant quality. Assembly sites by modelPlantOwnerLocationModel(s)TaharaToyota Motor Corp.Tahara, Aichi PrefectureLS, GS, IS, GXMiyata Toyota Motor Kyushu, Inc.Miyawaka, Fukuoka PrefectureES, IS, RXHigashi Fuji Kanto Auto Works, Ltd.Susono, Shizuoka PrefectureSCSanage Toyota Boshoku Corp.Toyota, Aichi PrefectureLXCambridge Toyota Canada, Inc.Cambridge, OntarioRX Service Interior of a Lexus dealership in the U.S.Lexus has become known for efforts to project a luxury image, particularly with service provided after the sale. The waiting areas in service departments are replete with amenities, ranging from refreshment bars to indoor putting greens. Dealerships typically offer complimentary loaner cars and free car washes, and some have added on-site cafes and designer boutiques. Service bays are lined with large picture windows for owners to watch the servicing of their vehicle. Dawson 2004, p. 122. In 2005, Lexus also began reserving parking lots at major sporting arenas, entertainment events, and shopping malls, with the only requirement for free entry being the ownership of a Lexus vehicle. An owner publication, Lexus Magazine, features automotive and lifestyle articles and is issued quarterly online. Since 2002, Lexus has scored consecutive top ratings in the Auto Express and 76,000-respondent Top Gear customer satisfaction surveys in the UK. Lexus has also repeatedly topped the 79,000-respondent J.D. Power Customer Service Index and Luxury Institute, New York surveys in the U.S. As a result of service satisfaction levels, the marque has one of the highest customer loyalty rates in the industry. To improve customer service, employees are instructed to follow the "Lexus Covenant," the marque's founding promise (which states that "Lexus will treat each customer as we would a guest in our home"), Mahler 2004, p. 61. and some dealerships have incorporated training at upscale establishments such as Nordstrom department stores and Ritz-Carlton hotels. Motorsport In 2006, 2007, and 2008, Lexus won the Rolex Sports Car Series Manufacturers' Championship. Lexus first entered the motorsport arena in 1999 when its racing unit, Team Lexus, fielded two GS 400 race vehicles in the Motorola Cup North American Street Stock Championship touring car series. In its 1999 inaugural season, Team Lexus achieved its first victory with its sixth race at Road Atlanta. Led by Sports Car Club of America and International Motor Sports Association driver Chuck Goldsborough, based in Baltimore, Maryland, Team Lexus capitalized on the debut of the first generation Lexus IS by entering three IS 300s in the third race of the 2001 Grand-Am Cup season at Phoenix, Arizona. Team Lexus won its first IS 300 victory that year at the Virginia International Raceway. In 2002, Team Lexus' competitive efforts in the Grand-Am Cup ST1 (Street Tuner) class achieved victories in the Drivers' and Team Championships, as well as a sweep of the top three finishes at Circuit Mont-Tremblant in Quebec, Canada. Lexus SC 430 at the Fuji Speedway Super GT series.After the release of the Lexus brand in the Japanese domestic market in 2005, Lexus sanctioned the entry of four SC 430 coupes in the Super GT series of the All Japan Grand Touring Car Championship in the GT500 class. In the first race of the 2006 series, an SC 430 took the chequered flag, and drivers André Lotterer and Juichi Wakisaka raced the SC 430 to capture the GT500 championship for that year. In 2007, another SC 430 won the GT500 opening round race. In 2006, Lexus raced a hybrid vehicle for the first time, entering a GS 450h performance hybrid sedan in partnership with Sigma Advanced Racing Development at the 24 Hours of Tokachi race in Hokkaido, Japan. Lexus Canada also entered the GS 450h in 2007's Targa Newfoundland event. Lexus' participation in endurance racing further includes the Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona, sanctioned by the Grand American Road Racing Association. After entering the Rolex Sports Car Series in 2004, Lexus has won over 15 Rolex Series event races. In 2005, Lexus was runner-up, and in 2006, it won the championship. Although Toyota has won this race in the past, it was the first time that its luxury arm emerged as the winner. In 2007, six Lexus-powered Daytona prototypes were entered in the Rolex 24 Hours of Daytona event at the Daytona International Speedway. Lexus was a repeat winner of the event, with a Lexus-Riley prototype driven by Scott Pruett, Juan Pablo Montoya, and Salvador Durán of Chip Ganassi Racing finishing first; Lexus-Riley prototypes also took three of the top ten spots. In 2008, Lexus won its third consecutive win at Daytona. F marque Emblem of the LexusF marque division. In December 2006, Lexus announced its new F marque division. The name refers to the Fuji Speedway in Japan, whose first corner, 27R, inspired the shape of the "F" emblem. The first F badged vehicle, the Lexus IS F, subsequently premiered at the North American International Auto Show in January 2007. Media reports suggested that the IS F sedan would be followed by a GS F sedan and IS F coupe. An earlier in-house tuning effort, the TRD-based L-Tuned, had offered performance packages on the IS and GS sedans in the early 2000s. O'Dell, John. Toyota Turns Its Tuners Loose on the Lexus. The Los Angeles Times. (2000-02-23) In 2007, Lexus entered the IS F in the 2007 Specialty Equipment Market Association show, offering a factory-sanctioned F-Sport performance accessory line in conjunction with the debut of its F marque division. The IS F is targeted at rivals from Mercedes-Benz's AMG and BMW's M divisions. Historically, past versions of the SC and GS models have received favorable reactions from sport luxury buyers, Dawson 2004, pp. 141-47, 163-65. while other Lexus models have been characterized as favoring comfort at the expense of sporty performance. Automotive reviewers have also given some of Lexus' European rivals higher marks for road feel and handling, especially during racetrack testing. The F marque line has been seen as an effort to further bolster Lexus' performance credentials. Marketing The Lexus 2054, a concept model produced for the film Minority Report. From its inception, Lexus was advertised to luxury consumers using specific marketing strategies, with a consistent motif used for the marque's advertisements. Beginning in 1989, television ads were commonly narrated by film and television actor James Sloyan (who was the voice of "Mr. Lexus" from 1989 onward), Dawson 2004, p. 117. and accompanied by vehicles that performed unusual stunts onscreen. Dawson 2004, p. 119. The first decade of commercials (1989–99) consisted primarily of disjunctive verbal descriptions, such as "relentless," "pursuit," and "perfection," while vehicles were used to claim superiority in precision, idling, and interior quiet and comfort on camera. Newer ads have included descriptions of novel features, or a narration of the events onscreen. Since 2001, an annual "December to Remember" campaign features scenes of family members surprising loved ones with the gift of a new Lexus. In 2009, after twenty years of featuring James Sloyan, Lexus hired actor James Remar for ad voice-overs. Industry observers have attributed Lexus' early marketing successes to higher levels of perceived quality and lower prices than competitors, which have enabled the marque to attract customers upgrading from mass-market cars. A reputation for dependability, bolstered by reliability surveys, also became a primary factor in attracting new customers from rival luxury makes. Lexus has since grown to command higher price premiums than rival Japanese makes, with new models expected to further increase in price; in 2007, the LS 600h L became the first Lexus to be advertised in the US$100,000+ ultra-luxury category long dominated by rival European marques. Lexus GS hybrid at the U.S. Open in Flushing Meadows, New York. Automotive analysts have also noted Lexus' relative newcomer status as a marketing challenge for the brand, although some have debated the requirement of a long history. European rivals have marketed their decades of heritage and pedigree, whereas Lexus' reputation rests primarily upon its perceived quality and shared history with parent company Toyota. Several analysts have stated that Lexus will have to develop its own heritage over time by highlighting technological innovations and producing substantial products. Lexus' marketing efforts have extended to sporting and charity event sponsorships, including the U.S. Open tennis Grand Slam event since 2005, and the United States Golf Association's U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, U.S. Senior Open, and U.S. Amateur tournaments since 2007. Lexus has organized an annual Champions for Charity golf series in the U.S. since 1989. Lexus Golf Tourney Benefits Charities. The Oregonian, 1997-06-14. Endorsement contracts have also been signed with pro athletes Andy Roddick, Annika Sörenstam, and Peter Jacobsen. See also Balance (Lexus) Ball Bearing (Lexus) Lexus Centre Lexus Chase Lexus Cup Lexus Gauntlet Lexus Link Lexus Song Quest List of hybrid vehicles List of Japanese cars The Championship by Lexus Toyota Century References Notes Bibliography Dawson, Chester. Lexus: The Relentless Pursuit. 2004: Jon Wiley & Sons, NJ. ISBN 0-470821-10-8. Long, Brian. Lexus: The Challenge to Create the Finest Automobile. 2001: Veloce Publishing, Cardiff. ISBN 1-901295-81-8. Mahler, Jonathan. The Lexus Story: The Behind the Scenes Story of the #1 Automotive Luxury Brand in America. 2004: DK Melcher Media, NY. ISBN 0-971793-57-3. May, Matthew E. The Elegant Solution: Toyota's Formula for Mastering Innovation. 2006: Free Press, NY. ISBN 0-743290-17-8. Morgan, James M. & Liker, Jeffrey K. The Toyota Product Development System: Integrating People, Process and Technology.'' Productive Press, NY. ISBN 1-563272-82-2. External links Official sites for Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Japan, Philippines, UK, USA | Lexus |@lemmatized luxury:49 vehicle:63 division:21 japanese:16 automaker:1 toyota:47 motor:10 corporation:2 first:43 introduce:14 united:3 state:8 lexus:208 become:15 high:8 sell:16 make:8 car:35 country:6 territory:1 worldwide:7 launch:13 japan:28 marque:35 home:4 market:31 since:11 debut:19 additional:2 export:3 part:3 ongoing:1 global:8 expansion:3 originate:1 clandestine:1 flagship:9 sedan:25 project:7 begin:6 effort:8 develop:10 original:2 l:57 wear:1 upon:4 follow:6 year:20 add:7 coupe:6 convertible:6 suv:8 model:48 hybrid:23 version:6 rx:22 crossover:7 subsequently:5 lineup:3 f:25 performance:13 arrival:2 sport:24 start:2 production:20 consistently:1 produce:10 manufacturing:6 center:5 chūbu:2 kyūshū:2 region:3 particular:3 tahara:10 aichi:7 miyata:4 fukuoka:4 plant:17 assembly:4 build:2 outside:3 ontario:3 canada:10 corporate:2 reorganization:1 operate:1 design:25 engineering:3 solely:1 responsible:2 reputation:4 reliability:3 customer:13 service:10 measure:1 independent:2 survey:6 consumer:5 rating:2 firm:3 j:5 power:7 associate:3 name:11 reliable:2 brand:17 u:41 fourteen:1 time:9 recently:1 base:6 dependability:2 owner:4 problem:1 experience:1 three:9 ownership:2 report:3 also:18 among:2 top:13 five:1 annual:6 one:12 million:2 across:2 slogan:2 pursuit:5 perfection:3 history:4 world:7 chairman:1 eiji:1 toyoda:1 summon:1 secret:2 meeting:1 company:3 executive:7 pose:1 question:2 create:3 challenge:3 best:6 may:8 matthew:2 e:26 elegant:3 solution:2 formula:3 master:2 innovation:3 p:26 free:5 press:4 ny:6 isbn:9 prompt:1 embark:1 code:1 whose:2 finished:1 product:11 ultimately:1 aim:3 would:5 expand:4 line:8 give:3 foothold:1 premium:3 segment:1 offer:5 longtime:2 new:23 upmarket:1 success:2 supra:2 cressida:2 white:1 john:3 route:1 boston:1 globe:1 rear:4 wheel:5 drive:10 powerful:1 ge:1 gte:1 engine:9 acura:2 honda:1 prior:3 influenced:1 plan:7 dawson:32 around:2 nissan:1 unveil:3 infiniti:1 mazda:1 consider:2 call:2 amati:1 chester:2 relentless:4 pp:22 wiley:2 son:2 asia:3 pte:1 ltd:2 singapore:1 researcher:1 visit:2 conduct:1 focus:1 group:2 research:2 summer:1 several:2 designer:4 rent:2 laguna:1 beach:1 california:2 observe:1 lifestyle:2 taste:1 american:8 upper:1 class:4 conclude:1 separate:3 sale:44 channel:1 need:1 present:2 network:4 dealership:11 morgan:2 james:5 liker:2 jeffrey:2 k:2 development:10 system:16 integrating:2 people:2 process:6 technology:4 productive:2 grille:2 feature:11 emblem:3 advertising:2 agency:1 saatchi:2 form:1 specialized:2 unit:3 team:11 handle:2 marketing:8 image:3 consult:1 lippincott:1 margulies:1 hire:2 list:4 prospective:1 vectre:1 verone:1 chaparel:1 calibre:1 alexis:3 choose:1 candidate:1 mahler:7 jonathan:2 story:4 behind:2 scene:3 automotive:9 america:8 dk:2 melcher:2 medium:5 quickly:2 front:1 runner:2 carrington:1 character:2 popular:1 primetime:1 drama:1 dynasty:1 later:7 morph:1 attribute:2 combination:1 word:1 elegance:2 another:2 theory:1 claim:2 acronym:2 accord:4 interview:2 specific:4 meaning:1 simply:1 denote:1 luxurious:1 technological:2 release:2 database:1 lexisnexis:1 obtain:1 temporary:1 injunction:3 forbid:1 use:17 might:1 cause:1 confusion:2 threaten:3 delay:2 reflection:1 appeal:1 court:1 lift:1 decide:1 little:1 likelihood:1 two:8 representative:1 note:3 obsessive:1 attention:1 detail:1 logo:3 molly:1 hunter:1 communication:1 final:1 stylized:1 within:1 oval:1 render:1 precise:1 mathematical:1 teaser:1 ad:4 appear:1 chicago:1 los:3 angeles:3 york:3 auto:10 show:6 showcased:1 smoothness:1 place:5 champagne:1 glass:2 hood:1 rev:1 extended:1 involve:2 engineer:2 technician:3 support:1 worker:2 prototype:5 billion:2 cost:1 complete:3 result:2 unique:1 share:6 major:6 element:2 previous:4 gasoline:3 xxi:1 test:6 location:2 include:12 german:1 autobahn:1 ls:20 january:3 north:6 international:8 detroit:3 following:2 september:3 officially:3 go:2 along:4 small:3 sibling:1 camry:2 es:2 herald:1 multimillion:1 dollar:1 campaign:2 television:3 print:1 kingdom:1 switzerland:1 australia:5 long:12 widely:1 praise:2 quietness:1 well:2 appoint:1 ergonomic:1 interior:4 quality:9 aerodynamics:2 fuel:2 economy:1 value:3 although:3 criticize:3 automobile:8 columnist:1 derivative:2 styling:4 suspension:1 regard:2 compromise:1 ride:3 comfort:3 price:7 midsize:9 six:2 cylinder:1 mercedes:4 benz:4 bmw:6 rat:1 driver:6 magazine:7 good:1 sel:1 term:2 handling:2 win:9 award:4 publication:3 davis:1 david:1 star:1 generally:1 shock:1 european:6 figure:1 drop:3 respectively:2 accuse:1 dump:1 december:3 initiate:1 voluntary:1 recall:1 date:1 complaint:1 defective:1 wiring:1 overheated:1 brake:1 light:2 sweeping:1 operation:5 replace:2 affected:1 period:1 day:1 sent:1 pick:1 repair:1 return:1 charge:2 fly:1 personnel:1 garage:1 space:2 remote:2 response:2 laud:1 help:1 establish:1 early:5 full:6 vast:1 majority:1 increase:9 import:5 receive:4 study:1 initial:2 satisfaction:4 growth:3 selling:4 june:2 sc:20 g:40 series:14 come:2 aristo:2 certified:1 pre:4 program:1 improve:2 trade:2 second:4 generation:11 redesign:1 government:1 proposal:1 percent:1 tariff:2 widening:1 deficit:1 normal:1 resume:1 month:2 manufacturer:3 collectively:1 agree:1 great:2 investment:1 enact:1 utility:7 lx:9 entry:5 level:5 displace:1 seller:1 record:2 millionth:1 rank:6 overall:2 third:4 combine:2 electric:3 increased:1 efficiency:1 low:4 emission:1 relative:4 equivalent:2 premier:3 fourth:5 comprise:1 standard:6 wheelbase:2 expensive:1 ever:1 sticker:1 approximately:3 reach:3 lf:16 concept:10 announce:4 race:15 inspired:1 accompany:2 supercar:1 end:4 rise:1 total:7 amidst:1 late:2 recession:1 fell:1 volume:5 number:5 large:6 past:4 eight:3 consecutively:1 van:1 loon:1 jeremy:1 lead:4 stagnant:1 margin:2 bloomberg:1 retrieve:8 unitspassenger:1 organizational:1 separation:1 parent:2 dedicated:4 training:3 work:3 exclusively:1 coincide:1 grow:2 next:5 china:5 malaysia:1 indonesia:2 reuters:1 chile:4 philippine:2 mendoza:1 al:1 unleash:1 historic:1 glory:1 business:1 mirror:1 order:2 size:5 uk:4 russia:3 limit:2 weakened:1 europe:7 july:1 mark:5 introduction:2 domestic:6 available:1 initially:1 slow:2 expect:2 exceed:1 expectation:1 profitable:1 right:2 hand:1 previously:2 celsior:1 soarer:1 harrier:1 altezza:1 nameplate:2 realign:1 dramatic:1 badge:2 shift:1 main:1 reason:1 contraction:1 diesel:4 struggle:1 recognition:2 perceive:2 lack:1 prestige:1 compare:1 minor:1 absence:1 magic:1 fail:1 capture:4 news:3 quota:1 relax:1 remain:2 player:1 continent:2 newly:1 mainly:1 account:3 quarter:1 outsell:1 petrol:1 counterpart:1 hughes:1 steve:1 successful:1 mix:1 daily:1 london:1 congestion:1 incentive:2 exclude:1 emerge:3 hold:1 flat:1 globally:1 oceania:1 south:2 korea:3 foreign:1 taiwan:1 saw:1 per:1 demand:3 contribute:2 generate:1 ytd:1 latin:1 brazil:2 populous:1 consist:2 exist:1 dealer:2 costa:1 rica:1 via:3 regional:1 distributor:1 purdy:1 central:1 santiago:2 salon:1 official:3 mid:1 apparent:1 april:1 opening:1 salesroom:1 las:1 condes:1 affair:1 college:1 facility:2 coordination:1 strategy:2 yasuhiko:1 ichihashi:1 chief:1 officer:4 kiyotaka:1 ise:2 general:3 manager:3 manage:5 leadership:1 succeed:1 takeshi:2 yoshida:2 promote:1 senior:3 director:2 board:1 yoichiro:1 ichimaru:1 toshio:1 furutani:1 planning:1 head:2 templin:1 vice:2 president:2 andy:2 pfeiffenberger:1 headquarters:1 locate:3 companion:1 southern:1 sexy:1 huge:1 hit:1 sunday:1 mail:1 glasgow:1 get:3 site:6 financial:1 data:1 disclose:1 publicly:1 however:1 analyst:3 estimate:2 disproportionate:1 profit:3 limited:2 retired:1 indicate:5 depend:2 cycle:1 exchange:1 rate:2 much:1 half:1 certain:4 enter:8 interbrand:1 annually:1 respond:1 industry:3 wide:1 decline:1 opt:1 match:1 rival:7 stated:1 goal:1 maintain:2 rather:1 current:1 compact:4 rwd:8 awd:16 c:8 h:6 fwd:4 gs:4 coupé:4 gx:5 showroom:1 display:2 leave:1 xh:2 x:2 sh:1 ar:1 roadster:2 italdesign:1 landau:1 hatchback:1 flv:1 minivan:1 street:3 rod:1 slv:1 hp:1 nomenclature:1 alphanumerically:1 letter:9 designation:3 digit:3 status:2 range:4 refers:3 body:3 style:1 type:2 displacement:1 liter:1 multiply:1 factor:2 hundred:1 differently:1 refer:2 gas:1 output:1 case:2 alphanumeric:1 powerplant:1 capital:1 subtype:1 hyphen:1 touchscreen:2 navigation:4 traditionally:1 emphasis:1 target:3 inception:2 ergonomics:1 ideal:1 impressive:1 dynamic:2 advanced:1 lasting:1 know:3 must:1 criterion:1 leather:1 seat:1 stitch:1 incorporate:4 geneva:1 finesse:7 autoweek:2 cabin:2 interface:1 smart:1 key:2 startup:1 smartaccess:1 electroluminescent:1 optitron:1 gauge:1 equip:2 audio:2 partnership:2 stereo:1 nakamichi:1 optional:1 surround:1 sound:1 purveyor:1 levinson:1 reduced:1 noise:1 sandwich:1 steel:1 plating:1 acoustic:1 ceiling:1 air:1 diffuser:1 infrared:2 temperature:1 sensor:1 touch:1 computer:1 mouse:1 like:1 controller:1 haptic:1 feedback:1 speed:4 automatic:2 transmission:3 gearbox:1 adapt:1 continuously:1 variable:1 regenerative:1 braking:1 signal:1 intention:2 powertrains:1 cater:1 decrease:1 carbon:1 pollution:1 oil:1 reliance:1 distinguish:1 different:1 badging:1 led:1 headlamp:1 safety:5 stability:2 control:2 integrated:1 management:1 backup:1 camera:2 swivel:1 headlight:1 sonar:1 warning:1 collision:2 pc:2 integrate:1 multiple:1 pedestrian:1 detection:1 capability:1 lane:1 keep:1 assist:1 monitoring:2 facial:1 attentiveness:1 whiplash:1 protection:1 precaution:1 gps:1 motion:2 lockout:1 set:3 prevent:1 distraction:1 input:2 voice:3 button:1 still:1 accessible:1 attract:3 criticism:1 passenger:1 cannot:1 function:1 hidden:1 override:1 option:1 toronto:1 far:1 future:1 platform:2 chide:1 similar:1 cousin:1 powertrain:1 spot:2 nürburgring:1 track:1 germany:1 language:1 represent:1 kanji:1 translate:1 intriguing:1 incisive:1 simplicity:1 seamless:1 anticipation:1 characteristic:1 fastback:1 profile:1 rechtin:1 finally:1 convex:1 concave:1 surface:1 derive:1 cultural:1 motif:2 phrase:1 kirikaeshi:1 arrowhead:1 shape:2 morrison:1 mac:1 mountain:1 climber:1 reserve:2 often:1 mistake:1 understated:1 analyse:1 describe:1 distinctive:1 nature:1 embrace:1 identity:1 opinion:1 vary:1 analysis:1 person:1 appearance:1 coates:1 del:1 matter:1 daring:1 forward:1 cumberford:1 robert:1 yet:1 closer:1 suggest:2 jaguar:1 xf:1 similarity:1 exhibition:1 milan:1 week:1 many:1 manufacture:1 highly:1 sophisticated:1 computerized:1 tierney:1 christine:1 robot:1 fill:1 technique:1 method:1 differ:1 mold:1 equipment:2 welding:1 panel:1 fit:1 tolerance:1 paint:1 requirement:3 stringent:1 typically:2 veteran:1 identify:1 repeat:2 evaluation:1 skill:1 grade:1 applicant:1 accept:1 takumi:1 artisan:1 point:1 visual:1 inspection:1 flaw:1 individually:1 subject:1 vibration:1 city:1 cambridge:2 addition:1 factory:2 kyushu:2 miyawaka:2 higashi:1 fuji:4 kanto:2 susono:2 shizuoka:2 sanage:1 boshoku:2 araco:1 occurs:1 bestow:1 platinum:2 defect:1 consecutive:3 recipient:1 modelplantownerlocationmodel:1 taharatoyota:1 corp:2 prefecturels:1 gxmiyata:1 inc:2 prefecturees:1 rxhigashi:1 prefecturescsanage:1 prefecturelxcambridge:1 ontariorx:1 particularly:1 provide:1 wait:1 area:1 department:2 replete:1 amenity:1 refreshment:1 bar:1 indoor:1 put:1 green:1 complimentary:1 loaner:1 wash:1 cafe:1 boutique:1 bay:1 picture:1 window:1 watch:1 servicing:1 park:1 lot:1 arena:2 entertainment:1 event:8 shopping:1 mall:1 article:1 issue:1 quarterly:1 online:1 score:1 express:1 respondent:2 gear:1 repeatedly:1 index:1 institute:1 loyalty:1 employee:1 instruct:1 covenant:1 founding:1 promise:1 treat:1 guest:1 upscale:1 establishment:1 nordstrom:1 store:1 ritz:1 carlton:1 hotel:1 motorsport:2 rolex:5 championship:7 racing:1 field:1 motorola:1 cup:4 stock:1 tour:2 inaugural:1 season:2 achieve:2 victory:3 sixth:1 road:3 atlanta:1 club:1 association:4 chuck:1 goldsborough:1 baltimore:1 maryland:1 capitalize:1 grand:5 phoenix:1 arizona:1 virginia:1 raceway:1 competitive:1 tuner:2 sweep:1 finish:2 circuit:1 mont:1 tremblant:1 quebec:1 speedway:3 super:2 gt:2 sanction:3 four:1 take:2 chequered:1 flag:1 andré:1 lotterer:1 juichi:1 wakisaka:1 open:6 round:1 sigma:1 advance:1 hour:3 tokachi:1 hokkaido:1 targa:1 newfoundland:1 participation:1 endurance:1 daytona:5 arm:1 winner:2 riley:2 scott:1 pruett:1 juan:1 pablo:1 montoya:1 salvador:1 durán:1 chip:1 ganassi:1 ten:1 lexusf:1 corner:1 inspire:1 house:1 tune:2 trd:1 package:1 dell:1 turn:1 loose:1 specialty:1 accessory:1 conjunction:1 amg:1 historically:1 favorable:1 reaction:1 buyer:1 characterize:1 favor:1 expense:1 sporty:1 reviewer:1 higher:1 feel:1 especially:1 racetrack:1 testing:1 see:2 bolster:2 credential:1 film:2 minority:1 advertise:2 consistent:1 advertisement:1 commonly:1 narrate:1 actor:2 sloyan:2 mr:1 onward:1 perform:1 unusual:1 stunt:1 onscreen:2 decade:2 commercial:1 primarily:2 disjunctive:1 verbal:1 description:2 superiority:1 precision:1 idling:1 quiet:1 novel:1 narration:1 remember:1 family:1 member:1 surprise:1 loved:1 gift:1 twenty:1 remar:1 observer:1 competitor:1 enable:1 upgrade:1 mass:1 primary:1 command:1 ultra:1 category:1 dominate:1 flush:1 meadow:1 newcomer:1 debate:1 heritage:2 pedigree:1 whereas:1 rest:1 perceived:1 highlight:1 substantial:1 extend:1 charity:3 sponsorship:1 tennis:1 slam:1 golf:3 woman:1 amateur:1 tournament:1 organize:1 champion:1 tourney:1 benefit:1 oregonian:1 endorsement:1 contract:1 sign:1 pro:1 athlete:1 roddick:1 annika:1 sörenstam:1 peter:1 jacobsen:1 balance:1 ball:1 bearing:1 centre:1 chase:1 gauntlet:1 link:2 song:1 quest:1 century:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 jon:1 nj:1 brian:1 fine:1 veloce:1 publishing:1 cardiff:1 external:1 usa:1 |@bigram coupe_convertible:1 pursuit_perfection:3 boston_globe:1 rear_wheel:3 relentless_pursuit:4 wiley_son:2 los_angeles:3 gasoline_engine:1 toyota_camry:2 multimillion_dollar:1 mercedes_benz:4 vast_majority:1 customer_satisfaction:2 best_selling:3 crossover_suv:3 ls_l:9 diesel_engine:1 asia_oceania:1 costa_rica:1 vice_president:2 stated_goal:1 rwd_awd:6 rx_rx:6 sc_sc:2 luxury_sedan:3 regenerative_braking:1 safety_precaution:1 toronto_ontario:1 convex_concave:1 tahara_plant:6 shopping_mall:1 ritz_carlton:1 baltimore_maryland:1 phoenix_arizona:1 juan_pablo:1 pablo_montoya:1 flush_meadow:1 technological_innovation:1 grand_slam:1 andy_roddick:1 external_link:1 |
906 | Grand_Unified_Theory | Grand Unification, grand unified theory, or GUT refers to any of several very similar unified field theories or models in physics that predicts that at extremely high energies (above 1014 GeV), the electromagnetic, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces are fused into a single unified field. Thus far, physicists have been able to merge electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force into the electroweak force, and work is being done to merge electroweak and quantum chromodynamics into a QCD-electroweak interaction sometimes called the electrostrong force. Beyond grand unification, there is also speculation that it may be possible to merge gravity with the other three gauge symmetries into a theory of everything. Motivation There is a general aesthetic among high energy physicists that the more symmetrical a theory is, the more "beautiful" and "elegant" it is. According to this aesthetic, the Standard Model gauge group, which is the direct product of three groups (modulo some finite group), is "ugly". Also, reasoning in analogy with the 19th-century unification of electricity with magnetism into electromagnetism, and especially the success of the electroweak theory, which utilizes the idea of spontaneous symmetry breaking to unify electromagnetism with the weak interaction, people wondered if it might be possible to unify all three groups in a similar manner. Physicists feel that three independent gauge coupling constants and a huge number of Yukawa coupling coefficients require far too many free parameters, and that these coupling constants ought to be explained by a theory with fewer free parameters. A gauge theory where the gauge group is a simple group only has one gauge coupling constant, and since the fermions are now grouped together in larger representations, there are fewer Yukawa coupling coefficients as well. In addition, the chiral fermion fields of the Standard Model unify into three generations of two irreducible representations () in SU(5), and three generations of an irreducible representation (16) in SO(10). This is a significant observation, as a generic combination of chiral fermions which are free of gauge anomalies will not be unified in a representation of some larger Lie group without adding additional matter fields. SO(10) also predicts a right-handed neutrino. GUT specifically predicts relations among the fermion masses, such as between the electron and the down quark, the muon and the strange quark, and the tau lepton and the bottom quark for SU(5) and SO(10). Some of these mass relations hold approximately, but most don't. See Georgi-Jarlskog mass relation. If we look at the renormalization group running of the three-gauge couplings have been found to nearly, but not quite, meet at the same point if the hypercharge is normalized so that it is consistent with SU(5)/SO(10) GUTs, which are precisely the GUT groups which lead to a simple fermion unification. This is a significant result, as other Lie groups lead to different normalizations. However, if the supersymmetric extension MSSM is used instead of the Standard Model, the match becomes much more accurate. It is commonly believed that this matching is unlikely to be a coincidence. Also, most model builders simply assume supersymmetry (SUSY) because it solves the hierarchy problem—i.e., it stabilizes the electroweak Higgs mass against radiative corrections. And the Majorana mass of the right-handed neutrino SO(10) theories with its mass set to the gauge unification scale is examined, values for the left-handed neutrino masses (see neutrino oscillation) are produced via the seesaw mechanism. These values are 10–100 times smaller than the GUT scale, but still relatively close. (For a more elementary introduction to how Lie algebras are related to particle physics, see the article Particle physics and representation theory.) Proposed theories Several such theories have been proposed, but none is currently universally accepted. An even more ambitious theory that includes all fundamental forces, including gravitation, is termed a theory of everything. Some common mainstream GUT models are: minimal left-right model — Georgi-Glashow model — SO(10) Flipped SU(5) — Pati-Salam model — flipped SO(10) — Trinification — SU(6) E6 331 model Haramein-Rauscher metric chiral color Not quite GUTs: Technicolor models Little Higgs Preons String theory M-theory Loop quantum gravity Causal dynamical triangulation theory Note: These models refer to Lie algebras not to Lie groups. The Lie group could be [SU(4)×SU(2)×SU(2)]/Z2, just to take a random example. The most promising candidate is SO(10). (Minimal) SO(10) does not contain any exotic fermions (i.e. additional fermions besides the Standard Model fermions and the right-handed neutrino), and it unifies each generation into a single irreducible representation. A number of other GUT models are based upon subgroups of SO(10). They are the minimal left-right model, SU(5), flipped SU(5) and the Pati-Salam model. The GUT group E6 contains SO(10), but models based upon it are significantly more complicated. The primary reason for studying E6 models comes from E8 × E8 heterotic string theory. GUT models generically predict the existence of topological defects such as monopoles, cosmic strings, domain walls, and others. But none have been observed. Their absence is known as the monopole problem in cosmology. GUT models also generically predict proton decay, although current experiments still haven't detected proton decay. This experimental limit on the proton's lifetime pretty much rules out minimal SU(5). Image:proton decay2.png Image:proton decay3.png Image:proton decay4.png (The above graphics refer to the X bosons and Higgs bosons.) Some GUT theories like SU(5) and SO(10) suffer from what is called the doublet-triplet problem. These theories predict that for each electroweak Higgs doublet, there is a corresponding colored Higgs triplet field with a very small mass (many orders of magnitude smaller than the GUT scale here). In theory, unifying quarks with leptons, the Higgs doublet would also be unified with a Higgs triplet. Such triplets have not been observed. They would also cause extremely rapid proton decay (far below current experimental limits) and prevent the gauge coupling strengths from running together in the renormalization group. Most GUT models require a threefold replication of the matter fields. As such, they do not explain why there are three generations of fermions. Most GUT models also fail to explain the little hierarchy between the fermion masses for different generations. Ingredients A GUT model basically consists of a gauge group which is a compact Lie group, a connection form for that Lie group, a Yang-Mills action for that connection given by an invariant symmetric bilinear form over its Lie algebra (which is specified by a coupling constant for each factor), a Higgs sector consisting of a number of scalar fields taking on values within real/complex representations of the Lie group and chiral Weyl fermions taking on values within a complex rep of the Lie group. The Lie group contains the Standard Model group and the Higgs fields acquire VEVs leading to a spontaneous symmetry breaking to the Standard Model. The Weyl fermions represent matter. Current status , there is still no hard evidence that nature is described by a Grand Unified Theory. Moreover, since the Higgs particle has not yet been observed, the smaller electroweak unification is still pending. The discovery of neutrino oscillations indicates that the Standard Model is incomplete and has led to renewed interest toward certain GUT such as . One of the few possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion masses. There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT. The gauge coupling strengths of QCD, the weak interaction and hypercharge seem to meet at a common length scale called the GUT scale and equal approximately to GeV, which is slightly suggestive. This interesting numerical observation is called the gauge coupling unification, and it works particularly well if one assumes the existence of superpartners of the Standard Model particles. Still it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, for instance, that ordinary (non supersymmetric) models break with an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati-Salam group. The coining of the widely-used acronym GUT has been attributed to a paper published in 1978 by Texas A&M University theorist Dimitri Nanopoulos (previously at Harvard University). See also Grand unification energy Fundamental interaction Particle physics and representation theory Classical unified field theories X and B-L quantum numbers References An account of the origin of the term GUT Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, includes a brief popular overview. | Grand_Unified_Theory |@lemmatized grand:5 unification:8 unify:8 theory:23 gut:22 refers:1 several:2 similar:2 unified:4 field:9 model:28 physic:4 predict:5 extremely:2 high:2 energy:3 gev:2 electromagnetic:1 weak:4 nuclear:3 strong:1 force:5 fuse:1 single:2 thus:1 far:3 physicist:3 able:1 merge:3 electromagnetism:3 electroweak:7 work:2 quantum:3 chromodynamics:1 qcd:2 interaction:4 sometimes:1 call:4 electrostrong:1 beyond:1 also:10 speculation:1 may:1 possible:4 gravity:2 three:8 gauge:14 symmetry:3 everything:2 motivation:1 general:1 aesthetic:2 among:2 symmetrical:1 beautiful:1 elegant:1 accord:1 standard:8 group:23 direct:1 product:1 modulo:1 finite:1 ugly:1 reason:2 analogy:1 century:1 electricity:1 magnetism:1 especially:1 success:1 utilize:1 idea:1 spontaneous:2 break:3 people:1 wonder:1 might:1 manner:1 feel:1 independent:1 couple:6 constant:4 huge:1 number:4 yukawa:2 coefficient:2 require:2 many:2 free:3 parameter:2 ought:1 explain:3 simple:2 one:4 coupling:4 since:2 fermion:13 together:2 large:2 representation:8 well:2 addition:1 chiral:4 generation:5 two:1 irreducible:3 su:12 significant:2 observation:2 generic:1 combination:1 anomaly:1 lie:12 without:1 add:1 additional:2 matter:3 right:5 hand:4 neutrino:6 specifically:1 predicts:1 relation:3 mass:10 electron:1 quark:4 muon:1 strange:1 tau:1 lepton:2 bottom:1 hold:1 approximately:2 see:4 georgi:2 jarlskog:1 look:1 renormalization:2 run:2 find:1 nearly:1 quite:2 meet:2 point:1 hypercharge:2 normalize:1 consistent:1 precisely:1 lead:4 result:1 different:2 normalization:1 however:1 supersymmetric:3 extension:1 mssm:1 use:2 instead:1 match:1 become:1 much:2 accurate:1 commonly:1 believe:1 matching:1 unlikely:1 coincidence:1 builder:1 simply:1 assume:2 supersymmetry:1 susy:1 solve:1 hierarchy:2 problem:3 e:2 stabilize:1 higgs:10 radiative:1 correction:1 majorana:1 set:1 scale:6 examine:1 value:4 left:1 oscillation:2 produce:1 via:1 seesaw:1 mechanism:1 time:2 small:4 still:5 relatively:1 close:1 elementary:1 introduction:1 algebra:2 relate:1 particle:5 article:1 propose:2 none:2 currently:1 universally:1 accept:1 even:1 ambitious:1 include:3 fundamental:2 gravitation:1 term:2 common:2 mainstream:1 minimal:4 leave:2 glashow:1 flip:3 pati:3 salam:3 trinification:1 haramein:1 rauscher:1 metric:1 color:1 technicolor:1 little:2 preons:1 string:3 loop:1 causal:1 dynamical:1 triangulation:1 note:1 refer:2 algebras:1 could:1 take:3 random:1 example:1 promising:1 candidate:1 contain:3 exotic:1 besides:1 base:2 upon:2 subgroup:1 significantly:1 complicated:1 primary:1 study:1 come:1 heterotic:1 generically:2 existence:2 topological:1 defect:1 monopoles:1 cosmic:1 domain:1 wall:1 others:1 observe:3 absence:1 know:1 monopole:1 cosmology:1 proton:8 decay:4 although:1 current:3 experiment:1 detect:1 experimental:3 limit:2 lifetime:1 pretty:1 rule:1 image:3 png:3 graphic:1 x:2 boson:2 like:1 suffer:1 doublet:3 triplet:4 corresponding:1 colored:1 order:1 magnitude:1 would:2 cause:1 rapid:1 prevent:1 strength:2 threefold:1 replication:1 fail:1 ingredient:1 basically:1 consist:2 compact:1 connection:2 form:2 yang:1 mill:1 action:1 give:1 invariant:1 symmetric:1 bilinear:1 specify:1 factor:1 sector:1 scalar:1 within:2 real:1 complex:2 weyl:2 rep:1 acquire:1 vevs:1 represent:1 status:1 hard:1 evidence:1 nature:1 describe:1 moreover:1 yet:1 pending:1 discovery:1 indicate:1 incomplete:1 renew:1 interest:1 toward:1 certain:2 test:2 special:1 seem:1 length:1 equal:1 slightly:1 suggestive:1 interesting:1 numerical:1 particularly:1 superpartners:1 achieve:1 postulate:1 instance:1 ordinary:1 non:1 intermediate:1 coining:1 widely:1 acronym:1 attribute:1 paper:1 publish:1 texas:1 university:2 theorist:1 dimitri:1 nanopoulos:1 previously:1 harvard:1 classical:1 b:1 l:1 reference:1 account:1 origin:1 stephen:1 hawking:1 brief:2 history:1 popular:1 overview:1 |@bigram quantum_chromodynamics:1 chromodynamics_qcd:1 electroweak_interaction:1 electricity_magnetism:1 spontaneous_symmetry:2 neutrino_oscillation:2 lie_algebra:2 universally_accept:1 quantum_gravity:1 lie_algebras:1 su_su:2 heterotic_string:1 monopole_problem:1 higgs_boson:1 quark_lepton:1 yang_mill:1 symmetric_bilinear:1 stephen_hawking:1 |
907 | Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States | Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States are the members of the Supreme Court of the United States other than the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of Associate Justices is determined by the United States Congress and is currently set at eight by the Judiciary Act of 1869. Associate Justices, like the Chief Justice, are nominated by the President of the United States and are confirmed by the United States Senate by majority vote. This is provided for in Article II of the Constitution, which states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint...Judges of the supreme Court." Article III of the Constitution specifies that Associate Justices, and all other United States federal judges "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior." This language means that the appointments are effectively for life, ending only when a Justice dies in office, retires, or is removed from office following impeachment by the House of Representatives and conviction by the Senate. Recess appointments are a notable exception. See U.S. v. Woodley 751 F.2d 1008, 10014; Recess appointments to the Supreme Court are exceptionally rare. Only two Chief Justices and six Associate Justices have received recess appointments, and only John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed by the Senate. The last president to make a recess appointment to the Supreme Court was Dwight Eisenhower. Each of the Justices of the Supreme Court has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the Chief Justice's vote counts no more than that of any other Justice. However, in drafting opinions, the Chief Justice enjoys additional influence in case disposition if in the majority through his power to assign who writes the opinion. Otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. Furthermore, the Chief Justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. The Chief Justice has certain administrative responsibilities that the other Justices do not, and is paid slightly more ($217,400 vs. $208,100 ). Associate justices have seniority by order of appointment, although the Chief Justice is always considered the most senior. If two justices are appointed on the same day, the older is designated the senior justice of the two. The senior associate justice is now John Paul Stevens. By tradition, when the Justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. If there is a knock at the conference room door, the junior justice (who sits closest to the door) must answer it. Under 28 USC 3, when the Chief Justice is unable to discharge his functions, or that office is vacant, his duties are carried out by the most senior associate justice until the disability or vacancy ends. The current associate justices are (in order of seniority): John Paul Stevens, Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, David Hackett Souter, Clarence Thomas, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Samuel Alito. Retired Associate Justices Contrary to popular belief, a Justice who steps down from the Court continues to be a member of it. When a Justice retires he or she usually goes into senior status, which means that the Justice keeps his or her title, and may serve by assignment on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals (as Lewis F. Powell, Jr. did for several years). Retired Justices may elect to keep a chamber in the Supreme Court building as well as maintain law clerks. The names of Retired Associate Justices continues to appear alongside the other active members on the Bound Volumes of Supreme Court decisions. However, Retired Associate Justices take no part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Court. Currently, the only Retired Associate Justice is Sandra Day O'Connor, who assumed senior status on January 31, 2006. List of Associate Justices Number Nominee Replacing Date of SenateConfirmation President 1 John Rutledge (new seat) September 26, 1789 Washington 2 William Cushing (new seat) September 26, 1789 3 James Wilson (new seat) September 26, 1789 4 John Blair (new seat) September 26, 1789 5 James Iredell (new seat) February 10, 1790 6 Thomas Johnson Rutledge November 7, 1791 7 William Paterson Johnson March 4, 1793 8 Samuel Chase Blair January 27, 1796 9 Bushrod Washington Wilson December 20, 1798 J. Adams 10 Alfred Moore Iredell December 10, 1799 11 William Johnson Moore March 24, 1804 Jefferson 12 Henry Brockholst Livingston Paterson December 17, 1806 13 Thomas Todd (new seat) March 2, 1807 14 Gabriel Duvall Chase November 18, 1811 Madison 15 Joseph Story Cushing November 18, 1811 16 Smith Thompson Livingston December 9, 1823 Monroe 17 Robert Trimble Todd May 9, 1826 J. Q. Adams 18 John McLean Trimble March 7, 1829 Jackson 19 Henry Baldwin Washington January 6, 1830 20 James Moore Wayne Johnson January 9, 1835 21 Philip Pendleton Barbour Duvall March 15, 1836 22 John Catron (new seat) March 8, 1837 23 John McKinley (new seat) September 25, 1837 Van Buren 24 Peter Vivian Daniel Barbour March 2, 1841 25 Samuel Nelson Thompson February 14, 1845 Tyler 26 Levi Woodbury Story January 31, 1846 Polk 27 Robert Cooper Grier Baldwin August 4, 1846 28 Benjamin Robbins Curtis Woodbury December 20, 1851 Fillmore 29 John Archibald Campbell McKinley March 22, 1853 Pierce 30 Nathan Clifford Curtis January 12, 1858 Buchanan 31 Noah Haynes Swayne McLean January 24, 1862 Lincoln 32 Samuel Freeman Miller Daniel July 16, 1862 33 David Davis Campbell December 8, 1862 34 Stephen Johnson Field (new seat) March 10, 1863 35 William Strong Grier February 18, 1870 Grant 36 Joseph Philo Bradley (new seat) March 21, 1870 37 Ward Hunt Nelson December 11, 1872 38 John Marshall Harlan Davis November 29, 1877 Hayes 39 William Burnham Woods Strong December 21, 1880 40 Thomas Stanley Matthews Swayne May 12, 1881 Garfield 41 Horace Gray Clifford December 20, 1881 Arthur 42 Samuel Blatchford Hunt March 22, 1882 43 Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar Woods January 16, 1888 Cleveland 44 David Josiah Brewer Matthews December 18, 1889 B. Harrison 45 Henry Billings Brown Miller December 29, 1890 46 George Shiras, Jr. Bradley July 26, 1892 47 Howell Edmunds Jackson Lamar February 18, 1893 48 Edward Douglass White Blatchford February 19, 1894 Cleveland 49 Rufus Wheeler Peckham Jackson December 9, 1895 50 Joseph McKenna Field January 21, 1898 McKinley 51 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. Gray December 4, 1902 T. Roosevelt 52 William R. Day Shiras February 23, 1903 53 William Henry Moody Brown December 12, 1906 54 Horace Harmon Lurton Peckham December 20, 1909 Taft 55 Charles Evans Hughes Brewer May 2, 1910 56 Willis Van Devanter White December 15, 1910 57 Joseph Rucker Lamar Moody December 15, 1910 58 Mahlon Pitney Harlan March 13, 1912 59 James Clark McReynolds Lurton August 29, 1914 Wilson 60 Louis Brandeis Lamar June 1, 1916 61 John Hessin Clarke Hughes July 24, 1916 62 George Sutherland Clarke September 5, 1922 Harding 63 Pierce Butler Day December 21, 1922 64 Edward Terry Sanford Pitney January 29, 1923 65 Harlan Fiske Stone McKenna February 5, 1925 Coolidge 66 Owen Josephus Roberts Sanford May 20, 1930 Hoover 67 Benjamin N. Cardozo Holmes February 24, 1932 68 Hugo Black Van Devanter August 17, 1937 F. Roosevelt 69 Stanley Forman Reed Sutherland January 25, 1938 70 Felix Frankfurter Cardozo January 17, 1939 71 William O. Douglas Brandeis April 4, 1939 72 Frank Murphy Butler January 16, 1940 73 James F. Byrnes McReynolds June 12, 1941 74 Robert H. Jackson Stone July 7, 1941 75 Wiley Blount Rutledge Byrnes February 8, 1943 76 Harold Hitz Burton Roberts September 19, 1945 Truman 77 Tom C. Clark Murphy August 18, 1949 78 Sherman Minton Rutledge October 4, 1949 79 John Marshall Harlan II Jackson March 16, 1955 Eisenhower 80 William J. Brennan Minton March 19, 1957 81 Charles Evans Whittaker Reed March 19, 1957 82 Potter Stewart Burton May 5, 1959 83 Byron White Whittaker April 11, 1962 Kennedy 84 Arthur Goldberg Frankfurter September 25, 1962 85 Abe Fortas Goldberg August 11, 1965 L. Johnson 86 Thurgood Marshall Clark August 30, 1967 87 Harry Blackmun Fortas May 12, 1970 Nixon 88 Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. Black December 6, 1971 89 William Rehnquist Harlan December 10, 1971 90 John Paul Stevens Douglas December 17, 1975 Ford 91 Sandra Day O'Connor Stewart September 21, 1981 Reagan 92 Antonin Scalia Rehnquist September 17, 1986 93 Anthony Kennedy Powell February 3, 1988 94 David Souter Brennan October 2, 1990 G. H. W. Bush 95 Clarence Thomas Marshall October 15, 1991 96 Ruth Bader Ginsburg White August 3, 1993 Clinton 97 Stephen Breyer Blackmun July 29, 1994 98 Samuel Alito O'Connor January 31, 2006 G. W. Bush Further reading Christensen, George A. (1983) Here Lies the Supreme Court: Gravesites of the Justices, Yearbook. Supreme Court Historical Society. Christensen, George A., Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited, Journal of Supreme Court History, Volume 33 Issue 1, Pages 17 - 41 (19 Feb 2008), University of Alabama. See also Associate Justice Chief Justice of the United States Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat References External links Historic collection of Supreme Court decisions and biographies indexed by judge name Members of the Supreme Court of the United States from the Court's website. | Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States |@lemmatized associate:15 justice:44 supreme:18 court:24 united:13 state:15 member:4 chief:10 number:2 determine:1 congress:1 currently:2 set:1 eight:1 judiciary:1 act:1 like:1 nominate:2 president:4 confirm:2 senate:4 majority:3 vote:3 provide:1 article:2 ii:2 constitution:2 shall:3 advice:1 consent:1 appoint:2 judge:3 iii:1 specify:1 federal:1 hold:1 office:4 good:1 behavior:1 language:1 mean:2 appointment:6 effectively:1 life:1 end:2 die:1 retire:3 remove:1 follow:1 impeachment:1 house:1 representative:1 conviction:1 recess:4 notable:1 exception:1 see:2 u:2 v:2 woodley:1 f:4 exceptionally:1 rare:1 two:3 six:1 receive:1 john:13 rutledge:5 subsequently:1 last:1 make:1 dwight:1 eisenhower:2 single:1 decide:1 case:5 argue:1 count:1 however:2 draft:1 opinion:2 enjoy:1 additional:1 influence:1 disposition:1 power:1 assign:2 write:1 otherwise:1 senior:7 writing:1 decision:4 furthermore:1 lead:1 discussion:1 among:1 certain:1 administrative:1 responsibility:1 pay:1 slightly:1 seniority:3 order:3 although:1 always:1 consider:1 day:5 older:1 designate:1 paul:3 stevens:3 tradition:1 conference:2 deliberate:1 outcome:1 view:1 knock:1 room:1 door:2 junior:1 sit:1 close:1 must:1 answer:1 usc:1 unable:1 discharge:1 function:1 vacant:1 duty:1 carry:1 disability:1 vacancy:1 current:1 antonin:2 scalia:2 anthony:2 kennedy:3 david:4 hackett:1 souter:2 clarence:2 thomas:5 ruth:2 bader:2 ginsburg:2 stephen:3 breyer:2 samuel:6 alito:2 retired:4 contrary:1 popular:1 belief:1 step:1 continue:2 usually:1 go:1 status:2 keep:2 title:1 may:8 serve:1 assignment:1 panel:1 appeal:1 lewis:2 powell:3 jr:4 several:1 year:1 elect:1 chamber:1 building:1 well:1 maintain:1 law:1 clerk:1 name:2 appear:1 alongside:1 active:1 bound:1 volume:2 take:1 part:1 consideration:1 sandra:2 connor:3 assume:1 january:14 list:4 nominee:1 replace:1 date:1 senateconfirmation:1 new:10 seat:11 september:10 washington:3 william:10 cushing:2 james:5 wilson:3 blair:2 iredell:2 february:10 johnson:6 november:4 paterson:2 march:15 chase:2 bushrod:1 december:21 j:3 adams:2 alfred:1 moore:3 jefferson:1 henry:4 brockholst:1 livingston:2 todd:2 gabriel:1 duvall:2 madison:1 joseph:4 story:2 smith:1 thompson:2 monroe:1 robert:4 trimble:2 q:1 mclean:2 jackson:5 baldwin:2 wayne:1 philip:1 pendleton:1 barbour:2 catron:1 mckinley:3 van:3 buren:1 peter:1 vivian:1 daniel:2 nelson:2 tyler:1 levi:1 woodbury:2 polk:1 cooper:1 grier:2 august:7 benjamin:2 robbins:1 curtis:2 fillmore:1 archibald:1 campbell:2 pierce:2 nathan:1 clifford:2 buchanan:1 noah:1 haynes:1 swayne:2 lincoln:1 freeman:1 miller:2 july:5 davis:2 field:2 strong:2 grant:1 philo:1 bradley:2 ward:1 hunt:2 marshall:4 harlan:5 hayes:1 burnham:1 wood:2 stanley:2 matthew:2 garfield:1 horace:2 gray:2 arthur:2 blatchford:2 lucius:1 quintus:1 cincinnatus:1 lamar:4 cleveland:2 josiah:1 brewer:2 b:1 harrison:1 billing:1 brown:2 george:4 shiras:2 howell:1 edmunds:1 edward:2 douglas:3 white:4 rufus:1 wheeler:1 peckham:2 mckenna:2 oliver:1 wendell:1 holmes:2 roosevelt:2 r:1 moody:2 harmon:1 lurton:2 taft:1 charles:2 evans:2 hughes:2 willis:1 devanter:2 rucker:1 mahlon:1 pitney:2 clark:3 mcreynolds:2 louis:1 brandeis:2 june:2 hessin:1 clarke:2 sutherland:2 harding:1 butler:2 terry:1 sanford:2 fiske:1 stone:2 coolidge:1 owen:1 josephus:1 hoover:1 n:1 cardozo:2 hugo:1 black:2 forman:1 reed:2 felix:1 frankfurter:2 april:2 frank:1 murphy:2 byrnes:2 h:2 wiley:1 blount:1 harold:1 hitz:1 burton:2 roberts:1 truman:1 tom:1 c:1 sherman:1 minton:2 october:3 brennan:2 whittaker:2 potter:1 stewart:2 byron:1 goldberg:2 abe:1 fortas:2 l:1 thurgood:1 harry:1 blackmun:2 nixon:1 franklin:1 rehnquist:2 ford:1 reagan:1 g:2 w:2 bush:2 clinton:1 reading:1 christensen:2 lie:2 gravesites:1 yearbook:1 historical:1 society:1 revisit:1 journal:1 history:1 issue:1 page:1 feb:1 university:1 alabama:1 also:1 demographic:1 composition:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 historic:1 collection:1 biography:1 index:1 website:1 |@bigram supreme_court:18 advice_consent:1 recess_appointment:4 dwight_eisenhower:1 antonin_scalia:2 clarence_thomas:2 ruth_bader:2 bader_ginsburg:2 stephen_breyer:2 samuel_alito:2 van_buren:1 oliver_wendell:1 wendell_holmes:1 evans_hughes:1 harlan_fiske:1 fiske_stone:1 felix_frankfurter:1 thurgood_marshall:1 william_rehnquist:1 david_souter:1 w_bush:2 external_link:1 |
908 | Ammon | The Ammon or Ammonites (, also referred to as the children of Ammon) was a kingdom described in the Bible, said to occoupy an area east of the Jordan river, Gilead and the Dead Sea. The Old Testament describes the Ammonites as originating with an illegitimate son of Lot. From their original territory, the Ammonites are supposed to have been expelled by Sihon, king of the Amorites. The chief city of the country was Rabbah or Rabbath Ammon (the modern city of Amman is now located at this site). In the Bible According to the biblical account, Genesis 19:37-38, both Ammon and Moab were born to Lot and his two daughters in the aftermath of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and collectively the Moabites were referred to as the children of Lot. Throughout the Bible, the Ammonites and Israelites are referred to as antagonists. During Exodus, the Israelites were prohibited by the Ammonites from passing through their lands. In the Book of Judges, the Ammonites work with Eglon, king of the Moabites against Israel. Attacks by the Ammonites on Israelite communities east of the Jordan were the impetus behind the unification of the tribes under Saul. 1 Samuel 11:11 Relation to Assyria Ammon maintained its independence from the Assyrian empire through tribute to the Assyrian king, at a time when nearby kingdoms were being raided or conquered. Inscriptions describe the Ammonite king Baasha ben Ruhubi's army fighting alongside Ahab and Syrian allies against Shalmaneser III at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC, possibly as vassals of Bar-Hadad II, the Aramaean king of Damascus. In 734 their king Sanipu was a vassal of Tiglath-Pileser III and his successor, Pudu-ilu, held the same position under Sennacherib and Esarhaddon. An Assyrian tribute-list exists from this period, showing that Ammon paid one-fifth of Judah's tribute. see Schrader, K.A.T. pp. 141 et seq.; Delitzsch, Paradies, p. 294; Winckler, Geschichte Israels, p. 215. Somewhat later, their king Amminadab I was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the great Arabian campaign of Assurbanipal. Other kings attested to in contemporary sources are Barakel (attested to in several contemporary seals and Hissalel who reigned about 620 BCE (and who is mentioned on an inscription on a bottle found at Tel Siran, Jordan along with his son, King Amminadab II, who reigned around 600 BCE.) In the Persian empire Little mention is made of the Ammonites through the Persian and early Hellenistic periods. Their name appears, however, during the time of the Maccabees. The Ammonites, with some of the neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival of the Jewish power under Judas Maccabaeus. 1 Maccabees 5:6; cf. Josephus Jewish Antiquities xii. 8. 1. The last notice of the Ammonites themselves is in Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho (§ 119), where it is affirmed that they were still a numerous people. Language The few Ammonite names that have been preserved, including Nahash and Hanun. Their language is believed to be Semitic, closely related to Hebrew and Moabite. Ammonite may have incorporated certain Aramaic influences including the use of ‘bd instead of commoner Biblical Hebrew ‘śh for "work". The only other notable difference with Biblical Hebrew is the sporadic retention of feminine singular -t (eg ’šħt "cistern", but ‘lyh "high (fem.)".) Economy Like its sister-kingdom of Moab, Ammon was the source of numerous natural resources, including sandstone and limestone. It had a productive agricultural sector and occupied a vital place along the King's Highway, the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia. As with the Edomites and Moabites, trade along this route gave them considerable revenue. Circa 950 BCE Ammon showed rising prosperity due to agriculture and trade, building a series of fortresses. Its capital was located in what is now the Citadel of Amman. In Jewish law The Ammonites, still numerous in the south of Palestine in the second Christian century according to Justin Martyr ("Dialogus cum Tryphone," chapter 119), presented a serious problem to the Pharisees because many marriages with Ammonite and Moabite wives had taken place in the days of Nehemiah. Neh. 13:23 The legitimacy of David's claim to royalty was disputed on account of his descent from Ruth, the Moabite. Jordan The name of the city Rabbath-Ammon was changed to Amman, or Ammon, and they took over their brother's capital city, Kir-Moab. The sons of Lot were said to have established the nation Jordan beyond the Jordan River. See also Abel-cheramim References External links Muller, Max and Kaufman Kohler. "Ammon, Ammonites." Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk and Wagnalls, 1901-1906. Hertz J.H. (1936) The Pentateuch and Haftoras. Deuteronomy. Oxford University Press, London. Ammon on Bruce Gordon's Regnal Chronologies (also at ) | Ammon |@lemmatized ammon:12 ammonite:15 also:3 refer:3 child:2 kingdom:3 describe:3 bible:3 say:2 occoupy:1 area:1 east:2 jordan:6 river:2 gilead:1 dead:1 sea:1 old:1 testament:1 originate:1 illegitimate:1 son:3 lot:4 original:1 territory:1 suppose:1 expel:1 sihon:1 king:10 amorites:1 chief:1 city:4 country:1 rabbah:1 rabbath:2 modern:1 amman:3 locate:2 site:1 accord:2 biblical:3 account:2 genesis:1 moab:3 bear:1 two:1 daughter:1 aftermath:1 destruction:1 sodom:1 gomorrah:1 collectively:1 moabites:3 throughout:1 israelite:3 antagonist:1 exodus:1 prohibit:1 pass:1 land:1 book:1 judge:1 work:2 eglon:1 israel:2 attack:1 community:1 impetus:1 behind:1 unification:1 tribe:2 saul:1 samuel:1 relation:1 assyria:1 maintain:1 independence:1 assyrian:3 empire:2 tribute:3 time:2 nearby:1 raid:1 conquer:1 inscription:2 baasha:1 ben:1 ruhubi:1 army:1 fight:1 alongside:1 ahab:1 syrian:1 ally:1 shalmaneser:1 iii:2 battle:1 qarqar:1 bc:1 possibly:1 vassal:2 bar:1 hadad:1 ii:2 aramaean:1 damascus:1 sanipu:1 tiglath:1 pileser:1 successor:1 pudu:1 ilu:1 hold:1 position:1 sennacherib:1 esarhaddon:1 list:1 exist:1 period:2 show:2 pay:1 one:1 fifth:1 judah:1 see:2 schrader:1 k:1 pp:1 et:1 seq:1 delitzsch:1 paradies:1 p:2 winckler:1 geschichte:1 somewhat:1 later:1 amminadab:2 among:1 tributary:1 suffer:1 course:1 great:1 arabian:1 campaign:1 assurbanipal:1 attest:2 contemporary:2 source:2 barakel:1 several:1 seal:1 hissalel:1 reign:2 bce:3 mention:2 bottle:1 find:1 tel:1 siran:1 along:3 around:1 persian:2 little:1 make:1 early:1 hellenistic:1 name:3 appear:1 however:1 maccabees:2 neighbouring:1 utmost:1 resist:1 check:1 revival:1 jewish:4 power:1 juda:1 maccabaeus:1 cf:1 josephus:1 antiquity:1 xii:1 last:1 notice:1 justin:2 martyr:2 dialogue:1 trypho:1 affirm:1 still:2 numerous:3 people:1 language:2 preserve:1 include:3 nahash:1 hanun:1 believe:1 semitic:1 closely:1 relate:1 hebrew:3 moabite:3 may:1 incorporate:1 certain:1 aramaic:1 influence:1 use:1 bd:1 instead:1 commoner:1 śh:1 notable:1 difference:1 sporadic:1 retention:1 feminine:1 singular:1 eg:1 šħt:1 cistern:1 lyh:1 high:1 fem:1 economy:1 like:1 sister:1 natural:1 resource:1 sandstone:1 limestone:1 productive:1 agricultural:1 sector:1 occupy:1 vital:1 place:2 highway:1 ancient:1 trade:3 route:2 connect:1 egypt:1 mesopotamia:1 syria:1 anatolia:1 edomites:1 give:1 considerable:1 revenue:1 circa:1 rise:1 prosperity:1 due:1 agriculture:1 build:1 series:1 fortress:1 capital:2 citadel:1 law:1 south:1 palestine:1 second:1 christian:1 century:1 dialogus:1 cum:1 tryphone:1 chapter:1 present:1 serious:1 problem:1 pharisee:1 many:1 marriage:1 wife:1 take:2 day:1 nehemiah:1 neh:1 legitimacy:1 david:1 claim:1 royalty:1 dispute:1 descent:1 ruth:1 change:1 brother:1 kir:1 establish:1 nation:1 beyond:1 abel:1 cheramim:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 muller:1 max:1 kaufman:1 kohler:1 ammonites:1 encyclopedia:1 funk:1 wagnalls:1 hertz:1 j:1 h:1 pentateuch:1 haftoras:1 deuteronomy:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 london:1 bruce:1 gordon:1 regnal:1 chronology:1 |@bigram sodom_gomorrah:1 shalmaneser_iii:1 tiglath_pileser:1 pileser_iii:1 et_seq:1 justin_martyr:2 dialogue_trypho:1 closely_relate:1 feminine_singular:1 sandstone_limestone:1 external_link:1 funk_wagnalls:1 |
909 | Playboy | Playboy is an American men's magazine, founded in Chicago, Illinois in 1953, by Hugh Hefner and his associates. The magazine has grown into Playboy Enterprises, Inc., with a presence in nearly every medium. Playboy is one of the world's best known brands. In addition to the flagship magazine in the United States, special nation-specific versions of Playboy are published worldwide. The magazine has a long history of publishing short stories by such novelists as Arthur C. Clarke, Ian Fleming, Vladimir Nabokov, and Margaret Atwood. Playboy features monthly interviews of notable public figures, such as artists, architects, economists, composers, conductors, film directors, journalists, novelists, playwrights, religious figures, politicians, athletes and race car drivers. The magazine throughout its history has expressed a libertarian outlook on political and social issues. History Playboy'''s original title was to be Stag Party, but an unrelated outdoor magazine, Stag, contacted Hefner and informed him that they would protect their trademark if he were to launch his magazine with that name. Hefner and co-founder and executive vice-president Eldon Sellers met to seek a new name. Sellers, whose mother had worked for the Chicago sales office of the short-lived Playboy Automobile Company, suggested "Playboy." The first issue, in December 1953, was undated, as Hefner was unsure there would be a second. He produced it in his Hyde Park kitchen. The first centerfold was Marilyn Monroe, although the picture used originally was taken for a calendar rather than for Playboy. The first issue sold out in weeks. Known circulation was 53,991. Playboy Collector's Association Playboy Magazine Price Guide The cover price was 50¢. Copies of the first issue in mint to near mint condition sold for over $5,000 in 2002. The novel Fahrenheit 451, by Ray Bradbury, was also serialized in the March, April, and May 1954 issues of Playboy magazine. The logo, the stylized profile of a rabbit wearing a tuxedo bow tie, was designed by art designer Art Paul for the second issue and has appeared ever since. A running joke in the magazine involves hiding the logo somewhere in the cover art or photograph. Hefner said he chose the rabbit for its "humorous sexual connotation," and because the image was "frisky and playful." An urban legend started about Hefner and the Playmate of the Month because of markings on the front covers of the magazine. From 1955 to 1979 (except for a six month gap in 1976), the "P" in Playboy had stars printed in or around the letter. The legend stated that this was either a rating that Hefner gave to the Playmate according to how attractive she was, the number of times that Hefner had slept with her, or how good she was in bed. The stars, between zero and twelve, actually indicated the domestic or international advertising region for that printing. Since reaching its peak in the 1970s, Playboy has seen a decline in circulation and cultural relevance because of competition in the field it founded — first from Penthouse, Oui (which was published as a spin-off of Playboy) and Gallery in the 1970s; later from pornographic videos; and more recently from lad mags such as Maxim, FHM, and Stuff. In response, Playboy has attempted to re-assert its hold on the 18–35 male demographic through slight changes to content and focusing on issues and personalities more appropriate to its audience — such as hip-hop artists being featured in the "Playboy Interview". The magazine celebrated its 50th anniversary with the January 2004 issue. Celebrations were held at Las Vegas, Los Angeles, New York, and Moscow during the year to commemorate this event. The magazine underwent a revamp with its February 2009 issue. The visual format of the Contents pages were altered, the Playmate News was expanded to two pages, the Playboy Forum feature was moved to the end of the magazine, the Grapevine feature and three introductory photos of the Playboy Interview were changed from black and white to color, and the page count was reduced to 122, Playboy magazine; February 2009 down from the previous issue's count of 172. Playboy magazine; January 2009 The magazine runs several annual features and ratings. One of the most popular is its annual ranking of the top "party schools" among all U.S. universities and colleges. For 2009, the magazine used five considerations: bikini, brains, campus, sex, and sports in the development of its list. The top ranked party school by Playboy for 2009 was the University of Miami. "Top Party Schools 2009," Playboy magazine, May 2009. The Playboy Interview Besides its centerfold, a major part of Playboy for much of its existence has been the Playboy Interview, an extensive (usually several thousand-word) Q&A-style discussion between a notable individual and an interviewer (historian Alex Haley, for example, served as a Playboy interviewer on a few occasions; one of his interviews was with Martin Luther King Jr.; he also interviewed Malcolm X, then coauthored his autobiography). One of the magazine's most notable interviews was a discussion with then-presidential candidate Jimmy Carter in the November 1976 issue in which he stated "I've committed adultery in my heart many times." Playboy Interview with Jimmy Carter, Playboy, November 1976 McGill University website excerpt David Sheff's interview with John Lennon and Yoko Ono appeared in the January 1981 issue, which was on newsstands at the time of Lennon's murder; the interview was later published in book format. Circulation Image of Lena Soderberg used in many image processing experiments. The best-selling Playboy edition was the November 1972 edition, which sold 7,161,561 copies. One-quarter of all American college men were buying the magazine every month. The Girls Next Door: The New Yorker On the cover was model Pam Rawlings, photographed by Rowland Scherman. Perhaps coincidentally, a cropped image of the issue's centerfold (which featured Lena Soderberg) became a de facto standard image for testing image processing algorithms. It is known simply as the "Lenna" (also "Lena") image in that field. The Rest of the Lenna Story Playboy is still the largest selling "men's magazine", selling about three million a month in the U.S. Bans on the sale of Playboy In many parts of Asia, including India, mainland China, Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, and Brunei, sale and distribution of Playboy is banned. In addition, sale and distribution is banned in almost all Muslim countries (except Turkey) in Asia and Africa, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan. However, it is sold in Hong Kong. In Japan, where genitals of models cannot be shown, a separate edition is published under license by Shueisha. An Indonesian edition launched in April 2006, but controversy started before the first issue. Even the publisher said the content of the Indonesian edition will be different from the original edition but the government was trying to ban it by using anti-pornography rules, since the Indonesian government cannot ban any medium. A Muslim organization, the Islamic Defenders Front (IDF), opposed to Playboy on the grounds of pornography. On April 12 about 150 IDF members clashed with police and stoned the editorial offices. Despite this, the edition quickly sold out. On April 6, 2007 the chief judge of the case dismissed the charges because they had been incorrectly filed. 'Playboy' charges thrown out of court. 05/04/2007. ABC News Online In 1986, the American convenience store chain 7-Eleven removed the magazine. The store returned Playboy to its shelves in late 2003. 7-Eleven had also been selling Penthouse and other similar magazines before the ban. In bookstores throughout the world, it is common for Playboy, as well as other adult publications, to be put on a higher shelf than other magazines, keeping them out of the reach of children. They are also often wrapped in opaque plastic bags so as to not reveal the cover. Prior to the late 1980s, Playboy was usually covered with a paper wrapping, similar to paper bags commonly found in grocery stores, with the famous bunny head logo imprinted in black on both sides.Playboy was not sold in the state of Queensland, Australia during 2004 and 2005 but has returned as of 2006. Furthermore, due to declining sales, the last edition of the Australian edition of Playboy was January 2000 . Litigation On the January 14, 2004, the Ninth Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that Playboy Enterprises Inc.'s (PEI) trademark terms "Playboy" and "Playmate" should be protected in the situation where a user typing "Playboy" or "Playmate" in a browser search was instead shown advertisements of companies that competed with PEI. (The decision reversed an earlier district court ruling.) The suit started on April 15, 1999, when Playboy sued Excite Inc. and Netscape for trademark infringement. Netscape, Playboy settle search trademark case - CNET News.com Photographers Many notable photographers have contributed to Playboy, including Richard Fegley, William Figge, Arny Freytag, Ron Harris, David Mecey, Russ Meyer, Pompeo Posar, Suze Randall, Herb Ritts. "Playboy at 50" Christies Sale 1325 (December 17, 2003) , Stephen Wayda, Sam Wu, Mario Casilli , Annie Liebowitz, Helmut Newton, and Bunny Yeager. Modeling pay + Playmate of the Month Modeling Payouts Year Amount1959–1960 $5001961–1965 $1,0001966–1967 $2,5001968–1969 $3,0001970–1977 $5,0001978–1983 $10,0001984–1989 $15,0001990–1999 $20,0002000–2006 $25,000 + Playmate of the Year Modeling Payouts Year Amount1960–1963 $500 plus $250 bonus1982–today $140,000, an automobile, and a motorbike. During the 1960s and 1970s all PMOYs received pink automobiles. The hue of pink used was known as "Playmate Pink", confusingly the same shade as that of the cars awarded to Mary Kay's independent sales force. Photo editing There is some controversy over airbrushing (or, in recent times, image editing) that is done on the photos featured in the magazine. Some readers say that this kind of photo-editing takes away from authenticity and makes photographs look unnatural. One example was the case of Pamela Anderson and the "disappearing labia". In Anderson's February 1990 Playboy centerfold appearance, there was a rear-view photo with her legs slightly apart and her labia minora visible. In reprints in later "Newsstand Specials" as well as a poster-sized print, she had been "defeminized," this area having been painted over in the color of the object in front of which she was standing. Similarly, in Rena Mero's ("Sable") first Playboy shoot, one photo of Mero lying on her back was edited to add pubic hair over her genitalia. However, in the 50th Anniversary issue, this picture was printed in its original, unedited state. Rival adult magazine Hustler and owner Larry Flynt has often been critical of Playboy and airbrushing. This has led Hustler to promote the fact that their nude pictorials are never airbrushed and are completely natural. Firsts First issue with two-page centerfold: February 1954 (Margaret Scott) First issue with Leroy Neiman's Femlin: August 1955 First issue with a Playmate showing pubic hair: February 1956 (Marguerite Empey) First issue with a three-page centerfold: March 1956 (Marian Stafford) First issue with a Vargas girl: March 1957 First issue with two Playmates for Playmate of the Month: October 1958 (Pat Sheehan and Mara Corday) First issue with Ian Fleming story: March 1960 First issue with a Playmate featured officially as Playmate of the Year: June 1960 (Ellen Stratton) First issue with Playboy Advisor column: September 1960 First issue with Playboy Interview: September 1962 (with Miles Davis) First issue with an African-American centerfold: March 1965 (Jennifer Jackson) First issue with Playboy 20Q: Cheryl Tiegs in October 1978 playboy.com / world of playboy / events First issue with a man on the cover: April 1964 (Peter Sellers) First issue to show a celebrity or non-Playmate's pubic hair: August 1969 (dancer Paula Kelly) The Playmate FAQ First issue with centerfold showing pubic hair: December 1969 (Gloria Root) First issue with identical twins in centerfold: October 1970 - (Mary and Madeleine Collinson) First full frontal nude centerfold: January 1971 (Liv Lindeland). First issue with a double sided centerfold (the reverse side was a rear view). January 1974 (Nancy Cameron) First issue with signed centerfold: October 1975 (Jill De Vries) First issue with Playmate data sheet: July 1977 (Sondra Theodore) First issue without staple in the centerfold: October 1985 First issue with identical triplets in the centerfold, The Dahm Triplets: December 1998 First issue with www.playboy.com explicit on cover: February 1999 First issue with female video game characters (most notably Bloodrayne): October 2004 Playboy undressed video game women - Aug. 25, 2004 First issue ever of Playboy Philippines debuted on April 2, 2008 as a "mature lifestyle magazine" without any nudity. CelebritiesFor a full listing, please see List of people in Playboy 1953-1959, 1960-1969, 1970-1979, 1980-1989, 1990-1999, 2000-present.Many celebrities (singers, actresses, models, etc.) have posed for Playboy over the years. This list is only a small portion of those who have posed. Some of them are: Film: Marilyn Monroe (December 1953) (Never actually posed for Playboy itself) Jayne Mansfield (February 1955) Mara Corday (October 1958) Ursula Andress (June 1965) Carol Lynley (March 1965) Kim Basinger (February 1983) Janet Jones (March 1987) Drew Barrymore (January 1995) Daryl Hannah (November 2003) Denise Richards (December 2004) Music: LaToya Jackson (March 1989/Nov 1991) Fem2fem (December 1993) Nancy Sinatra (May 1995) Samantha Fox (October 1996) Linda Brava (April 1998) Belinda Carlisle (August 2001) Tiffany (April 2002) Carnie Wilson (August 2003) Deborah Gibson (March 2005) Willa Ford (March 2006)Sport: Katarina Witt (December 1998) Tanja Szewczenko (April 1999 German Edition) Mia St. John (November 1999) Joanie Laurer (November 2000 and January 2002) Gabrielle Reece (January 2001) Kiana Tom (May 2002) Torrie Wilson (May 2003 and March 2004 [the latter with Sable]) Amy Acuff (September 2004) Amanda Beard (July 2007) Ashley Harkleroad (August 2008) Television: Linda Evans (July 1971) Suzanne Somers (December 1984) Shannen Doherty (March 1994 and December 2003) Farrah Fawcett (December 1995 and July 1997) Women of Baywatch (June 1998) Claudia Christian (October 1999) Shari Belafonte (September 2000) Brooke Burke (May 2001 and November 2004) Gena Lee Nolin (December 2001) Susie Feldman (August 2008) International editions This map shows the countries where Playboy is published. The dark pink indicates the countries where regional editions of the magazine are produced today and the lighter pink indicates the countries where regional editions of Playboy were once published. (starting at the accompanying date, or during the accompanying date range) Argentina (1985–1995, 2006–) Australia (1979–2000) — see specific article Brazil (1975–) — see specific article Bulgaria (2002–) Colombia (2008–) Croatia (1997–) Czech Republic (1991–) Estonia (2007–) "Playboy Magazine Enters Estonia", Alo Raun, Postimees, 2007-06-07. Retrieved June 30, 2007. France (1973–) Georgia (2007–) "Playboy Magazine Enters Georgia, Plans to Conquer Market", Nino Edilashvili, The Georgian Times, 2007-05-21. Retrieved June 23, 2007. Germany (1972–) "Jakarta struggles with the politics of pornography as Playboy comes to town", John Aglionby, January 30, 2006, The Guardian. Retrieved June 23, 2007. Greece (1985–) Hong Kong (1986–1993) Hungary (1989–1993, 1999–) Indonesia (2006–2007) Italy (1972–2003, 2008-) Party Time in Milan as Playboy Comes to Town, Corriere della Sera. Retrieved on 2008-12-08. Japan (1975–) — see specific article Lithuania (2008-) Mexico (1976–1998, 2002–) The Netherlands (1983–) Norway (1998–1999) Philippines (2008-) Poland (1992–) "Playboy Takes On World With Big Video Expansion", By Richard Covington, International Herald Tribune, November 3, 1993. Retrieved June 23, 2007. Portugal (2009-) Romania (1999–) Russia (1995–) Serbia (2004–) Slovakia (1997–2002, 2005–) Slovenia (2001–) South Africa (1993–1996) Spain (1978–) Sweden (1998–1999) Taiwan (1990–2003) Turkey (1986–1995) Ukraine (2005–) United States (1953–) Venezuela (2006–) Other editions The success of Playboy magazine has led PEI to market other versions of the magazine, the Special Editions (formerly called News Stand Specials), such as Playboy's College Girls and Playboy's Book of Lingerie, as well as the Playboy video collection. The growth of the Internet prompted the magazine to develop an official web presence called Playboy Online or Playboy.com, which is the official website for Playboy Enterprises, and an online companion to Playboy magazine. The site has been available online since 1994. Playboy Web Space As part of the online presence, Playboy developed a pay web site called the Playboy Cyber Club in 1995 which features online chats, additional pictorials, videos of Playmates and Playboy Cyber Girls that are not featured in the magazine. Archives of past Playboy articles and interviews are also included. Playboy Cyber Club has opened up a new door for girls interested in posing. It is much easier to access, because it is online. It attracts just about as many as the magazine, and brought a whole new line of girls. Some Playmates start in Cyber Club and work their way to the magazine. In September 2005, Playboy launched the online edition of the magazine Playboy Digital. The National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (NLS) has published a Braille edition of Playboy since 1970. NLS Reference Circular: Magazine Program (2007) The Braille version includes all the written words in the non-Braille magazine, but no pictorial representations. Congress cut off funding for the Braille magazine translation in 1985, but U.S. District Court Judge Thomas Hogan reversed the decision on First Amendment grounds. The Braille Forum, June 2000 See also Hugh Hefner Playboy TV Playboy UK List of men's magazines Chronological list of Playboy Playmates List of people in Playboy 1953-1959 List of people in Playboy 1960-1969 List of people in Playboy 1970-1979 List of people in Playboy 1980-1989 List of people in Playboy 1990-1999 List of people in Playboy 1990-1999 by birthplace List of people in Playboy 2000–present List of people in Playboy by birthplace The Playboy Mansion Playboy Club Playboy on Campus Playboy Studio West Playmate Playboy Dolls List of Playboy videos Playboy Enterprises Playboy's Book of Forbidden Words Playboy: The Mansion Pubic Wars Books General compilations Nick Stone, editor. The Bedside Playboy. Chicago: Playboy Press, 1963. Anniversary collections Jacob Dodd, editor. The Playboy Book: Forty Years. Santa Monica, California: General Publishing Group, 1994, ISBN 1-881649-03-2 Playboy: 50 Years, The Photographs. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8118-3978-8 Nick Stone, editor; Michelle Urry, cartoon editor. Playboy: 50 Years, The Cartoons. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8118-3976-1 Gretchen Edgren, editor. The Playboy Book: Fifty Years. Taschen, 1995. ISBN 3-8228-3976-0 Interview compilations G. Barry Golson, editor. The Playboy Interview. New York: Playboy Press, 1981. ISBN 0-87223-668-4 (hardcover), ISBN 0-87223-644-7 (softcover) G. Barry Golson, editor. The Playboy Interview Volume II. New York: Wideview/Perigee, 1983. ISBN 0-399-50768-X (hardcover), ISBN 0-399-50769-8 (softcover) David Sheff, interviewer; G. Barry Golson, editor. The Playboy Interviews with John Lennon and Yoko Ono. New York: Playboy Press, 1981, ISBN 0-87223-705-2; 2000 edition, ISBN 0-312-25464-4 Stephen Randall, editor. "The Playboy Interview Book: They Played the Game". New York: M Press, 2006, ISBN 1-59582-046-9 References External links Official Playboy.com Playboy Enterprises Inc. (Corporate website) Playboy UK Others Playboy Covers of the World — Thousands of Playboy covers from all past and present editions worldwide. Crossett, Andrew, "Index: The Women of Playboy – 1967 – 2007''", 2007. Playmate database at the University of Chicago A full listing of the Playboy Interview subjects and their interviewers be-x-old:Playboy | Playboy |@lemmatized playboy:125 american:4 men:4 magazine:43 found:2 chicago:4 illinois:1 hugh:2 hefner:9 associate:1 grow:1 enterprise:4 inc:4 presence:3 nearly:1 every:2 medium:2 one:7 world:5 best:2 know:4 brand:1 addition:2 flagship:1 united:2 state:6 special:4 nation:1 specific:4 version:3 publish:8 worldwide:2 long:1 history:3 short:2 story:3 novelist:2 arthur:1 c:1 clarke:1 ian:2 fleming:2 vladimir:1 nabokov:1 margaret:2 atwood:1 feature:10 monthly:1 interview:19 notable:4 public:1 figure:2 artist:2 architect:1 economist:1 composer:1 conductor:1 film:2 director:1 journalist:1 playwright:1 religious:1 politician:1 athlete:1 race:1 car:2 driver:1 throughout:2 express:1 libertarian:1 outlook:1 political:1 social:1 issue:39 original:3 title:1 stag:2 party:5 unrelated:1 outdoor:1 contact:1 inform:1 would:2 protect:2 trademark:4 launch:3 name:2 co:1 founder:1 executive:1 vice:1 president:1 eldon:1 seller:3 meet:1 seek:1 new:9 whose:1 mother:1 work:2 sale:7 office:2 live:1 automobile:3 company:2 suggest:1 first:34 december:12 undated:1 unsure:1 second:2 produce:2 hyde:1 park:1 kitchen:1 centerfold:14 marilyn:2 monroe:2 although:1 picture:2 use:5 originally:1 take:3 calendar:1 rather:1 sell:8 week:1 circulation:3 collector:1 association:1 price:2 guide:1 cover:10 copy:2 mint:2 near:1 condition:1 novel:1 fahrenheit:1 ray:1 bradbury:1 also:7 serialize:1 march:12 april:10 may:6 logo:3 stylized:1 profile:1 rabbit:2 wear:1 tuxedo:1 bow:1 tie:1 design:1 art:3 designer:1 paul:1 appear:2 ever:2 since:5 run:2 joke:1 involve:1 hide:1 somewhere:1 photograph:3 say:3 choose:1 humorous:1 sexual:1 connotation:1 image:8 frisky:1 playful:1 urban:1 legend:2 start:5 playmate:21 month:6 marking:1 front:3 except:2 six:1 gap:1 p:1 star:2 print:3 around:1 letter:1 either:1 rating:2 give:1 accord:1 attractive:1 number:1 time:6 sleep:1 good:1 bed:1 zero:1 twelve:1 actually:2 indicate:3 domestic:1 international:3 advertising:1 region:1 printing:1 reach:2 peak:1 see:6 decline:2 cultural:1 relevance:1 competition:1 field:2 penthouse:2 oui:1 spin:1 gallery:1 later:3 pornographic:1 video:7 recently:1 lad:1 mag:1 maxim:1 fhm:1 stuff:1 response:1 attempt:1 assert:1 hold:2 male:1 demographic:1 slight:1 change:2 content:3 focus:1 personality:1 appropriate:1 audience:1 hip:1 hop:1 celebrate:1 anniversary:3 january:11 celebration:1 la:1 vega:1 los:1 angeles:1 york:5 moscow:1 year:10 commemorate:1 event:2 underwent:1 revamp:1 february:8 visual:1 format:2 page:5 alter:1 news:4 expand:1 two:3 forum:2 move:1 end:1 grapevine:1 three:3 introductory:1 photo:6 black:2 white:1 color:2 count:2 reduce:1 previous:1 several:2 annual:2 popular:1 ranking:1 top:3 school:3 among:1 u:4 university:4 college:3 five:1 consideration:1 bikini:1 brain:1 campus:2 sex:1 sport:2 development:1 list:14 rank:1 miami:1 besides:1 major:1 part:3 much:2 existence:1 extensive:1 usually:2 thousand:2 word:3 q:1 style:1 discussion:2 individual:1 interviewer:4 historian:1 alex:1 haley:1 example:2 serve:1 occasion:1 martin:1 luther:1 king:1 jr:1 malcolm:1 x:3 coauthored:1 autobiography:1 presidential:1 candidate:1 jimmy:2 carter:2 november:8 commit:1 adultery:1 heart:1 many:6 mcgill:1 website:3 excerpt:1 david:3 sheff:2 john:4 lennon:3 yoko:2 ono:2 newsstand:2 murder:1 book:9 lena:3 soderberg:2 processing:2 experiment:1 selling:2 edition:19 quarter:1 buy:1 girl:6 next:1 door:2 yorker:1 model:4 pam:1 rawlings:1 rowland:1 scherman:1 perhaps:1 coincidentally:1 cropped:1 become:1 de:2 facto:1 standard:1 test:1 algorithm:1 simply:1 lenna:2 rest:1 still:1 large:1 million:1 ban:6 asia:2 include:4 india:1 mainland:1 china:1 myanmar:1 malaysia:1 thailand:1 singapore:1 brunei:1 distribution:2 almost:1 muslim:2 country:4 turkey:2 africa:2 iran:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 pakistan:1 however:2 hong:2 kong:2 japan:2 genitals:1 cannot:2 show:6 separate:1 license:1 shueisha:1 indonesian:3 controversy:2 even:1 publisher:1 different:1 government:2 try:1 anti:1 pornography:3 rule:2 organization:1 islamic:1 defender:1 idf:2 oppose:1 ground:2 member:1 clash:1 police:1 stone:3 editorial:1 despite:1 quickly:1 chief:1 judge:2 case:3 dismiss:1 charge:2 incorrectly:1 file:1 throw:1 court:4 abc:1 online:8 convenience:1 store:3 chain:1 eleven:2 remove:1 return:2 shelf:2 late:2 similar:2 bookstore:1 common:1 well:3 adult:2 publication:1 put:1 high:1 keep:1 child:1 often:2 wrap:1 opaque:1 plastic:1 bag:2 reveal:1 prior:1 paper:2 wrapping:1 commonly:1 find:1 grocery:1 famous:1 bunny:2 head:1 imprint:1 side:3 queensland:1 australia:2 furthermore:1 due:1 last:1 australian:1 litigation:1 ninth:1 circuit:1 appeal:1 pei:3 term:1 situation:1 user:1 type:1 browser:1 search:2 instead:1 advertisement:1 compete:1 decision:2 reverse:3 early:1 district:2 ruling:1 suit:1 sue:1 excite:1 netscape:2 infringement:1 settle:1 cnet:1 com:5 photographer:2 contribute:1 richard:2 fegley:1 william:1 figge:1 arny:1 freytag:1 ron:1 harris:1 mecey:1 rus:1 meyer:1 pompeo:1 posar:1 suze:1 randall:2 herb:1 ritts:1 christie:1 stephen:2 wayda:1 sam:1 wu:1 mario:1 casilli:1 annie:1 liebowitz:1 helmut:1 newton:1 yeager:1 pay:2 modeling:2 payouts:2 plus:1 today:2 motorbike:1 pmoys:1 receive:1 pink:5 hue:1 confusingly:1 shade:1 award:1 mary:2 kay:1 independent:1 force:1 edit:4 airbrushing:2 recent:1 reader:1 kind:1 away:1 authenticity:1 make:1 photographs:1 look:1 unnatural:1 pamela:1 anderson:2 disappear:1 labia:2 appearance:1 rear:2 view:2 leg:1 slightly:1 apart:1 minora:1 visible:1 reprint:1 poster:1 size:1 defeminized:1 area:1 paint:1 object:1 stand:2 similarly:1 rena:1 mero:2 sable:2 shoot:1 lie:1 back:1 add:1 pubic:5 hair:4 genitalia:1 unedited:1 rival:1 hustler:2 owner:1 larry:1 flynt:1 critical:1 lead:2 promote:1 fact:1 nude:2 pictorial:3 never:2 airbrush:1 completely:1 natural:1 scott:1 leroy:1 neiman:1 femlin:1 august:6 marguerite:1 empey:1 marian:1 stafford:1 vargas:1 october:9 pat:1 sheehan:1 mara:2 corday:2 officially:1 june:8 ellen:1 stratton:1 advisor:1 column:1 september:5 mile:1 davis:1 african:1 jennifer:1 jackson:2 cheryl:1 tiegs:1 man:1 peter:1 celebrity:2 non:2 dancer:1 paula:1 kelly:1 faq:1 gloria:1 root:1 identical:2 twin:1 madeleine:1 collinson:1 full:3 frontal:1 liv:1 lindeland:1 double:1 nancy:2 cameron:1 sign:1 jill:1 vries:1 data:1 sheet:1 july:4 sondra:1 theodore:1 without:2 staple:1 triplet:2 dahm:1 www:1 explicit:1 female:1 game:3 character:1 notably:1 bloodrayne:1 undress:1 woman:3 aug:1 philippine:2 debut:1 mature:1 lifestyle:1 nudity:1 celebritiesfor:1 listing:2 please:1 people:9 present:3 singer:1 actress:1 etc:1 pose:4 small:1 portion:1 jayne:1 mansfield:1 ursula:1 andress:1 carol:1 lynley:1 kim:1 basinger:1 janet:1 jones:1 draw:1 barrymore:1 daryl:1 hannah:1 denise:1 richards:1 music:1 latoya:1 nov:1 sinatra:1 samantha:1 fox:1 linda:2 brava:1 belinda:1 carlisle:1 tiffany:1 carnie:1 wilson:2 deborah:1 gibson:1 willa:1 ford:1 katarina:1 witt:1 tanja:1 szewczenko:1 german:1 mia:1 st:1 joanie:1 laurer:1 gabrielle:1 reece:1 kiana:1 tom:1 torrie:1 latter:1 amy:1 acuff:1 amanda:1 beard:1 ashley:1 harkleroad:1 television:1 evans:1 suzanne:1 somers:1 shannen:1 doherty:1 farrah:1 fawcett:1 baywatch:1 claudia:1 christian:1 shari:1 belafonte:1 brooke:1 burke:1 gena:1 lee:1 nolin:1 susie:1 feldman:1 map:1 dark:1 regional:2 light:1 accompany:2 date:2 range:1 argentina:1 article:4 brazil:1 bulgaria:1 colombia:1 croatia:1 czech:1 republic:1 estonia:2 enters:2 alo:1 raun:1 postimees:1 retrieve:5 france:1 georgia:2 plan:1 conquer:1 market:2 nino:1 edilashvili:1 georgian:1 germany:1 jakarta:1 struggle:1 politics:1 come:2 town:2 aglionby:1 guardian:1 greece:1 hungary:1 indonesia:1 italy:1 milan:1 corriere:1 della:1 serum:1 lithuania:1 mexico:1 netherlands:1 norway:1 poland:1 big:1 expansion:1 covington:1 herald:1 tribune:1 portugal:1 romania:1 russia:1 serbia:1 slovakia:1 slovenia:1 south:1 spain:1 sweden:1 taiwan:1 ukraine:1 venezuela:1 success:1 formerly:1 call:3 lingerie:1 collection:2 growth:1 internet:1 prompt:1 develop:2 official:3 web:3 companion:1 site:2 available:1 space:1 cyber:4 club:4 chat:1 additional:1 archive:1 past:2 open:1 interested:1 easy:1 access:1 attract:1 bring:1 whole:1 line:1 way:1 digital:1 national:1 library:1 service:1 blind:1 physically:1 handicap:1 nls:2 braille:5 reference:2 circular:1 program:1 write:1 representation:1 congress:1 cut:1 fund:1 translation:1 thomas:1 hogan:1 amendment:1 tv:1 uk:2 chronological:1 birthplace:2 mansion:2 studio:1 west:1 doll:1 forbidden:1 war:1 general:2 compilation:2 nick:2 editor:9 bedside:1 press:4 jacob:1 dodd:1 forty:1 santa:1 monica:1 california:1 publishing:1 group:1 isbn:11 san:2 francisco:2 chronicle:2 michelle:1 urry:1 cartoon:2 gretchen:1 edgren:1 fifty:1 taschen:1 g:3 barry:3 golson:3 hardcover:2 softcover:2 volume:1 ii:1 wideview:1 perigee:1 play:1 external:1 link:1 enterprises:1 corporate:1 others:1 crossett:1 andrew:1 index:1 database:1 subject:1 old:1 |@bigram chicago_illinois:1 hugh_hefner:2 ian_fleming:2 vladimir_nabokov:1 margaret_atwood:1 novelist_playwright:1 vice_president:1 hyde_park:1 marilyn_monroe:2 ray_bradbury:1 hip_hop:1 celebrate_anniversary:1 la_vega:1 los_angeles:1 alex_haley:1 martin_luther:1 presidential_candidate:1 jimmy_carter:2 commit_adultery:1 david_sheff:2 lennon_yoko:2 yoko_ono:2 best_selling:1 de_facto:1 malaysia_thailand:1 singapore_brunei:1 saudi_arabia:1 hong_kong:2 convenience_store:1 plastic_bag:1 grocery_store:1 playboy_playmate:4 trademark_infringement:1 cnet_news:1 pamela_anderson:1 labia_minora:1 pubic_hair:4 larry_flynt:1 de_vries:1 kim_basinger:1 draw_barrymore:1 daryl_hannah:1 czech_republic:1 corriere_della:1 della_serum:1 herald_tribune:1 serbia_slovakia:1 slovakia_slovenia:1 physically_handicap:1 pictorial_representation:1 playboy_mansion:2 santa_monica:1 monica_california:1 san_francisco:2 external_link:1 |
910 | Chymotrypsin | Chymotrypsin (bovine γ chymotrypsin: , ) is a digestive enzyme that can perform proteolysis. Chymotrypsin cleaves peptides at the carboxyl side of tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine because these three amino acids contain aromatic rings, which fit into a 'hydrophobic pocket' in the enzyme. Over time, chymotrypsin also hydrolyzes other amide bonds, particularly those with leucine-donated carboxyls. Activation of chymotrypsin Chymotrypsin is synthesized in the pancreas by protein biosynthesis as a precursor called chymotrypsinogen that is enzymatically inactive. On cleavage by trypsin into two parts that are still connected via an S-S bond, cleaved chymotrypsinogen molecules can activate each other by removing two small peptides in a trans-proteolysis. The resulting molecule is active chymotrypsin, a three polypeptide molecule interconnected via disulfide bonds. Action and kinetics of chymotrypsin In vivo, chymotrypsin is a proteolytic enzyme acting in the digestive systems of mammals and other organisms. It facilitates the cleavage of peptide bonds by a hydrolysis reaction, a process which albeit thermodynamically favourable, occurs extremely slowly in the absence of a catalyst. The main substrates of chymotrypsin include tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, leucine, and methionine, which are cleaved at the carboxyl terminal. Like many proteases, chymotrypsin will also hydrolyse ester bonds in vitro, a virtue that enabled the use of substrate analogs such as N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine p-nitrophenyl ester for enzyme assays. Mechanism of peptide bond cleavage in α-chymotrypsin Chymotrypsin cleaves peptide bonds by attacking the unreactive carbonyl group with a powerful nucleophile, the serine 195 residue located in the active site of the enzyme, which briefly becomes covalently bonded to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate intermediate. These findings rely on inhibition assays and the study of the kinetics of cleavage of the aforementioned substrate, exploiting the fact that the enzyme-substrate intermediate p-nitrophenolate has a yellow colour, enabling us to measure its concentration by measuring light absorbance at 405 nm. It was found that the reaction of chymotrypsin with its substrate takes place in two stages, an initial “burst” phase at the beginning of the reaction and a steady-state phase following Michaelis-Menten kinetics.It is also called "ping-pong" mechanism. The mode of action of chymotrypsin explains this as hydrolysis takes place in two steps. First acylation of the substrate to form an acyl-enzyme intermediate and then deacylation in order to return the enzyme to its original state. References Stryer et al. (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: Freeman. ISBN 0716746840. Garrett & Grisham. (2004). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0534490336. External links | Chymotrypsin |@lemmatized chymotrypsin:15 bovine:1 γ:1 digestive:2 enzyme:9 perform:1 proteolysis:2 cleave:3 peptide:5 carboxyl:3 side:1 tyrosine:2 tryptophan:2 phenylalanine:3 three:2 amino:1 acid:1 contain:1 aromatic:1 ring:1 fit:1 hydrophobic:1 pocket:1 time:1 also:3 hydrolyze:1 amide:1 bond:8 particularly:1 leucine:2 donate:1 activation:1 synthesize:1 pancreas:1 protein:1 biosynthesis:1 precursor:1 call:2 chymotrypsinogen:2 enzymatically:1 inactive:1 cleavage:4 trypsin:1 two:4 part:1 still:1 connect:1 via:2 molecule:3 activate:1 remove:1 small:1 trans:1 resulting:1 active:2 polypeptide:1 interconnect:1 disulfide:1 action:2 kinetics:3 vivo:1 proteolytic:1 act:1 system:1 mammal:1 organism:1 facilitate:1 hydrolysis:2 reaction:3 process:1 albeit:1 thermodynamically:1 favourable:1 occur:1 extremely:1 slowly:1 absence:1 catalyst:1 main:1 substrate:8 include:1 methionine:1 terminal:1 like:1 many:1 protease:1 hydrolyse:1 ester:2 vitro:1 virtue:1 enable:2 use:1 analog:1 n:1 acetyl:1 l:1 p:2 nitrophenyl:1 assay:2 mechanism:2 α:1 cleaves:1 attack:1 unreactive:1 carbonyl:1 group:1 powerful:1 nucleophile:1 serine:1 residue:1 locate:1 site:1 briefly:1 becomes:1 covalently:1 form:2 intermediate:3 finding:1 rely:1 inhibition:1 study:1 aforementioned:1 exploit:1 fact:1 nitrophenolate:1 yellow:1 colour:1 u:1 measure:2 concentration:1 light:1 absorbance:1 nm:1 find:1 take:2 place:2 stage:1 initial:1 burst:1 phase:2 beginning:1 steady:1 state:2 follow:1 michaelis:1 menten:1 ping:1 pong:1 mode:1 explain:1 step:1 first:1 acylation:1 acyl:1 deacylation:1 order:1 return:1 original:1 reference:1 stryer:1 et:1 al:1 biochemistry:2 ed:2 new:1 york:1 freeman:1 isbn:2 garrett:1 grisham:1 brook:1 cole:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram digestive_enzyme:1 amino_acid:1 aromatic_ring:1 protein_biosynthesis:1 disulfide_bond:1 peptide_bond:3 covalently_bond:1 michaelis_menten:1 menten_kinetics:1 ping_pong:1 et_al:1 brook_cole:1 external_link:1 |
911 | Book_of_Isaiah | The Book of Isaiah () is a book of the Bible traditionally attributed to the Prophet Isaiah, who lived in the second half of the 8th century BC. http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/982919.html In the first 39 chapters, Isaiah prophesies doom for a sinful Judah and for all the nations of the world that oppose God. The last 27 chapters prophesy the restoration of the nation of Israel. This section includes the Songs of the Suffering Servant. Contemporary scholars generally consider most of the first 39 chapters of Isaiah to originate with the historical Isaiah himself. The later part of the book, known as Deutero-Isaiah (or Second Isaiah), is said to derive from a later author or authors. May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. Deutero-Isaiah includes prophecies of a new creation in God's glorious future kingdom. Content The Book of Isaiah The 66 chapters of Isaiah consist primarily of prophecies of Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Syria, Israel (the northern kingdom), Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and Phoenicia. The prophesies concerning them can be summarized as saying that God is the God of the whole earth, and that nations which think of themselves as secure in their own power might well be conquered by other nations, at God's command. The first 39 chapters are thought to be original, with the remaining chapters possibly added later by one or more scribes working in Isaiah's tradition. More information is in the Authorship section below. Isaiah 1-39 Chapters 1-5 and 28-29 prophesy judgment against Judah itself. Judah thinks itself safe because of its covenant relationship with God. However, God tells Judah (through Isaiah) that the covenant cannot protect them when they have broken it by idolatry, the worship of other gods, and by acts of injustice and cruelty, which oppose God's law. Some exceptions to this overall foretelling of doom do occur, throughout the early chapters of the book. Chapter 6 describes Isaiah's call to be a prophet of God. Chapters 35-39 provide historical material about King Hezekiah and his triumph of faith in God. Chapters 24-34, while too complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with prophecies of a "Messiah," a person anointed or given power by God, and of the Messiah's kingdom, where justice and righteousness will reign. This section is seen by Jews as describing an actual king, a descendant of their great king, David, who will make Judah a great kingdom and Jerusalem a truly holy city. It is traditionally seen by Christians as describing Jesus. A number of modern scholars believe that it describes, in somewhat idealized terms, King Hezekiah, who was a descendant of David, and who tried to make Jerusalem into a holy city. Isaiah 40-66 The prophecy continues with what some have called “The Book of Comfort” which begins in chapter 40 and completes the writing. In the first eight chapters of this book of comfort, Isaiah prophesies the deliverance of the Jews from the hands of the Babylonians and restoration of Israel as a unified nation in the land promised to them by God. Isaiah reaffirms that the Jews are indeed the chosen people of God in chapter 44 and that Yahweh is the only God for the Jews (and the only God of the universe) as he will show his power over the gods of Babylon in due time in chapter 46. In chapter 45:1, the Persian ruler Cyrus is named as the person of power who will overthrow the Babylonians and allow the return of Israel to their original land. The remaining chapters of the book contain prophecies of the future glory of Zion under the rule of a righteous servant (52-54), generally understood by Rabbinic Judaism to be Israel, but by Christians as the Messiah. "Servant Songs." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Although there is still the mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 & 66), the book ends with a message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his righteous subjects living in the Lord’s kingdom on earth. Supporters of two authors division use the term Deutero-Isaiah in reference to chapters 40-66, but to the supporters of three divisions in authorship this term usually refers to chapters 40-55 only. Historical background Isaiah lived in the late eighth century BC. He was part of the upper class but urged care of the downtrodden. At the end, he was loyal to King Hezekiah, but disagreed with the King's attempts to forge alliances with Egypt and Babylon in response to the Assyrian threat. Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of four kings: Uzziah (also known as Azariah), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. According to tradition, he was martyred during the reign of Manasseh, who came to the throne in 687 BC, by being cut in two by a wooden saw. That he is described as having ready access to the kings would suggest an aristocratic origin. This was the time of the divided kingdom, with Israel in the north and Judah in the south. There was prosperity for both the kingdoms during Isaiah’s youth with little foreign interference. Jeroboam II ruled in the north and Uzziah in the south. The small kingdoms of Palestine, as well as Syria, were under the influence of Egypt. However, in 745 BC, Tiglath-pileser III came to the throne of Assyria. He was interested in Assyrian expansionism, especially to the west; and 2 Kings 15:17-22 mentions that King Menahem of Israel paid tribute to him ("King Pul"). Syro-Ephraimite War Because of the threat from Tiglath-pileser III, Syria (or "Aram") and Israel (led now by Pekah) tried to force Judah to ally with them around 734 BC. Ahaz was on the throne of Judah then. He was advised by Isaiah to trust in the Lord, but, instead, he called to Assyria for help. Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Syria attacked Judah and inflicted damage on it before Assyria came to its aid, but there would be more serious religious consequences of Ahaz’s refusal to accept the Lord’s guidance through Isaiah. Fall of Syria and Samaria With Israel under King Pekah no longer loyal, Tiglath-pileser attacked in 733 BC. He took much of the land of Israel (2 Kings 15:29-30) leaving only the city of Samaria and its surroundings independent. Herrmann, Seigfried: A History of Israel in Old Testament Times Judah, however, was not involved. Damascus, capital of Syria, was taken by the Assyrians in 732. Tiglath–pileser died in 727 BC, raising false hopes for the Palestinian countries. Ahaz died a year later. Isaiah warned Philistia and the other countries not to revolt against Assyria. Hoshea, then king of Samaria, withheld tribute to Assyria. Consequently, Shalmaneser V, the new king of Assyria, laid siege to Samaria for 3 years, and his successor, Sargon II, took the city and deported 27,000 Israelites to northern parts of the Assyrian empire. This marked the end of the Northern Kingdom of Israel forever, as its population was taken into exile and dispersed amongst Assyrian provinces. It is as a result of this exile that reference is made to Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. There was peace in the area for 10 years, but then, Sargon returned in 711 BC to crush a coalition of Egypt and the Philistines. Judah had stayed out of this conflict, Hezekiah wisely listening to Isaiah’s advice. Babylon Merodach-Baladan took power in Babylon in 721 BC. Sargon took Babylon without a fight in 711 BC, but after Sargon’s death, Merodach-Baladan rebelled against Sargon's successor Sennacherib. Babylon was defeated this time but would revive in another century to defeat Assyria, subjugate the Jews and destroy Jerusalem. Hezekiah and Sennacherib Sennacherib came to the throne of Assyria in 705 BC. He had trouble immediately – with Ethiopian monarchs in Egypt (reference to Ethiopia here refers to present day north Sudan) and with the Babylonian leader, Merodach-Baladan. Despite Isaiah’s warnings, Hezekiah became involved as well. The Assyrians invaded the area, taking 46 towns before putting Jerusalem under siege. Isaiah persuaded Hezekiah to trust in the Lord and Jerusalem was spared. Themes Isaiah 2:4 is taken as an unofficial mission statement by the United Nations. (Isaiah Wall in Ralph Bunche Park, a New York City park near UN headquarters) Peace, 1896 etching by William Strutt, based upon Isaiah 11:6,7 Isaiah is concerned with the connection between worship and ethical behavior. One of his major themes is Yahweh's refusal to accept the ritual worship of those who are treating others with cruelty and injustice. Isaiah speaks also of idolatry, which was common at the time. The Canaanite worship, which involved fertility rites, including sexual practices forbidden by Jewish law, had become popular among the Jewish people. Isaiah picks up on a theme used by other prophets and tells Judah that the nation of Israel is like a wife who is committing adultery, having run away from her true husband, YHWH. An important theme is that YHWH is the God of the whole earth. Many gods of the time were believed to be local gods or national gods who could participate in warfare and be defeated by each other. The concern of these gods was the protection of their own particular nations. No one can defeat YHWH; if YHWH's people suffer defeat in battle, it is only because he permits it to happen. Furthermore, Yahweh is concerned with more than the Jewish people. He has called Judah and Israel his covenant people for the specific purpose of teaching the world about him. A unifying theme found throughout the Book of Isaiah is the use of the expression of "the Holy One of Israel". Some Christians interpret this as a title for Christ. It is found 12 times in chapters 1-39 and 14 times in chapters 40-66. This expression appears only 6 times within the Old Testament outside the book of Isaiah . A final thematic goal that Isaiah constantly leans toward throughout the writing is the establishment of Yahweh's kingdom on earth, with rulers and subjects who strive to live by his will. Authorship Traditional position Jews and Christians have traditionally understood the book to have one author, Isaiah himself. While quoting Isaiah, the gospel of John implies as much (; , ). The ancient Jewish historian Josephus attributes both sections of the book of Isaiah to a single author. In the introduction to his Daat Soferim Isaiah, Chaim Dov Rabinowitz (1909-2001) points to the statement in the Talmud (Bava Basra 15a) that the book of Isaiah was written by King Hezekiah and his assistants, who may have lived long after Isaiah. Ben Sira 48:27-28 implies that Isaiah prophesied the prophecy of Isaiah 44. Rabbi Joseph H. Hertz (1872 - 1946) wrote that the question of the book's authorship doesn't affect Jewish understanding of the book. "This question can be considered dispassionately. It touches no dogma, or any religious principle in Judaism; and, moreover, does not materially affect the understanding of the prophecies, or of the human conditions of the Jewish people that they have in view." -Rabbi Joseph H. Hertz Mainstream scholarly understanding One of the most critically debated issues in Isaiah is the proposition that it may have been the work of more than a single author. Different proposals suggest that there have been two or three main authors, while alternative views suggest an additional number of minor authors or editors. A fragment of the Book of Isaiah found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is a matter of common agreement among scholars that a division occurs at the end of chapter 39 and that subsequent portions were written by one or more additional authors. The typical objections to single authorship of the book of Isaiah are as follows: Supernaturalism → Critics often reject the unity of the work as such would require that the author had intimate knowledge of future events— a possibility precluded by the Naturalism under-girding much of higher criticism. "The mention of Cyrus by name (chs. 44:28; 45:1) is regarded by them [critics] as conclusive evidence that these chapters were written during the time of Cyrus, that is, in the second half of the 6th century B. C." Francis Nicholl, Seventh-day Adventist Commentary: Isaiah-Malachi (Washington, D. C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association,1955), p. 84 Naturalism is the rejection in principle of supernatural causes. Anonymity → That is to say that Isaiah’s name is suddenly not used from chapter 40-66. Style → There is a sudden change in the mood of the book from Isaiah after chapter 40. Historical Situation → The first portion of the book of Isaiah speaks of an impending judgement which will befall the wicked Israelites whereas the later portion of the book discusses God's mercy and restoration as though the exile were already a present reality. Through chapter 39 most of the material is Isaiah's and is an accurate account of the situation in eighth-century Judah, even if chapters 13-14, 24-27, and 34-35 could be the work of his disciples and near contemporaries. Supporters of the three authors proposal see a further division at the end of chapter 55, and propose to divide the Book of Isaiah as follows: Chapters 1 to 39 (First Isaiah or Original Isaiah): preached between 740 and 687 BCE. Isaiah is here a city person who insisted upon faith and was fearless in opposing leaders. Chapters 40 to 55 (Second Isaiah or Deutero-Isaiah): probably written by an anonymous poet near the end of the Babylonian captivity. Isaiah is here a master of sound and music with sweeping visions of mountains collapsing and valleys lifted up. Chapters 56 to 66 (Third Isaiah or Trito-Isaiah): written by anonymous disciples committed to continuing Isaiah's work in the years immediately after the return from Babylon. Isaiah is dreamed of new heavens and new earth. For most of the twentieth century the three-author position was the most widely held; in the 1990s, more complex and carefully nuanced positions (such as that from Williamson, 1994) started to appear. Servant Songs Songs of the Suffering Servant (also called the Servant songs or Servant poems) were first identified by Bernhard Duhm in his 1892 commentary on Isaiah. The songs are four poems taken from the Book of Isaiah written about a certain "servant of YHWH." God calls the servant to lead the nations, but the servant is horribly abused. The servant sacrifices himself, accepting the punishment due others. In the end, he is rewarded. The traditional Jewish interpretation is that the Servant is a metaphor for the Jewish people, Jews for Judaism, "Jews for Judaism FAQ," Accessed 2006-09-13. See also Ramban in his disputation. an opinion shared by most contemporary experts. "Servant Songs." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 According to Duhm, the servant was some otherwise unknown individual, and the songs' author was a disciple. Various interpretations have followed: Zerubbabel, Jehoiachin, Moses. Duhm proposed in his commentary that the songs were added by a poet with leprosy. Sigmund Mowinckel suggested that the songs referred to Isaiah himself but later abandoned that interpretation. Christians traditionally see the suffering servant as Jesus Christ. "Servant Songs." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 The first song The first poem has God speaking of His selection of the Servant who will bring justice to earth. Here the Servant is described as God's agent of justice, a king that brings justice in both royal and prophetic roles, yet justice is established neither by proclamation or by force. He does not ecstatically announce salvation in the marketplace as prophets were bound to do but instead moves quietly and confidently to establish right religion. Isaiah 42:1-7 The second song The second poem, written from the Servant's point of view, is an account of his pre-natal calling by God to lead both Israel and the nations. The Servant is now portrayed as the prophet of the Lord equipped and called to restore the nation to God. Yet, anticipating the fourth song, he is without success. Taken with the picture of the Servant in the first song, his success will come not by political or military action, but by becoming a light to the Gentiles. Ultimately his victory is in God's hands. Isaiah 49:1-6 The third song The third poem has a darker yet more confident tone than the others. Although the song gives a first-person description of how the Servant was beaten and abused, here the Servant is described both as teacher and learner who follows the path God places him on without pulling back. Echoing the first song's "a bruised reed he will not break," he sustains the weary with a word. His vindication is left in God's hands. Isaiah 50:4-9 The fourth song The last, longest, and most famous Servant poem, is a speech by Jehovah announcing the destiny of the Servant. Isaiah 53 declares that the Servant intercedes for others, taking the punishments and afflictions of others. In the end, he is rewarded with an exalted position. Much of song makes reference to an unknown group. See the many references to "we" and "our" in the song Isaiah 53:1-11 Early on the evaluation of the Servant by the "we" is negative: "we" esteemed him not, many were appalled by him, nothing in him was attractive to "us". But at the Servant's death the attitude of the "we" changes after verse 4 where the servant bears "our" iniquities, "our" sickness, by the servant's wounds "we" are healed. Posthumously, then, the Servant is vindicated by Jehovah. Because of its references to the vicarious sufferings of the servant, many Christians believe this song to be among the Messianic prophecies of Jesus. Isaiah 52:13-53:12 New Testament Allusions and Quotations In the Gospels: The first song is directly quoted in Gospel of Matthew 12:18-21 The fourth song's "He was numbered with the transgressors" Isaiah 53:12 is directly quoted in Luke 22:37. The fourth song's "Surely he bore our diseases" is quoted in Matthew 8:17 "Suffer many things" in Mark 9:12 may refer to Isaiah 53:2-3 "Ransom for many" Isaiah 53:10 is alluded to in Mark 10:45 and 14:24. "Make many righteous" in Isaiah 53:11 may be referred to in 3:15 "Divide the spoil with the strong" Isaiah 53:12 may be referenced in Luke 11:22 In the Epistles: Paul reflects fourth song in the following: "He was delivered up for our trespasses" Romans 4:25 "Many will be made righteous" Romans 5:19 "in the likeness of sinful flesh, condemned sin in the flesh" Romans 8.3 "Christ dies for our sins, in accordance with the scriptures" 1 Corinthians 15:3 The Kenosis passage portrays Christ as "taking the form of a servant" Philippians 2:6-11 1 Peter contains a number of allusions to the fourth song in chapter 2: "Christ also suffered for you"; "He committed no sin, neither was deceit found in his mouth"; "When he was reviled, he did not revile in return; when he suffered, he did not threaten"; "He himself bore our sins in his body"; "By his wounds you have been healed"; "straying like sheep" 1 Peter 2.21-25 Some scholars contend that early Christian accounts of Jesus included details invented to show that Jesus had fulfilled prophecy and to explain why the Messiah would die a shameful death on a cross. They suggest scribes delved into scripture and found the Servant Songs, which they reinterpreted to be about Jesus. For example, the story of Joseph of Arimathea seems to fulfill a verse from the Servant Songs in which Jesus is to be buried with the rich. However, there is no textual variant evidence to suggest these are embellishments. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Bruce Metzger Isaiah scroll The 2,100-year old Isaiah Scroll is the only complete scroll in the cache of 220 biblical scrolls discovered in a cave in Qumran on the northwestern coast of the Dead Sea. Adolfo Roitman, curator of the Shrine of the Book where the Dead Sea scrolls are kept, says that Isaiah was the most popular prophet of the Second Temple period: 21 copies of the scroll were found in Qumran. References External links Book of Isaiah (Hebrew) side-by-side with English) Book of Isaiah (English translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org) Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions at GospelCom.net Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions at Biola University Further information Introduction to the book of Isaiah from the NIV Study Bible |- | Book_of_Isaiah |@lemmatized book:27 isaiah:83 bible:5 traditionally:4 attribute:2 prophet:6 live:5 second:7 half:2 century:6 bc:11 http:1 www:1 haaretz:1 com:1 hasen:1 spages:1 html:1 first:13 chapter:32 prophesies:3 doom:2 sinful:2 judah:14 nation:11 world:2 oppose:3 god:31 last:2 prophesy:3 restoration:3 israel:18 section:4 include:4 song:28 suffering:4 servant:35 contemporary:3 scholar:4 generally:2 consider:2 originate:1 historical:4 late:4 part:3 know:2 deutero:4 say:4 derive:1 author:13 may:6 herbert:1 g:1 bruce:2 metzger:2 new:11 oxford:7 annotate:1 apocrypha:1 prophecy:9 creation:1 glorious:1 future:3 kingdom:10 content:1 consist:1 primarily:2 babylon:8 assyria:9 philistia:2 moab:1 syria:6 northern:3 ethiopia:2 egypt:5 arabia:1 phoenicia:1 concern:5 summarize:1 whole:2 earth:6 think:3 secure:1 power:5 might:1 well:3 conquer:1 command:1 original:3 remain:2 possibly:1 add:2 later:3 one:7 scribe:1 work:5 tradition:2 information:2 authorship:5 judgment:2 safe:1 covenant:3 relationship:1 however:4 tell:2 cannot:1 protect:1 break:2 idolatry:2 worship:4 act:1 injustice:2 cruelty:2 law:2 exception:1 overall:1 foretelling:1 occur:2 throughout:3 early:3 describes:1 call:8 provide:1 material:2 king:17 hezekiah:9 triumph:1 faith:2 complex:2 characterize:1 easily:1 messiah:4 person:4 anoint:1 give:2 justice:5 righteousness:1 reign:3 see:6 jew:8 describe:6 actual:1 descendant:2 great:2 david:2 make:6 jerusalem:5 truly:1 holy:3 city:6 christian:10 jesus:7 number:4 modern:1 believe:3 somewhat:1 idealized:1 term:3 try:2 continue:2 comfort:2 begin:1 complete:2 writing:2 eight:1 deliverance:1 hand:3 babylonian:4 unified:1 land:3 promise:1 reaffirm:1 indeed:1 chosen:1 people:7 yahweh:4 universe:1 show:2 due:2 time:10 persian:1 ruler:3 cyrus:3 name:3 overthrow:1 allow:1 return:4 contain:2 glory:1 zion:1 rule:2 righteous:5 understood:1 rabbinic:1 judaism:4 cross:4 f:3 l:3 ed:3 dictionary:3 church:3 york:4 university:4 press:3 although:2 still:1 mention:3 false:2 worshipper:1 idolater:1 end:8 message:1 hope:2 extend:1 salvation:2 subject:2 lord:5 supporter:3 two:3 division:4 use:4 reference:8 three:4 usually:1 refer:4 background:1 eighth:2 upper:1 class:1 urge:1 care:1 downtrodden:1 loyal:2 disagree:1 attempt:1 forge:1 alliance:1 response:1 assyrian:6 threat:2 prophesied:1 four:2 uzziah:2 also:5 azariah:1 jotham:1 ahaz:4 accord:2 martyr:1 manasseh:1 come:5 throne:4 cut:1 wooden:1 saw:1 ready:1 access:2 would:5 suggest:6 aristocratic:1 origin:1 divided:1 north:3 south:2 prosperity:1 youth:1 little:1 foreign:1 interference:1 jeroboam:1 ii:2 small:1 palestine:1 influence:1 tiglath:4 pileser:4 iii:2 interested:1 expansionism:1 especially:1 west:1 menahem:1 pay:1 tribute:2 pul:1 syro:1 ephraimite:1 war:1 aram:1 lead:3 pekah:3 force:2 ally:1 around:1 advise:1 trust:2 instead:2 help:1 rezin:1 attack:2 inflicted:1 damage:1 aid:1 serious:1 religious:2 consequence:1 refusal:2 accept:3 guidance:1 fall:1 samaria:4 longer:1 take:12 much:4 leave:2 surroundings:1 independent:1 herrmann:1 seigfried:1 history:1 old:3 testament:4 involve:3 damascus:1 capital:1 die:3 raise:1 palestinian:1 country:2 year:5 warn:1 revolt:1 hoshea:1 withhold:1 consequently:1 shalmaneser:1 v:1 lay:1 siege:2 successor:2 sargon:5 deport:1 israelite:2 empire:1 mark:3 forever:1 population:1 exile:3 disperse:1 amongst:1 province:1 result:1 ten:1 lose:1 tribe:1 peace:2 area:2 crush:1 coalition:1 philistine:1 stay:1 conflict:1 wisely:1 listen:1 advice:1 merodach:3 baladan:3 without:3 fight:1 death:3 rebel:1 sennacherib:3 defeat:5 revive:1 another:1 subjugate:1 destroy:1 trouble:1 immediately:2 ethiopian:1 monarch:1 refers:1 present:2 day:2 sudan:1 leader:2 despite:1 warning:1 become:3 invade:1 town:1 put:1 persuade:1 spar:1 theme:5 unofficial:1 mission:1 statement:2 united:1 wall:1 ralph:1 bunche:1 park:2 near:3 un:1 headquarters:1 etching:1 william:1 strutt:1 base:1 upon:2 connection:1 ethical:1 behavior:1 major:1 ritual:1 treat:1 others:5 speak:1 common:2 canaanite:1 fertility:1 rite:1 sexual:1 practice:1 forbid:1 jewish:8 popular:2 among:4 pick:1 like:2 wife:1 commit:3 adultery:1 run:1 away:1 true:1 husband:1 yhwh:5 important:1 many:8 local:1 national:1 could:2 participate:1 warfare:1 protection:1 particular:1 suffer:4 battle:1 permit:1 happen:1 furthermore:1 specific:1 purpose:1 teach:1 unifying:1 find:6 expression:2 interpret:1 title:1 christ:5 appear:2 within:1 outside:1 final:1 thematic:1 goal:1 constantly:1 lean:1 toward:1 establishment:1 strive:1 traditional:2 position:4 understand:2 quote:4 gospel:3 john:1 implies:2 ancient:1 historian:1 josephus:1 single:3 introduction:2 daat:1 soferim:1 chaim:1 dov:1 rabinowitz:1 point:2 talmud:1 bava:1 basra:1 write:8 assistant:1 long:2 ben:1 sira:1 rabbi:2 joseph:3 h:2 hertz:2 question:2 affect:2 understanding:2 dispassionately:1 touch:1 dogma:1 principle:2 moreover:1 materially:1 human:1 condition:1 view:3 mainstream:1 scholarly:1 critically:1 debated:1 issue:1 proposition:1 different:1 proposal:2 main:1 alternative:1 additional:2 minor:1 editor:1 fragment:1 dead:3 sea:3 scroll:7 matter:1 agreement:1 subsequent:1 portion:3 typical:1 objection:1 follow:4 supernaturalism:1 critic:2 often:1 reject:1 unity:1 require:1 intimate:1 knowledge:1 event:1 possibility:1 preclude:1 naturalism:2 gird:1 high:1 criticism:1 chs:1 regard:1 conclusive:1 evidence:2 b:1 c:2 francis:1 nicholl:1 seventh:1 adventist:1 commentary:5 malachi:1 washington:1 review:1 herald:1 publishing:1 association:1 p:1 rejection:1 supernatural:1 cause:1 anonymity:1 suddenly:1 style:1 sudden:1 change:2 mood:1 situation:2 speaks:1 impending:1 judgement:1 befall:1 wicked:1 whereas:1 discuss:1 mercy:1 though:1 already:1 reality:1 accurate:1 account:3 even:1 disciple:3 propose:2 divide:2 preach:1 bce:1 insist:1 fearless:1 probably:1 anonymous:2 poet:2 captivity:1 master:1 sound:1 music:1 sweeping:1 vision:1 mountain:1 collapse:1 valley:1 lift:1 third:3 trito:1 dream:1 heaven:1 twentieth:1 widely:1 hold:1 carefully:1 nuanced:1 williamson:1 start:1 songs:1 poem:6 identify:1 bernhard:1 duhm:3 certain:1 horribly:1 abuse:2 sacrifice:1 punishment:2 reward:2 interpretation:3 metaphor:1 faq:1 ramban:1 disputation:1 opinion:1 share:1 expert:1 otherwise:1 unknown:2 individual:1 various:1 zerubbabel:1 jehoiachin:1 moses:1 leprosy:1 sigmund:1 mowinckel:1 abandon:1 speaking:1 selection:1 bring:2 agent:1 royal:1 prophetic:1 role:1 yet:3 establish:2 neither:2 proclamation:1 ecstatically:1 announce:2 marketplace:1 bind:1 move:1 quietly:1 confidently:1 right:1 religion:1 pre:1 natal:1 portray:1 equip:1 restore:1 anticipate:1 fourth:6 success:2 picture:1 political:1 military:1 action:1 light:1 gentile:1 ultimately:1 victory:1 darker:1 confident:1 tone:1 description:1 beat:1 teacher:1 learner:1 path:1 place:1 pull:1 back:1 echo:1 bruised:1 reed:1 sustain:1 weary:1 word:1 vindication:1 famous:1 speech:1 jehovah:2 destiny:1 declares:1 intercedes:1 affliction:1 exalted:1 group:1 evaluation:1 negative:1 esteem:1 appal:1 nothing:1 attractive:1 u:1 attitude:1 verse:2 bear:1 iniquity:1 sickness:1 wound:2 heal:2 posthumously:1 vindicate:1 vicarious:1 messianic:1 allusion:2 quotation:1 directly:2 matthew:2 transgressor:1 luke:2 surely:1 bore:2 disease:1 thing:1 ransom:1 allude:1 spoil:1 strong:1 epistle:1 paul:1 reflect:1 following:1 deliver:1 trespass:1 romans:3 likeness:1 flesh:2 condemn:1 sin:4 dy:1 accordance:1 scripture:2 corinthian:1 kenosis:1 passage:1 portrays:1 form:1 philippians:1 peter:2 deceit:1 mouth:1 revile:2 threaten:1 body:1 stray:1 sheep:1 contend:1 detail:1 invent:1 fulfil:1 explain:1 shameful:1 scribes:1 delve:1 reinterpret:1 example:1 story:1 arimathea:1 seem:1 fulfill:1 bury:1 rich:1 textual:2 variant:1 embellishment:1 greek:1 cache:1 biblical:1 discover:1 cave:1 qumran:2 northwestern:1 coast:1 adolfo:1 roitman:1 curator:1 shrine:1 keep:1 temple:1 period:1 copy:1 external:1 link:1 hebrew:1 side:2 english:2 translation:1 rashi:1 chabad:1 org:1 gateway:1 language:2 version:2 gospelcom:1 net:1 unbound:1 biola:1 niv:1 study:1 |@bigram http_www:1 com_hasen:1 hasen_spages:1 spages_html:1 deutero_isaiah:4 bruce_metzger:2 babylon_assyria:1 rabbinic_judaism:1 ahaz_hezekiah:1 tiglath_pileser:4 pileser_iii:2 pay_tribute:1 merodach_baladan:3 isaiah_isaiah:1 commit_adultery:1 unifying_theme:1 ben_sira:1 conclusive_evidence:1 day_adventist:1 babylonian_captivity:1 twentieth_century:1 jesus_christ:1 messianic_prophecy:1 gospel_matthew:1 fulfil_prophecy:1 joseph_arimathea:1 textual_variant:1 external_link:1 translation_rashi:1 rashi_commentary:1 commentary_chabad:1 chabad_org:1 biola_university:1 |
912 | Forrest_J_Ackerman | Forrest J Ackerman or Mr. Science Fiction, Clute & Nicholls, Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (Orbit, London 1993) pp3–4 was for over seven decades one of science fiction's staunchest spokesmen and promoters. Ackerman was a Los Angeles, California-based magazine editor, science fiction writer and literary agent, a founder of science fiction fandom and possibly the world's most avid collector of genre books and movie memorabilia. He was the editor and principal writer of the American magazine Famous Monsters of Filmland, as well as an actor and producer (Vampirella). Also called "Forry," "The Ackermonster," "4e" and "4SJ," Ackerman was central to the formation, organization, and spread of science fiction fandom, and a key figure in the wider cultural perception of science fiction as a literary, art and film genre. Famous for his word play and neologisms, he coined the genre nickname "sci-fi". In 1953, he was voted "#1 Fan Personality" by the members of the World Science Fiction Society, a unique Hugo Award never granted to anyone else. Official Hugo Awards website He was also among the first and most outspoken advocates of Esperanto in the science fiction community. Ackerman's personal page about Esperanto. Biography Born Forrest James Ackerman (though he would refer to himself from the early 1930s on as "Forrest J Ackerman" with no period after the middle initial) on November 24, 1916 in Los Angeles, to Carroll Cridland Wyman (1883–1977) and William Schilling Ackerman (1892–1951). California Death Index His father was from New York and his mother was from Ohio, and she was nine years older than William. 1920 US Census He attended the University of California at Berkeley for a year (1934–1935), worked as a movie projectionist, and spent three years in the U.S. Army after enlisting on August 15, 1942. U.S. World War II Army Enlistment Records, 1938–1946 He was married to teacher and translator Wendayne (Wendy) Wahrman (1912–1990) until her death. Ackerman was fluent in the international language Esperanto, and claimed to have walked down Hollywood Boulevard arm-in-arm with Leo G. Carroll singing La Espero, the hymn of Esperanto. Ackerman's personal page about Esperanto. Career and fandom Ackerman saw his first "imagi-movie" in 1922 (One Glorious Day ), purchased his first science fiction magazine, Amazing Stories, in 1926, created The Boys' Scientifiction Club in 1930 ("girl-fans were as rare as unicorn's horns in those days"). He contributed to both of the first science fiction fanzines, The Time Traveller, and the Science Fiction Magazine, published and edited by Shuster & Siegel of Superman fame, in 1932, and by 1933 had 127 correspondents around the world. He attended the 1st World Science Fiction Convention in 1939, where he wore the first "futuristicostume" Kyle, David. "Caravan to the Stars," Mimosa #29 The FANAC Fan History Project, WorldCon Photo Album. "Forrest J Ackerman attended the first World Science Fiction Convention dressed in futuristic garb." (designed and created by Myrtle R. Douglas) and sparked fan costuming, the latest incarnation of which is cosplay. He attended every Worldcon but two thereafter during his lifetime. Ackerman invited Ray Bradbury to attend the now legendary Clifton’s Cafeteria Science Fiction Club, where Ray met the writers Robert A. Heinlein, Emil Petaja, Fredric Brown, Henry Kuttner, Leigh Brackett, and Jack Williamson. With $90 from Ackerman, Bradbury launched a fanzine, Futuria Fantasia, in 1939. Ackerman helped to found the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society, a prominent regional organization, as well as the National Fantasy Fan Federation (N3F). Ackerman amassed an extremely large and complete collection of science fiction, fantasy and horror film memorabilia, which, until 2002, he maintained in a remarkable 18-room home and museum known as the "Ackermansion." The house, in the Los Feliz district of Los Angeles, contained some 300,000 books and pieces of movie and science-fiction memorabilia. From 1951 to 2002, Ackerman entertained some 50,000 fans at open houses, on one night a group of 186 fans and professionals including astronaut Buzz Aldrin. Ackerman was a board member of the Seattle Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame, where many items of his collection are now displayed. He knew most of the writers of science fiction in the first half of the twentieth-century. As a literary agent, he represented some 200 writers, and he served as agent of record for many long lost authors, thereby allowing their work to be reprinted in anthologies. He was Ed Wood's "illiterary" agent. Dragon*Con biography Ackerman was credited with nurturing and even inspiring the careers of several early contemporaries Retrieved August 18, 2006. like Ray Bradbury, Ray Harryhausen, Charles Beaumont, Marion Zimmer Bradley and L. Ron Hubbard. Ackerman had 50 stories published, including collaborations with A. E. van Vogt, Francis Flagg, Robert A. W. Lowndes, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Donald Wollheim and Catherine Moore and the world's shortest – one letter of the alphabet. His stories have been translated into six languages. Ackerman named the sexy comic-book character Vampirella and wrote the origin story for the comic. He also authored several lesbian stories under the name "Laurajean Ermayne" for Vice Versa and provided publishing assistance in the early days of the Daughters of Bilitis. ) He was dubbed an "honorary lesbian" at a DOB party. Matthesen, Elise. "Vampires and Aliens." Lavender Lifestyles, Nov. 24, 1995. Online copy Through his magazine, Famous Monsters of Filmland (1958–1983), Ackerman introduced the history of the science fiction, fantasy and horror film genres to a generation of young readers. At a time when most movie-related publications glorified the stars in front of the camera, "Uncle Forry", as he was referred to by many of his fans, promoted the behind-the-scenes artists involved in the magic of movies. In this way, Ackerman provided inspiration to many who would later become successful artists, including Peter Jackson, Steven Spielberg, Tim Burton, Stephen King, Penn & Teller, Billy Bob Thornton, Gene Simmons (of the band Kiss), Rick Baker, George Lucas, Danny Elfman, Frank Darabont, John Landis and countless other writers, directors, artists and craftsmen. He also contributed to film magazines from all around the world, including Spanish speaking La Cosa: Cine Fantástico magazine, from Argentina, where he had a monthly column for over four years. In the 1960s, Ackerman organized the publication of an English translation in the U.S. of the German science fiction series Perry Rhodan, the longest science fiction series in history. These were published by Ace Books from 1969 through 1977. Ackerman's German-speaking wife Wendayne ("Wendy") did most of the translation. The American books were issued with varying frequency from one to as many as four per month. Ackerman also used the paperback series to promote science fiction short stories, including his own on occasion. These "magabooks" or "bookazines" also included a film review section, known as "Scientifilm World", and letters from readers. The American series came to an end when the management of Ace changed, and the new management decided that the series was too juvenile for their taste. The last Ace issue was #118, which corresponded to German issue #126 as some of the Ace editions contained two of the German issues, and three of the German issues had been skipped. Forry later published translations of German issues #127 through #145 on his own under the Master Publications imprint. (The original German series continues today and passed issue #2400 in 2007.) Appearances in film, TV and music A life-long fan of science fiction "B-movies", Ackerman had cameos in over 210 films, including bit parts in many monster movies and science fiction films (The Howling, Innocent Blood, Return of the Living Dead Part II), more traditional "imagi-movies" The Time Travelers, Future War), spoofs and comedies (Amazon Women on the Moon, Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold, The Wizard of Speed and Time), and at least one major music video (Michael Jackson's Thriller. His Bacon number is 2. In 1961, Ackerman narrated the record "Music for Robots" created by Frank Allison Coe. The cover featured Forrest Ackerman's face superimposed on the movie robot Tobor the Great. The record was reissued on CD in 2005. Ackerman himself appeared as a character in The Vampire Affair by David McDaniel (a novel in the Man from U.N.C.L.E. series), and Philip José Farmer's novel Blown. A character based on Ackerman, and his "Ackermansion", appears in the Niven/Pournelle collaboration Fallen Angels. He appeared on the intro track of Ohio horrorpunk music group Manimals' 1999 album Horrorcore. Manimals' home page Ackerman appeared extensively on-screen discussing his life and the history of science fiction fandom in the 2006 documentary film Finding the Future. http://www.findingthefuture.com In 2007, Roadhouse Films of Canada released a documentary, Famous Monster: Forrest J Ackerman. The documentary, available on DVD only in the UK, airs regularly on the BRAVO channel. Death Ackerman said, "I aim at hitting 100 and becoming the George Burns of science fiction". His health, however, had been failing, and he last logged in to his Myspace page on March 19, 2008. Friends and fans were encouraged to send messages of farewell by mail. Ain't it Cool News article There were several premature reports of his death beginning November 6, 2008. These reports originated from a news article on the British Fantasy Society website; a correction was subsequently made. British Fantasy Society website He died on December 4, 2008. He had been living in his "Acker-mini-mansion" in Hollywood where he entertained and inspired fans weekly with his collection of memorabilia and stories of the golden age of art, filmmaking, literature and all things fantastical. Writing Non-fiction A Reference Guide to American Science Fiction Films The Frankenscience Monster, 1969, paperback, Ace Books #25130 Forrest J Ackerman's Worlds of Science Fiction Famous Forrie Fotos: Over 70 Years of Ackermemories, 117pp, trade paperback, 2001, Sense of Wonder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers Mr. Monster's Movie Gold, A Treasure-Trove Of Imagi-Movies Worlds of Tomorrow: the Amazing Universe of Science Fiction Art w/Brad Linaweaver. ISBN 188805493X. 178pp. 2004 Collectors Press Lon of 1000 Faces Famous Monster of Filmland #1: An encyclopedia of the first 50 issues Famous Monster of Filmland #2: An encyclopedia of issue 50-100 Metropolis by Thea von Harbou - intro and "stillustration" by FJ Ackerman Anthologies Rainbow Fantasia: 35 Spectrumatic Tales of Wonder, 559pp., 2001, hardbound and trade paperback, Sense of Wonder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers Science Fiction Worlds of Forrest J. Ackerman Best Science Fiction for 1973 The Gernsback Awards Vol. 1, 1926 Gosh! Wow! (Sense of Wonder) Science Fiction'" Reel futures I, Vampire: Interviews with the Undead Ackermanthology: Millennium Edition: 65 Astonishing Rediscovered Sci-Fi Shorts, Sense of Wonder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers) Womanthology, (w/Pam Keesey) 352pp, hardbound and trade paperback, 2003, Sense of Wonder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers Martianthology (ed.by Anne Hardin), 266pp, hardbound and trade paperback, 2003, Sense of Wonder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers Film Futures Expanded Science Fiction Worlds of Forrest J Ackerman and Friends, PLUS, 205pp, hardbound and trade paperback, 2002, Sense of Wonder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers Dr. Acula's Thrilling Tales of the Uncanny'', xiv+267pp. Trade Paper, Sense of Woder Press, James A. Rock & Co., Publishers. Short stories “Nyusa, Nymph of Darkness “ “The Shortest Story Ever Told “ “A Martian Oddity” “Earth's Lucky Day “ “The Record “ “Micro Man “ “Tarzan and the Golden Loin “ “Dhactwhu!-Remember? “ “Kiki” “The Mute Question” “Atoms and Stars” “The Lady Takes a Powder” “Sabina of the White Cylinder” “What an Idea!” “Death Rides the Spaceways” “Dwellers in the Dust” “Burn Witch, Burn” “Yvala” “The Girl Who Wasn't There” “Count Down to Doom “ “Time to Change “ “And Then the Cover Was Bare” “The Atomic Monument” “Letter to an Angel” “The Man Who Was Thirsty “ “The Radclyffe Effect” “Cosmic Report Card: Earth” “Great Gog's Grave” “The Naughty Venuzian” Awards Hugo Award: Number 1 Fan Personality, 1953 Inducted to the Monster Kid Hall Of Fame at The Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement, 1996 Notes References SFWA Obituary 4e's Foyer: biography SFSite: Gary Westfahl's Biographical Encyclopedia Article on Ackerman's persona and life External links Forrest J. Ackerman appears onstage at the 40th anniversary of "The Time Machine" Interview and shoot with Forrest J. Ackerman, Bizarre Magazine Audio Interview with Forrest J Ackerman Scientifilm Previews by Forrest J Ackerman A Close-up Look at the Ackermansion Treasures Forrest J. Ackerman @ MySpace.com Roadhouse Film's Famous Monster documentary page Forest J. Ackerman interviewed by GeeksOn.com podcast "The Unfortunate Selling of Treasures," L.A. Times Director Peter Jackson Discusses Forrest J Ackerman | Forrest_J_Ackerman |@lemmatized forrest:15 j:14 ackerman:45 mr:2 science:35 fiction:35 clute:1 nicholls:1 encyclopedia:4 orbit:1 london:1 seven:1 decade:1 one:6 staunch:1 spokesman:1 promoter:1 los:5 angeles:4 california:3 base:2 magazine:8 editor:2 writer:6 literary:3 agent:4 founder:1 fandom:4 possibly:1 world:13 avid:1 collector:2 genre:4 book:6 movie:12 memorabilia:4 principal:1 american:4 famous:8 monster:10 filmland:4 well:2 actor:1 producer:1 vampirella:2 also:6 call:1 forry:3 ackermonster:1 central:1 formation:1 organization:2 spread:1 key:1 figure:1 wider:1 cultural:1 perception:1 art:3 film:13 word:1 play:1 neologism:1 coin:1 nickname:1 sci:2 fi:2 vote:1 fan:12 personality:2 member:2 society:4 unique:1 hugo:3 award:7 never:1 grant:1 anyone:1 else:1 official:1 website:3 among:1 first:8 outspoken:1 advocate:1 esperanto:5 community:1 personal:2 page:5 biography:3 born:1 james:1 though:1 would:2 refer:2 early:3 period:1 middle:1 initial:1 november:2 carroll:2 cridland:1 wyman:1 william:2 schilling:1 death:5 index:1 father:1 new:2 york:1 mother:1 ohio:2 nine:1 year:5 old:1 u:5 census:1 attend:5 university:1 berkeley:1 work:2 projectionist:1 spend:1 three:2 army:2 enlist:1 august:2 war:2 ii:2 enlistment:1 record:5 marry:1 teacher:1 translator:1 wendayne:2 wendy:2 wahrman:1 fluent:1 international:1 language:2 claim:1 walk:1 hollywood:2 boulevard:1 arm:2 leo:1 g:1 sing:1 la:2 espero:1 hymn:1 career:2 saw:1 imagi:3 glorious:1 day:4 purchase:1 amaze:1 story:9 create:3 boy:1 scientifiction:1 club:2 girl:2 rare:1 unicorn:1 horn:1 contribute:2 fanzines:1 time:7 traveller:1 publish:5 edit:1 shuster:1 siegel:1 superman:1 fame:3 correspondent:1 around:2 convention:2 wear:1 futuristicostume:1 kyle:1 david:2 caravan:1 star:3 mimosa:1 fanac:1 history:4 project:1 worldcon:2 photo:1 album:2 dress:1 futuristic:1 garb:1 design:1 myrtle:1 r:1 douglas:1 spark:1 costuming:1 late:1 incarnation:1 cosplay:1 every:1 two:2 thereafter:1 lifetime:2 invite:1 ray:4 bradbury:3 legendary:1 clifton:1 cafeteria:1 meet:1 robert:2 heinlein:1 emil:1 petaja:1 fredric:1 brown:1 henry:1 kuttner:1 leigh:1 brackett:1 jack:1 williamson:1 launch:1 fanzine:1 futuria:1 fantasia:2 help:1 find:2 fantasy:6 prominent:1 regional:1 national:1 federation:1 amass:1 extremely:1 large:1 complete:1 collection:3 horror:3 maintain:1 remarkable:1 room:1 home:2 museum:2 know:3 ackermansion:3 house:2 feliz:1 district:1 contain:2 piece:1 entertain:2 open:1 night:1 group:2 professional:1 include:7 astronaut:1 buzz:1 aldrin:1 board:1 seattle:1 hall:2 many:6 item:1 displayed:1 half:1 twentieth:1 century:1 represent:1 serve:1 long:3 lost:1 author:2 thereby:1 allow:1 reprint:1 anthology:2 ed:2 wood:1 illiterary:1 dragon:1 con:1 credit:1 nurturing:1 even:1 inspire:2 several:3 contemporary:1 retrieve:1 like:1 harryhausen:1 charles:1 beaumont:1 marion:2 zimmer:2 bradley:2 l:3 ron:1 hubbard:1 collaboration:2 e:2 van:1 vogt:1 francis:1 flagg:1 w:3 lowndes:1 donald:1 wollheim:1 catherine:1 moore:1 short:5 letter:3 alphabet:1 translate:1 six:1 name:2 sexy:1 comic:2 character:3 write:2 origin:1 lesbian:2 laurajean:1 ermayne:1 vice:1 versa:1 provide:2 assistance:1 daughter:1 bilitis:1 dub:1 honorary:1 dob:1 party:1 matthesen:1 elise:1 vampire:3 alien:1 lavender:1 lifestyle:1 nov:1 online:1 copy:1 introduce:1 generation:1 young:1 reader:2 related:1 publication:3 glorify:1 front:1 camera:1 uncle:1 promote:2 behind:1 scene:1 artist:3 involve:1 magic:1 way:1 inspiration:1 later:2 become:2 successful:1 peter:2 jackson:3 steven:1 spielberg:1 tim:1 burton:1 stephen:1 king:1 penn:1 teller:1 billy:1 bob:1 thornton:1 gene:1 simmons:1 band:1 kiss:1 rick:1 baker:1 george:2 lucas:1 danny:1 elfman:1 frank:2 darabont:1 john:1 landis:1 countless:1 director:2 craftsman:1 spanish:1 speaking:1 cosa:1 cine:1 fantástico:1 argentina:1 monthly:1 column:1 four:2 organize:1 english:1 translation:3 german:7 series:7 perry:1 rhodan:1 ace:5 speak:1 wife:1 issue:9 vary:1 frequency:1 per:1 month:1 use:1 paperback:7 occasion:1 magabooks:1 bookazines:1 review:1 section:1 scientifilm:2 come:1 end:1 management:2 change:2 decide:1 juvenile:1 taste:1 last:2 correspond:1 edition:2 skip:1 master:1 imprint:1 original:1 continue:1 today:1 pass:1 appearance:1 tv:1 music:4 life:3 b:1 cameos:1 bit:1 part:2 howling:1 innocent:1 blood:1 return:1 living:1 dead:1 traditional:1 traveler:1 future:4 spoof:1 comedy:1 amazon:1 woman:1 moon:1 attack:1 foot:1 centerfold:1 wizard:1 speed:1 least:1 major:1 video:1 michael:1 thriller:1 bacon:1 number:2 narrate:1 robot:2 allison:1 coe:1 cover:2 feature:1 face:2 superimpose:1 tobor:1 great:2 reissue:1 cd:1 appear:5 affair:1 mcdaniel:1 novel:2 man:3 n:1 c:1 philip:1 josé:1 farmer:1 blow:1 niven:1 pournelle:1 fall:1 angel:2 intro:2 track:1 horrorpunk:1 manimals:2 horrorcore:1 extensively:1 screen:1 discuss:2 documentary:4 http:1 www:1 findingthefuture:1 com:3 roadhouse:2 canada:1 release:1 available:1 dvd:1 uk:1 air:1 regularly:1 bravo:1 channel:1 say:1 aim:1 hit:1 burn:3 health:1 however:1 fail:1 log:1 myspace:2 march:1 friend:2 encourage:1 send:1 message:1 farewell:1 mail:1 cool:1 news:2 article:3 premature:1 report:3 begin:1 originate:1 british:2 correction:1 subsequently:1 make:1 die:1 december:1 live:1 acker:1 mini:1 mansion:1 weekly:1 golden:2 age:1 filmmaking:1 literature:1 thing:1 fantastical:1 non:1 reference:2 guide:1 frankenscience:1 forrie:1 fotos:1 ackermemories:1 trade:6 sense:8 wonder:8 press:8 jam:7 rock:7 co:7 publisher:7 gold:1 treasure:3 trove:1 tomorrow:1 amazing:1 universe:1 brad:1 linaweaver:1 isbn:1 lon:1 metropolis:1 thea:1 von:1 harbou:1 stillustration:1 fj:1 rainbow:1 spectrumatic:1 tale:2 hardbound:4 best:1 gernsback:1 vol:1 gosh:1 wow:1 reel:1 interview:4 undead:1 ackermanthology:1 millennium:1 astonishing:1 rediscover:1 womanthology:1 pam:1 keesey:1 martianthology:1 anne:1 hardin:1 expand:1 plus:1 dr:1 acula:1 thrill:1 uncanny:1 xiv:1 paper:1 woder:1 nyusa:1 nymph:1 darkness:1 ever:1 tell:1 martian:1 oddity:1 earth:2 lucky:1 micro:1 tarzan:1 loin:1 dhactwhu:1 remember:1 kiki:1 mute:1 question:1 atom:1 lady:1 take:1 powder:1 sabina:1 white:1 cylinder:1 idea:1 rid:1 spaceways:1 dweller:1 dust:1 witch:1 yvala:1 count:1 doom:1 bare:1 atomic:1 monument:1 thirsty:1 radclyffe:1 effect:1 cosmic:1 card:1 gog:1 grave:1 naughty:1 venuzian:1 induct:1 kid:1 rondo:1 hatton:1 classic:1 bram:1 stoker:1 achievement:1 note:1 sfwa:1 obituary:1 foyer:1 sfsite:1 gary:1 westfahl:1 biographical:1 persona:1 external:1 link:1 onstage:1 anniversary:1 machine:1 shoot:1 bizarre:1 audio:1 preview:1 close:1 look:1 forest:1 geekson:1 podcast:1 unfortunate:1 selling:1 |@bigram science_fiction:34 los_angeles:4 fiction_fandom:3 monster_filmland:4 sci_fi:2 anyone_else:1 hollywood_boulevard:1 la_espero:1 ray_bradbury:2 robert_heinlein:1 henry_kuttner:1 jack_williamson:1 buzz_aldrin:1 hall_fame:2 twentieth_century:1 marion_zimmer:2 zimmer_bradley:2 ron_hubbard:1 van_vogt:1 w_lowndes:1 donald_wollheim:1 vice_versa:1 steven_spielberg:1 tim_burton:1 penn_teller:1 bob_thornton:1 danny_elfman:1 http_www:1 myspace_page:1 treasure_trove:1 bram_stoker:1 lifetime_achievement:1 external_link:1 |
913 | Amateur | An amateur is generally considered a person attached to a particular pursuit, study, or science, without formal training or pay. Although sometimes can be very highly, an amateur differs from an expert that is a person with extensive knowledge, ability, and/or training in a particular area of study, while a professional is someone who also makes a living from it. Translated from its French origin to the English "lover of", the term "amateur" reflects a voluntary motivation to work as a result of personal passion for a particular activity. As with any construct, amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often do not have training, some amateur work may be sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball or football are not regarded as having the same level of ability as professional athletes. Alternatively, the lack of financial recompense can also be seen as a sign of commitment to an activity. For instance, until the 1970s most Olympic events required that the athletes be amateurs. Receiving payment to participate in an event disqualified an athlete from that event, as in the case of Jim Thorpe. In the Olympic games, this rule remains in place for boxing. Amateurs make valuable contributions in the fields of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur Dramatics is the performance of either plays or musical theater, often to high standards but lacking the budgets of the professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, history, linguistics,and ornithology are among the myriad fields that have benefited from the activity of amateurs. See also Volunteer Hobby Amateur astronomy Amateur radio Amateur sports Mark Korpics Corinthian (disambiguation) Home movies Notes Bourdieu, P. (1996). Photography: A Middle-Brow Art. Stanford University Press. Fine, G.A. (1998) Morel Tales:. The. Culture. of. Mushrooming.. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Stebbins, Robert A. (2007) Serious Leisure: A Perspective for Our Time. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. External links What's an Amateur? The Serious Leisure Perspective The Degree Confluence project Operation Migration | Amateur |@lemmatized amateur:13 generally:1 consider:1 person:2 attach:1 particular:3 pursuit:1 study:2 science:1 without:1 formal:1 training:3 pay:1 although:1 sometimes:1 highly:1 differs:1 expert:1 extensive:1 knowledge:1 ability:2 area:1 professional:3 someone:1 also:3 make:2 living:1 translate:1 french:1 origin:1 english:1 lover:1 term:1 reflect:1 voluntary:1 motivation:1 work:2 result:1 personal:1 passion:1 activity:3 construct:1 amateurism:1 see:3 negative:1 positive:1 light:1 since:1 often:2 may:1 sub:1 par:1 example:1 athlete:4 sport:2 basketball:1 football:1 regard:1 level:1 alternatively:1 lack:2 financial:1 recompense:1 sign:1 commitment:1 instance:1 olympic:2 event:3 require:1 amateurs:1 receive:1 payment:1 participate:1 disqualify:1 case:1 jim:1 thorpe:1 game:1 rule:1 remain:1 place:1 box:1 valuable:1 contribution:1 field:2 computer:1 program:1 open:1 source:1 movement:1 dramatics:1 performance:2 either:1 play:1 musical:1 theater:1 high:1 standard:1 budget:1 west:1 end:1 broadway:1 astronomy:2 history:1 linguistics:1 ornithology:1 among:1 myriad:1 benefit:1 volunteer:1 hobby:1 radio:1 mark:1 korpics:1 corinthian:1 disambiguation:1 home:1 movie:1 note:1 bourdieu:1 p:1 photography:1 middle:1 brow:1 art:1 stanford:1 university:2 press:2 fine:1 g:1 morel:1 tale:1 culture:1 mushroom:1 cambridge:1 harvard:1 stebbins:1 robert:1 serious:2 leisure:2 perspective:2 time:1 new:1 brunswick:1 nj:1 transaction:1 external:1 link:1 degree:1 confluence:1 project:1 operation:1 migration:1 |@bigram jim_thorpe:1 brunswick_nj:1 nj_transaction:1 external_link:1 |
914 | Nassau,_Bahamas | Nassau is the capital, largest city, and commercial centre of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The city has a population of 260,000 (2008 census), nearly 80 percent of the entire population of The Bahamas (330,000). Lynden Pindling International Airport, the major airport for The Bahamas, is located about 10 miles (16 kilometres) west of Nassau city centre, and has daily flights to major cities in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada and the Caribbean. The city is located on the island of New Providence, which functions much like a federal district. While there is no local government, it is governed directly as an administrative division of the national government. Nassau is considered a historical stronghold of pirates. Geography Located on New Providence Island, Nassau has an attractive harbor, a colorful blend of old world and colonial architecture and a busy port. The tropical climate and natural beauty of The Bahamas has made Nassau a popular tourist destination, with a reputation for relaxing days and an exciting nightlife. Summertime temperatures rarely exceed 92 degrees Fahrenheit (33 degrees Celsius) and the winter months have daytime temperatures between 68 and 80 °F (20 and 26 °C), rarely falling below 50 °F (10 °C). The city's proximity to the United States (180 miles (290 km) east-southeast of Miami, Florida) has also contributed to its popularity as a holiday resort, especially after the banning of American travel to Cuba. The world famous Atlantis resort on nearby Paradise Island accounts for more tourist arrivals to the city than any other hotel property. The mega resort also employs over 6,000 Bahamians, the largest outside of government. Bahamian Parliament in Nassau History Nassau was formerly known as Charles Town; it was burnt to the ground by the Spanish in 1684, but later rebuilt and renamed Nassau in 1695 in honour of King William III of England (from the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau). By 1713, the sparsely settled Bahamas had become a pirate rendezvous. English pirate chieftains Thomas Barrow and Benjamin Hornigold proclaimed Nassau a pirate republic, establishing themselves as governors, and were joined by Charles Vane, Calico Jack Rackham, and Edward Teach, the infamous "Blackbeard", along with women pirates such as Anne Bonny and Mary Read. In 1718, the crown sought to regain control and appointed Captain Woodes Rogers General and Governor in chief in and over the Bahama islands. He ousted Blackbeard from his position as Magistrate of the "Privateers Republic", reformed the civil government and successfully expelled the pirates. Rogers cleaned up Nassau and rebuilt the fort, even going as far to use his own money to try to overcome problems. Ardastra Gardens, Zoo and Conservation Centre was opened in 1982 and was the first zoo in The Bahamas. It had previously been open as gardens in Nassau since 1937. Occupations The Bahamas suffered occupation by the Spanish, French and Americans, although each for only short periods of time. In 1703 the Spanish and French allied forces occupied Nassau, In 1776 the Battle of Nassau resulted in occupation by the Americans, In 1778 an overnight invasion saw the Americans leaving with ships, gunpowder and military stores after remaining in Nassau for only two days. In 1782 Spain captured Nassau, for the last time when Don Juan de Cagigal, Governor General of Cuba and the Havana attacked New Providence with 5000 men. Andrew Deveaux set forth to recapture Nassau with only 220 men and 150 muskets to face a force of 600 trained soldiers. Deveaux forced the Spanish to surrender on April 17, 1783, without a single shot fired. When Deveaux took down the Spanish flag, it marked the last time that a foreign banner was to fly over the Bahamian capital Nassau as a symbol of dominion. The city of Nassau also played a significant role in the American Civil War and in the U.S Prohibition Era. Junkanoo Fort Fincastle Junkanoo The city also boasts of Junkanoo, an energetic, colourful street parade of brightly costumed people dancing to the rhythmic accompaniment of cowbells, drums and whistles. The celebration occurs on December 26 and January 1, beginning in the early hours of the morning (1:00 a.m.) and ending around 10 a.m.. In addition, the city celebrates Junkanoo June, a month-long festival akin to Mardi Gras. Festivities begin at sundown. In popular culture Nassau has featured as an important location in numerous James Bond novels and films. The most notable of the Bond films in Nassau is Thunderball, released in 1965. Most of the movie was based in Nassau, and the Junkanoo festival also figures prominently in the film, which starred Sean Connery. Nassau was again the location for the 1983 Bond film Never Say Never Again, (a remake of Thunderball) also starring Sean Connery, and it is was the setting for part of the action in the 2006 Bond film Casino Royale starring Daniel Craig. Nassau was also featured in the famous Beatles movie Help! Nassau is also heavily featured in the novel Tobin in Paradise by Stanley Morgan. The story is centered around the visit by the main character, Russ Tobin, to Nassau and Paradise Island, and the comedic events that ensue. Nassau has also been the setting for several other recent movies including After the Sunset, Into the Blue and Flipper.'' References External links Official Website for Bahamas Government be-x-old:Насаў | Nassau,_Bahamas |@lemmatized nassau:27 capital:2 large:2 city:10 commercial:1 centre:3 commonwealth:1 bahamas:8 population:2 census:1 nearly:1 percent:1 entire:1 lynden:1 pindling:1 international:1 airport:2 major:2 locate:3 mile:2 kilometre:1 west:1 daily:1 flight:1 united:3 kingdom:1 state:2 canada:1 caribbean:1 island:4 new:3 providence:3 functions:1 much:1 like:1 federal:1 district:1 local:1 government:5 govern:1 directly:1 administrative:1 division:1 national:1 consider:1 historical:1 stronghold:1 pirate:6 geography:1 attractive:1 harbor:1 colorful:1 blend:1 old:2 world:2 colonial:1 architecture:1 busy:1 port:1 tropical:1 climate:1 natural:1 beauty:1 make:1 popular:2 tourist:2 destination:1 reputation:1 relax:1 day:2 exciting:1 nightlife:1 summertime:1 temperature:2 rarely:2 exceed:1 degree:2 fahrenheit:1 celsius:1 winter:1 month:2 daytime:1 f:2 c:2 fall:1 proximity:1 km:1 east:1 southeast:1 miami:1 florida:1 also:9 contribute:1 popularity:1 holiday:1 resort:3 especially:1 banning:1 american:5 travel:1 cuba:2 famous:2 atlantis:1 nearby:1 paradise:3 account:1 arrival:1 hotel:1 property:1 mega:1 employ:1 bahamian:3 outside:1 parliament:1 history:1 formerly:1 know:1 charles:2 town:1 burn:1 ground:1 spanish:5 later:1 rebuilt:1 rename:1 honour:1 king:1 william:1 iii:1 england:1 dutch:1 house:1 orange:1 sparsely:1 settle:1 become:1 rendezvous:1 english:1 chieftain:1 thomas:1 barrow:1 benjamin:1 hornigold:1 proclaim:1 republic:2 establish:1 governor:3 join:1 vane:1 calico:1 jack:1 rackham:1 edward:1 teach:1 infamous:1 blackbeard:2 along:1 woman:1 anne:1 bonny:1 mary:1 read:1 crown:1 seek:1 regain:1 control:1 appoint:1 captain:1 woodes:1 rogers:2 general:2 chief:1 bahama:1 islands:1 oust:1 position:1 magistrate:1 privateer:1 reform:1 civil:2 successfully:1 expel:1 clean:1 rebuild:1 fort:2 even:1 go:1 far:1 use:1 money:1 try:1 overcome:1 problem:1 ardastra:1 garden:2 zoo:2 conservation:1 open:2 first:1 previously:1 since:1 occupation:3 suffer:1 french:2 although:1 short:1 period:1 time:3 allied:1 force:3 occupy:1 battle:1 result:1 overnight:1 invasion:1 saw:1 leave:1 ship:1 gunpowder:1 military:1 store:1 remain:1 two:1 spain:1 capture:1 last:2 juan:1 de:1 cagigal:1 havana:1 attack:1 men:2 andrew:1 deveaux:3 set:2 forth:1 recapture:1 musket:1 face:1 trained:1 soldier:1 surrender:1 april:1 without:1 single:1 shot:1 fire:1 take:1 flag:1 mark:1 foreign:1 banner:1 fly:1 symbol:1 dominion:1 play:1 significant:1 role:1 war:1 u:1 prohibition:1 era:1 junkanoo:5 fincastle:1 boast:1 energetic:1 colourful:1 street:1 parade:1 brightly:1 costume:1 people:1 dance:1 rhythmic:1 accompaniment:1 cowbell:1 drum:1 whistle:1 celebration:1 occur:1 december:1 january:1 begin:2 early:1 hour:1 morning:1 end:1 around:2 addition:1 celebrate:1 june:1 long:1 festival:2 akin:1 mardi:1 gras:1 festivity:1 sundown:1 culture:1 feature:3 important:1 location:2 numerous:1 james:1 bond:4 novel:2 film:5 notable:1 thunderball:2 release:1 movie:3 base:1 figure:1 prominently:1 star:3 sean:2 connery:2 never:2 say:1 remake:1 setting:1 part:1 action:1 casino:1 royale:1 daniel:1 craig:1 beatles:1 help:1 heavily:1 tobin:2 stanley:1 morgan:1 story:1 center:1 visit:1 main:1 character:1 russ:1 comedic:1 event:1 ensue:1 several:1 recent:1 include:1 sunset:1 blue:1 flipper:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 x:1 насаў:1 |@bigram tourist_destination:1 degree_fahrenheit:1 degree_celsius:1 daytime_temperature:1 mile_km:1 miami_florida:1 orange_nassau:1 sparsely_settle:1 mardi_gras:1 sean_connery:2 casino_royale:1 external_link:1 |
915 | Paths_of_Glory | Paths of Glory (1957) is a war film by Stanley Kubrick based on the novel of the same name by Humphrey Cobb. Paths of Glory, Film Reviews, Variety, Accessed November 2007. Background The book had no title when it was finished, so the publisher held a contest. The winning entry came from the ninth stanza of the famous Thomas Gray poem "Elegy Written in a Country Church-yard." Elegy Written in a Country Church-yard, Thomas Gray, Accessed 2007. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of pow’r, And all that beauty, all that wealth e’er gave, Awaits alike th’inevitable hour. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Production When the novel was published in 1935 it was a minor success. It was adapted by dramatist Sidney Howard into a play that same year, but the stage version was a failure. A film adaptation was not made until 1957 when Stanley Kubrick decided to adapt it to the screen after he had remembered reading the book in his childhood. Kubrick and his partners purchased the film rights from Cobb's widow for $10,000. It is supposedly inspired by the Souain corporals affair. The novel was about the French execution of innocent men to frighten others in their resolve to fight. The French Army did certainly carry out military executions for cowardice as did all the other major participants. However the central plank of the film is the practice of selecting individuals at random and executing them as a punishment for the sins of the whole group. This is similar to Decimation, and while it was employed by the Romans, it was rarely used by the French Army in World War I. Little known is the French decimation (the shooting of every tenth person in a unit) of the 10e Compagnie of 8 Battalion of the Régiment Mixte de Tirailleurs Algériens. During the retreat at the beginning of the war these French-African soldiers refused an order to attack. They were shot on the 15th of December 1914 near Zillebeeke in Flanders. Production took place entirely in Bavaria, Germany, especially at the Schleissheim Palace near Munich. The only female character in the film, the waif who sings "The Faithful Hussar," was portrayed by German actress Christiane Harlan (credited in the film as Susanne Christian). She later married director Stanley Kubrick, and the couple remained married until his death in 1999. Plot Paths of Glory is based loosely on the true story of four French soldiers, under General Géraud Réveilhac, executed for mutiny during World War I; their families sued, and while the executions were ruled unfair, two of the families received one franc each, while the others received nothing. The film begins with a voiceover describing the trench warfare situation of World War I up to 1916; immediately following this is a scene in which General George Broulard (Adolphe Menjou) of the French General Staff asks his subordinate, General Mireau (George Macready), to send his division on a suicidal mission to take a well-defended German position called the "Anthill." Mireau initially advises against the attack, citing the low probability of success and the danger to his beloved soldiers, but when General Broulard mentions the possibility of a promotion, Mireau quickly convinces himself the attack will succeed. Mireau proceeds to walk through the trenches, addressing his men. He asks several soldiers (some of whom later become major characters) the question, "Ready to kill more Germans?" He throws one soldier out of the regiment for showing signs of shell shock, which Mireau denies exists, blaming the soldier's behavior on cowardice. Mireau leaves the detailed planning of the attack to the 701's Régiment Colonel Dax (Kirk Douglas) despite Dax's protests that the only result of the attack will be to weaken the French army with heavy losses for no benefit. Mireau does not relent. During a scouting mission prior to the attack, a drunken lieutenant named Lt. Roget (played by Wayne Morris, a decorated veteran of World War II and a fighter ace) sees movement in the direction of the enemy and throws a grenade. Roget had sent one of his two men to scout out ahead, and the other soldier - Corporal Paris (Ralph Meeker) - realizes that the movement was the scout returning. He accuses Roget of killing his own comrade and then running in cowardice, but Roget denies it. The attack on the German position proceeds, beginning with a first wave of soldiers, and with Colonel Dax leading, but ends in complete failure. None of the men who attack reach the German trenches, and begin retreating, and the remaining one-third of the soldiers refuse to even leave the trench (or are unable to, due to heavy enemy fire). General Mireau, enraged, is convinced that his troops who remained in the trench are cowardly, and orders his own artillery to open fire on them to compel them onto the battlefield. The artillery commander refuses to fire on his own men without written confirmation of the orders. Colonel Dax returns to the trenches, where he tries to compel the remaining men onto the battlefield, but when he climbs up a trench ladder, the body of a French soldier rolling over the edge of the trench knocks him back in, finally convincing him to stop his attempts. As a result of the failure of the attack, General Mireau tries to transfer blame from himself to the soldiers, so he decides to publicly execute 100 of them as an example. General Broulard convinces Mireau to reduce the number to three, one from each company. Corporal Paris is chosen because his commanding officer, Lt. Roget (the one who had thrown a grenade earlier), has a personal vendetta against him. Private Ferol (Timothy Carey) is picked by his commanding officer because he is a "social undesirable." The last man, Private Arnaud (Joe Turkel), is chosen randomly by lot, despite being one of the best and most courageous soldiers. Colonel Dax defends the men at their court-martial for cowardice. Dax challenges the court's authenticity, arguing that he was prevented from introducing evidence that would have been vital for the defence, that the prosecution presented no witnesses, that no written indictment was ever made against the accused, and that no stenographic record of the trial was kept. In his final summation to the court he requests mercy, saying, "Gentlemen of the court, to find these men guilty would be a crime to haunt each of you till the day you die." The three men are convicted and sentenced to death, nonetheless. Later, Dax, aware of the reason Lt. Roget picked Corporal Paris to be executed, calls Roget to his quarters and assigns him as the officer in charge of the executions. When a horrified Roget protests by telling Dax he has never overseen an execution before, Dax explains in a mocking tone that it is a simple matter - the two primary responsibilities are to offer the men a blindfold and to put a bullet in each man's head after the firing squad has finished. Despite additional protests by Roget, Dax dismisses him curtly from his quarters. After Roget leaves, the artillery commander who refused General Mireau's order to fire on his own men enters and tells Dax he has some important information related to the planned executions. Dax seeks out Broulard and reveals Mireau's treachery (regarding the command to fire artillery against their own men) to Broulard, complete with sworn statements by witnesses, but Broulard takes no immediate action. The condemned men are imprisoned and given a last meal. When visited by a priest (Emile Meyer), Ferol is willing to have his confession heard, and Paris agrees after initially admitting to not being religious, but Arnaud is drunkenly angry and tries to attack the priest. Paris punches Arnaud to prevent the attack, causing Arnaud to fall backward against the wall, which fractures his skull. With great pomp and ceremony, the three condemned men are led out into a courtyard, where the soldiers from all three companies are present and at attention, along with senior officers and members of the press. Arnaud is carried out on a stretcher and tied to the execution post. Ferol is blindfolded and remains accompanied by the priest to the end. Paris is then offered a blindfold by Lt. Roget but refuses. Roget meekly apologizes to Paris for what he has done and Paris seems to accept Roget's apology. All three men are then shot and killed by the firing squad. Following the execution, General Broulard invites Dax to a breakfast with General Mireau. Unexpectedly, General Broulard makes it clear that Mireau will be investigated for the order to fire artillery on his own men. Mireau leaves angrily, declaring that he has been made a scapegoat, but claiming to the end to be a true soldier. General Broulard then offers Dax Mireau's position, insinuating that Dax had been angling for promotion all along. Dax responds angrily, insinuating what the general can do with the promotion. The cynical General Broulard disdains Dax for being an idealist, saying he pities him as he would the village idiot; Broulard adds that he's done no wrong. Colonel Dax replies that he pities the general for his inability to see the wrongs he has done. After the execution, some of Dax's soldiers are in a tavern, carousing, when the proprietor brings a young, captured German woman on stage and makes her sing the German folk song "The Faithful Hussar." The hardened troops begin to howl and whistle wolfishly at her, but, touched by her song, they end up humming along, some openly weeping. Dax overhears this scene from outside. A sergeant appears with word that the regiment has been ordered to return to the front, but Dax tells him to give the men a few minutes more. Cast Kirk Douglas as Col. Dax Ralph Meeker as Cpl. Philippe Paris Adolphe Menjou as Gen. George Broulard George Macready as Gen. Paul Mireau Wayne Morris as Lt. Roget Richard Anderson as Maj. Saint-Auban Joe Turkel as Pvt. Pierre Arnaud Christiane Kubrick as German singer Jerry Hausner as Proprietor of cafe Peter Capell as Narrator of opening sequence and Judge of court-martial Emile Meyer as Father Dupree Bert Freed as Sgt. Boulanger Kem Dibbs as Pvt. Lejeune Timothy Carey as Pvt. Maurice Ferol Fred Bell as Shell-shock victim John Stein as Capt. Rousseau (Battery Commander) Harold Benedict as Capt. Nichols (artillery spotter) Reception The film was released in January 1958 and premiered in Munich, Germany and Los Angeles, United States. Paths of Glory, Turner Classic Movies (TCM), Accessed November 2007. The film was considered a modest box office success, though it did earn Kubrick much critical acclaim. Kubrick remembered as filmmaker who transcended the medium, CNN News, Accessed November 2007. The release of the film and its showing in parts of Europe were controversial. Active and retired military personnel, offended by the way the French military was portrayed in the film, vehemently criticized it after its showing in Brussels (although the film was otherwise well received). Contrary to a persistent urban legend, the film was not banned in France; however, the French government placed enormous pressure on United Artists, the European distributor for the film, through diplomatic channels, to refrain from releasing the film. As a result, the film was not submitted to French censors, and was not shown in France until 1975, when moral codes had changed and attitudes calmed. , Accessed July 23, 2008 (in French). In Germany, the film was not allowed to be shown for two years after its release to avoid any strain in relations with France. The film was also officially censored in Spain by the government of Francisco Franco for its anti-military content, and was not released in that country until 1986, 11 years after Franco's death. The film was nominated for a BAFTA Award under the category Best Film but lost to The Bridge on the River Kwai. The film also won a Jussi Awards' Diploma of merit. In 1959 the film was nominated for a Writers' Guild of America Award but ultimately lost. The Gods of Filmmaking, Paths of Glory Accessed November 2007. In Douglas' memoirs, he tells how Kubrick considered a traditional "Hollywood Happy Ending," with the three men getting a last minute reprieve. It was Douglas who insisted on the more realistic ending, which had been in the original script co-written by Kubrick. Kubrick has been quoted as saying he never interpreted the movie as "anti-war." He instead characterised Paths of Glory as "anti-authoritarian ignorance." These are themes he later revisited in Dr. Strangelove and Full Metal Jacket, both of which are 'war movies'. A similar anti-authoritarian approach was amply displayed in A Clockwork Orange. During the production and release of the movie, Douglas experienced significant negative publicity and financial loss for his role in the making of such a film. Nevertheless, he persisted in his efforts and the film was made and released. As the years have passed, both the significant artistic quality and topical content of the film have proven Douglas to be right on all counts. It is considered to be one of this iconic actor's greatest legacies. David Simon, creator of critically acclaimed series 'The Wire', has said that 'Paths Of Glory' was a key influence on the HBO crime drama. The Wire: David Simon Q & A, NJ Star-Ledger March 9, 2008 Popular culture The British series Blackadder Goes Forth (set in the British trenches during World War One) appears to have taken some inspiration from "Paths of Glory", particularly the episode "Corporal Punishment" in which Capt. Blackadder is subjected to a ludicrously unfair trial (the judge appears as a witness for the prosecution), a virtual Kangaroo court. The character of General Melchett differs wildly from the actor's previous roles in the Black Adder, being portrayed as a sociopath with a complete detachment from both the practical capacities of his officership as well as any rapport with the other officers, let alone with the men under him - a direct parallel to George Macready's role. At one point in the series, the famous scene of the French general touring the trenches is recreated with the story's counterparts. Paths of Glory is the name of a card-driven strategy game covering World War I in Europe and the Near East, developed by game designer Ted Raicer and published by GMT Games. "Paths of Glory" is also the name of the tenth track in Faith No More's Album of the Year. lyrics Paths of Glory, Album of the Year by Faith No More, Accessed November 2007 Mike Patton (songwriter/singer of Faith No More) is a huge fan of Stanley Kubrick, and a few of the band's songs/videos have Kubrick-inspired themes in them. Faith No More, Kubrick influences, FAQ; Scroll to question 26, Accessed November 2007. David Simon, describes Paths of Glory as the film template for his HBO series The Wire. The Wire: David Simon Q & A, NJ Star-Ledger March 9, 2008 The Tales from the Crypt episode "Yellow" in 1991 echoes the movies themes. The episode stars Kirk Douglas, Eric Douglas, Dan Aykroyd, and Lance Henriksen. Here Kirk Douglas plays a Great War general whose ne'er-do-well son (played by Eric Douglas) is tried for cowardice in the face of the enemy on a scouting mission in the trenches. Aykroyd effectively plays the Colonel Dax role, and Henriksen is the mortally wounded soldier who bears witness against the son. The episode pivots on the ego of both the father and the son. Preservation and restoration In 1992, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. In October and November 2004 the movie was shown at the London Film Festival by the British Film Institute. Timeout London, Paths of Glory, Accessed November 2007 It was carefully remastered over a period of several years; the original film elements were found to be damaged. However, with the aid of several modern digital studios in Los Angeles the film was completely restored and remastered for modern cinema. In addition, Stanley Kubrick's widow Christiane (who also appears in the closing scene as the German Singer) made a guest appearance at the start of the performance. "Paths of Glory", BFI London Film Festival, viewers information leaflet, October 2004. See also All Quiet on the Western Front, a novel and film with antiwar themes Trial movies The Execution of Private Eddie Slovik Breaker Morant References External links Paths of Glory at gonemovies.com (includes images) | Paths_of_Glory |@lemmatized path:16 glory:16 war:11 film:35 stanley:5 kubrick:14 base:2 novel:4 name:4 humphrey:1 cobb:2 review:1 variety:1 access:7 november:8 background:1 book:2 title:1 finish:2 publisher:1 hold:1 contest:1 win:2 entry:1 come:1 ninth:1 stanza:1 famous:2 thomas:2 gray:2 poem:1 elegy:2 write:5 country:3 church:2 yard:2 accessed:2 boast:1 heraldry:1 pomp:2 pow:1 r:1 beauty:1 wealth:1 e:1 er:2 give:3 awaits:1 alike:1 th:1 inevitable:1 hour:1 lead:2 grave:1 production:3 publish:2 minor:1 success:3 adapt:2 dramatist:1 sidney:1 howard:1 play:5 year:7 stage:2 version:1 failure:3 adaptation:1 make:7 decide:2 screen:1 remember:2 read:1 childhood:1 partner:1 purchase:1 right:2 widow:2 supposedly:1 inspire:2 souain:1 corporal:5 affair:1 french:14 execution:10 innocent:1 men:19 frighten:1 others:2 resolve:1 fight:1 army:3 certainly:1 carry:2 military:4 cowardice:5 major:2 participant:1 however:3 central:1 plank:1 practice:1 select:2 individual:1 random:1 execute:4 punishment:2 sin:1 whole:1 group:1 similar:2 decimation:2 employ:1 roman:1 rarely:1 use:1 world:6 little:1 know:1 shooting:1 every:1 tenth:2 person:1 unit:1 compagnie:1 battalion:1 régiment:2 mixte:1 de:1 tirailleurs:1 algériens:1 retreat:2 beginning:1 african:1 soldier:16 refuse:5 order:6 attack:11 shoot:1 december:1 near:3 zillebeeke:1 flanders:1 take:4 place:2 entirely:1 bavaria:1 germany:3 especially:1 schleissheim:1 palace:1 munich:2 female:1 character:3 waif:1 sing:2 faithful:2 hussar:2 portray:3 german:9 actress:1 christiane:3 harlan:1 credit:1 susanne:1 christian:1 later:4 marry:1 director:1 couple:1 remain:4 married:1 death:3 plot:1 loosely:1 true:2 story:2 four:1 general:19 géraud:1 réveilhac:1 mutiny:1 family:2 sue:1 rule:1 unfair:2 two:4 receive:3 one:10 franc:1 nothing:1 begin:4 voiceover:1 describe:1 trench:11 warfare:1 situation:1 immediately:1 follow:2 scene:4 george:5 broulard:12 adolphe:2 menjou:2 staff:1 ask:2 subordinate:1 mireau:17 macready:3 send:2 division:1 suicidal:1 mission:3 well:4 defended:1 position:3 call:2 anthill:1 initially:2 advise:1 cite:1 low:1 probability:1 danger:1 beloved:1 mention:1 possibility:1 promotion:3 quickly:1 convince:3 succeed:1 proceeds:2 walk:1 address:1 several:3 become:1 question:2 ready:1 kill:3 throw:3 regiment:2 show:4 sign:1 shell:2 shock:2 denies:1 exists:1 blame:2 behavior:1 leave:3 detailed:1 planning:1 colonel:6 dax:23 kirk:4 douglas:10 despite:3 protest:3 result:3 weaken:1 heavy:2 loss:2 benefit:1 relent:1 scouting:1 prior:1 drunken:1 lieutenant:1 lt:5 roget:14 wayne:2 morris:2 decorated:1 veteran:1 ii:1 fighter:1 ace:1 see:3 movement:2 direction:1 enemy:3 grenade:2 scout:3 ahead:1 paris:9 ralph:2 meeker:2 realize:1 returning:1 accuse:2 comrade:1 run:1 deny:1 first:1 wave:1 leading:1 end:6 complete:3 none:1 reach:1 third:1 even:1 unable:1 due:1 fire:6 enrage:1 troop:2 cowardly:1 artillery:6 open:2 compel:2 onto:2 battlefield:2 commander:3 without:1 confirmation:1 return:2 try:4 climb:1 ladder:1 body:1 roll:1 edge:1 knock:1 back:1 finally:1 stop:1 attempt:1 transfer:1 publicly:1 example:1 convinces:1 reduce:1 number:1 three:6 company:2 choose:2 command:3 officer:5 earlier:1 personal:1 vendetta:1 private:3 ferol:4 timothy:2 carey:2 pick:1 social:1 undesirable:1 last:3 man:2 arnaud:6 joe:2 turkel:2 randomly:1 lot:1 best:2 courageous:1 defend:1 court:6 martial:2 challenge:1 authenticity:1 argue:1 prevent:2 introduce:1 evidence:1 would:3 vital:1 defence:1 prosecution:2 present:2 witness:4 indictment:1 ever:1 stenographic:1 record:1 trial:3 keep:1 final:1 summation:1 request:1 mercy:1 say:4 gentleman:1 find:2 guilty:1 crime:2 haunt:1 till:1 day:1 die:1 convict:1 sentence:1 nonetheless:1 aware:1 reason:1 picked:1 quarter:2 assign:1 charge:1 horrified:1 tell:4 never:2 oversee:1 explains:1 mock:1 tone:1 simple:1 matter:1 primary:1 responsibility:1 offer:3 blindfold:3 put:1 bullet:1 head:1 firing:2 squad:2 additional:1 dismiss:1 curtly:1 leaf:1 enters:1 important:1 information:2 relate:1 plan:1 seek:1 reveals:1 treachery:1 regard:1 sworn:1 statement:1 immediate:1 action:1 condemn:2 imprison:1 meal:1 visit:1 priest:3 emile:2 meyer:2 willing:1 confession:1 heard:1 agrees:1 admit:1 religious:1 drunkenly:1 angry:1 punch:1 cause:1 fall:1 backward:1 wall:1 fracture:1 skull:1 great:3 ceremony:1 courtyard:1 attention:1 along:3 senior:1 member:1 press:1 stretcher:1 tie:1 post:1 remains:1 accompany:1 meekly:1 apologizes:1 seem:1 accept:1 apology:1 shot:1 invite:1 breakfast:1 unexpectedly:1 clear:1 investigate:1 angrily:2 declare:1 scapegoat:1 claim:1 insinuate:2 angle:1 responds:1 cynical:1 disdain:1 idealist:1 pity:2 village:1 idiot:1 add:1 wrong:2 reply:1 inability:1 tavern:1 carousing:1 proprietor:2 bring:1 young:1 captured:1 woman:1 folk:1 song:3 hardened:1 howl:1 whistle:1 wolfishly:1 touch:1 hum:1 openly:1 weep:1 overhear:1 outside:1 sergeant:1 appear:4 word:1 front:2 minute:2 cast:1 col:1 cpl:1 philippe:1 gen:2 paul:1 richard:1 anderson:1 maj:1 saint:1 auban:1 pvt:3 pierre:1 singer:3 jerry:1 hausner:1 cafe:1 peter:1 capell:1 narrator:1 sequence:1 judge:2 father:2 dupree:1 bert:1 free:1 sgt:1 boulanger:1 kem:1 dibbs:1 lejeune:1 maurice:1 fred:1 bell:1 victim:1 john:1 stein:1 capt:3 rousseau:1 battery:1 harold:1 benedict:1 nichols:1 spotter:1 reception:1 release:7 january:1 premier:1 los:2 angeles:2 united:3 state:2 turner:1 classic:1 movie:7 tcm:1 consider:3 modest:1 box:1 office:1 though:1 earn:1 much:1 critical:1 acclaim:2 filmmaker:1 transcend:1 medium:1 cnn:1 news:1 showing:2 part:1 europe:2 controversial:1 active:1 retired:1 personnel:1 offend:1 way:1 vehemently:1 criticize:1 brussels:1 although:1 otherwise:1 contrary:1 persistent:1 urban:1 legend:1 ban:1 france:3 government:2 enormous:1 pressure:1 artist:1 european:1 distributor:1 diplomatic:1 channel:1 refrain:1 submit:1 censor:2 moral:1 code:1 change:1 attitude:1 calm:1 july:1 allow:1 avoid:1 strain:1 relation:1 also:5 officially:1 spain:1 francisco:1 franco:2 anti:4 content:2 nominate:2 bafta:1 award:3 category:1 lose:2 bridge:1 river:1 kwai:1 jussi:1 diploma:1 merit:1 writer:1 guild:1 america:1 ultimately:1 god:1 filmmaking:1 memoir:1 traditional:1 hollywood:1 happy:1 get:1 reprieve:1 insist:1 realistic:1 original:2 script:1 co:1 quote:1 interpret:1 instead:1 characterise:1 authoritarian:2 ignorance:1 theme:4 revisit:1 dr:1 strangelove:1 full:1 metal:1 jacket:1 approach:1 amply:1 display:1 clockwork:1 orange:1 experience:1 significant:3 negative:1 publicity:1 financial:1 role:4 making:1 nevertheless:1 persist:1 effort:1 pass:1 artistic:1 quality:1 topical:1 prove:1 count:1 iconic:1 actor:2 legacy:1 david:4 simon:4 creator:1 critically:1 series:4 wire:4 key:1 influence:2 hbo:2 drama:1 q:2 nj:2 star:3 ledger:2 march:2 popular:1 culture:1 british:3 blackadder:2 go:1 forth:1 set:1 inspiration:1 particularly:1 episode:4 subject:1 ludicrously:1 virtual:1 kangaroo:1 melchett:1 differs:1 wildly:1 previous:1 black:1 adder:1 sociopath:1 detachment:1 practical:1 capacity:1 officership:1 rapport:1 let:1 alone:1 direct:1 parallel:1 point:1 tour:1 recreate:1 counterpart:1 card:1 drive:1 strategy:1 game:3 cover:1 east:1 develop:1 designer:1 ted:1 raicer:1 gmt:1 track:1 faith:4 album:2 lyric:1 mike:1 patton:1 songwriter:1 huge:1 fan:1 band:1 video:1 faq:1 scroll:1 describes:1 template:1 tale:1 crypt:1 yellow:1 echo:1 eric:2 dan:1 aykroyd:2 lance:1 henriksen:2 whose:1 ne:1 son:3 face:1 effectively:1 mortally:1 wound:1 bear:1 pivot:1 ego:1 preservation:2 restoration:1 deem:1 culturally:1 historically:1 aesthetically:1 library:1 congress:1 national:1 registry:1 october:2 london:3 festival:2 institute:1 timeout:1 carefully:1 remastered:2 period:1 element:1 damage:1 aid:1 modern:2 digital:1 studio:1 completely:1 restore:1 cinema:1 addition:1 closing:1 guest:1 appearance:1 start:1 performance:1 bfi:1 viewer:1 leaflet:1 quiet:1 western:1 antiwar:1 eddie:1 slovik:1 breaker:1 morant:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 gonemovies:1 com:1 include:1 image:1 |@bigram stanley_kubrick:5 trench_warfare:1 colonel_dax:6 kirk_douglas:4 lt_roget:5 firing_squad:2 sworn_statement:1 fracture_skull:1 los_angeles:2 critical_acclaim:1 francisco_franco:1 nominate_bafta:1 bafta_award:1 dr_strangelove:1 clockwork_orange:1 critically_acclaim:1 corporal_punishment:1 black_adder:1 mike_patton:1 tale_crypt:1 dan_aykroyd:1 ne_er:1 mortally_wound:1 culturally_historically:1 historically_aesthetically:1 aesthetically_significant:1 external_link:1 |
916 | Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship | Lesser Poland Voivodeship (also known as Małopolska Province, or by its Polish name województwo małopolskie or simply Małopolskie) is a voivodeship, or province, in southern Poland. It has an area of , and a population of 3,267,731 (2006). It was created on 1 January 1999 out of the former Kraków, Tarnów, Nowy Sącz and parts of Bielsko-Biała, Katowice, Kielce and Krosno Voivodeships, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998. The province's name recalls the region's traditional name, Małopolska or Lesser Poland. The province is bounded on the north by the Świętokrzyskie Mountains (Góry Świętokrzyskie), on the west by Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska (a broad range of hills stretching from Kraków to Częstochowa), and on the south by the Tatra, Pieniny and Beskidy Mountains. Politically it is bordered by Silesian Voivodeship to the west, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship to the north, Subcarpathian Voivodeship to the east, and Slovakia to the south. Malopolska Province is part of the broader ancient Małopolska region which, together with Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) and Silesia (Śląsk), formed the early medieval Polish state. Almost all of Lesser Poland lies in the Vistula River catchment area. The city of Kraków was one of the European Cities of Culture in 2000. Kraków has railway and road connections with Katowice (expressway), Warsaw, Wrocław and Rzeszów. It lies at the crossroads of major international routes linking Dresden with Kiev, and Gdańsk with Budapest. Located here is the second largest international airport in Poland (after Warsaw's), the John Paul II International Airport. Economy The region's economy includes high technology, banking, chemical and metallurgical industries, coal, ore, food processing, and spirit and tobacco industries. The most industrialised city of the voivodeship is Kraków. The largest regional enterprise operates here, the Tadeusz Sendzimir Steelworks in Nowa Huta, employing 17,500 people. Another major industrial center is located in the west, in the neighbourhood of Chrzanów (chiefly the production of railway engines) and Oświęcim (chemical works). Kraków Park Technologiczny, a Special Economic Zone, has been established within the voivodeship. There are almost 210,000 registered economic entities operating in the voivodeship, mostly small and medium-sized, of which 234 belong to the state-owned sector. Foreign investment, growing in the region, reached approximately USD 18.3 billion by the end of 2006. Universities 130,000 students attend fifteen Kraków institutions of higher learning. The Jagiellonian University, the largest university in the city (44,200 students), was founded in 1364 as Cracow Academy. Nicolaus Copernicus and Karol Wojtyła (Pope John Paul II) graduated from it. The AGH University of Science and Technology (29,800 students) is considered to be the best technical university in Poland. The Academy of Economics, the Pedagogical University, the Kraków University of Technology and the Agricultural Academy are also very highly regarded. There are also the Fine Arts Academy, the State Theatre University and the Musical Academy. Nowy Sącz has become a major educational center in the region thanks to its Higher School of Business and Administration, with an American curriculum, founded in 1992. The school has 4,500 students. There are also two private higher schools in Tarnów. Climate Located in Southern Poland, Lesser Poland is the warmest place in Poland with an average temperature in the summer being between 23 °C (73.4 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F), although they often reach 32 °C (89.6 °F) to 38 °C (100.4 °F) in July and August the two warmest months of the year. The city of Tarnów, which is located in Lesser Poland, is the hottest place in Poland all year round, the average temperatures being 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer and 4 °C (39.2 °F) in the winter. In the winter the weather patterns alter each year; usually winters are mildly cold with temperatures ranging from -7 °C (19.4 °F)to 4 °C (39.2 °F), but the winter season changes often to a more humid and warmer winter, or more continental and cold. It all depends on the many various wind patters that affect Poland from different regions of the world. Błędów Desert the only desert in Poland is located in Lesser Poland, where temperatures can often reach up to 38 °C (100.4 °F) in the summer. Tourism Four national parks and numerous reserves have been established in the voivodeship to protect the environment of Lesser Poland. The region has areas for tourism and recreation, including Zakopane (Poland's most popular winter resort) and the Tatra, Pieniny and Beskidy Mountains. The natural landscape features many historic sites. The salt mine at Wieliczka, the pilgrimage town of Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, and Kraków's Old Town are ranked by UNESCO among the most precious sites of world heritage. At Wadowice, birthplace of John Paul II (50 kilometers southwest of Kraków) is a museum dedicated to the late Pope's childhood. The area of Oświęcim, with the former Nazi concentration camps Auschwitz-I and Auschwitz-II-Birkenau, is visited annually by half a million people. Another tourist destination is the town of Bochnia with its salt mine, Europe's oldest. List of cities and towns The voivodeship contains 59 cities and towns. These are listed below in descending order of population (according to official figures for 2006 ): 1. Kraków (756,757) 2. Tarnów (117,109) 3. Nowy Sącz (84,594) 4. Oświęcim (40,979) 5. Chrzanów (39,797) 6. Olkusz (37,552) 7. Nowy Targ (33,493) 8. Bochnia (29,373) 9. Gorlice (28,539) 10. Zakopane (27,486) 11. Skawina (23,691) 12. Andrychów (21,691) 13. Kęty (19,252) 14. Wadowice (19,149) 15. Wieliczka (19,133) 16. Trzebinia (18,769) 17. Myślenice (18,070) 18. Libiąż (17,604) 19. Brzesko (16,827) 20. Limanowa (14,632) 21. Rabka-Zdrój (13,031) 22. Brzeszcze (11,730) 23. Miechów (11,717) 24. Dąbrowa Tarnowska (11,259) 25. Krynica-Zdrój (11,243) 26. Bukowno (10,695) 27. Krzeszowice (9,942) 28. Sucha Beskidzka (9,726) 29. Wolbrom (9,075) 30. Chełmek (9,065) 31. Stary Sącz (8,987) 32. Niepołomice (8,537) 33. Mszana Dolna (7,529) 34. Szczawnica (7,334) 35. Tuchów (6,501) 36. Sułkowice (6,305) 37. Proszowice (6,205) 38. Dobczyce (6,028) 39. Grybów (6,025) 40. Maków Podhalański (5,738) 41. Piwniczna-Zdrój (5,717) 42. Jordanów (5,112) 43. Muszyna (4,980) 44. Biecz (4,585) 45. Kalwaria Zebrzydowska (4,503) 46. Słomniki (4,331) 47. Żabno (4,271) 48. Szczucin (4,069) 49. Zator (3,726) 50. Skała (3,693) 51. Alwernia (3,406) 52. Wojnicz (3,404) 53. Bobowa (3,018) 54. Ryglice (2,784) 55. Nowy Wiśnicz (2,716) 56. Ciężkowice (2,378) 57. Czchów (2,207) 58. Świątniki Górne (2,101) 59. Zakliczyn (1,556) Administrative division Lesser Poland Voivodeship is divided into 22 counties (powiats): 3 city counties and 19 land counties. These are further divided into 182 gminas. The counties are listed in the following table (ordering within categories is by decreasing population). English andPolish namesArea(km²)Population(2006)SeatOther townsTotalgminasCity counties Kraków327756,757 1 Tarnów72117,109 1 Nowy Sącz5784,594 1Land countiesKraków Countypowiat krakowski 1,230244,970Kraków *Skawina, Krzeszowice, Słomniki, Skała, Świątniki Górne17Nowy Sącz Countypowiat nowosądecki 1,550197,718Nowy Sącz *Krynica-Zdrój, Stary Sącz, Grybów, Piwniczna-Zdrój, Muszyna16Tarnów Countypowiat tarnowski 1,413193,549Tarnów *Tuchów, Żabno, Wojnicz, Ryglice, Ciężkowice, Zakliczyn16Nowy Targ Countypowiat nowotarski 1,475181,878Nowy TargRabka-Zdrój, Szczawnica14Wadowice Countypowiat wadowicki 646154,304WadowiceAndrychów, Kalwaria Zebrzydowska10Oświęcim Countypowiat oświęcimski 406153,390OświęcimKęty, Brzeszcze, Chełmek, Zator9Chrzanów Countypowiat chrzanowski 371128,103ChrzanówTrzebinia, Libiąż, Alwernia5Limanowa Countypowiat limanowski 952121,658LimanowaMszana Dolna12Myślenice Countypowiat myślenicki 673116,793MyśleniceSułkowice, Dobczyce9Olkusz Countypowiat olkuski 622114,286OlkuszBukowno, Wolbrom6Gorlice Countypowiat gorlicki 967106,540GorliceBiecz, Bobowa10Wieliczka Countypowiat wielicki 428105,266WieliczkaNiepołomice5Bochnia Countypowiat bocheński 649100,382BochniaNowy Wiśnicz9Brzesko Countypowiat brzeski 59090,214BrzeskoCzchów7Sucha Countypowiat suski 68682,045Sucha BeskidzkaMaków Podhalański, Jordanów9Tatra Countypowiat tatrzański 47265,393Zakopane 5Dąbrowa Countypowiat dąbrowski 53058,572Dąbrowa TarnowskaSzczucin7Miechów Countypowiat miechowski 67750,769Miechów 7Proszowice Countypowiat proszowicki 41543,441Proszowice 6* seat not part of the county Protected areas Protected areas in Lesser Poland Voivodeship include six National Parks and 11 Landscape Parks. These are listed below. Babia Góra National Park (a UNESCO-designated biosphere reserve) Gorce National Park Magura National Park (partly in Subcarpathian Voivodeship) Ojców National Park Pieniny National Park Tatra National Park (part of a UNESCO biosphere reserve shared with Slovakia) Bielany-Tyniec Landscape Park Ciężkowice-Rożnów Landscape Park Dłubnia Landscape Park Eagle Nests Landscape Park (partly in Silesian Voivodeship) Kraków Valleys Landscape Park Little Beskids Landscape Park (partly in Silesian Voivodeship) Pasmo Brzanki Landscape Park (partly in Subcarpathian Voivodeship) Poprad Landscape Park Rudno Landscape Park Tenczynek Landscape Park Wiśnicz-Lipnica Landscape Park Most popular surnames in the region Nowak : 23,671 Wójcik : 13,347 Zając : 10,206 See also Second Polish Republic’s Kraków Voivodeship (1919-1939) References Małopolskie Voivodship Official Site Photo- and Topographic Maps of the whole region Agency for Regional Development of Lesser Poland - MARR Tourism Information of Małopolskie Voivodship Małopolska Province invites General statistics Photos of Krakow, Tatry, Zakopane Info about the Lesser Poland - Malopolska Province be-x-old:Малапольскае ваяводзтва | Lesser_Poland_Voivodeship |@lemmatized less:10 poland:21 voivodeship:17 also:5 know:1 małopolska:4 province:7 polish:4 name:3 województwo:1 małopolskie:4 simply:1 southern:2 area:6 population:4 create:1 january:1 former:2 kraków:13 tarnów:4 nowy:6 sącz:7 part:4 bielsko:1 biała:1 katowice:2 kielce:1 krosno:1 voivodeships:1 pursuant:1 local:1 government:1 reform:1 adopt:1 recall:1 region:9 traditional:1 bound:1 north:2 świętokrzyskie:3 mountain:3 góry:1 west:3 jura:1 krakowsko:1 częstochowska:1 broad:2 range:2 hill:1 stretch:1 częstochowa:1 south:2 tatra:3 pieniny:3 beskidy:2 politically:1 border:1 silesian:3 subcarpathian:3 east:1 slovakia:2 malopolska:2 ancient:1 together:1 great:1 wielkopolska:1 silesia:1 śląsk:1 form:1 early:1 medieval:1 state:3 almost:2 lie:2 vistula:1 river:1 catchment:1 city:8 one:1 european:1 culture:1 railway:2 road:1 connection:1 expressway:1 warsaw:2 wrocław:1 rzeszów:1 crossroad:1 major:3 international:3 route:1 link:1 dresden:1 kiev:1 gdańsk:1 budapest:1 locate:5 second:2 large:3 airport:2 john:3 paul:3 ii:4 economy:2 include:3 high:4 technology:3 banking:1 chemical:2 metallurgical:1 industry:2 coal:1 ore:1 food:1 processing:1 spirit:1 tobacco:1 industrialised:1 regional:2 enterprise:1 operate:2 tadeusz:1 sendzimir:1 steelworks:1 nowa:1 huta:1 employ:1 people:2 another:2 industrial:1 center:2 neighbourhood:1 chrzanów:2 chiefly:1 production:1 engine:1 oświęcim:3 work:1 park:21 technologiczny:1 special:1 economic:2 zone:1 establish:2 within:2 registered:1 entity:1 mostly:1 small:1 medium:1 size:1 belong:1 sector:1 foreign:1 investment:1 grow:1 reach:3 approximately:1 usd:1 billion:1 end:1 university:8 student:4 attend:1 fifteen:1 institution:1 learning:1 jagiellonian:1 found:2 cracow:1 academy:5 nicolaus:1 copernicus:1 karol:1 wojtyła:1 pope:2 graduate:1 agh:1 science:1 consider:1 best:1 technical:1 economics:1 pedagogical:1 agricultural:1 highly:1 regard:1 fine:1 art:1 theatre:1 musical:1 become:1 educational:1 thanks:1 school:3 business:1 administration:1 american:1 curriculum:1 two:2 private:1 climate:1 warm:3 place:2 average:2 temperature:4 summer:3 c:9 f:9 although:1 often:3 july:1 august:1 month:1 year:3 hot:1 round:1 winter:6 weather:1 pattern:1 alter:1 usually:1 mildly:1 cold:2 season:1 change:1 humid:1 continental:1 depend:1 many:2 various:1 wind:1 patter:1 affect:1 different:1 world:2 błędów:1 desert:2 tourism:3 four:1 national:8 numerous:1 reserve:3 protect:3 environment:1 recreation:1 zakopane:3 popular:2 resort:1 natural:1 landscape:13 feature:1 historic:1 site:3 salt:2 mine:2 wieliczka:2 pilgrimage:1 town:4 kalwaria:3 zebrzydowska:2 old:3 rank:1 unesco:3 among:1 precious:1 heritage:1 wadowice:2 birthplace:1 kilometer:1 southwest:1 museum:1 dedicate:1 late:1 childhood:1 nazi:1 concentration:1 camp:1 auschwitz:2 birkenau:1 visit:1 annually:1 half:1 million:1 tourist:1 destination:1 bochnia:2 europe:1 list:4 towns:1 contain:1 descend:1 order:2 accord:1 official:2 figure:1 olkusz:1 targ:2 gorlice:1 skawina:2 andrychów:1 kęty:1 trzebinia:1 myślenice:1 libiąż:2 brzesko:1 limanowa:1 rabka:1 zdrój:6 brzeszcze:2 miechów:1 dąbrowa:1 tarnowska:1 krynica:2 bukowno:1 krzeszowice:2 sucha:1 beskidzka:1 wolbrom:1 chełmek:2 stary:2 niepołomice:1 mszana:1 dolna:1 szczawnica:1 tuchów:2 sułkowice:1 proszowice:1 dobczyce:1 grybów:2 maków:1 podhalański:2 piwniczna:2 jordanów:1 muszyna:1 biecz:1 słomniki:2 żabno:2 szczucin:1 zator:1 skała:2 alwernia:1 wojnicz:2 bobowa:1 ryglice:2 wiśnicz:2 ciężkowice:3 czchów:1 świątniki:2 górne:1 zakliczyn:1 administrative:1 division:1 lesser:1 divide:2 county:6 powiats:1 land:1 far:1 gminas:1 following:1 table:1 category:1 decrease:1 english:1 andpolish:1 namesarea:1 seatother:1 townstotalgminascity:1 countieskraków:1 countypowiat:19 krakowski:1 nowosądecki:1 tarnowski:1 nowotarski:1 targrabka:1 wadowicki:1 oświęcimski:1 chrzanowski:1 limanowski:1 myślenicki:1 olkuski:1 gorlicki:1 wielicki:1 bocheński:1 brzeski:1 suski:1 beskidzkamaków:1 tatrzański:1 dąbrowski:1 miechowski:1 proszowicki:1 seat:1 six:1 babia:1 góra:1 designate:1 biosphere:2 gorce:1 magura:1 partly:4 ojców:1 share:1 bielany:1 tyniec:1 rożnów:1 dłubnia:1 eagle:1 nest:1 valley:1 little:1 beskids:1 pasmo:1 brzanki:1 poprad:1 rudno:1 tenczynek:1 lipnica:1 surname:1 nowak:1 wójcik:1 zając:1 see:1 republic:1 reference:1 voivodship:2 photo:2 topographic:1 map:1 whole:1 agency:1 development:1 marr:1 information:1 invite:1 general:1 statistic:1 krakow:1 tatry:1 info:1 x:1 малапольскае:1 ваяводзтва:1 |@bigram nowy_sącz:3 silesian_voivodeship:3 vistula_river:1 usd_billion:1 jagiellonian_university:1 nicolaus_copernicus:1 karol_wojtyła:1 concentration_camp:1 auschwitz_auschwitz:1 tourist_destination:1 biosphere_reserve:2 topographic_map:1 |
917 | Bayezid_II | Bayezid II (nick-named Hüdavendigâr - from Khodāvandgār - "the God-like One") (3 December 1447/1448 May 26, 1512) (Ottoman Turkish: بايزيد ثانى Bāyezīd-i sānī, Turkish:II.Bayezid or II.Beyazıt) was the oldest son and successor of Mehmed II, ruling as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512. During his reign, Bayezid II consolidated the Ottoman Empire and thwarted a Safavid rebellion soon before abdicating his throne to his son, Selim I. Early life Bayezid II was born in Dimetoka Palace (now Didymoteicho) in Thrace as the son of Mehmed II (1451–81) and Valide Sultan Amina Gul-Bahar or Gulbahar Khatun, a Greek Orthodox woman of Noble birth from the village of Douvera, Trabzon, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Heath W. Lowry, State University of New York Press (SUNY Press), p.153 who died in 1492, Greek. Bayezid II married Ayşe Hatun, a convert of Greek ethnicity, who was the mother of Selim I. Fight for the throne Bayezid II's overriding concern was the quarrel with his brother Cem, who claimed the throne and sought military backing from the Knights of St. John in Rhodes. Eventually the Knights handed Cem over to Pope Innocent VIII (1484-1492). The Pope thought of using Cem as a tool to drive the Turks out of Europe, but as the Papal Crusade failed to come to fruition, Cem was left to languish and die in a Neapolitan prison. Reign Bayezid II ascended the Ottoman throne in 1481. Like his father, Bayezid II was a patron of western and eastern culture and unlike many other Sultans, worked hard to ensure a smooth running of domestic politics, which earned him the epithet of "the Just". Throughout his reign, Bayezid II engaged in numerous campaigns to conquer the Venetian-held despotate of Morea, accurately defining this region as the key to future Ottoman naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean. The last of these wars ended in 1501 with Bayezid II in control of the main citadels of Mistra and Monemvasia. Bayezid is also responsible for certain self-inflicted intellectual wounds in Islamic civilization, such as the outlawing of all printing in Arabic and Turkic, a ban lasting in the Islamic world until 1729 Palmer, Michael. The Last Crusade: Americanism and the Islamic Reformation, Washington, D.C. (Potomac Books, 2007), 84. . Rebellions in the east, such as that of the Kizil Bash, plagued much of Bayezid II's reign and were often backed by the Shah of Persia, Ismail, who was eager to promote Shi'ism to undermine the authority of the Ottoman state. Ottoman authority in Anatolia was indeed seriously threatened during this period, and at one point Bayezid II's grand vizier, Ali Pasha, was killed in battle against rebels. Jewish emigration Bayezid II also sent out the Ottoman navy under the command of Kemal Reis to Spain in 1492 in order to save the Arabs and Sephardic Jews who were expelled by the Spanish Inquisition. He sent out proclamations throughout the empire that the refugees were to be welcomed. He granted the refugees the permission to settle in the Ottoman Empire and become Ottoman citizens. He ridiculed the conduct of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in expelling a class of people so useful to their subjects. "You venture to call Ferdinand a wise ruler," he said to his courtiers — "he who has impoverished his own country and enriched mine!" Bajazet addressed a firman to all the governors of his European provinces, ordering them not only to refrain from repelling the Spanish refugees, but to give them a friendly and welcome reception. He threatened with death all those who treated the Jews harshly or refused them admission into the empire. Moses Capsali, who probably helped to arouse the sultan's friendship for the Jews, was most energetic in his assistance to the exiles. He made a tour of the communities, and was instrumental in imposing a tax upon the rich, to ransom the Jewish victims of the persecutions then prevalent. The Arabs and Jews of Spain contributed much to the rising power of the Ottoman Empire by introducing new ideas, methods and craftsmanship. The first Gutenberg press in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) was established by the Sephardic Jews in 1493 (as early as 1483 there had been a Jewish printing establishment in Istanbul). It is reported that under Bajazet's reign, Jews enjoyed a period of and cultural flourishing, with the presence of such scholars as Mordecai Comtino; Solomon ben Elijah Sharbiṭ ha-Zahab; Shabbethai ben Malkiel Cohen, and Menahem Tamar. Succession On September 14, 1509, Istanbul was devastated by an earthquake. Bayezid II's final years saw a succession battle between his sons Selim I and Ahmed. Ahmed, the older of the two claimants, had won a battle against the Karaman Turks and their Safavid allies in Asia Minor and now marched on Istanbul to exploit his triumph. Fearing for his safety, Selim staged a revolt in Thrace but was defeated by Bayezid and forced to flee back to Crimea. Bayezid II developed fears that Ahmed might in turn kill him to gain the throne and refused to allow his son to enter Istanbul. Selim returned from Crimea and, with support from the Janissaries, defeated and killed Ahmed. Bayezid II then abdicated the throne to Selim on April 25, 1512. He departed for retirement in his native Demotika, but he died on May 26, 1512 at Chekmece before reaching his destination, and only a month after his abdication. He was buried next to Bayezid Mosque in Istanbul. Notes References External links | Bayezid_II |@lemmatized bayezid:19 ii:20 nick:1 name:1 hüdavendigâr:1 khodāvandgār:1 god:1 like:2 one:2 december:1 may:2 ottoman:12 turkish:2 بايزيد:1 ثانى:1 bāyezīd:1 sānī:1 beyazıt:1 old:2 son:5 successor:1 mehmed:2 rule:1 sultan:4 empire:6 reign:5 consolidate:1 thwart:1 safavid:2 rebellion:2 soon:1 abdicate:2 throne:6 selim:6 early:3 life:1 bear:1 dimetoka:1 palace:1 didymoteicho:1 thrace:2 valide:1 amina:1 gul:1 bahar:1 gulbahar:1 khatun:1 greek:3 orthodox:1 woman:1 noble:1 birth:1 village:1 douvera:1 trabzon:1 nature:1 state:3 heath:1 w:1 lowry:1 university:1 new:2 york:1 press:3 suny:1 p:1 die:3 marry:1 ayşe:1 hatun:1 convert:1 ethnicity:1 mother:1 fight:1 override:1 concern:1 quarrel:1 brother:1 cem:4 claim:1 seek:1 military:1 backing:1 knight:2 st:1 john:1 rhodes:1 eventually:1 hand:1 pope:2 innocent:1 viii:1 thought:1 use:1 tool:1 drive:1 turk:2 europe:1 papal:1 crusade:2 fail:1 come:1 fruition:1 leave:1 languish:1 neapolitan:1 prison:1 ascend:1 father:1 patron:1 western:1 eastern:2 culture:1 unlike:1 many:1 work:1 hard:1 ensure:1 smooth:1 running:1 domestic:1 politics:1 earn:1 epithet:1 throughout:2 engage:1 numerous:1 campaign:1 conquer:1 venetian:1 held:1 despotate:1 morea:1 accurately:1 define:1 region:1 key:1 future:1 naval:1 power:2 mediterranean:1 last:2 war:1 end:1 control:1 main:1 citadel:1 mistra:1 monemvasia:1 also:2 responsible:1 certain:1 self:1 inflict:1 intellectual:1 wound:1 islamic:3 civilization:1 outlawing:1 printing:2 arabic:1 turkic:1 ban:1 lasting:1 world:1 palmer:1 michael:1 americanism:1 reformation:1 washington:1 c:1 potomac:1 book:1 east:1 kizil:1 bash:1 plague:1 much:2 often:1 back:2 shah:1 persia:1 ismail:1 eager:1 promote:1 shi:1 ism:1 undermine:1 authority:2 anatolia:1 indeed:1 seriously:1 threaten:2 period:2 point:1 grand:1 vizier:1 ali:1 pasha:1 kill:3 battle:3 rebel:1 jewish:3 emigration:1 send:2 navy:1 command:1 kemal:1 real:1 spain:2 order:2 save:1 arab:2 sephardic:2 jew:5 expel:2 spanish:2 inquisition:1 proclamation:1 refugee:3 welcome:2 grant:1 permission:1 settle:1 become:1 citizen:1 ridicule:1 conduct:1 ferdinand:2 aragon:1 isabella:1 castile:1 class:1 people:1 useful:1 subject:1 venture:1 call:1 wise:1 ruler:1 say:1 courtier:1 impoverish:1 country:1 enrich:1 mine:1 bajazet:2 address:1 firman:1 governor:1 european:1 province:1 refrain:1 repel:1 give:1 friendly:1 reception:1 death:1 treat:1 harshly:1 refuse:2 admission:1 moses:1 capsali:1 probably:1 help:1 arouse:1 friendship:1 energetic:1 assistance:1 exile:1 make:1 tour:1 community:1 instrumental:1 impose:1 tax:1 upon:1 rich:1 ransom:1 victim:1 persecution:1 prevalent:1 contribute:1 rise:1 introduce:1 idea:1 method:1 craftsmanship:1 first:1 gutenberg:1 istanbul:6 formerly:1 constantinople:1 establish:1 establishment:1 report:1 jews:1 enjoy:1 cultural:1 flourishing:1 presence:1 scholar:1 mordecai:1 comtino:1 solomon:1 ben:2 elijah:1 sharbiṭ:1 ha:1 zahab:1 shabbethai:1 malkiel:1 cohen:1 menahem:1 tamar:1 succession:2 september:1 devastate:1 earthquake:1 final:1 year:1 saw:1 ahmed:4 two:1 claimant:1 win:1 karaman:1 ally:1 asia:1 minor:1 march:1 exploit:1 triumph:1 fear:2 safety:1 stag:1 revolt:1 defeat:2 force:1 flee:1 crimea:2 develop:1 might:1 turn:1 gain:1 allow:1 enter:1 return:1 support:1 janissary:1 april:1 depart:1 retirement:1 native:1 demotika:1 chekmece:1 reach:1 destination:1 month:1 abdication:1 bury:1 next:1 mosque:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram mehmed_ii:2 ottoman_empire:4 abdicate_throne:2 valide_sultan:1 suny_press:1 pope_innocent:1 come_fruition:1 grand_vizier:1 ali_pasha:1 sephardic_jew:2 spanish_inquisition:1 isabella_castile:1 external_link:1 |
918 | Geneva_College | Geneva College is a small, private, liberal arts college located in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1848, it is affiliated with the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America (RPCNA). History Stone marking the original campus in Northwood Geneva College is located in the College Hill neighborhood of Beaver Falls, which sits above the more southerly parts of the city. Geneva College was founded in 1848 in Northwood, Ohio, by John Black Johnston, a minister of the RPCNA. Originally called "Geneva Hall", the college was named after the Swiss center of the Reformed faith movement. After briefly closing during the American Civil War, the college continued operating in Northwood until 1880. By that time, the college leadership had begun a search for alternate locations that were closer to urban areas. After considering several locations in the Midwest, the denomination chose the College Hill neighborhood of Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania. The college constructed its current campus on land donated by the Harmony Society. Old Main, the oldest building on campus, was completed in 1881. The most recent major campus construction project to be completed was the construction of the Rapp Technical Design Center in 2002. A major project to reroute Pennsylvania Route 18, which runs through the campus, was completed in November 2007. New Route 18 Open, Geneva College, 2007-11-19. Accessed 2007-11-27. Improvements to Reeves Stadium and the construction of a campus entrance are expected to be completed by Fall 2008. Beyond the Bend Timeline, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-11-27. Administration Two bodies oversee the administration of the college, the Board of Corporators and the Board of Trustees; while the Corporators are the official legal owners of the college, in practice most authority is delegated to the Trustees, who are elected by the Corporators. Both Boards drafted the philosophical basis on which the college rests, known as the Foundational Concepts of Higher Education. Geneva College — Foundational Concepts, Geneva College. Accessed 2009-03-02. The RPCNA still takes an active sponsorship and oversight role in the college: the college president, chaplain, and chairman of the Department of Biblical Studies must be members of the RPCNA, and all members of the Board of Corporators and the majority of the Board of Trustees must be RPCNA members. All professors and lecturers in the Department of Biblical Studies must subscribe to the Westminster Confession of Faith, and all full-time faculty and staff members must submit a written statement confessing faith in Jesus Christ and the Christian religion. Academics Geneva offers undergraduate degree programs in the arts and sciences, such as elementary education, business, engineering, student ministry, biology, and psychology. In 2006, the Educational Testing Service (ETS) rated the Business and Accounting undergraduates in the 95th percentile amongst American colleges. Geneva offers a Degree Completion Program (DCP) for degrees in Human Resource Management, Community Ministry or Organizational Development for adult students mainly at off-campus locations. Geneva also established the Center for Urban Theological Studies in Philadelphia and has sister colleges in Taiwan (Christ College) and Korea (Chong Shin College and Theological Seminary). Geneva also offers graduates studies in several fields. These include a Master of Business Administration, a Masters of Science in Organizational Leadership, Masters of Education in Reading or Special Education, and Masters of Arts in Counseling or Higher Education. Geneva established the Center for Technology Development in 1986 for providing research, prototyping and technical support to local industries and entrepreneurs. The Center was awarded first prize in the Consolidated Natural Gas Company’s Annual Award of Excellence competition in 1990. Affiliations and accreditations Geneva College is a member of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities. Accreditations include the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools, Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology, Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs, American Chemical Society and the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. Athletics Geneva's sports teams are called the Golden Tornadoes. The school offers a range of men's and women's varsity sports, including football, baseball, softball, basketball, volleyball, track & field, cross country, tennis, and soccer. Geneva College — Athletics, Geneva College. Accessed 2009-03-02. Geneva has played as a provisional member in NCAA Division III, as well as the Presidents' Athletic Conference, since the fall of 2007. However, Geneva will not qualify for post season play or conference Player of the Week honors until they gain full membership in 2011. The Golden Tornadoes will also be joining the East Coast Athletic Conference and will continue its membership in the National Christian College Athletic Association. Athletics, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-30. Football competition began in 1890 under head coach William McCracken. Over the years, the football team has amassed an all-time record of 496 wins, 437 losses, and 48 ties with five appearances in the Victory Bowl. The current football coach is Geno DeMarco. Culture and traditions Students must attend a designated number of weekly college-sponsored chapels to qualify for graduation. Alcohol is banned from the campus, and tobacco use is restricted to a purpose-built gazebo near Pearce Hall. Greek letter fraternities and sororities are not permitted. One of the earliest college basketball games in the United States occurred at Geneva College on April 8, 1893 when the Geneva College Covenanters defeated the New Brighton YMCA. Carson, David M.(1997). Pro Christo et Patria. (2nd Ed.) Virginia Beach: The Donning Company ISBN 978-1-57864-006-5 Geneva was founded by Scottish and Scots-Irish immigrants. Many names of campus buildings and areas bear Scottish names: The main meeting area of the Student Center is called Skye Lounge after the Isle of Skye. The restaurant-style eating area is called The Brig, short for Brigadoon, commemorating a play about a mythical Highland village. Geneva sports teams were nicknamed the Covenanters until the 1950s. Members of the RPCNA are sometimes referred to as Covenanters because the denomination traces its roots to the Covenanting tradition of Reformation era Scotland. The modern sports nickname of Golden Tornadoes commemorates the "Golden Tornado" of May 11, 1914 when a major tornado struck the college. Although the storm caused significant damage to the campus, there were no serious injuries. College students and faculty rejoiced at what they believed was a sign of God's mercy. Geneva's traditional sports rivalry is with Westminster College in nearby New Wilmington, Pennsylvania. The rivalry was partially interrupted for several years around the turn of the 21st century when Westminster left the NAIA for the NCAA Division III. The rivalry will continue into the future, however, as both schools will be members of the NCAA Division III Presidents' Athletic Conference by 2007. Controversies CareerLink On December 15, 2006, the college filed a federal lawsuit against the state of Pennsylvania, alleging that a decision by the state to block the college from participating in the state sponsored CareerLink job service amounted to a violation of the college's First Amendment rights. In response, the state argued that the college's requirement that faculty members subscribe to the Christian religion amounted to discrimination, to which the college responded that the faculty religious test constituted a bona fide occupational qualification under existing federal employment law. The lawsuit was co-sponsored by the Association of Faith-Based Organizations and argued by the Christian Legal Society. In April 2007, the college reached a settlement with CareerLink in U.S. District Court in Pittsburgh. Geneva's right to access to CareerLink will be restored and the college will retain the statement on its employment applications stating, "Compliance with Geneva's Christian views is considered a bona fide occupational qualification ... and will have a direct impact on employment consideration." , Beaver County Times Facilities Offices and classrooms Alexander Hall (street level entrance) Old Main (West Entrance) Johnston Gym Alexander Hall — Admissions, financial aid, alumni relations, institutional advancement, and public relations offices (first floor) and main dining hall (second floor). Alexander Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Alumni Hall — Primary music building, including music department offices. Alumni Music Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Fern Cliffe — Faculty offices for political science, humanities, history and English departments. Fern Cliffe, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Johnston Gym — Built in 1911, Johnston Gym is primarily used for music and band purposes. Originally, per its name, it was used as the college gymnasium. Johnston Gymnasium, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. McCartney Library — College library, built in 1930 and expanded in 1965, and named for Clarence E. Macartney. Its collection includes over 371,000 items including a special section of RPCNA historical documents. Geneva College - About the Library, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Northwood Hall — Classrooms and faculty offices for business and psychology departments, completed in 1998. Northwood Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Old Main — Classrooms, administration offices (including the president's office), and faculty offices. When Geneva moved to Beaver Falls, Old Main was the first classroom structure, completed in 1881. Old Main, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Rapp Technical Design Center — Technical classrooms and laboratories. Completed in 2002, it is the newest educational building on campus. Rapp Technical Design Center, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Science and Engineering (S&E) — Technical classrooms, laboratories, and faculty offices for engineering, chemistry, biology, physics and computer science departments. The Science & Engineering Building, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Sports and student life Bagpiper Theatre — Theater hosting productions sponsored by the Communications Department. The Bagpiper Theatre, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Merriman Athletic Complex — Track and field and soccer. The Merriman Athletic Field Complex, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Metheney Fieldhouse — Gyms, locker rooms, sports faculty offices, and other sports-related facilities. Metheny Field house, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Reeves Field — Football. Reeves Field, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. The field is also used by the Beaver Falls High School football team and was Joe Namath's home field during his high school days. Student Center — Lounges, Brigadoon restaurant, Riverview Cafe coffeeshop, student mail, fitness center and bookstore. The Student Center, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. WGEV — college radio station. WGEV Residence halls Clarke Hall — traditional women's dorm with three floors of two-person rooms. Clarke Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Geneva Arms — four floors of apartment-style dorms, with apartment capacities ranging from three to six persons. The Arms is divided into men's and women's buildings. Young Hall & Geneva Arms, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. McKee Hall — traditional women's dorm with three floors of two-person suite-style rooms. McKee Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Memorial Hall — traditional men's dorm with four floors of two-person rooms. Memorial Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Pearce Hall — traditional men's dorm with four floors of two-person rooms. Pearce Hall, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Schoolhouse — three floors of women's apartment-style dorms. College Catalog 2006-2007, Geneva College, 2006, p. 166. Accessed 2007-09-10. Young Hall — four floors of apartment-style dorms, with apartment capacities ranging from three to six persons. Young Hall is divided into men's and women's buildings. Young Hall & Geneva Arms, Geneva College. Accessed 2007-09-08. Geneva also operates several smaller houses, primarily for upperclassmen. These include: Geneva College. Geneva College 2007-2008 Student Handbook. Beaver Falls: Geneva College, 2007, pp. 191-193. Barbato House Kerr House Patterson House Richardson House The 2007-08 school year brings excitement to the campus community, Geneva College, 2007-08-24. Accessed 2007-09-10. Swanson House The college also places some restrictions on out-of-town students living off-campus. Geneva College. Geneva College 2007-2008 Student Handbook. Beaver Falls: Geneva College, 2007, pp. 168-169. Other places on campus The following structures are owned by the college, but currently not being used for any activities or events. Geneva R.P. Church Building - Formerly the meeting place of the Geneva Reformed Presbyterian Church congregation, the buff colored brick building was sold to Geneva College when that congregation merged with the nearby First Reformed Presbyterian Church in the early 21st century. Though the building is owned by Geneva, it is only being used for some music practice rooms. Future structures Music and Fine Art Center - Will house the college's band, and music program, along with a giant auditorium. May also be used for play and musical productions. Presidents John Black Johnston 1848-1850 William Finney George 1850-1852 James Renwick Willson Sloane 1852-1856 Calvin Knox Milligan 1856-1858 John Calvin Smith 1858-1860 Nathan Robinson Johnston 1865-1867 Samuel John Crowe 1867-1871 William Milroy 1871-1872 Henry Hosick George 1872-1890 William Pollock Johnston 1890-1907 William Henry George 1907-1916 Renwick Harper Martin 1916-1920 Archibald Anderson Johnston 1920-1923 McLeod Milligan Pearce 1923-1948 Charles Marston Lee 1948-1956 Edwin Cameron Clarke 1956-1980 Donald William Felker 1980-1983 William Joseph McFarland 1984-1992 John H. White 1992-2004 Kenneth A. Smith 2004- Geneva Campus Gallery References External links Geneva College website The Cabinet Geneva College newspaper WGEV Geneva College radio station | Geneva_College |@lemmatized geneva:69 college:84 small:2 private:1 liberal:1 art:4 locate:2 beaver:8 fall:9 pennsylvania:5 united:2 state:8 found:3 affiliate:1 reformed:1 presbyterian:3 church:4 north:1 america:1 rpcna:7 history:2 stone:1 mark:1 original:1 campus:15 northwood:5 hill:2 neighborhood:2 sit:1 southerly:1 part:1 city:1 ohio:1 john:5 black:2 johnston:9 minister:1 originally:2 call:4 hall:23 name:5 swiss:1 center:12 reform:3 faith:4 movement:1 briefly:1 closing:1 american:3 civil:1 war:1 continue:3 operating:1 time:4 leadership:2 begin:2 search:1 alternate:1 location:3 close:1 urban:2 area:4 consider:2 several:4 midwest:1 denomination:2 choose:1 construct:1 current:2 land:1 donate:1 harmony:1 society:3 old:6 main:7 building:9 complete:7 recent:1 major:3 construction:3 project:2 rapp:3 technical:6 design:3 reroute:1 route:2 run:1 november:1 new:4 open:1 accessed:27 improvement:1 reeve:1 stadium:1 entrance:3 expect:1 beyond:1 bend:1 timeline:1 administration:4 two:5 body:1 oversee:1 board:6 corporators:4 trustee:3 official:1 legal:2 owner:1 practice:2 authority:1 delegate:1 elect:1 draft:1 philosophical:1 basis:1 rest:1 know:1 foundational:2 concept:2 high:5 education:6 still:1 take:1 active:1 sponsorship:1 oversight:1 role:1 president:5 chaplain:1 chairman:1 department:7 biblical:2 study:4 must:5 member:9 majority:1 professor:1 lecturer:1 subscribe:2 westminster:3 confession:1 full:2 faculty:9 staff:1 submit:1 write:1 statement:2 confess:1 jesus:1 christ:2 christian:6 religion:2 academic:1 offer:4 undergraduate:2 degree:3 program:5 science:6 elementary:1 business:5 engineering:5 student:12 ministry:2 biology:2 psychology:2 educational:3 testing:1 service:2 ets:1 rat:1 accounting:1 percentile:1 amongst:1 completion:1 dcp:1 human:1 resource:1 management:1 community:2 organizational:2 development:2 adult:1 mainly:1 also:7 establish:2 theological:2 philadelphia:1 sister:1 taiwan:1 korea:1 chong:1 shin:1 seminary:1 graduate:1 field:9 include:8 master:4 reading:1 special:2 counsel:1 technology:2 provide:1 research:1 prototyping:1 support:1 local:1 industry:1 entrepreneur:1 award:2 first:5 prize:1 consolidated:1 natural:1 gas:1 company:2 annual:1 excellence:1 competition:2 affiliation:1 accreditation:4 council:2 university:1 commission:1 middle:1 association:4 school:7 collegiate:1 chemical:1 counseling:1 related:1 athletics:3 sport:8 team:4 golden:4 tornado:5 range:3 men:5 woman:6 varsity:1 football:6 baseball:1 softball:1 basketball:2 volleyball:1 track:2 cross:1 country:1 tennis:1 soccer:2 play:4 provisional:1 ncaa:3 division:3 iii:3 well:1 athletic:6 conference:4 since:1 however:2 qualify:2 post:1 season:1 player:1 week:1 honor:1 gain:1 membership:2 join:1 east:1 coast:1 national:1 head:1 coach:2 william:7 mccracken:1 year:3 amass:1 record:1 win:1 loss:1 tie:1 five:1 appearance:1 victory:1 bowl:1 geno:1 demarco:1 culture:1 tradition:2 attend:1 designated:1 number:1 weekly:1 sponsored:1 chapel:1 graduation:1 alcohol:1 ban:1 tobacco:1 use:7 restrict:1 purpose:2 build:4 gazebo:1 near:1 pearce:4 greek:1 letter:1 fraternity:1 sorority:1 permit:1 one:1 early:2 game:1 occur:1 april:2 covenanters:3 defeat:1 brighton:1 ymca:1 carson:1 david:1 pro:1 christo:1 et:1 patria:1 ed:1 virginia:1 beach:1 isbn:1 scottish:2 scots:1 irish:1 immigrant:1 many:1 bear:1 meeting:2 skye:2 lounge:2 isle:1 restaurant:2 style:5 eat:1 brig:1 short:1 brigadoon:2 commemorate:2 mythical:1 highland:1 village:1 nickname:2 sometimes:1 refer:1 trace:1 root:1 covenant:1 reformation:1 era:1 scotland:1 modern:1 may:2 strike:1 although:1 storm:1 cause:1 significant:1 damage:1 serious:1 injury:1 rejoice:1 believe:1 sign:1 god:1 mercy:1 traditional:5 rivalry:3 nearby:2 wilmington:1 partially:1 interrupt:1 around:1 turn:1 century:2 leave:1 naia:1 future:2 controversy:1 careerlink:4 december:1 file:1 federal:2 lawsuit:2 allege:1 decision:1 block:1 participate:1 sponsor:3 job:1 amount:2 violation:1 amendment:1 right:2 response:1 argue:2 requirement:1 discrimination:1 respond:1 religious:1 test:1 constitute:1 bona:2 fide:2 occupational:2 qualification:2 exist:1 employment:3 law:1 co:1 base:1 organization:1 reach:1 settlement:1 u:1 district:1 court:1 pittsburgh:1 access:1 restore:1 retain:1 application:1 compliance:1 view:1 direct:1 impact:1 consideration:1 county:1 facility:2 office:10 classroom:6 alexander:3 street:1 level:1 west:1 gym:4 admission:1 financial:1 aid:1 alumni:1 relation:2 institutional:1 advancement:1 public:1 floor:9 dining:1 second:1 alumnus:2 primary:1 music:7 fern:2 cliffe:2 political:1 humanity:1 english:1 primarily:2 band:2 per:1 gymnasium:2 mccartney:1 library:3 expand:1 clarence:1 e:2 macartney:1 collection:1 item:1 section:1 historical:1 document:1 move:1 structure:3 laboratory:2 chemistry:1 physic:1 computer:1 life:1 bagpiper:2 theatre:2 theater:1 host:1 production:2 communication:1 merriman:2 complex:2 metheney:1 fieldhouse:1 locker:1 room:6 relate:1 metheny:1 house:8 reef:2 joe:1 namath:1 home:1 day:1 riverview:1 cafe:1 coffeeshop:1 mail:1 fitness:1 bookstore:1 wgev:3 radio:2 station:2 residence:1 clarke:3 dorm:7 three:5 person:6 arm:4 four:4 apartment:5 capacity:2 six:2 divide:2 young:4 mckee:2 suite:1 memorial:2 schoolhouse:1 catalog:1 p:2 operate:1 upperclassmen:1 handbook:2 pp:2 barbato:1 kerr:1 patterson:1 richardson:1 bring:1 excitement:1 swanson:1 place:3 restriction:1 town:1 live:1 following:1 currently:1 activity:1 event:1 r:1 formerly:1 congregation:2 buff:1 color:1 brick:1 sell:1 merge:1 though:1 fine:1 along:1 giant:1 auditorium:1 musical:1 finney:1 george:3 james:1 renwick:2 willson:1 sloane:1 calvin:2 knox:1 milligan:2 smith:2 nathan:1 robinson:1 samuel:1 crowe:1 milroy:1 henry:2 hosick:1 pollock:1 harper:1 martin:1 archibald:1 anderson:1 mcleod:1 charles:1 marston:1 lee:1 edwin:1 cameron:1 donald:1 felker:1 joseph:1 mcfarland:1 h:1 white:1 kenneth:1 gallery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 cabinet:1 newspaper:1 |@bigram board_trustee:2 westminster_confession:1 jesus_christ:1 theological_seminary:1 varsity_sport:1 baseball_softball:1 basketball_volleyball:1 ncaa_division:3 fraternity_sorority:1 isle_skye:1 bona_fide:2 locker_room:1 joe_namath:1 external_link:1 |
919 | Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom | The United Kingdom has had a large impact on modern cinema and has one the most respected film industries in the world. Despite a history of successful productions, the industry is characterised by an ongoing debate about its identity (including economic and cultural issues) and the influences of American and European cinema, although it is fair to say a brief 'golden age' was enjoyed in the 1940s from the studios of J. Arthur Rank and Alexander Korda. The British film industry has produced some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time including Alfred Hitchcock, David Lean, Laurence Olivier and Anthony Hopkins. 82 British films or co-productions are represented in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. Overview UK film production from 1912 to 2003. Film production in the UK has experienced a number of booms and recessions. Although many factors can be used to measure the success of the industry, the number of British films produced each year gives an overview of its development: the industry experienced a boom as it first developed in the 1910s, but during the 1920s experienced a recession caused by US competition and commercial practices. The Cinematograph Films Act 1927 introduced protective measures, leading to recovery and an all-time production high of 192 films in 1936. Production then declined for a number of years. Film production recovered after the war, with a long period of relative stability and growing American investment. But another recession hit the industry in the mid-1970s, reaching an all-time low of 24 films in 1981. Low production continued throughout the 1980s, but it increased again in the 1990s with renewed private and public investment. Although production levels give an overview, the history of British cinema is complex, with various cultural movements developing independently. Some of the most successful films were made during 'recessions', such as Chariots of Fire (1981). History Early British cinema Modern cinema is generally regarded as descending from the work of the French Lumière brothers in 1895, and their show first came to London in 1896. However, the first moving pictures developed on celluloid film were made in Hyde Park, London in 1889 by William Friese Greene, a British inventor, who patented the process in 1890. The film is the first known instance of a projected moving image. The first people to build and run a working 35 mm camera in Britain were Robert W. Paul and Birt Acres. They made the first British film Incident at Clovelly Cottage in February 1895, shortly before falling out over the camera's patent. Soon several British film companies had opened to meet the demand for new films, such as Mitchell and Kenyon in Blackburn. From 1898 American producer Charles Urban expanded the London-based Warwick Trading Company to produce British films, mostly documentary and news. He later formed his own Charles Urban Trading Company, which also produced early colour films. There are many comparisons with the Danish History of film. The early films were often melodramatic in tone, and there was a distinct preference for storylines which were already known to the audience - in particular adaptations of Shakespeare plays and Dickens' novels. The 1930s boom By the mid-twenties the British film industry was losing out to heavy competition from Hollywood, the latter helped by having a much larger home market. In 1914, 25% of films shown in the UK were British — by 1926 this had fallen to 5%. The Cinematograph Films Act 1927 was passed in order to boost local production, requiring that cinemas show a certain percentage of British films. The act was technically a success, with audiences for British films becoming larger than the quota required. But it had the effect of creating a market for 'quota quickies': poor quality, low cost films, made in order to satisfy the quota. Some critics have blamed the quickies for holding back the development of the industry. However, many British film-makers learnt their craft making these films, including Michael Powell and Alfred Hitchcock. In the silent era, audiences were receptive to films from all nations. However, with the advent of sound films, many foreign actors or those with strong regional accents soon found themselves in less demand, and more 'formal' English (received pronunciation) became the norm. Sound also increased the influence of already popular American films. Alfred Hitchcock's Blackmail (1929) is regarded as the first British sound feature. It was a part-talkie with a synchronized score and sound effects. Later the same year, the first all-talking British feature, The Clue of the New Pin (1929) was released. It was based on a novel by Edgar Wallace, starring Donald Calthrop, Benita Home and Fred Raines, made by British Lion at their Beaconsfield Studios. The first all-colour sound feature (shot silent but with a soundtrack added) was released in the year and was entitled A Romance of Seville (1929). It was produced by British International Pictures and starred Alexander D'Arcy and Marguerite Allan. In 1930, the first all-colour all-talking British feature, Harmony Heaven (1930), was released. It was also produced by British International Pictures and starred Polly Ward and Stuart Hall. A number of all-talking films containing colour sequences, mostly musicals, were also released in the same year. The School for Scandal (1930) was the second all-talking feature to be filmed entirely in colour. Starting with John Grierson's Drifters, the 1930s saw the emergence of a new school of realist documentary films: The Documentary Film Movement. It was Grierson who coined the term "documentary" to describe a non-fiction film, and he produced the movement's most celebrated film of the 1930s, Night Mail (1936), written and directed by Basil Wright and Harry Watt, and incorporating the poem by W. H. Auden. Other key figures in this movement were Humphrey Jennings, Paul Rotha and Alberto Cavalcanti. Many of them would go on to produce important films during World War II. Several other new talents emerged during this period, and Alfred Hitchcock would confirm his status as one of Britain's leading young directors with his influential thrillers The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934), The 39 Steps (1935) and The Lady Vanishes (1938), before moving to Hollywood. Music hall also proved influential in comedy films of this period, and a number of popular personalities emerged, including George Formby, Gracie Fields, Jessie Matthews and Will Hay. These stars often made several films a year, and their productions remained important for morale purposes during the second world war. Many of the most important British productions of the 1930s were produced by London Films, founded by the HungarianemigreAlexander Korda. These included Things to Come (1936), Rembrandt (1936) and Knight Without Armour (1937), as well as the early Technicolor films The Drum (1938), The Four Feathers (1939) and The Thief of Bagdad (1940). These had followed closely on from Wings of the Morning (1937), Britain's first colour feature film in the new three colour process (previous colour features had used a two colour process). After the boom years of the late 1920s and early 1930s, rising expenditure and over-optimistic expansion into the American market caused the production bubble to burst in 1937. Of the 640 British production companies registered between 1925 and 1936, 20 were still going in 1937. Moreover, the 1927 Films Act was up for renewal. The replacement Cinematograph Films Act 1938 provided incentives for UK companies to make fewer films of higher quality and, influenced by world politics, encouraged American investment and imports. One result was the creation by the American company MGM of an English studio MGM British in Hertfordshire, which produced some very successful films, including A Yank at Oxford (1938) and Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1939), before World War II intervened. World War II The constraints imposed by World War II seemed to give new energy to the British film industry. After a faltering start, British films began to make increasing use of documentary techniques and former documentary film-makers to make more realistic films, many of which helped to shape the popular image of the nation at war. Among the best known of these films are In Which We Serve (1942), Went the Day Well? (1942), We Dive at Dawn (1943), Millions Like Us (1943) and The Way Ahead (1944). In the later war years Gainsborough Studios produced a series of critically derided but immensely popular period melodramas including The Man in Grey (1943) and The Wicked Lady (1945). These helped to create a new generation of British stars, such as Stewart Granger, Margaret Lockwood and James Mason. Two Cities Films, an independent production company also made some important films including This Happy Breed (1944), Blithe Spirit (1945) and Sir Laurence Olivier's Henry V (1944) and Hamlet (1948). The war years also saw the flowering of the Powell and Pressburger partnership with films like Forty-Ninth Parallel (1941), The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp(1943) and A Canterbury Tale (1944) which, while set in wartime, were very much about the people affected by war rather than battles. Post-war cinema Towards the end of the 1940s, the Rank Organisation, founded in 1937 by J. Arthur Rank, became the dominant force behind British film-making. It acquired a number of British studios, and bank-rolled some of the great British film-makers which were emerging in this period. Building on the success British cinema had enjoyed during World War II, the industry hit new heights of creativity in the immediate post-war years. Among the most significant films produced during this period were David Lean's Brief Encounter (1945) and his Dickens adaptations Great Expectations (1946) and Oliver Twist (1948), Carol Reed's thrillers Odd Man Out (1947) and The Third Man (1949), and Powell and Pressburger's A Matter of Life and Death (1946), Black Narcissus (1946) and The Red Shoes (1948). British cinema's growing international reputation was enhanced by the success of The Red Shoes, the most commercially successful film of its year in the U.S., and by Laurence Olivier's Hamlet, the first non-American film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. Ealing Studios (financially backed by J. Arthur Rank) embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including Whisky Galore (1948), Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949) and The Man in the White Suit (1951). In the 1950s the industry began to retreat slightly from the prestige productions which had made British films successful worldwide, and began to concentrate on popular comedies and World War II dramas aimed more squarely at the domestic audience. The war films were often based on true stories and made in a similar low-key style to their wartime predecessors. They helped to make stars of actors like John Mills, Jack Hawkins and Kenneth More, and some of the most successful included The Cruel Sea (1953), The Dam Busters (1954), The Colditz Story (1955) and Reach for the Sky (1956). Popular comedy series included the St Trinians films and the "Doctor" series, beginning with Doctor in the House in 1954. The latter series starred Dirk Bogarde, probably the British industry's most popular star of the 1950s. Bogarde was later replaced by Michael Craig and Leslie Phillips, and the series continued until 1970. The Rank Organisation also produced some other notable comedy successes, such as Genevieve in 1953. The writer/director/producer team of twin brothers John and Roy Boulting also produced a series of successful satires on British life and institutions, beginning with Private's Progress (1956), and continuing with Brothers in Law (1957), Carlton-Browne of the F.O. (1958), I'm All Right Jack (1959) and Heavens Above! (1963). The Italian director-producer Mario Zampi also made a number of successful black comedies, including Laughter in Paradise (1951), The Naked Truth (1957) and Too Many Crooks (1958). After a string of successful films, including the comedies The Lavender Hill Mob (1951), The Titfield Thunderbolt (1953) and The Ladykillers (1955), as well as dramas like Dead of Night, Scott of the Antarctic and The Cruel Sea, Ealing Studios finally ceased production in 1958, and the studios were taken over by the BBC for television production. Less restrictive censorship towards the end of the 1950s encouraged B-movie producer Hammer Films to embark on their series of influential and wildly successful horror films. Beginning with black and white adaptations of Nigel Kneale's BBC science fiction serials The Quatermass Experiment (1955) and Quatermass II (1957), Hammer quickly graduated to deceptively lavish colour versions of Frankenstein, Dracula and The Mummy. Their enormous commercial success encouraged them to turn out sequel after sequel, and led to an explosion in horror film production in Britain that would last for nearly two decades. Hammer would dominate British horror production throughout this period, but other companies were created specifically to meet the new demand, including Amicus Productions and Tigon British. The British New Wave The term British New Wave, or "Kitchen Sink Realism", is used to describe a group of commercial feature films made between 1955 and 1963 which portrayed a more gritty form of social realism than had been seen in British cinema previously. The British New Wave feature films are often associated with a new openness about working class life (e.g. A Taste of Honey, 1961), and previously taboo issues such as abortion and homosexuality (e.g. The Leather Boys, 1964). The New Wave filmmakers were influenced by the documentary film movement known as "Free Cinema". Free Cinema emerged in the mid-1950s and was named by Lindsay Anderson in 1956. They were also influenced by the Angry Young Men, who were writing plays and literature from the mid-1950s, and the documentary films of everyday life commissioned by the British Post Office, Ministry of Information, and several commercial sponsors such as Ford of Britain, during and after the Second World War. The films were personal, poetic, imaginative in their use of sound and narration, and featured ordinary working-class people with sympathy and respect. In this respect they were the inheritors of the tradition of Mass Observation and Humphrey Jennings. The 1956 statement of the Free Cinema gives the following precepts: "No film can be too personal. The image speaks. Sounds amplifies and comments. Size is irrelevant. Perfection is not an aim. An attitude means a style. A style means an attitude." A group of key filmmakers was established around the film magazine Sequence which was founded by Tony Richardson, Karel Reisz and Lindsay Anderson who had all made documentary films such as Anderson's Every Day Except Christmas and Richardson's Momma Don't Allow. Together with future James Bond producer Harry Saltzman, John Osborne and Tony Richardson established the company Woodfall Films to produce their early feature films. These included adaptations of Richardson's stage productions of Look Back in Anger with Richard Burton and The Entertainer with Sir Laurence Olivier. Other significant films in this movement include Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960), A Kind of Loving (1962), and This Sporting Life (1963). After Richardson's film of Tom Jones became a big hit the group broke up to pursue different interests. The films also made stars out of their leading actors Albert Finney, Alan Bates, Rita Tushingham, Richard Harris and Tom Courtenay. The 1960s Boom In the 1960s British studios began to enjoy major success in the international market with a string of films that displayed a more liberated attitude to sex, capitalising on the "swinging London" image propagated by Time magazine. Films like Darling, Alfie, Georgy Girl, and The Knack …and How to Get It all explored this phenomenon, while Blowup, Repulsion and later Women in Love, broke taboos around the portrayal of sex and nudity on screen. At the same time, producers Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli combined sex with exotic locations, casual violence and self-referential humour in the phenomenally successful James Bomd series. The first film Dr. No was a sleeper hit in Britain in 1962, and the second, From Russia with Love (1963), a hit worldwide. By the time of the third film, Goldfinger (1964), the series had become a global phenomenon, reaching its commercial peak with Thunderball the following year. The series success led to a spy film boom, with The Liquidator (1965), Modesty Blaise (1966), Sebastian (1968) and the Bulldog Drummond spoofs, Deadlier Than the Male (1967) and Some Girls Do (1968) among the results. Bond co-producer Harry Saltzman had also instigated a rival series of more realistic spy films based on the novels of Len Deighton. Michael Caine starred as bespectacled spy Harry Palmer in The IPCRESS File (1965), Funeral in Berlin (1966) and Billion Dollar Brain (1967), and the success of these ushered in a cycle of downbeat espionage films in the manner of the novels of John le Carré, including The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1965) and The Deadly Affair (1966). Overseas film makers were also attracted to Britain at this time. Polish film maker Roman Polanski made Repulsion (1965) and Cul-de-Sac (1966) in London and Northumberland respectively, before attracting the attention of Hollywood. Italian director Michelangelo Antonioni filmed Blowup (1966) with David Hemmings and Vanessa Redgrave, and François Truffaut directed his only film made outside France, the science fiction parable Fahrenheit 451 in 1966. American directors were regularly working in London throughout the decade, but several became permanent residents in Britain. Blacklisted in America, Joseph Losey had a significant influence on British cinema in the 60s, particularly with his collaborations with playwright Harold Pinter and leading man Dirk Bogarde, including The Servant (1963) and Accident (1967). Voluntary emigres Stanley Kubrick and Richard Lester were also influential. Lester had major hits with The Knack …and How to Get It (1965), and The Beatles films A Hard Day's Night (1964) and Help! (1965), after which it became standard for each new pop group to have a verité style feature film made about them. Kubrick settled in Hertfordshire in the early 60s and would remain in England for the rest of his career. The special effects team assembled to work on his 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey would add significantly to the British industry's importance in this field over the following decades. The success of these films and others as diverse as Lawrence of Arabia (1962), Tom Jones (1963), Zulu (1964) and Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965) encouraged American studios to invest significantly in British film production. Major films like Becket (1964), A Man for All Seasons (1966), Khartoum (1966) and The Charge of the Light Brigade (1968) were regularly mounted, while smaller-scale films including Billy Liar (1963), Accident (1967) and Women in Love (1969) were big critical successes. Four of the decade's Academy Award winners for best picture were British productions. Towards the end of the decade social realism was beginning to make its way back into British films again. Influenced by his work on the Wednesday Play on British television, Ken Loach directed the realistic dramas Poor Cow and Kes. The 1970s With the film industry in both the United Kingdom and the United States entering into recession, American studios cut back on domestic production, and in many cases withdrew from financing British films altogether. Major films were still being made at this time, including Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), Battle of Britain (1969), Billy Wilder's The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes (1970) and David Lean's Ryan's Daughter (1970), but as the decade wore on financing became increasingly hard to come by. Large-scale productions were still being mounted, but they were more sporadic and sometimes seemed old-fashioned compared with the competition from America. Among the more successful were adaptations of the Agatha Christie stories Murder on the Orient Express (1974) and Death on the Nile (1978). Other notable films included the Edwardian drama The Go-Between, which won the Palme d'Or at the 1971 Cannes Film Festival, Alfred Hitchcock's final British film Frenzy (1972), Nicolas Roeg's Venice-set supernatural thriller Don't Look Now (1973) and Mike Hodges' gangster drama Get Carter (1971) starring Michael Caine. Other productions like Shout at the Devil (1976) fared less well, while the entry of Lew Grade's company ITC into film production in the latter half of the decade brought only a few box office successes and an unsustainable number of failures. Other epic productions such as Richard Attenborough's Young Winston (1972) and A Bridge Too Far (1977) met with mixed commercial success. The British horror boom of the 1960s also finally came to an end by the mid-1970s, with the leading producers Hammer and Amicus leaving the genre altogether in the face of competition from independents in the United States. Films like The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) made Hammer's vampire films seem increasingly tame and outdated, despite attempts to spice up the formula with added nudity and gore. Although some attempts were made to broaden the range of British horror films, such as the comic Captain Kronos, Vampire Hunter or the cult favourite The Wicker Man, these films made little impact at the box office, and the horror boom was finally over by the middle of the decade. Some British producers, including Hammer, turned to television series for inspiration, and the big screen versions of shows like Steptoe and Son and On the Buses proved successful with domestic audiences. The other major influence on British comedy films in the decade was the Monty Python group, also from television. Their two most successful films were Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) and Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), the latter a major commercial success, probably at least in part due to the considerable controversy surrounding its release. The continued presence of the Eady levy in the 1970s, combined with a loosening of censorship rules, also brought on a minor boom of low-budget British sex comedies and softcore porn movies. Most notable among these were films starring Mary Millington such as Come Play with Me, and the Confessions of... series starring Robin Askwith, beginning with Confessions of a Window Cleaner. More relaxed censorship in the 1970s also brought several controversial films, including Ken Russell's The Devils (1970), Sam Peckinpah's Straw Dogs (1971), Quadrophenia (1979), and Stanley Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange (1971). The late 1970s at least saw a revival of the James Bomd series with The Spy Who Loved Me in 1977. However, the next film, Moonraker (1979), broke with tradition by filming at studios in France to take advantage of tax incentives there. Some American productions did return to the major British studios in 1977-79, including Star Wars at Elstree Studios, Superman at Pinewood, and Alien at Shepperton. The 1980s: Renaissance and Recession Although major American productions, such as The Empire Strikes Back and Superman II, continued to be filmed at British studios in the 1980s, the decade began with the worst recession the British film industry had ever seen. In 1980 only 31 British films were made, down 50% on the previous year, and the lowest output since 1914. Production was down again the following year, to 24 films. However, the 1980s soon saw a renewed optimism, led by companies such as Goldcrest (and producer David Puttnam), Channel 4, Handmade Films and Merchant Ivory Productions. Under producer Puttnam a generation of British directors emerged making popular films with international distribution, including: Bill Forsyth (Local Hero, 1983), Hugh Hudson (Chariots of Fire, 1981), Roland Joffe (The Killing Fields, 1984), Alan Parker (Midnight Express, 1978) and Ridley Scott (The Duellists, 1977). When the Puttnam-produced Chariots of Fire (1981) won 4 Academy Awards in 1982, including best picture, its writer Colin Welland declared "the British are coming!" (quoting Paul Revere). When in 1983 Gandhi (also produced by Goldcrest) picked up best picture it looked as if he was right. It prompted a cycle of bigger budget period films, including David Lean's final film A Passage to India (1984) and the Merchant Ivory adaptations of the works of E. M. Forster, such as A Room with a View (1986). However, further attempts to make 'big' productions for the US market ended in failure, with Goldcrest losing independence after a trio of commercial flops, including the 1986 Palme d'Or winner The Mission. By this stage the rest of the new talent had moved on to Hollywood. Handmade Films, part owned by George Harrison, produced a series of comedies and gritty dramas such as The Long Good Friday (1980) and Withnail and I (1987) that had proven popular internationally and have since achieved cult success. The company was originally formed to take over the production of Monty Python's Life of Brian, and subsequently became involved in other projects by the group's members. The Pythons' influence was still apparent in British comedy films of the 1980s, the most notable examples being Terry Gilliam's fantasy films Time Bandits (1981) and Brazil (1985), and John Cleese's hit A Fish Called Wanda (1988). With the involvement of Channel 4 in film production a number of new talents were developed in Stephen Frears (My Beautiful Laundrette) and Mike Newell (Dance with a Stranger), while John Boorman, who had been working in the US, was encouraged back to Britain to make Hope and Glory (1987). Stephen Woolley's company Palace Pictures also enjoyed some notable successes, including Neil Jordan's The Company of Wolves (1984) and Mona Lisa (1986), before collapsing amid a series of unsuccessful films. Amongst the other notable British films of the decade were Lewis Gilbert's Educating Rita (1983), Bill Forsyth's Gregory's Girl (1981) and Peter Yates's The Dresser (1983). Following the final winding up of the Rank Organisation, a series of company consolidations in British cinema distribution meant that it became ever harder for British productions. Another blow was the elimination of the Eady tax concession by the Conservative Government in 1984. The concession had made it possible for a foreign film company to write off a large amount of its production costs by filming in the UK — this was what attracted a succession of blockbuster productions to British studios in the 1970s. With Eady gone many studios closed or focused on television work. British cinema in the 1990s Film production in Britain hit one of its all-time lows in 1989. While cinema audiences were climbing in the UK in the early 1990s, few British films were enjoying significant commercial success, even in the home market. Among the more notable exceptions were the Merchant Ivory productions Howards End (1992) and The Remains of the Day (1993), Richard Attenborough's Chaplin (1992) and Shadowlands (1993) and Neil Jordan's acclaimed thriller The Crying Game (1992). The latter was generally ignored on its initial release in Britain, but was a considerable success in the United States, where it was picked up by the distributor Miramax. The same company also enjoyed some success releasing the BBC period drama Enchanted April (1992). Kenneth Branagh to The Madness of King George (1994) proved there was still a market for the traditional British costume drama, and a large number of other period films followed, including Sense and Sensibility (1995), Restoration (1995), Emma (1996), Mrs. Brown (1997), The Wings of the Dove (1997, Shakespeare in Love (1998) and Topsy-Turvy (1999). Several of these were funded by Miramax Films, who also took over Anthony Minghella's The English Patient (1996) when the production ran into difficulties during filming. Although technically an American production, the success of this film, including its 9 Academy Award wins would bring further prestige to British film-makers. The surprise success of the Richard Curtis-scripted comedy Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994), which grossed $244 million worldwide and introduced Hugh Grant to global fame, led to renewed interest and investment in British films, and set a pattern for British-set romantic comedies, including Sliding Doors (1998) and Notting Hill (1999). Working Title Films, the company behind many of these films, quickly became one of the most successful British production companies of recent years, with other box office hits including Bean (1997), Elizabeth (1998) and Captain Corelli's Mandolin (2001). The new appetite for British comedy films lead to the popular comedies Brassed Off (1996), and The Full Monty (1997). The latter film unexpectedly became a runaway success and broke British box office records. Produced for under $4 m and grossing $257 m internationally, studios were encouraged to start smaller subsidiaries dedicated to looking for other low budget productions capable of producing similar returns. With the introduction of public funding for British films through the new National Lottery something of a production boom occurred in the late 1990s, but only a few of these films found significant commercial success, and many went unreleased. These included several gangster films attempting to imitate Guy Ritchie's black comedies Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998) and Snatch (2000). After a six year hiatus for legal reasons the James Bond films returned to production with the 17th Bond film, GoldenEye. With their traditional home Pinewood Studios fully booked, a new studio was created for the film in a former Rolls-Royce aero-engine factory at Leavesden in Hertfordshire. American productions also began to return to British studios in the mid-1990s, including Interview with the Vampire (1994), Mission: Impossible (1996), Saving Private Ryan (1998), Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999) and The Mummy (1999), as well as the French production The Fifth Element (1997), at the time claimed to be the most expensive film made in Britain. Mike Leigh emerged as a significant figure in British cinema in the 1990s with a series of films financed by Channel 4 about working and middle class life in modern England, including Life Is Sweet (1991), Naked (1993) and his biggest hit Secrets and Lies, which won the Palme d'Or at Cannes. Other new talents to emerge during the decade included the writer-director-producer team of John Hodge, Danny Boyle and Andrew Macdonald responsible for Shallow Grave (1994) and Trainspotting (1996). The latter film generated interested in other "regional" productions, including the Scottish films Ratcatcher and Young Adam. British cinema since 2000 The new century has so far been a relatively successful one for the British film industry. Many British films have found a wide international audience, and some of the independent production companies, such as Working Title, have secured financing and distribution deals with major American studios. Working Title scored three major international successes, all starring Hugh Grant, with the romantic comedies Bridget Jones's Diary (2001), which grossed $254 million worldwide; the sequel Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, which earned $228 million; and Richard Curtis's directorial debut Love Actually (2003), which grossed $239 million. At the same time, critically-acclaimed films such as Gosford Park (2001), Pride and Prejudice (2005), The Constant Gardener (2005), The Queen (2006) and The Last King of Scotland (2006) also brought prestige to the British film industry. The new decade saw a major new film series in the US-backed but British made Harry Potter films, beginning with Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 2001. David Heyman's company Heyday Films has produced four sequels, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix with three more films planned. Aardman Animations' Nick Park, the creator of Wallace and Gromit and the Creature Comforts series, produced his first feature length film, Chicken Run in 2000. Co-directed with Peter Lord, the film was a major success worldwide and one of the most successful British films of its year. Park's follow up, Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit was another worldwide hit, despite its utterly English story, setting, conception and humour. The film grossed $56 million at the US box office and £32 million in the UK. It also won the 2005 Academy Award for best animated feature. In 2005, Vanguard Animations and Ealing Studios produced Britain's first computer animated feature film, Valiant, featuring the voices of Ewan McGregor, Ricky Gervais, John Cleese and Jim Broadbent. The turn of the new century saw a revival of the British horror film. Lead by Danny Boyle's acclaimed hit 28 Days Later (2002), other examples included The Hole,'Dog Soldiers, The Descent and the comedy Shaun of the Dead. By the early 2000s, the popularity of British films in the home market had also grown enough to allow a spate of television spin-offs and other comedies aimed largely at the domestic audience, including Kevin and Perry Go Large and Ali G in da House. Notable British directors emerging during this period include Paul Greengrass (Bloody Sunday, United 93, The Bourne Supremacy, The Bourne Ultimatum) Michael Winterbottom (24 Hour Party People, A Cock and Bull Story) and Stephen Daldry, whose debut film Billy Elliot (2000) became one of the most successful British films of its year. More established directors were also busy during this period however. In 2004, Mike Leigh directed Vera Drake, an account of a housewife who leads a double life as an abortionist in 1950s London. The film won the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival and three BAFTAs. Stephen Frears directed a trilogy of films about British life, beginning with Dirty Pretty Things (about illegal migrant workers in London's black economy), Mrs Henderson Presents (dealing with the Windmill Theatre in World War II) and The Queen (based on the events surrounding the death of Princess Diana). In 2006, Ken Loach won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival with his account of the struggle for Irish Independence in The Wind That Shakes the Barley. Woody Allen became a convert to British filmmaking, choosing to shoot his 2005 film Match Point entirely in London, with a largely British cast and financing from BBC Films. He followed this with two more films shot in London, Scoop (2006) and Cassandra's Dream (2007). English actor Daniel Craig became the new James Bond with Casino Royale, the 21st entry in the official Eon Productions series. The film was nominated for nine BAFTA awards, the highest recognition for a Bond film. In 2007, a number of new British films achieved critical and commercial recognition, including a biography of the singer Ian Curtis in Control; the police comedy Hot Fuzz; the sequel to Elizabeth entitled Elizabeth: The Golden Age and Joe Wright's adaptation of the Ian McEwan novel Atonement. Set in 1935 and during the Second World War, the film was nominated for 7 Academy Awards, including Best Film. In 2008, British releases included the costume dramas The Duchess and Brideshead Revisited, the documentary Man On Wire and a new comedy-drama from Mike Leigh Happy Go Lucky. However the year was dominated by a single film: Slumdog Millionaire, an Indian story that was filmed entirely in Mumbai with a mostly Indian cast, though with a British director (Danny Boyle), producer (Christian Colson), screenwriter (Simon Beaufoy) and star (Dev Patel) and the film was all-British financed via Film4 and Celador. Slumdog Millionaire has received worldwide critical acclaim. It has won four Golden Globes, seven BAFTA Awards and eight Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Film. This was the first entirely-British financed film since Hamlet in 1948 to win the Best Picture Oscar. Despite increasing competition from film studios in Australia and Eastern Europe (especially the Czech Republic), British studios such as Pinewood, Shepperton and Leavesden remained successful in hosting major foreign productions such as Finding Neverland, V for Vendetta, Closer, The Mummy Returns, Troy, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Corpse Bride, United 93, The Phantom of the Opera, The Golden Compass, Sweeney Todd, Mamma Mia! and The Wolf Man. The film industry remains an important earner for the British economy. According to a UK Film Council press release of 15 January 2007, £840.1 million was spent on making films in the UK during 2006. British actors and actresses have always been significant in international cinema. Well-known currently active performers include Catherine Zeta-Jones, Sir Ian Mckellen, Clive Owen, Rachel Weisz, Paul Bettany, Kate Winslet, Ewan McGregor, Kate Beckinsale, Hugh Grant, Colin Firth, Jude Law, Daniel Radcliffe, Keira Knightley, Ralph Fiennes, Orlando Bloom, Tilda Swinton, Daniel Day Lewis, Christian Bale, Jason Statham, Rhys Ifans, Sir Ben Kingsley, Naveen Andrews, Parminder Nagra and Gary Oldman. BAFTA Award for Best British Film At the 1993 British Academy Awards (BAFTA) the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film was introduced. The BAFTAs had included a Best British Film category since 1948, although the idea was dropped in the 1960s. Since 1993 the winners have been: 1993 - The Crying Game 1994 - Shadowlands 1995 - Shallow Grave 1996 - The Madness of King George 1997 - Secrets and Lies 1998 - Nil by Mouth 1999 - Elizabeth 2000 - East is East 2001 - Billy Elliot 2002 - Gosford Park 2003 - The Warrior 2004 - Touching the Void 2005 - My Summer of Love 2006 - Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit 2007 - The Last King of Scotland 2008 - This Is England 2009 - Man On Wire The British film industry and Hollywood Films with a British dimension have had enormous worldwide commercial success. The top seven highest-grossing films worldwide of all time have some British historical, cultural or creative dimensions: Titanic, two episodes of The Lord of the Rings, two Pirates of the Caribbean and two Harry Potter movies. The first culturally American film on the list, Star Wars at number 8, was filmed principally in the UK. Adding four more Harry Potter and Lord of the Rings films, plus three about a Scottish ogre in British fairy tale setting (Shrek), and about two-thirds of the top twenty most commercial films, with combined cinema revenues of about $13 billion, had a substantial British dimension. "All time Box Office Worldwide Grosses." Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 25 July 2008. The British cinema market is too small for the British film industry to successfully produce Hollywood-style blockbusters over a sustained period. "Funding the UK film industry." BBC News website, Thursday, 20 September, 2001. Retrieved 25 July 2008. As such, the industry has not been able to produce commercial success internationally in comparison. The British film industry consequently has a complex and divided attitude to Hollywood. On the one hand Hollywood provides work to British directors, actors, writers, production staff and studios, enables British history and stories to be made as films, and opens up the US and world markets to a limited participation by some in the British film industry. On the other hand, the loss of control and profits, and the market requirements of the US distributors, are often seen to endanger and distort British film culture. Art cinema The release of Derek Jarman's Jubilee (1978) marked the beginning of a successful period of UK art cinema, continuing in the 1980s with film-makers like Peter Greenaway and Sally Potter. Unlike the previous generation of British film makers who had broken into directing and production after careers in the theatre or on television the Art Cinema Directors were mostly the products of Art Schools. Many of these film-makers were championed in their early career by the London Film Makers Cooperative and their work was the subject of detailed theoretical analysis in the journal Screen Education. Peter Greenaway was an early pioneer of the use of computer generated imagery blended with filmed footage and was also one of the first directors to film entirely on high definition video for a cinema release. With the launch of Channel 4 and its Film on Four commissioning strand Art Cinema was promoted to a wider audience. However the Channel had a sharp change in its commissioning policy in the early nineties and the likes of Jarman and Greenaway were forced to seek European co-production financing. Ken Russell and Nicolas Roeg were two other directors whose highly personal visual styles and narrative themes might class them as 'Art Cinema'. They also struggled to finance their productions during the 1990s. The spread of music videos now means there is a steady demand for emerging talent without the requirements of seeking feature film funding. Julien Temple and John Maybury are two examples of this. Also the widespread acceptance of video art as a form has made it possible for British artists such as Sam Taylor-Wood and Isaac Julien to make film works outside of the demands of cinema exhibition. Film technology In the 1970s and 1980s, British studios established a reputation for great special effects in films such as Superman, Alien, and Batman. Some of this reputation was founded on the core of talent brought together for the filming of A Space Odyssey who subsequently worked together on series and feature films for Gerry Anderson. Thanks to the Bristol-based Aardman Animations the UK is still recognised as a world leader in the use of stopmotion animation. British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in Time Bandits (1981) and Brazil (1985). This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21st century with films such as the James Bond series, Gladiator and Harry Potter. From the 1990s to the present day, there has been a progressive movement from traditional film opticals to an integrated digital film environment, with special effects, cutting, colour grading, and other post-production tasks all sharing the same all-digital infrastructure. The availability of high-speed Internet Protocol networks has made the British film industry capable of working closely with U.S. studios as part of globally distributed productions. As of 2005, this trend is expected to continue with moves towards (currently experimental) digital distribution and projection as mainstream technologies. The British film This is Not a Love Song (2003) was the first to be streamed live on the Internet at the same time as its cinema premiere. Ethnic and Culture film Until the 1980s Black British and Asian British culture was significantly under-represented in mainstream British cinema, as they were in many areas of British life. Pioneers such as Horace Ové has been working in 1970s (Pressure, 1975), but the 1980s saw a wave of new talent, with films like Burning an Illusion (1981), Majdhar (1985) and Ping Pong (1986). Many of these films were assisted by the newly formed Channel 4, which had an official remit to provide for "minority audiences." Commercial success was first achieved with My Beautiful Laundrette (1985). Dealing with racial and gay issues, it started the career of its writer Hanif Kureishi. 1980s mainstream British cinema also reflected a change in attitudes, with Heat and Dust (1982), Gandhi (1982) and Cry Freedom (1987), although it rarely directly addressed the experiences of Black or Asian British people. The hit comedy Notting Hill (1999) was noted for not featuring any significant black characters in its ensemble cast, despite Notting Hill being home to many British Afro-Caribbeans. The turn of the century saw a more commercial Asian British cinema develop, starting with East is East (1999) and continuing with Bend It Like Beckham (2002). Some argue it has brought more flexible attitudes towards casting Black and Asian British actors, with Robbie Gee and Naomie Harris take leading roles in Underworld and 28 Days Later respectively. Kidulthood (2006) was a probing film into London youth. Bibliography Pre-World War II Low, Rachel. 1985. Film Making in 1930s Britain. London: George, Allen and Unwin Rotha, Paul. 1973. Documentary diary; an informal history of the British documentary film, 1928-1939, New York: Hill and Wang Swann, Paul. 2003. The British Documentary Film Movement, 1926-1946. Cambridge University Press World War II Aldgate, Anthony and Richards, Jeffrey 2nd Edition. 1994. Britain Can Take it: British Cinema in the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Barr, Charles; Ed. 1986. All Our Yesterdays: 90 Years of British Cinema. London: British Film Institute Murphy, Robert. 2000. British Cinema and the Second World War. London: Continuum Post-War Friedman, Lester; Ed. 1992. British Cinema and Thatcherism. London: UCL Press Geraghty, Christine. 2000. British Cinema in the Fifties: Gender Genre and the New Look. London Routledge Gillett, Philip. 2003. The British Working Class in Postwar Film. Manchester: Manchester University Press Murphy, Robert; Ed. 1996. Sixties British Cinema. London: BFI Shaw, Tony. 2001. British Cinema and the Cold War. London: I.B. Tauris 1990s Brown, Geoff. 2000. Something for Everyone: British film Culture in the 1990s. Brunsdon, Charlotte. 2000. Not Having It All: Women and Film in the 1990s. Murphy, Robert; Ed. 2000. British Cinema of the 90s. London: BFI Cinema and government Dickinson, Margaret and Street, Sarah. 1985. Cinema and the State: The Film industry and the British Government, 1927-84. London: BFI Miller, Toby. 2000. The Film Industry and the Government: Endless Mr Beans and Mr Bonds? Moran, Albert; Ed. 1996. Film Policy: International, National and Regional Perspectives. London: Routledge: ISBN 0-415-09791-6 General Aldgate, Anthony and Richards Jeffrey. 2002. Best of British: Cinema and Society from 1930 to the Present. London: I.B. Tauris Babington, Bruce; Ed. 2001.British Stars and Stardom. Manchester: Manchester University Press Chibnall, Steve and Murphy, Robert; Eds. 1999. British Crime Cinema. London: Routledge Cook, Pam. 1996. Fashioning the Nation: Costume and Identity in British Cinema. London BFI Curran, James and Porter, Vincent; Eds. 1983. British Cinema History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson Durgnat, Raymond. 1970. A Mirror for England: British Movies from Austerity to Affluence. London: Faber. ISBN 0-571-09503-8 Harper, Sue. 2000. Women in British Cinema: Mad Bad and Dangerous to Know. London: Continuum Higson, Andrew. 1995. Waving the Flag: Constructing a National Cinema in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press Higson, Andrew. 2003. English Heritage, English Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hill, John. 1986. Sex, Class and Realism. London: BFI Landy, Marcia. 1991. British Genres: Cinema and Society, 1930-1960. Princeton University Press Lay, Samantha. 2002. British Social Realism. London: Wallflower McFarlane, Brian. The Encyclopedia of British Film. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-77301-9 Monk, Claire and Sargeant, Amy. 2002. British Historical Cinema. London Routledge Murphy, Robert; Ed. 2001. British Cinema Book 2nd Edition. London: BFI Perry, George. 1988. The Great British Picture Show. Little Brown, 1988. Street, Sarah. 1997. British National Cinema. London: Routledge. Tasker, Yvonne; Ed. 2002. Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers: Routledge: London: ISBN 0-415-18974-8 See also World cinema Category:British films Cinema of Scotland Cinema of Wales Eady levy List of British film studios List of British actresses National Film and Television School London in film English Film Directors Quota quickies References External links Britflicks dedicated to British movies Screenonline The British Film Institute, including some data on UK films Cinema Britain: British Film Industry in the 1950s and 1960s The British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA), including Awards database and historical archive Britfilms.com Huge resource of information on contemporary British cinema and the UK film industry BBC Film Network The BBC's website for showcasing new British filmmaking, including short films British Film Magazine Discover the whole of the vibrant British film world on one site British Cinema History Project Britfilms.tv UK short film website which also features film news and reviews The British Film Resource The Last Back Projection Cinema in England Scottish Cinema location information and visual location map UK film . org — News, forums and articles for the UK filmmaker. The UK Film Council Film Academy UK film funding Search British titles at the Internet Movie Database Black Filmmaker Magazine BBC News In Depth: British Film Industry Shame of a nation — The Guardian, 26 May 2000. Polemical article bemoaning the state of British film. TV Cream on Britain's independent film companies Articles on British Cinema (in German) Love British FilmDedicated to British film and filmmakers — The rise or fall of the British film industry? A critical overview of UK film making in the 1990s by John Brookes MA FindAnyFilm.com - UK Movie Search Engine UK Film Council A company that aims to stimulate the film industry by funding filmmakers. | Cinema_of_the_United_Kingdom |@lemmatized united:7 kingdom:2 large:7 impact:2 modern:3 cinema:63 one:11 respected:1 film:268 industry:32 world:20 despite:5 history:8 successful:20 production:60 characterise:1 ongoing:1 debate:1 identity:2 include:50 economic:1 cultural:3 issue:3 influence:9 american:17 european:2 although:8 fair:1 say:1 brief:2 golden:5 age:2 enjoy:6 studio:29 j:3 arthur:3 rank:6 alexander:3 korda:3 british:178 produce:25 great:5 actor:8 director:17 motion:1 picture:11 time:16 alfred:5 hitchcock:5 david:7 lean:4 laurence:4 olivier:4 anthony:4 hopkins:1 co:4 represent:2 book:3 movie:8 must:1 see:6 die:1 overview:4 uk:23 experience:4 number:12 boom:10 recession:7 many:17 factor:1 use:7 measure:2 success:28 year:20 give:4 development:2 first:20 develop:5 cause:2 u:11 competition:5 commercial:16 practice:1 cinematograph:3 act:5 introduce:3 protective:1 lead:12 recovery:1 high:6 decline:1 recover:1 war:27 long:2 period:14 relative:1 stability:1 grow:3 investment:4 another:3 hit:13 mid:6 reach:3 low:10 continue:8 throughout:3 increase:4 renew:3 private:4 public:2 level:1 complex:2 various:1 movement:8 independently:1 make:39 chariot:3 fire:4 early:12 generally:2 regard:2 descend:1 work:20 french:2 lumière:1 brother:3 show:5 come:7 london:37 however:9 moving:2 celluloid:1 hyde:1 park:5 william:1 friese:1 greene:1 inventor:1 patent:2 process:3 know:7 instance:1 projected:1 image:4 people:5 build:1 run:3 mm:1 camera:2 britain:19 robert:6 w:2 paul:7 birt:1 acre:1 incident:1 clovelly:1 cottage:1 february:1 shortly:1 fall:3 soon:3 several:8 company:23 open:2 meet:3 demand:5 new:32 mitchell:1 kenyon:1 blackburn:1 producer:13 charles:3 urban:2 expand:1 base:6 warwick:1 trading:2 mostly:4 documentary:13 news:5 later:5 form:5 also:34 colour:11 comparison:2 danish:1 often:5 melodramatic:1 tone:1 distinct:1 preference:1 storyline:1 already:2 audience:10 particular:1 adaptation:7 shakespeare:2 play:4 dickens:2 novel:5 twenties:1 lose:2 heavy:1 hollywood:8 latter:7 help:5 much:3 home:6 market:11 pass:1 order:3 boost:1 local:2 require:2 certain:1 percentage:1 technically:2 become:15 quota:4 effect:7 create:5 quicky:3 poor:2 quality:2 cost:3 satisfy:1 critic:1 blame:1 hold:1 back:9 maker:10 learn:1 craft:1 michael:5 powell:3 silent:2 era:1 receptive:1 nation:4 advent:1 sound:7 foreign:3 strong:1 regional:3 accent:1 find:4 less:3 formal:1 english:8 received:1 pronunciation:1 norm:1 popular:10 blackmail:1 feature:20 part:4 talkie:1 synchronize:1 score:2 talk:4 clue:1 pin:1 release:11 edgar:1 wallace:4 star:19 donald:1 calthrop:1 benita:1 fred:1 raines:1 lion:2 beaconsfield:1 shot:2 soundtrack:1 add:3 entitle:1 romance:1 seville:1 international:9 arcy:1 marguerite:1 allan:1 harmony:1 heaven:2 polly:1 ward:1 stuart:1 hall:2 contain:1 sequence:2 musical:1 school:4 scandal:1 second:7 entirely:5 start:5 john:12 grierson:2 drifter:1 saw:9 emergence:1 realist:1 coin:1 term:2 describe:2 non:2 fiction:3 celebrated:2 night:4 mail:1 write:3 direct:6 basil:1 wright:2 harry:14 watt:1 incorporate:1 poem:1 h:1 auden:1 key:3 figure:2 humphrey:2 jennings:2 rotha:2 alberto:1 cavalcanti:1 would:7 go:8 important:5 ii:11 talent:7 emerge:9 confirm:1 status:1 young:4 influential:4 thriller:4 man:11 step:1 lady:2 vanishes:1 move:3 music:2 prove:4 comedy:22 personality:1 george:6 formby:1 gracie:1 field:3 jessie:1 matthew:1 hay:1 remain:4 morale:1 purpose:1 found:4 hungarianemigrealexander:1 thing:2 rembrandt:1 knight:1 without:2 armour:1 well:6 technicolor:1 drum:1 four:7 feather:1 thief:1 bagdad:1 follow:5 closely:2 wing:2 morning:2 three:5 previous:3 two:12 late:5 rise:2 expenditure:1 optimistic:1 expansion:1 bubble:1 burst:1 register:1 still:6 moreover:1 renewal:1 replacement:1 provide:3 incentive:2 politics:1 encourage:6 import:1 result:2 creation:1 mgm:2 hertfordshire:3 yank:1 oxford:5 goodbye:1 mr:5 chip:1 intervene:1 constraint:1 impose:1 seem:3 energy:1 faltering:1 begin:13 technique:1 former:2 realistic:3 shape:1 among:6 best:14 known:1 serve:1 day:9 dive:1 dawn:1 million:8 like:13 way:2 ahead:1 gainsborough:1 series:24 critically:2 deride:1 immensely:1 melodrama:1 grey:1 wicked:1 generation:3 stewart:1 granger:1 margaret:2 lockwood:1 james:8 mason:1 city:1 independent:4 happy:2 breed:1 blithe:1 spirit:1 sir:4 henry:1 v:2 hamlet:3 flowering:1 pressburger:2 partnership:1 forty:1 ninth:1 parallel:1 life:14 death:4 colonel:1 blimp:1 canterbury:1 tale:2 set:6 wartime:2 affect:1 rather:1 battle:2 post:5 towards:5 end:6 organisation:3 dominant:1 force:2 behind:2 making:2 acquire:1 bank:1 roll:2 building:1 height:1 creativity:1 immediate:1 significant:8 encounter:1 expectation:1 oliver:1 twist:1 carol:1 reed:1 odd:1 third:3 matter:1 black:10 narcissus:1 red:2 shoe:2 reputation:4 enhance:1 commercially:1 win:10 academy:10 award:13 ealing:3 financially:1 embark:2 whisky:1 galore:1 kind:2 heart:1 coronet:1 white:2 suit:1 retreat:1 slightly:1 prestige:3 worldwide:10 concentrate:1 drama:9 aim:4 squarely:1 domestic:4 true:1 story:7 similar:2 style:6 predecessor:1 mill:1 jack:2 hawkins:1 kenneth:2 cruel:2 sea:2 dam:1 buster:1 colditz:1 sky:1 st:1 trinians:1 doctor:2 house:2 dirk:2 bogarde:3 probably:2 replace:1 craig:2 leslie:1 phillips:1 notable:8 genevieve:1 writer:5 team:3 twin:1 roy:1 boulting:1 satire:1 institution:1 progress:1 law:2 carlton:1 browne:1 f:1 right:2 italian:2 mario:1 zampi:1 laughter:1 paradise:1 naked:2 truth:1 crook:1 string:2 lavender:1 hill:6 mob:1 titfield:1 thunderbolt:1 ladykillers:1 dead:2 scott:2 antarctic:1 finally:3 cease:1 take:6 bbc:8 television:9 restrictive:1 censorship:3 b:3 hammer:6 wildly:1 horror:7 nigel:1 kneale:1 science:2 serials:1 quatermass:2 experiment:1 quickly:2 graduate:1 deceptively:1 lavish:1 version:2 frankenstein:1 dracula:1 mummy:3 enormous:2 turn:4 sequel:5 explosion:1 last:4 nearly:1 decade:13 dominate:2 specifically:1 amicus:2 tigon:1 wave:6 kitchen:1 sink:1 realism:5 group:6 portray:1 gritty:2 social:3 previously:2 associate:1 openness:1 class:6 e:3 g:3 taste:1 honey:1 taboo:2 abortion:1 homosexuality:1 leather:1 boy:1 filmmaker:7 free:3 name:1 lindsay:2 anderson:4 angry:1 men:2 literature:1 everyday:1 commission:2 office:8 ministry:1 information:3 sponsor:1 ford:1 personal:3 poetic:1 imaginative:1 narration:1 ordinary:1 sympathy:1 respect:2 inheritor:1 tradition:2 mass:1 observation:1 statement:1 following:4 precept:1 speaks:1 amplifies:1 comment:1 size:1 irrelevant:1 perfection:1 attitude:6 mean:4 establish:3 around:2 magazine:4 tony:3 richardson:5 karel:1 reisz:1 every:1 except:1 christmas:1 momma:1 allow:2 together:3 future:1 bond:8 saltzman:3 osborne:1 woodfall:1 stage:2 look:5 anger:1 richard:7 burton:1 entertainer:1 saturday:1 sunday:2 loving:1 sporting:1 tom:3 jones:5 big:6 break:5 pursue:1 different:1 interest:2 leading:1 albert:3 finney:1 alan:2 bates:1 rita:2 tushingham:1 harris:2 courtenay:1 major:13 display:1 liberated:1 sex:5 capitalise:1 swing:1 propagate:1 darling:1 alfie:1 georgy:1 girl:3 knack:2 get:3 explore:1 phenomenon:2 blowup:2 repulsion:2 woman:4 love:9 portrayal:1 nudity:2 screen:3 r:1 broccoli:1 combine:3 exotic:1 location:3 casual:1 violence:1 self:1 referential:1 humour:2 phenomenally:1 bomd:2 dr:1 sleeper:1 russia:1 goldfinger:1 global:2 peak:1 thunderball:1 spy:5 liquidator:1 modesty:1 blaise:1 sebastian:1 bulldog:1 drummond:1 spoof:1 deadly:2 male:1 instigate:1 rival:1 len:1 deighton:1 caine:2 bespectacled:1 palmer:1 ipcress:1 file:1 funeral:2 berlin:1 billion:2 dollar:1 brain:1 usher:1 cycle:2 downbeat:1 espionage:1 manner:1 le:1 carré:1 cold:2 affair:1 overseas:1 attract:3 polish:1 roman:1 polanski:1 cul:1 de:1 sac:1 northumberland:1 respectively:2 attention:1 michelangelo:1 antonioni:1 hemmings:1 vanessa:1 redgrave:1 françois:1 truffaut:1 outside:2 france:2 parable:1 fahrenheit:1 regularly:2 permanent:1 resident:1 blacklist:1 america:2 joseph:1 losey:1 particularly:1 collaboration:1 playwright:1 harold:1 pinter:1 servant:1 accident:2 voluntary:1 emigre:1 stanley:2 kubrick:3 lester:3 beatles:1 hard:3 standard:1 pop:1 verité:1 settle:1 england:5 rest:2 career:4 special:4 assemble:1 space:2 odyssey:2 significantly:3 importance:1 others:1 diverse:1 lawrence:1 arabia:1 zulu:1 magnificent:1 flying:1 machine:1 invest:1 becket:1 season:1 khartoum:1 charge:1 light:1 brigade:1 mount:2 small:3 scale:2 billy:4 liar:1 critical:4 winner:3 wednesday:1 ken:4 loach:2 cow:1 kes:1 state:5 enter:1 cut:2 case:1 withdraw:1 finance:5 altogether:2 anne:1 thousand:1 wilder:1 sherlock:1 holmes:1 ryan:2 daughter:1 wear:1 financing:4 increasingly:2 sporadic:1 sometimes:1 old:1 fashion:2 compare:1 agatha:1 christie:1 murder:1 orient:1 express:2 nile:1 edwardian:1 palme:4 cannes:3 festival:3 final:3 frenzy:1 nicolas:2 roeg:2 venice:2 supernatural:1 mike:5 hodges:1 gangster:2 carter:1 shout:1 devil:2 fare:1 entry:2 lew:1 grade:1 itc:1 half:1 bring:7 box:7 unsustainable:1 failure:2 epic:1 attenborough:2 winston:1 bridge:1 far:5 mixed:1 leave:1 genre:3 face:1 texas:1 chain:1 massacre:1 vampire:3 tame:1 outdated:1 attempt:4 spice:1 formula:1 added:1 gore:1 broaden:1 range:1 comic:1 captain:2 kronos:1 hunter:1 cult:2 favourite:1 wicker:1 little:2 middle:2 inspiration:1 steptoe:1 son:1 bus:1 monty:5 python:5 holy:1 grail:1 brian:3 least:2 due:1 considerable:2 controversy:1 surround:2 continued:1 presence:1 eady:4 levy:2 loosening:1 rule:1 minor:1 budget:3 softcore:1 porn:1 mary:1 millington:1 confession:2 robin:1 askwith:1 window:1 cleaner:1 relaxed:1 controversial:1 russell:2 sam:2 peckinpah:1 straw:1 dog:2 quadrophenia:1 clockwork:1 orange:1 revival:2 next:1 moonraker:1 advantage:1 tax:2 return:5 elstree:1 superman:3 pinewood:3 alien:2 shepperton:2 renaissance:1 empire:1 strike:1 bad:2 ever:2 output:1 since:6 optimism:1 goldcrest:3 puttnam:3 channel:6 handmade:2 merchant:3 ivory:3 distribution:4 bill:2 forsyth:2 hero:1 hugh:4 hudson:1 roland:1 joffe:1 killing:1 parker:1 midnight:1 ridley:1 duellist:1 colin:2 welland:1 declare:1 quote:1 revere:1 gandhi:2 pick:2 prompt:1 passage:1 india:1 forster:1 room:1 view:1 independence:2 trio:1 flop:1 mission:2 harrison:1 good:1 friday:1 withnail:1 internationally:3 achieve:3 originally:1 subsequently:2 involve:1 project:2 member:1 apparent:1 example:3 terry:1 gilliam:1 fantasy:1 bandit:2 brazil:2 cleese:2 fish:1 call:1 wanda:1 involvement:1 stephen:4 frears:2 beautiful:2 laundrette:2 newell:1 dance:1 stranger:1 boorman:1 hope:1 glory:1 woolley:1 palace:1 neil:2 jordan:2 wolf:2 mona:1 lisa:1 collapse:1 amid:1 unsuccessful:1 amongst:1 lewis:2 gilbert:1 educate:1 gregory:1 peter:4 yates:1 dresser:1 winding:1 consolidation:1 blow:1 elimination:1 concession:2 conservative:1 government:4 possible:2 amount:1 succession:1 blockbuster:2 close:1 focus:1 climb:1 even:1 exception:1 howard:1 remains:1 chaplin:1 shadowlands:2 acclaim:3 crying:1 game:2 ignore:1 initial:1 distributor:2 miramax:2 enchant:1 april:1 branagh:1 madness:2 king:4 traditional:3 costume:3 sense:1 sensibility:1 restoration:1 emma:1 brown:3 dove:1 topsy:1 turvy:1 fund:4 minghella:1 patient:1 difficulty:1 surprise:1 curtis:3 script:1 wedding:1 gross:7 grant:3 fame:1 pattern:1 romantic:2 slide:1 door:1 notting:3 title:4 recent:1 bean:2 elizabeth:4 corelli:1 mandolin:1 appetite:1 brassed:1 full:1 unexpectedly:1 runaway:1 record:1 subsidiary:1 dedicate:2 capable:2 introduction:1 funding:2 national:5 lottery:1 something:2 occur:1 unreleased:1 imitate:1 guy:1 ritchie:1 lock:1 stock:1 smoking:1 barrel:1 snatch:1 six:1 hiatus:1 legal:1 reason:2 goldeneye:1 fully:1 royce:1 aero:1 engine:2 factory:2 leavesden:2 interview:1 impossible:1 save:1 episode:2 phantom:2 menace:1 fifth:1 element:1 claim:1 expensive:1 leigh:3 sweet:1 secret:3 lie:2 hodge:1 danny:3 boyle:3 andrew:4 macdonald:1 responsible:1 shallow:2 grave:2 trainspotting:1 generate:2 interested:1 scottish:3 ratcatcher:1 adam:1 century:4 relatively:1 wide:1 secure:1 deal:3 bridget:2 diary:2 edge:1 earn:1 directorial:1 debut:2 actually:1 acclaimed:1 gosford:2 pride:1 prejudice:1 constant:1 gardener:1 queen:2 scotland:3 potter:10 philosopher:1 stone:1 heyman:1 heyday:1 chamber:1 prisoner:1 azkaban:1 goblet:1 phoenix:1 plan:1 aardman:2 animation:4 nick:1 creator:1 gromit:3 creature:1 comfort:1 length:1 chicken:1 lord:3 curse:2 rabbit:2 utterly:1 conception:1 animate:2 vanguard:1 computer:2 valiant:1 voice:1 ewan:2 mcgregor:2 ricky:1 gervais:1 jim:1 broadbent:1 hole:1 soldier:1 descent:1 shaun:1 popularity:1 enough:1 spate:1 spin:1 offs:1 largely:2 kevin:1 perry:2 ali:1 da:1 greengrass:1 bloody:1 bourne:2 supremacy:1 ultimatum:1 winterbottom:1 hour:1 party:1 cock:1 bull:1 daldry:1 whose:2 elliot:2 established:1 busy:1 vera:1 drake:1 account:2 housewife:1 double:1 abortionist:1 baftas:2 trilogy:1 dirty:1 pretty:1 illegal:1 migrant:1 worker:1 economy:2 henderson:1 present:3 windmill:1 theatre:2 event:1 princess:1 diana:1 struggle:2 irish:1 wind:1 shake:1 barley:1 woody:1 allen:2 convert:1 filmmaking:2 choose:1 shoot:1 match:1 point:1 cast:4 scoop:1 cassandra:1 dream:1 daniel:3 casino:1 royale:1 official:2 eon:1 nominate:2 nine:1 bafta:5 recognition:2 biography:1 singer:1 ian:3 control:2 police:1 hot:1 fuzz:1 entitled:1 joe:1 mcewan:1 atonement:1 dramas:1 duchess:1 brideshead:1 revisit:1 wire:2 lucky:1 single:1 slumdog:2 millionaire:2 indian:2 mumbai:1 though:1 christian:2 colson:1 screenwriter:1 simon:1 beaufoy:1 dev:1 patel:1 via:1 celador:1 receive:1 globe:1 seven:2 eight:1 oscar:1 australia:1 eastern:1 europe:1 especially:1 czech:1 republic:1 host:1 neverland:1 vendetta:1 closer:1 troy:1 charlie:1 chocolate:1 corpse:1 bride:1 opera:1 compass:1 sweeney:1 todd:1 mamma:1 mia:1 earner:1 accord:1 council:3 press:9 january:1 spend:1 actress:2 always:1 currently:2 active:1 performer:1 catherine:1 zeta:1 mckellen:1 clive:1 owen:1 rachel:2 weisz:1 bettany:1 kate:2 winslet:1 beckinsale:1 firth:1 jude:1 radcliffe:1 keira:1 knightley:1 ralph:1 fiennes:1 orlando:1 bloom:1 tilda:1 swinton:1 bale:1 jason:1 statham:1 rhys:1 ifans:1 ben:1 kingsley:1 naveen:1 parminder:1 nagra:1 gary:1 oldman:1 category:2 idea:1 drop:1 cry:2 nil:1 mouth:1 east:4 warrior:1 touch:1 void:1 summer:1 dimension:3 top:2 historical:3 creative:1 titanic:1 ring:2 pirate:1 caribbean:2 culturally:1 list:3 principally:1 plus:1 ogre:1 fairy:1 setting:1 shrek:1 twenty:1 revenue:1 substantial:1 mojo:1 retrieve:2 july:2 successfully:1 sustained:1 website:3 thursday:1 september:1 able:1 consequently:1 divided:1 hand:2 staff:1 enables:1 limited:1 participation:1 loss:1 profit:1 requirement:2 endanger:1 distort:1 culture:4 art:8 derek:1 jarman:2 jubilee:1 mark:1 beginning:1 greenaway:3 sally:1 unlike:1 directing:1 product:1 champion:1 cooperative:1 subject:1 detailed:1 theoretical:1 analysis:1 journal:1 education:1 pioneer:2 imagery:1 blend:1 filmed:1 footage:1 definition:1 video:3 launch:1 strand:1 promote:1 wider:1 sharp:1 change:2 commissioning:1 policy:2 ninety:1 seek:2 highly:1 visual:3 narrative:1 theme:1 might:1 spread:1 steady:1 julien:2 temple:1 maybury:1 widespread:1 acceptance:1 artist:1 taylor:1 wood:1 isaac:1 exhibition:1 technology:2 batman:1 core:1 filming:1 gerry:1 thanks:1 bristol:1 recognise:1 leader:1 stopmotion:1 technician:1 designer:1 counterpart:1 gladiator:1 progressive:1 opticals:1 integrate:1 digital:3 environment:1 grading:1 task:1 share:1 infrastructure:1 availability:1 speed:1 internet:3 protocol:1 network:2 globally:1 distribute:1 trend:1 expect:1 experimental:1 projection:2 mainstream:3 song:1 stream:1 live:1 premiere:1 ethnic:1 asian:4 area:1 horace:1 ové:1 pressure:1 burn:1 illusion:1 majdhar:1 ping:1 pong:1 assist:1 newly:1 remit:1 minority:1 racial:1 gay:1 hanif:1 kureishi:1 reflect:1 heat:1 dust:1 freedom:1 rarely:1 directly:1 address:1 note:1 character:1 ensemble:1 afro:1 bend:1 beckham:1 argue:1 flexible:1 robbie:1 gee:1 naomie:1 role:1 underworld:1 kidulthood:1 probing:1 youth:1 bibliography:1 pre:1 unwin:1 informal:1 york:1 wang:1 swann:1 cambridge:1 university:7 aldgate:2 richards:2 jeffrey:2 edition:2 edinburgh:2 barr:1 ed:10 yesterday:1 institute:2 murphy:5 continuum:2 friedman:1 thatcherism:1 ucl:1 geraghty:1 christine:1 fifty:2 gender:1 routledge:6 gillett:1 philip:1 working:1 postwar:1 manchester:4 sixty:1 bfi:6 shaw:1 tauris:2 geoff:1 everyone:1 brunsdon:1 charlotte:1 dickinson:1 street:2 sarah:2 miller:1 toby:1 endless:1 moran:1 perspective:1 isbn:4 general:1 society:2 babington:1 bruce:1 stardom:1 chibnall:1 steve:1 crime:1 cook:1 pam:1 curran:1 porter:1 vincent:1 weidenfeld:1 nicolson:1 durgnat:1 raymond:1 mirror:1 austerity:1 affluence:1 faber:1 harper:1 sue:1 mad:1 dangerous:1 higson:2 flag:1 construct:1 heritage:1 landy:1 marcia:1 princeton:1 lay:1 samantha:1 wallflower:1 mcfarlane:1 encyclopedia:1 methuen:1 monk:1 claire:1 sargeant:1 amy:1 tasker:1 yvonne:1 contemporary:2 wale:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 britflicks:1 screenonline:1 data:1 database:2 archive:1 britfilms:2 com:2 huge:1 resource:2 showcasing:1 short:2 discover:1 whole:1 vibrant:1 site:1 tv:2 review:1 map:1 org:1 forum:1 article:3 search:2 depth:1 shame:1 guardian:1 may:1 polemical:1 bemoan:1 cream:1 german:1 filmdedicated:1 brooke:1 findanyfilm:1 stimulate:1 |@bigram alexander_korda:2 motion_picture:1 alfred_hitchcock:5 laurence_olivier:4 anthony_hopkins:1 lumière_brother:1 hyde_park:1 basil_wright:1 h_auden:1 humphrey_jennings:2 alberto_cavalcanti:1 bubble_burst:1 immensely_popular:1 canterbury_tale:1 oliver_twist:1 carol_reed:1 commercially_successful:1 ealing_studio:3 science_fiction:2 kitchen_sink:1 lindsay_anderson:2 tony_richardson:2 saturday_night:1 albert_finney:1 self_referential:1 phenomenally_successful:1 michael_caine:2 billion_dollar:1 le_carré:1 roman_polanski:1 cul_de:1 michelangelo_antonioni:1 vanessa_redgrave:1 françois_truffaut:1 harold_pinter:1 stanley_kubrick:2 ken_loach:2 billy_wilder:1 sherlock_holmes:1 agatha_christie:1 win_palme:3 palme_cannes:3 cannes_film:2 supernatural_thriller:1 shout_devil:1 richard_attenborough:2 wicker_man:1 monty_python:4 holy_grail:1 sam_peckinpah:1 clockwork_orange:1 david_puttnam:1 ridley_scott:1 colin_welland:1 terry_gilliam:1 stephen_frears:2 mike_newell:1 john_boorman:1 hope_glory:1 mona_lisa:1 kenneth_branagh:1 sense_sensibility:1 topsy_turvy:1 wedding_funeral:1 romantic_comedy:2 notting_hill:3 pinewood_studio:1 roll_royce:1 phantom_menace:1 mike_leigh:3 danny_boyle:3 bridget_jones:2 directorial_debut:1 critically_acclaimed:1 pride_prejudice:1 harry_potter:9 prisoner_azkaban:1 wallace_gromit:3 ewan_mcgregor:2 jim_broadbent:1 spin_offs:1 bloody_sunday:1 woody_allen:1 casino_royale:1 bafta_award:3 ian_curtis:1 ian_mcewan:1 slumdog_millionaire:2 critical_acclaim:1 golden_globe:1 czech_republic:1 v_vendetta:1 corpse_bride:1 phantom_opera:1 sweeney_todd:1 mamma_mia:1 catherine_zeta:1 ian_mckellen:1 kate_winslet:1 colin_firth:1 jason_statham:1 ben_kingsley:1 gary_oldman:1 fairy_tale:1 bbc_news:2 peter_greenaway:2 gerry_anderson:1 ping_pong:1 afro_caribbean:1 allen_unwin:1 hill_wang:1 richards_jeffrey:2 edinburgh_edinburgh:1 manchester_manchester:2 london_bfi:6 b_tauris:2 london_weidenfeld:1 weidenfeld_nicolson:1 durgnat_raymond:1 london_methuen:1 external_link:1 |
920 | Ariel_Sharon | (, also known by his diminutive Arik, אַריק) () (born Ariel Scheinermann (אריאל שיינרמן) on 27 February 1928) is an Israeli general and statesman, former Israeli Prime Minister. Sharon served as Prime Minister from March 2001 until April 2006, though he was unable to carry out his duties after suffering a stroke on 4 January 2006, when he fell into a coma and entered a persistent vegetative state. During his lengthy career, Sharon was a controversial figure among many factions, both inside and outside Israel. The Israeli government established the Kahan Commission to investigate Sharon's involvement in the Sabra and Shatila massacre, and subsequently found he bore "indirect responsibility", specifically "for having disregarded the prospect of acts of vengeance and bloodshed by the Phalangists against the population of the refugee camps and for having failed to take this danger into account." Kelly, James. "Of Meaning and Malice." Time Magazine, June 24, 2001. Sharon resigned from the Defence Ministry, but remained in the cabinet as minister without portfolio. During his tenure as Prime Minister, Sharon's policies caused a rift within the Likud Party, and he ultimately left Likud to form a new party called Kadima. He became the first Prime Minister of Israel who did not belong to either Labor or Likud (the two parties that have traditionally dominated Israeli politics). The new party created by Sharon, with Ehud Olmert having stepped in as its leader after Sharon fell ill in the midst of election season, won the most Knesset seats in the 2006 elections, and became the senior coalition partner in the Israeli government. Following the rise in 2009 of Israel's second Netanyahu government, Kadima has now become the senior member of the loyal opposition in the Knesset. Prime Minister Sharon was mainly responsible, in 2004, for the unilateral withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Gaza Strip and the evacuation of Jewish settlements there. These measures were welcomed in many political and diplomatic circles around the world, but the Israeli right wing responded with anger and perplexity. In his military career he attained the rank of Major-General. Early life Ariel Sharon was born in Kfar Malal, then in the British Mandate of Palestine, to a family of "Lithuanian Jews" - Shmuel Sheinerman, of Brest-Litovsk (now Brest, Belarus) and Dvora (formerly Vera), of Mogilev. His father was studying agronomy at the university of Tbilisi, Georgia (Georgian SSR) and his mother had just started her fourth year of medical studies when the couple married. They immigrated to the British Mandate Palestine from Russia, fleeing the Red Army. Apart from Hebrew, Sharon's father spoke Yiddish and his mother spoke Russian; their son also learned to speak Russian as a young boy. The family arrived in the Second Aliyah and settled in a socialist, secular community where, despite being Mapai supporters, they were known to be contrarians against the prevailing community consensus: The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevic-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce. Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Yehudit (Dita), and two years after, they had a son, Ariel. At age 10, Sharon entered the Zionist youth movement Hassadeh (“the Field”). In 1942 at the age of 14, Sharon joined the Gadna, a paramilitary youth battalion, and later the Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military precursor to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). Military career From 1948 War to Suez Crisis At the creation of Israel (and Haganah's transformation into the Israel Defense Forces), Sharon became a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade. He was severely wounded in the groin by the Jordanian Arab Legion in the first Battle of Latrun, an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the besieged Jewish community of Jerusalem. His injuries eventually healed. In September 1949, Sharon was promoted to company commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. A year and a half later, he was asked to return to active service in the rank of major and as the leader of the new Unit 101, Israel's first special forces unit. Unit 101 undertook a series of military raids against Palestinians and neighboring Arab states that helped bolster Israeli morale and fortify its deterrent image. The unit was known for targeting civilians, notably in the widely condemned Qibya massacre in the fall of 1953, in which 69 Palestinian civilians, some of them children, were killed by Sharon's troops in a reprisal attack on their West Bank village. In the documentary Israel and the Arabs: 50 Year War, Sharon recalls what happened after the raid, which was heavily condemned by many Western nations, including the U.S.: I was summoned to see Ben-Gurion. It was the first time I met him, and right from the start Ben-Gurion said to me: "Let me first tell you one thing: it doesn't matter what the world says about Israel, it doesn't matter what they say about us anywhere else. The only thing that matters is that we can exist here on the land of our forefathers. And unless we show the Arabs that there is a high price to pay for murdering Jews, we won't survive." Shortly afterwards, just a few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged with the 890 Paratroopers Battalion to create the Paratroopers Brigade (Sharon eventually became the latter's commander), which continued to attack military and civilian targets, culminating with the attack on the Qalqilyah police station in the autumn of 1956. In 1952-53, Sharon attended the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, taking History and Oriental studies. Sharon has been widowed twice. Shortly after becoming a military instructor, he married his first wife, Margalit, with whom he had a son, Gur. Margalit died in a car accident in May 1962. Their son, Gur, died in October 1967 after a friend shot him while they were playing with a rifle. After Margalit's death, Sharon married her younger sister, Lily. They had two sons, Omri and Gil'ad. Lily Sharon died of cancer in 2000. From 1958 to 1962, Sharon served as commander of an infantry brigade and studied law at Tel Aviv University. Mitla incident In the 1956 Suez War (the British "Operation Musketeer"), Sharon commanded Unit 202 (the Paratroopers Brigade), and was responsible for taking ground east of the Sinai's Mitla Pass and eventually taking the pass itself. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither reconnaissance aircraft nor scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear. Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied, though he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force, which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle malfunction in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack in order to aid their comrades. In the ensuing successful battle to capture the pass, 38 Israeli soldiers were killed. Sharon was criticized by his superiors and he was damaged by allegations several years later made by several former subordinates, who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the Egyptians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Deliberate or not, the attack was considered strategically reckless because the Egyptian forces were expected to withdraw from the pass within a day or two. Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a law degree from Tel Aviv University. When Yitzhak Rabin (who within a few years became associated with the Labor Party) became Chief of Staff in 1964, however, Sharon began again to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of Aluf (Major General). In the 1967 Six-Day War, Sharon commanded the most powerful armored division on the Sinai front which made a breakthrough in the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area (see Battle of Abu-Ageila). In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. He had no further promotions before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he joined the Likud ("Unity") political party. At the start of the Yom Kippur War on 6 October 1973, Sharon was called back to active duty along with his assigned reserve armored division. His forces did not engage the Egyptian Army immediately, despite his requests. Under cover of darkness Sharon's forces moved to a point on the Suez Canal that had been prepared before the war. Bridging equipment was thrown across the canal on 17 October. The bridgehead was between two Egyptian Armies. He then headed north towards Ismailia, intent on cutting the Egyptian second army's supply lines, but his division was halted south of the Fresh Water Canal. Dr. George W. Gawrych The Alabatross of Decisive Victory: The 1973 Arab-Israeli War p.72 Abraham Adan's division (Bren) passed over the bridgehead into Africa advancing to within 101 kilometers of Cairo. His division managed to encircle Suez, cutting off and encircling the Third Army, but did not force its surrender before the ceasefire. Tensions between the two generals followed Sharon's decision, but a military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is widely viewed as a war hero who saved Israel from defeat in Sinai. A photo of Sharon wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess. Sharon's aggressive political positions were controversial and he was relieved of duty in February 1974. Early political career Beginnings of political career In the 1940s and 1950s, Sharon seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of Mapai, the predecessor of the modern Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, he was instrumental in establishing Likud in July 1973 by a merger of Herut, the Liberal Party and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for that year's elections, which were scheduled for November. Two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the Yom Kippur War erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service. In the elections Sharon won a seat, but a year later he resigned. From June 1975 to March 1976, Sharon was a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. He planned his return to politics for the 1977 elections; first he tried to return to the Likud and replace Menachem Begin at the head of the party. He suggested to Simha Erlich, who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more fitting than Begin to win an election victory; he was rejected, however. He then tried to join the Labor Party and the centrist Democratic Movement for Change, but was rejected by those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, Shlomtzion, which won two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture. When Sharon joined Begin's government he had relatively little political experience. During this period, Sharon supported the Gush Emunim settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of Palestinian Arabs' return of these territories. Sharon doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure. On his settlement policy, Sharon said while addressing a meeting of the Tzomet party: "Everybody has to move, run and grab as many (Judean) hilltops as they can to enlarge the (Jewish) settlements because everything we take now will stay ours... Everything we don't grab will go to them." After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded Sharon for his important contribution to Likud's narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense. On 16 January 1982 US President Ronald Reagan, in his diary, said that Sharon was "the bad guy who seemingly looks forward to a war." Reagan, Ronald edited by Douglas Brinkley (2007) The Reagan Diaries Harper Collins ISBN 978-0-06-0876005 p 63, Saturday, 16 January Sabra and Shatila massacre During the 1982 Lebanon War, while Sharon was Defense Minister, the Sabra and Shatila massacre took place, in which between 800 and 3,500 Palestinian civilians in the refugee camps were killed by the Phalanges—Lebanese Maronite Christian militias. The Security Chief of the Phalange militia, a Lebanese himself, Elie Hobeika, was the ground commander of the militiamen who entered the Palestinian camps and killed the Palestinians. The Phalange had been sent into the camps to clear out PLO fighters while Israeli forces surrounded the camps and provided them with some logistical support and guarded camp exits. The incident led some of Sharon's critics to refer to him as "the Butcher of Beirut". An Associated Press report on 15 September 1982 stated: Defense Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing [of the Phalangist leader Gemayel] to the PLO, saying: "It symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Sharon had used this to instigate the entrance of the Lebanese militias into the camps. The Kahan Commission found the Israeli Defence Forces indirectly responsible for the massacre and charged Sharon with "personal responsibility." It recommended in early 1983 the removal of Sharon from his post as Defense minister. In their recommendations and closing remarks, the commission stated: We have found, as has been detailed in this report, that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office - and if necessary, that the Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority under Section 21-A(a) of the Basic Law: the Government, according to which "the Prime Minister may, after informing the Cabinet of his intention to do so, remove a minister from office." Sharon initially refused to resign as Defense Minister, and Prime Minister Menachem Begin initially refused to fire him. After a grenade was tossed into a dispersing crowd of an Israeli Peace Now march, killing Emil Grunzweig and injuring 10 others, a compromise was reached: Sharon agreed to forfeit the post of Defense Minister but stayed in the cabinet as a Minister without Portfolio. Ariel Sharon's removal as Defense Minister is listed as one of the important events of the Tenth Knesset. In its 21 February 1983 issue, Time published a story implying Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon sued Time for libel in American and Israeli courts. Although the jury concluded that the Time story included false allegations, they found that Time had not acted with "actual malice" and did not award any damages. On 18 June 2001 relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in Belgium to have Sharon indicted on war crimes charges. In June 2002, a Brussels Appeals Court rejected the lawsuit because the law was subsequently changed to disallow such lawsuits unless a Belgian citizen is involved. Political downturn and recovery After his dismissal from the Defense Ministry post, Sharon remained in successive governments as a Minister without Portfolio (1983—1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984—1990), and Minister of Housing Construction (1990—1992). In the Knesset, he was member of the Foreign Affairs and Defence committee from (1990-1992) and Chairman of the committee overseeing Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union. During this period he was a rival to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of Likud. Their rivalry reached a head on the "Night of Microphones" in February 1990, when Sharon snapped the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?" The incident was widely viewed as an apparent coup attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party. In Benjamin Netanyahu's 1996–1999 government, Sharon was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996—1998), and Foreign Minister (1998—1999). Upon the election of the Barak Labor government, Sharon became leader of the Likud party. Campaign for Prime Minister, 2000-01 On 28 September 2000, Sharon and an escort of over 1,000 Israeli police officers visited the Temple Mount complex, site of the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, the holiest place in the world to Jews and the third holiest site in Islam. Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks. On the following day, a large number of Palestinian demonstrators and an Israeli police contingent confronted each other at the site. According to the U.S. State Department, “Palestinians held large demonstrations and threw stones at police in the vicinity of the Western Wall. Police used rubber-coated metal bullets and live ammunition to disperse the demonstrators, killing 4 persons and injuring about 200.” According to the GOI, 14 policemen were injured. Sharon's visit, a few months before his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities. Sharon's supporters point out that Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian National Authority planned the intifada months prior to Sharon's visit. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from Camp David negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions". According to the Mitchell Report, the government of Israel asserted that the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on 25 July 2000 and the “widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse.” In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at “provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative.” The Mitchell Report found that the Sharon visit did not cause the Al-Aqsa Intifada. But it was poorly timed and the provocative effect should have been foreseen; indeed, it was foreseen by those who urged that the visit be prohibited. More significant were the events that followed: The decision of the Israeli police on 29 September to use lethal means against the Palestinian demonstrators. In addition, the report stated, Accordingly, we have no basis on which to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the PA to initiate a campaign of violence at the first opportunity; or to conclude that there was a deliberate plan by the GOI to respond with lethal force. The Or Commission, an Israeli panel of inquiry appointed to investigate the October 2000 events, criticised the Israeli police for being unprepared for the riots and possibly using excessive force to disperse the mobs, resulting in the deaths of 12 Arab Israeli, one Jewish and one Palestinian citizens. Palestinians doubt the existence of popular support for Sharon's actions. Polls published in the media, as well as the 140% call-up of reservists (as opposed to the 60% in regular periods) seem to indicate that the Israeli public is quite supportive of Sharon's policies. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University's Jaffe Center in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believe that the Israel Defense Forces have succeeded in militarily countering the Al-Aqsa Intifada. Prime Minister After the collapse of Barak's government, Sharon was elected Prime Minister in February 2001. On 20 July 2004, Sharon called on French Jews to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in French anti-Semitism (94 anti-Semitic assaults reported in the first six months of 2004 compared to 47 in 2003). France has the fourth largest Jewish population (about 600,000 people), after the United States, Israel, and Russia. Sharon observed that an "unfettered anti-Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as "unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization CRIF, which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and French President Jacques Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them. Unilateral disengagement In May 2003, Sharon endorsed the Road Map for Peace put forth by the United States, European Union, and Russia, which opened a dialogue with Mahmud Abbas, and announced his commitment to the creation of a Palestinian state in the future. He has embarked on a course of unilateral withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. Sharon's plan has been welcomed by both the Palestinian Authority and Israel's left wing as a step towards a final peace settlement. However, it has been greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right wing Israelis, on national security, military, and religious grounds. Detractors of withdrawal plan Detractors have publicly distrusted Sharon's motives for this plan, and their suspicions were further roused after publication of an interview with top Sharon aide Dov Weisglass in the Israeli newspaper Haaretz on 8 October 2004, in which he explained Israel's motivation for withdrawing from Gaza. He told the newspaper: "Palestinian terrorism must end before a political process leading to a Palestinian state begins. Otherwise, the result would be a Palestinian state with terrorism. ... The Gaza withdrawal would allow Israel to delay negotiations, and a Palestinian state, until such time that their leadership abandons violence. The significance of the disengagement plan is the freezing of the peace process, and when you freeze that process, you prevent the establishment of a Palestinian state, and you prevent a discussion on the refugees, the borders and Jerusalem. Effectively, this whole package called the Palestinian state, with all that it entails, has been removed indefinitely from our agenda. And all this with authority and permission. All with a presidential blessing and the ratification of both houses of Congress. The disengagement is actually formaldehyde. It supplies the amount of formaldehyde that is necessary so there will not be a political process with the Palestinians." Disengagement from Gaza On 1 December 2004, Sharon dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government's 2005 budget. In January 2005 Sharon formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labor, and Meimad and Degel HaTorah as "out-of-government" supporters without any seats in the government (United Torah Judaism parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between 16 and 30 August 2005, Sharon controversially expelled 9,480 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza and four settlements in the northern West Bank. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead a group of conservative Rabbis, led by Rabbi Yosef Dayan, placed an ancient curse on him known as the Pulsa diNura, calling on the Angel of Death to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former synagogues, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on 11 September 2005 and closed the border fence at Kissufim. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate. On 27 September 2005, Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52-48 percent vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by Sharon's main rival, Binyamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader. Founding of Kadima On 21 November 2005, Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centrist party called Kadima ("Forward"). November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On 20 December 2005, Sharon's longtime rival Benjamin Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud. Following Sharon's incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced Sharon as Kadima's leader, for the nearing general elections. Netanyahu, along with Labor's Amir Peretz, were Kadima'''s chief rivals in the March 2006 elections. In the elections, which saw Israel's lowest-ever voter turnout of 75% (the number usually averages on the high 90%), Kadima, headed by Olmert, received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 includes Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minister, Labor (including Peretz as Defense Minster), the Gil (Pensioner's) Party, the Shas religious party, and Yisrael Beiteinu. Incapacitation and end of political career Stroke of December 2005 On 18 December 2005 Sharon was sent to Hadassah Medical Center after suffering a mild stroke, specifically a relatively unusual type called a paradoxical embolism, in which a clot from the venous circulation crosses over into the arterial circulation through a hole between the right and left atrium called an atrial septal defect (or a patent foramen ovale) and goes to the brain, causing a transient speech and motor disturbance. Sharon often joked about his own weight; in October 2004 when asked why he did not wear a ballistic vest despite frequent death threats, Sharon smiled and replied, "There is none that fits my size". No flak jacket in Sharon's size | AFP | Find Articles at BNET.com While this obesity in itself would not necessarily lead to a stroke, the associated conditions, such as high cholesterol, could. On his way to the hospital he lost consciousness but regained it shortly thereafter. He reportedly wanted to leave the hospital the evening after his arrival but the hospital wanted him to stay another day. He spent two days in the hospital and was to have had the small hole in his heart repaired by a cardiac catheterization procedure in early January. Stroke of January 2006 On 4 January 2006, in the evening before his catheterization, Sharon suffered a second, far more serious stroke at his Sycamore Ranch in the Negev region. A "massive cerebral haemorrhage" led to bleeding in his brain which doctors eventually brought under control the following morning after performing two separate operations. After the first operation, lasting seven hours, Hadassah Director Shlomo Mor-Yosef reported Sharon's bleeding had stopped and his brain was functioning without artificial support. Simon Jeffery. Sharon's condition critical after surgery, The Guardian , 5 January 2006. After a second, 14-hour surgery, Sharon was placed on a ventilator and some reports suggested that he was suffering from paralysis in his lower body, while others said he was still fighting for his life. He was placed in an induced coma and his Prime Ministerial duties were handed over to his deputy, Ehud Olmert. On Friday, 6 January, Sharon was brought back into the operating theatre after doctors reviewed the results of a brain scan. Hospital officials declined to comment on these reports. On the night of Sharon's stroke, in the wake of his serious illness and following consultations between Government Secretary Israel Maimon and Attorney General Menachem Mazuz, Sharon was declared "temporarily incapable of discharging his powers." As a result, Ehud Olmert, the Deputy Prime Minister, was officially confirmed as the Acting Prime Minister of Israel. Olmert and the Cabinet announced that the elections would take place on 28 March as scheduled. On 9 January, Haaretz reported that while performing tests on Sharon while treating his second stroke, doctors had discovered he was suffering from undiagnosed cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), a brain disorder which, in conjunction with blood thinners prescribed after his first stroke, greatly increased his risk of cerebral hemorrhage. Although some have insinuated that this news represents a failure on Hadassah's part to provide adequate care for Sharon, CAA can be very difficult to accurately diagnose, and is often only discovered after an individual suffers a brain hemorrhage. The following day, newspapers reported that Sharon's CAA had actually been diagnosed following his first stroke in December. This was confirmed by hospital director Mor-Yosef who commented that "Hadassah physicians were aware of the brain diagnosis, and no new diagnosis has been made during the current hospitalization." Mor-Yosef declined to respond to criticism of the combination of blood thinners and a CAA diagnosis, though Haaretz quoted some doctors as saying the medication led to the second stroke and that it would never have been given if doctors had known about his brain condition. Mark Willacy, Israeli PM Sharon moves left side, ABC News, 10 January 2006. Sharon underwent subsequent surgeries the following month. On 11 February 2006, doctors performed emergency surgery to remove 50-cm of his large intestine that had become necrotic, probably because of a blood clot. Judy Siegel-Itzkovich, PM 'stable' after emergency surgery, Jerusalem Post, 11 February 2006. On 22 February, he underwent an additional procedure to drain excess fluid from his stomach, discovered during a routine CT scan. Comatose Sharon has stomach drained, CNN, 23 February 2006. Criticism Several commentators have noted that Sharon's care was potentially flawed. Most seriously, after his second stroke, Sharon was transported by ground ambulance to the hospital, a trip that took approximately one hour. Helicopter transport was not utilized. BBC NEWS | Middle East | Israeli PM suffers serious stroke Also, other commentators have said that the dose of blood thinner given to Sharon was potentially problematic for someone who had recently suffered a stroke. Sharon felled by medicine side effect / Rare consequence of blood-thinner to prevent new stroke Replacement by Ehud Olmert According to Israeli law, an Acting Prime Minister can remain in office 100 days after the Prime Minister has become incapacitated. After 100 days, the Israeli President must appoint a new Prime Minister. At the time of his stroke, Sharon enjoyed considerable support from the general public in Israel. The new centrist political party that he founded, Kadima, won the largest number of seats in the Knesset elections held on 28 March 2006. (Since Sharon was unable to sign a nomination form, he was not a candidate and therefore ceased to be a Knesset member.) On 6 April, President of Israel Moshe Katsav formally asked Ehud Olmert to form a government, making him Prime Minister-Designate. Olmert had an initial period of 28 days to form a governing coalition, with a possible two-week extension. On 11 April 2006, the Israeli Cabinet deemed that Sharon was incapacitated. Although Sharon's replacement was to be named within 100 days of his becoming incapacitated, the replacement deadline was extended due to the Jewish festival of Passover. A provision was made that, should Sharon's condition improve between 11 April and 14 April, the declaration would not take effect. Therefore, the official declaration took effect on 14 April, formally ending Sharon's term as Prime Minister and making Ehud Olmert the country's new Prime Minister. Subsequent care On 28 May 2006, Sharon was transferred from the hospital in Jerusalem to a long-term care unit of the Sheba Medical Center in Tel HaShomer, a large civilian and military hospital. Ha'aretz reported that this move was an indication that Sharon's doctors did not expect him to emerge from his coma in the foreseeable future. Dr. Yuli Krieger, a physician not involved in Sharon's case, told Israel Radio that the chances of waking up after such a lengthy coma were small. "Every day that passes after this kind of event with the patient still unconscious the chances that he will gain consciousness get smaller," said Krieger, Deputy Head of Levinstein House, another long-term care facility. On 23 July 2006, CNN reported that Sharon's condition was deteriorating and his kidney function was worsening. On 26 July 2006 doctors moved him to intensive care and began hemofiltration. On 14 August 2006 doctors reported that Sharon's condition worsened significantly and that he was suffering from pneumonia in both lungs. Sharon's health deteriorates - UPI.com On 29 August, doctors reported that he had been successfully treated for his pneumonia and moved out of intensive care back to the long-term care unit. RTÉ News: Sharon is out of intensive care On 3 November 2006, it was reported that Sharon had been admitted to intensive care after contracting an infection, though doctors insisted that his condition was 'stable'. He was moved out of the intensive care unit on 6 November 2006 after treatment for a heart infection. Doctors stated that "his heart function has improved after being treated for an infection and his overall condition has stabilised". Sharon leaves intensive care unit, BBC Sharon has remained in a long-term care centre since 6 November 2006. BBC NEWS | Middle East | Sharon leaves intensive care unit . Medical experts have indicated that Sharon's cognitive abilities were destroyed by the massive stroke, and that he is in a persistent vegetative state with extremely slim chances of regaining consciousness. On 13 April 2007, it was reported that Sharon's condition had slightly improved and that according to his son, Omri, he was marginally responsive. Sharon’s Condition Is Said to Improve, Reuters On 26 February 2009 he turned 81, still comatose but in a stable condition. Comatose former Israeli Prime Minister turns 81, The Times, 26th February 2009. Notes References Ben Shaul, Moshe, Ed. Generals of Israel. Tel-Aviv: Hadar Publishing House, Ltd., 1968. International Campaign for Justice for the Victims of Sabra & Shatila. Barzilai, Gad.Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996. ISBN 0-7914-2943-1 Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (3rd ed. 2001). London: Oxford University Press; 727 pages. ISBN 0-19-280130-9 Fisk, Robert: The Great War for Civilisation - The Conquest of the Middle East; (October 2005) London. Fourth Estate, 1168 pages. ISBN 1-84115-007-X Uri Dan, Ariel Sharon: An Intimate Portrait, Palgrave Macmillan, October 2006, 320 pages. ISBN 1-4039-7790-9 Baruch Kimmerling, "Politicide: Ariel Sharon's War Against the Palestinians", Verso, 2006. ISBN 1-85984-517-7 Ariel Sharon, with David Chanoff "Warrior: The Autobiography of Ariel Sharon", Simon & Shuster, 2001, ISBN 0-671-60555-0 Nir Hefez, Gadi Bloom, translated by Mitch Ginsburg, "Ariel Sharon: A Life", Random House, October 2006,512 pages, ISBN 1-4000-6587-9 Freddy Eytan, translated by Robert Davies, "Ariel Sharon - a Life in Times of Turmoil", translation of "Sharon: le bra de fer", Studio 8 Books and Music, 2006, ISBN 1-55027-091-3 Abraham Rabinovich, "The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East" Ariel Sharon, official biography, Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ronald Reagan edited by Douglas Brinkley (2007) The Reagan Diaries'' Harper Collins ISBN 978-0-06-0876005 See also Ouze Merham External links Ariel Sharon's Biography - Detailed account of his military and political career Ariel Sharon Ariel Sharon: Return to the Temple Mount Ariel Sharon: an Israeli Caligula The Sabra and Shatila Massacres (16-18 September 1982) Timeline of key events in Sharon's life Ariel Sharon Profile, ynet news lexicon Biography of Ariel Sharon at cnn.com Prominent People - Sharon, Ariel "Arik" Phonecall - An authentic recording of Ariel Sharon talking to a soldier positioned at one of the Suez Channel bunkers at the beginning of the Yom Kippur War. Sharon's speech on 30th anniversary of Yom Kippur War New Tapes Stir Controversy on Follies, Successes of Yom Kippur War Ariel Sharon - The Eleventh Prime Minister of Israel Booknotes interview with Sharon on Warrior: An Autobiography, 17 September 1989. | Ariel_Sharon |@lemmatized also:5 know:5 diminutive:1 arik:2 א:1 ריק:1 born:1 ariel:22 scheinermann:1 אריאל:1 שיינרמן:1 february:11 israeli:39 general:8 statesman:1 former:4 prime:27 minister:45 sharon:162 serve:2 march:6 april:7 though:4 unable:2 carry:2 duty:5 suffer:7 stroke:17 january:11 fell:3 coma:4 enter:4 persistent:2 vegetative:2 state:19 lengthy:2 career:8 controversial:2 figure:1 among:2 many:5 faction:1 inside:2 outside:1 israel:26 government:17 establish:2 kahan:2 commission:4 investigate:2 involvement:1 sabra:6 shatila:5 massacre:8 subsequently:2 find:8 bore:1 indirect:1 responsibility:4 specifically:2 disregard:1 prospect:1 act:3 vengeance:1 bloodshed:1 phalangist:2 population:2 refugee:3 camp:9 fail:2 take:12 danger:1 account:2 kelly:1 james:1 meaning:1 malice:2 time:12 magazine:1 june:4 resign:4 defence:3 ministry:3 remain:5 cabinet:6 without:5 portfolio:3 tenure:2 policy:4 cause:3 rift:1 within:7 likud:18 party:26 ultimately:1 leave:10 form:7 new:12 call:11 kadima:9 become:17 first:13 belong:1 either:1 labor:10 two:11 traditionally:1 dominate:1 politics:2 create:2 ehud:7 olmert:11 step:2 leader:7 ill:1 midst:1 election:17 season:1 win:7 knesset:8 seat:6 senior:2 coalition:3 partner:1 follow:10 rise:2 second:8 netanyahu:6 member:4 loyal:1 opposition:2 mainly:1 responsible:4 unilateral:3 withdrawal:5 force:17 gaza:10 strip:3 evacuation:1 jewish:13 settlement:10 measure:2 welcome:2 political:13 diplomatic:2 circle:1 around:1 world:3 right:4 wing:3 respond:4 anger:1 perplexity:1 military:13 attain:1 rank:4 major:3 early:5 life:5 bear:2 kfar:2 malal:2 british:3 mandate:2 palestine:2 family:2 lithuanian:1 jew:4 shmuel:2 sheinerman:1 brest:2 litovsk:1 belarus:1 dvora:2 formerly:1 vera:1 mogilev:1 father:2 study:4 agronomy:1 university:8 tbilisi:1 georgia:1 georgian:1 ssr:1 mother:2 start:4 fourth:3 year:10 medical:4 couple:1 marry:3 immigrate:1 russia:3 flee:1 red:1 army:6 apart:1 hebrew:3 speak:3 yiddish:1 russian:2 son:6 learn:1 young:1 boy:1 arrive:1 aliyah:1 settle:1 socialist:2 secular:1 community:4 despite:3 mapai:2 supporter:4 contrarian:1 prevailing:1 consensus:1 scheinermans:1 eventual:1 ostracism:1 arlozorov:1 murder:3 refuse:3 endorse:2 movement:6 anti:5 revisionist:1 calumny:1 participate:1 bolshevic:1 style:1 public:3 revilement:1 rally:1 order:4 day:13 retribution:1 quick:1 come:2 expel:1 local:1 health:2 fund:1 clinic:1 village:2 synagogue:2 cooperative:1 truck:1 make:7 delivery:1 farm:1 collect:1 produce:1 four:2 arrival:2 sheinermans:1 daughter:1 yehudit:1 dita:1 age:2 zionist:1 youth:2 hassadeh:1 field:1 join:5 gadna:1 paramilitary:2 battalion:3 later:7 haganah:2 underground:1 precursor:1 defense:14 idf:2 war:23 suez:6 crisis:1 creation:2 transformation:1 platoon:1 commander:7 alexandroni:1 brigade:8 severely:1 wound:1 groin:1 jordanian:1 arab:7 legion:1 battle:4 latrun:1 unsuccessful:1 attempt:3 relieve:2 besieged:1 jerusalem:6 injury:1 eventually:5 heal:1 september:8 promote:1 company:1 golani:1 reconnaissance:2 unit:13 intelligence:1 officer:2 central:3 command:4 begin:10 history:2 middle:7 eastern:1 culture:1 half:2 ask:4 return:7 active:2 service:3 special:2 undertook:1 series:1 raid:2 palestinian:29 neighbor:1 help:1 bolster:1 morale:1 fortify:1 deterrent:1 image:1 target:2 civilian:5 notably:1 widely:3 condemn:2 qibya:1 fall:1 child:1 kill:8 troop:2 reprisal:1 attack:7 west:3 bank:3 documentary:1 recall:1 happen:1 heavily:1 western:2 nation:2 include:5 u:5 summon:1 see:3 ben:3 gurion:2 meet:2 say:11 let:1 tell:3 one:6 thing:2 matter:3 anywhere:1 else:1 exist:1 land:1 forefather:1 unless:2 show:3 high:3 price:1 pay:1 survive:1 shortly:3 afterwards:1 month:6 founding:2 merge:2 paratrooper:3 latter:1 continue:1 culminate:1 qalqilyah:1 police:7 station:1 autumn:1 attend:1 oriental:1 widow:1 twice:1 instructor:1 wife:1 margalit:3 gur:2 die:3 car:1 accident:1 may:6 october:9 friend:1 shot:1 play:1 rifle:1 death:4 younger:1 sister:1 lily:2 omri:2 gil:2 ad:1 cancer:1 infantry:3 studied:1 law:5 tel:5 aviv:4 mitla:5 incident:4 operation:4 musketeer:1 ground:5 east:7 sinai:4 pas:11 successfully:2 part:2 mission:1 parachute:1 near:2 rest:2 move:11 deploy:1 neither:1 aircraft:1 scout:3 report:19 enemy:2 whose:1 initially:3 head:11 away:1 superior:2 increasingly:1 concern:1 possibility:2 thrust:1 could:3 flank:1 rear:1 permission:3 several:6 request:2 deny:2 allow:2 check:1 status:1 empty:1 receive:3 send:4 small:4 heavy:1 fire:2 bogged:1 due:2 vehicle:1 malfunction:1 aid:1 comrade:1 ensue:2 successful:1 capture:1 soldier:4 criticize:1 damage:2 allegation:2 subordinate:1 claim:4 try:3 provoke:3 egyptian:5 bad:2 faith:1 ensure:1 would:9 deliberate:3 consider:2 strategically:1 reckless:1 expect:2 withdraw:3 six:3 yom:7 kippur:7 hinder:1 meantime:1 occupy:2 position:5 degree:1 yitzhak:3 rabin:2 associate:1 chief:4 staff:2 however:4 rapidly:1 school:1 training:1 branch:1 achieve:1 aluf:1 powerful:1 armored:1 division:5 front:2 breakthrough:1 kusseima:1 abu:2 ageila:2 fortified:1 area:1 appoint:4 southern:1 promotion:1 retire:2 august:4 soon:1 unity:2 back:4 along:2 assigned:1 reserve:2 armor:1 engage:1 immediately:3 cover:1 darkness:1 point:3 canal:4 prepare:1 bridge:1 equipment:1 throw:2 across:1 bridgehead:2 north:1 towards:2 ismailia:1 intent:1 cut:2 supply:2 line:1 halt:1 south:1 fresh:1 water:1 dr:2 george:1 w:1 gawrych:1 alabatross:1 decisive:1 victory:2 p:3 abraham:2 adan:1 bren:1 pass:2 africa:1 advance:2 kilometer:1 cairo:1 manage:1 encircle:2 third:2 surrender:1 ceasefire:1 tension:1 decision:3 tribunal:1 action:2 militarily:2 effective:1 regard:2 turn:3 thus:1 view:4 hero:1 save:1 defeat:2 photo:1 wear:2 bandage:1 famous:1 symbol:1 prowess:1 aggressive:1 beginning:2 seem:2 personally:1 devote:1 ideal:1 predecessor:1 modern:1 instrumental:1 july:6 merger:1 herut:1 liberal:2 independent:1 element:1 chairman:3 campaign:5 schedule:2 november:7 week:2 erupt:1 aide:2 plan:11 replace:3 menachem:3 suggest:2 simha:1 erlich:1 bloc:1 fitting:1 reject:5 centrist:3 democratic:1 change:2 list:2 shlomtzion:2 subsequent:3 agriculture:1 relatively:2 little:1 experience:1 period:4 support:5 gush:1 emunim:1 patron:1 settler:3 use:5 encourage:1 establishment:2 network:1 occupied:1 territory:2 prevent:4 double:1 number:4 address:2 meeting:1 tzomet:1 everybody:1 run:1 grab:2 judean:1 hilltop:1 enlarge:1 everything:2 stay:3 go:3 reward:1 important:2 contribution:1 narrow:1 president:5 ronald:3 reagan:5 diary:3 guy:1 seemingly:1 look:1 forward:2 edit:2 douglas:2 brinkley:2 harper:2 collins:2 isbn:10 saturday:1 lebanon:2 place:6 phalanx:1 lebanese:4 maronite:1 christian:2 militia:3 security:3 phalange:2 elie:1 hobeika:1 militiaman:1 clear:2 plo:3 fighter:1 surround:1 provide:3 logistical:1 guard:1 exit:1 lead:6 critic:1 refer:1 butcher:1 beirut:1 associated:2 press:3 statement:2 tie:1 gemayel:2 symbolise:1 terrorist:2 murderousness:1 organisation:1 habib:1 chartouni:1 syrian:1 national:5 confess:1 involve:3 instigate:1 entrance:1 indirectly:1 charge:2 personal:3 recommend:1 removal:2 post:4 recommendation:1 closing:1 remark:1 detail:1 opinion:2 fit:2 draw:1 appropriate:1 conclusion:1 arise:2 defect:2 reveal:1 manner:1 discharge:2 office:4 necessary:2 whether:1 exercise:1 authority:5 section:1 basic:1 accord:6 inform:1 intention:1 remove:3 grenade:1 toss:1 disperse:3 crowd:1 peace:5 emil:1 grunzweig:1 injure:3 others:2 compromise:1 reach:2 agree:1 forfeit:1 event:6 tenth:1 issue:2 publish:2 story:2 imply:1 directly:1 sued:1 libel:1 american:1 court:2 although:3 jury:1 conclude:3 false:1 actual:1 award:1 relative:1 victim:2 proceeding:1 belgium:1 indict:1 crime:1 brussels:1 appeal:1 lawsuit:2 disallow:1 belgian:1 citizen:2 downturn:1 recovery:1 dismissal:1 successive:1 trade:1 industry:1 housing:1 construction:1 foreign:3 affair:2 committee:4 oversee:1 immigration:1 soviet:1 union:2 rival:4 shamir:3 various:1 bid:1 rivalry:1 night:2 microphone:2 snap:1 famously:1 exclaim:1 wipe:1 terrorism:3 apparent:1 coup:1 leadership:4 benjamin:2 infrastructure:1 upon:2 barak:2 escort:1 visit:9 temple:2 mount:2 complex:2 site:4 dome:1 rock:1 al:3 aqsa:3 mosque:2 holy:2 islam:1 declare:2 perpetual:1 control:3 commentator:3 accuse:1 purposely:1 inflame:1 emotion:1 violent:1 response:1 obstruct:1 success:2 delicate:1 ongoing:1 talk:2 following:2 large:6 demonstrator:3 contingent:1 confront:1 department:1 palestinians:1 hold:2 demonstration:1 stone:1 vicinity:1 wall:1 rubber:1 coat:1 metal:1 bullet:1 live:1 ammunition:1 person:1 goi:2 policeman:1 archeologist:1 extensive:1 building:1 destroy:2 priceless:1 antiquity:1 yasser:2 arafat:2 intifada:4 prior:1 jabril:1 rajoub:1 assurance:1 problem:1 often:3 quote:2 official:4 particularly:1 imad:1 falouji:1 communication:1 admit:2 violence:5 far:3 carefully:1 since:3 david:3 negotiation:3 condition:12 mitchell:2 assert:1 immediate:1 catalyst:1 breakdown:1 widespread:1 appreciation:1 international:2 impasse:1 pa:2 aim:1 incur:1 casualty:1 mean:2 regain:3 initiative:1 poorly:1 provocative:1 effect:4 foreseen:2 indeed:1 urge:1 prohibit:1 significant:1 lethal:2 addition:1 accordingly:1 basis:1 initiate:2 opportunity:1 panel:1 inquiry:1 criticise:1 unprepared:1 riot:1 possibly:1 excessive:1 mob:1 result:4 doubt:1 existence:1 popular:2 poll:3 medium:1 well:1 reservist:1 oppose:1 regular:1 indicate:3 quite:1 supportive:1 survey:1 conduct:1 jaffe:1 center:3 believe:1 succeed:1 counter:1 collapse:1 elect:2 french:6 emigrate:1 france:4 light:1 increase:2 semitism:3 semitic:1 assault:1 compare:1 people:2 united:3 observe:1 unfettered:1 reign:1 describe:2 comment:3 unacceptable:1 representative:2 organization:1 crif:1 intense:1 society:1 spokesperson:1 misunderstand:1 postpone:1 jacques:1 chirac:1 willingness:1 put:2 behind:1 disengagement:4 road:1 map:1 forth:1 european:1 open:1 dialogue:1 mahmud:1 abbas:1 announce:2 commitment:1 future:2 embark:1 course:1 maintain:1 coastline:1 airspace:1 final:1 greet:1 religious:2 detractor:2 publicly:1 distrust:1 motif:1 suspicion:1 rouse:1 publication:1 interview:2 top:1 dov:1 weisglass:1 newspaper:3 haaretz:3 explain:1 motivation:1 must:2 end:3 process:4 otherwise:1 delay:1 abandon:1 significance:1 freezing:1 freeze:1 discussion:1 border:2 effectively:1 whole:1 package:1 entail:1 indefinitely:1 agenda:1 presidential:1 blessing:1 ratification:1 house:4 congress:1 actually:2 formaldehyde:2 amount:1 december:5 dismiss:1 five:1 shinui:1 vote:2 budget:1 meimad:1 degel:1 hatorah:1 torah:1 judaism:1 usually:2 ministerial:2 controversially:1 expelled:1 northern:1 eviction:1 definitely:1 ahead:1 group:1 conservative:1 rabbi:2 yosef:4 dayan:1 ancient:1 curse:1 pulsa:1 dinura:1 angel:1 intervene:1 bulldoze:1 every:2 structure:1 except:1 formally:3 close:1 fence:1 kissufim:1 spark:1 bitter:1 protest:2 electorate:1 narrowly:1 challenge:1 percent:1 govern:3 main:1 binyamin:1 primary:1 choose:1 dissolve:1 parliament:1 likely:1 ministership:1 longtime:1 successor:1 incapacitation:2 nearing:1 amir:1 peretz:2 saw:1 low:2 ever:1 voter:1 turnout:1 average:1 instal:1 minster:1 pensioner:1 shas:1 yisrael:1 beiteinu:1 hadassah:4 mild:1 unusual:1 type:1 paradoxical:1 embolism:1 clot:2 venous:1 circulation:2 cross:1 arterial:1 hole:2 atrium:1 atrial:1 septal:1 patent:1 foramen:1 ovale:1 brain:8 transient:1 speech:2 motor:1 disturbance:1 joke:1 weight:1 ballistic:1 vest:1 frequent:1 threat:1 smile:1 reply:1 none:1 size:2 flak:1 jacket:1 afp:1 article:1 bnet:1 com:3 obesity:1 necessarily:1 cholesterol:1 way:1 hospital:9 lose:1 consciousness:3 thereafter:1 reportedly:1 want:2 evening:2 another:2 spend:1 heart:3 repair:1 cardiac:1 catheterization:2 procedure:2 serious:3 sycamore:1 ranch:1 negev:1 region:1 massive:2 cerebral:3 haemorrhage:1 bleed:1 doctor:12 bring:2 morning:1 perform:3 separate:1 last:1 seven:1 hour:3 director:2 shlomo:1 mor:3 bleeding:1 stop:1 function:3 artificial:1 simon:2 jeffery:1 critical:1 surgery:4 guardian:1 ventilator:1 paralysis:1 body:1 still:3 fight:1 induced:1 hand:1 deputy:3 friday:1 operating:1 theatre:1 review:1 scan:2 decline:2 wake:2 illness:1 consultation:1 secretary:1 maimon:1 attorney:1 mazuz:1 temporarily:1 incapable:1 power:1 officially:1 confirm:2 test:1 treat:3 discover:3 undiagnosed:1 amyloid:1 angiopathy:1 caa:4 disorder:1 conjunction:1 blood:5 thinner:4 prescribe:1 greatly:1 risk:1 hemorrhage:2 insinuate:1 news:6 represent:1 failure:1 adequate:1 care:14 difficult:1 accurately:1 diagnose:2 individual:1 suffers:2 physician:2 aware:1 diagnosis:3 current:1 hospitalization:1 criticism:2 combination:1 medication:1 never:1 give:2 mark:1 willacy:1 pm:3 side:2 abc:1 underwent:1 surgeries:1 emergency:2 cm:1 intestine:1 necrotic:1 probably:1 judy:1 siegel:1 itzkovich:1 stable:3 undergo:1 additional:1 drain:2 excess:1 fluid:1 stomach:2 routine:1 ct:1 comatose:3 cnn:3 note:2 potentially:2 flaw:1 seriously:1 transport:2 ambulance:1 trip:1 approximately:1 helicopter:1 utilized:1 bbc:3 dose:1 problematic:1 someone:1 recently:1 medicine:1 rare:1 consequence:1 replacement:3 acting:1 incapacitate:3 enjoy:1 considerable:1 found:1 sign:1 nomination:1 candidate:1 therefore:2 cease:1 moshe:2 katsav:1 designate:1 initial:1 possible:1 extension:1 deem:1 name:1 deadline:1 extend:1 festival:1 passover:1 provision:1 improve:4 declaration:2 term:5 country:1 transfer:1 long:4 sheba:1 hashomer:1 ha:1 aretz:1 indication:1 emerge:1 foreseeable:1 yuli:1 krieger:2 case:1 radio:1 chance:3 kind:1 patient:1 unconscious:1 gain:1 get:1 levinstein:1 facility:1 deteriorate:1 kidney:1 worsen:2 intensive:7 hemofiltration:1 significantly:1 pneumonia:2 lung:1 deteriorates:1 upi:1 rté:1 contract:1 infection:3 insist:1 treatment:1 overall:1 stabilise:1 centre:1 expert:1 cognitive:1 ability:1 extremely:1 slim:1 slightly:1 marginally:1 responsive:1 reuters:1 reference:1 shaul:1 ed:2 hadar:1 publishing:1 ltd:1 justice:1 barzilai:1 gad:1 internal:1 conflict:1 democracy:1 albany:1 york:1 pity:1 london:2 oxford:1 page:4 fisk:1 robert:2 great:1 civilisation:1 conquest:1 estate:1 x:1 uri:1 dan:1 intimate:1 portrait:1 palgrave:1 macmillan:1 baruch:1 kimmerling:1 politicide:1 verso:1 chanoff:1 warrior:2 autobiography:2 shuster:1 nir:1 hefez:1 gadi:1 bloom:1 translate:2 mitch:1 ginsburg:1 random:1 freddy:1 eytan:1 davy:1 turmoil:1 translation:1 le:1 bra:1 de:1 fer:1 studio:1 book:1 music:1 rabinovich:1 epic:1 encounter:1 transform:1 biography:3 ouze:1 merham:1 external:1 link:1 detailed:1 caligula:1 timeline:1 key:1 profile:1 ynet:1 lexicon:1 prominent:1 phonecall:1 authentic:1 recording:1 channel:1 bunker:1 anniversary:1 tape:1 stir:1 controversy:1 folly:1 eleventh:1 booknotes:1 |@bigram prime_minister:25 persistent_vegetative:2 sabra_shatila:5 shatila_massacre:4 ehud_olmert:7 unilateral_withdrawal:2 gaza_strip:3 ariel_sharon:19 mandate_palestine:2 brest_litovsk:1 tbilisi_georgia:1 georgian_ssr:1 suez_crisis:1 ben_gurion:2 anywhere_else:1 shortly_afterwards:1 infantry_brigade:2 tel_aviv:4 battalion_parachute:1 flank_rear:1 yom_kippur:7 yitzhak_rabin:2 chief_staff:1 suez_canal:2 decisive_victory:1 minister_yitzhak:2 menachem_begin:2 gush_emunim:1 occupied_territory:1 ronald_reagan:2 reagan_ronald:1 douglas_brinkley:2 harper_collins:2 foreign_affair:2 soviet_union:1 yitzhak_shamir:1 al_aqsa:3 aqsa_mosque:1 yasser_arafat:2 aqsa_intifada:2 anti_semitism:3 anti_semitic:1 jacques_chirac:1 disengagement_plan:1 rabbi_yosef:1 opinion_poll:1 binyamin_netanyahu:1 prime_ministership:1 voter_turnout:1 foramen_ovale:1 ballistic_vest:1 article_bnet:1 bnet_com:1 shortly_thereafter:1 cerebral_hemorrhage:1 brain_hemorrhage:1 blood_clot:1 ct_scan:1 bbc_news:2 ha_aretz:1 foreseeable_future:1 upi_com:1 rté_news:1 barzilai_gad:1 palgrave_macmillan:1 simon_shuster:1 de_fer:1 external_link:1 cnn_com:1 stir_controversy:1 |
921 | Edward_Plunkett,_18th_Baron_of_Dunsany | Edward John Moreton Drax Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany (24 July, 1878 – 25 October, 1957) was an Anglo-Irish writer and dramatist, notable for his work, mostly in fantasy, published under the name Lord Dunsany. More than eighty books of his work were published, and his oeuvre includes many hundreds of published short stories, as well as successful plays, novels and essays. Born to one of the oldest titles in the Irish peerage, Dunsany lived much of his life at perhaps Ireland's longest-inhabited home, Dunsany Castle near Tara, worked with W.B. Yeats and Lady Gregory, received an honorary doctorate from Trinity College, was chess and pistol-shooting champion of Ireland, and travelled and hunted extensively. He died in Dublin after an attack of appendicitis. Biographical summary Edward Plunkett (Dunsany) was the first son of John William Plunkett, 17th Baron of Dunsany (1853–1899) and his wife, Ernle Elizabeth Louisa Maria Grosvenor Ernle-Erle-Drax, née Ernle Elizabeth Louisa Jessica Burton (1855-1916). From an historically wealthy and famous family, Dunsany was related to many other well-known Irish figures. He was a kinsman of the Catholic Saint Oliver Plunkett, the martyred Archbishop of Armagh. His mother was a cousin of Sir Richard Burton, and he inherited from her considerable height, being 6' 4". The Countess of Fingall, wife of Dunsany's cousin, the Earl of Fingall, wrote a best-selling account of the life of the aristocracy in Ireland in the late 19th century and early 20th century, called Seventy Years Young. Plunkett's only sibling, a younger brother, from whom he was later estranged, was the noted British naval officer, Admiral The Honourable Sir Reginald Aylmer Ranfurly Plunkett-Ernle-Erle-Drax. Early life Edward Plunkett grew up at the family properties, most notably (Dunstall Priory) in Shoreham, Kent and Dunsany Castle in County Meath but also family homes such as in London. His schooling was at Cheam, Eton and finally Sandhurst, which he entered in 1896. Lady Dunsany, Beatrice Child Villiers The title passed to him at his father's death at a fairly young age, in 1899, and Dunsany returned to Dunsany Castle after war duty, in 1901. In 1903, he met Lady Beatrice Child Villiers (1880-1970), youngest daughter of the 7th Earl of Jersey (head of the Jersey banking family), living at Osterley Park, and they were married in 1904. Their only child, Randal, was born in 1906. Beatrice was supportive, and assisted Dunsany in his writing, typing his manuscripts, selecting work for his 1950s retrospective short story collection, and overseeing his literary heritage after his death. The Dunsanys were socially active in both Dublin and London, and travelled between their homes in Meath, London and Kent, other than during World Wars I and II, and the Irish War of Independence. Dunsany himself circulated with the literary figures of the time, to many of whom he was first introduced by his uncle, the co-operative pioneer Horace Plunkett, who also helped to manage his estate and investments for a time. He was friendly with, for example, George William Russell, Oliver St. John Gogarty and, for a time, W. B. Yeats. Interests Dunsany was a keen hunter (for many years hosting the hounds of a local hunt, as well as hunting in parts of Africa) and sportsman, and was at one time the pistol-shooting champion of Ireland. He enjoyed cricket, provided the local cricket ground situated near Dunsany Crossroads, and later played for and presided at Shoreham Cricket Club. Dunsany was a keen chess player, set chess puzzles for journals including The Times (of London), played Capablanca to a draw, and also invented Dunsany's chess, an asymmetric chess variant that is notable for not involving any fairy pieces, unlike many variants that require the player to learn unconventional piece movements. He was president of both the Irish Chess Union and the Kent County Chess Association for some years, and of Sevenoaks Chess Club for 54 years. Dunsany campaigned for animal rights, being known especially for his opposition to the "docking" of dogs' tails, and was president of the West Kent branch of the RSPCA in his later years. He was a supporter of scouting over many years, serving as President of the Sevenoaks district Boy Scouts Association. He also supported the amateur drama group, the Shoreham Players. Dunsany provided support for the British Legion in both Ireland and Kent, including grounds in Trim and poetry for the Irish branch's annual memorial service on a number of occasions. Military experience Dunsany as Captain, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers, World War I Dunsany served as a Second Lieutenant in the Coldstream Guards during the Second Boer War and as a Captain in the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers in World War I, when he was wounded. Having been refused forward positioning in 1916, being listed as valuable as a trainer, in the latter stages of the war he spent time in the trenches, and in the very last period wrote material for the War Office. Dunsany signed-up for the local defence forces of both Ireland and the United Kingdom during World War II, and was especially active in Shoreham in Kent, the most-bombed village in the Battle of Britain. Literary life Dunsany's fame arose chiefly from his prolific writings, and he was involved with the Irish Literary Revival. Supporting the Revival, Dunsany was a major donor to the Abbey Theatre, and he moved in Irish literary circles. He was well-acquainted with W. B. Yeats (who rarely acted as editor, but gathered and published a Dunsany selection), Lady Gregory, Percy French, "AE" Russell, Oliver St John Gogarty, Padraic Colum (with whom he jointly wrote a play) and others. He befriended and supported Francis Ledwidge to whom he gave the use of his library A Dictionary of Irish History since 1800, D. J. Hickey & J. E. Doherty, Gill & MacMillan (1980) . Lord Dunsany, New York, 1919 Dunsany made his first literary tour to the USA in 1919, and made further such visits right up to the 1950s, notably to California. Dunsany's own work, and contribution to the Irish literary heritage, was recognised through an honorary degree from Trinity College, Dublin. Later life In the 1930s, Dunsany transferred his Meath estate to his son and heir under a trust, and settled in Shoreham, Kent, at his Kent property, not far from the home of Rudyard Kipling, a friend, and visiting Ireland only occasionally thereafter. In 1940, Dunsany was appointed Byron Professor of English in Athens University, Greece but had to be evacuated due to wartime disruptions, returning home by a circuitous route, his travels forming a basis for a long poem published in book form. Olivia Manning's character "Lord Pinkrose" in her novel sequence the Fortunes of War was a mocking portrait of Dunsany during this period. Death In 1957, Lord Dunsany took ill while eating with the Earl and Countess of Fingall, in what proved to be an attack of appendicitis, and died in hospital in Dublin. He had directed that he be buried in the churchyard of the ancient church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Shoreham, Kent, in memory of shared war times. His funeral was attended by a wide range of family (including Pakenham, Jersey and Fingal) and Shoreham figures, and representatives of his old regiment and various bodies in which he had taken an interest. A memorial service was held at Kilmessan, Meath, with a reading of "Crossing the Bar" which was noted as coinciding with a passing flock of geese. Lady Beatrice survived Lord Dunsany, living on primarily at Shoreham, overseeing his literary legacy until her death in 1970, while their son, Randal, succeeded him to the Barony, and was in turn succeeded by his grandson, to whom literary rights passed directly. Writings Dunsany was a prolific writer, penning short stories, novels, plays, poetry, essays and autobiography, and publishing over sixty books, not including individual plays. He began his authorial career in the late 1890s, with a few published verses, such as "Rhymes from a Suburb" and "The Spirit of the Bog", but he made a lasting impression in 1905 when he burst onto the publishing scene with the well-received collection The Gods of Pegāna. Dunsany's most notable fantasy short stories were published in collections from 1905 to 1919. He paid for the publication of the first such collection, The Gods of Pegāna, earning a commission on sales. This he never again had to do, the vast majority of his extensive writings selling. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 53 ISBN 0-87054-076-9. The stories in his first two books, and perhaps the beginning of his third, were set within an invented world, Pegāna, with its own gods, history and geography. Starting with this book, Dunsany's name is linked to that of Sidney Sime, his chosen artist, who illustrated much of his work, notably until 1922. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 54-5 ISBN 0-87054-076-9. Dunsany's style varied significantly throughout his writing career. Prominent Dunsany scholar S. T. Joshi has described these shifts as Dunsany moving on after he felt he had exhausted the potential of a style or medium. From the naïve fantasy of his earliest writings, through his early short story work in 1904-1908, he turned to the self-conscious fantasy of The Book of Wonder in 1912, in which he almost seems to be parodying his lofty early style. Each of his collections varies in mood; A Dreamer's Tales varies from the wistfulness of "Blagdaross" to the horrors of "Poor Old Bill" and "Where the Tides Ebb and Flow" to the social satire of "The Day of the Poll." The opening paragraph of "The Hoard of the Gibbelins" from The Book of Wonder, (1912) gives a good indication of both the tone and tenor of Dunsany's style at the time: The Gibbelins eat, as is well known, nothing less good than man. Their evil tower is joined to Terra Cognita, to the lands we know, by a bridge. Their hoard is beyond reason; avarice has no use for it; they have a separate cellar for emeralds and a separate cellar for sapphires; they have filled a hole with gold and dig it up when they need it. And the only use that is known for their ridiculous wealth is to attract to their larder a continual supply of food. In times of famine they have even been known to scatter rubies abroad, a little trail of them to some city of Man, and sure enough their larders would soon be full again. After The Book of Wonder, Dunsany began to write plays--many of which were even more successful, at the time, than his early story collections--while also continuing to write short stories. He continued to write plays for the theatre into the 1930s, including the famous If, and a number for radio production. Although many of Dunsany's stage plays were successfully produced within his lifetime, he also wrote a number of "chamber plays" which were only intended to be read privately (as if they were stories) or performed on the radio, rather than staged . Some of Dunsany's chamber or radio plays contain supernatural events -- such as a character spontaneously appearing out of thin air, or vanishing in full view of the audience -- without any explanation of how the effect is to be staged -- a matter of no importance, since Dunsany did not intend these works actually to be performed live and visible. Following a successful lecture touring in the USA in 1919-1920, and with his reputation now principally related to his plays, Dunsany temporarily reduced his output of short stories, concentrating on plays, novels, and poetry for a time. His poetry, now little seen, was for a time so popular that it is recited by the lead character of F. Scott Fitzgerald's This Side of Paradise. Dunsany's first novel, Don Rodriguez: Chronicles of Shadow Valley, was published in 1922. It is set in "a Romantic Spain that never was," and follows the adventures of a young nobleman, Don Rodriguez, and his servant in their search for a castle for Rodriguez. It has been argued that Dunsany's inexperience with the novel form shows in the episodic nature of Don Rodriguez. In 1924, Dunsany published his second novel, The King of Elfland's Daughter, a return to his early style of writing, which is considered by many to be Dunsany's finest novel and a classic in the realm of the fantasy writing. In his next novel, The Charwoman's Shadow, Dunsany returned to the Spanish milieu and to the light style of Don Rodriguez, to which it is related. Though his style and medium shifted frequently, Dunsany's thematic concerns remained essentially the same. Many of Dunsany's later novels had an explicitly Irish theme, from the semi-autobiographical The Curse of the Wise Woman to His Fellow Men. One of Dunsany's best-known characters was Joseph Jorkens, an obese middle-aged raconteur who frequented the fictional Billiards Club in London, and who would tell fantastic stories if someone would buy him a large whiskey and soda. From his tales, it was obvious that Mr Jorkens had travelled to all seven continents, was extremely resourceful, and well-versed in world cultures, but always came up short on becoming rich and famous. The Jorkens books, which sold well, were among the first of a type which was to become popular in fantasy and science fiction writing: extremely improbable "club tales" told at a gentleman's club or bar. Dunsany's writing habits were considered peculiar by some. Lady Beatrice said that "He always sat on a crumpled old hat while composing his tales." (The hat was eventually stolen by a visitor to Dunsany Castle.) Dunsany almost never rewrote anything; everything he ever published was a first draft. Pathways to Elfland: The Writings of Lord Dunsany (1989) by Darrell Schweitzer. Much of his work was penned with quill pens, which he made himself; Lady Beatrice was usually the first to see the writings, and would help type them. It has been said that Lord Dunsany would sometimes conceive stories while hunting, and would return to the Castle and draw in his family and servants to re-enact his visions before he set them on paper. Media productions Most of Dunsany's plays were performed during his lifetime, some of them many times in many locations, including the West End, Broadway and Off-Broadway. At one time, five ran simultaneously in New York, possibly all on Broadway New York, NY: New York Times, 24 December 1916: Second Thoughts on First Nights: "Speaking of Dunsany ... he has quite come into his own this season ... suddenly seen four produced on Broadway within a single month, and a fifth promised for production before the end of Winter. Everyone is talking about Dunsany now." From a second NY Times ref, three of these were The Golden Doom, The Gods of the Mountain and King Argimines. , while on another occasion, he was in performance in four European capitals plus New York. Dunsany wrote several plays for radio production, most being broadcast on the BBC and some being collected in Plays for Earth and Air. The BBC has records of the broadcasts, but according to articles on the author none of these recordings are extant. Dean Spanley, with a screenplay by Alan Sharp based on the short novel My Talks With Dean Spanley, directed by Toa Fraser and produced by Matthew Metcalfe and Alan Harris, and starring 8-times Oscar nominee Peter O'Toole, Sam Neill, Jeremy Northam and Bryan Brown, completed post production mid-2008 IMDB website, and had a gala premiere in September 2008, with general release to follow. 1 Nov 2007, Auckland: New Zealand Film Commission, Press Release. Filming began at Elm Hill (also used by Stardust), Holkham Hall, Peckover House (Cambridgeshire), Elveden Hall (Suffolk) and the Cathedral Cloisters in Norwich in November and December 2007 Norwich, Norfolk: 18 December 2007, Norwich Evening News (Kate Scotter) Wisbech, Cambs: The Fenland Citizen, November 21 2007: Hollywood Comes to Wisbech , and continued in New Zealand. The film is funded by three investor companies plus two film promotion agencies, one from New Zealand and Screen East from England. The film It Happened Tomorrow credited a Dunsany short story as one of its sources, and it was said that Sliding Doors also had a Dunsanian link. The Pledge, a 20 or 23 minute colour production from the short story "The Highwayman," directed by Digby Rumsey, released by Fantasy Films in 1981 and distributed by Twentieth Century Fox, with music by Michael Nyman British Film Institute . In The Twilight, a 15 minute colour production from the short story of the same name, directed by Digby Rumsey. Nature and Time, a 1976 colour production from the short story of the same name, directed by Digby Rumsey and starring Helen York and Paul Goodchild British Film Institute: http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/105799 . Rumours have been reported about film or TV options around a number of other Dunsany works, from early stories to Jorkens to, notably, The King of Elfland's Daughter, which inspired the successful Stardust - but aside from the productions above, the only such option documented publicly was one by George Pal on Dunsany's The Last Revolution. The author appeared on early television a number of times, notably on The Brains Trust - no recordings are known to be extant. Dunsany is recorded as having read short stories and poetry on air, and for private recording by Hazel Littlefield-Smith and friends in California, and it is believed that one or two of these recordings survive. An LP recording of a number of Dunsany's short stories, read by Vincent Price was published in the 1970s. He appears as a playable character in the 1999 Playstation game Koudelka. Two members of Steeleye Span recorded a concept album based on Dunsany's The King of Elfland's Daughter in 1977, released by Chrysalis Records on LP and later on CD. A number of Dunsany short stories have been published as audiobooks in Germany, and played on the German national railway, Deutsche Bahn (DB). The radio drama "Fortress of Doom" (2005) in the Radio Tales series is an adaptation of Dunsany's short story "The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth". Memberships, awards and honours Lord Dunsany was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature and of the Royal Geographical Society, and an honorary member of the Institut Historique et Heraldique de France. Dunsany was initially an Associate Member of the Irish Academy of Letters, founded by Yeats and others, and later a full member. At one of their banquets, he asked Sean O'Faolain, who was presiding, "Do we not toast the King?" O'Faolain replied that there was only one toast: to the Nation; but after it was given and he'd called for coffee, Dunsany stood quietly among the bustle, raised his glass discreetly, and whispered "God bless him." O'Faolain, Vive Moi!, pp. 350 n, 353 The Curse of the Wise Woman received the Hammerworth Prize in Ireland. Dunsany also received an honorary doctorate from Trinity College Dublin. Influences Dunsany studied Greek and Latin, particularly Greek drama and Herodotus, the "Father of History". Dunsany wrote in a letter: "When I learned Greek at Cheam and heard of other gods a great pity came on me for those beautiful marble people that had become forsaken and this mood has never quite left me."1 The King James Bible. In a letter to Frank Harris, Dunsany wrote: "When I went to Cheam School I was given a lot of the Bible to read. This turned my thoughts eastward. For years no style seemed to me natural but that of the Bible and I feared that I never would become a writer when I saw that other people did not use it." The wide-ranging collection in the Library of Dunsany Castle, dating back centuries and comprising many classic works, from early encyclopedias through parliamentary records, Greek and Latin works and Victorian illustrated books The fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen Irish speech patterns The Darling of the Gods, a stage play written by David Belasco and John Luther Long, first performed 1902-1903. The play presents a fantastical, imaginary version of Japan that powerfully affected Dunsany and may be a key template for his own imaginary kingdoms. Algernon Swinburne, who wrote the line "Time and the Gods are at strife" in his 1866 poem "Hymn to Proserpine". Dunsany later realized this was his unconscious influence for the title Time and the Gods. Dunsany's 1922 novel Don Rodriguez: Chronicles of Shadow Valley seems to draw openly from Cervantes' Don Quixote de la Mancha (1605, 1615). Dunsany named his play The Seventh Symphony (collected in Plays for Earth and Air [1937]) after Beethoven's 7th Symphony, which was one of Dunsany's favourite works of music<ref>Lord Dunsany: Master of the Anglo-Irish Imagination (p. 152)</ref>. One of the last Jorkens stories returns to this theme, referring to Beethoven's Tenth Symphony. Writers associated with Dunsany Francis Ledwidge, who wrote to Dunsany in 1912 asking for help with getting his poetry published. After a delay due to a hunting trip in Africa, Dunsany invited the poet to his home, and they met and corresponded regularly thereafter, and Dunsany was so impressed that he helped with publication, and with introductions to literary society. The two became friendly and Dunsany, trying to discourage Ledwidge from joining the army when World War I broke, offered financial support. Ledwidge, however, did sign-up, and found himself for a time in the same unit as Dunsany, who helped with publication of his first collection, Songs of the Fields, which was received with critical success upon its release in 1915. Throughout the war years, Ledwidge kept in contact with Dunsany, sending him poems. Ledwidge was killed at the Battle of Passchendaele two years later, even as his second collection of poetry, also selected by Dunsany, circulated. Dunsany subsequently arranged for the publication of a third collection, and later a first Collected Edition. Mary Lavin, who received support and encouragement from Dunsany over many years William Butler Yeats, who, as for no other writer, selected and edited a collection of Dunsany's work, in 1912 Lady Wentworth, poet, writing in a classical style, received support from Dunsany Writers influenced by Dunsany H. P. Lovecraft was greatly impressed by Dunsany after seeing him on a speaking tour of the United States, and Lovecraft's 'Dream-Cycle' stories clearly show his influence. Lovecraft once wrote, "There are my 'Poe' pieces and my 'Dunsany' pieces — but alas — where are my Lovecraft pieces?" Letter to Elizabeth Toldridge, March 8, 1929, quoted in Lovecraft: A Look Behind the Cthulhu Mythos Robert E. Howard admired Dunsany's work, notably "The Sword of Welleran." Filmmaker Guillermo Del Toro has cited Dunsany as an influence. Neil Gaiman has expressed admiration for Dunsany, and written an introduction to a collection of his stories. Some commentary has reflected links between The King of Elfland's Daughter and Gaiman's Stardust (book and film), as did a comment by Gaiman, quoted in the "Neil Gaiman Reader." Jorge Luis Borges included Dunsany's short story Idle Days on the Yann as the twenty-seventh title in The Library of Babel, a collection of works Borges collected and provided forewords to (not to be confused with his short story of the same name, "The Library of Babel"). Arthur C. Clarke enjoyed Dunsany's work and corresponded with him between 1944 and 1956. Those letters are collected in the book Arthur C. Clarke & Lord Dunsany: A Correspondence. Clarke also edited and allowed the use of an early essay as an introduction to one volume of The Collected Jorkens and that essay acknowledges the link between Jorkens and Tales from the White Hart. Michael Moorcock often cites Dunsany as a strong influence. Peter S. Beagle also cites Dunsany as an influence, and wrote an introduction for one of the recent reprint editions. David Eddings has named Lord Dunsany as his personal favourite writer, and recommended aspiring authors to sample him. Gene Wolfe, who also used one of Dunsany's poems to open his bestselling 2004 work, "The Knight." Fletcher Pratt's 1948 novel The Well of the Unicorn was written as a sequel to Dunsany's play King Argimenes and the Unknown Warrior. Ursula K. Le Guin, in her essay on style in fantasy "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie," wryly referred to Lord Dunsany as the "First Terrible Fate that Awaiteth Unwary Beginners in Fantasy," alluding to the (at the time) very common practice of young writers attempting to write in Lord Dunsany's style. Ursula K. LeGuin, "From Elfland to Poughkeepsie", p 78-9 The Language of the Night ISBN 0-425-05205-2 Welleran Poltarnees, an author of numerous non-fantasy "blessing books" employing turn-of-the-century artwork, is a pen name based on two of Lord Dunsany's most famous stories. Scholars and archivists S. T. Joshi and Darrell Schweitzer were early workers on the Dunsany oeuvre, gathering stories and essays and reference material, and producing both an initial bibliography (together) and scholarly studies of Dunsany's work (separate works). Both are well-known figures in the fields of speculative fiction. In recent years, a PhD researcher, Tania Scott, from Glasgow University, has been working on Dunsany for some time, and has spoken at literary and other conventions. In the late 1990s a curator, J.W. Doyle, was appointed at Dunsany Castle, locating and organising the author's manuscripts, typescripts and other materials. He discovered both known (but "lost") works, such as the plays "The Ginger Cat" and "The Murderers," some Jorkens stories and the novel The Pleasures of a Futuroscope (subsequently published by Hippocampus Press) and unknown, unpublished works, notably including The Last Book of Jorkens, to the first edition of which he wrote an introduction, and an unnamed 1956 short story collection, not yet published. Bibliography The catalogue of Dunsany's work during his 50-year active writing career is quite extensive, and is fraught with pitfalls for two reasons: first, many of Dunsany's original books of collected short stories were later followed by reprint collections, some of which were unauthorised and included only previously published stories; and second, some later collections bore titles very similar to different original books. In 1993, S. T. Joshi and Darrell Schweitzer released a bibliographic volume which, while emphasising that it makes no claim to be the final word, gives considerable information on Dunsany's work. They noted that a "ledger" of at least some of Dunsany's work was thought to have existed at Dunsany Castle. It is believed that the curator at Dunsany Castle has compiled considerable writing and publication data. The following is a partial list compiled from various sources. Short-story collections Original The Gods of Pegāna (1905) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) Time and the Gods (1906) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) The Sword of Welleran and Other Stories (1908) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) A Dreamer's Tales (1910) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) The Book of Wonder (1912) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) Fifty-One Tales, aka The Food of Death (1915) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) Tales of Wonder (1916) (published in America as The Last Book of Wonder) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) Tales of Three Hemispheres (1919) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) The Man Who Ate the Phoenix (1949) The Little Tales of Smethers and Other Stories (1952), including the "Linley" crime/mystery tales Jorkens The Travel Tales of Mr. Joseph Jorkens (1931) Jorkens Remembers Africa (1934) Jorkens Has a Large Whiskey (1940) The Fourth Book of Jorkens (1947) Jorkens Borrows Another Whiskey (1954) The Last Book of Jorkens (2002), prepared for publication in 1957 War sketches Tales of War (1918) (Project Gutenberg Entry:), war-related short stories, some published from the War Office originally; also issued in a revised "Expanded Edition" (not prepared by Dunsany but with his Estate's permission) with more stories, by Wildside Press. Unhappy Far-Off Things (1919) (Project Gutenberg Entry:). Reprint collections Selections from the Writings of Lord Dunsany (1912, edited by W.B. Yeats) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) A Dreamer's Tales and Other Stories (1917; collects A Dreamer's Tales and The Sword of Welleran, unauthorised) Book of Wonder (1918; collects The Book of Wonder and Time and the Gods, unauthorised) The Sword of Welleran and Other Tales of Enchantment (1954), selected by Lord and Lady Dunsany as a sampling of works to date Posthumous collections At the Edge of the World (1970) Beyond the Fields We Know (1972) Gods, Men and Ghosts (1972), including short stories, essays Over the Hills and Far Away (1974) Bethmoora and Other Stories (1993) The Exiles Club and Other Stories (1993) The Lands of Wonder (1994) The Hashish Man and Other Stories (1996) The Complete Pegana (1998) Time and the Gods (2000) In the Land of Time, and Other Fantasy Tales (March 2004), a Penguin Classics volume The Collected Jorkens, Volume One (April 2004), the first two books of Jorkens The Collected Jorkens, Volume Two (2004), the second two Jorkens books, plus two uncollected stories, one not previously published The Collected Jorkens, Volume Three (April 2005), the last two Jorkens books, plus three uncollected stories, at least one not previously published Novels Fantasy Don Rodriguez: Chronicles of Shadow Valley aka The Chronicles of Rodriguez (1922) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) The King of Elfland's Daughter (1924) The Charwoman's Shadow (1926), second part of the Shadow Valley Chronicles The Blessing of Pan (1927, see also Pan) The Curse of the Wise Woman (1933) My Talks With Dean Spanley (1936) The Strange Journeys of Colonel Polders (1950) Science fiction The Last Revolution (1951) The Pleasures of a Futuroscope (2003), on a topic first introduced in a Jorkens story, dating from the mid-1950's Non-Science fiction or Fantasy Up in the Hills (1935) Rory and Bran (1936) The Story of Mona Sheehy (1939) Guerilla (1944) His Fellow Men (1952) Drama Most of the early Dunsany plays were issued in individual editions by Samuel French, freely available but mostly for the acting and production market. Collections Five Plays (1914) A Night at an Inn (full-length play) (1916) Plays of Gods and Men (1917) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) If (full-length play) (1921) (Project Gutenberg Entry:) Plays of Near and Far (1922) Alexander and Three Small Plays (1925) Seven Modern Comedies (1928) The Old Folk of the Centuries (full-length play) (1930) Mr Faithful (full-length play) (1935) Plays for Earth and Air (1937), plays written for and produced on radio, notably BBC Light and the World Service The Ginger Cat and Other Lost Plays (2005), plays known to have existed, and in at least one case acted, but only unearthed in the 2000's Poetry collections Fifty Poems (1929) Mirage Water (1938) War Poems (1941) Wandering Songs (1943) A Journey (1944) The Year (1946) The Odes of Horace (1947) (translation) To Awaken Pegasus (1949) Verses Dedicatory: 18 Previously Unpublished Poems (1985) Nonfiction Essays Nowadays (1918), a single long essay If I Were Dictator (1934), a long satirical essay, one of a series by well-known figures of the period The Donnellan Lectures 1943 (1945), lectures given at Trinity College Dublin by Dunsany A Glimpse from a Watchtower (1947), a long essay musing on the future in a nuclear era Geography/history My Ireland (1937), a non-fiction look at Ireland and her landscape and heritage, with photos Autobiography Patches of Sunlight (1938) While The Sirens Slept (1944) The Sirens Wake (1945) Letters Arthur C. Clarke & Lord Dunsany: A Correspondence 1945-1956. ed. Keith Allen Daniels. Palo Alto, CA, USA: Anamnesis Press, 1998, a posthumous collection with the cooperation of the Dunsany Estate and Arthur C. Clarke. Miscellany The Ghosts of the Heaviside Layer and Other Fantasms (1980), a posthumous gathering of uncollected stories, essays and a play Books in print Millennium Fantasy Masterworks Time and the Gods (contains The Gods of Pegāna, Time and the Gods, The Sword of Welleran and Other Stories, A Dreamer's Tales, The Book of Wonder and The Last Book of Wonder, without the Sime illustrations and with Pegāna out of order) The King of Elfland's DaughterPenguin Classics In the Land of Time: and Other Fantasy TalesDel Rey BooksThe King of Elfland's DaughterThe Charwoman's ShadowHippocampus PressThe Pleasures of a FuturoscopeThe Hippocampus website mentioned in 2007 the possibility of a further collection of Dunsany material, edited by S.T. Joshi. Wildside Press The Gods of Pegāna Time and the Gods The Book of Wonder A Dreamer's Tales Fifty-One Tales Tales of War: Expanded Edition Unhappy Far-Off Things Don Rodriguez: Chronicles of Shadow Valley Plays of Gods and Men The Ginger Cat and Other Lost PlaysNight Shade Books The Collected Jorkens (three-volume set, with some previously uncollected and unpublished stories at the end of Volumes 2 and 3, including the last Jorkens story written, from 1957. Forgotten classicsThe Dreams of a Prophet (hardcover, with large print edition also available via the Lulu.com website; contains the collections The Gods of Pegana, Time and the Gods, The Sword of Welleran, and Fifty-One Tales) Planned reprints which have not materialized It was announced that My Talks With Dean Spanley would also come out from Wildside Press along with one or two other short stories about dogs also included, to be chosen by visitors to the site. Two stories were mentioned as nominated the collection has, to date, not appeared. It has been succeeded by an edition of the short novel in question alongside the film script of Dean Spanley and other film-related materials.Tales of God and Men'' from Cold Spring Press would contain Dunsany's first eight original short story collections, and all the related illustrations by Sidney Sime. It was scheduled, but has not appeared. Notes Dunsany's literary rights passed from the author to a Trust, which still owns them. These rights were first managed by Beatrice, Lady Dunsany, and are currently administered by Curtis Brown of London and partner companies worldwide (some past US deals, for example, have been listed by Locus Magazine as by SCG). All of Dunsany's work is in copyright in most of the world , the main exception being the early work (published before 1 January 1923), which is in the public domain in the United States. Dunsany Castle (1181-), County Meath, Ireland Dunsany's primary home, over 820 years old, can be visited at certain times of year, and tours usually include the Library, but not the tower room he often liked to work in. His other home, Dunstall Priory, was sold to a fan, Grey Gowrie, later head of the Arts Council of the UK, and thence passed on to other owners; the family still own farm- and down-land in the area, and a Tudor cottage in Shoreham village. The grave of Lord Dunsany and his wife can be seen in the Church of England graveyard in the village (most of the previous barons are buried in the grounds of Dunsany Castle). Dunsany's original manuscripts are collected in the family archive, including some specially bound volumes of some of his works. As noted, there has been a curator since the late 1990's and scholarly access is possible by application. Footnotes References . . External links Lord Dunsany: the author's page in the official family site e-texts of works by Lord Dunsany Dunsany Bibliography, including cover images and summaries The Book of Wonder LibriVox recording Edward Winter, Lord Dunsany and Chess (2006) See also List of fantasy authors List of horror fiction authors | Edward_Plunkett,_18th_Baron_of_Dunsany |@lemmatized edward:4 john:5 moreton:1 drax:3 plunkett:8 baron:3 dunsany:145 july:1 october:1 anglo:2 irish:14 writer:8 dramatist:1 notable:3 work:32 mostly:2 fantasy:18 publish:21 name:8 lord:21 eighty:1 book:31 oeuvre:2 include:17 many:15 hundred:1 short:27 story:53 well:11 successful:4 play:38 novel:16 essay:12 bear:2 one:24 old:6 title:6 peerage:1 live:3 much:3 life:5 perhaps:2 ireland:11 long:6 inhabit:1 home:8 castle:12 near:3 tara:1 w:5 b:4 yeats:6 lady:10 gregory:2 receive:7 honorary:4 doctorate:2 trinity:4 college:4 chess:9 pistol:2 shoot:2 champion:2 travel:5 hunt:4 extensively:1 die:2 dublin:6 attack:2 appendicitis:2 biographical:1 summary:1 first:20 son:3 william:3 wife:3 ernle:4 elizabeth:3 louisa:2 maria:1 grosvenor:1 erle:2 née:1 jessica:1 burton:2 historically:1 wealthy:1 famous:4 family:9 relate:4 know:13 figure:5 kinsman:1 catholic:1 saint:1 oliver:3 martyred:1 archbishop:1 armagh:1 mother:1 cousin:2 sir:2 richard:1 inherit:1 considerable:3 height:1 countess:2 fingall:3 earl:3 write:25 best:2 sell:4 account:1 aristocracy:1 late:7 century:6 early:14 call:2 seventy:1 year:15 young:6 sibling:1 brother:2 later:10 estrange:1 noted:2 british:4 naval:1 officer:1 admiral:1 honourable:1 reginald:1 aylmer:1 ranfurly:1 grow:1 property:2 notably:8 dunstall:2 priory:2 shoreham:9 kent:9 county:3 meath:5 also:19 london:6 schooling:1 cheam:3 eton:1 finally:1 sandhurst:1 enter:1 beatrice:7 child:3 villiers:2 pass:5 father:2 death:5 fairly:1 age:2 return:6 war:19 duty:1 meet:2 daughter:6 jersey:3 head:2 banking:1 living:1 osterley:1 park:1 marry:1 randal:2 supportive:1 assist:1 writing:12 type:3 manuscript:3 select:4 retrospective:1 collection:26 oversee:2 literary:14 heritage:3 dunsanys:1 socially:1 active:3 world:10 ii:2 independence:1 circulate:2 time:34 introduce:2 uncle:1 co:1 operative:1 pioneer:1 horace:2 help:5 manage:2 estate:4 investment:1 friendly:2 example:2 george:2 russell:2 st:4 gogarty:2 interest:2 keen:2 hunter:1 host:1 hound:1 local:3 part:2 africa:3 sportsman:1 enjoy:1 cricket:3 provide:3 ground:3 situate:1 crossroad:1 preside:2 club:6 player:3 set:5 puzzle:1 journal:1 capablanca:1 draw:3 invent:1 asymmetric:1 variant:2 involve:2 fairy:2 piece:5 unlike:1 require:1 learn:2 unconventional:1 movement:1 president:3 union:1 association:2 sevenoaks:2 campaign:1 animal:1 right:5 especially:2 opposition:1 dock:1 dog:2 tail:1 west:2 branch:2 rspca:1 supporter:1 scout:2 serve:2 district:1 boy:1 support:7 amateur:1 drama:4 group:1 legion:1 trim:1 poetry:8 annual:1 memorial:2 service:3 number:7 occasion:2 military:1 experience:1 captain:2 royal:4 inniskilling:2 fusilier:2 second:9 lieutenant:1 coldstream:1 guard:1 boer:1 wound:1 refuse:1 forward:1 position:1 list:5 valuable:1 trainer:1 latter:1 stage:3 spend:1 trench:1 last:10 period:3 material:5 office:2 sign:2 defence:1 force:1 united:3 kingdom:2 bombed:1 village:3 battle:2 britain:1 fame:1 arise:1 chiefly:1 prolific:2 revival:2 major:1 donor:1 abbey:1 theatre:2 move:2 circle:1 acquaint:1 rarely:1 act:2 editor:1 gather:2 selection:2 percy:1 french:2 ae:1 padraic:1 colum:1 jointly:1 others:2 befriend:1 francis:2 ledwidge:6 give:6 use:7 library:5 dictionary:1 history:4 since:3 j:3 hickey:1 e:3 doherty:1 gill:1 macmillan:1 new:8 york:6 make:5 tour:4 usa:3 far:6 visit:3 california:2 contribution:1 recognise:1 degree:1 transfer:1 heir:1 trust:3 settle:1 rudyard:1 kipling:1 friend:2 occasionally:1 thereafter:2 appoint:2 byron:1 professor:1 english:1 athens:1 university:2 greece:1 evacuate:1 due:2 wartime:1 disruption:1 circuitous:1 route:1 form:3 basis:1 poem:7 olivia:1 man:5 character:5 pinkrose:1 sequence:1 fortune:1 mocking:1 portrait:1 take:2 ill:1 eat:3 prove:1 hospital:1 direct:5 bury:2 churchyard:1 ancient:1 church:2 peter:3 paul:2 memory:1 share:1 funeral:1 attend:1 wide:2 range:2 pakenham:1 fingal:1 representative:1 regiment:1 various:2 body:1 hold:1 kilmessan:1 reading:1 cross:1 bar:2 note:3 coincide:1 flock:1 geese:1 survive:2 primarily:1 legacy:1 succeed:3 barony:1 turn:4 grandson:1 directly:1 pen:4 autobiography:2 publishing:2 sixty:1 individual:2 begin:3 authorial:1 career:3 verse:3 rhyme:1 suburb:1 spirit:1 bog:1 lasting:1 impression:1 burst:1 onto:1 scene:1 god:24 pegāna:7 pay:1 publication:6 earn:1 commission:2 sale:1 never:5 vast:1 majority:1 extensive:2 l:2 sprague:2 de:4 camp:2 swordsman:2 sorcerer:2 maker:2 heroic:2 p:5 isbn:3 two:15 beginning:1 third:2 within:3 invented:1 geography:2 start:1 link:5 sidney:2 sime:3 chosen:1 artist:1 illustrate:2 style:11 vary:1 significantly:1 throughout:2 prominent:1 scholar:2 joshi:4 describe:1 shift:2 felt:1 exhaust:1 potential:1 medium:3 naïve:1 self:1 conscious:1 wonder:13 almost:2 seem:3 parody:1 lofty:1 varies:2 mood:2 dreamer:6 tale:24 wistfulness:1 blagdaross:1 horror:2 poor:1 bill:1 tide:1 ebb:1 flow:1 social:1 satire:1 day:2 poll:1 opening:1 paragraph:1 hoard:2 gibbelins:2 good:2 indication:1 tone:1 tenor:1 nothing:1 less:1 evil:1 tower:2 join:2 terra:1 cognita:1 land:5 bridge:1 beyond:2 reason:2 avarice:1 separate:3 cellar:2 emerald:1 sapphire:1 fill:1 hole:1 gold:1 dig:1 need:1 ridiculous:1 wealth:1 attract:1 larder:2 continual:1 supply:1 food:2 famine:1 even:4 scatter:1 ruby:1 abroad:1 little:3 trail:1 city:1 sure:1 enough:1 would:9 soon:1 full:7 continue:3 radio:7 production:10 although:1 successfully:1 produce:5 lifetime:2 chamber:2 intend:2 read:4 privately:1 perform:4 rather:1 stag:2 contain:4 supernatural:1 event:1 spontaneously:1 appear:5 thin:1 air:5 vanish:1 view:1 audience:1 without:2 explanation:1 effect:1 matter:1 importance:1 actually:1 visible:1 follow:4 lecture:3 reputation:1 principally:1 temporarily:1 reduce:1 output:1 concentrate:1 see:7 popular:2 recite:1 lead:1 f:1 scott:2 fitzgerald:1 side:1 paradise:1 rodriguez:9 chronicle:6 shadow:7 valley:5 romantic:1 spain:1 adventure:1 nobleman:1 servant:2 search:1 argue:1 inexperience:1 show:2 episodic:1 nature:2 king:11 elfland:10 consider:2 fine:1 classic:4 realm:1 next:1 charwoman:3 spanish:1 milieu:1 light:2 though:1 frequently:1 thematic:1 concern:1 remain:1 essentially:1 explicitly:1 theme:2 semi:1 autobiographical:1 curse:3 wise:3 woman:3 fellow:3 men:6 joseph:2 jorkens:25 obese:1 middle:1 raconteur:1 frequent:1 fictional:1 billiards:1 tell:2 fantastic:1 someone:1 buy:1 large:3 whiskey:3 soda:1 obvious:1 mr:3 seven:2 continent:1 extremely:2 resourceful:1 culture:1 always:2 come:5 become:5 rich:1 among:2 science:3 fiction:6 improbable:1 gentleman:1 habit:1 peculiar:1 say:3 sit:1 crumpled:1 hat:2 compose:1 eventually:1 steal:1 visitor:2 rewrite:1 anything:1 everything:1 ever:1 draft:1 pathway:1 darrell:3 schweitzer:3 quill:1 usually:2 sometimes:1 conceive:1 enact:1 vision:1 paper:1 location:1 end:3 broadway:4 five:2 run:1 simultaneously:1 possibly:1 ny:2 december:3 thought:2 night:3 speaking:1 quite:3 season:1 suddenly:1 four:2 single:2 month:1 fifth:1 promise:1 winter:2 everyone:1 talk:4 ref:3 three:7 golden:1 doom:2 mountain:1 argimines:1 another:2 performance:1 european:1 capital:1 plus:4 several:1 broadcast:2 bbc:3 collect:11 earth:3 record:6 accord:1 article:1 author:9 none:1 recording:5 extant:2 dean:5 spanley:5 screenplay:1 alan:2 sharp:1 base:3 toa:1 fraser:1 matthew:1 metcalfe:1 harris:2 star:2 oscar:1 nominee:1 toole:1 sam:1 neill:1 jeremy:1 northam:1 bryan:1 brown:2 complete:2 post:1 mid:2 imdb:1 website:3 gala:1 premiere:1 september:1 general:1 release:6 nov:1 auckland:1 zealand:3 film:12 press:7 elm:1 hill:3 stardust:3 holkham:1 hall:2 peckover:1 house:1 cambridgeshire:1 elveden:1 suffolk:1 cathedral:1 cloister:1 norwich:3 november:2 norfolk:1 news:1 kate:1 scotter:1 wisbech:2 cambs:1 fenland:1 citizen:1 hollywood:1 fund:1 investor:1 company:2 promotion:1 agency:1 screen:1 east:1 england:2 happen:1 tomorrow:1 credit:1 source:2 slide:1 door:1 dunsanian:1 pledge:1 minute:2 colour:3 highwayman:1 digby:3 rumsey:3 distribute:1 twentieth:1 fox:1 music:2 michael:2 nyman:1 institute:2 twilight:1 helen:1 goodchild:1 http:1 ftvdb:1 bfi:1 org:1 uk:2 sift:1 rumour:1 report:1 tv:1 option:2 around:1 inspire:1 aside:1 document:1 publicly:1 pal:1 revolution:2 television:1 brain:1 private:1 hazel:1 littlefield:1 smith:1 believe:2 lp:2 vincent:1 price:1 playable:1 playstation:1 game:1 koudelka:1 member:4 steeleye:1 span:1 concept:1 album:1 chrysalis:1 cd:1 audiobooks:1 germany:1 german:1 national:1 railway:1 deutsche:1 bahn:1 db:1 fortress:2 series:2 adaptation:1 unvanquishable:1 save:1 sacnoth:1 membership:1 award:1 honour:1 society:3 literature:1 geographical:1 institut:1 historique:1 et:1 heraldique:1 france:1 initially:1 associate:2 academy:1 letter:6 found:1 banquet:1 ask:2 sean:1 faolain:3 toast:2 reply:1 nation:1 coffee:1 stand:1 quietly:1 bustle:1 raise:1 glass:1 discreetly:1 whisper:1 bless:1 vive:1 moi:1 pp:1 n:1 hammerworth:1 prize:1 influence:7 study:2 greek:4 latin:2 particularly:1 herodotus:1 heard:1 great:1 pity:1 beautiful:1 marble:1 people:2 forsaken:1 leave:1 james:1 bible:3 frank:1 go:1 school:1 lot:1 eastward:1 natural:1 fear:1 saw:1 date:4 back:1 comprise:1 encyclopedia:1 parliamentary:1 victorian:1 grimm:1 han:1 christian:1 andersen:1 speech:1 pattern:1 darling:1 david:2 belasco:1 luther:1 present:1 fantastical:1 imaginary:2 version:1 japan:1 powerfully:1 affect:1 may:1 key:1 template:1 algernon:1 swinburne:1 line:1 strife:1 hymn:1 proserpine:1 realize:1 unconscious:1 openly:1 cervantes:1 quixote:1 la:1 mancha:1 seventh:2 symphony:3 beethoven:2 favourite:2 master:1 imagination:1 refer:2 tenth:1 get:1 delay:1 hunting:1 trip:1 invite:1 poet:2 correspond:2 regularly:1 impressed:1 introduction:5 try:1 discourage:1 army:1 break:1 offer:1 financial:1 however:1 find:1 unit:1 song:2 field:3 critical:1 success:1 upon:1 keep:1 contact:1 send:1 kill:1 passchendaele:1 subsequently:2 arrange:1 edition:8 mary:1 lavin:1 encouragement:1 butler:1 edit:4 wentworth:1 classical:1 h:1 lovecraft:5 greatly:1 impress:1 speak:2 state:2 dream:2 cycle:1 clearly:1 poe:1 alas:1 toldridge:1 march:2 quote:2 look:2 behind:1 cthulhu:1 mythos:1 robert:1 howard:1 admire:1 sword:6 welleran:7 filmmaker:1 guillermo:1 del:1 toro:1 cite:3 neil:2 gaiman:4 express:1 admiration:1 commentary:1 reflect:1 comment:1 reader:1 jorge:1 luis:1 borges:2 idle:1 yann:1 twenty:1 babel:2 foreword:1 confuse:1 arthur:4 c:4 clarke:5 enjoyed:1 correspondence:2 allow:1 volume:9 acknowledge:1 white:1 hart:1 moorcock:1 often:2 strong:1 beagle:1 recent:2 reprint:4 eddings:1 personal:1 recommend:1 aspire:1 sample:1 gene:1 wolfe:1 open:1 bestselling:1 knight:1 fletcher:1 pratt:1 unicorn:1 sequel:1 argimenes:1 unknown:2 warrior:1 ursula:2 k:2 le:1 guin:1 poughkeepsie:2 wryly:1 terrible:1 fate:1 awaiteth:1 unwary:1 beginner:1 allude:1 common:1 practice:1 attempt:1 leguin:1 language:1 poltarnees:1 numerous:1 non:3 blessing:2 employ:1 artwork:1 archivist:1 worker:1 reference:2 initial:1 bibliography:3 together:1 scholarly:2 speculative:1 phd:1 researcher:1 tania:1 glasgow:1 convention:1 curator:3 doyle:1 locate:1 organise:1 typescript:1 discover:1 lose:3 ginger:3 cat:3 murderer:1 pleasure:3 futuroscope:2 hippocampus:2 unpublished:3 unnamed:1 yet:1 catalogue:1 fraught:1 pitfall:1 original:5 unauthorised:3 previously:5 bore:1 similar:1 different:1 bibliographic:1 emphasise:1 claim:1 final:1 word:1 information:1 ledger:1 least:3 think:1 exist:2 compile:2 data:1 following:1 partial:1 project:14 gutenberg:14 entry:14 fifty:4 aka:2 america:1 hemisphere:1 phoenix:1 smethers:1 linley:1 crime:1 mystery:1 remembers:1 fourth:1 borrow:1 prepare:2 sketch:1 originally:1 issue:2 revised:1 expand:2 permission:1 wildside:3 unhappy:2 thing:2 enchantment:1 sampling:1 posthumous:3 edge:1 ghost:2 away:1 bethmoora:1 exile:1 hashish:1 pegana:2 penguin:1 collected:3 april:2 uncollected:4 pan:2 strange:1 journey:2 colonel:1 polder:1 topic:1 rory:1 bran:1 mona:1 sheehy:1 guerilla:1 samuel:1 freely:1 available:2 acting:1 market:1 inn:1 length:4 alexander:1 small:1 modern:1 comedy:1 folk:1 faithful:1 case:1 unearth:1 mirage:1 water:1 wander:1 ode:1 translation:1 awaken:1 pegasus:1 dedicatory:1 nonfiction:1 nowadays:1 dictator:1 satirical:1 donnellan:1 glimpse:1 watchtower:1 musing:1 future:1 nuclear:1 era:1 landscape:1 photo:1 patch:1 sunlight:1 siren:2 slept:1 wake:1 ed:1 keith:1 allen:1 daniel:1 palo:1 alto:1 ca:1 anamnesis:1 cooperation:1 miscellany:1 heaviside:1 layer:1 fantasm:1 gathering:1 print:2 millennium:1 masterworks:1 illustration:2 order:1 daughterpenguin:1 talesdel:1 rey:1 booksthe:1 daughterthe:1 shadowhippocampus:1 pressthe:1 futuroscopethe:1 mention:2 possibility:1 tales:1 playsnight:1 shade:1 forget:1 classicsthe:1 prophet:1 hardcover:1 via:1 lulu:1 com:1 plan:1 materialize:1 announce:1 along:1 choose:1 site:2 nominate:1 question:1 alongside:1 script:1 related:2 cold:1 spring:1 eight:1 schedule:1 still:2 currently:1 administer:1 curtis:1 partner:1 worldwide:1 past:1 u:1 deal:1 locus:1 magazine:1 scg:1 copyright:1 main:1 exception:1 january:1 public:1 domain:1 primary:1 certain:1 room:1 like:1 fan:1 grey:1 gowrie:1 art:1 council:1 thence:1 owner:1 farm:1 area:1 tudor:1 cottage:1 grave:1 graveyard:1 previous:1 archive:1 specially:1 bound:1 access:1 possible:1 application:1 footnote:1 external:1 page:1 official:1 text:1 cover:1 image:1 summaries:1 librivox:1 |@bigram lord_dunsany:19 dunsany_castle:10 honorary_doctorate:2 sir_reginald:1 county_meath:2 co_operative:1 boy_scout:1 royal_inniskilling:2 inniskilling_fusilier:2 gill_macmillan:1 rudyard_kipling:1 bury_churchyard:1 lasting_impression:1 god_pegāna:5 vast_majority:1 l_sprague:2 literary_swordsman:2 swordsman_sorcerer:2 dreamer_tale:6 ebb_flow:1 scott_fitzgerald:1 king_elfland:7 elfland_daughter:5 semi_autobiographical:1 science_fiction:3 dean_spanley:5 peter_toole:1 sam_neill:1 twentieth_century:1 michael_nyman:1 playable_character:1 steeleye_span:1 deutsche_bahn:1 fairy_tale:1 cervantes_quixote:1 la_mancha:1 beethoven_symphony:1 butler_yeats:1 cthulhu_mythos:1 sword_welleran:6 guillermo_del:1 del_toro:1 neil_gaiman:2 jorge_luis:1 luis_borges:1 michael_moorcock:1 ursula_k:2 le_guin:1 project_gutenberg:14 wildside_press:3 penguin_classic:1 ode_horace:1 palo_alto:1 heaviside_layer:1 external_link:1 |
922 | Arc_de_Triomphe | The Arc de Triomphe at night The Arc de Triomphe is a monument in Paris, France that stands in the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle, also known as the Place de l'Étoile. The "Star" is formed by the radiating avenues. It is at the western end of the Champs-Élysées. The triumphal arch honors those who fought for France, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. On the inside and the top of the arc there are all of the names of generals and wars fought. Underneath is the tomb of the unknown soldier from World War I . The Arc is the linchpin of the historic axis (L'Axe historique) — a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route which goes from the courtyard of the Louvre Palace to the outskirts of Paris. The monument was designed by Jean Chalgrin in 1806, and its Iconographic program pitted heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail and set the tone for public monuments, with triumphant nationalistic messages, until World War I. The monument stands in height, wide and deep. It is the second largest triumphal arch in existence. North Korea built a slightly larger Arch of Triumph in 1982 for the 70th birthday of Kim Il-Sung. Its design was inspired by the Roman Arch of Titus. The Arc de Triomphe is so colossal that three weeks after the Paris victory parade in 1919, marking the end of hostilities in World War I, Charles Godefroy flew his Nieuport biplane through it, with the event captured in a newsreel. Melville Wallace, La vie d'un Pilote de Chasse en 1914–1918, 1978. The film clip is included in The History Channel's Four Years of Thunder. History There was a pre-Napoleonic (1758) proposal by Charles Ribart for an elephant-shaped building on the location of the current arch. The Arc de Triomphe is one of the most famous monuments in Paris. Forms the backdrop for an impressive urban ensemble in Paris. The monument surmounts the hill of Chaillot at the center of a star-shaped configuration of 12 radiating avenues. It was commissioned in 1806 after the victory at Austerlitz by Emperor Napoleon at the peak of his fortunes. Laying the foundations alone took two years, and in 1810 when Napoleon entered Paris from the west with his bride Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria, he had a wooden mock-up of the completed arch constructed. The architect Jean Chalgrin died in 1811, and the work was taken over by Jean-Nicolas Huyot. During the Restoration, construction was halted and would not be completed until the reign of King Louis-Philippe, in 1833–36 when the architects on site were Goust, then Huyot, under the direction of Héricart de Thury. Napoleon's body passed under it on 15 December 1840 on its way to its second and final resting place at Les Invalides. Hotel des Invalides website The design Since the fall of Napoleon (1815), the sculpture representing Peace is interpreted as commemorating the Peace of 1815. Cast of the head of a figure from François Rude's sculpture "La Marseillaise" The astylar design is by Jean Chalgrin (1739–1811), in the Neoclassical version of ancient Roman architecture. Major academic sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe: Corhtot; Rude; Étex; Pradier and Lemaire. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are The Triumph of 1810 (Jean-Pierre Cortot), Resistance and Peace (both by Antoine Étex) and the most renowned of them all, Departure of the Volunteers of '92 commonly called La Marseillaise (François Rude). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the seven-star rank of Marshal of France. In the attic above the richly sculptured frieze of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major Revolutionary and Napoleonic military victories. (The Battle of Fuentes de Onoro is described as a French victory, instead of the narrow defeat actually suffered). The inside walls of the monument list the names of 558 French generals; Among the generals is one foreign general, Francisco de Miranda. the names of those who died in battle are underlined. Also inscribed, on the shorter sides of the four supporting columns, are the names of the major battles of the Napoleonic Wars. The battles which took place in the period between the departure of Napoleon from Elba and his final defeat at Waterloo are not included. Les "Grandes Guerres" German troops in Paris after the fall of France, with the Arc in the background. The sword carried by the Republic in the Marseillaise relief broke off, on the day, it is said, that the Battle of Verdun began in 1916. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations. Famous victory marches past the Arc have included the Germans in 1871, the French in 1918, the Germans in 1940, Image of Nazi parade , and the French and Allies in 1944 Image of Liberation of Paris parade and 1945. Charles de Gaulle survived an attack upon him at the Arc de Triomphe during a parade. The Unknown Soldier Tomb of the Unknown Soldier beneath the Arc de Triomphe, Paris An American M8 armored scout car marches in front of the Arc de Triomphe at the "Liberation Day" parade. Beneath the Arc is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from the First World War. Interred here on Armistice Day 1920, it has the first eternal flame lit in Western and Eastern Europe since the Vestal Virgins' fire was extinguished in the year 394. It burns in memory of the dead who were never identified (now in both World Wars). The french model inspired United Kingdom's tomb of The Unknown Warrior in Westminster Abbey. A ceremony is held there every 11 November on the anniversary of the armistice signed between France and Germany in 1918. It was originally decided in 12 November 1919 to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the Panthéon, but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on 10 November 1920, and put in its final resting place on 28 January 1921. The slab on top carries the inscription ICI REPOSE UN SOLDAT FRANÇAIS MORT POUR LA PATRIE 1914–1918 ("Here lies a French soldier who died for his fatherland 1914–1918"). In 1961, President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy of the United States paid their respects at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, accompanied by French President de Gaulle. After the 1963 assassination of President Kennedy, Mrs. Kennedy remembered the eternal flame at the Arc de Triomphe and requested that an eternal flame be placed next to her husband's grave at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. President de Gaulle went to Washington to attend the state funeral, and he was able to witness Jacqueline Kennedy lighting the eternal flame that was inspired by her visit to France. By the early 1960s the monument had grown very blackened from coal soot and automobile exhaust, and during 1965–1966 the Arc de Triomphe was thoroughly cleaned through bleaching. By 2007 some darkening was again apparent. The arc is planned to be bleached again in 2011. Access The Arc de Triomphe from the Place Charles de Gaulle Pedestrian access to the Arc de Triomphe is via an underpass. The Arc has one lift (elevator), to the level underneath the exterior observation level. Visitors can either climb 284 steps to reach the top of the Arc or take the lift and walk up 46 steps. The elevator is mainly reserved for the handicapped or those unable to walk the stairs. From the top there is a panoramic view of Paris, of twelve major avenues leading to the Étoile and of the exceptionally busy roundabout in which the Arc stands. The Arc de Triomphe is accessible by the RER and Métro at the Charles de Gaulle—Etoile stop. See also Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe Notes External links Inscriptions on the Arc de Triomphe The Names of 660 persons inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe | Arc_de_Triomphe |@lemmatized arc:28 de:28 triomphe:16 night:1 monument:9 paris:10 france:8 stand:3 centre:1 place:7 charles:6 gaulle:6 also:3 know:1 l:2 étoile:2 star:3 form:2 radiating:1 avenue:3 western:2 end:2 champ:1 élysées:1 triumphal:2 arch:6 honor:1 fight:1 particularly:1 napoleonic:4 war:8 inside:2 top:4 name:6 general:4 fought:1 underneath:2 tomb:5 unknown:7 soldier:8 world:5 linchpin:1 historic:1 axis:1 axe:1 historique:1 sequence:1 grand:1 thoroughfare:1 route:1 go:2 courtyard:1 louvre:1 palace:1 outskirt:1 design:4 jean:5 chalgrin:3 iconographic:1 program:1 pit:1 heroically:1 nude:1 french:8 youth:1 beard:1 germanic:1 warrior:2 chain:1 mail:1 set:1 tone:1 public:2 triumphant:1 nationalistic:1 message:1 height:1 wide:1 deep:1 second:2 large:2 existence:1 north:1 korea:1 build:1 slightly:1 triumph:2 birthday:1 kim:1 il:1 sung:1 inspire:3 roman:2 titus:1 colossal:1 three:1 week:1 victory:5 parade:5 mark:1 hostility:1 godefroy:1 fly:1 nieuport:1 biplane:1 event:1 capture:1 newsreel:1 melville:1 wallace:1 la:4 vie:1 un:2 pilote:1 chasse:1 en:1 film:1 clip:1 include:3 history:2 channel:1 four:3 year:3 thunder:1 pre:1 proposal:1 ribart:1 elephant:1 shape:1 building:1 location:1 current:1 one:3 famous:2 backdrop:1 impressive:1 urban:1 ensemble:1 surmount:1 hill:1 chaillot:1 center:1 shaped:1 configuration:1 radiate:1 commission:1 austerlitz:1 emperor:1 napoleon:5 peak:1 fortune:1 lay:1 foundation:1 alone:1 take:4 two:1 enter:1 west:1 bride:1 archduchess:1 marie:1 louise:1 austria:1 wooden:1 mock:1 complete:2 construct:1 architect:2 die:3 work:1 nicolas:1 huyot:2 restoration:1 construction:1 halt:1 would:1 reign:1 king:1 louis:1 philippe:1 site:1 goust:1 direction:1 héricart:1 thury:1 body:1 pass:1 december:1 way:1 final:3 resting:2 le:2 invalides:2 hotel:1 website:1 since:2 fall:2 sculpture:5 represent:2 peace:3 interpret:1 commemorate:1 cast:1 head:1 figure:1 françois:2 rude:3 marseillaise:3 astylar:1 neoclassical:1 version:1 ancient:1 architecture:1 major:4 academic:1 sculptor:1 corhtot:1 étex:2 pradier:1 lemaire:1 main:1 integral:1 frieze:2 treat:1 independent:1 trophy:1 apply:1 vast:1 ashlar:1 masonry:1 mass:1 unlike:1 gilt:1 bronze:1 appliqués:1 empire:1 furniture:1 sculptural:1 group:1 base:1 pierre:1 cortot:1 resistance:1 antoine:1 renowned:1 departure:2 volunteer:1 commonly:1 call:2 face:1 allegorical:1 representation:1 forth:1 people:1 last:1 use:1 belt:1 buckle:1 seven:1 rank:1 marshal:1 attic:1 richly:1 shield:1 engrave:1 revolutionary:1 military:1 battle:5 fuentes:1 onoro:1 describe:1 instead:1 narrow:1 defeat:2 actually:1 suffer:1 wall:1 list:1 among:1 foreign:1 francisco:1 miranda:1 underline:1 inscribed:1 short:1 side:1 support:1 column:1 period:1 elba:1 waterloo:1 grandes:1 guerres:1 german:3 troop:1 background:1 sword:1 carry:2 republic:1 relief:2 break:1 day:3 say:1 verdun:1 begin:1 immediately:1 hide:1 tarpaulin:1 conceal:1 accident:1 avoid:1 undesired:1 ominous:1 interpretation:1 march:2 past:1 image:2 nazi:1 ally:1 liberation:2 survive:1 attack:1 upon:1 beneath:3 american:1 armor:1 scout:1 car:1 front:1 first:4 inter:1 armistice:2 eternal:4 flame:4 lit:1 eastern:1 europe:1 vestal:1 virgin:1 fire:1 extinguish:1 burn:1 memory:1 dead:1 never:1 identify:1 model:1 united:2 kingdom:1 westminster:1 abbey:1 ceremony:1 hold:1 every:1 november:3 anniversary:1 sign:1 germany:1 originally:1 decide:1 bury:2 remain:1 panthéon:1 letter:1 writing:1 campaign:1 lead:2 decision:1 coffin:1 put:2 chapel:1 floor:1 january:1 slab:1 inscription:2 ici:1 repose:1 soldat:1 français:1 mort:1 pour:1 patrie:1 lie:1 fatherland:1 president:4 john:1 f:1 kennedy:5 lady:1 jacqueline:2 state:2 pay:1 respect:1 accompany:1 assassination:1 mr:1 remember:1 request:1 next:1 husband:1 grave:1 arlington:1 national:1 cemetery:1 virginia:1 washington:1 attend:1 funeral:1 able:1 witness:1 light:1 visit:1 early:1 grow:1 blacken:1 coal:1 soot:1 automobile:1 exhaust:1 thoroughly:1 clean:1 bleaching:1 darkening:1 apparent:1 plan:1 bleach:1 access:2 pedestrian:1 via:1 underpass:1 lift:2 elevator:2 level:2 exterior:1 observation:1 visitor:1 either:1 climb:1 step:2 reach:1 walk:2 mainly:1 reserve:1 handicapped:1 unable:1 stair:1 panoramic:1 view:1 twelve:1 exceptionally:1 busy:1 roundabout:1 accessible:1 rer:1 métro:1 etoile:1 stop:1 see:1 names:1 inscribe:2 note:1 external:1 link:1 person:1 |@bigram de_triomphe:16 de_gaulle:6 champ_élysées:1 triumphal_arch:2 kim_il:1 il_sung:1 arch_titus:1 marie_louise:1 final_resting:2 resting_place:2 la_marseillaise:2 jean_pierre:1 belt_buckle:1 vestal_virgin:1 westminster_abbey:1 jacqueline_kennedy:2 panoramic_view:1 external_link:1 |
923 | Plotter | Inkjet plotter A plotter is a vector graphics printing device to print graphical plots, that connects to a computer. There are two types of main plotters. Those are pen plotters and electrostatic plotters. Overview Pen plotters print by moving a pen across the surface of a piece of paper. This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than raster graphics as with other printers. Pen plotters can draw complex line art, including text, but do so very slowly because of the mechanical movement of the pens. Pen Plotters are incapable of creating a solid region of color; but can hatch an area by drawing a number of close, regular lines. When computer memory was very expensive, and processor power was very limited, this was often the fastest way to produce color high-resolution vector-based artwork, or very large drawings efficiently. Traditionally, printers are primarily for printing text. This makes it fairly easy to control, simply sending the text to the printer is usually enough to generate a page of output. This is not the case of the line art on a plotter, where a number of printer control languages were created to send the more detailed commands like "lift pen from paper", "place pen on paper", or "draw a line from here to here". The two common ASCII-based plotter control languages are Hewlett-Packard's HPGL2 or Houston Instruments DMPL with commands such as "PA 3000, 2000; PD". Programmers using FORTRAN or BASIC generally did not program these directly, but used software packages such as the Calcomp library, or device independent graphics packages such as Hewlett-Packard's AGL libraries or BASIC extensions or high end packages such as DISSPLA. These would establish scaling factors from world coordinates to device coordinates, and translating to the low level device commands. For example to plot X*X in HP 9830 BASIC, the program would be 10 SCALE -1,1,1,1 20 FOR X =-1 to 1 STEP 0.1 30 PLOT X, X*X 40 NEXT X 50 PEN 60 END Early plotters (e.g. the Calcomp 565 of 1959) worked by placing the paper over a roller which moved the paper back and forth for X motion, while the pen moved back and forth on a single arm for Y motion. Another approach (e.g. Computervision's Interact I) involved attaching ball-point pens to drafting pantographs and driving the machines with motors controlled by the computer. This had the disadvantage of being somewhat slow to move, as well as requiring floor space equal to the size of the paper, but could double as a digitizer. A later change was the addition of an electrically controlled clamp to hold the pens, which allowed them to be changed and thus create multi-colored output. Hewlett Packard and Tektronix created desk-sized flatbed plotters in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, the small and lightweight HP 7470 used an innovative "grit wheel" mechanism which moved only the paper. Modern desktop scanners use a somewhat similar arrangement. These smaller "home-use" plotters became popular for desktop business graphics, but their low speed meant they were not useful for general printing purposes, and another conventional printer would be required for those jobs. One category introduced by Hewlett Packard's MultiPlot for the HP 2647 was the "word chart" which used the plotter to draw large letters on a transparency. This was the forerunner of the modern Powerpoint chart. With the widespread availability of high-resolution inkjet and laser printers, inexpensive memory and computers fast enough to rasterize color images, pen plotters have all but disappeared. Plotters were also used in the Create-A-Card kiosks that were available for a while in the greeting card area of supermarkets that used the HP 7475 6 pen plotter. Plotters are used primarily in technical drawing and CAD applications, where they have the advantage of working on very large paper sizes while maintaining high resolution. Another use has been found by replacing the pen with a cutter, and in this form plotters can be found in many garment and sign shops. If a plotter was commanded to use different colors it had to replace the pen and select the wanted color and/or width. A niche application of plotters is in creating tactile images for visually handicapped people on special thermal cell paper. Pen plotters have essentially become obsolete, and have been replaced by large-format inkjet printers and LED toner based printers. Such printers are often still known as plotters, even though they are raster devices rather than pen based plotters by the definition of this article. The newer plotters still understand vector languages such as HPGL2. This is because the language is an efficient way to describe how to draw the file using just text commands. A technical drawing in HPGL2 can be quite a bit smaller file than the same drawing in a pure raster form. A pen plotter's speed is primarily limited by the type of pen used. The typical plotter pen uses a cellulose fiber rod inserted through a circular foam tube saturated with ink, with the end of the rod sharpened into a conical tip. As the pen moves across the paper surface, capillary wicking draws the ink from the foam, down the rod, and onto the paper. As the ink supply in the foam is depleted, the migration of ink to the tip begins to slow down, resulting in faint lines. Slowing the plotting speed will allow the lines drawn by a worn-out pen to remain dark, but the fading will continue until the foam is completely depleted. Also as the fiber tip pen is used, the fiber tip slowly wears away from rubbing against the media, wearing down the thin conical tip into a thicker smudged line. Ball-point plotter pens with refillable clear plastic ink reservoirs are available. They do not have the fading or wear effects of fiber pens, but are generally more expensive and uncommon. Vinyl Sign Cutter A vinyl sign cutter (sometimes known as a cutting plotter) is used by professional poster and billboard sign-making businesses to produce brilliant weather-resistant signs, posters, and billboards using self-colored adhesive-backed vinyl film that has a removable paper backing material. The vinyl can also be applied to car bodies and windows for large, bright company advertising and to sailboat transoms. A similar process is used to cut tinted vinyl for automotive windows. Colors available are generally limited only by the collection of vinyl on hand. To prevent creasing of the material, it is stored in rolls. Typical vinyl roll sizes are 24-inch and 36-inch width. Generally the hardware is identical to a traditional plotter except that the ink pen is replaced by a very sharp knife that is use to cut out each shape, and the plotter may have a pressure control to adjust how hard the knife presses down into the vinyl film, allowing designs to be fully or partly cut out. The vinyl knife is usually shaped like a plotter pen and is mounted on ball-bearings so that the knife edge rotates to face the correct direction as the plotter head moves. Once the letters or designs have been cut out, there are two methods for handling the application. The most common method: From the front surface, peel off the surround and unwanted areas of shapes from the letters or design. Apply a slightly tacky carrier film over the letters or design (this film is similar to masking tape though clear carrier films are also used. Cut out the area which includes the desired design, including the carrier film, vinyl and vinyl backing material. Apply a small piece of masking tape to the sides of the resulting sandwich to ease positioning. Ensuring that the area to which the vinyl is to be applied is clean, position the sandwich. When it is in the desired position, apply a hinge of masking tape to the lower edge. Remove the two side pieces of masking tape and the sandwich will fold down along the hinge. Carefully remove the backing paper by peeling sideways, not away from the letters or design. The cut vinyl is now held in position by the carrier film. With a small plastic wiper (a credit card will also do), sweep the cut vinyl into contact with the mounting surface, stroking upwards and outwards, taking care to leave no air bubbles. When all parts of the cut vinyl is in contact with the mounting surface, gently peel off the front paper sideways, and apply final pressure to the front face of the cut vinyl to produce a weather-resistant sign. An older method: Once the vinyl has been cut, the individual cut-out pieces are peeled off the backing paper and carefully assembled by hand on the mounting surface to form the final image. A heat gun may be used to melt/bond the vinyl pieces to the substrate. Sign cutters are primarily used to produce single-color line art. Multiple colors can be cut and assembled but the assembly process is extremely painstaking if the cut sections are thin and flexible. As with the pen plotter, sign cutting plotters are in decline for general billboard and sign design. They are being replaced by wide-format inkjet printers that use special fade-resistant UV-protected solvent-based inks, which can directly print onto fabrics, vinyls, or plastic sheeting. These large inkjet printers have the added advantage of performing smooth color transitions and photo printing, which sign cutters cannot duplicate. However, sign cutting plotters are still very much in use for precision cutting of graphics produced by wide-format inkjet printers, for example to produce shaped stickers and window graphics. Static Cutting Table A sign cutter typically functions like a traditional roll-fed or sheet-fed plotter, in that the media to be cut is kept rigid by a backing sheet as pieces of vinyl are cut out. As the letters are cut, the backing keeps the material properly aligned in the moving rollers. This does not work when cutting a non-rigid material with no backing, such as fabric textiles or leather. Cutting a hole or slit will cause the unsupported material to droop and fall out of alignment. The static cutting table uses a large flat vacuum cutting table instead of a roll feed. The surface of the table has a series of small pinholes drilled in it. Material is placed on the table, and a sheet of plastic overlaid onto the fabric. A vacuum pump is turned on, and air pressure pushes down on the plastic cover sheet to hold the fabric in place. The table then operates like a normal vector plotter, using various cutting tools to cut holes or slits into the fabric. The plastic overlay is also cut, which leads to a slight loss of vacuum, but this loss is usually not significant. This configuration allows static cutting tables to cut flexible and non-rigid materials that are difficult or impossible to cut with roll-fed plotters. Static cutters are also capable of cutting much thicker and heavier materials than a typical roll-fed or sheet-fed plotter. References | Plotter |@lemmatized inkjet:6 plotter:41 vector:4 graphic:6 print:5 device:5 graphical:1 plot:4 connect:1 computer:4 two:4 type:2 main:1 pen:29 electrostatic:1 overview:1 move:8 across:2 surface:7 piece:6 paper:15 mean:1 restrict:1 line:9 art:4 rather:2 raster:3 printer:12 draw:7 complex:1 include:3 text:4 slowly:2 mechanical:1 movement:1 incapable:1 create:6 solid:1 region:1 color:11 hatch:1 area:5 number:2 close:1 regular:1 memory:2 expensive:2 processor:1 power:1 limited:1 often:2 fast:2 way:2 produce:6 high:4 resolution:3 base:5 artwork:1 large:7 drawing:4 efficiently:1 traditionally:1 primarily:4 make:1 fairly:1 easy:1 control:6 simply:1 send:2 usually:3 enough:2 generate:1 page:1 output:2 case:1 language:4 detailed:1 command:5 like:4 lift:1 place:4 common:2 ascii:1 hewlett:4 packard:4 houston:1 instrument:1 dmpl:1 pa:1 pd:1 programmer:1 use:26 fortran:1 basic:3 generally:4 program:2 directly:2 software:1 package:3 calcomp:2 library:2 independent:1 agl:1 extension:1 end:3 disspla:1 would:3 establish:1 scale:2 factor:1 world:1 coordinate:2 translate:1 low:3 level:1 example:2 x:8 hp:4 step:1 next:1 early:1 e:2 g:2 work:3 roller:2 back:6 forth:2 motion:2 single:2 arm:1 another:3 approach:1 computervision:1 interact:1 involve:1 attach:1 ball:3 point:2 draft:1 pantograph:1 drive:1 machine:1 motor:1 disadvantage:1 somewhat:2 slow:3 well:1 require:2 floor:1 space:1 equal:1 size:4 could:1 double:1 digitizer:1 late:2 change:2 addition:1 electrically:1 clamp:1 hold:3 allow:4 thus:1 multi:1 tektronix:1 desk:1 flatbed:1 small:6 lightweight:1 innovative:1 grit:1 wheel:1 mechanism:1 modern:2 desktop:2 scanner:1 similar:3 arrangement:1 home:1 become:2 popular:1 business:2 speed:3 meant:1 useful:1 general:2 printing:2 purpose:1 conventional:1 job:1 one:1 category:1 introduce:1 multiplot:1 word:1 chart:2 letter:6 transparency:1 forerunner:1 powerpoint:1 widespread:1 availability:1 laser:1 inexpensive:1 rasterize:1 image:3 disappear:1 also:7 card:3 kiosk:1 available:3 greet:1 supermarket:1 technical:2 cad:1 application:3 advantage:2 maintain:1 find:2 replace:5 cutter:7 form:3 many:1 garment:1 sign:12 shop:1 different:1 select:1 wanted:1 width:2 niche:1 tactile:1 visually:1 handicap:1 people:1 special:2 thermal:1 cell:1 essentially:1 obsolete:1 format:3 lead:2 toner:1 still:3 know:2 even:1 though:2 definition:1 article:1 newer:1 understand:1 efficient:1 describe:1 file:2 quite:1 bit:1 pure:1 limit:2 typical:3 cellulose:1 fiber:4 rod:3 insert:1 circular:1 foam:4 tube:1 saturate:1 ink:7 sharpen:1 conical:2 tip:5 capillary:1 wicking:1 onto:3 supply:1 deplete:2 migration:1 begin:1 result:2 faint:1 worn:1 remain:1 dark:1 fading:2 continue:1 completely:1 wear:3 away:2 rub:1 medium:2 thin:2 thicker:2 smudge:1 refillable:1 clear:2 plastic:6 reservoir:1 effect:1 uncommon:1 vinyl:20 sometimes:1 cut:30 professional:1 poster:2 billboard:3 making:1 brilliant:1 weather:2 resistant:3 self:1 adhesive:1 film:7 removable:1 material:9 apply:6 car:1 body:1 window:3 bright:1 company:1 advertising:1 sailboat:1 transom:1 process:2 tinted:1 automotive:1 collection:1 hand:2 prevent:1 creasing:1 store:1 roll:6 inch:2 hardware:1 identical:1 traditional:2 except:1 sharp:1 knife:4 shape:3 may:2 pressure:3 adjust:1 hard:1 press:1 design:7 fully:1 partly:1 mount:4 bearing:1 edge:2 rotate:1 face:2 correct:1 direction:1 head:1 method:3 handle:1 front:3 peel:4 surround:1 unwanted:1 slightly:1 tacky:1 carrier:4 mask:4 tape:4 desired:2 side:2 sandwich:3 ease:1 positioning:1 ensure:1 clean:1 position:3 hinge:2 remove:2 fold:1 along:1 carefully:2 sideways:2 wiper:1 credit:1 sweep:1 contact:2 stroke:1 upwards:1 outwards:1 take:1 care:1 leave:1 air:2 bubble:1 part:1 gently:1 final:2 old:1 individual:1 backing:4 assemble:2 heat:1 gun:1 melt:1 bond:1 substrate:1 multiple:1 assembly:1 extremely:1 painstaking:1 section:1 flexible:2 decline:1 wide:2 fade:1 uv:1 protect:1 solvent:1 fabric:5 sheeting:1 added:1 perform:1 smooth:1 transition:1 photo:1 cannot:1 duplicate:1 however:1 much:2 precision:1 cutting:2 shaped:1 sticker:1 static:4 table:7 typically:1 function:1 fed:5 sheet:5 keep:2 rigid:3 properly:1 align:1 non:2 textile:1 leather:1 hole:2 slit:2 cause:1 unsupported:1 droop:1 fall:1 alignment:1 flat:1 vacuum:3 instead:1 feed:1 series:1 pinhole:1 drill:1 overlaid:1 pump:1 turn:1 push:1 cover:1 operate:1 normal:1 various:1 tool:1 overlay:1 slight:1 loss:2 significant:1 configuration:1 difficult:1 impossible:1 capable:1 heavy:1 reference:1 |@bigram pen_plotter:9 raster_graphic:1 hewlett_packard:4 laser_printer:1 inkjet_printer:4 sheet_fed:2 |
924 | Cactus | A cactus (plural: cacti or cactuses) is any member of the plant family Cactaceae, native to the Americas. They are often used as ornamental plants, but some are also crop plants. Cacti are grown for protection of property from wild animals, as well as many other uses. Cacti are part of the plant order Caryophyllales, which also includes members like beets, baby's breath, spinach, amaranth, tumbleweeds, carnations, rhubarb, buckwheat, plumbago, bougainvillea, chickweed and knotgrass. Cacti are distinctive and unusual plants, which are adapted to extremely arid and hot environments, showing a wide range of anatomical and physiological features which conserve water. Their stems have adapted to become photosynthetic and succulent, while the leaves have become the spines for which cacti are well known. Cacti come in a wide range of shapes and sizes. The tallest is Pachycereus pringlei, with a maximum recorded height of 19.2 m, Salak, M. (2000). In search of the tallest cactus. Cactus and Succulent Journal 72 (3). and the smallest is Blossfeldia liliputiana, only about 1 cm diameter at maturity. Mauseth Cactus research: Blossfeldia liliputiana Cactus flowers are large, and like the spines and branches arise from areoles. Many cactus species are night blooming, as they are pollinated by nocturnal insects or small animals, principally moths and bats. Cacti range in size from small and globular to tall and columnar. Description Closeup image of a cactus flower (Echinopsis spachiana) showing large number of stamens. Closeup look of a cactus perianth. Cacti are perennial and grow as trees, shrubs, or vines. Most species are terrestrial, but there are also many epiphytic species, especially in the tribes Rhipsalideae and Hylocereeae. In most species, except for the sub-family Pereskioideae (see image), the leaves are greatly or entirely reduced. The leaves may also be tiny and deciduous as can be seen on new shoots of Opuntia. Spines found in the cacti are actually modified leaves; the stems (the green "pads" of many cacti) have also evolved to photosynthesize. The flowers, mostly radially symmetrical and bisexual, bloom either by day or by night, depending on the species. Their shape varies from tube-like through bell-like to wheel-shaped, and their size from 0.2 to 15-30 centimeters. Most of them have numerous sepals (from 5 to 50 or more), and change form from outside to inside, from bracts to petals. They have stamens in great numbers (from 50 to 1,500, rarely fewer). Nearly all species of cacti have a bitter mucilaginous sap contained within them. The berry-like fruits may contain few to many (3,000), seeds, which can be between 0.4 and 12 mm long. http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=10141 Description of the Family in the Flora of North America. The life of a cactus is seldom longer than 300 years, but may be as short as 25 years, (although these flower as early as their second year). The Saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) grows to a height of up to 15 meters (the record is 17 meters 67 cm), but in its first ten years, it grows only 10 centimeters. The "mother-in-law's cushion" (Echinocactus grusonii) reaches a height of 2.5 meters and a diameter of 1 meter and - at least on the Canaries - is already capable of flowering after 6 years. The diameter of cactus flowers ranges from 5 to 30 cm; the colors are often conspicuous and spectacular. The cactus family is endemic to the Americas with one exception, Rhipsalis baccifera; this species has a pantropical distribution, occurring in the Old World tropical Africa, Madagascar and Sri Lanka as well as in tropical America. This plant is thought to be a relatively recent colonist in the Old World (within the last few thousand years), probably carried as seeds in the digestive tracts of migratory birds. Many other cacti have become naturalized to similar environments in other parts of the world after being introduced by people, e.g. Australia, Hawaii, and the Mediterranean region. The Tehuacán Valley of Mexico has one of the richest occurrences of cacti in the world. Species diversity decreases as one travels north; hundreds of species can be found in areas of Mexico, dozens of species are found in the Sonora and Mojave deserts of the southwestern U.S., and only several species are found in the eastern plains and dry valleys of Montana and Alberta. Cacti are believed to have evolved in the last 30 to 40 million years. Long ago, the Americas were joined to the other continents, but separated due to continental drift. Unique species in the New World must have developed after the continents had moved apart or began developing just prior to the separation. Significant distance between the continents was only achieved in around the last 50 million years. This may explain why cacti are so rare in Africa as the continents had already separated when cacti evolved. Many succulent plants in both the Old and New World bear a striking resemblance to cacti, and are often called "cactus" in common usage. This is, however, due to parallel evolution; none of these is closely related to the Cactaceae except the family Didiereaceae. Prickly pears (genus Opuntia) were imported into Australia in the 19th century to be used as a natural agricultural fence and to establish a cochineal dye industry, but quickly became a widespread weed. This invasive species is inedible for local herbivores and has rendered 40,000 km² of farming land unproductive. Adaptations to dry environment Some environments, such as deserts, semi-deserts, and dry steppes, receive little water in the form of precipitation. Plants that inhabit these dry areas are known as xerophytes, and many of them are succulents, with thick or reduced, "succulent", leaves. Apart from a few exceptions (for example, the genus Pereskia) all cacti are succulent plants. Like other succulents, cacti have a range of specific adaptations that enable them to survive in these environments. Pereskia grandifolia: Pereskia is a weakly succulent genus, which also possesses leaves, and is believed to be very similar to the ancestor of all cacti. Barrel Cactus growing on a cliff in the Mojave Desert. These cacti can reach up to six feet tall in some cases. Organ Pipe cactus in Arizona Many species of cactus have long, sharp spines. Cacti have never lost their leaves completely; they have only reduced the size so that they reduce the surface area through which water can be lost by transpiration. In some species the leaves are still remarkably large and ordinary while in other species they have become microscopic but they still contain the stomata, xylem and phloem. Certain cactus species have also developed ephemeral or deciduous leaves, which are leaves that last for a short period of time when the stem is still in its early stages of development. A good example is Opuntia ficus-indica, better known as the prickly pear. Cacti have also developed spines which allow less water to evaporate through transpiration by shading the plant, and defend the cactus against water-seeking animals. The spines grow from specialized structures called areoles, homologous to the nodes on other plants. Very few members of the family have leaves, and when present these are usually rudimentary and soon fall off; they are typically awl-shaped and only 1-3 mm. long. Two genera, Pereskia and Pereskiopsis, do however retain large, non-succulent leaves 5-25 cm. long, and non-succulent stems. Pereskia has now been determined to be the ancestral genus from which all other cacti evolved. How did cacti evolve? Enlarged stems carry out photosynthesis and store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of a true cactus where this takes place. Much like many other plants that have waxy coatings on their leaves, cacti often have a waxy coating on their stems to prevent water loss and potentially repel water from their stems. The bodies of many cacti have become thickened during the course of evolution, and form water-retentive tissue and in many cases assume the optimal shape of a sphere or cylinder (combining highest possible volume with lowest possible surface area). By reducing its surface area, the body of the plant is also protected against excessive sunlight. Saguaro cactus in Arizona, USA. This species is well known from Western films. A fishhook barrel cactus in Arizona, USA. Most cacti have a short growing season and long dormancy. For example, a fully-grown Saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea) can absorb up to 3,000 litres of water in ten days. This is helped by the ability to form new roots quickly. Two hours after rain following a relatively long drought, root formation begins in response to the moisture. Apart from a few exceptions, an extensively ramified root system is formed, which spreads out immediately beneath the surface. The salt concentration in the root cells is relatively high, so that when moisture is encountered, water can immediately be absorbed in the greatest possible quantity. But the plant body itself is also capable of absorbing moisture (through the epidermis and the thorns), which for plants that are exposed to moisture almost entirely or indeed in some cases solely, in the form of fog, is of the greatest importance for sustaining life. Most cacti have very shallow roots that can spread out widely close to the surface of the ground to collect water, an adaptation to infrequent rains; in one examination, a young Saguaro only 12 cm. tall had a root system covering an area 2 meters in diameter, but with no roots more than 10 cm. deep. Dalhousie University: Biology of Cacti The larger columnar cacti also develop a taproot, primarily for anchoring but also to reach deeper water supplies and mineral nutrients. One feature distinguishes the cacti from all other plants: cacti possess areoles, as they are known. The areole appears like a cushion with a diameter of up to 15 mm. and is formed by two opposing buds in the angles of a leaf. From the upper bud develops either a blossom or a side shoot, from the lower bud develop thorns. The two buds of the areoles can lie very close together, but they can also sometimes be separated by several centimeters. Like other succulents in the families of the Crassulaceae, Agavaceae (agaves), Euphorbiaceae (euphorbias), Liliaceae (lilies), Orchidaceae (orchids) and Vitaceae (vines), cacti reduce water loss through transpiration by Crassulacean acid metabolism. Here, transpiration does not take place during the day at the same time as photosynthesis, but at night. The plant stores the carbon dioxide chemically linked to malic acid until the daytime. During the day the stomata are closed and the plant releases the stored CO2 and uses it for photosynthesis. Because transpiration takes place during the cool humid night hours, water loss through transpiration is significantly reduced. Reproductive ecology Blooming Echinopsis. The sweet-smelling flower opens towards evening and dies the following morning. Some cactus flowers form long tubes (up to 30 centimetres) so that only moths can reach the nectar and therefore pollinate the blossoms. There are also specializations for bats, humming birds and particular species of bees. The duration of flowering is very variable. Many flowers, for example those of Selenicereus grandiflorus (Queen of the Night) are only fully open for two hours at night. Other cacti flower for a whole week. Most cacti are self-incompatible, and thus require a pollinator. A few are autogamous and are able to pollinate themselves. Fraileas only opens their flowers completely in exceptional circumstances; they mostly pollinate themselves or others with their flowers closed ("cleistogamy"). The flower itself has also undergone a further development: the ovary tends to become a completely protected area, protected by thorns, hairs and scales. Seed formation is very prolific, and the fruits are mostly fleshy, pleasant tasting and conspicuously coloured. Goats, birds, ants, mice and bats contribute significantly to the spreading of the seeds. Because of the plants' high water-retention ability, detached parts of the plant can survive for long periods and are able to grow new roots anywhere on the plant body. ==History== Carl Spitzweg: The Cactus Lover, c. 1856 Moche Cactus. 200 B.C. Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru. Among the remains of the Aztec civilization, cactus-like plants can be found in pictorial representations, sculpture and drawings, with many depictions resembling Echinocactus grusonii. Tenochtitlan (the earlier name of Mexico City) means "place of the sacred cactus." The coat of arms of Mexico to this day shows an eagle perched on a cactus while holding a snake, an image which is at the center of the Aztec origin myth. http://aztecs.mrdonn.org/place.html Economic exploitation of the cactus can also be traced back to the Aztecs. The North American Indians utilize the alkaloid content of several cacti species for religious ceremonies. Today, besides their use as foodstuffs (jam, fruit, vegetables), their principal use is as a host for the cochineal insect, from which a red dye (carmine) is obtained which is used in Campari or high-quality lipsticks. Particularly in South America dead pillar cacti yield valuable wood for construction. Some cacti are also of pharmaceutical significance. From the moment the early European explorers sighted them, cacti have aroused much interest: Christopher Columbus brought the first melocactus to Europe. Scientific interest in them began in the 17th century. By 1737, twenty-four species were known, which Linnaeus grouped together as the genus "Cactaceae". From the beginning of the 20th century, interest in cacti has increased steadily. This was accompanied by a rising commercial interest, the negative consequences of which culminated in raids on their native habitats. Through the great number of cactus admirers, whether their interest is scientific or hobby-oriented, new species and varieties are even today discovered every year. All cacti are covered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and many species by virtue of their inclusion in Appendix 1 are fully protected. Some countries have a rather contradictory attitude to species protection. In Mexico for example to be caught in the act of digging up cacti carries a prison sentence, but cactus habitats are destroyed for the construction of new roads and electricity lines. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped agriculture and often depicted the cactus in their art. Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. Uses Cacti, cultivated by people worldwide, are a familiar sight as potted plants, houseplants or in ornamental gardens in warmer climates. They often form part of xeriphytic (dry) gardens in arid regions, or raised rockeries. Some countries, such as Australia, have water restrictions in many cities, so drought-resistant plants are increasing in popularity. Numerous species have entered widespread cultivation, including members of Echinopsis, Mammillaria and Cereus among others. Some, such as the Golden Barrel dekha Cactus, Echinocactus grusonii, are prominent in garden design. Cacti are commonly used for fencing material where there is a lack of either natural resources or financial means to construct a permanent fence. This is often seen in arid and warm climates, such as the Masai Mara in Kenya. This is known as a cactus fence. Cactus fences are often used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security purposes. The sharp thorns of the cactus deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of some species, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls. A Mexican dish, nopal salad. As well as garden plants, many cactus species have important commercial uses, some cacti bear edible fruit, such as the prickly pear and Hylocereus, which produces Dragon fruit or Pitaya. According to Reuters, the edible cactus, or nopal, industry in Mexico is worth $150 million each year and approximately 10,000 farmers cultivate the plant. http://www.reuters.com/article/oddlyEnoughNews/idUSN2G28324120070219 Opuntia are also used as host plants for cochineal bugs in the cochineal dye industry in Central America. The Peyote, Lophophora williamsii, is a well-known psychoactive agent used by Native Americans in the Southwest of the United States of America. Some species of Echinopsis (previously Trichocereus) also have psychoactive properties. For example, the San Pedro cactus, a common specimen found in many garden centers, is known to contain mescaline. Etymology Prickly Pear is among the most common type of cactus found in North America The word cactus is derived through Latin from the Greek κάκτος kaktos, which referred to the cardoon (Cynara cardunculus). Linnaeus in 1753 applied this name generically to a genus he called Cactus, which was later reassigned as a family, Cactaceae, and subdivided into multiple genera. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "cactus", http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50030958. The Latin plural cacti, the English plural cactuses, and the uninflected plural cactus are all used in English. Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary, s.v. "cactus", http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cactus. References External links Cacti & Succulent Picture Gallery Cacti Picture Gallery CactiGuide - many photos, and discussion forum A Guide to the Miraculous Cactus World Intermountain Cactus: Winter Hardy Cactus Cactus of the Death Valley Area SucculentCity - Plant Profiles, Photographs & Cultivation Data Suculentas.es - Spanish language website with many photographs Chilean Cacti, by Chileflora Cactus and Succulent Field Number Database | Cactus |@lemmatized cactus:99 plural:4 member:4 plant:29 family:8 cactaceae:4 native:3 america:9 often:8 use:12 ornamental:2 also:19 crop:1 grow:7 protection:2 property:3 wild:2 animal:3 well:6 many:21 us:2 part:5 order:1 caryophyllales:1 include:2 like:10 beet:1 baby:1 breath:1 spinach:1 amaranth:1 tumbleweed:1 carnation:1 rhubarb:1 buckwheat:1 plumbago:1 bougainvillea:1 chickweed:1 knotgrass:1 distinctive:1 unusual:1 adapt:2 extremely:1 arid:3 hot:1 environment:5 show:3 wide:2 range:5 anatomical:1 physiological:1 feature:2 conserve:1 water:17 stem:8 become:7 photosynthetic:1 succulent:14 leaf:10 spine:6 know:9 come:1 shape:4 size:4 tallest:1 pachycereus:1 pringlei:1 maximum:1 record:2 height:3 salak:1 search:1 tall:4 journal:1 small:3 blossfeldia:2 liliputiana:2 cm:6 diameter:5 maturity:1 mauseth:1 research:1 flower:13 large:5 branch:1 arise:1 areoles:4 specie:27 night:6 blooming:1 pollinate:4 nocturnal:1 insect:2 principally:1 moth:2 bat:3 globular:1 columnar:2 description:2 closeup:2 image:3 echinopsis:4 spachiana:1 number:4 stamen:2 look:1 perianth:1 perennial:1 tree:1 shrub:1 vine:2 terrestrial:1 epiphytic:1 especially:1 tribes:1 rhipsalideae:1 hylocereeae:1 except:2 sub:1 pereskioideae:1 see:3 greatly:1 entirely:2 reduce:7 may:5 tiny:1 deciduous:2 new:8 shoot:2 opuntia:4 find:7 actually:1 modify:1 leave:4 green:1 pad:1 evolve:5 photosynthesize:1 mostly:3 radially:1 symmetrical:1 bisexual:1 bloom:2 either:3 day:5 depend:1 varies:1 tube:2 bell:1 wheel:1 centimeter:3 numerous:2 sepal:1 change:1 form:9 outside:1 inside:1 bract:1 petal:1 great:4 rarely:1 nearly:1 bitter:1 mucilaginous:1 sap:1 contain:4 within:2 berry:1 fruit:5 seed:4 mm:3 long:10 http:5 www:3 efloras:1 org:2 florataxon:1 aspx:1 flora:2 north:4 life:2 seldom:1 year:10 short:3 although:1 early:4 second:1 saguaro:4 carnegiea:2 gigantea:2 meter:5 first:2 ten:2 mother:1 law:1 cushion:2 echinocactus:3 grusonii:3 reach:4 least:1 canary:1 already:2 capable:2 color:1 conspicuous:1 spectacular:1 endemic:1 one:5 exception:3 rhipsalis:1 baccifera:1 species:2 pantropical:1 distribution:1 occur:1 old:3 world:7 tropical:2 africa:2 madagascar:1 sri:1 lanka:1 think:1 relatively:3 recent:1 colonist:1 last:4 thousand:1 probably:1 carry:3 digestive:1 tract:1 migratory:1 bird:3 naturalize:1 similar:2 introduce:1 people:3 e:2 g:1 australia:3 hawaii:1 mediterranean:1 region:2 tehuacán:1 valley:3 mexico:6 rich:1 occurrence:1 diversity:1 decrease:1 travel:1 hundred:1 area:8 dozen:1 sonora:1 mojave:2 desert:4 southwestern:1 u:1 several:3 eastern:1 plain:1 dry:5 montana:1 alberta:1 believe:2 million:3 ago:1 join:1 continent:4 separate:3 due:2 continental:1 drift:1 unique:1 must:1 develop:7 move:1 apart:3 begin:3 prior:1 separation:1 significant:1 distance:1 achieve:1 around:1 explain:1 rare:1 bear:2 striking:1 resemblance:1 cacti:4 call:3 common:3 usage:1 however:2 parallel:1 evolution:2 none:1 closely:1 relate:1 didiereaceae:1 prickly:4 pear:4 genus:8 import:1 century:3 natural:2 agricultural:1 fence:6 establish:1 cochineal:4 dye:3 industry:3 quickly:2 widespread:2 weed:1 invasive:1 inedible:1 local:1 herbivore:1 render:1 farm:1 land:1 unproductive:1 adaptation:3 semi:1 steppe:1 receive:1 little:1 precipitation:1 inhabit:1 xerophyte:1 thick:1 example:6 pereskia:5 specific:1 enable:1 survive:2 grandifolia:1 weakly:1 possess:1 ancestor:1 barrel:3 cliff:1 six:1 foot:1 case:3 organ:1 pipe:1 arizona:3 sharp:2 never:1 lose:2 completely:3 surface:5 transpiration:6 still:3 remarkably:1 ordinary:1 microscopic:1 stoma:2 xylem:1 phloem:1 certain:1 ephemeral:1 period:2 time:2 stage:1 development:2 good:2 ficus:1 indica:1 allow:1 less:1 evaporate:1 shade:1 defend:1 seek:1 specialized:1 structure:1 homologous:1 node:1 present:1 usually:1 rudimentary:1 soon:1 fall:1 typically:1 awl:1 shaped:1 two:5 pereskiopsis:1 retain:1 non:2 determine:1 ancestral:1 enlarge:1 photosynthesis:3 store:2 unlike:1 true:1 take:3 place:5 much:2 waxy:2 coating:1 coat:2 prevent:2 loss:3 potentially:1 repel:1 body:4 thicken:1 course:1 retentive:1 tissue:1 assume:1 optimal:1 sphere:1 cylinder:1 combine:1 high:4 possible:3 volume:1 low:2 protect:3 excessive:1 sunlight:1 usa:2 western:1 film:1 fishhook:1 growing:1 season:1 dormancy:1 fully:3 grown:1 absorb:3 litre:1 help:1 ability:2 root:8 hour:3 rain:2 follow:1 drought:2 formation:2 response:1 moisture:4 extensively:1 ramify:1 system:2 spread:2 immediately:2 beneath:1 salt:1 concentration:1 cell:1 encounter:1 quantity:1 epidermis:1 thorn:4 expose:1 almost:1 indeed:1 solely:1 fog:1 importance:1 sustain:1 shallow:1 widely:1 close:4 ground:1 collect:1 infrequent:1 examination:1 young:1 cover:2 deep:2 dalhousie:1 university:1 biology:1 taproot:1 primarily:1 anchor:1 supply:1 mineral:1 nutrient:1 distinguish:1 posse:1 areole:1 appear:1 oppose:1 bud:4 angle:1 upper:1 blossom:2 side:1 lie:1 together:2 sometimes:1 crassulaceae:1 agavaceae:1 agaves:1 euphorbiaceae:1 euphorbias:1 liliaceae:1 lily:1 orchidaceae:1 orchid:1 vitaceae:1 crassulacean:1 acid:2 metabolism:1 carbon:1 dioxide:1 chemically:1 link:2 malic:1 daytime:1 release:1 stored:1 cool:1 humid:1 significantly:2 reproductive:1 ecology:1 sweet:1 smell:1 open:3 towards:1 even:2 die:1 following:1 morning:1 centimetre:1 nectar:1 therefore:1 specialization:1 hum:1 particular:1 bee:1 duration:1 flowering:1 variable:1 selenicereus:1 grandiflorus:1 queen:1 whole:1 week:1 self:1 incompatible:1 thus:1 require:1 pollinator:1 autogamous:1 able:2 fraileas:1 exceptional:1 circumstance:1 others:2 cleistogamy:1 undergo:1 ovary:1 tends:1 protected:1 hair:1 scale:1 prolific:1 fleshy:1 pleasant:1 tasting:1 conspicuously:1 colour:1 goat:1 ant:1 mouse:1 contribute:1 spreading:1 retention:1 detach:1 anywhere:1 history:1 carl:1 spitzweg:1 lover:1 c:2 moche:2 b:1 larco:3 museum:2 collection:1 lima:1 peru:3 among:3 remains:1 aztec:4 civilization:1 pictorial:1 representation:1 sculpture:1 drawing:1 depiction:1 resemble:1 tenochtitlan:1 name:2 city:2 mean:2 sacred:1 arm:1 eagle:1 perch:1 hold:1 snake:1 center:2 origin:1 myth:1 mrdonn:1 html:1 economic:1 exploitation:1 trace:1 back:1 american:2 indian:1 utilize:1 alkaloid:1 content:1 religious:1 ceremony:1 today:2 besides:1 foodstuff:1 jam:1 vegetable:1 principal:1 host:2 red:1 carmine:1 obtain:1 campari:1 quality:2 lipstick:1 particularly:1 south:1 dead:1 pillar:1 yield:1 valuable:1 wood:1 construction:2 pharmaceutical:1 significance:1 moment:1 european:1 explorer:1 sight:2 arouse:1 interest:5 christopher:1 columbus:1 bring:1 melocactus:1 europe:1 scientific:2 twenty:1 four:1 linnaeus:2 group:1 beginning:1 increase:2 steadily:1 accompany:1 rise:1 commercial:2 negative:1 consequence:1 culminate:1 raid:1 habitat:2 admirer:1 whether:1 hobby:1 orient:1 variety:1 discover:1 every:1 convention:1 international:1 trade:1 endangered:1 fauna:1 virtue:1 inclusion:1 appendix:1 country:2 rather:1 contradictory:1 attitude:1 catch:1 act:1 dig:1 prison:1 sentence:1 destroy:1 road:1 electricity:1 line:1 ancient:2 worship:1 agriculture:1 depict:1 art:1 berrin:1 katherine:1 spirit:1 treasure:1 museo:1 arqueológico:1 rafael:1 herrera:1 york:1 thames:1 hudson:1 cultivate:2 worldwide:1 familiar:1 potted:1 houseplant:1 garden:5 warmer:1 climate:2 xeriphytic:1 raise:1 rockery:1 restriction:1 resistant:1 popularity:1 enter:2 cultivation:2 mammillaria:1 cereus:1 golden:1 dekha:1 prominent:1 design:1 commonly:1 material:1 lack:1 resource:1 financial:1 construct:1 permanent:1 warm:1 masai:1 mara:1 kenya:1 homeowner:1 landscape:1 architect:1 home:2 security:2 purpose:1 deter:1 unauthorized:1 person:1 private:1 break:1 window:1 near:1 drainpipe:1 aesthetic:1 characteristic:1 conjunction:1 make:1 considerable:1 alternative:1 artificial:1 wall:1 mexican:1 dish:1 nopal:2 salad:1 important:1 edible:2 hylocereus:1 produce:1 dragon:1 pitaya:1 accord:1 reuters:2 worth:1 approximately:1 farmer:1 com:3 article:1 oddlyenoughnews:1 bug:1 central:1 peyote:1 lophophora:1 williamsii:1 psychoactive:2 agent:1 southwest:1 united:1 state:1 previously:1 trichocereus:1 san:1 pedro:1 specimen:1 mescaline:1 etymology:1 type:1 word:1 derive:1 latin:2 greek:1 κάκτος:1 kaktos:1 refer:1 cardoon:1 cynara:1 cardunculus:1 apply:1 generically:1 later:1 reassign:1 subdivide:1 multiple:1 oxford:1 english:3 dictionary:4 v:2 oed:1 cgi:1 entry:1 uninflected:1 merriam:2 webster:2 online:1 reference:1 external:1 picture:2 gallery:2 cactiguide:1 photo:1 discussion:1 forum:1 guide:1 miraculous:1 intermountain:1 winter:1 hardy:1 death:1 succulentcity:1 profile:1 photograph:2 data:1 suculentas:1 spanish:1 language:1 website:1 chilean:1 chileflora:1 field:1 database:1 |@bigram tree_shrub:1 http_www:3 sri_lanka:1 digestive_tract:1 migratory_bird:1 mojave_desert:2 continental_drift:1 striking_resemblance:1 closely_relate:1 prickly_pear:4 invasive_specie:1 xylem_phloem:1 cm_tall:1 carbon_dioxide:1 malic_acid:1 sweet_smell:1 exceptional_circumstance:1 larco_museum:2 lima_peru:1 pictorial_representation:1 coat_arm:1 fruit_vegetable:1 christopher_columbus:1 endangered_specie:1 fauna_flora:1 berrin_katherine:1 katherine_larco:1 treasure_museo:1 museo_arqueológico:1 arqueológico_rafael:1 rafael_larco:1 larco_herrera:1 thames_hudson:1 warmer_climate:1 drought_resistant:1 masai_mara:1 edible_fruit:1 san_pedro:1 merriam_webster:2 external_link:1 |
925 | Cable_car_(railway) | A San Francisco cable car on the Powell & Hyde line. Cable Car in San Francisco - double-ended car (California line) Winding drums on the London and Blackwall cable-operated railway, 1840. A San Francisco cable car travels along California Street in the city's Financial District. A cable car or cable railway is a mass transit system using rail cars that are propelled by a continuously moving cable running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required. Cable cars are distinct from funiculars, where the cars are permanently attached to the cable, and cable railways, which are similar to funiculars, but where the rail vehicles are attached and detached manually. History The first cable-operated railway was the London and Blackwall Railway, which opened in east London, England, in 1840. However the rope available at the time proved too susceptible to wear and the system was abandoned in favour of steam locomotives after eight years. Though there may have been earlier attempts to pull cars by endless ropes, the first cable car installation in operation was the West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway in New York, which ran from 1 July 1868 to 1870. The cable technology used in this elevated railway involved collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars, and proved cumbersome. The line was closed and rebuilt, and reopened with steam locomotives. Machinery driving the San Francisco cable car system The first cable cars to use grips were those of the Clay Street Hill Railroad, which later became part of the San Francisco cable car system. This building of this line was promoted by Andrew Smith Hallidie with design work by William Eppelsheimer, and it was first tested in 1873. The success of these grips ensured that this line became the model for other cable car transit systems, and this model is often known as the Hallidie Cable Car. In 1881 the Dunedin cable tramway system opened in Dunedin, New Zealand and became the first such system outside San Francisco. For Dunedin, George Smith Duncan further developed the Hallidie model, introducing the pull curve and the slot brake; the former was a way to pull cars through a curve, since Dunedin's curves were too steep to allow coasting, while the latter forced a wedge down into the cable slot to stop the car. Both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco. Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace horse-drawn (or other animal-drawn) systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Many people at the time viewed horse-drawn transit as unnecessarily cruel, and the fact that a typical horse could work only four or five hours per day necessitated the maintenance of large stables of draft animals that had to be fed (typically 30 lb (14 kg) of feed each day), housed, groomed, medicated and rested. Thus for a period economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities. For example, the Chicago City Railway, also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in Chicago, Illinois in 1882 and went on to become the largest and most profitable cable car system. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of grades but of transportation capacity. This caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. Rather than using a grip car and single trailer, as many cities did, or combining the grip and trailer into a single car, like San Francisco's California Cars, Chicago used grip cars to pull trains of up to three trailers. In 1883 the New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway was opened, which had a most curious feature: though it was a cable car system, it used steam locomotives to get the cars into and out of the terminals. After 1896 the system changed to one where a motor car was added to each train to maneuver at the terminals, while en route the trains were still propelled by the cable. On 25 September 1883 a test of a cable car system was held by Liverpool United in Kirkdale. This would have been the first cable car system in Europe, but Liverpool United decided against implementing it. Instead the distinction went to the 1884 route from Archway to Highgate, north London, which used a continuous cable and grip system on the 1 in 11 (9%) climb of Highgate Hill. The installation was not reliable and was replaced by electric traction in 1909. Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the Glasgow District Subway, the first underground cable car system, in 1896. (London's first deep-level tube railway, the City & South London Railway, had earlier also been built for cable haulage but had been converted to electric traction before opening in 1890.) A few more cable car systems were built in the United Kingdom, Portugal and France, but European cities, having many more curves in their streets, were less suitable for cable cars than American cities. Though some new cable car systems were still being built, by 1890 the cheaper to construct and simpler to operate electrically-powered trolley or tram started to become the norm, and eventually started to replace existing cable car systems. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. Eventually, San Francisco became the only street-running manually-operated system to survive - Dunedin, the second city with such cars, was also the second-last city to operate them, closing down in 1957. In the last decades of the 20th century cable traction in general has seen a limited revival as automatic people movers, used in resort areas, airports (e.g., Toronto Airport) and huge hospital centers. Whilst many of these systems involve cars permanently attached to the cable, the system developed by Poma-Otis, a company formed by the merger of the cable car interests of the Pomagalski ski lift company and the Otis Elevator Company, allows the car to be decoupled from the cable under computer control, and can thus be considered a modern interpretation of the cable car. Operation The cable is itself powered by a stationary motor or engine situated in a cable house or power house. The speed at which it moves is relatively constant, although affected by the current load. The cable car begins moving when a clamping device, called a grip, is connected to the moving cable, and applies pressure. Conversely the car is stopped by releasing pressure on the cable (with or without completely detaching) and applying the brakes. This gripping and ungripping action may be manual, as was the case in all early cable car systems, or automatic, as is the case in some recent cable operated people mover type systems. Gripping must be an even and gradual process in order to avoid bringing the car to cable speed too quickly and unacceptably jarring the passengers. In the case of manual systems, the grip resembles a very large pair of pliers, and considerable strength and skill are required to operate the car. As many early cable car operators discovered the hard way, if the grip is not applied properly, it can damage the cable, or even worse, become entangled in the cable. In the latter case, the cable car may not be able to stop and can wreak havoc along its route until the cable house realizes what is going on and halts the cable. One claimed advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency, because of the economy of centrally-located power stations, and the ability for cars going down hill to transfer energy to cars going up. However this advantage is not unique to cable cars, as electric cars fitted with regenerative braking offer the same advantages, and in any case they must be offset against the cost of moving the cable. In the case of steep grades, however, cable traction has the advantage of not depending on adhesion between wheels and rails. Because of the constant and relatively low speed, cable cars can be underestimated in an accident. Even with a cable car traveling at only 9 miles per hour, the mass of the cable car and the combined strength of the cables can do quite a lot of harm to pedestrians if hit. Relation to Funiculars A cable car is superficially very similar to a funicular but differs from such a system in that its cars are not permanently attached to the cable and can stop independently, whereas a funicular has cars that are permanently attached to the propulsion cable, which is itself stopped and started. A cable car cannot climb as steep a grade as a funicular, but many more cars can be operated with a single cable, making it more flexible, and allowing a higher capacity. During the rush hour on San Francisco's Market Street Railway, a car would leave the terminal every 15 seconds. A few funicular railways operate in street traffic, and because of this operation are often incorrectly described a cable cars. Examples of such operation, and the consequent confusion, are: The Great Orme Tramway in Llandudno, Wales. Several street funiculars in Lisbon, Portugal. Even more confusingly, a hybrid cable car/funicular line once existed in the form of the original Wellington Cable Car, in the New Zealand city of Wellington. This line had both a continuous loop haulage cable that the cars gripped using a cable car gripper, and a balance cable permanently attached to both cars over an undriven pulley at the top of the line. The descending car gripped the haulage cable and was pulled downhill, in turn pulling the ascending car (which remained ungripped) uphill by the balance cable. This line was rebuilt in 1979 and is now a standard funicular, although it retains its old cable car name. Cities currently operating cable cars Traditional cable car systems The best known existing cable car system is the San Francisco cable car system in the city of San Francisco, California. The only moving National Historic Landmark in the United States, San Francisco's cable cars constitute the oldest and largest such system in permanent operation, and it is the only one to still operate in the traditional manner with manually operated cars running in street traffic. Modern cable car systems Several cities operate a modern version of the cable car system. These systems are fully automated and run on their own reserved right of way. They are commonly referred to as people movers, although that term is also applied to systems with other forms of propulsion, including funicular style cable propulsion. These cities include: Laon, France (Poma 2000) Las Vegas, United States (three lines linking hotels) Milan, Italy (connecting the San Raffaele Hospital with Cascina Gobba station (M2)) Cities previously operating cable cars Australia Cable tram and trailer on the St Kilda Line in Melbourne in 1905. Melbourne (1885–1940, the Melbourne cable tramway system) Sydney (1886–1905) Colombia Bogotá, destroyed during the Bogotazo France Paris (Tramway funiculaire de Belleville) New Zealand Dunedin (1881–1957, the Dunedin cable tramway system) Wellington (1902–1979, the original Wellington Cable Car hybrid system) Portugal Lisbon Oporto United Kingdom Edinburgh (1899–1923)) Glasgow (1896–1935) Hastings Liverpool (trial in 1883) London (1884–1909, connecting Archway with Highgate, the first cable car in regular operation in Europe) Matlock (1893–1927, the Matlock Cable Tramway) Isle of Man Douglas (1896–1929) United States Cable cars running on Broadway, New York City, 1897 Baltimore, Maryland (1890-1897) Binghamton, New York (trial in 1885) Brooklyn, New York (New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, Brooklyn Cable Company's Park Avenue Line, and Brooklyn Heights Railroad's Montague Street Line) Butte, Montana (1889–1897) Chicago, Illinois (1882–1906, the Chicago City Railway) Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio Denver, Colorado (1886–1900, the Denver Tramway) Grand Rapids, Michigan Hoboken, New Jersey (1886–1892, the North Hudson County Railway's Hoboken Elevated) Kansas City, Missouri Los Angeles, California (1885–1902, the Second Street Cable Railway and others) New York, New York (West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway's Ninth Avenue Line, New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway, Third Avenue Railroad's 125th Street Crosstown Line and Third Avenue Line, and Metropolitan Street Railway's Broadway Line, Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line, and Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line) Newark, New Jersey (1888–1889) Oakland, California (1886–1899) Omaha, Nebraska Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Portland, Oregon (1890–1904) Providence, Rhode Island Saint Louis, Missouri Saint Paul, Minnesota San Diego, California (1890–1892) Seattle, Washington (1888–1940) Sioux City, Iowa Spokane, Washington Tacoma, Washington (1891–1938) Tulsa, Oklahoma Washington, D.C. (1890–1899, part of the Washington streetcar system) Wichita, Kansas See also Aerial tramway Cable car (disambiguation) Cable railway Cable ferry Funicular Rack railway (Cog railway) Reaction ferry San Francisco cable car system References General Of Cables and Grips: The Cable Cars of San Francisco, by Robert Callwell and Walter Rice, published by Friends of the Cable Car Museum, first edition, 2000. Specific External links Information Cable Car Museum Cable Car Guy The Cable Building (New York City) Broadway Cable car line. Patents -- Railroad track -- Endless wire ropeway | Cable_car_(railway) |@lemmatized san:17 francisco:15 cable:108 car:94 powell:1 hyde:1 line:20 double:1 end:1 california:7 wind:1 drum:1 london:7 blackwall:2 operate:13 railway:23 travel:2 along:2 street:12 city:23 financial:1 district:2 mass:2 transit:3 system:40 use:9 rail:3 propel:2 continuously:1 move:6 run:6 constant:3 speed:4 individual:1 stop:5 start:4 release:2 grip:16 require:2 distinct:1 funicular:11 permanently:5 attach:6 similar:2 vehicle:1 detach:2 manually:3 history:1 first:10 open:4 east:1 england:1 however:3 rope:2 available:1 time:2 prove:2 susceptible:1 wear:1 abandon:1 favour:2 steam:3 locomotive:3 eight:1 year:1 though:4 may:3 early:3 attempt:1 pull:7 endless:2 installation:2 operation:6 west:2 side:2 yonkers:2 patent:3 new:16 york:10 july:1 technology:1 elevated:1 involve:2 collar:1 equipped:2 claw:1 cumbersome:1 close:2 rebuild:2 reopen:1 machinery:1 drive:1 clay:1 hill:4 railroad:4 later:1 become:7 part:2 building:2 promote:1 andrew:1 smith:2 hallidie:3 design:2 work:3 william:1 eppelsheimer:2 test:2 success:1 ensure:1 model:3 often:2 know:1 dunedin:7 tramway:8 zealand:3 outside:1 george:1 duncan:1 far:1 develop:2 introduce:1 curve:4 slot:2 brake:2 former:1 way:3 since:1 steep:3 allow:3 coasting:1 latter:2 force:1 wedge:1 innovation:1 generally:1 adopt:1 include:3 rapidly:1 spread:1 although:4 major:1 attraction:1 ability:3 displace:1 horse:3 drawn:3 animal:2 rather:2 climb:3 many:7 people:4 view:1 unnecessarily:1 cruel:1 fact:1 typical:1 could:1 four:1 five:1 hour:3 per:2 day:2 necessitate:1 maintenance:1 large:4 stable:1 draft:1 feed:2 typically:1 lb:1 kg:1 house:4 groom:1 medicate:1 rest:1 thus:2 period:1 economics:1 even:5 relatively:3 flat:2 example:3 chicago:7 also:5 illinois:2 go:5 profitable:1 problem:1 one:4 grade:3 transportation:1 capacity:2 cause:1 different:1 approach:1 combination:1 trailer:5 single:3 combine:1 like:1 train:3 three:2 brooklyn:6 bridge:3 curious:1 feature:1 get:1 terminal:3 change:1 motor:2 add:1 maneuver:1 en:1 route:3 still:3 september:1 hold:1 liverpool:3 unite:3 kirkdale:1 would:2 europe:3 decide:1 implement:2 instead:1 distinction:1 archway:2 highgate:3 north:2 continuous:2 reliable:1 replace:2 electric:5 traction:4 among:1 glasgow:2 subway:1 underground:1 deep:1 level:1 tube:1 south:1 earlier:1 build:3 haulage:3 convert:1 opening:1 united:4 kingdom:2 portugal:3 france:3 european:1 less:1 suitable:1 american:1 cheap:1 construct:1 simpler:1 electrically:1 powered:1 trolley:2 tram:2 norm:1 eventually:2 exist:3 hybrid:3 loop:2 area:2 due:1 lack:1 wire:2 operated:2 survive:1 second:4 last:2 decade:1 century:1 general:2 see:2 limited:1 revival:1 automatic:2 mover:3 resort:1 airport:2 e:1 g:1 toronto:1 huge:1 hospital:2 center:1 whilst:1 poma:2 otis:2 company:4 form:3 merger:1 interest:1 pomagalski:1 ski:1 lift:1 elevator:1 decouple:1 computer:1 control:1 consider:1 modern:3 interpretation:1 power:3 stationary:1 engine:1 situate:1 affect:1 current:1 load:1 begin:1 clamping:1 device:1 call:1 connect:3 applies:1 pressure:2 conversely:1 without:1 completely:1 apply:3 gripping:1 ungripping:1 action:1 manual:2 case:6 recent:1 type:1 must:2 gradual:1 process:1 order:1 avoid:1 bring:1 quickly:1 unacceptably:1 jar:1 passenger:1 resemble:1 pair:1 plier:1 considerable:1 strength:2 skill:1 operator:1 discover:1 hard:1 properly:1 damage:1 bad:1 entangle:1 able:1 wreak:1 havoc:1 realize:1 halt:1 claim:1 advantage:4 relative:1 energy:2 efficiency:1 economy:1 centrally:1 locate:1 station:2 transfer:1 unique:1 fit:1 regenerative:1 braking:1 offer:1 offset:1 cost:1 depend:1 adhesion:1 wheel:1 low:1 underestimate:1 accident:1 mile:1 combined:1 quite:1 lot:1 harm:1 pedestrians:1 hit:1 relation:1 funiculars:1 superficially:1 differs:1 independently:1 whereas:1 propulsion:3 stopped:1 cannot:1 make:1 flexible:1 high:1 rush:1 market:1 leave:1 every:1 traffic:2 incorrectly:1 describe:1 consequent:1 confusion:1 great:1 orme:1 llandudno:1 wale:1 several:2 lisbon:2 confusingly:1 original:2 wellington:4 gripper:1 balance:2 undriven:1 pulley:1 top:1 descending:1 downhill:1 turn:1 ascending:1 remain:1 ungripped:1 uphill:1 standard:1 retain:1 old:2 name:1 currently:1 traditional:2 best:1 known:1 national:1 historic:1 landmark:1 state:3 constitute:1 permanent:1 manner:1 version:1 fully:1 automate:1 reserve:1 right:1 commonly:1 refer:1 term:1 style:1 laon:1 la:1 vega:1 link:2 hotel:1 milan:1 italy:1 raffaele:1 cascina:1 gobba:1 previously:1 australia:1 st:1 kilda:1 melbourne:3 sydney:1 colombia:1 bogotá:1 destroy:1 bogotazo:1 paris:1 funiculaire:1 de:1 belleville:1 oporto:1 edinburgh:1 hastings:1 trial:2 regular:1 matlock:2 isle:1 man:1 douglas:1 broadway:5 baltimore:1 maryland:1 binghamton:1 park:1 avenue:6 height:1 montague:1 butte:1 montana:1 cincinnati:1 ohio:2 cleveland:1 denver:2 colorado:1 grand:1 rapid:1 michigan:1 hoboken:2 jersey:2 hudson:1 county:1 elevate:1 kansa:2 missouri:2 los:1 angeles:1 others:1 ninth:1 third:2 crosstown:1 metropolitan:1 columbus:1 lexington:1 newark:1 oakland:1 omaha:1 nebraska:1 philadelphia:1 pennsylvania:2 pittsburgh:1 portland:1 oregon:1 providence:1 rhode:1 island:1 saint:2 louis:1 paul:1 minnesota:1 diego:1 seattle:1 washington:5 sioux:1 iowa:1 spokane:1 tacoma:1 tulsa:1 oklahoma:1 c:1 streetcar:1 wichita:1 aerial:1 disambiguation:1 ferry:2 rack:1 cog:1 reaction:1 reference:1 robert:1 callwell:1 walter:1 rice:1 publish:1 friend:1 museum:2 edition:1 specific:1 external:1 information:1 guy:1 track:1 ropeway:1 |@bigram san_francisco:15 steam_locomotive:3 horse_drawn:2 lb_kg:1 chicago_illinois:2 en_route:1 wreak_havoc:1 regenerative_braking:1 climb_steep:1 funicular_railway:1 lisbon_portugal:1 historic_landmark:1 la_vega:1 st_kilda:1 edinburgh_glasgow:1 baltimore_maryland:1 cincinnati_ohio:1 denver_colorado:1 los_angeles:1 lexington_avenue:1 omaha_nebraska:1 philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 portland_oregon:1 providence_rhode:1 rhode_island:1 san_diego:1 spokane_washington:1 tacoma_washington:1 tulsa_oklahoma:1 wichita_kansa:1 external_link:1 |
926 | Ammonius_Saccas | Ammonius Saccas (3rd century AD) was a Greek philosopher from Alexandria who was often referred to as one of the founders of Neoplatonism. He is mainly known as the teacher of Plotinus, whom he taught for eleven years from 232 to 243. He was undoubtably the biggest influence on Plotinus in his development of Neoplatonism, although little is known about his own philosophical views. Later Christian writers stated that Ammonius was a Christian, but it is now generally assumed that there was a different Ammonius of Alexandria who wrote biblical texts. Life Not much is known about the life of Ammonius Saccas. He had a humble background, and appears to have earned a living as a porter at the docks of Alexandria, hence his nickname of "Sack-bearer" (Sakkas for sakkophoros). Most details of his life come from the fragments left from Porphyry's writings. The most famous pupil of Ammonius Saccas was Plotinus who studied under Ammonius for eleven years. According to Porphyry, in 232, at the age of 28, Plotinus went to Alexandria to study philosophy: In his twenty-eighth year he [Plotinus] felt the impulse to study philosophy and was recommended to the teachers in Alexandria who then had the highest reputation; but he came away from their lectures so depressed and full of sadness that he told his trouble to one of his friends. The friend, understanding the desire of his heart, sent him to Ammonius, whom he had not so far tried. He went and heard him, and said to his friend, "This is the man I was looking for." From that day he stayed continually with Ammonius and acquired so complete a training in philosophy that he became eager to make acquaintance with the Persian philosophical discipline and that prevailing among the Indians. Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, from Reale, G., (1990), A History of Ancient Philosophy IV: The Schools of the Imperial Age. Page 298. SUNY Press. According to Porphyry, the parents of Ammonius were Christians, but upon learning Greek philosophy, Ammonius rejected his parents' religion for paganism. This conversion is contested by the Christian writers Jerome and Eusebius, who state that Ammonius remained a Christian throughout his lifetime: [Porphyry] plainly utters a falsehood (for what will not an opposer of Christians do?) when he says that ... Ammonius fell from a life of piety into heathen customs. ... Ammonius held the divine philosophy unshaken and unadulterated to the end of his life. His works yet extant show this, as he is celebrated among many for the writings which he has left. Eusebius, History of the Church, vi, 19. Eusebius goes on to mention a work On the Harmony of Moses and Jesus, and in an epistle addressed to Carpianus speaks of a Diatessaron or Harmony of the Four Gospels composed by Ammonius. There is an extant Latin translation by the sixth century bishop Victor of Capua of an anonymous Diatessaron. It is generally ascribed it to Tatian, but could be the "Ammonius" text mentioned by Eusebius. However we are told by Longinus that Ammonius wrote nothing, Longinus, quoted by Porphyry, Life of Plotinus, xx. and if Ammonius was the principal influence on Plotinus, then it is unlikely that Ammonius would have been a Christian. One way to explain much of the confusion concerning Ammonius is to assume that there were two people called Ammonius: Ammonius Saccas who taught Plotinus, and an Ammonius the Christian who wrote biblical texts. To add to the confusion, it seems that Ammonius had two pupils called Origen: Origen the Christian, and Origen the Pagan. It is quite possible that Ammonius Saccas taught both Origens. Among Ammonius' other pupils there were Herennius and Cassius Longinus. Philosophy Hierocles, writing in the 5th century, states that Ammonius' fundamental doctrine was that Plato and Aristotle were in full agreement with each other: Hierocles in Photius, Bibl. cod. 214, 251. He was the first who had a godly zeal for the truth in philosophy and despised the views of the majority, which were a disgrace to philosophy. He apprehended well the views of each of the two philosophers [Plato and Aristotle] and brought them under one and the same nous and transmitted philosophy without conflicts to all of his disciples, and especially to the best of those acquainted with him, Plotinus, Origen, and their successors. Hierocles, in Photius, Bibl. cod. 251. from Karamanolis, G., (2006), Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?: Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry, Page 193. Oxford University Press. According to Nemesius, a bishop and Neoplatonist c. 400, Ammonius held that the soul was immaterial. Nemesius, On the Nature of Man, ii Little is known about Ammonius's role in the development of Neoplatonism. Porphyry seems to suggest that Ammonius was instrumental in helping Plotinus think about philosophy in new ways: But he [Plotinus] did not just speak straight out of these books but took a distinctive personal line in his consideration, and brought the mind of Ammonius' to bear on the investigation in hand. Two of Ammonius's students - Origen the Pagan, and Longinus - seem to have held philosophical positions which were closer to Middle Platonism than Neoplatonism, which perhaps suggests that Ammonius's doctrines were also closer to those of Middle Platonism than the Neoplatonism developed by Plotinus (see the Enneads), but Plotinus does not seem to have thought that he was departing in any significant way from that of his master. Notes References Armstrong, A., (1967), The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, pp. 196-200. Karamanolis, G., (2006), Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?: Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry, Oxford University Press, pp. 191-215. Reale, G., (1990), A History of Ancient Philosophy IV: The Schools of the Imperial Age, SUNY Press, pp. 297-303. See also Enneads Neoplatonism Origen Origen the Pagan Plotinus Porphyry External links Ammonius Saccas - Dictionary of Christian Biography Porphyry, Against the Christians (2004). Fragments. The Reaction to the Bible in Paganism Origen - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy | Ammonius_Saccas |@lemmatized ammonius:33 saccas:6 century:3 ad:1 greek:3 philosopher:2 alexandria:5 often:1 refer:1 one:4 founder:1 neoplatonism:6 mainly:1 know:4 teacher:2 plotinus:15 teach:3 eleven:2 year:3 undoubtably:1 big:1 influence:2 development:2 although:1 little:2 philosophical:3 view:3 later:1 christian:11 writer:2 state:3 generally:2 assume:2 different:1 write:4 biblical:2 text:3 life:7 much:2 humble:1 background:1 appear:1 earn:1 living:1 porter:1 dock:1 hence:1 nickname:1 sack:1 bearer:1 sakkas:1 sakkophoros:1 detail:1 come:2 fragment:2 leave:2 porphyry:11 writing:2 famous:1 pupil:3 study:3 accord:3 age:3 go:3 philosophy:14 twenty:1 eighth:1 felt:1 impulse:1 recommend:1 high:1 reputation:1 away:1 lecture:1 depressed:1 full:2 sadness:1 tell:2 trouble:1 friend:3 understand:1 desire:1 heart:1 send:1 far:1 tried:1 hear:1 say:2 man:2 look:1 day:1 stay:1 continually:1 acquire:1 complete:1 training:1 become:1 eager:1 make:1 acquaintance:1 persian:1 discipline:1 prevail:1 among:3 indian:1 reale:2 g:4 history:4 ancient:2 iv:2 school:2 imperial:2 page:2 suny:2 press:5 parent:2 upon:1 learn:1 reject:1 religion:1 paganism:2 conversion:1 contest:1 jerome:1 eusebius:4 remain:1 throughout:1 lifetime:1 plainly:1 utter:1 falsehood:1 opposer:1 fell:1 piety:1 heathen:1 custom:1 hold:3 divine:1 unshaken:1 unadulterated:1 end:1 work:2 yet:1 extant:2 show:1 celebrate:1 many:1 church:1 vi:1 mention:2 harmony:2 moses:1 jesus:1 epistle:1 address:1 carpianus:1 speaks:1 diatessaron:2 four:1 gospel:1 compose:1 latin:1 translation:1 sixth:1 bishop:2 victor:1 capua:1 anonymous:1 ascribe:1 tatian:1 could:1 however:1 longinus:4 nothing:1 quote:1 xx:1 principal:1 unlikely:1 would:1 way:3 explain:1 confusion:2 concern:1 two:4 people:1 call:2 add:1 seem:4 origen:9 pagan:3 quite:1 possible:1 herennius:1 cassius:1 hierocles:3 fundamental:1 doctrine:2 plato:4 aristotle:6 agreement:3 photius:2 bibl:2 cod:2 first:1 godly:1 zeal:1 truth:1 despise:1 majority:1 disgrace:1 apprehend:1 well:1 bring:2 nous:1 transmitted:1 without:1 conflict:1 disciple:1 especially:1 best:1 acquaint:1 successor:1 karamanolis:2 platonist:2 antiochus:2 oxford:2 university:3 nemesius:2 neoplatonist:1 c:1 soul:1 immaterial:1 nature:1 ii:1 role:1 suggest:2 instrumental:1 help:1 think:2 new:1 speak:1 straight:1 book:1 take:1 distinctive:1 personal:1 line:1 consideration:1 mind:1 bear:1 investigation:1 hand:1 student:1 position:1 close:1 middle:2 platonism:2 perhaps:1 also:2 closer:1 develop:1 see:2 ennead:1 depart:1 significant:1 master:1 note:1 reference:1 armstrong:1 cambridge:2 late:1 early:1 medieval:1 pp:3 enneads:1 external:1 link:1 dictionary:1 biography:1 reaction:1 bible:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram ammonius_saccas:6 suny_press:2 cassius_longinus:1 plato_aristotle:4 external_link:1 |
927 | Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia | Frederick William I () (August 14, 1688 – May 31, 1740) of the House of Hohenzollern, was the King in Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg (as Frederick William II) from 1713 until his death. He is popularly known as "the Soldier-King" (der Soldatenkönig). He was in personal union the sovereign prince of the Principality of Neuchâtel. The King acquired a reputation for his fondness for military display, leading to his special efforts to hire the tallest men he could find in all of Europe for a special regiment nicknamed the Potsdam Giants. Reign He was born in Berlin to Frederick I of Prussia and Sophia Charlotte of Hanover. His father had successfully acquired the title King for the margraves of Brandenburg. Frederick William's contributions to the state of Prussia primarily consisted of civil service reforms, developing the international reputation of the Prussian military, and increasing the overall efficiency and discipline of his military, which in turn placed Prussia as an entity on a par with Early Modern France, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and other politically dominant states in Europe during the 18th century. During his reign, Frederick William I did much to centralize and improve Prussia. He replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, established primary schools, and resettled East Prussia (which had been devastated by the plague in 1709). Ostpreußen: The Great Trek Frederick William was an extremely able administrator. He opposed all superfluous spending, so long as it did not concern his army. Frederick William paid the consumer tax he himself had imposed, and no candles were left burning at court. He lived frugally and worked hard and tirelessly for the welfare of his people. He encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times. He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials, containing 35 chapters and 297 paragraphs in which every public servant in Prussia could find his duties precisely set out. A minister or councillor failing to attend a committee meeting would lose six months' pay. If he absented himself a second time, he would be discharged from the Royal service. In short, Frederick William was extremely concerned by every little aspect of his country so that it suited the needs of his army. His rule was absolutist and he was a firm autocrat. He practiced rigid economy, and at his death there was a large surplus in the treasury which was kept rather bizarrely in his basement. The Prussian army was made an efficient instrument of war. Although Frederick William built up one of the most powerful armies in Europe and loved military pomp, he was essentially a peaceful man. He intervened briefly in the Great Northern War, but gained little territory. The observation about the power of the pen being mightier than the sword has sometimes been attributed to him. Relationship with Frederick II Though he was peaceful, he was by no means gentle. His eldest surviving son was Frederick II (Fritz), born in 1712. Frederick William wanted him to become a fine soldier. As a little child Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon. At the age of 6 he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets, and a year later he was given a miniature arsenal. Fritz was beaten for being thrown off a bolting horse and for wearing gloves in cold weather. Frederick William would frequently mistreat Fritz (he preferred his younger sibling August William). After the prince attempted to flee to England with his tutor, Hans Hermann von Katte, the father had Katte executed before the eyes of the prince, who himself was court-martialed. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.114. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. The court declared itself not competent in this case. Whether it was the king's intention to have his son executed as well (as Voltaire claims) is not clear. However, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI intervened, claiming that a prince could only be tried by the Reichstag itself. Frederick was imprisoned in the Fortress of Küstrin from 2 September to 19 November 1731 and exiled from court until February 1732. Frederick William married Sophia Dorothea of Hanover (the daughter of his uncle King George I of Great Britain and Sophia Dorothea of Celle) on 28 November 1706. They had fourteen children, including these: Wilhelmine, Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1709–1758), married Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth King Frederick "the Great" (Friedrich II of Prussia) (1712–1786) Friederike Luise, Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1714–1784), married Karl Wilhelm Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach Philippine Charlotte, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1716–1801), married Karl I, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel Sophia Dorothea, Margravine of Brandenburg-Schwedt (1719–1765), married Friedrich Wilhelm, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt Luise Ulrike, Queen of Sweden (1720–1782), married Adolf Fredrik, King of Sweden August Wilhelm (1722–1758) Anna Amalie (1723–1787) Heinrich (1726–1802) August Ferdinand (1730–1813) He was the godfather of the Prussian envoy Friedrich Wilhelm von Thulemeyer. Titles from birth His Serene Highness The Electoral Prince of Brandenburg His Royal Highness The Crown Prince in Prussia His Majesty The King in Prussia Ancestry +Frederick William I's ancestors in three generations Frederick William I of Prussia Father:Frederick I of Prussia Paternal Grandfather:Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandfather:George William, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandmother:Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate Paternal Grandmother:Louise Henriette of Orange-Nassau Paternal Great-grandfather:Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange Paternal Great-grandmother:Amalia of Solms-Braunfels Mother:Sophia Charlotte of Hanover Maternal Grandfather:Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg Maternal Great-grandfather:George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg Maternal Great-grandmother:Anne Eleonore of Hesse-Darmstadt Maternal Grandmother:Sophia of Hanover Maternal Great-grandfather:Frederick V, Elector Palatine Maternal Great-grandmother:Elizabeth of Bohemia References External links Biography of Frederick William I |- |- | Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia |@lemmatized frederick:23 william:17 august:4 may:1 house:1 hohenzollern:1 king:9 prussia:12 elector:5 brandenburg:11 ii:4 death:2 popularly:1 know:1 soldier:2 der:1 soldatenkönig:1 personal:1 union:1 sovereign:1 prince:7 principality:1 neuchâtel:1 acquire:2 reputation:2 fondness:1 military:5 display:1 lead:1 special:2 effort:1 hire:1 tall:1 men:1 could:3 find:2 europe:3 regiment:2 nickname:1 potsdam:1 giant:1 reign:2 bear:1 berlin:1 sophia:6 charlotte:4 hanover:4 father:3 successfully:1 title:2 margrave:4 contribution:1 state:3 primarily:1 consist:1 civil:1 service:3 reform:1 develop:1 international:1 prussian:3 increase:1 overall:1 efficiency:1 discipline:1 turn:1 place:1 entity:1 par:1 early:1 modern:1 france:1 kingdom:1 great:13 britain:2 politically:1 dominant:1 century:1 much:1 centralize:1 improve:1 replace:1 mandatory:1 among:1 middle:1 class:1 annual:1 tax:2 establish:1 primary:1 school:1 resettle:1 east:1 devastate:1 plague:1 ostpreußen:1 trek:1 extremely:2 able:1 administrator:1 oppose:1 superfluous:1 spending:1 long:1 concern:2 army:4 pay:2 consumer:1 impose:1 candle:1 leave:1 burn:1 court:4 live:1 frugally:1 work:1 hard:1 tirelessly:1 welfare:1 people:1 encourage:1 farming:1 reclaim:1 marsh:1 store:1 grain:1 good:1 time:3 sell:1 bad:1 dictate:1 manual:1 regulation:1 official:1 contain:1 chapter:1 paragraph:1 every:2 public:1 servant:1 duty:1 precisely:1 set:1 minister:1 councillor:1 fail:1 attend:1 committee:1 meeting:1 would:3 lose:1 six:1 month:1 absent:1 second:1 discharge:1 royal:3 short:1 little:3 aspect:1 country:1 suit:1 need:1 rule:1 absolutist:1 firm:1 autocrat:1 practice:1 rigid:1 economy:1 large:1 surplus:1 treasury:1 kept:1 rather:1 bizarrely:1 basement:1 make:1 efficient:1 instrument:1 war:2 although:1 build:1 one:1 powerful:1 love:1 pomp:1 essentially:1 peaceful:2 man:1 intervene:2 briefly:1 northern:1 gain:1 territory:1 observation:1 power:1 pen:1 mighty:1 sword:1 sometimes:1 attribute:1 relationship:1 though:1 mean:1 gentle:1 eldest:1 survive:1 son:2 fritz:4 born:1 want:1 become:1 fine:1 child:3 awaken:1 morning:1 firing:1 cannon:1 age:1 give:2 drill:1 cadet:1 year:1 later:1 miniature:1 arsenal:1 beat:1 throw:1 bolting:1 horse:1 wear:1 glove:1 cold:1 weather:1 frequently:1 mistreat:1 prefer:1 younger:1 sibling:1 attempt:1 flee:1 england:1 tutor:1 hans:1 hermann:1 von:2 katte:2 execute:2 eye:1 martialed:1 farquhar:1 michael:1 treasure:1 scandal:1 p:1 penguin:1 book:1 new:1 york:1 isbn:1 declare:1 competent:1 case:1 whether:1 intention:1 well:1 voltaire:1 claim:2 clear:1 however:1 holy:1 roman:1 emperor:1 charles:1 vi:1 try:1 reichstag:1 imprison:1 fortress:1 küstrin:1 september:1 november:2 exile:1 february:1 married:1 dorothea:3 daughter:1 uncle:1 george:3 celle:1 fourteen:1 include:1 wilhelmine:1 margravine:3 bayreuth:2 marry:5 friedrich:5 friederike:1 luise:2 ansbach:2 karl:2 wilhelm:4 philippine:1 duchess:1 brunswick:4 wolfenbüttel:2 duke:2 schwedt:2 ulrike:1 queen:1 sweden:2 adolf:1 fredrik:1 anna:1 amalie:1 heinrich:1 ferdinand:1 godfather:1 envoy:1 thulemeyer:1 birth:1 serene:1 highness:2 electoral:1 crown:1 majesty:1 ancestry:1 ancestor:1 three:1 generation:1 paternal:6 grandfather:6 grandmother:6 elizabeth:2 palatinate:1 louise:1 henriette:1 orange:2 nassau:1 henry:1 amalia:1 solms:1 braunfels:1 mother:1 maternal:6 ernest:1 augustus:1 lüneburg:2 anne:1 eleonore:1 hesse:1 darmstadt:1 v:1 palatine:1 bohemia:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 biography:1 |@bigram elector_brandenburg:3 margrave_brandenburg:4 hans_hermann:1 farquhar_michael:1 brandenburg_bayreuth:2 brandenburg_ansbach:2 wilhelm_friedrich:1 brunswick_wolfenbüttel:2 brandenburg_schwedt:2 friedrich_wilhelm:2 serene_highness:1 royal_highness:1 paternal_grandfather:1 brandenburg_paternal:2 paternal_grandmother:1 orange_nassau:1 maternal_grandfather:1 brunswick_lüneburg:2 hesse_darmstadt:1 maternal_grandmother:1 elector_palatine:1 external_link:1 |
928 | Phonetics | Phonetics (from the , phōnē, "sound, voice") is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech. O'Grady (2005) p.15 It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds (phones), and the processes of their physiological production, auditory reception, and neurophysiological perception. Phonetics was studied as early as 2500 years ago in ancient India, with account of the place and manner of articulation of consonants in his 5th century BC treatise on Sanskrit. The major Indic alphabets today order their consonants according to classification. Transcription Phonetic transcription is a universal system for transcribing sounds that occur in spoken language. The most widely known system of phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), uses a one-to-one mapping between phones and written symbols. O'Grady (2005) p.17 International Phonetic Association (1999) Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. The standardized nature of the IPA enables its users to transcribe accurately and consistently between different languages. Ladefoged, Peter (1975) A Course in Phonetics. Orlando: Harcourt Brace. 2nd ed 1982, 3rd ed. 1993, 4th ed. 2001, 5th ed. Boston: Thomson/Wadsworth 2006. Japanese translation 2000. Ladefoged, Peter & Ian Maddieson (1996) The Sounds of the World’s Languages. Oxford: Blackwells. It can also indicate common pronunciations of words (e.g. [ðɪs] for the word "this"). Subfields Phonetics as a research discipline has three main branches: articulatory phonetics is concerned with the articulation of speech: The position, shape, and movement of articulators or speech organs, such as the lips, tongue, and vocal folds. acoustic phonetics is concerned with acoustics of speech: The properties of the sound waves, such as their frequency and harmonics. auditory phonetics is concerned with speech perception: How sound is received by the inner ear and perceived by the brain. Applications Application of phonetics include: forensic phonetics: the use of phonetics (the science of speech) for forensic (legal) purposes. Speech Recognition: the analysis and transcription of recorded speech by a computer system. Phonetics and phonology In contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of language-specific systems and patterns of sound and gesture, relating such concerns with other levels and aspects of language. While phonology is grounded in phonetics, it has emerged as a distinct area of linguistics, dealing with abstract systems of sounds and gestural units (e.g, phoneme, features, mora, etc.) and their variants (e.g., allophones), the distinctive properties (features) which form the basis of meaningful contrast between these units, and their classification into natural classes based on shared behavior and phonological processes. Phonetics tends to deal more with the physical properties of sounds and the physiological aspects of speech production and perception. It deals less with how sounds are patterned to encode meaning in language (though overlap in theorizing, research and clinical applications are possible). See also List of phonetics topics International Phonetic Alphabet Speech processing Acoustics Biometric word list Phonetics departments at universities X-SAMPA NATO Phonetic Alphabet Buckeye Corpus Notes References External links the Web Site of the Phonetic Sciences Laboratory of the Université de Montréal. The International Society of Phonetic Sciences (ISPhS) A little encyclopedia of phonetics, Peter Roach, Professor of Phonetics, University of Reading, UK. (pdf) The sounds and sound patterns of language U Penn UCLA lab data UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive EGG and Voice Quality (electroglottography, phonation, etc.) IPA handbook IPA-SAM Phonetic Fonts Speech Analysis Tutorial Lecture materials in German on phonetics & phonology, university of Erfurt Real-time MRI video of the articulation of speech sounds, from the USC Speech Articulation and kNowledge (SPAN) Group Beginner's course in phonetics, with some exercises Praat - Phonetic analysis software SID- Speech Internet Dictionary Extensive collection of phonetics resources on the Web (University of North Carolina) Further reading Abercrombie, D. (1967). Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh. Ashby, Michael & Maidment, John. (2005). Introducing Phonetic Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80882-0 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-00496-9 (pbk). Catford, J. C. (1977). Fundamental problems in phonetics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-32520-X. Clark, John; & Yallop, Colin. (1995). An introduction to phonetics and phonology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19452-5. Gussenhoven, C & Broeders, A. (1997). English pronunciation for student teachers. Wolters-Noordhoff BV Groningen, the Netherlands. ISBN 90 01 16703 9 Hardcastle, William J.; & Laver, John (Eds.). (1997). The handbook of phonetic sciences. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-18848-7. Ladefoged, Peter. (1982). A course in phonetics (2nd ed.). London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Ladefoged, Peter. (2003). Phonetic data analysis: An introduction to fieldwork and instrumental techniques. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23269-9 (hbk); ISBN 0-631-23270-2 (pbk). Maddieson, Ian. (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge studies in speech science and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Laver, J. (1994).Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Pisoni, David B.; & Remez, Robert E. (Eds.). (2004). The handbook of speech perception. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22927-2. Rogers, Henry. (2000). The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics. Harlow, Essex: Pearson. ISBN 0-582-38182-7. Stevens, Kenneth N. (1998). Acoustic phonetics. Current studies in linguistics (No. 30). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-19404-X. be-x-old:Фанэтыка | Phonetics |@lemmatized phonetics:30 phōnē:1 sound:17 voice:2 branch:2 linguistics:3 comprise:1 study:5 human:1 speech:17 grady:2 p:2 concern:5 physical:2 property:4 phone:2 process:2 physiological:2 production:2 auditory:2 reception:1 neurophysiological:1 perception:4 early:1 year:1 ago:1 ancient:1 india:1 account:1 place:1 manner:1 articulation:4 consonant:2 century:1 bc:1 treatise:1 sanskrit:1 major:1 indic:1 alphabet:4 today:1 order:1 accord:1 classification:2 transcription:4 phonetic:15 universal:1 system:5 transcribe:2 occur:1 spoken:1 language:8 widely:1 know:1 international:5 ipa:4 use:2 one:2 mapping:1 write:1 symbol:1 association:2 handbook:4 cambridge:9 university:11 press:8 standardized:1 nature:1 enable:1 user:1 accurately:1 consistently:1 different:1 ladefoged:4 peter:5 course:3 orlando:1 harcourt:2 brace:2 ed:6 boston:1 thomson:1 wadsworth:1 japanese:1 translation:1 ian:2 maddieson:2 world:1 oxford:4 blackwells:1 also:2 indicate:1 common:1 pronunciation:2 word:3 e:4 g:3 ðɪs:1 subfields:1 research:2 discipline:1 three:1 main:1 articulatory:1 position:1 shape:1 movement:1 articulator:1 organ:1 lip:1 tongue:1 vocal:1 fold:1 acoustic:4 wave:1 frequency:1 harmonic:1 receive:1 inner:1 ear:1 perceive:1 brain:1 application:3 include:1 forensic:2 science:6 legal:1 purpose:1 recognition:1 analysis:5 record:1 computer:1 phonology:5 contrast:2 specific:1 pattern:4 gesture:1 relate:1 level:1 aspect:2 ground:1 emerge:1 distinct:1 area:1 deal:3 abstract:1 gestural:1 unit:2 phoneme:1 feature:2 mora:1 etc:2 variant:1 allophone:1 distinctive:1 form:1 basis:1 meaningful:1 natural:1 class:1 base:1 share:1 behavior:1 phonological:1 tend:1 less:1 encode:1 meaning:1 though:1 overlap:1 theorize:1 clinical:1 possible:1 see:1 list:2 topic:1 processing:1 biometric:1 department:1 x:4 sampa:1 nato:1 buckeye:1 corpus:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 web:2 site:1 laboratory:1 université:1 de:1 montréal:1 society:1 isphs:1 little:1 encyclopedia:1 roach:1 professor:1 reading:1 uk:1 pdf:1 u:1 penn:1 ucla:2 lab:2 data:2 archive:1 egg:1 quality:1 electroglottography:1 phonation:1 sam:1 font:1 tutorial:1 lecture:1 material:1 german:1 erfurt:1 real:1 time:1 mri:1 video:1 usc:1 knowledge:1 span:1 group:1 beginner:1 exercise:1 praat:1 software:1 sid:1 internet:1 dictionary:1 extensive:1 collection:1 resource:1 north:1 carolina:1 far:1 read:1 abercrombie:1 element:1 general:1 edinburgh:2 ashby:1 michael:1 maidment:1 john:3 introduce:1 isbn:11 hbk:2 pbk:2 catford:1 j:3 c:2 fundamental:1 problem:1 bloomington:1 indiana:1 clark:1 yallop:1 colin:1 introduction:3 blackwell:4 gussenhoven:1 broeders:1 english:1 student:1 teacher:1 wolters:1 noordhoff:1 bv:1 groningen:1 netherlands:1 hardcastle:1 william:1 laver:2 eds:2 publisher:1 london:1 jovanovich:1 fieldwork:1 instrumental:1 technique:1 malden:1 publishing:1 communication:1 principle:1 pike:1 kenneth:2 l:1 critical:1 theory:1 technic:1 practical:1 description:1 ann:1 arbor:1 michigan:1 pisoni:1 david:1 b:1 remez:1 robert:1 rogers:1 henry:1 harlow:1 essex:1 pearson:1 stevens:1 n:1 current:1 mit:1 old:1 фанэтыка:1 |@bigram manner_articulation:1 phonetic_transcription:2 phonetic_alphabet:3 ladefoged_peter:4 harcourt_brace:2 thomson_wadsworth:1 articulatory_phonetics:1 phonetics_phonology:4 phonetics_topic:1 x_sampa:1 external_link:1 north_carolina:1 isbn_hbk:2 isbn_pbk:2 bloomington_indiana:1 oxford_blackwell:3 eds_handbook:2 blackwell_publisher:1 brace_jovanovich:1 malden_blackwell:1 blackwell_publishing:1 maddieson_ian:1 ann_arbor:1 |
929 | London_Docklands | The O2 and Canary Wharf from the Royal Victoria Dock. Docklands is the semi-official name for an area in East and South East London, comprising parts of several boroughs (Southwark, Tower Hamlets, Newham and Greenwich). The docks were formerly part of the Port of London, at one time the world's largest port. They have now been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use. The name London Docklands was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in 1971 but has since become virtually universally adopted. It also created conflict between the new and old communities of the London Docklands. Dock complexes Docklands Areas London Docklands comprise a number of former dock complexes along the Thames, which are (from west to east): St Katharine Docks (Wapping) London Docks (Wapping) Regent's Canal Dock (now Limehouse Basin, Limehouse) Surrey Commercial Docks (now Surrey Quays, Rotherhithe) West India Docks, Millwall Dock and Poplar Dock (Isle of Dogs) East India Docks (Blackwall) Royal Docks (Royal Victoria Dock, Royal Albert Dock & King George V Dock) Another dock system exists much further downstream at Tilbury, but this is not generally regarded as part of the Docklands. The area referred to as the Docklands, which mostly lies on the north bank of the Thames, comprises chiefly of the former properties of the Port of London within the boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Newham and Southwark. It does not comprise the whole of the former or the modern port, for which see main article Port of London. History Establishment In Roman and medieval times, ships tended either to dock at small quays in the present-day city of London or Southwark, an area known as the Pool of London. However, this gave no protection against the elements, was vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside. The Howland Great Dock in Rotherhithe (built 1696 and later forming the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels. It was a major commercial success and provided a template for two phases of expansion during the Georgian and Victorian eras. The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened 1802), followed by the London (1805), the East India (also 1805), the Surrey (1807), St Katharine (1828) and the West India South (1829). The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria (1855), Millwall (1868) and Royal Albert (1880). The King George V was a late addition in 1921. Development The London docks in 1882. The King George V Dock had not yet been built. Three principal kinds of docks existed. Wet docks were where ships were laid up at anchor and loaded or unloaded. Dry docks, which were far smaller, took individual ships for repairing. Ships were built at dockyards along the riverside. In addition, the river was lined with innumerable warehouses, piers, jetties and dolphins (mooring points). The various docks tended to specialise in different forms of produce. The Surrey Docks concentrated on timber, for instance; Millwall took grain; St Katharine took wool, sugar and rubber; and so on. The docks required an army of workers, chiefly lightermen (who carried loads between ships and quays aboard small barges called lighters) and quayside workers, who dealt with the goods once they were ashore. Some of the workers were highly skilled - the lightermen had their own livery company or guild, while the deal porters (workers who carried timber) were famous for their acrobatic skills. Most were unskilled and worked as casual labourers. They assembled at certain points, such as pubs, each morning, where they were selected more or less at random by foremen. For these workers, it was effectively a lottery as to whether they would get work - and pay, and food - on any particular day. This arrangement continued until as late as 1965, although it was somewhat regularised after the creation of the National Dock Labour Scheme in 1947. The main dockland areas were originally low-lying marshes, mostly unsuitable for agriculture and lightly populated. With the establishment of the docks, the dock workers formed a number of tight-knit local communities with their own distinctive cultures and slang. Poor communications meant that they were quite remote from other parts of London and so tended to develop in some isolation. The Isle of Dogs, for instance, had only two roads in and out. Local sentiment was so strong that in 1920 residents blocked the roads and declared independence. 20th century Museum in Docklands, near Canary Wharf The docks were originally built and managed by a number of competing private companies. From 1909, they were managed by the Port of London Authority, or PLA, which amalgamated the companies in a bid to make the docks more efficient and improve labour relations. The PLA constructed the last of the docks, the King George V, in 1921, as well as greatly expanding the Tilbury docks. German bombing during the Second World War caused massive damage to the docks with 380,000 tons of timber destroyed in the Surrey Docks in a single night. Nonetheless, following post-war rebuilding they experienced a resurgence of prosperity in the 1950s. The end came suddenly, between approximately 1960 and 1970, when the shipping industry adopted the newly invented container system of cargo transportation. London's docks were unable to accommodate the much larger vessels needed by containerization and the shipping industry moved to deep-water ports such as Tilbury and Felixstowe. Between 1960 and 1980, all of London's docks were closed, leaving around eight square miles (21 km²) of derelict land in East London. Unemployment was high, and poverty and other social problems were rife. Redevelopment Canary Wharf at sunset Efforts to redevelop the docks began almost as soon as they were closed, although it took a decade for most plans to move beyond the drawing board and another decade for redevelopment to take full effect. The situation was greatly complicated by the large number of landowners involved: the PLA, the Greater London Council (GLC), the British Gas Corporation, five borough councils, British Rail and the Central Electricity Generating Board. To address this problem, in 1981 the Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael Heseltine, formed the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) to redevelop the area. This was a statutory body appointed and funded by central government (a quango), with wide powers to acquire and dispose of land in the Docklands. It also served as the development planning authority for the area. Another important government intervention was the designation in 1982 of an enterprise zone, an area in which businesses were exempt from property taxes and had other incentives, including simplified planning and capital allowances. This made investing in the Docklands a significantly more attractive proposition and was instrumental in starting a property boom in the area. LDDC was controversial - it was accused of favouring elitist luxury developments rather than affordable housing, and it was unpopular with the local communities, who felt that their needs were not being addressed. Nonetheless, the LDDC was central to a remarkable transformation in the area, although how far it was in control of events is debatable. It was wound up in 1998 when control of the Docklands area was handed back to the respective local authorities. The massive development programme managed by the LDDC during the 1980s and 1990s saw a huge area of the Docklands converted into a mixture of residential, commercial and light industrial space. The clearest symbol of the whole effort was the ambitious Canary Wharf project that constructed Britain's tallest building and established a second major financial centre in London. However, there is no evidence that LDDC foresaw this scale of development and nearby Heron Quays had already been developed as low density offices when Canary Wharf was proposed, with similar development already underway on Canary Wharf itself, Limehouse Studios being the most famous occupant. Canary Wharf was far from trouble free and the property slump of the early 1990s halted development for several years. Developers found themselves saddled with property which they were unable to sell or let. Rail Transport in the Docklands today The Docklands historically had poor transport connections. This was addressed by the LDDC with the construction of the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which connected the Docklands with the City. It was a remarkably inexpensive development, costing only £77 m in its first phase, as it relied on reusing disused railway infrastructure and derelict land for much of its length. (LDDC originally requested a full Tube line, but the Government refused to fund it.) LDDC also built Limehouse Link tunnel, a cut and cover road tunnel linking the Isle of Dogs to The Highway (the A13 road) at a cost of over £150 million per kilometre, one of the most expensive stretches of road ever built. The LDDC also contributed to the development of London City Airport (IATA airport code LCY), opened in October 1987 on the spine of the Royal Docks. Today Canary Wharf Towers from Greenwich. Millennium Dome from the Greenwich Docks Over the past 20 years, the population of the Docklands has more than doubled and the area has become both a major business centre and an increasingly acceptable area to live. Transport links have improved significantly, with the Isle of Dogs gaining a tube connection via the Jubilee Line Extension (opened 1999) and the DLR being extended to Beckton, Lewisham, London City Airport, North Woolwich and Stratford. Canary Wharf has become one of Europe's biggest clusters of skyscrapers and a direct challenge to the financial dominance of the City. Although most of the old Dockland wharves and warehouses have been demolished, some have been restored and converted into flats. Most of the docks themselves have survived and are now used as marinas or watersports centres (the major exception being the Surrey Commercial Docks, now largely filled in). Although large ships can - and occasionally still do - visit the old docks, all of the commercial traffic has moved down-river. The revival of the Docklands has had major effects in run-down surrounding areas. Greenwich and Deptford are undergoing large-scale redevelopment, chiefly as a result of the improved transport links making them more attractive to commuters. The Docklands' redevelopment has, however, had some less beneficial aspects. The massive property boom and consequent rise in house prices has led to friction between the new arrivals and the old Docklands communities, who have complained of being squeezed out. It has also made for some of the most striking disparities to be seen anywhere in Britain: luxury executive flats constructed alongside run-down public housing estates. The Docklands' status as a symbol of Thatcher's Britain has also made it a target for terrorists. After a failed attempt to bomb Canary Wharf, on February 9 1996, a large IRA bomb exploded at South Quay. Two people died in the explosion, forty people were injured and an estimated £150m of damage was caused(1). This bombing ended an IRA ceasefire. BBC ON THIS DAY | 10 | 1996: Docklands bomb ends IRA ceasefire In a 1998 trial James McArdle was imprisoned for 25 years after a trial at Woolwich Crown Court that ended on June 24. Under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement, McArdle was released on June 28 2000. (1) The parlous state of the Docklands property market at the time of the blast, combined with a lengthy delay in implementing redevelopment, means a true estimate of the financial cost is difficult to reach. London Docklands also now boasts its own free newspaper, The Docklands, launched in 2006 by Archant London. This is a mixture of news, sport and lifestyle, and comes out every Tuesday. It is delivered to properties in the area and available to pick up from various locations in Canary Wharf, Greenwich and the Royal Docks. It is the newspaper with the highest circulation in the area. A sister title, The Peninsula, was launched in 2007, covering the Greenwich Peninsula. Future developments The continued success of the Docklands redevelopment has prompted a number of further development schemes, including: Extensions of the Docklands Light Railway to Woolwich and possibly Dagenham. Crossrail mainline link between Canary Wharf, central London and north Kent. Further development of Canada Water. Redevelopment of Blackwall Basin and Wood Wharf, east of Canary Wharf. Further development of the Royal Docks area, including the Silvertown Quays project. New skyscrapers to be built at Canary Wharf including the Riverside South towers, the Heron Quays West double-skyscraper development and the North Quay project, consisting of three towers. In the early 21st century redevelopment is spreading into the more suburban parts of East London, and into the parts of the counties of Kent and Essex which abut the Thames Estuary. See Thames Gateway and Lower Lea Valley for further information on this trend. Popular culture Charles Dickens makes frequent use of the riverside and docklands in novels such as Our Mutual Friend and Great Expectations, and there is a memorable description of the docks, their buildings and people, in Joseph Conrad's The Mirror of the Sea. The Docklands are also the location of District 1, the most functional section of during the outbreak of Rage Virus and the headquarters for Army Officials in Juan Carlos Fresnadillo's 2007 movie 28 Weeks Later. See also Deal porters Gentrification Pool of London Port of London Authority University of East London Destination Docklands Stepney Historical Trust Safeguarded wharf References External links The Docklands newspaper History of Docklands redevelopment London East Research Institute Royal Docks Trust (London) West Silvertown Online Burrells Wharf Royal Docks Information | London_Docklands |@lemmatized canary:14 wharf:18 royal:11 victoria:3 dock:52 docklands:33 semi:1 official:2 name:2 area:18 east:11 south:4 london:31 comprise:5 part:6 several:2 borough:3 southwark:3 tower:5 hamlet:2 newham:2 greenwich:6 formerly:1 port:8 one:3 time:4 world:2 large:8 redevelop:3 principally:1 commercial:7 residential:2 use:4 first:3 government:4 report:1 redevelopment:10 plan:2 since:1 become:3 virtually:1 universally:1 adopt:2 also:10 create:1 conflict:1 new:3 old:4 community:4 complex:2 number:5 former:3 along:2 thames:4 west:6 st:3 katharine:3 wapping:2 regent:1 canal:1 limehouse:4 basin:2 surrey:7 quay:7 rotherhithe:2 india:5 millwall:3 poplar:1 isle:4 dog:4 blackwall:2 albert:2 king:4 george:4 v:4 another:3 system:2 exist:2 much:3 downstream:1 tilbury:3 generally:1 regard:1 refer:1 mostly:3 lie:1 north:4 bank:1 chiefly:3 property:8 within:1 whole:2 modern:1 see:4 main:2 article:1 history:2 establishment:2 roman:1 medieval:1 ship:6 tend:3 either:1 small:3 present:1 day:3 city:5 know:1 pool:2 however:3 give:1 protection:1 element:1 vulnerable:1 thief:1 suffer:1 lack:1 space:2 quayside:2 howland:1 great:3 built:1 later:2 form:4 core:1 design:1 address:4 problem:3 provide:2 secure:1 shelter:1 anchorage:1 room:1 vessel:2 major:5 success:2 template:1 two:3 phase:2 expansion:1 georgian:2 victorian:2 era:1 opened:2 follow:2 late:2 addition:2 development:14 yet:1 build:6 three:2 principal:1 kind:1 wet:1 lay:1 anchor:1 load:2 unloaded:1 dry:1 far:5 take:5 individual:1 repair:1 dockyard:1 riverside:3 river:2 line:3 innumerable:1 warehouse:2 pier:1 jetty:1 dolphin:1 moor:1 point:2 various:2 specialise:1 different:1 produce:1 concentrate:1 timber:3 instance:2 grain:1 wool:1 sugar:1 rubber:1 require:1 army:2 worker:6 lighterman:2 carry:2 aboard:1 barge:1 call:1 lighter:1 deal:3 good:2 ashore:1 highly:1 skilled:1 livery:1 company:3 guild:1 porter:2 famous:2 acrobatic:1 skill:1 unskilled:1 work:2 casual:1 labourer:1 assemble:1 certain:1 pub:1 morning:1 select:1 less:2 random:1 foreman:1 effectively:1 lottery:1 whether:1 would:1 get:1 pay:1 food:1 particular:1 arrangement:1 continue:1 although:5 somewhat:1 regularised:1 creation:1 national:1 labour:2 scheme:2 dockland:2 originally:3 low:3 lying:1 marsh:1 unsuitable:1 agriculture:1 lightly:1 populate:1 tight:1 knit:1 local:4 distinctive:1 culture:2 slang:1 poor:2 communication:1 mean:2 quite:1 remote:1 develop:2 isolation:1 road:5 sentiment:1 strong:1 resident:1 block:1 declared:1 independence:1 century:2 museum:1 near:1 manage:3 compete:1 private:1 authority:4 pla:3 amalgamate:1 bid:1 make:6 efficient:1 improve:2 relation:1 construct:3 last:1 well:1 greatly:2 expand:1 german:1 bomb:4 second:2 war:2 cause:2 massive:3 damage:2 ton:1 destroy:1 single:1 night:1 nonetheless:2 post:1 rebuild:1 experience:1 resurgence:1 prosperity:1 end:4 come:2 suddenly:1 approximately:1 shipping:2 industry:2 newly:1 invent:1 container:1 cargo:1 transportation:1 unable:2 accommodate:1 need:2 containerization:1 move:3 deep:1 water:2 felixstowe:1 close:2 leave:1 around:1 eight:1 square:1 mile:1 derelict:2 land:3 unemployment:1 high:2 poverty:1 social:1 rife:1 sunset:1 effort:2 begin:1 almost:1 soon:1 decade:2 beyond:1 draw:1 board:2 full:2 effect:2 situation:1 complicate:1 landowner:1 involve:1 council:2 glc:1 british:2 gas:1 corporation:2 five:1 rail:2 central:4 electricity:1 generate:1 secretary:1 state:2 environment:1 michael:1 heseltine:1 lddc:9 statutory:1 body:1 appoint:1 fund:2 quango:1 wide:1 power:1 acquire:1 dispose:1 serve:1 planning:2 important:1 intervention:1 designation:1 enterprise:1 zone:1 business:2 exempt:1 tax:1 incentive:1 include:4 simplify:1 capital:1 allowance:1 investing:1 significantly:2 attractive:2 proposition:1 instrumental:1 start:1 boom:2 controversial:1 accuse:1 favour:1 elitist:1 luxury:2 rather:1 affordable:1 housing:2 unpopular:1 felt:1 remarkable:1 transformation:1 control:2 event:1 debatable:1 wind:1 hand:1 back:1 respective:1 programme:1 saw:1 huge:1 convert:2 mixture:2 light:3 industrial:1 clear:1 symbol:2 ambitious:1 project:3 britain:3 tallest:1 building:2 establish:1 financial:3 centre:3 evidence:1 foresaw:1 scale:2 nearby:1 heron:2 already:2 density:1 office:1 propose:1 similar:1 underway:1 studio:1 occupant:1 trouble:1 free:2 slump:1 early:2 halt:1 year:3 developer:1 find:1 saddle:1 sell:1 let:1 transport:4 today:2 historically:1 connection:2 construction:1 railway:3 dlr:2 connect:1 remarkably:1 inexpensive:1 cost:3 rely:1 reuse:1 disused:1 infrastructure:1 length:1 request:1 tube:2 refuse:1 link:6 tunnel:2 cut:1 cover:2 highway:1 million:1 per:1 kilometre:1 expensive:1 stretch:1 ever:1 contribute:1 airport:3 iata:1 code:1 lcy:1 open:1 october:1 spine:1 millennium:1 dome:1 past:1 population:1 double:2 increasingly:1 acceptable:1 live:1 gain:1 via:1 jubilee:1 extension:2 extend:1 beckton:1 lewisham:1 woolwich:3 stratford:1 europe:1 big:1 cluster:1 skyscraper:3 direct:1 challenge:1 dominance:1 demolish:1 restore:1 flat:2 survive:1 marina:1 watersports:1 exception:1 largely:1 fill:1 occasionally:1 still:1 visit:1 traffic:1 revival:1 run:2 surround:1 deptford:1 undergo:1 result:1 improved:1 commuter:1 beneficial:1 aspect:1 consequent:1 rise:1 house:1 price:1 lead:1 friction:1 arrival:1 complain:1 squeeze:1 striking:1 disparity:1 anywhere:1 executive:1 alongside:1 public:1 estate:1 status:1 thatcher:1 target:1 terrorist:1 failed:1 attempt:1 february:1 ira:3 explode:1 people:3 die:1 explosion:1 forty:1 injure:1 estimate:2 bombing:1 ceasefire:2 bbc:1 trial:2 james:1 mcardle:2 imprison:1 crown:1 court:1 june:2 term:1 friday:1 agreement:1 release:1 parlous:1 market:1 blast:1 combine:1 lengthy:1 delay:1 implement:1 true:1 difficult:1 reach:1 boast:1 newspaper:3 launch:2 archant:1 news:1 sport:1 lifestyle:1 every:1 tuesday:1 deliver:1 available:1 pick:1 location:2 circulation:1 sister:1 title:1 peninsula:2 future:1 developments:1 continued:1 prompt:1 possibly:1 dagenham:1 crossrail:1 mainline:1 kent:2 canada:1 wood:1 silvertown:2 quays:1 consist:1 spread:1 suburban:1 county:1 essex:1 abut:1 estuary:1 gateway:1 lea:1 valley:1 information:2 trend:1 popular:1 charles:1 dickens:1 frequent:1 novel:1 mutual:1 friend:1 expectation:1 memorable:1 description:1 joseph:1 conrad:1 mirror:1 sea:1 district:1 functional:1 section:1 outbreak:1 rage:1 virus:1 headquarters:1 juan:1 carlos:1 fresnadillo:1 movie:1 week:1 gentrification:1 university:1 destination:1 stepney:1 historical:1 trust:2 safeguard:1 reference:1 external:1 research:1 institute:1 online:1 burrells:1 |@bigram canary_wharf:14 victorian_era:1 low_lying:1 lightly_populate:1 tight_knit:1 michael_heseltine:1 affordable_housing:1 tallest_building:1 airport_iata:1 iata_airport:1 bomb_explode:1 ira_ceasefire:2 thames_estuary:1 thames_gateway:1 charles_dickens:1 joseph_conrad:1 juan_carlos:1 external_link:1 |
930 | Niger_Armed_Forces | The Niger Armed Forces (FAN) comprises both the military and national police services of the West African nation of Niger, totaling around 12,000 active personnel and 5,000 reservists. While under civilian political control since 1999, the military has played a major role in Nigerien government, ruling the nation for 21 years of the period from independence in 1960 to the founding of the Fifth Republic in 1999. Military leaders have staged three successful Coup d'etats, and there have been several more attempted, as recently as 2002. While never engaging in open warfare with foreign nations, the Nigerien Military has participated in international peacekeeping missions and fought two domestic insurgencies. Since 2007 the armed forces have carried out a campaign against ethnic Tuareg based rebels in the north of the country. The FAN has frequently come under international scrutiny for its human rights record. Composition and structure General staff The military forces are governed by a Military General Staff (composed of the heads—Chef d'État-Majors of each service arm), the Chief of the Defence Staff (Chef d'État-Major des Armées), and a civilian Minister of Defense, who reports to the President of Niger. This system closely resembles the French Armed forces model. Chiefs of Staff General Boureima Moumouni has been Chief of the Defence Staff of the FAN since 2003. From independence through the 1960s Major Mainassara Damba was Chief of the Defence Staff, followed by Major Bala Arabe (1970–73), Major Seyni Kountché(1973–75), and Major Ali Seibou (1975–1987). Major Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara served as Chief of the Defence Staff from 1995, before seizing power in 1996. Decalo (1979) pp.33–35. He placed Colonel Moussa Moumouni Djermakoye as his Chief of the Defence Staff, one of the men later implicated in the coup which in 1999 killed Maïnassara. Military controls Niger , April 10, 1999, BBC. Army The Army is made up around 8,000 troops (2003), which includes draftees, around 4,000 members of the elite Garde Republicaine, and career soldiers. There is an additional 5,000 member reserve force of part-time National Guard forces. Units include Infantry, logistics, two paratroop companies, four light armored squadrons, and nine motorized infantry companies located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, N'Guigmi, N'Gourti, and Madaweli (the last two near Niamey). Special training sites include the National Officers Training School and The Paramedical Personnel Training School (EPPAN), in Niamey F.A.n°250 : dossier ENVR Niger. SEMINAIRE ENVR 2006, POINT DE SITUATION: QUAND L’HISTOIRE NOUS PARLE D’ENVR LOCALISATION DES ENVRS DANS LE MONDE. Ministère des affaires étrangères et européennes, France (2008) Air Force The Niger Air Force ( L'armée de l'air) replaced the previous air forces (Groupement aérien national GAN) 16 December 2003, and was then structured as follows: DOSSIER NIGER:La nouvelle armée de l'air , France Diplomatique, 2003. Command unit, led by General Salou Souleymane (chef d'état major) answerable to the Joint Chief and the Minister of Defense; Operation units (opérations, escadrons); Technical units; Generalised staff; One company of infantry (compagnie de fusiliers). Resources (2003): just less than 300 persons (41 officers of which 25 are pilots, 95 NCOs, 150 enlisted). Operational aircraft (2008): 1 Boeing 737 1 Lockheed C-130 Hercules 1 Dornier Do 228 - 14 passengers or 2 tonnes of freight 1 Dornier Do 28 - 8 passenger 4/3 ULM Tétras - 2 place reconnaissance aircraft, organized into their own unit (Aviation légère d'observation, ALO). Rebel forces claim one of these was destroyed 4 May 2008. Government claims accidental crash. See tuaregcultureandnews summaries of MNJ communiques and the originals at MNJ Press site: 4 May Communique. 2 Mil Mi-17 Hip-H - helicopters. Rebel forces claim two Mil Mi-24 helicopters were put into operation in 2007 and destroyed by rebel forces 27 June 2008. There is no government confirmation of this. See tuaregcultureandnews summaries of MNJ communiques and the originals at http://m-n-j.blogspot.com/. Police The General Directorate of National Police, headquartered in Niamey was until the 1999 Constitution under the command of the Armed Forces and Ministry of Defense. Today, only the National Gendarmerie reports to the Ministry of Defense, with the National Police and its Para-Military Arm -- FNIS -- moved to the Nigerien Interior Ministry. Contact information for The General Directorate of National Police The National Gendarmerie(modeled on the French Gendarmerie) and the National Forces for Intervention and Security (FNIS) (Forces nigerienne d'internale securite- FNIS) count a combined 3,700 member paramilitary police force. The FNIS, along with some special units of the Gendarmerie, are armed and trained in military fashion, similar to the Internal Troops of the nations of the former Soviet Union. Déplacement du Directeur au Niger, Ministère des Affaires étrangères (France). Framework partnership document France - Niger (2006-2010), Ministère des Affaires étrangères (France), 2006. DOSSIER NIGER: Les forces armées nigériennes (FAN), Ministère des Affaires étrangères (France), 2003. The Gendarmerie has law enforcement jurisdiction outside the Urban Communes of Niger, while the National police patrols towns. Special internal security operations may be carried out by the Military, the FNIS, the Gendarmerie, or whatever forces tasked by the Government of Niger. Cultural sponsorships The Army, FNIS and the National Police sponsor semi-professional football clubs, ASFAN, AS-FNIS and AS Police, which play in the Niger Premier League. Professionalisation The Armed Forces -- which includes the National Gendarmerie -- have undergone a series of structural changes aimed at professionalisation of the ranks and the retaining of more skilled recruits. Greater emphasis on recruiting officers and NCOs, lessening recruitment of lower ranks, and more training required between promotions have been instituted. Annual recruitment for the Army and the Gendarmerie now stands at one thousand each. Nigerien army, security officers get new status. APA. 2009-02-05 Foreign missions In 1991, Niger sent a 400-man military contingent to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War. Niger provides a battalion of peace-keeping forces to the UN Mission in Cote d'Ivoire. As of 2003, the FAN had troops deployed in the following foreign missions: DOSSIER NIGER: Les forces armées nigériennes (FAN), Ministère des Affaires étrangères (France), 2003. ECOMOG : Liberia, Guinée-Bissau; African Union : Burundi (MIOB), Comoros (MIOC); United Nations : Saudi Arabia (Iraq War), Rwanda (MINURCA), Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC); Panhard AML light armored cars with 90mm guns stand in a holding area during Operation Desert Shield. The equipment is part of the Niger army's arsenal. Budget and foreign aid Niger's defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Morocco, Algeria, the People's Republic of China, and Libya also provide military assistance. Approximately 18 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with materiel either given by or purchased in France. United States assistance has focused on training pilots and aviation support personnel, professional military education for staff officers, and initial specialty training for junior officers. A small foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983 and a U.S. Defense Attaché office opened in June 1985. After being converted to a Security Assistance Office in 1987, it was subsequently closed in 1996, following a coup d'état. A U.S. Defense Attaché office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Cote d'Ivoire in 2003. Additionally, the US provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a company of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan Sahel Initiative. Military to military cooperation continues via the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Partnership and other initiatives. EUCOM contributes funds for humanitarian assistance construction throughout the country. In 2007, a congressional waiver was granted which allows the Niger military to participate in the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program, managed by the Defense Attaché Office. This program funded $170,000 in training in 2007. History and involvement in politics The Military of Niger has been highly involved in politics since independence, and has been denounced at several points for broad abrogation of human rights and unlawful detentions and killings. History of the FAN prior to 1974 The Armed Forces of Niger were formed according to the 28 July 1960 Decree, with the National Police as a subsection of the military. Initially, units of the Army were created from three companies of French Colonial Forces: Nigerien soldiers officered by Frenchmen who agreed to take joint French-Nigerien citizenship. In 1960 there were only ten African officers in the Nigerien army, all of low rank. President Diori signed legislation to end the employment of expatriate military officers in 1965, some continued to serve until the 1974 coup, when all French military presence was evacuated. As well, the French had maintained until 1974 around 1000 troops of the 4th Régiment Interarmes d'Outre-Mer 4e Régiment Interarmes d'Outre-Mer: the 4th RIAOM was disolved after leaving Niger. (Troupes de Marine) with bases at Niamey, Zinder, Bilaro and Agadez. In the late 70s a smaller French force was again based in Niger. 1970 reorganisation In 1970, the forces were reorganised. The Army was organised into four Infantry battalions, one paratroop company, one light armored company, a Camel corps, and a number of support units. A new Republican Guard of 120 elite troops was created. A 1000 man National Guard was also created in 1970. The Air Forces of 12 aircraft were two squadrons, including a transport squadron. The National Police, also headquartered in Niamey and divided between 500 paramilitary Gendarmes and 400 civil police, based brigades at Zinder, Maradi, Agadez, and Tahoua. Apart from policing duties, the National Police were responsible for tax collection until 1974. 1974 military regime During the Military government of Seyni Kountché in the late 1970s, the FAN numbered some 2500, 500 of whom were National Police. Headquartered in Niamey with bases in the Gamkalle and Yantala suburbs, the military included infantry, one company of paratroops and one company of armor in the mid 1970s. Following the 1974 coup, the Nigerien defense budget accounted for around 9% of government expenditures. for the section History of the FAN prior to 1974, see Decalo (1979) pp.33–35. History of military rule Niger has had four republican constitutions since independence in 1960, but four of its seven presidents have been military leaders, taking power in three coups. Three of the four military rulers of Niger were Chief of Staff of the FAN when they ascended to Head of State, while the current democratically elected President, Tandja Mamadou, was an officer who participated in the 1974 coup that brought Seyni Kountché to power "Tandja wins second term as president in historic first for country", IRIN, December 8, 2004. Idy Barou, "Niger's leader - haunted by hunger", BBC News, August 15, 2005. "M. Tandja Mamadou, le nouveau président du Niger", Afrique Express, No. 197, November 28, 1999 . and became a member of the Supreme Military Council. 1974–1993 Military government In 1974 General Seyni Kountché overthrew the first president of Niger Hamani Diori. The government that followed, while plagued by coup attempts of its own, survived until 1993. While a period of relative prosperity, the military government of the period allowed little free expression and engaged in arbitrary imprisonment and killing. The first presidential elections took place in 1993 (33 years after independence), and the first municipal elections only took place in 2007. For a detailed account in english of the inner workings of the military regime, see Samuel Decalo (1990), pp.241–285. A member of the FAN Parachute Company, 1988. 1985–1990 insurgency In Niger's far north, drought, economic crisis, and the central government's political weakness came to a head in 1985. That year, a number of Tuareg in Libya formed a political opposition group called the Popular Front for the Liberation of Niger (FPLN). An armed attack by FPLN members in Tabardene sparked the closing of the borders with Libya and Algeria, and the resettlement of thousands of Tuareg and other nomads away from the area. As economic and political conditions worsened, grievances grew. When aid promised by Ali Saïbou's government to Tuareg returning from Algeria failed to materialise, some Tuareg attacked a police station in Tchin-Tabaradene in May 1990, leading to the death of 31, including 25 of the attackers. Initially the rebel's main demand was for the right for their children to learn Tamashek at school, but this soon escalated to a demand for autonomy. Later in May 1990, the Nigerien Military responded by arresting, torturing, and killing several hundred Tuareg civilians in Tchintabaraden, Gharo and In-Gall. This became known as the Tchintabaraden massacre. for the Tchintabaraden massacre and human rights abuse of the period in Niger, see a summary in Amnesty International's Niger: Impunity enshrined in the constitution. 8 September 1999. Bram Posthumus (see below) gives the number of civilians killed as a range between 650 and 1500. Tuareg outrage sparked the creation of two armed insurgent groups: the Front for the Liberation of Aïr and Azaouak and the Front for the Liberation of Tamoust. The ongoing 1990s Tuareg Insurgency only ended in 1995. 1996 and 1999 military coups In 1996 a former officer under Kountché and the then Army Chief of Staff, Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, staged his own coup, placing the military again in power. During the Maïnassara regime, human rights abuses were reported by foreign NGOs, including the discovery of 150 dead bodies in a mass grave at Boultoungoure, thought to be Toubou rebels. In April 1999, another coup by Army officers began with the murder of Maïnassara at Hamani Diori Airport by his own guards: an act for which no one has ever been prosecuted. Niger: The people of Niger have the right to truth and justice, 6 April 2000, Amnesty International. President Mainassara: A profile, BBC, April 9, 1999. Major Daouda Mallam Wanke, commander of the Niamey based military region and the head of the Republican Guard assumed power, but returned the nation to civilian rule within the year. Niger: A copybook coup d'etat, April 9, 1999, BBC. Military controls Niger , April 10, 1999, BBC. The 1999 constitution followed, and in 2004 Mamadou Tandja was elected to his second five-year presidential term in an election that international observers deemed generally free and fair. Despite this, there has been one recent large military rising against elected government which took place in the Diffa Region in 2002. Three garrisons rose against the government, and scattered units rebelled in the capital: all were eventually put down by loyal units, and mass arrests of military personnel followed. Soldiers mutiny in Niger, Globe and Mail (South Africa), Jan 01 2002 Continued political involvement The involvement of the military in politics has historically led to regular, if infrequent, arbitrary arrest and detention, use of excessive force, torture, and extra-judicial killing by security forces and police. The judiciary has historically suffered from poor jail and prison conditions, prolonged pretrial detention, and executive interference in the judiciary. While all these have improved dramatically since the return to civilian rule, international human rights organizations continue to report sporadic incidents of all these abuses. Post-1999 there has been a marked improvement of civilian control of security forces, with the United States State Department contending every year since 2001 that the military was under civilian control. For this section, see Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report 2007, Human Rights Watch: Niger: Warring Sides Must End Abuses of Civilians, Combatants Engaged in Executions, Rape, and Theft. (Dakar, December 19, 2007); and U.S. Department of State. Report on Human Rights Practices - Niger. 1993–1995 to 2006. There have been three blanket states of emergency declared since 1999, the longest beginning in August 2007 for the entire Agadez Region, and renewed in November 2007. These states of emergency essentially remove all rights to protest, gathering and free movement, and are enforced by the Military, including the Gendarmarie. The 2007–2008 state of emergency in Agadez allows detention without charge or trial. “Niger extends state of alert in uranium-rich north”, Reuters, 23 Nov. 2007. Amnesty International has charged the military with widespread detention and at least 16 military killings of unarmed civilians. Annual Report (2008): Niger, Amnesty International. Member of the rebel MNJ, northern Niger, 2008. Current conflicts The Nigerien Armed Forces were involved (as of mid 2008) in an ongoing insurgency in the north of the country, labeled the Second Tuareg Rebellion. A previously unknown group, the Mouvement des Nigeriens pour la Justice (MNJ), emerged in February 2007. The predominantly Tuareg group has issued a number of demands, mainly related to development in the north. It has attacked military and other facilities and laid landmines in the north. The resulting insecurity has devastated Niger's tourist industry and deterred investment in mining and oil. The government has labeled the MNJ criminals and traffickers, and refuses to negotiate with the group until it disarms. As of July 2008, some 100 to 160 Nigerien troops have been killed in the ongoing conflict. Initial text taken from November 2007 United States State Department report: Bureau of African Affairs, Background Note: Niger. References Bram Posthumus. Niger: A Long History, a Brief Conflict, an Open Future, in Searching for Peace in Africa, European Centre for Conflict Prevention (1999). ISBN 9057270331 Samuel Decalo. Historical Dictionary of Niger. Scarecrow Press, London and New Jersey (1979). ISBN 0810812290 Samuel Decalo. Coups and Army Rule in Africa, Yale University Press (1990). ISBN 030004458 Jolijn Geels. Niger. Bradt London and Globe Pequot, New York (2006). ISBN 1841621528 Full text of the 15 April 1995 Niger peace accords (French). Accord établissant une paix définitive entre le Gouvernement de la République du Niger et l'Organisation de la Résistance Armée (O.R.A.). Niger Factfile: The White Fathers, Sutton Coldfield, 14 June, 2007. Niger, Déplacement du Directeur au Niger, Ministère des Affaires étrangères (France), 2007. Gives 2007 force commanders. L’Ambassade de France au Niger:Les relations France-Niger:Coopération franco-nigérienne:La Mission de Coopération Militaire et de Défense (France), 2007. Niger: The right to justice. Amnesty International. Published: 6 April 2000. ''Report on Army involvement in the 1999 coup, the killing of General Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, and other human rights abuses carried out by the FAN in the period 1990–2000. Summary:Armed forces (Niger), Armed forces. Sentinel Security Assessment - West Africa. Jane's Information Group. Oct 17, 2008. | Niger_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized niger:58 arm:10 force:35 fan:12 comprise:1 military:48 national:18 police:17 service:2 west:2 african:4 nation:6 total:1 around:5 active:1 personnel:5 reservist:1 civilian:10 political:5 control:5 since:8 play:2 major:10 role:1 nigerien:15 government:15 rule:5 year:6 period:5 independence:5 founding:1 fifth:1 republic:3 leader:3 stag:2 three:6 successful:1 coup:14 etats:1 several:3 attempted:1 recently:1 never:1 engage:3 open:3 warfare:1 foreign:6 participate:3 international:12 peacekeeping:1 mission:5 fought:1 two:6 domestic:1 insurgency:4 carry:3 campaign:1 ethnic:1 tuareg:10 base:6 rebel:8 north:6 country:4 frequently:1 come:2 scrutiny:1 human:8 right:12 record:1 composition:1 structure:2 general:8 staff:12 govern:1 compose:1 head:4 chef:3 état:4 chief:9 defence:5 de:17 armées:3 minister:2 defense:9 report:9 president:7 system:1 closely:1 resemble:1 french:9 armed:5 model:2 boureima:1 moumouni:2 mainassara:2 damba:1 follow:7 bala:1 arabe:1 seyni:4 kountché:5 ali:2 seibou:1 ibrahim:3 baré:3 maïnassara:6 serve:2 seize:1 power:5 decalo:5 pp:3 place:6 colonel:1 moussa:1 djermakoye:1 one:10 men:1 later:2 implicate:1 kill:5 april:8 bbc:5 army:13 make:1 troop:7 include:9 draftee:1 member:7 elite:2 garde:1 republicaine:1 career:1 soldier:4 additional:1 reserve:1 part:3 time:1 guard:5 unit:10 infantry:5 logistics:1 paratroop:2 company:10 four:5 light:3 armor:4 squadron:3 nine:1 motorize:1 locate:1 tahoua:2 agadez:5 dirkou:1 zinder:3 n:4 guigmi:1 gourti:1 madaweli:1 last:1 near:1 niamey:7 special:3 training:7 site:2 officer:12 train:4 school:3 paramedical:1 eppan:1 f:1 dossier:4 envr:3 seminaire:1 point:2 situation:1 quand:1 l:6 histoire:1 nous:1 parle:1 localisation:1 envrs:1 dans:1 le:5 monde:1 ministère:6 des:2 affaire:1 étrangères:6 et:3 européennes:1 france:14 air:6 armée:3 replace:1 previous:1 groupement:1 aérien:1 gan:1 december:3 la:5 nouvelle:1 diplomatique:1 command:2 lead:4 salou:1 souleymane:1 answerable:1 joint:2 operation:4 opérations:1 escadrons:1 technical:1 generalised:1 compagnie:1 fusilier:1 resource:1 less:1 person:1 pilot:2 ncos:2 enlist:1 operational:1 aircraft:3 boeing:1 lockheed:1 c:1 hercules:1 dornier:2 passenger:2 tonne:1 freight:1 ulm:1 tétras:1 reconnaissance:1 organize:1 aviation:2 légère:1 observation:1 alo:1 claim:3 destroy:2 may:5 accidental:1 crash:1 see:7 tuaregcultureandnews:2 summary:4 mnj:6 communique:3 original:2 press:3 mil:2 mi:2 hip:1 h:1 helicopter:2 put:2 june:3 confirmation:1 http:1 j:1 blogspot:1 com:1 directorate:2 headquarter:3 constitution:4 ministry:3 today:1 gendarmerie:8 para:1 fnis:7 move:1 interior:1 contact:1 information:2 intervention:1 security:7 nigerienne:1 internale:1 securite:1 count:1 combined:1 paramilitary:2 along:1 fashion:1 similar:1 internal:2 former:2 soviet:1 union:2 déplacement:2 du:4 directeur:2 au:3 affaires:5 framework:1 partnership:2 document:1 nigériennes:2 law:1 enforcement:1 jurisdiction:1 outside:1 urban:1 commune:1 patrol:1 town:1 whatever:1 task:1 cultural:1 sponsorships:1 sponsor:1 semi:1 professional:2 football:1 club:1 asfan:1 premier:1 league:1 professionalisation:2 undergone:1 series:1 structural:1 change:1 aim:1 rank:3 retaining:1 skilled:1 recruit:2 great:1 emphasis:1 lessen:1 recruitment:2 low:2 require:1 promotion:1 institute:1 annual:2 stand:2 thousand:2 get:1 new:4 status:1 apa:1 send:1 man:2 contingent:1 join:1 american:1 allied:1 iraq:2 gulf:1 war:2 provide:5 battalion:2 peace:3 keep:1 un:1 cote:2 ivoire:2 deploy:2 following:1 ecomog:1 liberia:1 guinée:1 bissau:1 burundi:1 miob:1 comoros:1 mioc:1 united:5 saudi:1 arabia:1 rwanda:1 minurca:1 democratic:1 congo:1 monuc:1 panhard:1 aml:1 car:1 gun:1 hold:1 area:2 desert:1 shield:1 equipment:2 arsenal:1 budget:3 aid:2 modest:1 accounting:1 expenditure:2 large:2 share:1 assistance:7 morocco:1 algeria:3 people:2 china:1 libya:3 also:3 approximately:1 adviser:1 many:1 receive:1 equip:1 mainly:2 materiel:1 either:1 give:3 purchase:1 state:13 focus:1 support:2 education:2 initial:3 specialty:1 junior:1 small:2 program:3 initiate:1 u:4 attaché:3 office:4 convert:1 subsequently:1 close:1 reopen:1 july:3 transportation:1 logistical:1 additionally:1 vehicle:1 communication:1 gear:1 department:4 pan:1 sahel:1 initiative:2 cooperation:1 continue:4 via:1 trans:1 saharan:1 counter:1 terrorism:1 eucom:1 contributes:1 fund:2 humanitarian:1 construction:1 throughout:1 congressional:1 waiver:1 grant:1 allow:2 imet:1 manage:1 history:5 involvement:4 politics:3 highly:1 involve:2 denounce:1 broad:1 abrogation:1 unlawful:1 detention:5 killing:4 prior:2 form:2 accord:3 decree:1 subsection:1 initially:2 create:3 colonial:1 frenchman:1 agree:1 take:6 citizenship:1 ten:1 diori:3 sign:1 legislation:1 end:3 employment:1 expatriate:1 presence:1 evacuate:1 well:1 maintain:1 régiment:2 interarmes:2 outre:2 mer:2 riaom:1 disolved:1 leave:1 troupe:1 marine:1 bilaro:1 late:2 reorganisation:1 reorganise:1 organise:1 camel:1 corp:1 number:5 republican:3 transport:1 divide:1 gendarme:1 civil:1 brigade:1 maradi:1 apart:1 duty:1 responsible:1 tax:1 collection:1 regime:3 gamkalle:1 yantala:1 suburb:1 paratroops:1 mid:2 account:2 section:2 seven:1 ruler:1 ascend:1 current:2 democratically:1 elect:2 tandja:4 mamadou:3 bring:1 win:1 second:3 term:2 historic:1 first:4 irin:1 idy:1 barou:1 haunt:1 hunger:1 news:1 august:2 nouveau:1 président:1 afrique:1 express:1 november:3 become:2 supreme:1 council:1 overthrow:1 hamani:2 plague:1 attempt:1 survive:1 relative:1 prosperity:1 little:1 free:3 expression:1 arbitrary:2 imprisonment:1 presidential:2 election:3 municipal:1 detailed:1 english:1 inner:1 working:1 samuel:3 parachute:1 far:1 drought:1 economic:2 crisis:1 central:1 weakness:1 opposition:1 group:6 call:1 popular:1 front:3 liberation:3 fpln:2 attack:3 tabardene:1 spark:2 closing:1 border:1 resettlement:1 nomad:1 away:1 condition:2 worsen:1 grievance:1 grow:1 promise:1 saïbou:1 return:3 fail:1 materialise:1 station:1 tchin:1 tabaradene:1 death:1 attacker:1 main:1 demand:3 child:1 learn:1 tamashek:1 soon:1 escalate:1 autonomy:1 respond:1 arrest:3 torture:2 hundred:1 tchintabaraden:3 gharo:1 gall:1 know:1 massacre:2 abuse:5 amnesty:7 impunity:1 enshrine:1 september:1 bram:2 posthumus:2 range:1 outrage:1 creation:1 insurgent:1 aïr:1 azaouak:1 tamoust:1 ongoing:3 ngo:1 discovery:1 dead:1 body:1 mass:2 grave:1 boultoungoure:1 think:1 toubou:1 another:1 begin:1 murder:1 airport:1 act:1 ever:1 prosecute:1 truth:1 justice:3 profile:1 daouda:1 mallam:1 wanke:1 commander:2 region:3 assume:1 within:1 copybook:1 etat:1 five:1 observer:1 deem:1 generally:1 fair:1 despite:1 recent:1 rising:1 elected:1 diffa:1 garrison:1 rise:1 scatter:1 capital:1 eventually:1 loyal:1 mutiny:1 globe:2 mail:1 south:1 africa:4 jan:1 historically:2 regular:1 infrequent:1 use:1 excessive:1 extra:1 judicial:1 judiciary:2 suffer:1 poor:1 jail:1 prison:1 prolong:1 pretrial:1 executive:1 interference:1 improve:1 dramatically:1 organization:1 sporadic:1 incident:1 post:1 marked:1 improvement:1 contend:1 every:1 watch:1 warring:1 side:1 must:1 combatant:1 execution:1 rape:1 theft:1 dakar:1 practice:1 blanket:1 emergency:3 declare:1 long:2 beginning:1 entire:1 renew:1 essentially:1 remove:1 protest:1 gather:1 movement:1 enforce:1 gendarmarie:1 allows:1 without:1 charge:2 trial:1 extends:1 alert:1 uranium:1 rich:1 reuters:1 nov:1 widespread:1 least:1 unarmed:1 northern:1 conflict:4 label:2 rebellion:1 previously:1 unknown:1 mouvement:1 nigeriens:1 pour:1 emerge:1 february:1 predominantly:1 issue:1 relate:1 development:1 facility:1 laid:1 landmines:1 result:1 insecurity:1 devastate:1 tourist:1 industry:1 deterred:1 investment:1 mining:1 oil:1 criminal:1 trafficker:1 refuse:1 negotiate:1 disarm:1 text:2 bureau:1 affair:1 background:1 note:1 reference:1 brief:1 future:1 search:1 european:1 centre:1 prevention:1 isbn:4 historical:1 dictionary:1 scarecrow:1 london:2 jersey:1 yale:1 university:1 jolijn:1 geels:1 bradt:1 pequot:1 york:1 full:1 établissant:1 une:1 paix:1 définitive:1 entre:1 gouvernement:1 république:1 organisation:1 résistance:1 r:1 factfile:1 white:1 father:1 sutton:1 coldfield:1 ambassade:1 les:1 relation:1 coopération:2 franco:1 nigérienne:1 militaire:1 défense:1 publish:1 sentinel:1 assessment:1 jane:1 oct:1 |@bigram peacekeeping_mission:1 chef_état:3 closely_resemble:1 chief_staff:3 seyni_kountché:4 ibrahim_baré:3 baré_maïnassara:3 dans_le:1 le_monde:1 la_nouvelle:1 mil_mi:2 blogspot_com:1 soviet_union:1 ministère_de:5 de_affaires:5 affaires_étrangères:5 étrangères_france:5 officer_ncos:1 cote_ivoire:2 saudi_arabia:1 republic_congo:1 congo_monuc:1 panhard_aml:1 morocco_algeria:1 defense_attaché:3 attaché_office:3 coup_état:1 trans_saharan:1 counter_terrorism:1 humanitarian_assistance:1 outre_mer:2 infantry_battalion:1 democratically_elect:1 bbc_news:1 presidential_election:1 samuel_decalo:3 amnesty_international:7 stag_coup:1 coup_etat:1 mamadou_tandja:1 marked_improvement:1 unarmed_civilian:1 tuareg_rebellion:1 decalo_historical:1 globe_pequot:1 le_gouvernement:1 la_république:1 |
931 | Fingerspelling | The fingerspelled alphabet for American Sign Language Fingerspelling (or dactylology) is the representation of the letters of a writing system, and sometimes numeral systems, using only the hands. These manual alphabets (also known as finger alphabets or hand alphabets), have often been used in deaf education, and have subsequently been adopted as a distinct part of a number of sign languages around the world. Historically, manual alphabets have had a number of additional applications — including use as ciphers, as mnemonics, and in silent religious settings. Forms of manual alphabets As with other forms of manual communication, fingerspelling can be comprehended visually or tactually. The simplest visual form of fingerspelling is tracing the shape of letters in the air, or tactually, tracing letters onto the palm. However, most manual alphabets use a unique hand sign to represent individual letters, distinguished by handshape and palm orientation, and sometimes movement, location and mouth patterns. The handshapes are often based on stylised representations of the shapes of the letters as they are written, but may be arbitrary signs, or a combination of iconic and arbitrary signs. Manual alphabets exist for representing Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Devanāgarī, Bengali, Arabic, Hebrew, Thai, hangul, kanji, kana and Ge'ez scripts. Related manual systems phonetically represent sound, rather than the written form of a spoken language. Such "Mouth Hand Systems" (MHS) may use hand movements alongside mouth patterns to distinguish the individual sounds or phonemes. The most prominent such system is known as cued speech. Others include a Mouth Hand System developed in Denmark in 1903 by Georg Forchhammer, Birch-Rasmussen, S. (1982). Mundhandsystemet. Copenhagen: Doves Center for Total Kommunikation.Reynolds, Brian Watkins (1980). Speechreading training related to the Danish mouth handsystem for adventitiously hearing impaired adults. Ann Arbor : U.M.I. 1980 - 145 p. Dissertation: Purdue Univ. an "Assisted Kinemes Alphabet" from Belgium, and an Iranian system developed in 1935 by Jabar Baghcheban. Deaf Way II Presentation On Iranian Deaf Culture, by Abbas Ali Behmanesh Latin alphabet One-handed Polish manual alphabet There are two families of manual alphabets used for representing the Latin alphabet in the modern world. The more common of the two Carmel, Simon (1982). International hand alphabet charts. National Association of the Deaf (United States); 2nd edition. (June 1982). ISBN 0-9600886-2-8 is mostly produced on one hand, and can be traced back to alphabetic signs used in Europe from at least the early 15th century. The alphabet, first described completely by Spanish monks, was adopted by the Abbé de l'Épée's deaf school in Paris in the 18th century, and was then spread to deaf communities around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries via educators who had learnt it there. Over time, variations have emerged, brought about by natural phonetic changes that occur over time, adaptions for local written forms with special characters or diacritics (which are sometimes represented with the other hand), and avoidance of handshapes that are considered obscene in some cultures. Modern descendants include the American manual alphabet and the International manual alphabet. Two-handed Several different two-handed manual alphabets are used by a number of deaf communities around the world. In many of these places, such as countries of the former Yugoslavia and in Turkish Sign Language, the vowels are represented by iconic signs, whereas in the BANZSL group of languages they are represented by pointing to the fingertips. Letters are formed by a dominant hand, which is on top of or alongside the other hand at the point of contact, and a subordinate hand, which uses either the same or a simpler handshape to the dominant hand. Either the left or right hand can be dominant. In a modified tactile form used by deafblind people, the signer's hand acts as the dominant hand and the receiver's hand becomes the subordinate hand. Some signs, such as the sign commonly used for the letter C, may be one-handed. Other alphabets Manual alphabets based on the Arabic alphabet, the Ethiopian syllabary and the Korean hangul syllabary-alphabet use handshapes that are more or less iconic representations of the characters in the writing system. Some manual representations of non-Roman scripts such as Chinese, Japanese, Devanagari, Hebrew, Greek, Thai and Russian alphabets are based to some extent on the one-handed Latin alphabet described above. Fingerspelling in sign languages Fingerspelling has been introduced into certain sign languages by educators, and as such has some structural properties that are unlike the visually-motivated and multi-layered signs that are typical in deaf sign languages. In many ways fingerspelling serves as a bridge between the sign language and the spoken language that surrounds it. Fingerspelling is used in different sign languages and registers for different purposes. It may used be to represent words from a spoken language which have no sign equivalent, or for emphasis, clarification, or when teaching or learning a sign language. In American Sign Language (ASL), more lexical items are fingerspelled in casual conversation than in formal or narrative signing. Morford, Jill Patterson, and MacFarlane, James (2003). Frequency Characteristics of American Sign Language. Sign Language Studies, Volume 3, Number 2, Winter 2003, pp. 213-225 Different sign language "speech communities" use fingerspelling to a greater or lesser degree. At the high end of the scale, Padden, Carol A. (2003). How the alphabet came to be used in a sign language, Sign Language Studies, 4.1. Gallaudet University Press fingerspelling makes up about 8.7% of casual signing in ASL, Ibid. and 10% of casual signing in Auslan. Schembri, A. & Johnston, T. (in press). Sociolinguistic variation in fingerspelling in Australian Sign Language (Auslan): A pilot study. Sign Language Studies. The proportion is higher in older signers, suggesting that the use of fingerspelling has diminished over time. Across the Tasman Sea, only 2.5% of the corpus of New Zealand Sign Language was found to be fingerspelling. McKee, David and Kennedy, Graeme (2000). Corpus analysis of New Zealand Sign Language. Paper presented at the 7th International Conference on Theoretical Issues in Sign Language Research. Amsterdam. July 23rd-27th Fingerspelling has only become a part of NZSL since the 1980s; McKee, R. L., & McKee, D. (2002). A guide to New Zealand Sign Language grammar. Deaf Studies Research Unit, Occasional Publication No.3, Victoria University of Wellington. prior to that, words could be spelled or initialised by tracing letters in the air. Forman, Wayne. (2003) The ABCs of New Zealand Sign Language: Aerial Spelling. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education. Volume 8, Number 1, January 2003. ISSN 1081-4159. Fingerspelling does not seem to be used much in the sign languages of Eastern Europe, except in schools, J. Albert Bickford (2005). . SIL Electronic Survey Report. and Italian Sign Language is also said to use very little fingerspelling, and mainly for foreign words. Sign languages that make no use of fingerspelling at all include Kata Kolok and Ban Khor Sign Language. AD 1140 illustration of a finger alphabet and counting system described by Bede in AD 710. The Greek alphabet is represented, with three additional letters making a total of 27, by the first three columns of numbers. The first two columns are produced on the left hand, and the next two columns on the right. The speed and clarity of fingerspelling also varies between different signing communities. In Italian Sign Language, fingerspelled words are relatively slow and clearly produced, whereas fingerspelling in standard British Sign Language (BSL) is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish, and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement. Most of the letters of the BSL alphabet are produced with two hands, but when one hand is occupied, the dominant hand may fingerspell onto an "imaginary" subordinate hand, and the word can be recognised by the movement. As with written words, the first and last letters and the length of the word are the most significant factors for recognition. When persons fluent in sign language read fingerspelling, they do not usually look at the signer's hand(s), but maintain eye contact and look at the face of the signer as is normal for sign language. People who are learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their peripheral vision and must look directly at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling. Often, they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly. It frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling. History Alphabetic gestures have been discovered in hundreds of medieval and renaissance paintings. From a University of Arizona press release: "An accidental discovery in 1991 of a manual alphabet in a 1444 painting of King Charles VII of France by Jean Fouquet has led Joseph Castronovo to decipher the "artistic signatures" in over 500 pieces of art work."LISTSERV 14.4See also: Bragg, Lois (1996). Chaucer's Monogram and the 'Hoccleve Portrait' Tradition, Word and Image 12 (1996): 12 The above is from Fernando Gallego's retablo panels, 1480-1488, in Ciudad Rodrigo. Some writers have suggested that the body and hands were used to represent alphabets in Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Assyrian antiquity. Barrois, J. (1850). Dactylologie et langage primitif. Paris 1850; Firmin Didot freres. Certainly, "finger calculus" systems were widespread, and capable of representing numbers up to 10,000; Alföldi-Rosenbaum, E. (1971). The finger calculus in antiquity and in the Middle Ages: Studies on Roman game counters part I. Friihmiltelalterliche Studien, 6, 1-9.See also: Menninger, K. (1958). Number words and number symbols: A cultural history of numbers. Translated by Paul Broneer. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969. (p. 201). Originally published as Zahlwort und Ziffer (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht). they are still in use today in parts of the Middle East. The practice of substituting letters for numbers and vice versa, known as gematria, was also common, and it is possible that the two practices were combined to produce a finger calculus alphabet. The earliest known manual alphabet, described by the Benedictine monk Bede in 8th century Northumbria, did just that. Bede. (AD 710). De Computo vel Loguela per Gestum Digitorum ("Of counting or speaking with the fingers"), preface to De temporum ratione ("On the reckoning of time"). Illustrated in AD 1140, National Library, Madrid. While the usual purpose of the Latin and Greek finger alphabets described by Bede is unknown, they were unlikely to have been used by deaf people for communication — even though Bede lost his own hearing later in life. Historian Lois Bragg concludes that these alphabets were "only a bookish game." Bragg, Lois (1997). Visual-Kinetic Communication in Europe Before 1600: A Survey of Sign Lexicons and Finger Alphabets Prior to the Rise of Deaf Education. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 2:1 Winter 1997 Beginning with R. A. S. Macalister in 1938, Macalister, R. A. S. (1928). The Archaeology of Ireland. London: Meuthen several writers have speculated that the 5th century Irish Ogham script, with its quinary alphabet system, was derived from a finger alphabet that predates even Bede. See, for example: Graves, Robert, (1948). The White Goddess. Antique hand memory system, three variants. Originally published in "Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae", in Venice, 1579. European monks from at least the time of Bede have made use of forms of manual communication, including alphabetic gestures, for a number of reasons: communication among the monastery while observing vows of silence, administering to the ill, and as mnemonic devices. They also may have been used as ciphers for discreet or secret communication. Clear antecedents of many of the manual alphabets in use today can be seen from the 16th century in books published by friars in Spain and Italy. Cosma-Rossellios R.P.F. (1579) "Thesavrvs Artificiosae Memoriae", Venice.Fray Melchor de Yebra, (1593) Refugium Infirmorum From the same time, monks such as the Benedictine Fray Pedro Ponce de León began tutoring deaf children of wealthy patrons — in some places, literacy was a requirement for legal recognition as an heir — and the manual alphabets found a new purpose. Plann, Susan. (1997). A Silent Minority: Deaf Education in Spain, 1550-1835. Berkeley: University of California Press. They were originally part of the earliest known Mouth Hand Systems. The first book on deaf education, published in 1620 by Juan Pablo Bonet in Madrid, included a detailed account of the use of a manual alphabet to teach deaf students to read and speak. Juan Pablo Bonet (1620). Reducción de las letras y Arte para enseñar á hablar los Mudos ("The Adaptation of Letters and Art of Teaching Mutes to Speak"). Published by Francisco Abarca de Angulo, Madrid. Plate from John Bulwer's 1648 publication Philocopus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend (London). Meanwhile in Britain, manual alphabets were also in use for a number of purposes, such as secret communication, Wilkins, John (1641). Mercury, the Swift and Silent Messenger. The book is a work on cryptography, and fingerspelling was referred to as one method of "secret discoursing, by signes and gestures". Wilkins gave an example of such a system: "Let the tops of the fingers signifie the five vowels; the middle parts, the first five consonants; the bottomes of them, the five next consonants; the spaces betwixt the fingers the foure next. One finger laid on the side of the hand may signifie T. Two fingers V the consonant; Three W. The little finger crossed X. The wrist Y. The middle of the hand Z." (1641:116-117) public speaking, or used for communication by deaf people. John Bulwer's "Chirologia: or the naturall language of the hand.", published in 1644, London, mentions that alphabets are in use by Deaf people, although Bulwer presents a different system which is focussed on public speaking. In 1648, John Bulwer described "Master Babington", a deaf man proficient in the use of a manual alphabet, "contryved on the joynts of his fingers", whose wife could converse with him easily, even in the dark through the use of tactile signing. Bulwer, J. (1648) Philocopus, or the Deaf and Dumbe Mans Friend, London: Humphrey and Moseley. In 1680, George Dalgarno published Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor, Dalgarno, George. Didascalocophus, or, The deaf and dumb mans tutor. Oxford: Halton, 1680. in which he presented his own method of deaf education, including an "arthrological" alphabet, where letters are indicated by pointing to different joints of the fingers and palm of the left hand. Arthrological systems had been in use by hearing people for some time; See Wilkins (1641) above. Wilkins is aware that the systems he describes are old, and refers to Bede's account of Roman and Greek finger alphabets. some have speculated that they can be traced to early Ogham manual alphabets. Session 9 The vowels of this alphabet have survived in the contemporary alphabets used in British Sign Language, Auslan and New Zealand Sign Language. The earliest known printed pictures of consonants of the modern two-handed alphabet appeared in 1698 with Digiti Lingua, a pamphlet by an anonymous author who was himself unable to speak. He suggested that the manual alphabet could also be used by mutes, for silence and secrecy, or purely for entertainment. Nine of its letters can be traced to earlier alphabets, and 17 letters of the modern two-handed alphabet can be found among the two sets of 26 handshapes depicted. Charles de La Fin published a book in 1692 describing an alphabetic system where pointing to a body part represented the first letter of the part (eg. Brow=B), and vowels were located on the fingertips as with the other British systems. Charles de La Fin (1692). Sermo mirabilis, or, The silent language whereby one may learn ... how to impart his mind to his friend, in any language ... being a wonderful art kept secret for several ages in Padua, and now published only to the wise and prudent ... London, Printed for Tho. Salusbury... and sold by Randal Taylor... 1692. OCLC 27245872 He described codes for both English and Latin. By 1720, the British manual alphabet had found more or less its present form. Daniel Defoe (1720). "The Life and Adventures of Mr. Duncan Campbell" Descendants of this alphabet have been used by deaf communities (or at least in classrooms) in former British colonies India, Australia, New Zealand, Uganda and South Africa, as well as the republics and provinces of the former Yugoslavia, Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean, Indonesia, Norway, Germany and the USA. Engravings of (Bonet, 1620): See also American manual alphabet Catalonian manual alphabet Chilean manual alphabet Cued Speech French manual alphabet Irish manual alphabet Korean manual alphabet Japanese manual syllabary Polish manual alphabet Russian manual alphabet Spanish manual alphabet Two-handed manual alphabet References External links BSL Fingerspelling Alphabet - Left and Right Handed Free Downloads from DeafBooks.co.uk ASL Fingerspelling Resource Site Free online fingerspelling lessons, quizzes, and activities. ASL Fingerspelling Online Practice Tool Test and improve your receptive fingerspelling skills using this free online resource. Fingerspelling Slider Fast and easy way to learn the ASL Fingerspelled Alphabet. Deafblind alphabets explained with graphics for the sighted. Fingerspelling Resources Fingerspelling information and resources. | Fingerspelling |@lemmatized fingerspelled:1 alphabet:67 american:5 sign:43 language:37 fingerspelling:13 dactylology:1 representation:4 letter:18 writing:2 system:19 sometimes:3 numeral:1 use:38 hand:42 manual:36 also:11 know:6 finger:17 often:5 deaf:28 education:7 subsequently:1 adopt:2 distinct:1 part:8 number:13 around:3 world:4 historically:1 additional:2 application:1 include:7 cipher:2 mnemonic:2 silent:4 religious:1 setting:1 form:9 communication:8 fingerspell:23 comprehend:1 visually:2 tactually:2 simple:1 visual:2 trace:6 shape:2 air:2 onto:2 palm:3 however:1 unique:1 represent:12 individual:3 distinguish:3 handshape:2 orientation:1 movement:4 location:1 mouth:6 pattern:2 handshapes:4 base:3 stylised:1 write:4 may:8 arbitrary:2 combination:1 iconic:3 exist:1 latin:6 cyrillic:1 greek:6 devanāgarī:1 bengali:1 arabic:2 hebrew:2 thai:2 hangul:2 kanji:1 kana:1 ge:1 ez:1 script:3 related:1 phonetically:1 sound:2 rather:1 spoken:3 mhs:1 alongside:2 phoneme:1 prominent:1 cued:1 speech:3 others:1 develop:2 denmark:1 georg:1 forchhammer:1 birch:1 rasmussen:1 mundhandsystemet:1 copenhagen:1 dove:1 center:1 total:2 kommunikation:1 reynolds:1 brian:1 watkins:1 speechreading:1 training:1 relate:1 danish:1 handsystem:1 adventitiously:1 hear:2 impaired:1 adult:1 ann:1 arbor:1 u:1 p:3 dissertation:1 purdue:1 univ:1 assist:1 kinemes:1 belgium:1 iranian:2 jabar:1 baghcheban:1 way:3 ii:1 presentation:1 culture:2 abbas:1 ali:1 behmanesh:1 one:8 polish:2 two:13 family:1 modern:4 common:2 carmel:1 simon:1 international:3 chart:1 national:2 association:1 united:1 state:1 edition:1 june:1 isbn:1 mostly:1 produce:5 back:1 alphabetic:4 europe:3 least:3 early:6 century:6 first:7 describe:9 completely:1 spanish:2 monk:4 abbé:1 de:9 l:2 épée:1 school:2 paris:2 spread:1 community:5 via:1 educator:2 learn:5 time:7 variation:2 emerge:1 bring:1 natural:1 phonetic:1 change:1 occur:1 adaption:1 local:1 special:1 character:2 diacritic:1 avoidance:1 consider:1 obscene:1 descendant:2 several:3 different:7 many:3 place:2 country:1 former:3 yugoslavia:2 turkish:1 vowel:4 whereas:2 banzsl:1 group:1 point:4 fingertip:2 dominant:5 top:2 contact:2 subordinate:3 either:2 simpler:1 left:4 right:3 modified:1 tactile:2 deafblind:2 people:6 signer:5 act:1 receiver:1 become:4 commonly:1 c:1 ethiopian:1 syllabary:3 korean:2 less:3 non:1 roman:4 chinese:1 japanese:2 devanagari:1 russian:2 extent:1 introduce:1 certain:1 structural:1 property:1 unlike:1 motivate:1 multi:1 layered:1 typical:1 serf:1 bridge:1 surround:1 register:1 purpose:4 word:10 equivalent:1 emphasis:1 clarification:1 teach:3 asl:5 lexical:1 item:1 casual:3 conversation:1 formal:1 narrative:1 signing:4 morford:1 jill:1 patterson:1 macfarlane:1 james:1 frequency:1 characteristic:1 study:8 volume:2 winter:2 pp:1 great:1 degree:1 high:2 end:1 scale:1 padden:1 carol:1 come:1 gallaudet:1 university:4 press:5 make:4 ibid:1 auslan:3 schembri:1 johnston:1 sociolinguistic:1 australian:1 pilot:1 proportion:1 old:2 suggest:3 diminish:1 across:1 tasman:1 sea:1 corpus:2 new:7 zealand:6 find:5 mckee:3 david:1 kennedy:1 graeme:1 analysis:1 paper:1 present:4 conference:1 theoretical:1 issue:1 research:2 amsterdam:1 july:1 nzsl:1 since:1 r:4 guide:1 grammar:1 unit:1 occasional:1 publication:2 victoria:1 wellington:1 prior:2 could:3 spell:1 initialise:1 forman:1 wayne:1 abc:1 aerial:1 spelling:1 journal:2 january:1 issn:1 seem:1 much:1 languages:2 eastern:1 except:1 j:3 albert:1 bickford:1 sil:1 electronic:1 survey:2 report:1 italian:2 say:1 little:2 mainly:1 foreign:1 kata:1 kolok:1 ban:1 khor:1 ad:4 illustration:1 counting:2 bede:8 three:4 column:3 next:3 speed:1 clarity:1 varies:1 relatively:1 slow:1 clearly:1 standard:1 british:5 bsl:3 rapid:1 difficult:1 grasp:1 overall:1 occupy:1 imaginary:1 recognise:1 last:1 length:1 significant:1 factor:1 recognition:2 person:1 fluent:1 read:2 usually:1 look:3 maintain:1 eye:1 face:1 normal:1 impossible:1 understand:1 peripheral:1 vision:1 must:2 directly:1 someone:1 ask:1 slowly:1 frequently:1 take:1 year:1 expressive:1 receptive:2 practice:4 skilled:1 history:2 gesture:3 discover:1 hundred:1 medieval:1 renaissance:1 painting:2 arizona:1 release:1 accidental:1 discovery:1 king:1 charles:3 vii:1 france:1 jean:1 fouquet:1 lead:1 joseph:1 castronovo:1 decipher:1 artistic:1 signature:1 piece:1 art:3 work:2 listserv:1 bragg:3 lois:3 chaucer:1 monogram:1 hoccleve:1 portrait:1 tradition:1 image:1 fernando:1 gallego:1 retablo:1 panel:1 ciudad:1 rodrigo:1 writer:2 body:2 egyptian:1 assyrian:1 antiquity:2 barrois:1 dactylologie:1 et:1 langage:1 primitif:1 firmin:1 didot:1 freres:1 certainly:1 calculus:3 widespread:1 capable:1 alföldi:1 rosenbaum:1 e:1 middle:4 age:2 game:2 counter:1 friihmiltelalterliche:1 studien:1 see:5 menninger:1 k:1 symbol:1 cultural:1 translate:1 paul:1 broneer:1 cambridge:1 mit:1 originally:3 publish:9 zahlwort:1 und:1 ziffer:1 gottingen:1 vandenhoeck:1 ruprecht:1 still:1 today:2 east:1 substitute:1 vice:1 versa:1 gematria:1 possible:1 combine:1 benedictine:2 northumbria:1 computo:1 vel:1 loguela:1 per:1 gestum:1 digitorum:1 speaking:3 preface:1 temporum:1 ratione:1 reckoning:1 illustrate:1 library:1 madrid:3 usual:1 unknown:1 unlikely:1 even:3 though:1 lose:1 hearing:1 later:1 life:2 historian:1 conclude:1 bookish:1 kinetic:1 lexicon:1 rise:1 begin:2 macalister:2 archaeology:1 ireland:1 london:5 meuthen:1 speculate:2 irish:2 ogham:2 quinary:1 derive:1 predate:1 example:2 graf:1 robert:1 white:1 goddess:1 antique:1 memory:1 variant:1 thesavrvs:2 artificiosae:2 memoriae:2 venice:2 european:1 reason:1 among:2 monastery:1 observe:1 vow:1 silence:2 administer:1 ill:1 device:1 discreet:1 secret:4 clear:1 antecedent:1 book:4 friar:1 spain:2 italy:1 cosma:1 rossellios:1 f:1 fray:2 melchor:1 yebra:1 refugium:1 infirmorum:1 pedro:1 ponce:1 león:1 tutor:3 child:1 wealthy:1 patron:1 literacy:1 requirement:1 legal:1 heir:1 plann:1 susan:1 minority:1 berkeley:1 california:1 juan:2 pablo:2 bonet:3 detailed:1 account:2 student:1 speak:3 reducción:1 la:3 letras:1 arte:1 para:1 enseñar:1 á:1 hablar:1 los:1 mudos:1 adaptation:1 mute:2 francisco:1 abarca:1 angulo:1 plate:1 john:4 bulwer:5 philocopus:2 dumbe:2 man:5 friend:3 meanwhile:1 britain:1 wilkins:4 mercury:1 swift:1 messenger:1 cryptography:1 refer:1 method:2 discoursing:1 signes:1 give:1 let:1 signifie:2 five:3 consonant:4 bottomes:1 space:1 betwixt:1 foure:1 lay:1 side:1 v:1 w:1 cross:1 x:1 wrist:1 z:1 public:2 chirologia:1 naturall:1 mention:1 although:1 focus:1 master:1 babington:1 proficient:1 contryved:1 joynts:1 whose:1 wife:1 converse:1 easily:1 dark:1 humphrey:1 moseley:1 george:2 dalgarno:2 didascalocophus:2 dumb:2 oxford:1 halton:1 arthrological:2 indicate:1 joint:1 aware:1 refers:1 session:1 survive:1 contemporary:1 printed:1 picture:1 appear:1 digiti:1 lingua:1 pamphlet:1 anonymous:1 author:1 unable:1 secrecy:1 purely:1 entertainment:1 nine:1 set:1 depict:1 fin:2 eg:1 brow:1 b:1 locate:1 sermo:1 mirabilis:1 whereby:1 impart:1 mind:1 wonderful:1 keep:1 padua:1 wise:1 prudent:1 print:1 tho:1 salusbury:1 sell:1 randal:1 taylor:1 oclc:1 code:1 english:1 daniel:1 defoe:1 adventure:1 mr:1 duncan:1 campbell:1 classroom:1 colony:1 india:1 australia:1 uganda:1 south:1 africa:1 well:1 republic:1 province:1 grand:1 cayman:1 island:1 caribbean:1 indonesia:1 norway:1 germany:1 usa:1 engraving:1 catalonian:1 chilean:1 cue:1 french:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 free:3 downloads:1 deafbooks:1 co:1 uk:1 resource:4 site:1 online:3 lesson:1 quiz:1 activity:1 tool:1 test:1 improve:1 skill:1 slider:1 fast:1 easy:1 explain:1 graphic:1 sight:1 information:1 |@bigram ge_ez:1 ez_script:1 ann_arbor:1 lexical_item:1 jean_fouquet:1 vandenhoeck_ruprecht:1 vice_versa:1 benedictine_monk:1 de_temporum:1 temporum_ratione:1 juan_pablo:2 deaf_dumb:2 daniel_defoe:1 grand_cayman:1 external_link:1 |
932 | Michael_Atiyah | Sir Michael Francis Atiyah, OM, FRS, FRSE (born April 22, 1929) is a British mathematician, and one of the most influential mathematicians of the twentieth century. . He grew up in Sudan and Egypt, and spent most of his academic life at Oxford, Cambridge, and Princeton. He has been President of the Royal Society (1990–1995), Master of Trinity College, Cambridge (1990–1997), Chancellor of the University of Leicester (1995–2005), and President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (2005–2008). He is currently retired and an honorary professor at the University of Edinburgh. He has had many mathematical collaborations, in particular with Raoul Bott, Friedrich Hirzebruch, and Isadore Singer, and his students include Graeme Segal, Nigel Hitchin, and Simon Donaldson. With Hirzebruch he founded topological K-theory, a major tool in algebraic topology, that describes the ways in which high dimensional space can be twisted. His best known result is the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, proved with Singer in 1963, a fundamental and widely used result which can be used to count the number of independent solutions of many important differential equations. More recently he has worked on topics inspired by theoretical physics, such as instantons and monopoles, which are responsible for some subtle corrections in quantum field theory. He has received many awards for his research, including the Fields Medal in 1966, the Copley Medal in 1988, and the Abel Prize in 2004. Biography Great Court of Trinity College, Cambridge, where Atiyah was a student and later Master Atiyah was born in Hampstead, London to Lebanese writer Edward Atiyah and Scot Jean Atiyah (née Levens). Patrick Atiyah, professor of law, is his brother; he has one other brother, Joe, and a sister, Selma. . He went to primary school at the Diocesan school in Khartoum, Sudan (1934−1941) and to secondary school at Victoria College in Cairo and Alexandria (1941−1945); the school was also attended by European nobility displaced by the Second World War and some future leaders of Arab nations. . He returned to England and Manchester Grammar School for his HSC studies (1945−1947) and did his national service with the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (1947−1949). His undergraduate and postgraduate studies took place at Trinity College, Cambridge (1949−1955). He was a doctoral student of William V. D. Hodge and was awarded a doctorate in 1955 for a thesis entitled Some Applications of Topological Methods in Algebraic Geometry. The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, where Atiyah was professor from 1969 to 1972 Atiyah married Lily Brown on 30 July 1955, with whom he now has three sons. He spent the academic year 1955−1956 at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, then returned to Cambridge University, where he was a research fellow and assistant lecturer (1957−1958), then a university lecturer and tutorial fellow at Pembroke College (1958−1961). In 1961, he moved to the University of Oxford, where he was a reader and professorial fellow at St Catherine's College (1961−1963). He became Savilian Professor of Geometry and a professorial fellow of New College, Oxford from 1963 to 1969. He then took up a three year professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton after which he returned to Oxford as a Royal Society Research Professor and professorial fellow of St Catherine's College. He was president of the London Mathematical Society from 1974 to 1976. Atiyah has been active on the international scene, for instance as president of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs from 1997 to 2002. He also contributed to the foundation of the InterAcademy Panel on International Issues, the Association of European Academies (ALLEA), and the European Mathematical Society (EMS). Within the United Kingdom, he was involved in the creation of the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Cambridge and was its first director (1990−1996). He was president of the Royal Society (1990−1995), Master of Trinity College, Cambridge (1990−1997),, Chancellor of the University of Leicester (1995−2005) , and president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (2005-2008). He is now retired and an honorary professor at the University of Edinburgh. Collaborations The Mathematical Institute in Oxford, where Atiyah supervised many of his students. Atiyah has collaborated with many other mathematicians. His three main collaborations were with Raoul Bott on the Atiyah–Bott fixed-point theorem and many other topics, with Isadore M. Singer on the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, and with Friedrich Hirzebruch on topological K-theory, all of whom he met at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in 1955. His other collaborators include J. Frank Adams (Hopf invariant problem), Jurgen Berndt (projective planes), Roger Bielawski (Berry–Robbins problem), Howard Donnelly (L-functions), Vladimir G. Drinfeld (instantons), Johan L. Dupont (singularities of vector fields), Lars Garding (hyperbolic differential equations), Nigel J. Hitchin (monopoles), William V. D. Hodge (Integrals of the second kind), Michael Hopkins (K-theory), Lisa Jeffrey (topological Lagrangians), John D. S. Jones (Yang–Mills theory), Juan Maldacena (M-theory), Yuri I. Manin (instantons), Nick S. Manton (Skyrmions), Vijay K. Patodi (Spectral asymmetry), A. N. Pressley (convexity), Elmer Rees (vector bundles), Wilfried Schmid (discrete series representations), Graeme Segal (equivariant K-theory), Alexander Shapiro (Clifford algebras), L. Smith (homotopy groups of spheres), Paul Sutcliffe (polyhedra), David O. Tall (lambda rings), John A. Todd (Stiefel manifolds), Cumrun Vafa (M-theory), Richard S. Ward (instantons), and Edward Witten (M-theory, topological quantum field theories). His later research on gauge field theories, particularly Yang–Mills theory, stimulated important interactions between geometry and physics, most notably in the work of Edward Witten. Atiyah's many students include Peter Braam 1987, Simon Donaldson 1983, David Elworthy 1967, Howard Fegan 1977, Eric Grunwald 1977, Nigel Hitchin 1972, Lisa Jeffrey 1991, Frances Kirwan 1984, Peter Kronheimer 1986, Ruth Lawrence 1989, George Lusztig 1971, Jack Morava 1968, Michael Murray 1983, Peter Newstead 1966, Ian Porteous 1961, John Roe 1985, Brian Sanderson 1963, Rolph Schwarzenberger 1960, Graeme Segal 1967, David Tall 1966, and Graham White 1982. Other contemporary mathematicians who influenced Atiyah include Roger Penrose, Lars Hörmander, Alain Connes, and Jean-Michel Bismut. Atiyah said that the mathematician he most admired was Hermann Weyl, and that his favorite mathematicians from before the 20th century were Bernhard Riemann and William Rowan Hamilton. . Mathematical work The six volumes of Atiyah's collected papers include most of his work, except for his commutative algebra textbook and a few works written since 2004. Algebraic geometry (1952–1958) A twisted cubic curve, the subject of Atiyah's first paper Atiyah's early papers on algebraic geometry (and some general papers) are reprinted in the first volume of his collected works. As an undergraduate Atiyah was interested in classical projective geometry, and wrote his first paper: a short note on twisted cubics. He started research under W. V. D. Hodge and won the Smith's prize for 1954 for a sheaf-theoretic approach to ruled surfaces, which encouraged Atiyah to continue in mathematics, rather than switch to his other interests—architecture and archaeology. His PhD thesis with Hodge was on a sheaf-theoretic approach to Solomon Lefschetz's theory of integrals of the second kind on algebraic varieties, and resulted in an invitation to visit the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton for a year. While in Princeton he classified vector bundles on an elliptic curve (extending Grothendieck's classification of vector bundles on a genus 0 curve), by showing that any vector bundle is a sum of (essentially unique) indecomposable vector bundles, and then showing that the space of indecomposable vector bundles of given degree and positive dimension can be identified with the elliptic curve. He also studied double points on surfaces, giving the first example of a flop, a special birational transformation of 3-folds that was later heavily used in Mori's work on minimal models for 3-folds. . Atiyah's flop can also be used to show that the universal marked family of K3 surfaces is non-Hausdorff. K theory (1959–1974) A Möbius band is the simplest non-trivial example of a vector bundle. Atiyah's works on K-theory, including his book on K-theory are reprinted in volume 2 of his collected works. The simplest example of a vector bundle is the Möbius band (pictured on the right): a strip of paper with a twist in it, which represents a rank 1 vector bundle over a circle (the circle in question being the centerline of the Möbius band). K-theory is a tool for working with higher dimensional analogues of this example, or in other words for describing higher dimensional twistings: elements of the K-group of a space are represented by vector bundles over it, so the Möbius band represents an element of the K-group of a circle. Topological K-theory was discovered by Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch who were inspired by Grothendieck's proof of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem and Bott's work on the periodicity theorem. This paper only discussed the zeroth K-group; they shortly after extended it to K-groups of all degrees, giving the first (nontrivial) example of a generalized cohomology theory. Several results showed that the newly introduced K-theory was in some ways more powerful than ordinary cohomology theory. Atiyah and Todd used K-theory to improve the lower bounds found using ordinary cohomology by Borel and Serre for the James number, describing when a map from a complex Stiefel manifold to a sphere has a cross section. (Adams and Grant-Walker later showed that the bound found by Atiyah and Todd was best possible.) Atiyah and Hirzebruch used K-theory to explain some relations between Steenrod operations and Todd classes that Hirzebruch had noticed a few years before. The original solution of the Hopf invariant one problem operations by J. F. Adams was very long and complicated, using secondary cohomology operations. Atiyah showed how primary operations in K-theory could be used to gives a short solution taking only a few lines, and in joint work with Adams also proved analogues of the result at odd primes. Michael Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch (right), the creators of topological K-theory The Atiyah–Hirzebruch spectral sequence relates the ordinary cohomology of a space to its generalized cohomology theory. (Atiyah and Hirzebruch used the case of K-theory, but their method works for all cohomology theories). Atiyah showed that for a finite group G, the K-theory of its classifying space, BG, is isomorphic to the completion of its character ring: The same year they proved the result for G any compact connected Lie group. Although soon the result could be extended to all compact Lie groups by incorporating results from Graeme Segal's thesis, that extension was complicated. However a simpler and more general proof was produced by introducing equivariant K-theory, i.e. equivalence classes of G-vector bundles over a compact G-space X. It was shown that under suitable conditions the completion of the equivariant K-theory of X is isomorphic to the ordinary K-theory of a space, , which fibred over BG with fibre X: The original result then followed as a corollary by taking X to be a point: the left hand side reduced to the completion of R(G) and the right to K(BG). See Atiyah–Segal completion theorem for more details. He defined new generalized homology and cohomology theories called bordism and cobordism, and pointed out that many of the deep results on cobordism of manifolds found by R. Thom, C. T. C. Wall, and others could be naturally reinterpreted as statements about these cohomology theories. Some of these cohomology theories, in particular complex cobordism, turned out to be some of the most powerful cohomology theories known. He introduced the J-group J(X) of a finite complex X, defined as the group of stable fiber homotopy equivalence classes of sphere bundles; this was later studied in detail by J. F. Adams in a series of papers, leading to the Adams conjecture. With Hirzebruch he extended the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem to complex analytic embeddings, and in a related paper they showed that the Hodge conjecture for integral cohomology is false. The Hodge conjecture for rational cohomology is, as of 2008, a major unsolved problem. The Bott periodicity theorem was a central theme in Atiyah's work on K-theory, and he repeatedly returned to it, reworking the proof several times to understand it better. With Bott he worked out an elementary proof, and gave another version of it in his book. With Bott and Shapiro he analysed the relation of Bott periodicity to the periodicity of Clifford algebras; although this paper did not have a proof of the periodicity theorem, a proof along similar lines was shortly afterwards found by R. Wood. In he found a proof of several generalizations using elliptic operators; this new proof used an idea that he used to give a particularly short and easy proof of Bott's original periodicity theorem. Index theory (1963–1984) Isadore Singer (in 1977), who worked with Atiyah on index theory. Atiyah's work on index theory is reprinted in volumes 3 and 4 of his collected works. The index of a differential operator is closely related to the number of independent solutions (more precisely, it is the differences of the numbers of independent solutions of the differential operator and its adjoint). There are many hard and fundamental problems in mathematics that can easily be reduced to the problem of finding the number of independent solutions of some differential operator, so if one has some means of finding the index of a differential operator these problems can often be solved. This is what the Atiyah–Singer index theorem does: it gives a formula for the index of certain differential operators, in terms of topological invariants that look quite complicated but are in practice usually strightforward to calculate. Several deep theorems, such as the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, are special cases of the Atiyah–Singer index theorem. In fact the index theorem gave a more powerful result, because its proof applied to all compact complex manifolds, while Hirzebruch's proof only worked for projective manifolds. There were also many new applications: a typical one is calculating the dimensions of the moduli spaces of instantons. The index theorem can also be run "in reverse": the index is obviously an integer, so the formula for it must also give an integer, which sometimes gives subtle integrality conditions on invariants of manifolds. A typical example of this is Rochlin's theorem, which follows from the index theorem. The index problem for elliptic differential operators was posed in 1959 by Gel'fand. He noticed the homotopy invariance of the index, and asked for a formula for it by means of topological invariants. Some of the motivating examples included the Riemann–Roch theorem and its generalization the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, and the Hirzebruch signature theorem. Hirzebruch and Borel had proved the integrality of the  genus of a spin manifold, and Atiyah suggested that this integrality could be explained if it were the index of the Dirac operator (which was rediscovered by Atiyah and Singer in 1961). The first announcement of the Atiyah–Singer theorem was their 1963 paper. The proof sketched in this announcement was inspired by Hirzebruch's proof of the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem and was never published by them, though it is described in the book by Palais. Their first published proof was more similar to Grotherndieck's proof of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem, replacing the cobordism theory of the first proof with K-theory, and they used this approach to give proofs of various generalizations in a sequence of papers from 1968 to 1971. Instead of just one elliptic operator, one can consider a family of elliptic operators parameterized by some space Y. In this case the index is an element of the K-theory of Y, rather than an integer. If the operators in the family are real, then the index lies in the real K-theory of Y. This gives a little extra information, as the map from the real K theory of Y to the complex K theory is not always injective. Atiyah's former student Graeme Segal (in 1982), who worked with Atiyah on equivariant K-theory. With Bott, Atiyah found an analogue of the Lefschetz fixed-point formula for elliptic operators, giving the Lefschetz number of an endomorphism of an elliptic complex in terms of a sum over the fixed points of the endomorphism. As special cases their formula included the Weyl character formula, and several new results about elliptic curves with complex multiplication, some of which were initially disbelieved by experts. Atiyah and Segal combined this fixed point theorem with the index theorem as follows. If there is a compact group action of a group G on the compact manifold X, commuting with the elliptic operator, then one can replace ordinary K theory in the index theorem with equivariant K-theory. For trivial groups G this gives the index theorem, and for a finite group G acting with isolated fixed points it gives the Atiyah–Bott fixed point theorem. In general it gives the index as a sum over fixed point submanifolds of the group G. Atiyah solved a problem asked independently by Hörmander and Gel'fand, about whether complex powers of analytic functions define distributions. Atiyah used Hironaka's resolution of singularities to answer this affirmatively. A ingenious and elementary solution was found at about the same time by J. Bernstein, and discussed by Atiyah. As an application of the equivariant index theorem, Atiyah and Hirzeburch showed that manifolds with effective circle actions have vanishing Â-genus. (Lichnerowicz showed that if an manifold has a metric of positive scalar curvature then the Â-genus vanishes.) Wth Elmer Rees, Atiyah studied the problem of the relation between topological and holomorphic vector bundles on projective space. They solved the simplest unknown case, by showing that all rank 2 vector bundles over projective 3-space have a holomorphic structure. Horrocks had previously found some non-trivial examples of such vector bundles, which were later used by Atiyah in his study of instantons on the 4-sphere. Raoul Bott, who worked with Atiyah on fixed point formulas and several other topics. Atiyah, Bott, and Vijay K. Patodi gave a new proof of the index theorem using the heat equation. If the manifold is allowed to have boundary, then some restrictions must be put on the domain of the elliptic operator in order to ensure a finite index. These conditions can be local (like demanding that the sections in the domain vanish at the boundary) or more complicated global conditions (like requiring that the sections in the domain solve some differential equation). The local case was worked out by Atiyah and Bott, but they showed that many interesting operators (e.g., the signature operator) do not admit local boundary conditions. To handle these operators, Atiyah, Patodi and Singer introduced global boundary conditions equivalent to attaching a cylinder to the manifold along the boundary and then restricting the domain to those sections that are square integrable along the cylinder. This resulted in a series of papers on spectral asymmetry, which were later unexpectedly used in theoretical physics, in particular in Witten's work on anomalies. The lacunas discussed by Petrovsky, Atiyah, Bott and Gårding are similar to the spaces between shockwaves of a supersonic object. The fundamental solutions of linear hyperbolic partial differential equations often have Petrovsky lacunas: regions where they vanish identically. These were studied in 1945 by I. G. Petrovsky, who found topological conditions describing which regions were lacunas. In collaboration with Bott and Lars Gårding, Atiyah wrote three papers updating and generalizing Petrovsky's work. Atiyah showed how to extend the index theorem to some non-compact manifolds, acted on by a discrete group with compact quotient. The kernel of the elliptic operator is in general infinite dimensional in this case, but it is possible to get a finite index using the dimension of a module over a von Neumann algebra; this index is in general real rather than integer valued. This version is called the L2 index theorem, and was used by Atiyah and Schmid to give a geometric construction, using square integrable harmonic spinors, of Harish-Chandra's discrete series representations of semisimple Lie groups. In the course of this work they found a more elementary proof of Harish-Chandra's fundamental theorem on the local integrability of characters of Lie groups. With H. Donnelly and I. Singer, he extended Hirzebruch's formula (relating the signature defect at cusps of Hilbert modular surfaces to values of L-functions) from real quadratic fields to all totally real fields. Gauge theory (1977–1985) On the left, two nearby monopoles of the same polarity repel each other, and on the right two nearby monopoles of opposite polarity form a dipole. These are abelian monopoles; the non-abelian ones studied by Atiyah are more complicated. Many of his papers on gauge theory and related topics are reprinted in volume 5 of his collected works. A common theme of these papers is the study of moduli spaces of solutions to certain non-linear partial differential equations, in particular the equations for instantons and monopoles. This often involves finding a subtle correspondence between solutions of two seemingly quite different equations. An early example of this which Atiyah used repeatedly is the Penrose transform, which can sometimes convert solutions of a non-linear equation over some real manifold into solutions of some linear holomorphic equations over a different complex manifold. In a series of papers with several authors, Atiyah classified all instantons on 4 dimensional Euclidean space. It is more convenient to classify instantons on a sphere as this is compact, and this is essentially equivalent to classifing instantons on Euclidean space as this is conformally equivalent to a sphere and the equations for instantons are conformally invariant. With Hitchin and Singer he calculated the dimension of the moduli space of irreducible self-dual connections (instantons) for any principle bundle over a compact 4-dimensional Riemannian manifold. For example, the dimension of the space of SU2 instantons of rank k>0 is 8k−3. To do this they used the Atiyah–Singer index theorem to calculate the dimension of the tangent space of the moduli space at a point; the tangent space is essentially the space of solutions of an elliptic differential operator, given by the linearization of the non-linear Yang–Mills equations. These moduli spaces were later used by Donaldson to construct his invariants of 4-manifolds. Atiyah and Ward used the Penrose correspondence to reduce the classification of all instantons on the 4-sphere to a problem in algebraic geometry. With Hitchin he used ideas of Horrocks to solve this problem, giving the ADHM construction of all instantons on a sphere; Manin, and Drinfeld found the same construction at the same time, leading to a joint paper by all four authors. Atiyah reformulated this construction using quaternions and wrote up a leisurely account of this classification of instantons on Euclidean space as a book. Atiyah's work on instanton moduli spaces was used in Donaldson's work on Donaldson theory. Donaldson showed that the moduli space of (degree 1) instantons over a compact simply connected 4-manifold with positive definite intersection form can be compactified to give a cobordism between the manifold and a sum of copies of complex projective space. He deduced from this that the intersection form must be a sum of one dimensional ones, which led to several spectacular applications to smooth 4-manifolds, such as the existence of non-equivalent smooth structures on 4 dimensional Euclidean space. Donaldson went on to use the other moduli spaces studied by Atiyah to define Donaldson invariants, which revolutionized the study of smooth 4-manifolds, and showed that they were more subtle than smooth manifolds in any other dimension, and also quite different from topological 4-manifolds. Atiyah described some of these results in a survey talk. Green's functions for linear partial differential equations can often be found by using the Fourier transform to convert this into an algebraic problem. Atiyah used a non-linear version of this idea. He used the Penrose transform to convert the Green's function for the conformally invariant Laplacian into a complex analytic object, which turned out to be essentially the diagonal embedding of the Penrose twistor space into its square. This allowed him to find an explicit formula for the conformally invariant Green's function on a 4-manifold. In his paper with Jones, he studied the topology of the moduli space of SU(2) instantons over a 4-sphere. They showed that the natural map from this moduli space to the space of all connections induces epimorphisms of homology groups in a certain range of dimensions, and suggested that it might induce isomorphisms of homology groups in the same range of dimensions. This became known as the Atiyah–Jones conjecture, and was later proved by several mathematicians. Harder and M. S. Narasimhan described the cohomology of the moduli spaces of stable vector bundles over Riemann surfaces by counting the number of points of the moduli spaces over finite fields, and then using the Weil conjectures to recover the cohomology over the complex numbers. Atiyah and R. Bott used Morse theory and the Yang–Mills equations over a Riemann surface to reproduce and extending the results of Harder and Narasimhan. An old result due to Schur and Horn states that the set of possible diagonal vectors of an Hermitian matrix with given eigenvalues is the convex hull of all the permutations of the eigenvalues. Atiyah proved a generalization of this that applies to all compact symplectic manifolds acted on by a torus, showing that the image of the manifold under the moment map is a convex polyhedron, and with Pressley gave a related generalization to infinite dimensional loop groups. Duistermaat and Heckman found a striking formula, saying that the push-forward of the Liouville measure of a moment map for a torus action is given exactly by the stationary phase approximation (which is in general just an asymptotic expansion rather than exact). Atiyah and Bott showed that this could be deduced from a more general formula in equivariant cohomology, which was a consequence of well-known localization theorems. Atiyah showed that the moment map was closely related to geometric invariant theory, and this idea was later developed much further by his student F. Kirwan. Witten shortly after applied the Duistermaat–Heckman formula to loop spaces and showed that this formally gave the Atiyah–Singer index theorem for the Dirac operator; this idea was lectured on by Atiyah. With Hitchin he worked on magnetic monopoles, and studied their scattering using an idea of Nick Manton. His book with Hitchin gives a detailed description of their work on magnetic monopoles. The main theme of the book is a study of a moduli space of magnetic monopoles; this has a natural Riemannian metric, and a key point is that this metric is complete and hyperkahler. The metric is then used to study the scattering of two monopoles, using a suggestion of N. Manton that the geodesic flow on the moduli space is the low energy approximation to the scattering. For example, they show that a head-on collision between two monopoles results in 90-degree scattering, with the direction of scattering depending on the relative phases of the two monopoles. He also studied monopoles on hyperbolic space. Atiyah showed that instantons in 4 dimensions can be identified with instantons in 2 dimensions, which are much easier to handle. There is of course a catch: in going from 4 to 2 dimensions the structure group of the gauge theory changes from a finite dimensional group to an infinite dimensional loop group. This gives another example where the moduli spaces of solutions of two apparently unrelated nonlinear partial differential equations turn out to be essentially the same. Atiyah and Singer found that anomalies in quantum field theory could be interpreted in terms of index theory of the Dirac operator; this idea later became widely used by physicists. Later work (1986 onwards) Edward Witten, whose work on invariants of manifolds and topological quantum field theories was influenced by Atiyah. Many of the papers in the 6th volume of his collected works are surveys, obituaries, and general talks. Since its publication, Atiyah has continued to publish, including several surveys, a popular book, and another paper with Segal on twisted K-theory. One paper is a detailed study of the Dedekind eta function from the point of view of topology and the index theorem. Several of his papers from around this time study the connections between quantum field theory, knots, and Donaldson theory. He introduced the concept of a topological quantum field theory, inspired by Witten's work and Segal's definition of a conformal field theory. . His book describes the new knot invariants found by Vaughan Jones and Edward Witten in terms of topological quantum field theories, and his paper with L. Jeffrey explains Witten's Lagrangian giving the Donaldson invariants. He studied skyrmions with Nick Manton, finding a relation with magnetic monopoles and instantons, and giving a conjecture for the structure of the moduli space of two skyrmions as a certain subquotient of complex projective 3-space. Several papers were inspired by a question of M. Berry, who asked if there is a map from the configuration space of n points in 3-space to the flag manifold of the unitary group. Atiyah gave an affirmative answer to this question, but felt his solution was too computational and studied a conjecture that would give a more natural solution. He also related the question to Nahm's equation. With Juan Maldacena and Cumrun Vafa, and E. Witten he described the dynamics of M-theory on manifolds with G2 holonomy. These papers seem to be the first time that Atiyah has worked on exceptional Lie groups. In his papers with M. Hopkins and G. Segal he returned to his earlier interest of K-theory, describing some twisted forms of K-theory with applications in theoretical physics. Awards and honours The premises of the Royal Society, where Atiyah was president from 1990 to 1995. In 1966, when he was thirty-seven years old, he was awarded the Fields Medal, Fields medal citation: for his work in developing K-theory, a generalized Lefschetz fixed-point theorem and the Atiyah–Singer theorem, for which he also won the Abel Prize jointly with Isadore Singer in 2004. Among other prizes he has received are the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1968, the De Morgan Medal of the London Mathematical Society in 1980, the Antonio Feltrinelli Prize from the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in 1981, the King Faisal International Prize for Science in 1987, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1988, the Benjamin Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society in 1993, the Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Medal of the Indian National Science Academy in 1993, and the President's Medal from the Institute of Physics in 2008. He was elected a foreign member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Academie des Sciences, the Akademie Leopoldina, the Royal Swedish Academy, the Royal Irish Academy, the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the American Philosophical Society, the Indian National Science Academy, the Chinese Academy of Science, the Australian Academy of Science, the Russian Academy of Science, the Ukrainian Academy of Science, the Georgian Academy of Science, the Venezuela Academy of Science, the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, the Royal Spanish Academy of Science, the Accademia dei Lincei, and the Moscow Mathematical Society. Atiyah has been awarded honorary degrees by the universities of Bonn, Warwick, Durham, St. Andrews, Dublin, Chicago, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Essex, London, Sussex, Ghent, Reading, Helsinki, Salamanca, Montreal, Wales, Lebanon, Queen's (Canada), Keele, Birmingham, UMIST, Brown, Heriot–Watt, Mexico, Oxford, Hong Kong (Chinese University), The Open University, American University of Beirut, the Technical University of Catalonia, and Leicester. Atiyah was made a Knight Bachelor in 1983 and made a member of the Order of Merit in 1992. The Michael Atiyah building at the University of Leicester and the Michael Atiyah Chair in Mathematical Sciences at the American University of Beirut were named after him. Notes References Books by Atiyah This subsection lists all books written by Atiyah; it omits a few books that he edited. . A classic textbook covering standard commutative algebra. . Reprinted as . . Reprinted as . . Reprinted as . . Reprinted as . . . . . . . First edition (1967) reprinted as . . Reprinted as . . . . Selected papers by Atiyah . Reprinted in . . Reprinted in . . Reprinted in . . Reprinted in . . An announcement of the index theorem. Reprinted in . . This gives a proof using K theory instead of cohomology. Reprinted in . . This reformulates the result as a sort of Lefschetz fixed point theorem, using equivariant K theory. Reprinted in . . This paper shows how to convert from the K-theory version to a version using cohomology. Reprinted in . This paper studies families of elliptic operators, where the index is now an element of the K-theory of the space parametrizing the family. Reprinted in . . This studies families of real (rather than complex) elliptic operators, when one can sometimes squeeze out a little extra information. Reprinted in . . This states a theorem calculating the Lefschetz number of an endomorphism of an elliptic complex. Reprinted in . (reprinted in )and . Reprinted in . These give the proofs and some applications of the results announced in the previous paper. ; Reprinted in . ; . Reprinted in . Other references . Reprinted in volume 1 of his collected works, p. 65–75, ISBN 0-387-13619-3. On page 120 Gel'fand suggests that the index of an elliptic operator should be expressible in terms of topological data. . This describes the original proof of the index theorem. (Atiyah and Singer never published their original proof themselves, but only improved versions of it.) . . . External links The celebrations of Michael Atiyah's 80th birthday in Edinburgh, April 20-24, 2009 Mathematical descendants of Michael Atiyah Biographical poster about Michael Atiyah | Michael_Atiyah |@lemmatized sir:1 michael:9 francis:1 atiyah:97 om:1 fr:1 frse:1 bear:2 april:2 british:1 mathematician:7 one:13 influential:1 twentieth:1 century:2 grow:1 sudan:2 egypt:1 spend:2 academic:2 life:1 oxford:6 cambridge:8 princeton:7 president:8 royal:14 society:15 master:3 trinity:4 college:9 chancellor:2 university:14 leicester:4 edinburgh:7 currently:1 retire:2 honorary:3 professor:6 many:13 mathematical:10 collaboration:4 particular:4 raoul:3 bott:18 friedrich:4 hirzebruch:18 isadore:4 singer:19 student:7 include:10 graeme:5 segal:10 nigel:3 hitchin:7 simon:2 donaldson:10 found:1 topological:16 k:44 theory:72 major:2 tool:2 algebraic:7 topology:3 describe:11 way:2 high:3 dimensional:11 space:44 twist:2 best:2 know:4 result:19 index:38 theorem:44 prove:6 fundamental:4 widely:2 use:41 count:2 number:9 independent:4 solution:16 important:2 differential:14 equation:16 recently:1 work:37 topic:4 inspire:5 theoretical:3 physic:5 instantons:21 monopoles:14 responsible:1 subtle:4 correction:1 quantum:7 field:16 receive:2 award:5 research:5 medal:10 copley:2 abel:2 prize:6 biography:1 great:1 court:1 later:11 hampstead:1 london:4 lebanese:1 writer:1 edward:5 scot:1 jean:2 née:1 levens:1 patrick:1 law:1 brother:2 joe:1 sister:1 selma:1 go:3 primary:2 school:5 diocesan:1 khartoum:1 secondary:2 victoria:1 cairo:1 alexandria:1 also:12 attend:1 european:3 nobility:1 displace:1 second:3 world:2 war:1 future:1 leader:1 arab:1 nation:1 return:5 england:1 manchester:1 grammar:1 hsc:1 study:27 national:4 service:1 electrical:1 mechanical:1 engineer:1 undergraduate:2 postgraduate:1 take:4 place:1 doctoral:1 william:3 v:3 hodge:6 doctorate:1 thesis:3 entitle:1 application:6 method:2 geometry:7 institute:8 advanced:5 marry:1 lily:1 brown:2 july:1 three:4 son:1 year:6 fellow:5 assistant:1 lecturer:2 tutorial:1 pembroke:1 move:1 reader:1 professorial:3 st:3 catherine:2 become:3 savilian:1 new:7 professorship:1 active:1 international:3 scene:1 instance:1 pugwash:1 conference:1 science:17 affair:1 contribute:1 foundation:1 interacademy:1 panel:1 issue:1 association:1 academy:15 allea:1 ems:1 within:1 united:1 kingdom:1 involve:2 creation:1 isaac:1 newton:1 first:11 director:1 supervise:1 collaborate:1 main:2 fix:5 point:18 meet:1 collaborator:1 j:7 frank:1 adam:4 hopf:2 invariant:14 problem:13 jurgen:1 berndt:1 projective:7 plane:1 roger:2 bielawski:1 berry:2 robbins:1 howard:2 donnelly:2 l:5 function:7 vladimir:1 g:13 drinfeld:2 johan:1 dupont:1 singularity:2 vector:17 lars:3 garding:1 hyperbolic:3 integral:3 kind:2 hopkins:2 lisa:2 jeffrey:3 lagrangians:1 john:3 jones:4 yang:4 mill:4 juan:2 maldacena:2 yuri:1 manin:2 nick:3 manton:4 skyrmions:3 vijay:2 patodi:3 spectral:3 asymmetry:2 n:3 pressley:2 convexity:1 elmer:2 rees:2 bundle:17 wilfried:1 schmid:2 discrete:3 series:5 representation:2 equivariant:8 alexander:1 shapiro:2 clifford:2 algebras:1 smith:2 homotopy:3 group:26 sphere:9 paul:1 sutcliffe:1 polyhedra:1 david:3 tall:2 lambda:1 ring:2 todd:4 stiefel:2 manifold:29 cumrun:2 vafa:2 richard:1 ward:2 witten:9 late:1 gauge:4 particularly:2 stimulate:1 interaction:1 notably:1 peter:3 braam:1 elworthy:1 fegan:1 eric:1 grunwald:1 france:1 kirwan:2 kronheimer:1 ruth:1 lawrence:1 george:1 lusztig:1 jack:1 morava:1 murray:1 newstead:1 ian:1 porteous:1 roe:1 brian:1 sanderson:1 rolph:1 schwarzenberger:1 graham:1 white:1 contemporary:1 influence:2 penrose:5 hörmander:2 alain:1 connes:1 michel:1 bismut:1 say:2 admire:1 hermann:1 weyl:2 favorite:1 bernhard:1 riemann:10 rowan:1 hamilton:1 six:1 volume:7 collect:2 paper:31 except:1 commutative:2 algebra:4 textbook:2 write:5 since:2 twisted:4 cubic:1 curve:5 subject:1 early:3 general:8 reprint:26 collected:5 interested:1 classical:1 short:3 note:2 cubics:1 start:1 w:1 win:2 sheaf:2 theoretic:2 approach:3 rule:1 surface:6 encourage:1 continue:2 mathematics:2 rather:5 switch:1 interest:2 architecture:1 archaeology:1 phd:1 solomon:1 lefschetz:6 variety:1 invitation:1 visit:1 classify:4 elliptic:17 extend:7 grothendieck:5 classification:3 genus:4 show:24 sum:5 essentially:5 unique:1 indecomposable:2 give:33 degree:5 positive:3 dimension:12 identify:2 double:1 example:12 flop:2 special:3 birational:1 transformation:1 fold:2 heavily:1 mori:1 minimal:1 model:1 universal:1 mark:1 family:6 non:10 hausdorff:1 möbius:4 band:4 simple:3 trivial:3 book:11 picture:1 right:4 strip:1 represent:3 rank:3 circle:4 question:4 centerline:1 analogue:3 word:1 twisting:1 element:4 discover:1 proof:23 roch:7 periodicity:6 discuss:3 zeroth:1 shortly:3 nontrivial:1 generalized:4 cohomology:18 several:12 newly:1 introduce:5 powerful:3 ordinary:5 improve:1 low:2 bound:2 find:20 borel:2 serre:1 james:1 map:7 complex:16 cross:1 section:4 adams:2 grant:1 walker:1 possible:3 explain:3 relation:4 steenrod:1 operation:4 class:3 notice:2 original:5 f:3 long:1 complicate:3 could:6 line:2 joint:2 odd:1 prime:1 creator:1 sequence:2 relate:5 case:7 finite:7 bg:3 isomorphic:2 completion:4 character:3 compact:12 connect:2 lie:6 although:2 soon:1 incorporate:1 extension:1 however:1 simpler:1 produce:1 e:3 equivalence:2 x:7 suitable:1 condition:7 fibred:1 fibre:1 follow:3 corollary:1 left:2 hand:1 side:1 reduce:3 r:4 see:1 detail:2 define:4 homology:3 call:2 bordism:1 cobordism:5 deep:2 thom:1 c:2 wall:1 others:1 naturally:1 reinterpret:1 statement:1 turn:3 stable:2 fiber:1 lead:3 conjecture:7 analytic:3 embeddings:1 related:3 false:1 rational:1 unsolved:1 central:1 theme:3 repeatedly:2 rework:1 time:5 understand:1 good:1 elementary:3 another:3 version:6 analyse:1 along:3 similar:3 afterwards:1 wood:1 generalization:5 operator:24 idea:7 easy:2 closely:2 precisely:1 difference:1 adjoint:1 hard:1 easily:1 mean:2 often:4 solve:5 formula:12 certain:4 term:5 look:1 quite:3 practice:1 usually:1 strightforward:1 calculate:5 fact:1 apply:3 typical:2 moduli:11 run:1 reverse:1 obviously:1 integer:4 must:3 sometimes:3 integrality:3 rochlin:1 pose:1 gel:3 fand:3 invariance:1 ask:3 motivating:1 signature:3 â:3 spin:1 suggest:3 dirac:3 rediscover:1 announcement:3 sketch:1 never:2 publish:4 though:1 palais:1 grotherndieck:1 replace:2 various:1 instead:2 consider:1 parameterized:1 real:8 little:2 extra:2 information:2 always:1 injective:1 former:1 endomorphism:3 fixed:5 multiplication:1 initially:1 disbelieve:1 expert:1 combine:1 action:3 commute:1 act:3 isolated:1 submanifolds:1 independently:1 whether:1 power:1 distribution:1 hironaka:1 resolution:1 answer:2 affirmatively:1 ingenious:1 bernstein:1 hirzeburch:1 effective:1 vanish:3 lichnerowicz:1 metric:4 scalar:1 curvature:1 vanishes:1 wth:1 holomorphic:3 unknown:1 structure:4 horrocks:2 previously:1 heat:1 allow:2 boundary:5 restriction:1 put:1 domain:4 order:2 ensure:1 local:4 like:2 demand:1 complicated:2 global:2 require:1 interesting:1 admit:1 handle:2 equivalent:4 attach:1 cylinder:2 restrict:1 square:3 integrable:2 unexpectedly:1 anomaly:2 lacuna:3 petrovsky:4 gårding:2 shockwaves:1 supersonic:1 object:2 linear:7 partial:4 region:2 identically:1 update:1 generalize:1 quotient:1 kernel:1 infinite:3 get:1 module:1 von:1 neumann:1 value:2 geometric:2 construction:4 harmonic:1 spinors:1 harish:2 chandra:2 semisimple:1 course:2 integrability:1 h:1 defect:1 cusp:1 hilbert:1 modular:1 quadratic:1 totally:1 two:8 nearby:2 polarity:2 repel:1 opposite:1 form:4 dipole:1 abelian:2 common:1 correspondence:2 seemingly:1 different:3 transform:3 convert:4 author:2 euclidean:4 convenient:1 classifing:1 conformally:4 irreducible:1 self:1 dual:1 connection:3 principle:1 riemannian:2 tangent:2 linearization:1 modulus:5 construct:1 adhm:1 four:1 reformulate:2 quaternion:1 leisurely:1 account:1 instanton:1 simply:1 definite:1 intersection:2 compactified:1 copy:1 deduce:2 spectacular:1 smooth:4 existence:1 revolutionize:1 survey:3 talk:2 green:3 fourier:1 laplacian:1 diagonal:2 embedding:1 twistor:1 explicit:1 su:1 natural:3 induces:1 epimorphisms:1 range:2 might:1 induce:1 isomorphism:1 harder:2 narasimhan:2 weil:1 recover:1 morse:1 reproduce:1 old:2 due:1 schur:1 horn:1 state:2 set:1 hermitian:1 matrix:1 eigenvalue:2 convex:2 hull:1 permutation:1 symplectic:1 torus:2 image:1 moment:3 polyhedron:1 loop:3 duistermaat:2 heckman:2 striking:1 push:1 forward:1 liouville:1 measure:1 exactly:1 stationary:1 phase:2 approximation:2 asymptotic:1 expansion:1 exact:1 consequence:1 well:1 localization:1 develop:2 much:2 far:1 formally:1 lecture:1 magnetic:4 scattering:4 detailed:2 description:1 key:1 complete:1 hyperkahler:1 suggestion:1 geodesic:1 flow:1 energy:1 head:1 collision:1 direction:1 scatter:1 depend:1 relative:1 catch:1 change:1 apparently:1 unrelated:1 nonlinear:1 interpret:1 physicist:1 onwards:1 whose:1 obituary:1 publication:1 popular:1 dedekind:1 eta:1 view:1 around:1 knot:2 concept:1 definition:1 conformal:1 vaughan:1 lagrangian:1 subquotient:1 configuration:1 flag:1 unitary:1 affirmative:1 felt:1 computational:1 would:1 nahm:1 dynamic:1 holonomy:1 seem:1 exceptional:1 honour:1 premise:1 thirty:1 seven:1 citation:1 jointly:1 among:1 de:1 morgan:1 antonio:1 feltrinelli:1 accademia:2 nazionale:1 dei:2 lincei:2 king:1 faisal:1 benjamin:1 franklin:1 american:5 philosophical:2 jawaharlal:1 nehru:1 birth:1 centenary:1 indian:2 elect:1 foreign:1 member:2 art:1 academie:1 des:1 akademie:1 leopoldina:1 swedish:1 irish:1 chinese:2 australian:1 russian:1 ukrainian:1 georgian:1 venezuela:1 norwegian:1 letter:1 spanish:1 moscow:1 bonn:1 warwick:1 durham:1 andrew:1 dublin:1 chicago:1 essex:1 sussex:1 ghent:1 reading:1 helsinki:1 salamanca:1 montreal:1 wale:1 lebanon:1 queen:1 canada:1 keele:1 birmingham:1 umist:1 heriot:1 watt:1 mexico:1 hong:1 kong:1 open:1 beirut:2 technical:1 catalonia:1 make:2 knight:1 bachelor:1 merit:1 building:1 chair:1 name:1 reference:2 subsection:1 list:1 omit:1 edit:1 classic:1 cover:1 standard:1 edition:1 select:1 sort:1 parametrizing:1 squeeze:1 announce:1 previous:1 p:1 isbn:1 page:1 expressible:1 data:1 improved:1 external:1 link:1 celebration:1 birthday:1 descendant:1 biographical:1 poster:1 |@bigram om_fr:1 twentieth_century:1 isadore_singer:4 graeme_segal:5 algebraic_topology:1 atiyah_singer:11 differential_equation:7 copley_medal:2 khartoum_sudan:1 undergraduate_postgraduate:1 algebraic_geometry:4 professorial_fellow:3 isaac_newton:1 atiyah_bott:6 projective_plane:1 yang_mill:4 equivariant_k:6 cumrun_vafa:2 edward_witten:4 roger_penrose:1 alain_connes:1 jean_michel:1 hermann_weyl:1 bernhard_riemann:1 william_rowan:1 rowan_hamilton:1 projective_geometry:1 phd_thesis:1 elliptic_curve:3 grothendieck_riemann:3 riemann_roch:7 roch_theorem:7 homotopy_equivalence:1 hodge_conjecture:2 unsolved_problem:1 clifford_algebra:1 shortly_afterwards:1 closely_relate:2 hirzebruch_riemann:3 moduli_space:11 instantons_sphere:5 partial_differential:4 infinite_dimensional:3 von_neumann:1 semisimple_lie:1 dimensional_euclidean:2 riemannian_manifold:1 smooth_manifold:3 topological_manifold:1 fourier_transform:1 weil_conjecture:1 convex_hull:1 symplectic_manifold:1 convex_polyhedron:1 stationary_phase:1 magnetic_monopoles:4 riemannian_metric:1 finite_dimensional:1 dei_lincei:2 benjamin_franklin:1 jawaharlal_nehru:1 accademia_dei:1 hong_kong:1 external_link:1 |
933 | Anyone_Can_Whistle | Anyone Can Whistle is a musical with a book by Arthur Laurents and music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. The story concerns a corrupt mayoress, an idealistic nurse, a man who may be a doctor, and various officials, patients and townspeople, all fighting to save a bankrupt town. This musical was Angela Lansbury's first stage musical role. Productions Eager to work with both Laurents and Sondheim, Angela Lansbury accepted the lead role, despite her strong misgivings about the script and her ability to handle the score. Also signed were Lee Remick and Harry Guardino. Following several weeks of rehearsal in New York City, the company moved to Philadelphia for a pre-Broadway tryout period. The reviews were brutal and the audiences hostile, talking back to the cast and walking out in droves. Director Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show's message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem. Also hampering the production was the fact that Lansbury was being overshadowed by actor Harry Lascoe (whose sudden death of a heart attack on stage resolved that problem in an unexpected way). After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964 at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after nine performances, unable to overcome the generally negative reviews it had received. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show's sole Tony Award nomination. The show has become a cult favorite, and a truncated original cast recording released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theater buffs. "There Won't Be Trumpets," a tune cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers. On April 8, 1995, a staged concert was performed at Carnegie Hall as a benefit for the Gay Men's Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the original Broadway cast recording. (For example, the cut song "It's Always A Woman" was included at this concert.) Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only original cast member to reprise his role. In 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year, one in London, at the Bridewell Theatre, and one in Los Angeles, at the Matrix Theatre.Sondheim Guide On January 11th, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere (in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13th at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Shub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim. Plot synopsis Set in an imaginary town that has gone bankrupt, it focuses on the unpopular, manipulative and corrupt mayoress, Cora Hoover Hooper and the practical but idealistic nurse, Fay Apple. Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper together with her political cronies fakes a miracle—water flowing from a rock—that they think will attract tourist dollars ("Miracle Song"). They find themselves challenged by skeptical Fay Apple, a nurse at the local sanitarium, the "Cookie Jar", who intends to use her patients to disprove the claim. The patients from the "Cookie Jar " mingle with the townspeople, creating chaos and confusion ("A-1 March"). J. Bowden Hapgood, a patient mistaken for a psychiatrist, divides the town into two groups, the sane and the loony, but refuses to divulge which is which. Nurse Apple, determined to learn the truth about the "miracle", disguises herself as a French verifier ("Come Play Wiz Me"). She becomes romantically involved with Hapgood but fears letting go ("Anyone Can Whistle"). Ultimately, Nurse Apple exposes the greed and cynicism of the elected officials and she and Hapgood are united ("With So Little to Be Sure Of"). The story's point is that "normal" is a euphemism for self-control, conformity, and order, and its moral is that the true miracle simply is being alive. Musical numbers (From the Broadway production) Act I I'm Like the Bluebird -- Company Me and My Town -- Cora Hoover Hooper and Boys Miracle Song -- Cora Hoover Hooper, Treasurer Cooley, Townspeople, Tourists and Pilgrims Simple -- J. Bowden Hapgood and Company Act II A-1 March -- Company Come Play Wiz Me -- Fay Apple, J. Bowden Hapgood and Boys Anyone Can Whistle -- Fay Apple A Parade In Town -- Cora Hoover Hooper Everybody Says Don't -- J. Bowden Hapgood Act III I've Got You to Lean On -- Cora Hoover Hooper, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, Chief Magruder and Boys See What It Gets You -- Fay Apple The Cookie Chase With So Little to Be Sure Of -- Fay Apple and J. Bowden Hapgood Finale -- Company Notes "There Won't Be Trumpets" was cut from the original production but included on the Original cast recording; Added in the 1995 concert: "There Won't Be Trumpets"--Fay Apple; "There's Always A Woman"--Fay Apple and Cora Critical response Steven Suskin wrote: The "fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work, ... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence ... and the third act chase ... are unlike anything that came before." "Show Tunes: The Songs, Shows, and Careers of Broadway's Major Composers" (2000), Steven Suskin, p. 278, ISBN 0195125991 Howard Taubman in his The New York Times review wrote that Laurents' "book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream." New York Times, Howard Taubman, April 6, 1964, p. 36 References Balancing Act, The Authorized Biography of Angela Lansbury by Martin Gottfried, published by Little, Brown and Company, 1999 External links sondheim.com MTI shows listing Live, Laugh, Love: Anyone Can Whistle-A Fan Site Anyone Can Whistle on the Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide | Anyone_Can_Whistle |@lemmatized anyone:5 whistle:5 musical:9 book:2 arthur:1 laurents:4 music:1 lyric:1 stephen:2 sondheim:8 story:2 concern:1 corrupt:2 mayoress:3 idealistic:2 nurse:5 man:1 may:1 doctor:1 various:1 official:2 patient:4 townspeople:3 fight:1 save:1 bankrupt:2 town:5 angela:3 lansbury:5 first:3 stage:2 role:3 production:4 eager:1 work:3 accept:1 lead:1 despite:1 strong:1 misgiving:1 script:1 ability:1 handle:1 score:1 also:3 sign:1 lee:1 remick:1 harry:2 guardino:1 follow:1 several:2 week:1 rehearsal:1 new:3 york:3 city:1 company:6 move:1 philadelphia:1 pre:1 broadway:6 tryout:1 period:1 review:3 brutal:1 audience:1 hostile:1 talk:3 back:1 cast:8 walk:2 drove:1 director:2 ignore:1 criticism:1 show:7 message:1 trite:1 absurdist:1 style:1 difficult:1 comprehend:1 pour:1 energy:1 restaging:1 rather:3 deal:1 crux:1 problem:2 hamper:1 fact:1 overshadow:1 actor:1 lascoe:1 whose:1 sudden:1 death:1 heart:1 attack:1 resolve:1 unexpected:1 way:1 multiple:1 revision:1 open:1 april:3 majestic:1 theatre:6 close:1 nine:1 performance:2 unable:1 overcome:1 generally:1 negative:1 receive:2 choreographer:1 herbert:1 ross:1 sole:1 tony:1 award:1 nomination:1 become:3 cult:1 favorite:2 truncated:1 original:6 record:5 release:1 columbia:2 sell:1 well:1 among:1 fan:2 theater:1 buff:1 trumpet:3 tune:2 cut:3 preview:1 cabaret:1 performer:2 staged:1 concert:5 perform:1 carnegie:1 hall:1 benefit:1 gay:1 men:1 health:1 crisis:1 preserve:1 time:4 passage:1 number:2 include:5 recording:2 example:1 song:5 always:2 woman:2 serve:2 narrator:2 madeline:1 kahn:1 cora:9 bernadette:1 peter:1 fay:10 scott:1 bakula:1 hapgood:9 additional:2 chip:1 zien:1 ken:1 page:1 harvey:1 evans:1 member:1 reprise:1 sony:1 reissue:1 compact:1 disc:1 two:2 revival:1 stag:1 year:1 one:2 london:1 bridewell:1 los:1 angeles:1 matrix:1 guide:2 january:2 free:1 present:1 canadian:1 professional:1 premiere:1 gryphon:1 barrie:1 ontario:2 fundraiser:1 diesel:1 playhouse:1 toronto:1 star:1 adam:1 brazier:1 kate:1 hennig:1 blythe:1 wilson:1 richard:1 ouzounian:1 choreography:1 sam:1 strasfeld:1 juan:1 chioran:1 comptroller:2 shub:1 jonathan:1 monro:1 treasurer:3 cooley:3 mark:2 harapiak:1 chief:2 magruder:2 direction:1 provide:1 wayne:1 gwillim:1 plot:1 synopsis:1 set:1 imaginary:1 go:2 focus:1 unpopular:1 manipulative:1 hoover:6 hooper:6 practical:1 apple:10 together:1 political:1 crony:1 fake:1 miracle:5 water:1 flow:1 rock:1 think:1 attract:1 tourist:2 dollar:1 find:1 challenge:1 skeptical:1 local:1 sanitarium:1 cookie:3 jar:2 intend:1 use:1 disprove:1 claim:1 mingle:1 create:1 chaos:1 confusion:1 march:2 j:5 bowden:5 mistaken:1 psychiatrist:1 divide:1 group:1 sane:1 loony:1 refuse:1 divulge:1 determine:1 learn:1 truth:1 disguise:1 french:1 verifier:1 come:3 play:2 wiz:2 romantically:1 involve:1 fear:1 let:1 ultimately:1 expose:1 greed:1 cynicism:1 elect:1 united:1 little:3 sure:2 point:1 normal:1 euphemism:1 self:1 control:1 conformity:1 order:1 moral:1 true:1 simply:1 alive:1 act:6 like:1 bluebird:1 boy:2 pilgrims:1 simple:1 ii:1 boys:1 parade:1 everybody:1 say:1 iii:1 get:2 lean:1 schub:1 see:1 chase:2 finale:1 note:1 win:2 add:1 critical:1 response:1 steven:2 suskin:2 write:3 fascinating:1 extend:1 scene:1 extended:1 choral:1 immediately:1 distinctive:1 composer:2 sanity:1 sequence:1 third:1 unlike:1 anything:1 career:1 major:1 p:2 isbn:1 howard:2 taubman:2 lack:1 fantasy:1 would:1 make:1 idea:1 staging:1 improve:1 matter:1 mr:1 please:1 enough:1 give:1 wing:1 yell:1 run:1 dancing:1 cream:1 reference:2 balance:1 authorized:1 biography:1 martin:1 gottfried:1 publish:1 brown:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 mti:1 list:1 live:1 laugh:1 love:1 site:1 |@bigram anyone_whistle:5 arthur_laurents:1 stephen_sondheim:2 angela_lansbury:3 lee_remick:1 broadway_tryout:1 award_nomination:1 madeline_kahn:1 bernadette_peter:1 reprise_role:1 compact_disc:1 los_angeles:1 toronto_ontario:1 plot_synopsis:1 cora_hoover:6 hoover_hooper:6 fay_apple:8 bowden_hapgood:5 romantically_involve:1 external_link:1 |
934 | Cervix | The cervix (or neck of the uterus) is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible with appropriate medical equipment; the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. It is occasionally called "cervix uteri". Cervix means neck in Latin. Anatomy Ectocervix The portion projecting into the vagina is referred to as the portio vaginalis or ectocervix. On average, the ectocervix is 3 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It has a convex, elliptical surface and is divided into anterior and posterior lips. External os The ectocervix's opening is called the external os. The size and shape of the external os and the ectocervix varies widely with age, hormonal state, and whether the woman has had a vaginal birth. In women who have not had a vaginal birth the external os appears as a small, circular opening. In women who have had a vaginal birth, the ectocervix appears bulkier and the external os appears wider, more slit-like and gaping. Endocervical canal The passageway between the external os and the uterine cavity is referred to as the endocervical canal. It varies widely in length and width, along with the cervix overall. Flattened anterior to posterior, the endocervical canal measures 7 to 8 mm at its widest in reproductive-aged women. Internal os The endocervical canal terminates at the internal os which is the opening of the cervix inside the uterine cavity. Cervical crypts There are pockets in the lining of the cervix known as cervical crypts. They function to produce cervical fluid. Weschler, Toni, MPH, Taking Charge of Your Fertility, Second Edition, 2002, pp. 59, 64. Histology The epithelium of the cervix is varied. The ectocervix (more distal, by the vagina) is composed of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium The endocervix (more proximal, within the uterus) is composed of simple columnar epithelium. The area adjacent to the border of the endocervix and ectocervix is known as the transformation zone. The Transformation zone undergoes metaplasia numerous times during normal life. When the endocervix is exposed to the harsh acidic environment of the vagina it undergoes metaplasia to squamous epithelium which is better suited to the vaginal environment. Similarly when the ectocervix enters the less harsh uterine area it undergoes metaplasia to become columnar epithelium. Times in life when this metaplasia of the transformation zone occurs: puberty; when the endocervix everts (moves out) of the uterus with the changes of the cervix associated with the normal menstrual cycle post-menopause; the uterus shrinks moving the transformation zone upwards All these changes are normal and the occurrence is said to be physiological. However all this metaplasia does increase the risk of cancer in this area - the transformation zone is the most common area for cervical cancer to occur. At certain times of life, the columnar epithelium is replaced by metaplastic squamous epithelium, and is then known as the transformation zone. Nabothian cysts are often found in the cervix. Weschler, pp. 227–228. Cervical mucus Mucus plug After a menstrual period ends, the external os is blocked by mucus that is thick and acidic. This "infertile" mucus blocks spermatozoa from entering the uterus. For several days around the time of ovulation, "fertile" types of mucus are produced: they have a higher water content, are less acidic, and have a ferning pattern that helps guide spermatozoa through the cervix. Weschler, pp. 58–59. This ferning is a branching pattern seen in the mucus when observed with low magnification. Some methods of fertility awareness involve estimating a woman's periods of fertility and infertility by observing changes in her body. Among these changes are several involving the quality of her cervical mucus: the sensation it causes at the vulva, its elasticity (spinnbarkeit), its transparency, and the presence of ferning. Cervical mucus Most methods of hormonal contraception work primarily by preventing ovulation, but their effectiveness is increased because they prevent the fertile types of cervical mucus from being produced. Conversely, methods of thinning the mucus may help to achieve pregnancy. One suggested method is to take guaifenesin in the few days before ovulation. Weschler, p. 173. During pregnancy the cervix is blocked by a special antibacterial mucosal plug which prevents infection, somewhat similar to its state during the infertile portion of the menstrual cycle. The mucus plug comes out as the cervix dilates in labor or shortly before. Cervical position After menstruation and directly under the influence of estrogen, the cervix undergoes a series of changes in position and texture. During most of the menstrual cycle, the cervix remains firm, like the tip of the nose, and is positioned low and closed. However, as a woman approaches ovulation, the cervix becomes softer, and rises and opens in response to the high levels of estrogen present at ovulation. These changes, accompanied by the production of fertile types of cervical mucus, support the survival and movement of sperm. Function During menstruation the cervix stretches open slightly to allow the endometrium to be shed. This stretching is believed to be part of the cramping pain that many women experience. Evidence for this is given by the fact that some women's cramps subside or disappear after their first vaginal birth because the cervical opening has widened. During childbirth, contractions of the uterus will dilate the cervix up to 10 cm in diameter to allow the child to pass through. Stimulation of the cervix leads to orgasm for some women. During orgasm, the cervix convulses and the external os dilates. Dr. R. Robin Baker and Dr. Mark A. Bellis, both at the University of Manchester, first proposed that this behavior would tend to draw semen in the vagina into the uterus, increasing the likelihood of conception. This explanation has been called the "upsuck theory of female orgasm." Komisaruk, Whipple, and Beyer-Flores, in their book, The Science of Orgasm, claimed there is evidence in support of the upsuck theory. Science historian Elisabeth Lloyd (The Case of the Female Orgasm) and others have questioned the logic of this theory and the quality of the experimental data used to back it. Short cervix is the strongest predictor of preterm birth. To MS, Skentou CA, Royston P, Yu CKH, Nicolaides KH. Prediction of patient-specific risk of early preterm delivery using maternal history and sonographic measurement of cervical length: a population-based prospective study. Ultra Obstet Gynecol 2006; 27: 362–367. Fonseca et al. Progesterone and the risk of preterm birth among women with a short cervix. NEJM 2007; vol 357, no 5, pg 462–469. Romero R. Prevention of sponatneous preterm birth: the role of sonographic cervical length in identifying patients who may benefit from progesterone treatment. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2007; 30: 675–686. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/99020267/home free download Some treatments to prevent cervical cancer, such as LEEP, cold - Knife cone, or cryotherapy may shorten the cervix. Cervical cancer Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary factor in the development of nearly all cases of cervical cancer. HPV vaccines can reduce the chance of developing cervical cancer, if administered before initiation of sexual activity. Potentially pre-cancerous changes in the cervix can be detected by a Pap smear, in which epithelial cells are scraped from the surface of the cervix and examined under a microscope. With appropriate treatment of detected abnormalities, cervical cancer can be prevented. Most cervical cancers occur in women who have never had a Pap smear, or not had one within the last five years. Worldwide, cervical cancer is the fifth most deadly cancer in women. It affects about 16 per 100,000 women per year and kills about 9 per 100,000 per year. Pap smear screening has greatly reduced cervical cancer incidence and mortality in nations with regular screening programs. Lymphatic drainage The lymphatic drainage of the cervix is along the uterine arteries and cardinal ligaments to the parametrial, external iliac vein, internal iliac vein, and obturator and presacral lymph nodes. From these pelvic lymph nodes, drainage then proceeds to the paraaortic lymph nodes. In some women, the lymphatics drain directly to the paraaortic nodes. Sexual response Most women report that stimulation of the cervix during intercourse is very painful and results in a sensation similar to being kicked in the stomach. However, there are reports of women achieving intense orgasms as a result of stimulation of certain parts of the cervix. One area in particular, the cavity of the cervix, which is said to have a texture similar to the back of a Frisbee, has been reported to be highly erogenous. The cavity of the cervix, in a sexual context, is sometimes referred to as the Deep spot (in common with both the AFE zone and the Rectouterine pouch) or the Frisbee. Additional images References External links My Beautiful Cervix - site with a series of photographs illustrating the cervix over a menstrual cycle | Cervix |@lemmatized cervix:31 neck:2 uterus:8 low:3 narrow:1 portion:3 join:1 top:1 end:2 vagina:6 cylindrical:1 conical:1 shape:2 protrudes:1 upper:1 anterior:3 vaginal:6 wall:1 approximately:1 half:1 length:4 visible:1 appropriate:2 medical:1 equipment:1 remainder:1 lie:1 beyond:1 view:1 occasionally:1 call:3 uteri:1 mean:1 latin:1 anatomy:1 ectocervix:9 project:1 refer:3 portio:1 vaginalis:1 average:1 cm:3 long:1 wide:3 convex:1 elliptical:1 surface:2 divide:1 posterior:2 lip:1 external:10 opening:4 size:1 vary:3 widely:2 age:2 hormonal:2 state:2 whether:1 woman:16 birth:7 appear:3 small:1 circular:1 bulky:1 slit:1 like:2 gap:1 endocervical:4 canal:4 passageway:1 uterine:4 cavity:4 width:1 along:2 overall:1 flatten:1 measure:1 mm:1 reproductive:1 internal:3 terminates:1 inside:1 cervical:21 crypt:2 pocket:1 lining:1 know:3 function:2 produce:3 fluid:1 weschler:4 toni:1 mph:1 take:2 charge:1 fertility:3 second:1 edition:1 pp:3 histology:1 epithelium:7 distal:1 compose:2 nonkeratinized:1 stratify:1 squamous:3 endocervix:4 proximal:1 within:2 simple:1 columnar:3 area:5 adjacent:1 border:1 transformation:6 zone:7 undergoes:1 metaplasia:5 numerous:1 time:4 normal:3 life:3 expose:1 harsh:2 acidic:3 environment:2 undergo:3 well:1 suit:1 similarly:1 enter:2 less:2 become:2 occur:3 puberty:1 evert:1 move:2 change:7 associate:1 menstrual:5 cycle:4 post:1 menopause:1 shrink:1 upwards:1 occurrence:1 say:2 physiological:1 however:3 increase:3 risk:3 cancer:11 common:2 certain:2 replace:1 metaplastic:1 nabothian:1 cyst:1 often:1 find:1 mucus:12 plug:3 period:2 block:3 thick:1 infertile:2 spermatozoa:1 several:2 day:2 around:1 ovulation:5 fertile:3 type:3 high:2 water:1 content:1 ferning:3 pattern:2 help:2 guide:1 spermatozoon:1 branching:1 see:1 observe:2 magnification:1 method:4 awareness:1 involve:2 estimate:1 infertility:1 body:1 among:2 quality:2 sensation:2 cause:1 vulva:1 elasticity:1 spinnbarkeit:1 transparency:1 presence:1 contraception:1 work:1 primarily:1 prevent:5 effectiveness:1 conversely:1 thin:1 may:3 achieve:2 pregnancy:2 one:3 suggested:1 guaifenesin:1 p:2 special:1 antibacterial:1 mucosal:1 infection:2 somewhat:1 similar:3 come:1 dilate:2 labor:1 shortly:1 position:3 menstruation:2 directly:2 influence:1 estrogen:2 series:2 texture:2 remain:1 firm:1 tip:1 nose:1 close:1 approach:1 soft:1 rise:1 open:2 response:2 level:1 present:1 accompany:1 production:1 support:2 survival:1 movement:1 sperm:1 stretch:1 slightly:1 allow:2 endometrium:1 shed:1 stretching:1 believe:1 part:2 cramping:1 pain:1 many:1 experience:1 evidence:2 give:1 fact:1 cramp:1 subside:1 disappear:1 first:2 widen:1 childbirth:1 contraction:1 diameter:1 child:1 pass:1 stimulation:3 lead:1 orgasm:6 convulses:1 dilates:1 dr:2 r:2 robin:1 baker:1 mark:1 bellis:1 university:1 manchester:1 propose:1 behavior:1 would:1 tend:1 draw:1 semen:1 likelihood:1 conception:1 explanation:1 upsuck:2 theory:3 female:2 komisaruk:1 whipple:1 beyer:1 flores:1 book:1 science:2 claim:1 historian:1 elisabeth:1 lloyd:1 case:2 others:1 question:1 logic:1 experimental:1 data:1 use:2 back:2 short:2 strong:1 predictor:1 preterm:4 ms:1 skentou:1 ca:1 royston:1 yu:1 ckh:1 nicolaides:1 kh:1 prediction:1 patient:2 specific:1 early:1 delivery:1 maternal:1 history:1 sonographic:2 measurement:1 population:1 base:1 prospective:1 study:1 ultra:1 obstet:2 gynecol:2 fonseca:1 et:1 al:1 progesterone:2 nejm:1 vol:1 pg:1 romero:1 prevention:1 sponatneous:1 role:1 identify:1 benefit:1 treatment:3 ultrasound:1 http:1 interscience:1 wiley:1 com:1 journal:1 home:1 free:1 download:1 leep:1 cold:1 knife:1 cone:1 cryotherapy:1 shorten:1 human:1 papillomavirus:1 hpv:2 necessary:1 factor:1 development:1 nearly:1 vaccine:1 reduce:2 chance:1 develop:1 administer:1 initiation:1 sexual:3 activity:1 potentially:1 pre:1 cancerous:1 detect:1 pap:3 smear:3 epithelial:1 cell:1 scrap:1 examine:1 microscope:1 detected:1 abnormality:1 never:1 last:1 five:1 year:3 worldwide:1 fifth:1 deadly:1 affect:1 per:4 kill:1 screening:1 greatly:1 incidence:1 mortality:1 nation:1 regular:1 screen:1 program:1 lymphatic:2 drainage:3 artery:1 cardinal:1 ligament:1 parametrial:1 iliac:2 vein:2 obturator:1 presacral:1 lymph:3 node:4 pelvic:1 proceed:1 paraaortic:2 lymphatics:1 drain:1 report:3 intercourse:1 painful:1 result:2 kick:1 stomach:1 intense:1 particular:1 frisbee:2 highly:1 erogenous:1 context:1 sometimes:1 deep:1 spot:1 afe:1 rectouterine:1 pouch:1 additional:1 image:1 reference:1 link:1 beautiful:1 site:1 photographs:1 illustrate:1 |@bigram anterior_posterior:2 uterine_cavity:2 menstrual_cycle:4 cervical_cancer:9 cervical_mucus:5 hormonal_contraception:1 preterm_birth:3 et_al:1 human_papillomavirus:1 epithelial_cell:1 lymphatic_drainage:2 lymph_node:3 external_link:1 |
935 | Gametophyte | In plants and algae that undergo alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure, or phase, that is haploid, containing a single set of chromosomes: The gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both), by a process of cell division called mitosis. The fusion of male and female gametes produces a diploid zygote, which develops by repeated mitotic cell divisions into a multicellular sporophyte. Because the sporophyte is the product of the fusion of two haploid gametes, its cells are diploid, containing two sets of chromosomes. The mature sporophyte produces spores by a process called meiosis, sometimes referred to as "reduction division" because the chromosome pairs are separated once again to form single sets. The spores are therefore once again haploid and develop into a haploid gametophyte. In mosses, liverworts and hornworts (bryophytes), the gametophyte is the commonly known phase of the plant. An early developmental stage in the gametophyte of mosses (immediately following germination of the meiospore) is called the protonema. In most other land plants the gametophyte is very small (as in ferns and their relatives) or even reduced as in flowering plants (angiosperms), where the female gametophyte (ovule) is known as a megagametophyte and the male gametophyte (pollen) is called a microgametophyte. In some multicellular green algae, red algae, or brown algae (Ulva is one example), the sporophytes and gametophytes are often isomorphic, but in some species the gametophyte may be reduced. See also Sporophyte Alternation of generations Archegonium Antheridium | Gametophyte |@lemmatized plant:4 algae:4 undergo:1 alternation:2 generation:2 gametophyte:10 multicellular:3 structure:1 phase:2 haploid:4 contain:2 single:2 set:3 chromosome:3 produce:3 male:3 female:3 gamete:3 process:2 cell:3 division:3 call:4 mitosis:1 fusion:2 diploid:2 zygote:1 develop:2 repeat:1 mitotic:1 sporophyte:5 product:1 two:2 mature:1 spore:2 meiosis:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 reduction:1 pair:1 separate:1 form:1 therefore:1 moss:2 liverwort:1 hornwort:1 bryophyte:1 commonly:1 know:2 early:1 developmental:1 stage:1 immediately:1 follow:1 germination:1 meiospore:1 protonema:1 land:1 small:1 fern:1 relative:1 even:1 reduce:2 flower:1 angiosperm:1 ovule:1 megagametophyte:1 pollen:1 microgametophyte:1 green:1 red:1 brown:1 ulva:1 one:1 example:1 often:1 isomorphic:1 specie:1 may:1 see:1 also:1 archegonium:1 antheridium:1 |@bigram alternation_generation:2 male_female:2 diploid_zygote:1 haploid_gamete:1 green_algae:1 |
936 | Cause_of_action | A claim is a legal action to obtain money, property, or the enforcement of a right against another party. The legal document which carries a claim is called a Statement of Claim. It can be any communication notifying the addressee of alleged faulty execution which resulted in damages, often expressed in amount of money the party should pay/reimburse. There are several issues of concern when filing a statement of claim. Although to file a Statement of Claim is fairly straight forward, it is important it be done properly or you may lose your case due to a simple technicality. A Claim is a Legal statement made to alert the accused of the legal implications. References | Cause_of_action |@lemmatized claim:6 legal:4 action:1 obtain:1 money:2 property:1 enforcement:1 right:1 another:1 party:2 document:1 carry:1 call:1 statement:4 communication:1 notify:1 addressee:1 alleged:1 faulty:1 execution:1 result:1 damage:1 often:1 express:1 amount:1 pay:1 reimburse:1 several:1 issue:1 concern:1 file:2 although:1 fairly:1 straight:1 forward:1 important:1 properly:1 may:1 lose:1 case:1 due:1 simple:1 technicality:1 make:1 alert:1 accuse:1 implication:1 reference:1 |@bigram |
937 | Euripides | A statue of Euripides. Euripides (Ancient Greek: ) (ca. 480 BC–406 BC) was the last of the three great tragedians of classical Athens (the other two being Aeschylus and Sophocles). Ancient scholars thought that Euripides had written ninety-five plays, although four of those were probably written by Critias. Eighteen of Euripides' plays have survived complete. It is now widely believed that what was thought to be a nineteenth, Rhesus, was probably not by Euripides. Fragments, some substantial, of most of the other plays also survive. More of his plays have survived than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, because of the unique nature of the Euripidean manuscript tradition (see below). Euripides is known primarily for having reshaped the formal structure of traditional Attic tragedy by showing strong female characters and intelligent slaves, and by satirizing many heroes of Greek mythology. His plays seem modern by comparison with those of his contemporaries, focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown to Greek audiences. Life Euripides, Vatican Museum. According to legend, Euripides was born in Salamís on September 23 480 BC, the day of the Persian War's greatest naval battle. Other sources estimate that he was born as early as 485 BC. His father's name was either Mnesarchus or Mnesarchides and his mother's name Cleito. Evidence suggests that the family was wealthy and influential. It is recorded that he served as a cup-bearer for Apollo's dancers, but he grew to question the religion he grew up with, exposed as he was to thinkers such as Protagoras, Socrates, and Anaxagoras. He was married twice, to Choerile and Melito, though sources disagree as to which woman he married first. http://www.queensu.ca/classics/clst312/clst312i.htm http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html He had three sons, and it is rumored that he also had a daughter who was killed after a rabid dog attacked her (some say this was merely a joke made by Aristophanes, who often poked fun at Euripides). The record of Euripides' public life, other than his involvement in dramatic competitions, is almost non-existent. The only reliable story of note is one by Aristotle about Euripides being involved in a dispute over a liturgy - a story which offers strong proof to Euripides being a wealthy man. It has been said that he travelled to Syracuse, Sicily; that he engaged in various public or political activities during his lifetime; that he wrote his tragedies in a sanctuary, The Cave of Euripides on Salamis Island; and that he left Athens at the invitation of king Archelaus I of Macedon and stayed with him in Macedonia after 408 BC. According to Pausanias, Euripides was buried in Macedonia. Plays Euripides first competed in the Dionysia, the famous Athenian dramatic festival, in 455 BC, one year after the death of Aeschylus. He came in third, reportedly because he refused to cater to the fancies of the judges. It was not until 441 BC that he won first prize, and over the course of his lifetime, Euripides claimed a mere four victories. He also won one posthumous victory. He was a frequent target of Aristophanes' humour. He appears as a character in The Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae, and most memorably in The Frogs, where Dionysus travels to Hades to bring Euripides back from the dead. After a competition of poetry, the god opts to bring Aeschylus instead. Euripides' final competition in Athens was in 408 BC; there is a story that he left Athens embittered over his defeats. He accepted an invitation by the king of Macedon in 408 or 407 BC, and once there he wrote Archelaus in honour of his host. He is believed to have died there in winter 407/6 BC; ancient biographers have told many stories about his death, but the simple truth was that it was probably his first exposure to the harsh Macedonia winter which killed him. (Rutherford 1996). The Bacchae was performed after his death in 405 BC and won first prize. When compared with Aeschylus, who won thirteen times, and Sophocles, with eighteen victories, Euripides was the least honoured of the three—at least in his lifetime. Later in the 4th century BC, the dramas of Euripides became the most popular, largely because of the simplicity of the language of his plays. His works influenced New Comedy and Roman drama, and were later idolized by the French classicists; his influence on drama reaches modern times. Euripides' greatest works include Alcestis, Medea, Trojan Women, and The Bacchae. Also considered notable is Cyclops, the only complete satyr play known to survive. While the 7 plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles selected for preservation in late antiquity were those considered their best, the manuscript containing Euripides' plays was part of a multiple volume, alphabetically-arranged collection of Euripides' works, rediscovered after lying in a monastic collection for approximately eight hundred years. The manuscript contains Euripides' plays whose (Greek) titles begin with the letters E to K. This accounts for the large number of extant plays of Euripides (among ancient dramatists, only Plautus has more surviving plays), the survival of a satyr play, and the absence of a trilogy. It is a testament to the quality of Euripides' plays that, though their survival was dependent on the letter their title began with and not (as with Aeschylus and Sophocles) their quality, they are ranked alongside and often above the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles. In June 2005, classicists at Oxford University worked on a joint project with Brigham Young University, using multi-spectral imaging technology to recover previously illegible writing (see References). Some of this work employed infrared technology—previously used for satellite imaging—to detect previously unknown material by Euripides in fragments of the Oxyrhynchus papyri, http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/ a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university. Commentary Euripides has been compared to Rousseau in being too modern for his time. Euripides focused on the realism of his characters; for example, Euripides’ Medea is a realistic woman with recognizable emotions, and has a developed personality with many different facets to her character-she is not simply a villain. In Hippolytus, Euripides writes in a particularly modern style, using the theater to demonstrate how neither language nor sight (the main elements of theater) aids in understanding in a civilization on its last leg. Euripides makes his point about vision both through the plot (Phaedra makes repeated references to her inability to see clearly and her wish to have her eyes covered), and through the sparseness of his staging, which lacked the dazzling elements that other plays often had. The same was true of his commentary on the use of language. The misuse of words played an important role in the storyline (Phaedra's letter, the nurse's betrayal of Phaedra's secret, Hippolytus' refusal to break his oath to save his own life, and his refusal to pay lip-service to Aphrodite), but in addition, the actual language of the play was often purposefully verbose and ungainly, again to show the ineffectual nature of language in comprehension in Euripides' age. A Further Note on the Modernity of "Hippolytus" Robert Skloot. The Classical Journal, Vol. 64, No. 5. (Feb., 1969), pp. 226-227. Stable URL: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-8353%28196902%2964%3A5%3C226%3AAFNOTM%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B According to Aristotle, Euripides's contemporary Sophocles said that he portrayed men as they ought to be, and Euripides portrayed them as they were. Aristotle, de Arte Poetica, 1460b 33-34 Euripides' realistic characterisations were sometimes at the expense of a realistic plot; he sometimes relied upon the deus ex machina to resolve his plays, as in Ion and Electra. In the opinion of Aristotle, writing his Poetics a century later, this is the worst way to end a play. Many classicists cite this as a reason why Euripides was less popular in his own time. Bibliography Tragedies Alcestis (438 BC, second prize) Medea (431 BC, third prize) Heracleidae (c. 430 BC) Hippolytus (428 BC, first prize) Andromache (c. 425 BC) Hecuba (c. 424 BC) The Suppliants (c. 423 BC) Electra (c. 420 BC) Heracles (c. 416 BC) The Trojan Women (415 BC, second prize) Iphigenia in Tauris (c. 414 BC) Ion (c. 414 BC) Helen (412 BC) Phoenician Women (c. 410 BC) Orestes (408 BC) Bacchae and Iphigenia at Aulis (405 BC, posthumous, first prize) Fragmentary tragedies The following plays have come down to us today only in fragmentary form; some consist of only a handful of lines, but with some the fragments are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstruction: see Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays (Aris and Phillips 1995) ed. C. Collard, M.J. Cropp and K.H. Lee. Telephus (438 BC) Cretans (c. 435 BC) Stheneboea (before 429 BC) Bellerophon (c. 430 BC) Cresphontes (ca. 425 BC) Erechtheus (422 BC) Phaethon (c. 420 BC) Wise Melanippe (c. 420 BC) Alexandros (415 BC) Palamedes (415 BC) Sisyphus (415 BC) Captive Melanippe (412 BC) Andromeda (412 BC with Euripides' Helen) Antiope (c. 410 BC) Archelaus (c. 410 BC) Hypsipyle (c. 410 BC) Philoctetes (c. 410 BC) Satyr play Cyclops (uncertain date) Spurious plays Rhesus (most modern scholars maintain that the play was probably not by Euripides, shows many indications of mid 4th century BC contamination) References Further reading Barrett, W. S. (ed.), Euripides, Hippolytos, edited with Introduction and Commentary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964; Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1964) Croally, N.T. Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the Function of Tragedy. Cambridge University Press, 1994. Ippolito, P. La vita di Euripide. Napoli: Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Universit'a degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 1999. Kovacs, D. Euripidea. Leiden: Brill, 1994. Lefkowitz, M.R. The Lives of the Greek Poets. London: Duckworth, 1981. Rutherford, Richard. Euripides: Medea and other plays. Penguin, 1996. Scullion, S. Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs. The Classical Quarterly, Oxford, v. 53, n. 2, p. 389-400, 2003. Sommerstein, Alan H. Greek Drama and Dramatists, Routledge, 2002. Webster, T. B. L. The Tragedies of Euripides, Methuen, 1967. Multispectral imaging. Oxyrhynchos online. Retrieved on 28 Oct 2007. Barrett, W. S., Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers, ed. M. L. West (Oxford & New York, 2007) External links Encarta's entry for Euripides Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html http://www.ac-strasbourg.fr/pedago/lettres/Victor%20Hugo/Notes/Euripide.htm http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/~amahoney/tragedy_dates.html http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm IMDBs List of movies based on Euripides plays Euripides Resources Staging of Euripides' fragmentary Hypsipyle SORGLL: Euripides, Trojan Women, 740-779; read by Stephen Daitz | Euripides |@lemmatized statue:1 euripides:53 ancient:7 greek:7 ca:3 bc:46 last:2 three:3 great:3 tragedian:1 classical:3 athens:4 two:1 aeschylus:8 sophocles:7 scholar:2 think:2 write:5 ninety:1 five:1 play:28 although:1 four:2 probably:4 critias:1 eighteen:2 survive:4 complete:2 widely:1 believe:2 nineteenth:1 rhesus:2 fragment:3 substantial:1 also:4 together:1 unique:1 nature:2 euripidean:2 manuscript:4 tradition:1 see:4 know:2 primarily:1 reshape:1 formal:1 structure:1 traditional:1 attic:1 tragedy:7 show:3 strong:2 female:1 character:5 intelligent:1 slave:1 satirize:1 many:5 hero:1 mythology:1 seem:1 modern:5 comparison:1 contemporary:2 focus:2 inner:1 life:6 motif:1 way:2 previously:4 unknown:2 audience:1 vatican:1 museum:1 accord:3 legend:1 bear:2 salamís:1 september:1 day:1 persian:1 war:1 naval:1 battle:1 source:2 estimate:1 early:1 father:1 name:2 either:1 mnesarchus:1 mnesarchides:1 mother:1 cleito:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 family:1 wealthy:2 influential:1 record:2 serve:1 cup:1 bearer:1 apollo:1 dancer:1 grow:2 question:1 religion:1 expose:1 thinker:1 protagoras:1 socrates:1 anaxagoras:1 marry:2 twice:1 choerile:1 melito:1 though:2 disagree:1 woman:7 first:7 http:9 www:8 queensu:1 classic:1 htm:3 theatrehistory:2 com:3 html:4 son:1 rumor:1 daughter:1 kill:2 rabid:1 dog:1 attack:1 say:3 merely:1 joke:1 make:3 aristophanes:2 often:4 poke:1 fun:1 public:2 involvement:1 dramatic:2 competition:3 almost:1 non:1 existent:1 reliable:1 story:4 note:3 one:3 aristotle:4 involve:1 dispute:1 liturgy:1 offer:1 proof:1 man:1 travel:2 syracuse:1 sicily:1 engage:1 various:1 political:1 activity:1 lifetime:3 sanctuary:1 cave:1 salamis:1 island:1 leave:2 invitation:2 king:2 archelaus:3 macedon:3 stay:1 macedonia:3 pausanias:1 bury:1 compete:1 dionysia:1 famous:1 athenian:1 festival:1 year:2 death:3 come:2 third:2 reportedly:1 refuse:1 cater:1 fancy:1 judge:1 win:4 prize:7 course:1 claim:1 mere:1 victory:3 posthumous:2 frequent:1 target:1 humour:1 appear:1 acharnians:1 thesmophoriazusae:1 memorably:1 frog:2 dionysus:1 hades:1 bring:2 back:1 dead:1 poetry:1 god:1 opt:1 instead:1 final:1 embitter:1 defeat:1 accept:1 honour:1 host:1 die:1 winter:2 biographer:1 tell:1 simple:1 truth:1 exposure:1 harsh:1 rutherford:2 bacchae:3 perform:1 compare:2 thirteen:1 time:4 least:2 honoured:1 later:3 century:3 drama:4 become:1 popular:2 largely:1 simplicity:1 language:5 work:6 influence:2 new:2 comedy:1 roman:1 idolize:1 french:1 classicist:3 reach:1 include:1 alcestis:2 medea:4 trojan:4 consider:2 notable:1 cyclops:2 satyr:3 select:2 preservation:1 late:1 antiquity:1 best:1 contain:2 part:1 multiple:1 volume:1 alphabetically:1 arrange:1 collection:3 rediscover:1 lie:1 monastic:1 approximately:1 eight:1 hundred:1 whose:1 title:2 begin:2 letter:3 e:1 k:2 account:1 large:1 number:1 extant:1 among:1 dramatist:2 plautus:1 surviving:1 survival:2 absence:1 trilogy:1 testament:1 quality:2 dependent:1 rank:1 alongside:1 june:1 oxford:5 university:5 joint:1 project:1 brigham:1 young:1 use:4 multi:1 spectral:1 image:2 technology:2 recover:1 illegible:1 writing:1 reference:3 employed:1 infrared:1 satellite:1 detect:1 material:2 oxyrhynchus:1 papyrus:1 papyrology:1 ox:1 ac:2 uk:1 hold:1 commentary:3 rousseau:1 realism:1 example:1 realistic:3 recognizable:1 emotion:1 develop:1 personality:1 different:1 facet:1 simply:1 villain:1 hippolytus:4 writes:1 particularly:1 style:1 theater:2 demonstrate:1 neither:1 sight:1 main:1 element:2 aid:1 understand:1 civilization:1 leg:1 point:1 vision:1 plot:2 phaedra:3 repeat:1 inability:1 clearly:1 wish:1 eye:1 cover:1 sparseness:1 staging:1 lack:1 dazzling:1 true:1 misuse:1 word:1 important:1 role:1 storyline:1 nurse:1 betrayal:1 secret:1 refusal:2 break:1 oath:1 save:1 pay:1 lip:1 service:1 aphrodite:1 addition:1 actual:1 purposefully:1 verbose:1 ungainly:1 ineffectual:1 comprehension:1 age:1 modernity:1 robert:1 skloot:1 journal:1 vol:1 feb:1 pp:1 stable:1 url:1 link:2 jstor:1 org:1 sici:2 co:1 b:2 portray:2 men:1 ought:1 de:1 arte:1 poetica:1 characterisation:1 sometimes:2 expense:1 rely:1 upon:1 deus:1 ex:1 machina:1 resolve:1 ion:2 electra:2 opinion:1 poetics:1 bad:1 end:1 cite:1 reason:1 less:1 bibliography:1 second:2 heracleidae:1 c:18 andromache:1 hecuba:1 suppliant:1 heracles:1 iphigenia:2 tauris:1 helen:2 phoenician:1 orestes:1 aulis:1 fragmentary:4 follow:1 u:1 today:1 form:1 consist:1 handful:1 line:1 extensive:1 enough:1 allow:1 tentative:1 reconstruction:1 aris:1 phillips:1 ed:3 collard:1 j:1 cropp:1 h:2 lee:1 telephus:1 cretan:1 stheneboea:1 bellerophon:1 cresphontes:1 erechtheus:1 phaethon:1 wise:1 melanippe:2 alexandros:1 palamedes:1 sisyphus:1 captive:1 andromeda:1 antiope:1 hypsipyle:2 philoctetes:1 uncertain:1 date:1 spurious:1 maintain:1 indication:1 mid:1 contamination:1 reading:1 barrett:2 w:2 hippolytos:1 edit:1 introduction:1 clarendon:1 press:3 toronto:1 croally:1 n:2 polemic:1 function:1 cambridge:1 ippolito:1 p:2 la:1 vita:1 di:3 euripide:2 napoli:2 dipartimento:1 filologia:1 classica:1 dell:1 universit:1 degli:1 studi:1 federico:1 ii:1 kovacs:1 euripidea:1 leiden:1 brill:1 lefkowitz:1 r:1 poet:1 london:1 duckworth:1 richard:1 penguin:1 scullion:1 silence:1 quarterly:1 v:1 sommerstein:1 alan:1 routledge:1 webster:1 l:2 methuen:1 multispectral:1 imaging:1 oxyrhynchos:1 online:1 retrieve:1 oct:1 lyric:1 textual:1 criticism:1 collected:1 paper:1 west:1 york:1 external:1 encarta:1 entry:1 related:1 perseus:2 digital:1 library:1 useful:1 summary:1 relevant:1 topic:1 interest:1 fordham:1 edu:3 halsall:1 strasbourg:1 fr:1 pedago:1 lettres:1 victor:1 tuft:1 amahoney:1 gpc:1 shale:1 humanity:1 literature:1 imagi:1 nation:1 moonstruck:1 imdbs:1 list:1 movie:1 base:1 resource:1 stag:1 sorgll:1 read:1 stephen:1 daitz:1 |@bigram aeschylus_sophocles:5 http_www:8 poke_fun:1 non_existent:1 brigham_young:1 oxyrhynchus_papyrus:1 ox_ac:1 jstor_org:1 org_sici:1 sici_sici:1 sici_co:1 deus_ex:1 ex_machina:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 studi_di:1 leiden_brill:1 london_duckworth:1 textual_criticism:1 collected_paper:1 external_link:1 fordham_edu:1 edu_halsall:1 tuft_edu:1 |
938 | IEEE_754-1985 | The first IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754-1985) set the standard for floating-point computation for 23 years. It became the most widely-used standard for floating-point computation, and is followed by many CPU and FPU implementations. Its binary floating-point formats and arithmetic are preserved in the new IEEE 754-2008 standard which replaced it. The 754-1985 standard defines formats for representing floating-point numbers (including negative zero and denormal numbers) and special values (infinities and NaNs) together with a set of floating-point operations that operate on these values. It also specifies four rounding modes and five exceptions (including when the exceptions occur, and what happens when they do occur). Summary IEEE 754-1985 specifies four formats for representing floating-point values: single-precision (32-bit), double-precision (64-bit), single-extended precision (≥ 43-bit, not commonly used) and double-extended precision (≥ 79-bit, usually implemented with 80 bits). Only 32-bit values are required by the standard; the others are optional. Many languages specify that IEEE formats and arithmetic be implemented, although sometimes it is optional. For example, the C programming language, which pre-dated IEEE 754, now allows but does not require IEEE arithmetic (the C float typically is used for IEEE single-precision and double uses IEEE double-precision). The full title of the standard is IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985), and it is also known as IEC 60559:1989, Binary floating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems (originally the reference number was IEC 559:1989). Later there was an IEEE 854-1987 for "radix independent floating point" as long as the radix is 2 or 10. In June 2008, a major revision to IEEE 754 and IEEE 854 was approved by the IEEE. See IEEE 754r. Structure of a floating-point number Following is a description of the standard's format for floating-point numbers. Bit conventions used in this article Bits within a word of width W are indexed by integers in the range 0 to W−1 inclusive. The bit with index 0 is drawn on the right. Unless otherwise stated, the lowest indexed bit is the LSB (Least Significant Bit, the one that if changed would cause the smallest variation of the represented value). General layout The three fields in an IEEE 754 float Binary floating-point numbers are stored in a sign-magnitude form where the most significant bit is the sign bit, exponent is the biased exponent, and "fraction" is the significand without the most significant bit. Exponent biasing The exponent is biased by , where is the number of bits used for the exponent field (e.g. if e=8, then ). See also Excess-N. Biasing is done because exponents have to be signed values in order to be able to represent both tiny and huge values, but two's complement, the usual representation for signed values, would make comparison harder. To solve this, the exponent is biased before being stored by adjusting its value to put it within an unsigned range suitable for comparison. For example, to represent a number which has exponent of 17 in an exponent field 8 bits wide:. Cases The most significant bit of the significand (not stored) is determined by the value of biased exponent. If exponent , the most significant bit of the significand is 1, and the number is said to be normalized. If exponent is 0 and fraction is not 0, the most significant bit of the significand is 0 and the number is said to be de-normalized. Three other special cases arise: if exponent is 0 and fraction is 0, the number is ±0 (depending on the sign bit) if exponent = and fraction is 0, the number is ±infinity (again depending on the sign bit), and if exponent = and fraction is not 0, the number being represented is not a number (NaN). This can be summarized as: Type Exponent Fraction Zeroes 0 0 Denormalized numbers 0 non zero Normalized numbers to any Infinities 0 NaNs non zero Single-precision 32-bit A single-precision binary floating-point number is stored in 32 bits. Bit values for the IEEE 754 32bit float 0.15625 The exponent is biased by in this case (Exponents in the range −126 to +127 are representable. See the above explanation to understand why biasing is done). An exponent of −127 would be biased to the value 0 but this is reserved to encode that the value is a denormalized number or zero. An exponent of 128 would be biased to the value 255 but this is reserved to encode an infinity or not a number (NaN). See the chart above. For normalized numbers, which are the most common, the exponent is the biased exponent and fraction is the significand without the most significant bit. The number has value v: v = s × 2e × m or Where s = +1 (positive numbers and +0) when the sign bit is 0 s = −1 (negative numbers and −0) when the sign bit is 1 e = exponent − 127 (in other words the exponent is stored with 127 added to it, also called "biased with 127") m = 1.fraction in binary (that is, the significand is the binary number 1 followed by the radix point followed by the binary bits of the fraction). Therefore, 1 ≤ m < 2. In the example shown above, the sign is zero so s is +1, the exponent is 124 so e is −3, and the significand m is 1.01 (in binary, which is 1.25 in decimal). The represented number is therefore +1.25 × 2−3, which is +0.15625. Notes Denormalized numbers are the same except that e = −126 and m is 0.fraction. (e is not −127 : The fraction has to be shifted to the right by one more bit, in order to include the leading bit, which is not always 1 in this case. This is balanced by incrementing the exponent to −126 for the calculation.) −126 is the smallest exponent for a normalized number There are two Zeroes, +0 (s is 0) and −0 (s is 1) There are two Infinities +∞ (s is 0) and −∞ (s is 1) NaNs may have a sign and a fraction, but these have no meaning other than for diagnostics; the first bit of the fraction is often used to distinguish signaling NaNs from quiet NaNs NaNs and Infinities have all 1s in the Exp field. The positive and negative numbers closest to zero (represented by the denormalized value with all 0s in the Exp field and the binary value 1 in the Fraction field) are ±2−149 ≈ ±1.4012985 The positive and negative normalized numbers closest to zero (represented with the binary value 1 in the Exp field and 0 in the fraction field) are ±2−126 ≈ ±1.175494351 The finite positive and finite negative numbers furthest from zero (represented by the value with 254 in the Exp field and all 1s in the fraction field) are ±(1-2-24)×2128 ≈ ±3.4028235 Here is the summary table from the previous section with some 32-bit single-precision examples: Type Sign Exp Exp+Bias Exponent Significand (Mantissa) Value Zero 0 -127 0 0000 0000 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0.0 Negative zero 1 -127 0 0000 0000 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 -0.0 One 0 0 127 0111 1111 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1.0 Minus One 1 0 127 0111 1111 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 −1.0 Smallest denormalized number * -127 0 0000 0000 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 ±2−23 × 2−126 = ±2−149 ≈ ±1.4 "Middle" denormalized number * -127 0 0000 0000 100 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 ±2−1 × 2−126 = ±2−127 ≈ ±5.88 Largest denormalized number * -127 0 0000 0000 111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 ±(1−2−23) × 2−126 ≈ ±1.18 Smallest normalized number * -126 1 0000 0001 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 ±2−126 ≈ ±1.18 Largest normalized number * 127 254 1111 1110 111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 ±(2−2−23) × 2127 ≈ ±3.4 Positive infinity 0 128 255 1111 1111 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 +∞ Negative infinity 1 128 255 1111 1111 000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 −∞ Not a number * 128 255 1111 1111 non zero NaN * Sign bit can be either 0 or 1 . Range and Precision Table Some example range and precision values for given exponents: Exponent Minimum Maximum Precision 0 1 1.999999880791 1.19209289551e-7 1 2 3.99999976158 2.38418579102e-7 2 4 7.99999952316 4.76837158203e-7 10 1024 2047.99987793 1.220703125e-4 11 2048 4095.99975586 2.44140625e-4 23 8388608 16777215 1 24 16777216 33554430 2 127 1.7014e38 3.4028e38 2.02824096037e31 As an example, 16,777,217 can not be encoded as a 32-bit float as it will be rounded to 16,777,216. This shows why floating point arithmetic is unsuitable for accounting software. However, all integers within the representable range that are a power of 2 can be stored in a 32-bit float without rounding. A more complex example Bit values for the IEEE 754 32bit float -118.625 The decimal number −118.625 is encoded using the IEEE 754 system as follows: The sign, the exponent, and the fraction are extracted from the original number. First, because the number is negative, the sign bit is "1". Next, the number (without the sign; i.e., unsigned, no two's complement) is converted to binary notation, giving 1110110.101. The 101 after the binary point has the value 0.625 because it is the sum of: (2−1) × 1, from the first digit after the binary point (2−2) × 0, from the second digit (2−3) × 1, from the third digit. That binary number is then normalized; that is, the binary point is moved left, leaving only a 1 to its left. The number of places it is moved gives the (power of two) exponent: 1110110.101 becomes 1.110110101 × 26. After this process, the first binary digit is always a 1, so it need not be included in the encoding. The rest is the part to the right of the binary point, which is then padded with zeros on the right to make 23 bits in all, which becomes the significand bits in the encoding: That is, 11011010100000000000000. The exponent is 6. This is encoded by converting it to binary and biasing it (so the most negative encodable exponent is 0, and all exponents are non-negative binary numbers). For the 32-bit IEEE 754 format, the bias is +127 and so 6 + 127 = 133. In binary, this is encoded as 10000101. Double-precision 64 bit The three fields in a 64bit IEEE 754 float Double precision is essentially the same except that the fields are wider: The fraction part is much larger, while the exponent is only slightly larger. NaNs and Infinities are represented with Exp being all 1s (2047). If the fraction part is all zero then it is Infinity, else it is NaN. For Normalized numbers the exponent bias is +1023 (so e is exponent − 1023). For Denormalized numbers the exponent is (−1022) (the minimum exponent for a normalized number—it is not (−1023) because normalised numbers have a leading 1 digit before the binary point and denormalized numbers do not). As before, both infinity and zero are signed. Notes: The positive and negative numbers closest to zero (represented by the denormalized value with all 0s in the Exp field and the binary value 1 in the Fraction field) are ±2−1074 ≈ ±5 The positive and negative normalized numbers closest to zero (represented with the binary value 1 in the Exp field and 0 in the fraction field) are ±2−1022 ≈ ±2.2250738585072020 The finite positive and finite negative numbers furthest from zero (represented by the value with 2046 in the Exp field and all 1s in the fraction field) are ±((1-(1/2)53)21024) ≈ ±1.7976931348623157 Comparing floating-point numbers Every possible bit combination is either a NaN or a number with a unique value in the affinely extended real number system with its associated order, except for the two bit combinations negative zero and positive zero, which sometimes require special attention (see below). The binary representation has the special property that, excluding NaNs, any two numbers can be compared like sign and magnitude integers (although with modern computer processors this is no longer directly applicable): if the sign bit is different, the negative number precedes the positive number (except that negative zero and positive zero should be considered equal), otherwise, relative order is the same as lexicographical order but inverted for two negative numbers; endianness issues apply. Floating-point arithmetic is subject to rounding that may affect the outcome of comparisons on the results of the computations. Although negative zero and positive zero are generally considered equal for comparison purposes, some programming language relational operators and similar constructs might or do treat them as distinct. According to the Java Language Specification, The Java Language Specification comparison and equality operators treat them as equal, but Math.min() and Math.max() distinguish them (officially starting with Java version 1.1 but actually with 1.1.1), as do the comparison methods equals(), compareTo() and even compare() of classes Float and Double. For C++, the standard does not have anything to say on the subject, so it is important to verify this (one environment tested treated them as equal when using a floating-point variable and treated them as distinct and with negative zero preceding positive zero when comparing floating-point literals). Rounding floating-point numbers The IEEE standard has four different rounding modes; the first is the default; the others are called directed roundings. Round to Nearest – rounds to the nearest value; if the number falls midway it is rounded to the nearest value with an even (zero) least significant bit, which occurs 50% of the time (in IEEE 754r this mode is called roundTiesToEven to distinguish it from another round-to-nearest mode) Round toward 0 – directed rounding towards zero Round toward – directed rounding towards positive infinity Round toward – directed rounding towards negative infinity. Extending the real numbers The IEEE standard employs (and extends) the affinely extended real number system, with separate positive and negative infinities. During drafting, there was a proposal for the standard to incorporate the projectively extended real number system, with a single unsigned infinity, by providing programmers with a mode selection option. In the interest of reducing the complexity of the final standard, the projective mode was dropped, however. The Intel 8087 and Intel 80287 floating point co-processors both support this projective mode. Functions and predicates Standard operations The following functions must be provided: Add, subtract, multiply, divide Square root Floating point remainder. This is not like a normal modulo operation, it can be negative for two positive numbers. It returns the exact value of x-(round(x/y)*y). Round to nearest integer. For undirected rounding when halfway between two integers the even integer is chosen. Comparison operations. NaN is treated specially in that NaN=NaN always returns false. Recommended functions and predicates Under some C compilers, copysign(x,y) returns x with the sign of y, so abs(x) equals copysign(x,1.0). This is one of the few operations which operates on a NaN in a way resembling arithmetic. The function copysign is new in the C99 standard. −x returns x with the sign reversed. This is different from 0−x in some cases, notably when x is 0. So −(0) is −0, but the sign of 0−0 depends on the rounding mode. scalb (y, N) logb (x) finite (x) a predicate for "x is a finite value", equivalent to −Inf < x < Inf isnan (x) a predicate for "x is a nan", equivalent to "x ≠ x" x <> y which turns out to have different exception behavior than NOT(x = y). unordered (x, y) is true when "x is unordered with y", i.e., either x or y is a NaN. class (x) nextafter(x,y) returns the next representable value from x in the direction towards y See also IEEE 754-2008 −0 (negative zero) Intel 8087 (early implementation effort) minifloat for simple examples of properties of IEEE 754 floating point numbers Q (number format) For constant resolution References Further reading External links A compendium of non-intuitive behaviours of floating-point on popular architectures, with implications for program verification and testing Comparing floats Coprocessor.info: x87 FPU pictures, development and manufacturer information IEEE 754 references IEEE 854-1987 — History and minutes Online IEEE 754 Calculators | IEEE_754-1985 |@lemmatized first:6 ieee:30 standard:16 binary:26 float:32 point:30 arithmetic:9 set:2 computation:3 year:1 become:3 widely:1 use:8 follow:5 many:2 cpu:1 fpu:2 implementation:2 floating:1 format:7 preserve:1 new:2 replace:1 defines:1 represent:13 number:66 include:4 negative:23 zero:30 denormal:1 special:4 value:33 infinity:15 nan:19 together:1 operation:5 operate:2 also:5 specify:2 four:3 rounding:4 mode:8 five:1 exception:3 occur:3 happen:1 summary:2 specifies:1 single:7 precision:14 bit:44 double:7 extend:4 commonly:1 usually:1 implement:2 require:3 others:2 optional:2 language:5 although:3 sometimes:2 example:8 c:4 programming:2 pre:1 date:1 allow:1 typically:1 us:1 full:1 title:1 ansi:1 std:1 know:1 iec:2 microprocessor:1 system:5 originally:1 reference:3 later:1 radix:3 independent:1 long:1 june:1 major:1 revision:1 approve:1 see:6 structure:1 description:1 convention:1 article:1 bits:1 within:3 word:2 width:1 w:2 index:2 integer:6 range:6 inclusive:1 draw:1 right:4 unless:1 otherwise:2 state:1 low:1 indexed:1 lsb:1 least:2 significant:8 one:6 change:1 would:4 cause:1 small:4 variation:1 general:1 layout:1 three:3 field:18 store:6 sign:20 magnitude:2 form:1 exponent:40 biased:3 fraction:22 significand:9 without:4 bias:11 e:9 g:1 excess:1 n:2 biasing:2 order:5 able:1 tiny:1 huge:1 two:10 complement:2 usual:1 representation:2 signed:1 make:2 comparison:7 harder:1 solve:1 adjust:1 put:1 unsigned:3 suitable:1 wide:1 case:5 determine:1 say:3 normalize:4 de:1 arise:1 depend:2 summarize:1 type:2 denormalized:10 non:5 normalized:8 representable:3 explanation:1 understand:1 reserve:2 encode:6 chart:1 common:1 v:2 positive:16 add:2 call:3 therefore:2 show:2 decimal:2 represented:1 note:2 except:4 shift:1 leading:1 always:3 balance:1 incrementing:1 calculation:1 may:2 meaning:1 diagnostics:1 often:1 distinguish:3 signal:1 quiet:1 exp:10 closest:4 finite:6 furthest:2 table:2 previous:1 section:1 mantissa:1 minus:1 middle:1 large:4 either:3 give:3 minimum:2 maximum:1 round:17 unsuitable:1 account:1 software:1 however:2 power:2 complex:1 extract:1 original:1 next:2 convert:2 notation:1 sum:1 digit:5 second:1 third:1 move:2 left:2 leave:1 place:1 process:1 need:1 encoding:2 rest:1 part:3 pad:1 encodable:1 essentially:1 wider:1 much:1 slightly:1 else:1 normalise:1 lead:1 compare:5 every:1 possible:1 combination:2 unique:1 affinely:2 extended:3 real:4 associated:1 attention:1 property:2 exclude:1 like:2 modern:1 computer:1 processor:2 longer:1 directly:1 applicable:1 different:4 precede:2 consider:2 equal:6 relative:1 lexicographical:1 invert:1 endianness:1 issue:1 apply:1 subject:2 affect:1 outcome:1 result:1 generally:1 purpose:1 relational:1 operator:2 similar:1 construct:1 might:1 treat:5 distinct:2 accord:1 java:3 specification:2 equality:1 math:2 min:1 max:1 officially:1 start:1 version:1 actually:1 method:1 compareto:1 even:3 class:2 anything:1 important:1 verify:1 environment:1 test:2 variable:1 literal:1 default:1 directed:1 nearest:1 near:4 fall:1 midway:1 time:1 roundtiestoeven:1 another:1 toward:3 direct:3 towards:4 employ:1 separate:1 draft:1 proposal:1 incorporate:1 projectively:1 provide:2 programmer:1 selection:1 option:1 interest:1 reduce:1 complexity:1 final:1 projective:2 drop:1 intel:3 co:1 support:1 function:4 predicate:4 following:1 must:1 subtract:1 multiply:1 divide:1 square:1 root:1 remainder:1 normal:1 modulo:1 return:5 exact:1 x:26 undirected:1 halfway:1 choose:1 specially:1 false:1 recommend:1 compiler:1 copysign:3 abs:1 way:1 resemble:1 reverse:1 notably:1 depends:1 scalb:1 logb:1 equivalent:2 inf:2 isnan:1 turn:1 behavior:1 unordered:2 true:1 nextafter:1 direction:1 early:1 effort:1 minifloat:1 simple:1 q:1 constant:1 resolution:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 compendium:1 intuitive:1 behaviour:1 popular:1 architecture:1 implication:1 program:1 verification:1 coprocessor:1 info:1 picture:1 development:1 manufacturer:1 information:1 history:1 minute:1 online:1 calculator:1 |@bigram ansi_ieee:1 ieee_std:1 ieee_ieee:1 unless_otherwise:1 exponent_fraction:8 bit_significand:3 intel_intel:1 add_subtract:1 subtract_multiply:1 logb_x:1 external_link:1 |
939 | Ancient_Pueblo_peoples | Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park White House Ruins, Canyon de Chelly National Monument Ancient Pueblo People or Ancestral Puebloans were an ancient Native American culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, noted for their distinctive pottery and dwelling construction styles. The cultural group is often referred to as the Anasazi. Archaeologists still debate when a distinct culture emerged, but the current consensus, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence around 1200 BC,during the Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers have believed that the Ancient Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples. http://hewit.unco.edu/DOHIST/puebloan/begin.htm In general, modern Pueblo people claim these ancient people as their ancestors. The term "Anasazi" is not preferred by their descendants, though there is still some controversy amongst them on a native alternative. The word Anasazi is Navajo for "Ancient Ones" or "Ancient Enemy." Geography Anasazi territory The Ancient Pueblo were one of four major prehistoric archaeological traditions of the American Southwest. The others are the Mogollon, Hohokam and Patayan. In relation to neighboring cultures, the Ancient Pueblo occupied the northeast quadrant of the area. The Anasazi or "Ancient Pueblo" from CP-LUHNA The Ancient Pueblo homeland centers on the Colorado Plateau, but extends from central New Mexico on the east to southern Nevada on the west. Areas of southern Nevada, Utah and Colorado form a loose northern boundary, while the southern edge is defined by the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers in Arizona and the Rio Puerco and Rio Grande in New Mexico. However, evidence of Ancient Pueblo culture has been found extending east onto the American Great Plains, in areas near the Cimarron and Pecos rivers and in the Galisteo Basin. Terrain and resources within this massive region vary greatly. The plateau regions are generally high, with elevations ranging from 4500 to . Extensive horizontal mesas are capped by sedimentary formations and support woodlands of junipers, pinon, ponderosa pines, and yellow pines, each favoring different elevations. Wind and water erosion have created steep walled canyons, and sculpted windows and bridges out of the sandstone landscape. In areas where erosionally resistant strata (sedimentary rock layers) such as sandstone or limestone overlie more easily eroded strata such as shale, rock overhangs formed. These overhangs were favored sites for shelters and building sites. The range country in areas such as the San Juan, Gallup and Albuquerque basins is low and arid, supporting desert grasses and shrubs. Streams in these regions allow the growth of willows and reeds, and were utilized by the Ancient Pueblo for agriculture. Mountains in the region are as tall as , and provided timber, game, minerals, and the specialized stone used for flaked tools. In the southwest, access to water was essential. All areas of the Ancient Pueblo homeland suffered from periods of drought and wind and water erosion. Summer rains could be undependable and often arrived in destructive thunderstorms. While the amount of winter snowfall varied greatly, the Ancient Pueblo depended on the snow for most of their water. Snow melt allowed the germination of seeds, both wild and cultivated, in the spring. Where sandstone layers overlay shale, snow melt could accumulate and create seeps and springs, which the Ancient Pueblo used as water sources. Snow also fed the smaller, more predictable tributaries, such as the Chinle, Animas, Jemez and Taos rivers. The larger rivers were less important to the ancient culture, as smaller streams were more easily diverted or controlled for irrigation. Cultural characteristics Pueblo Bonito, the largest of the Chacoan Great Houses, stands at the foot of Chaco Canyon's northern rim. The Ancient Pueblo culture is perhaps best-known for the stone and adobe dwellings built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras. The adobe houses were built out of mud and dirt that they had molded together. The best-preserved examples of those dwellings are in National Parks (USA), parks such as Chaco Canyon or Chaco Culture National Historical Park, Bandelier National Monument, Mesa Verde National Park, Hovenweep National Monument, and Canyon de Chelly National Monument. These villages, called pueblos by Spanish settlers, were often only accessible by rope or through rock climbing. However, these astonishing building achievements had more modest beginnings. The first Ancestral Puebloan homes and villages were based on the pit-house, a common feature in the Basketmaker periods. The Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their pottery. In the "Anasazi" (northern) portion of the Ancestral Pueblo world, from about 500 to 1300 AD, the most common decorated pottery had black painted designs on white or light gray backgrounds. (In northern New Mexico, the local "black on white" tradition, the Rio Grande white wares, continued well after 1300 AD.) Pottery used for cooking or storage was unpainted gray ware, either smooth or textured. The Ancestral Puebloans also created many petroglyphs and pictographs. Origins The period from 700-1130 AD saw a rapid increase in population due to consistent and regular rainfall patterns. From studies of skeletal remains, this growth was due to increased fertility rather than decreased mortality. However, this tenfold increase in population over the course of a few generations could not be achieved by increased birthrate alone; likely it also involved migrations of peoples from surrounding areas. Innovations such as pottery, food storage, and agriculture enabled this rapid growth. Over several decades, the Ancient Pueblo culture spread across the landscape. Anasazi culture has been divided into three main areas or branches, based on geographical location: Chaco Canyon (northwest New Mexico), Kayenta (northeast Arizona), and Northern San Juan (or Mesa Verde) (southwest Colorado). Modern Pueblo oral traditions hold that they originated to the north of their current settlements, from Shibapu, where they emerged from the underworld through a lake. For unknown ages they were led by war chiefs guided by the Great Spirit across North America. They settled first in the Anasazi areas for a few hundred years, then migrated to their current location. Migration from the homeland Ancestral Puebloan ruins in Dark Canyon Wilderness, Utah It is not entirely clear why the Ancestral Puebloans migrated from their established homes in the 12th and 13th centuries. Factors examined and discussed include global or regional climate change (cf. Little Ice Age), prolonged periods of drought, cyclical periods of topsoil erosion, environmental degradation, de-forestation, hostility from new arrivals, religious or cultural change, and even influence from Mesoamerican cultures. Many of these possibilities are supported by archaeological evidence. Current opinion holds that the Ancestral Puebloans responded to pressure from Numic-speaking peoples moving onto the Colorado Plateau as well as climate change which resulted in agricultural failures. The archaeological record indicates that it was not unusual for ancient Pueblo peoples to adapt to climatic change by changing residences and locations. Early Pueblo I sites may have housed up to 600 individuals in a few separate but closely spaced settlement clusters. However, they were generally occupied for a mere 30 years or less. Archaeologist Timothy A. Kohler excavated large Pueblo I sites near Dolores, Colorado, and discovered that they were established during periods of above-average rainfall. This would allow crops to be grown without benefit of irrigation. At the same time, nearby areas experiencing significantly drier patterns were abandoned. The ancient Pueblos attained a cultural "Golden Age" between about 900 and 1130. During this time, generally classed as Pueblo II, the climate was relatively warm and rainfall mostly adequate. Communities grew larger and were inhabited for longer periods of time. Highly specific local traditions in architecture and pottery emerged, and trade over long distances appears to have been common. Domesticated turkeys appear. After approximately 1150, North America experienced significant climatic change in the form of a 300 year drought called the Great Drought, which also led to the collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization around Lake Titicaca. Mountains of Evidence from American Scientist The contemporary Mississippian culture also collapsed during this period. Confirming evidence is found in excavations of the western regions of the Mississippi Valley between 1150 and 1350, which show long-lasting patterns of warmer, wetter winters and cooler, drier summers. In this later period, the Pueblo II became more self-contained, decreasing trade and interaction with more distant communities. Southwest farmers developed irrigation techniques appropriate to seasonal rainfall, including soil and water control features such as check dams and terraces. However, the population of the region continued to be mobile, abandoning settlements and fields under adverse conditions. Along with this change in precipitation patterns, there was a drop in water table levels due to a different cycle unrelated to rainfall. This forced the abandonment of settlements in the more arid or over-farmed locations. Evidence also suggests a profound change in religion in this period. Chacoan and other structures constructed originally along astronomical alignments, and thought to have served important ceremonial purposes to the culture, were systematically dismantled. Doorways were sealed with rock and mortar. Kiva walls show marks from great fires set within them, which probably required removal of the massive roof - a task which would require significant effort. Habitations were abandoned, tribes split and divided and resettled far elsewhere. This evidence suggests that the religious structures were deliberately abandoned slowly over time. Puebloan tradition holds that the ancestors had achieved great spiritual power and control over natural forces, and used their power in ways that caused nature to change, and caused changes that were never meant to occur. Possibly, the dismantling of their religious structures was an effort to symbolically undo the changes they felt they caused due to their abuse of their spiritual power, and thus make amends with nature. Most modern Pueblo peoples (whether Keresans, Hopi, or Tanoans) and historians such as James W. Loewen, in his book Lies Across America: What Our Historic Markers and Monuments Get Wrong(1999), assert the ancient Pueblo did not "vanish" as is commonly portrayed in media presentations or popular books, but migrated to areas in the southwest with more favorable rainfall and dependable streams. They merged into the various Pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in Arizona and New Mexico. This perspective is not new and was also presented in reports from early 20th century anthropologists, including Frank Hamilton Cushing, J. Walter Fewkes and Alfred V. Kidder. Many modern Pueblo tribes trace their lineage from settlements. Evidence also suggests that a profound change took place in the Anasazi area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors, the Mogollon. For example, the San Ildefonso Pueblo people believe that their ancestors lived in both the Mesa Verde and the Bandelier areas. Warfare and cannibalism Stress on the environment may have been reflected in the social structure, leading to conflict and warfare. Near Kayenta, Arizona, Jonathan Haas of the Field Museum in Chicago has been studying a group of Anasazi villages that relocated from the canyons to the high mesa tops during the late 1200s. The only reason Haas can see for a move so far from water and arable land is defense against enemies. He asserts that isolated communities relied on raiding for food and supplies, and that internal conflict and warfare became common in the 13th century. This conflict may have been aggravated by the influx of less settled peoples, Numic-speakers such as the Utes, Shoshones and Piutes, who may have originated in what is today California. A 1997 excavation at Cowboy Wash near Dolores, Colorado, found remains of at least twenty-four human skeletons that showed evidence of violence and dismemberment, with strong indications of cannibalism. This modest community appears to have been abandoned during the same time period. (LeBlanc, p. 174) Other excavations within the Ancient Pueblo culture area produce varying numbers of unburied, and in some cases dismembered, bodies. Tim White, Prehistoric cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346, Princeton, 1992, ISBN 0-691-09467-5 This evidence of warfare, conflict, and cannibalism is hotly debated by some scholars and interest groups. Anasazi as a cultural label The term "Anasazi" was established in archaeological terminology through the Pecos Classification system in 1927. Archaeologist Linda Cordell discussed the word's etymology and use: "The name "Anasazi" has come to mean "ancient people," although the word itself is Navajo, meaning "enemy ancestors." [The Navajo word is anaasází (<anaa- "enemy", sází "ancestor").] It is unfortunate that a non-Pueblo word has come to stand for a tradition that is certainly ancestral Pueblo. The term was first applied to ruins of the Mesa Verde by Richard Wetherill, a rancher and trader who, in 1888–1889, was the first Anglo-American to explore the sites in that area. Wetherill knew and worked with Navajos and understood what the word meant. The name was further sanctioned in archaeology when it was adopted by Alfred V. Kidder, the acknowledged dean of Southwestern Archaeology. Kidder felt that it was less cumbersome than a more technical term he might have used. Subsequently some archaeologists who would try to change the term have worried that because the Pueblos speak different languages, there are different words for "ancestor," and using one might be offensive to people speaking other languages. (Cordell, pp. 18-19) However, some translations of "Anasazi" suggest a translation closer to "ancestors that are now scattered", perhaps referring to a diaspora or exodus. Some modern Pueblo peoples object to the use of the term Anasazi, although there is still controversy among them on a native alternative. Some modern descendants of this culture often choose to use the term "pueblo peoples." The modern Hopi use the word "Hisatsinom" in preference to Anasazi. Pueblo culture, scroll down However, Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department (NNHPD) spokesperson Ronald Maldonado has indicated the Navajo do not favor use of the term "Ancestral Puebloan." In fact, reports submitted for review by NNHPD are rejected if they include use of the term. In David Robert's "In Search of the Old Ones: Exploring the Anasazi World of the Southwest" the author explained his reason for using the term "Anasazi" over a term using "Puebloan," noting that the latter term "derives from the language of an oppressor who treated the indigenes of the Southwest far more brutally than the Navajo ever did." Cultural distinctions Boy in doorway, Balcony House, Mesa Verde National Park Archaeological cultural units such as "Anasazi", Hohokam, Patayan or Mogollon are used by archaeologists to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric socio-cultural units, equivalent to modern societies or peoples. The names and divisions are classification devices based on theoretical perspectives, analytical methods and data available at the time of analysis and publication. They are subject to change, not only on the basis of new information and discoveries, but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community. It should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio-political entity such as a tribe. When making use of modern cultural divisions in the American Southwest, it is important to comprehend that current terms and conventions have significant limitations: Archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people’s activities: fragments of pottery vessels, garbage, human remains, stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings. However, many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible. Their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials, and their languages remain unknown as they had no known writing system. Cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist, and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relationships the ancient residents may have recognized. Modern cultures in this region, many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors, contain a striking range of diversity in lifestyles, social organization, language and religious beliefs. This suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest. The modern term “style” has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or architecture can be interpreted. Within a people, different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group. For example, in modern Western cultures, there are alternative styles of clothing that characterized older and younger generations. Some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions, on teaching from one generation or “school” to another. Other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture, perhaps defining status, gender, clan or guild affiliation, religious belief or cultural alliances. Variations may also simply reflect the different resources available in a given time or area. Defining cultural groups, such as the Ancient Pueblo peoples, tends to create an image of territories separated by clear-cut boundaries, like border boundaries separating modern states. These simply did not exist. Prehistoric people traded, worshipped, collaborated and fought most often with other nearby groups. Cultural differences should therefore be understood as “clinal”, "increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases." (Plog, p. 72.) Departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers. In the Southwest, mountain ranges, rivers and, most obviously, the Grand Canyon can be significant barriers for human communities, likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups. Current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the Mogollon and Ancient Pueblos and their greater differences from the Hohokam and Patayan is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the Southwest. See also Anasazi flute Anasazi Indian State Park Cliff Palace Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed Gallina Kokopelli Matrilocality Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument Prehistoric Southwestern Cultural Divisions Poqanghoya Puye Cliff Dwellings Salmon Ruins Sipapu Taos Pueblo Tsankawi Tsirege Virgin Anasazi Water glyphs Zuni References Childs, Craig House of Rain: Tracking a Vanished Civilization Across the American Southwest. Little, Brown and Company, February 22, 2007. ISBN 0316608173. Cordell, Linda S. Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5. Fagan, Brian M. "Ancient North America: Tha Archaeology of a Continent (part five)." Thames and Hudson, Inc., New York, New York, 1991. ISBN 0-500-05075-9. Jennings, Jesse D. Glen Canyon: An Archaeological Summary. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1966, republished 1998. ISBN 0-87480-584-8. LeBlanc, Steven A. "Prehistoric Warfare in the American Southwest." 1999, University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, Utah. ISBN 0-87480-581-3. Plog, Stephen. Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest. Thames and Hudson, London, England, 1997. ISBN 0-500-27939-X. Roberts, David D. In Search of the Old Ones: Exploring the Anasazi World of the Southwest. Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group, 1996. ISBN 0-684-81078-6. Sofaer, Anna , Director. "Mystery of Chaco Canyon." 1999. DVD/VHS. Bullfrog Films. Blurb: "Unveiling the ancient astronomy of southwestern Pueblo Indians." Sequel to "The Sun Dagger." Great Drought. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 30, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/243212/Great-Drought External links People of the Colorado Plateau An Early Population Explosion on the Colorado Plateau The People of the Mountains, Mesas and Grasslands Cliff Palace of the Anasazi Photo 1054 Supernova Petrograph The Chaco Meridian Oral Tradition and History of the Ancient People Life Lists at SmithsonianMag.com: Mesa Verde | Ancient_Pueblo_peoples |@lemmatized cliff:5 palace:3 mesa:10 verde:7 national:9 park:7 white:5 house:7 ruin:4 canyon:11 de:3 chelly:2 monument:6 ancient:33 pueblo:42 people:28 ancestral:10 puebloans:6 native:3 american:9 culture:21 center:2 present:2 day:1 four:3 corner:1 area:18 southwest:15 united:1 state:4 note:2 distinctive:1 pottery:8 dwell:1 construction:2 style:4 cultural:17 group:11 often:5 refer:2 anasazi:24 archaeologist:5 still:4 debate:2 distinct:1 emerge:3 current:6 consensus:1 base:5 terminology:2 define:5 pecos:3 classification:3 suggest:7 emergence:1 around:2 bc:1 basketmaker:2 ii:4 era:2 begin:2 early:4 exploration:1 excavation:4 researcher:1 believe:2 ancestor:9 modern:15 http:2 hewit:1 unco:1 edu:1 dohist:1 puebloan:6 htm:1 general:1 claim:2 term:14 prefer:1 descendant:3 though:1 controversy:2 amongst:1 alternative:3 word:8 navajo:7 one:6 enemy:4 geography:2 territory:2 major:1 prehistoric:7 archaeological:8 tradition:8 others:1 mogollon:4 hohokam:3 patayan:3 relation:1 neighboring:1 occupy:2 northeast:2 quadrant:1 cp:1 luhna:1 homeland:3 colorado:10 plateau:5 extend:2 central:1 new:10 mexico:5 east:2 southern:3 nevada:2 west:1 utah:6 form:3 loose:1 northern:5 boundary:3 edge:1 little:3 river:5 arizona:4 rio:3 puerco:1 grande:2 however:8 evidence:10 find:3 onto:2 great:9 plain:1 near:4 cimarron:1 galisteo:1 basin:2 terrain:1 resource:2 within:6 massive:2 region:7 vary:3 greatly:2 generally:3 high:2 elevation:2 range:4 extensive:1 horizontal:1 cap:1 sedimentary:2 formation:1 support:3 woodland:1 juniper:1 pinon:1 ponderosa:1 pine:2 yellow:1 favor:3 different:6 wind:2 water:9 erosion:3 create:4 steep:1 walled:1 sculpt:1 window:1 bridge:1 sandstone:3 landscape:2 erosionally:1 resistant:1 stratum:2 rock:5 layer:2 limestone:1 overlie:1 easily:2 erode:1 shale:2 overhang:2 site:5 shelter:1 building:2 country:1 san:3 juan:2 gallup:1 albuquerque:1 low:1 arid:2 desert:1 grass:1 shrub:1 stream:3 allow:3 growth:3 willow:1 reed:1 utilize:1 agriculture:2 mountain:4 tall:1 provide:1 timber:1 game:1 mineral:1 specialized:1 stone:3 use:16 flaked:1 tool:3 access:1 essential:1 suffer:1 period:11 drought:6 summer:2 rain:2 could:3 undependable:1 arrive:1 destructive:1 thunderstorm:1 amount:1 winter:2 snowfall:1 depend:1 snow:4 melt:2 germination:1 seed:1 wild:1 cultivate:1 spring:2 overlay:1 accumulate:1 seeps:1 source:1 also:14 feed:1 small:2 predictable:1 tributary:1 chinle:1 anima:1 jemez:1 tao:2 large:5 less:4 important:3 divert:1 control:3 irrigation:3 characteristic:1 bonito:1 chacoan:2 stand:2 foot:1 chaco:6 rim:1 perhaps:3 best:2 know:3 adobe:2 dwelling:4 build:2 along:3 wall:2 particularly:1 iii:1 mud:1 dirt:1 mold:1 together:1 preserve:1 example:3 usa:1 historical:1 bandelier:2 hovenweep:1 village:3 call:2 spanish:1 settler:1 accessible:1 rope:1 climbing:1 astonish:1 achievement:1 modest:2 beginning:1 first:4 home:2 pit:1 common:4 feature:2 portion:1 world:3 ad:3 decorated:1 black:2 paint:1 design:1 light:1 gray:2 background:1 local:2 ware:2 continue:2 well:2 cook:1 storage:2 unpainted:1 either:1 smooth:1 textured:1 many:5 petroglyph:1 pictograph:1 origins:1 saw:1 rapid:2 increase:5 population:4 due:5 consistent:1 regular:1 rainfall:6 pattern:5 study:2 skeletal:1 remain:4 fertility:1 rather:1 decrease:2 mortality:1 tenfold:1 course:1 generation:3 achieve:2 increased:1 birthrate:1 alone:1 likely:2 involve:1 migration:2 surround:1 innovation:1 food:2 enable:1 several:1 decade:1 spread:1 across:4 divide:2 three:1 main:1 branch:1 geographical:1 location:4 northwest:1 kayenta:2 oral:2 hold:4 originate:2 north:4 settlement:5 shibapu:1 underworld:1 lake:4 unknown:2 age:3 lead:3 war:1 chief:1 guide:1 spirit:1 america:4 settle:1 hundred:1 year:3 migrate:3 dark:1 wilderness:1 entirely:1 clear:2 establish:3 century:3 factor:1 examine:1 discuss:2 include:4 global:1 regional:1 climate:4 change:15 cf:1 ice:1 prolonged:1 cyclical:1 topsoil:1 environmental:1 degradation:1 forestation:1 hostility:1 arrival:1 religious:5 even:1 influence:1 mesoamerican:1 possibility:1 opinion:2 respond:1 pressure:1 numic:2 speaking:1 move:2 result:1 agricultural:1 failure:1 record:1 indicate:2 unusual:1 adapt:1 climatic:2 residence:1 may:11 individual:1 separate:4 closely:1 spaced:1 cluster:1 mere:1 timothy:1 kohler:1 excavate:1 dolores:2 discover:1 average:1 would:3 crop:1 grow:2 without:1 benefit:1 time:7 nearby:2 experience:1 significantly:1 dry:2 abandon:5 attain:1 golden:1 class:1 relatively:1 warm:1 mostly:1 adequate:1 community:6 inhabit:2 long:3 highly:1 specific:1 architecture:2 trade:3 distance:2 appear:3 domesticated:1 turkey:1 approximately:1 experienced:1 significant:4 collapse:3 tiwanaku:1 civilization:2 titicaca:1 scientist:2 contemporary:1 mississippian:1 confirm:1 western:2 mississippi:1 valley:1 show:3 lasting:1 warmer:1 wetter:1 cooler:1 late:2 become:2 self:1 contain:2 interaction:1 distant:1 farmer:1 develop:1 technique:1 appropriate:1 seasonal:1 soil:1 check:1 dam:1 terrace:1 mobile:1 field:2 adverse:1 condition:1 precipitation:1 drop:1 table:1 level:1 cycle:1 unrelated:1 force:2 abandonment:1 farmed:1 profound:2 religion:1 structure:4 construct:1 originally:1 astronomical:1 alignment:1 think:1 serve:1 ceremonial:1 purpose:1 systematically:1 dismantle:1 doorway:2 seal:1 mortar:1 kiva:1 mark:1 fire:1 set:1 probably:1 require:2 removal:1 roof:1 task:1 effort:2 habitation:1 tribes:1 split:1 resettle:1 far:4 elsewhere:1 deliberately:1 slowly:1 spiritual:2 power:3 natural:1 way:1 cause:3 nature:2 never:1 mean:4 occur:2 possibly:1 dismantling:1 symbolically:1 undo:1 felt:2 abuse:1 thus:1 make:2 amends:1 whether:1 keresans:1 hopi:2 tanoan:1 historian:1 james:1 w:1 loewen:1 book:2 lie:1 historic:3 marker:1 get:1 wrong:1 assert:2 vanish:1 commonly:1 portray:1 medium:1 presentation:1 popular:1 favorable:1 dependable:1 merge:1 various:1 whose:1 live:2 perspective:3 report:2 anthropologist:1 frank:1 hamilton:1 cushing:1 j:1 walter:1 fewkes:1 alfred:2 v:2 kidder:3 tribe:2 trace:1 lineage:1 take:1 place:1 neighbor:1 ildefonso:1 warfare:5 cannibalism:4 stress:1 environment:1 reflect:2 social:3 conflict:4 jonathan:1 haas:2 museum:1 chicago:1 relocate:1 top:1 reason:2 see:2 arable:1 land:1 defense:1 isolated:1 rely:1 raid:1 supply:1 internal:1 aggravate:1 influx:1 settled:1 speaker:1 ute:1 shoshone:1 piute:1 today:1 california:1 cowboy:1 wash:1 remains:1 least:1 twenty:1 human:3 skeleton:1 violence:1 dismemberment:1 strong:1 indication:1 leblanc:2 p:2 produce:1 number:1 unburied:1 case:1 dismember:1 body:1 tim:1 mancos:1 princeton:1 isbn:8 hotly:1 scholar:1 interest:1 label:1 system:2 linda:2 cordell:3 etymology:1 name:3 come:2 although:2 anaasází:1 anaa:1 sází:1 unfortunate:1 non:1 certainly:1 apply:1 richard:1 wetherill:2 rancher:1 trader:1 anglo:1 explore:3 knew:1 work:1 understood:2 meant:1 sanction:1 archaeology:3 adopt:2 acknowledged:1 dean:1 southwestern:3 cumbersome:1 technical:1 might:2 subsequently:1 try:1 worry:1 pueblos:1 speak:2 language:6 offensive:1 pp:1 translation:2 closer:1 scattered:1 diaspora:1 exodus:1 object:1 among:1 choose:2 hisatsinom:1 preference:1 scroll:1 nation:1 preservation:1 department:1 nnhpd:2 spokesperson:1 ronald:1 maldonado:1 fact:1 submit:1 review:1 reject:1 david:2 robert:2 search:2 old:3 author:1 explain:1 latter:1 derive:1 oppressor:1 treat:1 indigene:1 brutally:1 ever:1 distinction:1 boy:1 balcony:1 unit:3 material:4 similarity:2 difference:4 identify:1 socio:2 equivalent:1 society:2 division:6 device:1 theoretical:1 analytical:1 method:1 data:1 available:2 analysis:1 publication:1 subject:1 basis:1 information:1 discovery:1 attitude:1 scientific:1 assume:1 correspond:1 particular:1 political:2 entity:1 comprehend:1 convention:1 limitation:1 research:1 focus:1 item:2 leave:2 behind:1 activity:1 fragment:1 vessel:1 garbage:1 aspect:1 tangible:1 belief:3 behavior:1 difficult:1 decipher:1 physical:1 writing:1 consider:1 similar:1 relationships:1 resident:1 recognize:1 striking:1 diversity:1 lifestyle:1 organization:1 diverse:1 bearing:1 interpret:1 accomplish:1 goal:1 subset:1 clothing:1 characterize:1 young:1 linear:1 teach:1 school:1 another:1 variety:2 distinguish:1 arbitrary:1 status:1 gender:1 clan:1 guild:1 affiliation:1 alliance:1 variation:1 simply:2 give:1 tend:1 image:1 cut:1 like:1 border:1 exist:1 worship:1 collaborate:1 fight:1 therefore:1 clinal:1 gradually:1 plog:2 departure:1 expected:1 unidentified:1 situation:1 geographic:1 barrier:2 obviously:1 grand:1 reduce:1 frequency:1 contact:1 close:1 zone:1 flute:1 indian:2 fail:1 succeed:1 gallina:1 kokopelli:1 matrilocality:1 newspaper:1 poqanghoya:1 puye:1 salmon:1 sipapu:1 tsankawi:1 tsirege:1 virgin:1 glyph:1 zuni:1 reference:1 child:1 craig:1 track:1 vanished:1 brown:1 company:1 february:1 st:1 remy:1 press:3 smithsonian:1 institution:1 fagan:1 brian:1 tha:1 continent:1 part:1 five:1 thames:2 hudson:2 inc:1 york:2 jennings:1 jesse:1 glen:1 summary:1 university:2 salt:2 city:2 republish:1 steven:1 stephen:1 london:1 england:1 x:1 simon:1 schuster:1 adult:1 publish:1 sofaer:1 anna:1 director:1 mystery:1 dvd:1 vhs:1 bullfrog:1 film:1 blurb:1 unveil:1 astronomy:1 sequel:1 sun:1 dagger:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:3 retrieve:1 september:1 online:1 www:1 com:2 ebchecked:1 topic:1 external:1 link:1 explosion:1 grassland:1 photo:1 supernova:1 petrograph:1 meridian:1 history:1 life:1 list:1 smithsonianmag:1 |@bigram mesa_verde:7 de_chelly:2 ancestral_puebloans:5 rio_grande:2 ponderosa_pine:1 sedimentary_rock:1 sandstone_limestone:1 san_juan:2 chaco_canyon:4 rock_climbing:1 environmental_degradation:1 archaeological_evidence:1 closely_spaced:1 lake_titicaca:1 san_ildefonso:1 arable_land:1 hotly_debate:1 smithsonian_institution:1 thames_hudson:2 simon_schuster:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 http_www:1 com_ebchecked:1 ebchecked_topic:1 external_link:1 |
940 | Multiverse | The multiverse (or meta-universe (metaverse)) is the hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including our universe) that together comprise all of reality. The different universes within the multiverse are sometimes called parallel universes. The structure of the multiverse, the nature of each universe within it and the relationship between the various constituent universes, depend on the specific multiverse hypothesis considered. Multiverses have been hypothesized in cosmology, physics, astronomy, philosophy, transpersonal psychology and fiction, particularly in science fiction and fantasy. The specific term "multiverse" was coined in 1895 by psychologist William James. James, William, The Will to Believe, 1895; and earlier in 1895, as cited in OED's new 2003 entry for "multiverse": "1895 W. JAMES in Internat. Jrnl. Ethics 6 10 Visible nature is all plasticity and indifference, a multiverse, as one might call it, and not a universe." In these contexts, parallel universes are also called "alternative universes", "quantum universes", "interpenetrating dimensions", "parallel worlds", "alternative realities", "alternative timelines", etc. Multiverse hypotheses in physics Tegmark's classification Cosmologist Max Tegmark has provided a taxonomy of universes beyond the familiar observable universe. The levels according to Tegmark's classification are briefly described below. (PDF) Level I: Beyond our cosmological horizon A generic prediction of cosmic inflation is an infinite ergodic universe, which, being infinite, must contain Hubble volumes realizing all initial conditions. An infinite universe should contain an infinite number of Hubble volumes. All will have the same physical laws and physical constants. Alexander Shatskiy,I.D. Novikov N.S. Kardashev(2008)"New analytic models of ”traversable” wormholes" However, almost all will be different from our Hubble volume regarding configurations such as how matter is distributed in the volume. But since there are an infinite number of such volumes, then some of these will be very similar or even identical to our own. Thus, far beyond our cosmological horizon, there will eventually be a Hubble volume identical to our own. Tegmark estimates that such an identical volume should be about 10118 meters away. "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations.", Tegmark M., Sci Am. 2003 May;288(5):40-51. Level II: Universes with different physical constants "Bubble universes", every disk is a bubble universe (Universe 1 to Universe 6 are different bubbles, they have physical constants that are different from our universe), our universe is just one of the bubbles. In the chaotic inflation theory, a variant of the cosmic inflation theory, the multiverse as a whole is stretching and will continue doing so forever, but some regions of space stop stretching and form distinct bubbles, like gas pockets in a loaf of rising bread. There exists an infinite number of such bubbles which are embryonic level I universes of infinite size. Different bubbles may experience different spontaneous symmetry breaking resulting in different properties such as different physical constants. This level also include John Archibald Wheeler's oscillatory universe theory and Lee Smolin's fecund universes theory. Level III: Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) is one of several mainstream interpretation of quantum mechanics. In brief, one aspect of quantum mechanics is that certain observations cannot be predicted absolutely. Instead, there is a range of possible observations each with a different probability. According to the MWI, each of these possible observations correspond to a different universe. Suppose a die is thrown that contains 6 sides and that the result correspond to a quantum mechanics observable. All 6 possible ways the die can fall correspond to 6 different universes. (More correctly, in MWI there is only a single universe but after the "split" into "many worlds" these cannot in general interact.) Tegmark, Max, The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics: Many Worlds or Many Words?, 1998. Deutsch, David, David Deutsch's Many Worlds, Frontiers, 1998. Tegmark argues that a level III multiverse does not contain more possibilities in the Hubble volume than a level I-II multiverse. In effect, all the different "worlds" created by "splits" in a level III multiverse with the same physical constants can be found in some Hubble volume in a level I multiverse. Tegmark writes that "The only difference between Level I and Level III is where your doppelgängers reside. In Level I they live elsewhere in good old three-dimensional space. In Level III they live on another quantum branch in infinite-dimensional Hilbert space." Similarly, all level II bubble universes with different physical constants can in effect be found as "worlds" created by "splits" at the moment of spontaneous symmetry breaking in a level III multiverse. Related to the many-worlds idea are Richard Feynman's multiple histories interpretation and H. Dieter Zeh's many-minds interpretation. Level IV: Ultimate Ensemble The Ultimate Ensemble hypothesis of Tegmark himself. This level considers equally real all universes that can be defined by mathematical structures. This also includes those having physical laws different from our observable universe. Tegmark writes that "abstract mathematics is so general that any TOE that is definable in purely formal terms (independent of vague human terminology) is also a mathematical structure. For instance, a TOE involving a set of different types of entities (denoted by words, say) and relations between them (denoted by additional words) is nothing but what mathematicians call a set-theoretical model, and one can generally find a formal system that it is a model of." He argues this "it implies that any conceivable parallel universe theory can be described at Level IV" and "it subsumes all other ensembles, therefore brings closure to the hierarchy of multiverses, and there cannot be say a Level V." (PDF). Jürgen Schmidhuber, however, says the "set of mathematical structures" is not even well-defined, and admits only universe representations describable by constructive mathematics, that is, computer programs. He explicitly includes universe representations describable by non-halting programs whose output bits converge after finite time, although the convergence time itself may not be predictable by a halting program, due to Kurt Gödel's limitations. J. Schmidhuber (1997): A Computer Scientist's View of Life, the Universe, and Everything. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 201-208, Springer: http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/everything/ J. Schmidhuber (2000): Algorithmic Theories of Everything http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0011122 J. Schmidhuber (2002): Hierarchies of generalized Kolmogorov complexities and nonenumerable universal measures computable in the limit. International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science 13(4):587-612 http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/kolmogorov.html He also explicitly discusses the more restricted ensemble of quickly computable universes. J. Schmidhuber (2002): The Speed Prior: A New Simplicity Measure Yielding Near-Optimal Computable Predictions. Proc. 15th Annual Conference on Computational Learning Theory (COLT 2002), Sydney, Australia, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, pp. 216-228. Springer: http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/speedprior.html Istv´an N´emeti and Hajnal Andr´eka"New Physics and Hypercomputation" Jack Sarfatti"Wheeler’s World: It From Bit?" Jack Sarfatti(2001)"Wheeler’s “It From Bit” and Sakharov’s “Metric Elasticity”" David Deutsch(2002)"It From Qubit" Cyclic theories In several theories there is a series of infinite, self-sustaining cycles (for example: an eternity of Big Bang-Big crunches). M-theory A multiverse of a somewhat different kind has been envisaged within the multi-dimensional extension of string theory known as M-theory. In M-theory our universe and others are created by collisions between p-branes in a space with 11 and 26 dimensions (the number of dimensions depends on the chirality of the observer) Richard J Szabo, An introduction to string theory and D-brane dynamics (2004) Maurizio Gasperini, Elements of String Cosmology (2007) ; each universe takes the form of a D-brane Richard J Szabo, An introduction to string theory and D-brane dynamics (2004) Maurizio Gasperini, Elements of String Cosmology (2007) . Objects in each universe are essentially confined to the D-brane of their universe, but may be able to interact with other universes via gravity, a force which is not restricted to D-branes Paul Halpern, The Great Beyond, 2005 . This is unlike the universes in the "quantum multiverse", but both concepts can operate at the same time. Anthropic principle The concept of other universes has been proposed to explain why our universe seems to be fine-tuned for conscious life as we experience it. If there were a large number (possibly infinite) of different physical laws (or fundamental constants) in as many universes, some of these would have laws that were suitable for stars, planets and life to exist Istvan Dienes"Consciousness-Holomatrix Theory" Istvan Dienes"Consciousness As Holographic Quantised Dimension Mechanics" The anthropic principle could then be applied to conclude that we would only consciously exist in those universes which were finely-tuned for our conscious existence. Thus, while the probability might be extremely small that there is life in most of the universes, this scarcity of life-supporting universes does not imply intelligent design as the only explanation of our existence. WMAP cold spot Laura Mersini-Houghton claims that the WMAP cold spot may provide testable empirical evidence for a parallel universe within the multiverse. Criticisms Non-scientific claims Critics claim that many of these theories lack empirical testability, and without hard physical evidence are unfalsifiable; outside the methodology of scientific investigation to confirm or disprove. Specified complexity William Dembski, a proponent of intelligent design, criticizes multiverse theories using arguments based on specified complexity. William A. Dembski"The Chance Of The Gaps" Occam's Razor Critics argue that to postulate usually unobservable universes just to explain our universe seems contrary to Occam's razor. Tegmark answers: "A skeptic worries about all the information necessary to specify all those unseen worlds. But an entire ensemble is often much simpler than one of its members. This principle can be stated more formally using the notion of algorithmic information content. The algorithmic information content in a number is, roughly speaking, the length of the shortest computer program that will produce that number as output. For example, consider the set of all integers. Which is simpler, the whole set or just one number? Naively, you might think that a single number is simpler, but the entire set can be generated by quite a trivial computer program, whereas a single number can be hugely long. Therefore, the whole set is actually simpler. Similarly, the set of all solutions to Einstein's field equations is simpler than a specific solution. The former is described by a few equations, whereas the latter requires the specification of vast amounts of initial data on some hypersurface. The lesson is that complexity increases when we restrict our attention to one particular element in an ensemble, thereby losing the symmetry and simplicity that were inherent in the totality of all the elements taken together. In this sense, the higher-level multiverses are simpler. Going from our universe to the Level I multiverse eliminates the need to specify initial conditions, upgrading to Level II eliminates the need to specify physical constants, and the Level IV multiverse eliminates the need to specify anything at all." He continues "A common feature of all four multiverse levels is that the simplest and arguably most elegant theory involves parallel universes by default. To deny the existence of those universes, one needs to complicate the theory by adding experimentally unsupported processes and ad hoc postulates: finite space, wave function collapse and ontological asymmetry. Our judgment therefore comes down to which we find more wasteful and inelegant: many worlds or many words. Perhaps we will gradually get used to the weird ways of our cosmos and find its strangeness to be part of its charm." Multiverse hypotheses in philosophy and logic Modal realism Possible worlds are a way of explaining probability, hypothetical statements and the like, and some philosophers such as David Lewis believe that all possible worlds exist, and are just as real as the actual world (a position known as modal realism). Trans-world identity A metaphysical issue that crops up in multiverse schema that posit infinite identical copies of any given universe is that of the notion that there can be identical objects in different possible worlds. According to the counterpart theory of David Lewis, the objects should be regarded as similar rather than identical. Deutsch, Harry, "Relative Identity", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer '02), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Paul B. Kantor "The Interpretation of Cultures and Possible Worlds", 1 October 2002 Fictional realism The view that because fictions exist, fictional characters exist as well. There are fictional entities, in the same sense as that in which, setting aside philosophical disputes, there are people, Mondays, numbers and planets. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/phiq/2009/00000059/00000234/art00009 http://consciousness.anu.edu.au/thomasson/Fictional%20Entities.doc Multiverse hypotheses in religion and spirituality Planes of existence Certain religions and esoteric cosmologies propound the idea of a whole series of subtle emanated planes or worlds. Afterlife Many religions include an afterlife existence in realms, such as heavens and hells, which may be very different from the observable universe. Eschatology Eschatological scenarios may include a new different world after the end time of the current one. For example, Hindu cosmology include the idea of an infinite cycle of births and deaths and an infinite number of universes with each cycle lasting 8.4 billion years. Carl Sagan, Placido P D'Souza (1980s). Hindu cosmology's time-scale for the universe is in consonance with modern science.; Dick Teresi (2002). Lost Discoveries : The Ancient Roots of Modern Science – from the Babylonians to the Maya. Similar eschatological scenarios appear in other religions, in the form of belief in there being a new and different world after the end time of the current one. Multiverse Hypothesis in fiction Fiction by definition does not claim to be a completely accurate description of our observable universe. All fiction could thus be seen as describing different universes. Some genres, such as crime fiction and historical fiction, may describe universes similar to the observable one, while others, such as fantasy, science fiction, and alternate history, may describe ones more different. Parallel universes in fiction may interact. For example, in science fiction a common plot device is hyperspace which is temporarily entered and used for faster than light travel. The term 'Multiverse' was used in 1962 by science fiction author Michael Moorcock, though not coined by him (as it had previously been used both by William James in 1895 and by J.C.Powys in his 1955 novel The Brazen Head p.279). See also The Fabric of Reality Philosophy of physics Philosophy of space and time Reductionism Simulated reality Omniverse Modal realism Impossible world As Contrary concepts Determinism Fatalism Predestination Notes References External links Physics in the Multiverse, published by Aurélien Barrau in the CERN Courier Preprint of David Deutsch's paper The Structure of the Multiverse BBC Horizon -Parallel Universes Michael Price's Everett FAQ Mulitverse Cosmological Models by P.C.W. Davies The ensemble of universes describable by constructive mathematics by Jürgen Schmidhuber Interview with Tufts cosmologist Alex Vilenkin on his new book, "Many Worlds in One: The Search for Other Universes" on the podcast and public radio interview program ThoughtCast. Joseph Pine II about Multiverse, Presentation at Mobile Monday Amsterdam, 2008 Multiple Universes ?, in French by A. Barrau Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations by Max Tegmark | Multiverse |@lemmatized multiverse:29 meta:1 universe:69 metaverse:1 hypothetical:2 set:10 multiple:3 possible:8 include:7 together:2 comprise:1 reality:4 different:24 within:4 sometimes:1 call:4 parallel:10 structure:5 nature:2 relationship:1 various:1 constituent:1 depend:1 specific:3 hypothesis:6 consider:3 multiverses:3 hypothesize:1 cosmology:6 physic:5 astronomy:1 philosophy:5 transpersonal:1 psychology:1 fiction:14 particularly:1 science:10 fantasy:2 term:3 coin:2 psychologist:1 william:5 james:4 believe:2 earlier:1 cite:1 oed:1 new:7 entry:1 w:2 internat:1 jrnl:1 ethic:1 visible:1 plasticity:1 indifference:1 one:14 might:3 context:1 also:6 alternative:3 quantum:8 interpenetrating:1 dimension:4 world:23 timeline:1 etc:1 tegmark:12 classification:2 cosmologist:2 max:3 provide:2 taxonomy:1 beyond:4 familiar:1 observable:6 level:25 accord:3 briefly:1 described:1 pdf:2 cosmological:5 horizon:3 generic:1 prediction:2 cosmic:2 inflation:3 infinite:13 ergodic:1 must:1 contain:4 hubble:6 volume:9 realize:1 initial:3 condition:2 number:12 physical:11 law:4 constant:8 alexander:1 shatskiy:1 novikov:1 n:3 kardashev:1 analytic:1 model:4 traversable:1 wormhole:1 however:2 almost:1 regard:2 configuration:1 matter:1 distribute:1 since:1 similar:4 even:2 identical:6 thus:3 far:1 eventually:1 estimate:1 meter:1 away:1 staple:2 direct:2 implication:2 observation:5 sci:1 may:10 ii:5 bubble:8 every:1 disk:1 chaotic:1 theory:21 variant:1 whole:4 stretch:1 continue:2 forever:1 region:1 space:6 stop:1 stretching:1 form:3 distinct:1 like:2 gas:1 pocket:1 loaf:1 rise:1 bread:1 exist:6 embryonic:1 size:1 experience:2 spontaneous:2 symmetry:3 break:1 result:2 property:1 john:1 archibald:1 wheeler:3 oscillatory:1 lee:1 smolin:1 fecund:1 universes:1 iii:6 many:14 interpretation:7 mechanic:6 hugh:1 everett:2 mwi:3 several:2 mainstream:1 brief:1 aspect:1 certain:2 cannot:3 predict:1 absolutely:1 instead:1 range:1 probability:3 correspond:3 suppose:1 die:2 throw:1 side:1 way:3 fall:1 correctly:1 single:3 split:3 general:2 interact:3 word:4 deutsch:5 david:6 frontier:1 argue:3 possibility:1 effect:2 create:3 find:5 write:2 difference:1 doppelgängers:1 reside:1 live:2 elsewhere:1 good:1 old:1 three:1 dimensional:3 another:1 branch:1 hilbert:1 similarly:2 moment:1 breaking:1 relate:1 idea:3 richard:3 feynman:1 history:2 h:1 dieter:1 zeh:1 mind:1 iv:3 ultimate:2 ensemble:7 equally:1 real:2 define:2 mathematical:3 abstract:1 mathematics:3 toe:2 definable:1 purely:1 formal:2 independent:1 vague:1 human:1 terminology:1 instance:1 involve:2 type:1 entity:2 denote:2 say:3 relation:1 additional:1 nothing:1 mathematicians:1 theoretical:1 generally:1 system:1 imply:2 conceivable:1 describe:5 subsumes:1 therefore:3 bring:1 closure:1 hierarchy:2 v:1 jürgen:2 schmidhuber:6 well:2 admit:1 representation:2 describable:3 constructive:2 computer:6 program:6 explicitly:2 non:2 halting:2 whose:1 output:2 bit:3 converge:1 finite:2 time:7 although:1 convergence:1 predictable:1 due:1 kurt:1 gödel:1 limitation:1 j:7 scientist:1 view:2 life:5 everything:3 lecture:2 note:3 pp:2 springer:2 http:6 www:4 idsia:3 ch:3 juergen:3 algorithmic:3 arxiv:1 org:1 ab:1 quant:1 ph:1 generalized:1 kolmogorov:2 complexity:4 nonenumerable:1 universal:1 measure:2 computable:3 limit:1 international:1 journal:1 foundation:1 html:2 discuss:1 restricted:1 quickly:1 speed:1 prior:1 simplicity:2 yield:1 near:1 optimal:1 proc:1 annual:1 conference:1 computational:1 learning:1 colt:1 sydney:1 australia:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 speedprior:1 istv:1 emeti:1 hajnal:1 andr:1 eka:1 hypercomputation:1 jack:2 sarfatti:2 sakharov:1 metric:1 elasticity:1 qubit:1 cyclic:1 series:2 self:1 sustain:1 cycle:3 example:4 eternity:1 big:2 bang:1 crunch:1 somewhat:1 kind:1 envisage:1 multi:1 extension:1 string:5 know:2 others:2 collision:1 p:4 branes:2 depends:1 chirality:1 observer:1 szabo:2 introduction:2 brane:4 dynamic:2 maurizio:2 gasperini:2 element:4 take:2 object:3 essentially:1 confine:1 able:1 via:1 gravity:1 force:1 restrict:2 paul:2 halpern:1 great:1 unlike:1 concept:3 operate:1 anthropic:2 principle:3 propose:1 explain:3 seem:2 fine:1 tune:2 conscious:2 large:1 possibly:1 fundamental:1 would:2 suitable:1 star:1 planet:2 istvan:2 dienes:2 consciousness:3 holomatrix:1 holographic:1 quantised:1 could:2 apply:1 conclude:1 consciously:1 finely:1 existence:5 extremely:1 small:1 scarcity:1 support:1 intelligent:2 design:2 explanation:1 wmap:2 cold:2 spot:2 laura:1 mersini:1 houghton:1 claim:4 testable:1 empirical:2 evidence:2 criticism:1 scientific:2 critic:2 lack:1 testability:1 without:1 hard:1 unfalsifiable:1 outside:1 methodology:1 investigation:1 confirm:1 disprove:1 specify:5 dembski:2 proponent:1 criticize:1 use:6 argument:1 base:1 specified:1 chance:1 gap:1 occam:2 razor:2 postulate:2 usually:1 unobservable:1 contrary:2 answer:1 skeptic:1 worry:1 information:3 necessary:1 unseen:1 entire:2 often:1 much:1 simple:4 member:1 state:1 formally:1 notion:2 content:3 roughly:1 speak:1 length:1 short:1 produce:1 integer:1 simpler:2 naively:1 think:1 generate:1 quite:1 trivial:1 whereas:2 hugely:1 long:1 actually:1 solution:2 einstein:1 field:1 equation:2 former:1 latter:1 require:1 specification:1 vast:1 amount:1 data:1 hypersurface:1 lesson:1 increase:1 attention:1 particular:1 thereby:1 lose:2 inherent:1 totality:1 sense:2 high:1 go:1 eliminate:3 need:4 upgrade:1 anything:1 common:2 feature:1 four:1 simplest:1 arguably:1 elegant:1 default:1 deny:1 complicate:1 add:1 experimentally:1 unsupported:1 process:1 ad:1 hoc:1 wave:1 function:1 collapse:1 ontological:1 asymmetry:1 judgment:1 come:1 wasteful:1 inelegant:1 perhaps:1 gradually:1 get:1 weird:1 cosmos:1 strangeness:1 part:1 charm:1 logic:1 modal:3 realism:4 statement:1 philosopher:1 lewis:2 actual:1 position:1 trans:1 identity:2 metaphysical:1 issue:1 crop:1 schema:1 posit:1 copy:1 give:1 counterpart:1 rather:1 harry:1 relative:1 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 summer:1 edward:1 zalta:1 ed:1 b:1 kantor:1 culture:1 october:1 fictional:4 character:1 aside:1 philosophical:1 dispute:1 people:1 monday:2 ingentaconnect:1 com:1 bpl:1 phiq:1 anu:1 edu:1 au:1 thomasson:1 doc:1 religion:4 spirituality:1 plane:2 esoteric:1 propound:1 subtle:1 emanated:1 afterlife:2 realm:1 heaven:1 hell:1 eschatology:1 eschatological:2 scenario:2 end:2 current:2 hindu:2 birth:1 death:1 last:1 billion:1 year:1 carl:1 sagan:1 placido:1 souza:1 scale:1 consonance:1 modern:2 dick:1 teresi:1 discovery:1 ancient:1 root:1 babylonian:1 maya:1 appear:1 belief:1 definition:1 completely:1 accurate:1 description:1 see:2 genre:1 crime:1 historical:1 alternate:1 plot:1 device:1 hyperspace:1 temporarily:1 enter:1 fast:1 light:1 travel:1 author:1 michael:2 moorcock:1 though:1 previously:1 c:2 powys:1 novel:1 brazen:1 head:1 fabric:1 reductionism:1 simulate:1 omniverse:1 impossible:1 determinism:1 fatalism:1 predestination:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 publish:1 aurélien:1 barrau:2 cern:1 courier:1 preprint:1 paper:1 bbc:1 price:1 faq:1 mulitverse:1 davies:1 interview:2 tuft:1 alex:1 vilenkin:1 book:1 search:1 podcast:1 public:1 radio:1 thoughtcast:1 joseph:1 pine:1 presentation:1 mobile:1 amsterdam:1 french:1 |@bigram multiverse_hypothesis:5 transpersonal_psychology:1 science_fiction:6 max_tegmark:2 observable_universe:4 cosmological_horizon:2 cosmic_inflation:2 spontaneous_symmetry:2 archibald_wheeler:1 lee_smolin:1 quantum_mechanic:5 hugh_everett:1 david_deutsch:3 infinite_dimensional:1 symmetry_breaking:1 richard_feynman:1 jürgen_schmidhuber:2 constructive_mathematics:2 kurt_gödel:1 j_schmidhuber:4 http_www:4 www_idsia:3 idsia_ch:3 ch_juergen:3 arxiv_org:1 kolmogorov_complexity:1 artificial_intelligence:1 big_bang:1 big_crunch:1 anthropic_principle:2 finely_tune:1 intelligent_design:2 william_dembski:2 occam_razor:2 ad_hoc:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 n_zalta:1 zalta_ed:1 anu_edu:1 edu_au:1 heaven_hell:1 carl_sagan:1 michael_moorcock:1 external_link:1 everett_faq:1 |
941 | Hammurabi | Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer," from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman," and Rāpi, "healer"; (ca. 1795 – 1750 BC middle chronology) was the sixth king of Babylon. He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdoms. Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia at the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire. Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history. These laws were written on a stone tablet standing over eight feet tall (2.4 metres) that was found in 1901. Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world. History Map showing the Babylonian territory upon Hammurabi's ascension in c. 1792 BC and upon his death in c. 1750 B.C.Hammurabi was a First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, Sin-muballit, in ca. 1792 B.C.. Babylon was one of the many ancient city-states that dotted the Mesopotamian plain and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land. Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East. The kings who came before Hammurabi had begun to consolidate rule of central Mesopotamia under Babylonian hegemony and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar. Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation. The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east lay the kingdom of Elam. To the north, the Shamshi-Adad I was undertaking expansionistic wars, although his untimely death would fragment his newly conquered Semitic empire. The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were relatively peaceful. Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples. In ca. 1766 B.C., the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain. With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the empire of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time. In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa. Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort. Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by ca. 1763 B.C.. As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest. Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest and soon after crushing Eshnunna. Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the 'conquest' of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict. In just a few years, Hammurabi had succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule. Of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in Syria maintained their independence. However, one stele of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title "King of the Amorites". Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters. These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock. Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-Iluna in ca. 1750 B.C. Code of laws The upper part of the stele of Hammurabi's code of laws Hammurabi is best known for the promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law: the Code of Hammurabi. This was written on a stele, a large stone monument, and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city. An inscription of the Code of jacob The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. The punishments tended to be harsh by modern standards, with many offenses resulting in death, disfigurement, or the use of the "Eye for eye, tooth for tooth" (Lex Talionis "Law of Retaliation") philosophy. Putting the laws into writing was important in itself because it suggested that the laws were immutable and above the power of any earthly king to change. The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, and it also suggests that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence. However, there is no provision for extenuating circumstances to alter the prescribed punishment. A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from the god Shamash, and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by the gods of his people to bring the laws to them. Parallels to this divine inspiration for laws can be seen in the laws given to Moses for the ancient Hebrews. Similar codes of law were created in several nearby civilizations, including the earlier neo-Sumerian example of Ur-Nammu's code, and the later Hittite code of laws. Legacy and depictions Under the rules of Hammurabi's successors, the Babylonian Empire was weakened by military pressure from the Hittites, who sacked Babylon around 1600 BC. However it was the Kassites who eventually conquered Babylon and ruled Mesopotamia for 400 years, adopting parts of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws. Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found in several U.S. government buildings. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. An image of Hammurabi receiving the Code of Hammurabi from the Babylonian sun god (probably Shamash) is depicted on the frieze on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building. See also Assyrian law Hebraic law Notes References . . . External links A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi (Louvre museum) Etymology of the word 'Hammurabi' | Hammurabi |@lemmatized hammurabi:33 akkadian:2 amorite:1 ˤammurāpi:1 kinsman:2 healer:2 ˤammu:1 paternal:1 rāpi:1 ca:5 bc:3 middle:2 chronology:1 sixth:1 king:8 babylon:9 become:1 first:5 babylonian:10 empire:8 extend:1 control:6 mesopotamia:6 win:1 series:2 war:5 neighbor:1 kingdom:7 although:5 time:4 death:4 successor:3 unable:1 maintain:2 know:2 set:1 law:21 call:1 code:16 one:5 write:5 recorded:1 history:2 stone:2 tablet:3 stand:1 eight:1 foot:1 tall:1 metre:1 find:3 owe:1 reputation:2 modern:2 ancient:3 giver:1 portrait:1 many:4 government:2 building:3 throughout:2 world:1 map:1 show:1 territory:1 upon:2 ascension:1 c:7 b:5 dynasty:1 city:7 state:8 inherit:1 power:4 father:1 sin:1 muballit:1 dot:1 mesopotamian:3 plain:5 wag:1 fertile:1 agricultural:1 land:1 though:1 culture:3 co:1 exist:1 gain:2 degree:1 prominence:1 among:2 literate:3 class:1 east:2 come:2 begin:1 consolidate:2 rule:6 central:1 hegemony:1 reign:3 conquer:4 borsippa:1 kish:1 sippar:1 thus:2 ascend:1 throne:1 minor:1 midst:1 complex:1 geopolitical:1 situation:1 powerful:2 eshnunna:3 upper:2 tigris:1 river:2 larsa:5 delta:1 lay:1 elam:4 north:4 shamshi:1 adad:1 undertake:2 expansionistic:1 untimely:1 would:1 fragment:1 newly:1 semitic:1 decade:1 relatively:1 peaceful:1 use:2 public:2 work:1 include:4 heighten:1 wall:2 defensive:1 purpose:1 expand:1 temple:1 straddle:1 important:2 trade:1 route:1 across:1 zagros:1 mountain:1 invade:1 ally:3 attack:1 destroy:2 number:2 impose:1 portion:1 order:1 position:1 try:1 start:1 make:1 alliance:1 discover:2 duplicity:1 able:1 crush:2 elamite:2 contribute:1 greatly:1 military:2 effort:1 anger:1 failure:1 aid:1 turn:2 southern:1 entirety:1 low:1 assist:1 south:2 absence:1 soldier:1 lead:1 unrest:2 continue:1 expansion:1 attention:1 northward:1 quell:1 soon:1 next:1 army:1 remain:1 northern:1 former:1 mari:2 possible:1 conquest:1 surrender:1 without:1 actual:1 conflict:1 year:2 succeed:1 unite:1 major:1 region:1 aleppo:1 qatna:1 west:1 syria:1 independence:1 however:3 stele:5 far:1 diyarbekir:1 claim:1 title:1 amorites:1 vast:1 contract:1 date:1 well:1 letter:2 give:2 glimpse:1 daily:2 trial:1 deal:1 flood:1 mandate:1 change:2 flaw:1 calendar:1 take:1 care:1 massive:1 herd:1 livestock:1 die:1 pass:1 rein:1 son:1 samsu:1 iluna:1 part:2 best:1 promulgation:1 new:1 large:1 monument:1 place:2 could:2 see:3 think:1 later:1 plunder:1 remove:1 capital:1 susa:1 rediscover:1 louvre:2 museum:2 paris:1 contain:1 scribe:1 unlike:1 early:3 language:1 therefore:1 read:1 person:1 inscription:1 jacob:1 structure:1 specific:1 offense:2 receive:3 specified:1 punishment:3 tend:1 harsh:1 standard:1 result:1 disfigurement:1 eye:2 tooth:2 lex:1 talionis:1 retaliation:1 philosophy:1 put:1 writing:1 suggest:2 immutable:1 earthly:1 also:3 example:2 idea:1 presumption:1 innocence:1 accuse:1 accuser:1 opportunity:1 provide:1 evidence:1 provision:1 extenuate:1 circumstance:1 alter:1 prescribed:1 carving:1 top:1 portray:1 god:3 shamash:2 preface:1 choose:1 people:1 bring:1 parallel:1 divine:1 inspiration:1 moses:1 hebrew:1 similar:1 create:1 several:2 nearby:1 civilization:1 neo:1 sumerian:1 ur:1 nammu:1 late:1 hittite:2 legacy:1 depiction:2 weaken:1 pressure:1 sack:1 around:1 kassite:1 eventually:1 adopt:1 lawgiver:2 u:3 depict:2 marble:1 ba:1 relief:1 chamber:1 house:1 representative:1 united:1 capitol:1 image:1 sun:1 probably:1 frieze:1 supreme:1 court:1 assyrian:1 hebraic:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 close:1 look:1 etymology:1 word:1 |@bigram ascend_throne:1 shamshi_adad:1 untimely_death:1 zagros_mountain:1 code_hammurabi:4 presumption_innocence:1 ur_nammu:1 ba_relief:1 supreme_court:1 external_link:1 |
942 | Andrei_Tarkovsky | Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky () (April 4, 1932 - December 29, 1986) was a Soviet Russian filmmaker, writer and opera director. Tarkovsky is listed among the 100 most critically acclaimed film directors; director Ingmar Bergman was quoted as saying "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [director], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream". Title quote of 2003 Tarkovsky Festival Program, Pacific Film Archive Tarkovsky attained critical praise for films such as Andrei Rublev, Solaris and Stalker. Tarkovsky worked extensively as a screenwriter, film editor, film theorist and theater director. He directed most of his films in the Soviet Union, with the exception of his last two films, which were produced in Italy and Sweden. His films are characterized by Christian spirituality and metaphysical themes, extremely long takes, lack of conventional dramatic structure and plot, and memorable cinematography. Life Childhood and early life Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in Kostroma Province, the son of poet and translator Arseny Alexandrovich Tarkovsky, native of Kirovohrad, Ukraine, and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute. The Tarkovsky family was the ruling dynasty of Dagestan, Shamkhals of Dagestan. Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets in the Ivanovo Province. He was later described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. In 1937, his father left the family, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939, Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School № 554. During the war, the three evacuated to Yuryevets, living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943, the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet Andrey Voznesensky was one of his classmates. He learned the piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shshipok Street in the Zamoskvorechye District in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948, he was in a hospital with tuberculosis. Many themes of his childhood - the evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital - feature prominently in his film The Mirror. Following high school graduation, from 1951 to 1952, Tarkovsky studied Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureikye near Turukhansk in the Krasnoyarsk Province. During this time in the Taiga Tarkovsky decided to study film. Film school student Andrei Tarkovsky in his student film The Killers. Upon return from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) and was admitted to the film-directing-program. He was in the same class as Irma Raush, whom he married in April 1957. The early Khrushchev era offered unique opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The Khrushchev Thaw opened Soviet society and allowed, to some degree, Western literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovksy to see films of the Italian neorealists, French New Wave, and of directors such as Kurosawa, Buñuel, Bergman, Bresson and Mizoguchi. Tarkovsky absorbed the idea of the auteur as a necessary condition for creativity. Tarkovsky’s teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm, who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956, Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, The Killers, from a short story of Ernest Hemingway. The short film There Will Be No Leave Today and the screenplay Concentrate followed in 1958 and 1959. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigori Chukhrai, who was at teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhrai offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film Clear Skies. Tarkovsky initially showed interest, but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects. During his third year at the VGIK, Tarkovsky met Andrei Konchalovsky. They found that they had much in common as they liked the same film directors and shared the same ideas on cinema and films. In 1959, they wrote the script Antarctica - Distant Country, which was later published in the Moskovskiy Komsomolets. Tarkovsky submitted the script to Lenfilm, but was rejected. They were more successful with the script The Steamroller and the Violin, which they sold to Mosfilm. This film became Tarkovsky’s diploma film, earning him his diploma in 1960 and winning him the first prize at the New York Student Film Festival in 1961. Career Film career in the Soviet Union Andrei Tarkovsky (right) on the set of Stalker. Tarkovsky's first feature film was Ivan's Childhood in 1962. He had inherited the film from director Eduard Abalov, who had to abort the project. The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and he won the Golden Lion award at the Venice Film Festival in 1962. In the same year, on September 30, his first son Arseny (called Senka in Tarkovsky's diaries) Tarkovsky was born. In 1965, he directed the film Andrei Rublev about the life of Andrei Rublev, the 15th century Russian icon painter. Andrei Rublev was not immediately released after completion due to problems with Soviet authorities. Tarkovsky had to cut the film several times, resulting in several different versions of varying lengths. A version of the film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 1969 and won the FIPRESCI prize. The film was officially released in the Soviet Union in a cut version in 1971. He divorced his wife, Irma Raush, in 1970. In the same year, he married Larissa Kizilova (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film Andrei Rublev. Their son, Andrei Tarkovsky Jr., was born in the same year on August 7. In 1972, he completed his film Solaris, an adaptation of the novel Solaris by Stanisław Lem. He had worked on this project, together with the screenwriter Fridrikh Gorenshtein, as early as 1968. The film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury and the FIPRESCI prize and was nominated for the Palme d'Or. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film The Mirror, a highly autobiographical film drawing on his childhood experience and incorporating some of his father's poems. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles Confession, White day and A white, white day. From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. The Russian authorities placed the film in the "third category" which meant severe limitations on its distribution, allowing it to be shown only in third class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints of the film were made and the filmmakers received no returns. Third category films also placed the filmmakers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity. Marshall, Herbert. Sight and Sound. Vol 45, no 2. Spring 1976. p 93. These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry. During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay Hoffmanniana, about the German writer and poet E. T. A. Hoffmann. In December 1976, he directed Hamlet, his first and only stage play, at the Lenkom Theatre in Moscow. The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn, who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay Sardor together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was Stalker, inspired by the novel Roadside Picnic by the brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel Dead Mountaineer's Hotel and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on Roadside Picnic. Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to the point where Tarkovsky hired Alexander Knyazhinsky as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. In the same year Tarkovsky also began the production of the film The First Day (Russian: Pervyy Dyen), based on a script by his friend and longterm collaborator Andrei Konchalovsky. The film was set in 19th century Russian during the reign of Peter the Great and starred Natalya Bondarchuk and Anatoli Papanov in the main role. In order to get the project approved by Goskino, Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, leaving out several scenes that were highly critical of the official atheism in the Soviet Union. After finishing shooting of roughly one half of the film, the project was stopped by Goskino, after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film. (In Russian) Мир и фильмы Андрея Тарковского, Сост. А. Сандлер. М., издательство: Искусство, 1990. Film career outside the Soviet Union Andrei and Larissa Tarkovsky's grave, Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery in France. During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary Voyage in Time, together with his longtime friend Tonino Guerra. Tarkovksy returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip during which he and Tonino Guerra completed the script for the film Nostalghia. During 1981 he traveled to the United Kingdom and Sweden. During his trip to Sweden he had considered defecting the Soviet Union, but ultimately decided to return because of his wife and his son. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting Nostalghia. He did not return to his home country. As Mosfilm withdrew from the project, he had to complete the film with financial support provided by the Italian RAI. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983. Nostalghia was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Soviet authorities prevented the film from winning the Palme d'Or, a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. In the same year, he also arranged the opera Boris Godunov at the Royal Opera House in London under the musical direction of Claudio Abbado. He spent most of 1984 preparing the film The Sacrifice. At a press conference in Milan on July 10, 1984, he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in the West. At that time, his son Andrei Jr. was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. During 1985, he shot the film The Sacrifice in Sweden. At the end of the year he was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris, and was joined there by his wife and his son, who were finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. The Sacrifice was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and received the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son, Andrei Jr. Tarkovsky kept fairly regular diaries from 1970 until shortly before his death. The last entry was on December 15, 1986. His last words are: "But now I have no strength left - that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as Martyrolog and were published posthumously in 1989, and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on December 29, 1986. He was buried on January 3, 1987 in the Russian Cemetery in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois in France. The inscription on his grave stone, which was created by the Russian sculptor Ernst Neizvestny, reads: To the man who saw the Angel. A controversy emerged in Russia in the early 1990s when it was alleged that Tarkovsky died not of a natural cause but was assassinated by the KGB. Evidence for this hypothesis include several testimonies by former KGB agents, who claim that Viktor Chebrikov gave the order to radiate Tarkovsky in order to prevent what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as anti-Soviet propaganda by Tarkovsky. Other evidence were several memos that surfaced after the 1991 coup and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have been a natural cause. Komsolmoskaya Pravda, "New Tarkovsky documents surface", 15. September 1995, page 23. As Tarkovsky, his wife Larisa Tarkovskaya and actor Anatoli Solonitsyn all died from the very same type of lung cancer, Vladimir Sharun, sound designer in Stalker, is convinced that they were all poisoned when shooting the film near a chemical plant. Komsolmoskaya Pravda, "In Stalker Tarkovsky foretold Chernobyl", 23. March 2001 Filmography Tarkovsky is mainly known as a director of films. During his career he directed only seven feature films, and three short films during his time at the film school. He also wrote several screenplays, directed stage play Hamlet in Moscow, the opera Boris Godunov in London, and directed a radio production of the short story Turnabout by William Faulkner. He also wrote Sculpting In Time, a book on film theory. Tarkovsky's first feature film was Ivan's Childhood in 1962. He then directed in the Soviet Union Andrei Rublev in 1966, Solaris in 1972, Mirror in 1975 and Stalker in 1979. The documentary Voyage in Time was produced in Italy in 1982, as was Nostalghia in 1983. His last film The Sacrifice was produced in Sweden in 1986. Tarkovsky was personally involved in writing the screenplays for all his films, sometimes with a co-writer. To Tarkovsky a director who realizes somebody else's screenplay without being involved in it becomes a mere illustrator, resulting in dead and monotonous films. Awards Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. At the Venice Film Festival he was awarded the Golden Lion. At the Cannes Film Festival he won several times the FIPRESCI prize, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury and the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury. He was also nominated for the Palme d'Or two times. In 1987, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts awarded the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film to The Sacrifice. Under the influence of Glasnost and Perestroika, Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the fall of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine Iskusstvo Kino was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile. Posthumously, he was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989 the Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator Yuriy Norshteyn. Since 1993, the Moscow International Film Festival awards the annual Andrei Tarkovsky Award. In 1996 the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets, his childhood town. A minor planet, 3345 Tarkovskij, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1982, has also been named after him. Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary Moscow Elegy, by Russian film director Alexander Sokurov. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky is 1988 documentary film by Michal Leszczylowski, an editor of the film The Sacrifice. Film director Chris Marker produced the television documentary One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000. Tarkovsky is widely considered to be one of the greatest film makers of all time. Ingmar Bergman was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream". Title quote of 2003 Tarkovsky Festival Program, Pacific Film Archive Film historian Steven Dillon claims that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky. Influences Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s, a period during which Soviet society opened to foreign films, literature and music. This allowed Tarkovksy to see films of European, American and Japanese directors, an experience which influenced his own film making. His teacher and mentor at the film school, Mikhail Romm, allowed his students considerable freedom and emphasized the independence of the film director. Tarkovsky was, according to Shavka Abdusalmov, a fellow student at the film school, fascinated by Japanese films. He was amazed by how every character on the screen is exceptional and how everyday events such as a Samurai cutting bread with his sword are elevated to something special and put into the limelight. Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create “images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves.” Tarkovsky, Andrei. Sculpting in Time. Trans. Kitty Hunter-Blair. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2003 In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov his ten favorite films. The list includes: Diary of a Country Priest and Mouchette, by Robert Bresson; Winter Light, Wild Strawberries and Persona, by Ingmar Bergman; Nazarin, by Luis Buñuel; City Lights, by Charlie Chaplin; Ugetsu, by Kenji Mizoguchi; Seven Samurai, by Akira Kurosawa, and Woman in the Dunes, by Hiroshi Teshigahara. Among his favorite directors were Luis Buñuel, Kenji Mizoguchi, Ingmar Bergman, Robert Bresson, Akira Kurosawa, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean Vigo and Carl Theodor Dreyer. With the exception of City Lights, the list does not contain any films or directors of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Russia, although he rated Soviet directors such as Boris Barnet, Sergei Paradjanov and Alexander Dovzhenko highly. Although strongly opposed to commercial cinema, in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film The Terminator, saying its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but nevertheless impressed by this film. (In Russian) Мир и фильмы Андрея Тарковского, Сост. А. Сандлер. М., издательство: Искусство, 1990. Cinematic style Tarkovsky's films are characterised by Christian and metaphysical themes, extremely long takes, and memorable images of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs in his films are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. Tarkovsky included levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably Solaris. To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability. Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for its surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as its symbolism, such as waves or the form of brooks or running water. Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self reflection. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film Mirror, Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After Mirror, he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by Aristotle: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films are shot both in color and black and white, including for example Andrei Rublev which features an epilogue in color, as well as Solaris, Mirror (Zerkalo), and Stalker, which feature monochrome sepia sequences as well as color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing Andrei Rublev, Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time. Hence in film color should be used mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color are like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life. The natural elements play a large role in Tarkovsky's films. The soundtracks often contain the sounds of water dripping while the earth seems to be perpetually damp. Fire and water are usually represented together, the burning barn from The Mirror and candle in Nostalghia being two examples. The Mirror, Stalker, and Nostalghia all contain scenes in which one or several characters lay on the earth in contemplation. Wind is also used often in The Mirror. References Bibliography External links Nostalghia.com – An Andrei Tarkovsky Information Site. | Andrei_Tarkovsky |@lemmatized andrei:25 arsenyevich:1 tarkovsky:97 april:3 december:4 soviet:26 russian:12 filmmaker:3 writer:4 opera:4 director:25 list:4 among:2 critically:1 acclaim:2 film:134 ingmar:4 bergman:5 quote:4 say:3 great:5 one:12 invent:2 new:6 language:3 true:2 nature:3 capture:2 life:11 reflection:5 dream:2 title:3 festival:12 program:3 pacific:2 archive:2 attain:1 critical:3 praise:2 rublev:8 solaris:6 stalker:8 work:12 extensively:1 screenwriter:2 editor:2 theorist:1 theater:1 direct:11 union:15 exception:3 last:6 two:4 produce:6 italy:5 sweden:5 characterize:1 christian:2 spirituality:1 metaphysical:2 theme:4 extremely:2 long:5 take:4 lack:1 conventional:1 dramatic:2 structure:1 plot:1 memorable:2 cinematography:2 childhood:9 early:6 bear:3 village:1 zavrazhye:1 kostroma:1 province:3 son:7 poet:3 translator:1 arseny:2 alexandrovich:1 native:2 kirovohrad:1 ukraine:1 maria:1 ivanova:1 vishnyakova:1 graduate:1 maxim:1 gorky:1 literature:3 institute:4 family:4 rule:1 dynasty:1 dagestan:2 shamkhals:1 spend:3 yuryevets:3 ivanovo:1 later:3 describe:1 friend:4 active:1 popular:1 many:4 typically:1 center:1 action:2 father:3 leave:6 subsequently:1 volunteer:1 army:1 stay:1 mother:2 move:2 sister:1 marina:1 moscow:10 proofreader:1 printing:1 press:3 enrol:1 school:9 war:1 three:2 evacuate:1 live:2 maternal:1 grandmother:1 return:8 continue:1 study:5 old:1 andrey:1 voznesensky:1 classmate:1 learn:1 piano:1 music:3 attend:2 class:3 art:5 shshipok:1 street:1 zamoskvorechye:1 district:1 november:1 spring:2 hospital:2 tuberculosis:1 evacuation:1 child:1 withdrawn:1 time:21 feature:6 prominently:1 mirror:9 follow:2 high:2 graduation:1 arabic:2 oriental:1 branch:1 academy:3 science:2 ussr:2 although:3 already:1 speak:1 successful:2 student:9 first:11 semester:1 finish:3 drop:1 prospector:1 non:1 ferrous:1 metal:1 gold:1 participate:1 year:9 research:2 expedition:2 river:1 kureikye:1 near:2 turukhansk:1 krasnoyarsk:1 taiga:1 decide:3 killer:2 upon:1 apply:1 state:2 vgik:3 admit:1 irma:2 raush:2 marry:2 khrushchev:2 era:2 offer:2 unique:2 opportunity:1 young:2 annual:2 production:5 low:2 veteran:1 thaw:1 open:3 society:2 allow:7 degree:1 western:1 tarkovksy:3 see:2 italian:2 neorealists:1 french:1 wave:2 kurosawa:3 buñuel:3 bresson:3 mizoguchi:3 absorb:1 idea:4 auteur:1 necessary:1 condition:1 creativity:1 teacher:2 mentor:2 mikhail:2 romm:2 teach:2 would:4 become:5 influential:1 short:5 story:2 ernest:1 hemingway:1 today:1 screenplay:7 concentrate:2 important:1 influence:7 grigori:1 chukhrai:2 impress:2 talent:1 position:1 assistant:2 clear:1 sky:1 initially:2 show:2 interest:2 project:6 third:4 meet:2 konchalovsky:2 find:1 much:2 common:1 like:2 share:1 cinema:6 write:5 script:10 antarctica:1 distant:1 country:4 publish:2 moskovskiy:1 komsomolets:1 submit:3 lenfilm:1 reject:1 steamroller:1 violin:1 sell:1 mosfilm:2 diploma:2 earn:2 win:8 prize:13 york:1 career:4 right:1 set:2 ivan:2 inherit:1 eduard:1 abalov:1 abort:1 international:2 golden:2 lion:2 award:9 venice:2 september:2 call:2 senka:1 diary:4 century:2 icon:1 painter:1 immediately:1 release:2 completion:1 due:3 problem:2 authority:4 cut:4 several:12 result:3 different:2 version:3 vary:1 length:1 present:4 cannes:6 fipresci:5 officially:1 divorce:1 wife:4 larissa:2 kizilova:1 née:1 egorkina:1 jr:3 august:1 complete:6 adaptation:1 novel:3 stanisław:1 lem:1 together:4 fridrikh:1 gorenshtein:1 grand:4 prix:4 spécial:4 du:4 jury:8 nominate:2 palme:3 shoot:6 highly:3 autobiographical:1 draw:1 experience:3 incorporate:1 poem:1 since:2 consecutive:1 confession:1 white:4 day:5 begin:5 well:4 receive:3 content:1 perceived:1 elitist:1 place:3 category:2 mean:3 severe:1 limitation:1 distribution:1 worker:1 club:1 print:1 make:3 also:15 danger:1 accuse:1 waste:1 public:1 fund:1 could:2 serious:1 effect:1 future:2 productivity:1 marshall:1 herbert:1 sight:2 sound:4 vol:1 p:1 difficulty:1 presume:1 play:5 go:1 abroad:1 outside:2 industry:1 hoffmanniana:1 german:1 e:1 hoffmann:1 hamlet:2 stage:2 lenkom:1 theatre:1 main:2 role:3 anatoly:1 solonitsyn:2 act:2 end:2 sardor:1 aleksandr:1 misharin:1 inspire:1 roadside:2 picnic:2 brother:2 arkady:2 boris:4 strugatsky:2 contact:1 death:4 want:1 base:3 dead:2 mountaineer:1 hotel:1 develop:2 raw:1 discussion:1 change:1 plan:1 mire:1 trouble:1 improper:1 development:1 negative:1 ruin:1 exterior:1 shot:2 relationship:2 cinematographer:2 georgy:1 rerberg:1 deteriorate:1 point:1 hire:1 alexander:3 knyazhinsky:1 furthermore:1 suffer:1 heart:1 attack:1 delay:1 ecumenical:4 pervyy:1 dyen:1 longterm:1 collaborator:1 reign:1 peter:1 star:1 natalya:1 bondarchuk:1 anatoli:2 papanov:1 order:3 get:1 approve:1 goskino:2 original:1 scene:4 official:1 atheism:1 shooting:1 roughly:1 half:1 stop:1 apparent:1 differ:1 censor:1 reportedly:1 infuriate:1 interruption:1 destroy:1 мир:2 и:2 фильмы:2 андрея:2 тарковского:2 сост:2 а:2 сандлер:2 м:2 издательство:2 искусство:2 grave:2 sainte:2 geneviève:2 de:2 bois:2 cemetery:2 france:2 summer:1 travel:2 documentary:6 voyage:2 longtime:1 tonino:2 guerra:2 extended:1 trip:2 nostalghia:7 united:1 kingdom:1 consider:2 defect:1 ultimately:1 start:1 home:1 withdrew:1 financial:1 support:1 provide:1 rai:1 prevent:2 fact:1 harden:1 resolve:1 never:2 arrange:1 godunov:2 royal:1 house:1 london:2 musical:1 direction:1 claudio:1 abbado:1 prepare:1 sacrifice:6 conference:1 milan:1 july:1 announce:2 remain:1 west:1 still:1 diagnose:1 terminal:1 lung:2 cancer:3 january:2 treatment:1 paris:2 join:1 finally:2 unable:1 illness:1 collect:1 keep:1 fairly:1 regular:1 shortly:3 entry:1 word:1 strength:1 sometimes:2 know:2 martyrolog:1 posthumously:2 english:1 die:3 bury:1 inscription:1 stone:1 create:2 sculptor:1 ernst:1 neizvestny:1 read:1 man:2 saw:3 angel:1 controversy:1 emerge:1 russia:2 allege:1 natural:3 cause:2 assassinate:1 kgb:3 evidence:2 hypothesis:1 include:5 testimony:1 former:1 agent:1 claim:4 viktor:1 chebrikov:1 give:2 radiate:1 government:1 anti:1 propaganda:1 memo:1 surface:2 coup:1 doctor:1 komsolmoskaya:2 pravda:2 document:1 page:1 larisa:1 tarkovskaya:1 actor:1 type:1 vladimir:1 sharun:1 designer:1 convince:1 poison:1 chemical:1 plant:1 foretell:1 chernobyl:1 march:1 filmography:1 mainly:2 seven:2 radio:1 turnabout:1 william:1 faulkner:1 sculpt:3 book:1 theory:3 personally:1 involve:2 co:1 realize:1 somebody:1 else:1 without:1 mere:1 illustrator:1 monotonous:1 numerous:1 bestow:1 throughout:1 lifetime:1 british:1 television:2 bafta:1 best:1 foreign:2 glasnost:1 perestroika:1 recognize:1 fall:1 retrospective:1 entire:1 issue:1 magazine:1 iskusstvo:1 kino:1 devote:1 obituary:1 committee:1 council:1 minister:1 maker:2 express:2 sorrow:1 exile:1 lenin:1 honor:1 memorial:1 establish:1 recipient:1 animator:1 yuriy:1 norshteyn:1 museum:1 town:1 minor:1 planet:1 tarkovskij:1 discover:1 astronomer:1 lyudmila:1 georgievna:1 karachkina:1 name:1 subject:1 notable:1 elegy:1 sokurov:2 heavily:1 consist:1 mostly:1 narration:1 stock:1 footage:2 michal:1 leszczylowski:1 chris:1 marker:1 arsenevich:1 homage:1 widely:1 u:1 historian:2 steven:1 dillon:1 subsequent:1 deeply:1 mid:1 late:1 period:1 european:1 american:1 japanese:2 making:1 considerable:1 freedom:1 emphasize:2 independence:1 accord:1 shavka:1 abdusalmov:1 fellow:1 fascinate:1 amaze:1 every:1 character:3 screen:1 exceptional:2 everyday:2 event:1 samurai:2 bread:1 sword:1 elevate:1 something:1 special:1 put:1 limelight:1 haiku:1 ability:1 image:2 way:1 nothing:1 beyond:1 trans:1 kitty:1 hunter:1 blair:1 austin:1 texas:2 university:1 tell:1 leonid:1 kozlov:1 ten:1 favorite:2 priest:1 mouchette:1 robert:2 winter:1 light:3 wild:1 strawberry:1 persona:1 nazarin:1 luis:2 city:2 charlie:1 chaplin:1 ugetsu:1 kenji:2 akira:2 woman:1 dune:1 hiroshi:1 teshigahara:1 michelangelo:1 antonioni:1 jean:1 vigo:1 carl:1 theodor:1 dreyer:1 contain:3 silent:1 reason:1 relatively:1 recent:1 phenomenon:1 form:2 prelude:1 rat:1 barnet:1 sergei:1 paradjanov:1 dovzhenko:1 strongly:1 oppose:1 commercial:2 famous:1 blockbuster:1 terminator:1 vision:1 relation:1 destiny:1 push:1 frontier:1 brutality:1 skill:1 nevertheless:1 cinematic:2 style:1 characterise:1 beauty:2 recur:1 motif:1 dreams:1 memory:1 run:2 water:5 accompany:1 fire:2 rain:1 indoors:1 levitation:2 appearing:1 foreground:1 pan:1 movement:1 camera:1 notably:1 possess:1 power:1 use:6 photogenic:2 value:2 magical:1 inexplicability:1 cloud:1 surreal:1 symbolism:1 brook:1 bell:1 candle:2 frequent:1 symbol:2 frequently:1 self:1 characteristic:1 medium:1 alter:1 unedited:1 movie:1 transcribes:1 real:1 aim:1 viewer:2 sense:1 passing:1 lose:1 moment:2 another:1 focus:2 explore:2 unity:1 propose:1 aristotle:1 concentrated:1 happen:1 within:1 span:1 single:1 color:8 black:1 example:2 epilogue:1 zerkalo:1 monochrome:1 sepia:1 sequence:1 interview:1 conduct:1 dismiss:1 gimmick:1 cast:1 doubt:1 contemporary:1 meaningfully:1 consciously:1 notice:1 hence:1 certain:1 distract:1 painting:1 photograph:1 beautiful:1 realistic:1 depiction:1 element:1 large:1 soundtrack:1 often:2 drip:1 earth:2 seem:1 perpetually:1 damp:1 usually:1 represent:1 burn:1 barn:1 lay:1 contemplation:1 wind:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 external:1 link:1 com:1 information:1 site:1 |@bigram critically_acclaim:1 ingmar_bergman:4 andrei_rublev:8 soviet_union:14 maxim_gorky:1 maternal_grandmother:1 ferrous_metal:1 andrei_tarkovsky:9 ernest_hemingway:1 andrei_konchalovsky:2 cannes_film:6 fipresci_prize:5 grand_prix:4 jury_cannes:1 longtime_friend:1 win_palme:1 boris_godunov:2 lung_cancer:2 publish_posthumously:1 william_faulkner:1 somebody_else:1 bafta_award:1 glasnost_perestroika:1 chris_marker:1 robert_bresson:2 luis_buñuel:2 charlie_chaplin:1 kenji_mizoguchi:2 seven_samurai:1 akira_kurosawa:2 michelangelo_antonioni:1 jean_vigo:1 rain_indoors:1 external_link:1 |
943 | Lycopene | Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid pigment and phytochemical found in tomatoes and other red fruits & vegetables, such as red carrots, watermelons and papayas (but not strawberries or cherries). In plants, algae, and other photosynthetic organisms, lycopene is an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of many carotenoids, including beta carotene, responsible for yellow, orange or red pigmentation, photosynthesis, and photo-protection. Structurally, it is a tetraterpene assembled from eight isoprene units, composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen, and is insoluble in water. Lycopene's eleven conjugated double bonds give it its deep red color and are responsible for its antioxidant activity. Due to its strong color and non-toxicity, lycopene is a useful food coloring. Lycopene is not an essential nutrient for humans, but is commonly found in the diet, mainly from dishes prepared with tomato sauce. When absorbed from the stomach, lycopene is transported in the blood by various lipoproteins and accumulates in the liver, adrenal glands, and testes. Because preliminary research has shown an inverse correlation between consumption of tomatoes and cancer risk, lycopene has been considered a potential agent for prevention of some types of cancers, particularly prostate cancer. However, this area of research and the relationship with prostate cancer have been deemed insufficient of evidence for health claim approval by the US Food and Drug Administration (see below under Antioxidant properties and potential health benefits). Structure and physical properties Lycopene is a symmetrical tetraterpene assembled from 8 isoprene units. It is a member of the carotenoid family of compounds, and because it consists entirely of carbon and hydrogen, is also a carotene. Grossman et al. (2004) p. 129 Isolation procedures for lycopene were first reported in 1910, and the structure of the molecule was determined by 1931. In its natural, all-trans form, the molecule is long and straight, constrained by its system of eleven conjugated double bonds. Each double bond in this extended π electron system reduces the energy required for electrons to transition to higher energy states, allowing the molecule to absorb visible light of progressively longer wavelengths. Lycopene absorbs all but the longest wavelengths of visible light, so it appears red. Rao et al. (2007) p. 210 Plants and photosynthetic bacteria naturally produce all-trans lycopene, but a total of 72 geometric isomers of the molecule are sterically possible. 1054 isomers are theoretically possible, but only 72 are possible due to steric hinderance. IARC Handbook, (1998) p. 25 When exposed to light or heat, lycopene can undergo isomerization to any of a number of these cis-isomers, which have a bent rather than linear shape. Different isomeres were shown to have different stabilities due to their molecular energy (highest stability: 5-cis ≥ all-trans ≥ 9-cis ≥ 13-cis > 15-cis > 7-cis > 11-cis: lowest). Chasse et al. Journal of Molecular Structure: THEOCHEM, Volume 571, Number 1, 27 August 2001 , pp. 27-37(11) In the human bloodstream, various cis-isomers constitute more than 60% of the total lycopene concentration, but the biological effects of individual isomers have not been investigated. Lycopene: Its role in human health and disease, Rao 'et al.', AGROFood industry hi-tech, July/August 2003 Lycopene is insoluble in water, and can be dissolved only in organic solvents and oils. Because of its non-polarity, lycopene in food preparations will stain any sufficiently porous material, including most plastics. While a tomato stain can be fairly easily removed from fabric (provided the stain is fresh), lycopene diffuses into plastic, making it impossible to remove with hot water or detergent. If lycopene is oxidized (for example, by reacting with bleaches or acids), the double bonds between the carbon atoms will be broken; cleaving the molecule, breaking the conjugated double bond system, and eliminating the chromophore. Role in photosynthesis Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of many carotenoids. Carotenoids like lycopene are important pigments found in photosynthetic pigment-protein complexes in plants, photosynthetic bacteria, fungi, and algae. They are responsible for the bright colors of fruits and vegetables, perform various functions in photosynthesis, and protect photosynthetic organisms from excessive light damage. Lycopene is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of many important carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, and xanthophylls. Biosynthesis The biosynthesis of lycopene in eukaryotic plants and in prokaryotic cyanobacteria is similar, as are the enzymes involved. Cunningham (2007) p. 533 Synthesis begins with mevalonic acid, which is converted into dimethylallyl pyrophosphate. This is then condensed with three molecules of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (an isomer of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate), to give the twenty carbon geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Two molecules of this product are then condensed in a tail-to-tail configuration to give the forty carbon phytoene, the first committed step in carotenoid biosynthesis. Through several desaturation steps, phytoene is converted into lycopene. The two terminal isoprene groups of lycopene can be cyclized to produce beta carotene, which can then be transformed into a wide variety of xanthophylls. Armstrong (1996) p. 229 Dietary sources Dietary sources of lycopene Rao and Rao (2007) pp. 209–210 Source μg/g wet weight Gac 2,000–2,300 Raw tomato 8.8–42 Tomato juice 86–100 Tomato sauce 63–131 Tomato ketchup 124 Watermelon 23–72 Pink grapefruit 3.6–34 Pink guava 54 Papaya 20–53 Rosehip puree 7.8 Apricot < 0.1 Fruits and vegetables that are high in lycopene include gac, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, pink guava, papaya, red bell pepper, seabuckthorn, wolfberry (goji, a berry relative of tomato), and rosehip. Although gac (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng) has the highest content of lycopene of any known fruit or vegetable, up to 70 times more than tomatoes for example USDA study on Cartenoid content of gac fruit , due to gac's rarity outside its native region of SE Asia, tomatoes and tomato based sauces, juices, and ketchup account for more than 85% of the dietary intake of lycopene for most people. Rao (2007) p. The lycopene content of tomatoes depends on species and increases as the fruit ripens. Khan et al. (2008) p. 495 Unlike other fruits and vegetables, where nutritional content such as vitamin C is diminished upon cooking, processing of tomatoes increases the concentration of bioavailable lycopene. Lycopene in tomato paste is four times more bioavailable than in fresh tomatoes. For this reason, tomato sauce is a preferable source as opposed to raw tomatoes. While most green leafy vegetables and other sources of lycopene are low in fats and oils, lycopene is insoluble in water and is tightly bound to vegetable fiber. Processed tomato products such as pasteurized tomato juice, soup, sauce, and ketchup contain the highest concentrations of bioavailable lycopene from tomato based sources. Cooking and crushing tomatoes (as in the canning process) and serving in oil-rich dishes (such as spaghetti sauce or pizza) greatly increases assimilation from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. Lycopene is fat-soluble, so the oil is said to help absorption. Gac is a notable exception containing high concentrations of lycopene and also saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Lycopene may be obtained from vegetables and fruits such as the tomato, but another source of lycopene is the fungus Blakeslea trispora. Gac is a promising commercial source of lycopene for the purposes of extraction and purification. Pharmacokinetics Distribution of lycopene Stahl (1996) p. 7 Tissue nmol/g wet weight Liver 1.28–5.72 Kidney 0.15–0.62 Adrenal 1.9–21.6 Testes 4.34–21.4 Ovary 0.25–0.28 Adipose 0.2–1.3 Lung 0.22–0.57 Colon 0.31 Breast 0.78 Skin 0.42 After ingestion, lycopene is incorporated into lipid micelles in the small intestine. These micelles are formed from dietary fats and bile acids, and help to solubilize the hydrophobic lycopene and allow it to permeate the intestinal mucosal cells by a passive transport mechanism. Little is known about the liver metabolism of lycopene, but like other carotenoids, lycopene is incorporated into chylomicrons and released into the lymphatic system. In blood plasma, lycopene is eventually distributed into the very low and low density lipoprotein fractions. Stahl (1996) p. 6 Lycopene is mainly distributed to fatty tissues and organs such as the adrenal glands, liver, and testes. Adverse effects Lycopene is non-toxic and is commonly found in the diet, but cases of excessive carotenoid intake have been reported. In a middle aged woman who had prolonged and excessive consumption of tomato juice, her skin and liver were colored orange-yellow and she had elevated levels of lycopene in her blood. After three weeks on a lycopene-free diet her skin color returned to normal. This discoloration of the skin is known as lycopenodermia Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Beta-carotene and other carotenoids. Dietary reference intakes for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and carotenoids. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 2000:325-400. and is non-toxic. Antioxidant properties and potential health benefits Lycopene may be the most powerful carotenoid quencher of singlet oxygen Di Mascio (1989) pp. 532–538 , being 100 times more efficient in test tube studies of singlet-oxygen quenching action than vitamin E, which in turn has 125 times the quenching action of glutathione (water soluble). Singlet oxygen produced during exposure to ultraviolet light is a primary cause of skin aging. Berneburg (1999) pp. 15345–15349 Given its antioxidant properties, substantial scientific and clinical research has been devoted to a possible correlation between lycopene consumption and general health. Early research suggested some amelioration { combating of } of cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, and even male infertility. Giovannucci (1995) pp. 1767–76 After extensive review reported in November 2005, the United States Food and Drug Administration has cast significant doubt on the potential for lowering disease risk, showing no link between lycopene and prevention of prostate cancer, although it is suggestive that eating whole tomatoes does provide benefit, perhaps because as yet undiscovered compounds (other than lycopene) are the beneficial agents. Qualified Health Claims: Letter Regarding Tomatoes and Prostate Cancer(Lycopene Heath Claim Coalition)(Docket No. 2004Q-0201) US FDA/CFSAN November 2005 The FDA review permitted a highly limited qualified claim to be used for tomatoes and tomato products which contain lycopene, as a guide that would not mislead consumers, namely: Very limited and preliminary scientific research suggests that eating one-half to one cup of tomatoes and/or tomato sauce a week may reduce the risk of prostate cancer. FDA concludes that there is little scientific evidence supporting this claim. The related carotenoid antioxidant, beta-carotene, has been shown to increase the number of prostate cancer cases in a subset of patients, although this area of research remains controversial and ongoing. See also Nutrition Notes and references Notes References External links Health Benefits of Lycopene - on Tomatoesweb.com Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals-Lycopene lycopene.org - A website promoting a lycopene rich diet. USDA Webpage on Lycopene Content of Gac - Fatty Acids and Carotenoids in Gac (Momordica Cochinchinensis Spreng) Fruit. | Lycopene |@lemmatized lycopene:60 bright:2 red:7 carotenoid:14 pigment:3 phytochemical:2 found:1 tomato:31 fruit:9 vegetable:8 carrot:1 watermelon:3 papaya:3 strawberry:1 cherry:1 plant:4 algae:2 photosynthetic:5 organism:2 important:3 intermediate:3 biosynthesis:6 many:3 include:3 beta:5 carotene:6 responsible:3 yellow:2 orange:2 pigmentation:1 photosynthesis:3 photo:1 protection:1 structurally:1 tetraterpene:2 assemble:2 eight:1 isoprene:3 unit:2 compose:1 entirely:2 carbon:5 hydrogen:2 insoluble:3 water:5 eleven:2 conjugate:2 double:5 bond:5 give:4 deep:1 color:5 antioxidant:5 activity:1 due:4 strong:1 non:4 toxicity:1 useful:1 food:5 coloring:1 essential:1 nutrient:1 human:3 commonly:2 find:3 diet:4 mainly:2 dish:2 prepare:1 sauce:7 absorb:2 stomach:1 transport:2 blood:3 various:3 lipoprotein:2 accumulates:1 liver:5 adrenal:3 gland:2 testis:3 preliminary:2 research:6 show:4 inverse:1 correlation:2 consumption:3 cancer:9 risk:3 consider:1 potential:4 agent:2 prevention:2 type:1 particularly:1 prostate:6 however:1 area:2 relationship:1 deem:1 insufficient:1 evidence:2 health:7 claim:5 approval:1 u:2 drug:2 administration:2 see:2 property:4 benefit:4 structure:3 physical:1 symmetrical:1 member:1 family:1 compound:2 consist:1 also:3 grossman:1 et:5 al:5 p:9 isolation:1 procedure:1 first:2 report:3 molecule:7 determine:1 natural:1 trans:3 form:2 long:2 straight:1 constrain:1 system:4 extended:1 π:1 electron:2 reduce:2 energy:3 require:1 transition:1 high:6 state:2 allow:2 visible:2 light:5 progressively:1 longer:1 wavelength:2 absorbs:1 appear:1 rao:5 bacteria:2 naturally:1 produce:3 total:2 geometric:1 isomer:6 sterically:1 possible:4 theoretically:1 steric:1 hinderance:1 iarc:1 handbook:1 expose:1 heat:1 undergo:1 isomerization:1 number:3 ci:8 bent:1 rather:1 linear:1 shape:1 different:2 isomeres:1 stability:2 molecular:2 low:4 chasse:1 journal:1 theochem:1 volume:1 august:2 pp:5 bloodstream:2 constitute:1 concentration:4 biological:1 effect:2 individual:1 investigate:1 role:2 disease:3 agrofood:1 industry:1 hi:1 tech:1 july:1 dissolve:1 organic:1 solvent:1 oil:4 polarity:1 preparation:1 stain:3 sufficiently:1 porous:1 material:1 plastic:2 fairly:1 easily:1 remove:2 fabric:1 provide:2 fresh:2 diffuse:1 make:1 impossible:1 hot:1 detergent:1 oxidize:1 example:2 react:1 bleach:1 acid:5 atom:1 break:2 cleave:1 conjugated:1 eliminate:1 chromophore:1 key:2 like:2 protein:1 complex:1 fungi:1 perform:1 function:1 protect:1 excessive:3 damage:1 xanthophyll:2 eukaryotic:1 prokaryotic:1 cyanobacteria:1 similar:1 enzyme:1 involve:1 cunningham:1 synthesis:1 begin:1 mevalonic:1 convert:2 dimethylallyl:2 pyrophosphate:4 condense:2 three:2 isopentenyl:1 twenty:1 geranylgeranyl:1 two:2 product:3 tail:2 configuration:1 forty:1 phytoene:2 committed:1 step:2 several:1 desaturation:1 terminal:1 group:1 cyclized:1 transform:1 wide:1 variety:1 armstrong:1 dietary:5 source:8 μg:1 g:2 wet:2 weight:2 gac:9 raw:2 juice:4 ketchup:3 pink:4 grapefruit:2 guava:2 rosehip:2 puree:1 apricot:1 bell:1 pepper:1 seabuckthorn:1 wolfberry:1 goji:1 berry:1 relative:1 although:3 momordica:2 cochinchinensis:2 spreng:2 content:5 known:1 time:4 usda:2 study:2 cartenoid:1 rarity:1 outside:1 native:1 region:1 se:1 asia:1 base:2 account:1 intake:3 people:1 depends:1 specie:1 increase:4 ripen:1 khan:1 unlike:1 nutritional:1 vitamin:4 c:3 diminish:1 upon:1 cooking:2 processing:1 bioavailable:3 paste:1 four:1 reason:1 preferable:1 oppose:1 green:1 leafy:1 fat:3 tightly:1 bind:1 fiber:1 process:2 pasteurized:1 soup:1 contain:3 crushing:1 canning:1 serve:1 rich:2 spaghetti:1 pizza:1 greatly:1 assimilation:1 digestive:1 tract:1 soluble:2 say:1 help:2 absorption:1 notable:1 exception:1 saturate:1 unsaturated:1 fatty:3 may:3 obtain:1 another:1 fungus:1 blakeslea:1 trispora:1 promising:1 commercial:1 purpose:1 extraction:1 purification:1 pharmacokinetics:1 distribution:1 stahl:2 tissue:2 nmol:1 kidney:1 ovary:1 adipose:1 lung:1 colon:1 breast:1 skin:5 ingestion:1 incorporate:2 lipid:1 micelle:2 small:1 intestine:1 bile:1 solubilize:1 hydrophobic:1 permeate:1 intestinal:1 mucosal:1 cell:1 passive:1 mechanism:1 little:2 know:2 metabolism:1 chylomicron:1 release:1 lymphatic:1 plasma:1 eventually:1 distribute:2 density:1 fraction:1 organ:1 adverse:1 toxic:2 case:2 middle:1 age:2 woman:1 prolong:1 elevate:1 level:1 week:2 free:1 return:1 normal:1 discoloration:1 lycopenodermia:1 institute:1 medicine:1 nutrition:2 board:1 reference:3 e:2 selenium:1 washington:1 national:1 academy:1 press:1 powerful:1 quencher:1 singlet:3 oxygen:3 di:1 mascio:1 efficient:1 test:1 tube:1 quench:2 action:2 turn:1 glutathione:1 exposure:1 ultraviolet:1 primary:1 cause:1 berneburg:1 substantial:1 scientific:3 clinical:1 devote:1 general:1 early:1 suggest:2 amelioration:1 combating:1 cardiovascular:1 diabetes:1 osteoporosis:1 even:1 male:1 infertility:1 giovannucci:1 extensive:1 review:2 november:2 united:1 cast:1 significant:1 doubt:1 lower:1 link:2 suggestive:1 eat:2 whole:1 perhaps:1 yet:1 undiscovered:1 beneficial:1 qualified:1 letter:1 regard:1 heath:1 coalition:1 docket:1 fda:3 cfsan:1 permit:1 highly:1 limited:2 qualify:1 use:1 guide:1 would:1 mislead:1 consumer:1 namely:1 one:2 half:1 cup:1 concludes:1 support:1 related:1 subset:1 patient:1 remain:1 controversial:1 ongoing:1 note:2 external:1 tomatoesweb:1 com:1 nutraceuticals:1 org:1 website:1 promote:1 webpage:1 |@bigram fruit_vegetable:5 photosynthetic_organism:2 beta_carotene:5 isoprene_unit:2 tomato_sauce:4 adrenal_gland:2 prostate_cancer:6 et_al:5 photosynthetic_bacteria:2 ci_isomer:2 ci_trans:1 ci_ci:4 hi_tech:1 organic_solvent:1 carbon_atom:1 bacteria_fungi:1 fungi_algae:1 tomato_juice:3 tomato_ketchup:1 dietary_intake:1 tomato_paste:1 green_leafy:1 leafy_vegetable:1 tightly_bind:1 digestive_tract:1 fat_soluble:1 saturate_unsaturated:1 unsaturated_fatty:1 fatty_acid:2 vegetable_fruit:1 liver_kidney:1 density_lipoprotein:1 adverse_effect:1 singlet_oxygen:3 cardiovascular_disease:1 external_link:1 |
944 | Politics_of_Mongolia | Politics of Mongolia takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Political developments Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party--the MPRP--officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition. The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president. Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Khural were held on 29 July 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Khural first met on 3 September and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP--Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Khural (small Khural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Khural. In November 1991, the People's Great Khural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural (SGKh). The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition. As the supreme government organ, the SGKh is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGKh meets semiannually. SGKh members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGKh members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms. Until June 27 2004, the predominant party in Mongolia was the ex-communist party Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or MPRP. The main opposition party was the Democratic Party or DP, which controlled a governing coalition from 1996 to 2000. From 2000 to 2004 MPRP was back in power, but results of the 2004 elections required the establishing of the first ever coalition government in Mongolia between the MPRP and MDC (Motherland Democratic Coalition). In January 2006, MP Tsogtyn Bataa changed sides from the Motherland Party to the MRPR, giving the latter exactly 50% of the seats. This gave the MPRP the opportunity to withdraw from the coalition, and, with support of several small parties and defectors from the Democratic party, elect Miyeegombyn Enkhbold as the new prime minister. The events triggered strong protests from civic groups and their followers. Individuals and organizations raised concerns that the government change might have been unconstitutional, but no specific violations could be shown. In April 2006, Tsakhiagiyn Elbegdorj was elected as a Democratic Party chairman by the two step elections of the party. In October 2007, Enkhbold lost his position as MPRP chairman to Sanjaagiin Bayar. The MPRP delegates also voted for having Bayar create a new government. Enkhbold remained in office "Mongolian parliament accepts PM's resignation", Xinhua (china.org.cn), November 8, 2007. until Bayar was elected on 22 November 2007. "Mongolia rushes to appoint new prime minister as a budget deadline looms", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), November 22, 2007. In Bayar's government, Enkhbold was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister on December 5 2007. "Mongolian Parliament approves new coalition government", IST, AFP (Times of India), December 6, 2007. The MPRP won a clear majority (46 of 76 seats) in legislative elections on June 29, 2008. The Democrats (DP)won 27 seats with the three remaining seats going to minor parties and an independent. After intermediate results were published on July 30th, DP chairman Elbegdorj declared that the elections were rigged and that his party would not accept the results. Protests against the election results turned violent on the evening of July 1st, and protesters sacked the MPRP headquarters in downtown Ulaanbaatar. Five protesters were killed, and around midnight a four-day state of emergency was declared. Executive branch |President |Nambaryn Enkhbayar |MPRP |28 June 2005 |- |Prime Minister |Sanjaagiin Bayar |MPRP |22 November 2007 |- |President-elect |Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj |DP |May 2009 |} The presidential candidates are nominated by parties in the State Great Khural and from these candidates the president is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the State Great Khural can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGKh chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president. The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGKh. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to State Great Khural approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after a State Great Khural vote for dissolution. The MPRP and a coalition of opposition parties currently rule in a national unity coalition after they both got the same number of seats in 2004. In July 2005 the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) announced a unilateral end to the Grand Coalition Government, and that it was assuming the full power of government. After a series of negotiations, the MPRP elected to allow the government of Prime Minister Ts. Elbegdorj to remain in power until August 2006, when Deputy Prime Minister Ulaan is schedule to take the Prime Ministership for the remaining two years of the term. Legislative branch The State Great Assembly (Ulsyn Ikh Khural) has 76 members, elected for a four year term in single-seat constituencies. Political parties and elections Ger set up by the Democratic Party for an election campaign in Khövsgöl, 2006 Legal system The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGKh and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions--excluding specialized court rulings--upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution. Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities--district and city governors--ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGKh decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution. Administrative divisions Mongolia is divided in 21 Aimags (provinces) and 1 municipality (hot); Arkhangai, Bayan-Ölgii, Bayankhongor, Bulgan, Darkhan-Uul, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Govi-Altai, Govisümber, Khentii, Khovd, Khövsgöl, Ömnögovi, Orkhon, Övörkhangai, Selenge, Sükhbaatar, Töv, Uvs, Zavkhan. Local khurals are elected by the 21 aimags plus the capital, Ulan Bator. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulan Bator See also Foreign relations of Mongolia Flag of Mongolia References External links Erik Herron's Guide to Politics in East Central Europe and Eurasia | Politics_of_Mongolia |@lemmatized politics:2 mongolia:11 take:2 place:1 framework:1 semi:1 presidential:5 representative:1 democratic:8 republic:2 multi:2 party:21 system:4 executive:3 power:6 exercise:2 government:16 legislative:5 vest:1 parliament:3 judiciary:1 independent:3 legislature:3 political:2 development:1 mongolian:6 model:1 soviet:2 communist:3 mprp:19 officially:1 permit:1 function:1 instability:1 first:6 two:5 decade:1 rule:2 significant:1 popular:6 unrest:1 december:3 collectivization:1 animal:1 husbandry:1 introduction:1 agriculture:1 extension:1 fixed:1 abode:1 carry:1 without:1 perceptible:1 opposition:6 birth:1 perestroika:1 former:1 union:2 democracy:1 movement:1 eastern:1 europe:2 mirror:1 dramatic:1 shift:1 toward:1 reform:2 start:1 early:1 organized:1 group:2 appear:1 face:1 extended:1 street:1 protest:3 subzero:1 weather:1 demand:1 fast:1 politburo:1 resign:1 march:1 may:2 constitution:8 amend:2 delete:1 reference:2 role:1 guide:2 force:3 country:1 legalize:1 create:3 stand:1 body:2 establish:2 office:2 president:14 election:9 people:5 great:9 khural:12 hold:1 july:4 win:4 seat:7 meet:2 september:1 elect:15 vice:3 sdp:1 social:1 democrat:2 prime:14 minister:13 member:5 baga:2 small:2 also:3 chairman:8 november:5 begin:1 discussion:1 new:7 enter:1 february:1 addition:1 sovereign:1 guarantee:1 number:2 right:2 freedom:1 restructure:1 branch:3 unicameral:1 state:9 sgkh:9 provide:2 would:2 vote:4 rather:1 june:4 incumbent:1 punsalmaagiin:1 ochirbat:1 run:1 candidate:3 supreme:3 organ:1 empower:4 enact:1 law:2 determine:1 domestic:1 foreign:2 policy:1 ratify:1 international:2 agreement:1 declare:3 emergency:2 semiannually:1 serve:1 year:8 term:9 popularly:2 district:2 predominant:1 ex:1 revolutionary:2 main:1 dp:4 control:1 govern:1 coalition:8 back:1 result:4 require:1 establishing:1 ever:1 mdc:1 motherland:2 january:1 mp:1 tsogtyn:1 bataa:1 change:2 side:1 mrpr:1 give:2 latter:1 exactly:1 opportunity:1 withdraw:1 support:1 several:1 defector:1 miyeegombyn:1 enkhbold:4 event:1 trigger:1 strong:1 civic:1 follower:1 individual:1 organization:1 raise:1 concern:1 might:1 unconstitutional:1 specific:1 violation:1 could:1 show:1 april:1 tsakhiagiyn:1 elbegdorj:4 step:1 october:1 lose:1 position:1 sanjaagiin:2 bayar:5 delegate:1 remain:4 accepts:1 pm:1 resignation:4 xinhua:1 china:1 org:1 cn:1 rush:1 appoint:3 budget:1 deadline:1 loom:1 associate:1 press:1 herald:1 tribune:1 deputy:2 approve:1 ist:1 afp:1 time:1 india:1 clear:1 majority:3 three:1 go:1 minor:1 intermediate:1 publish:1 rig:1 accept:1 turn:1 violent:1 evening:1 protester:2 sack:1 headquarters:1 downtown:1 ulaanbaatar:1 five:1 kill:1 around:1 midnight:1 four:3 day:1 nambaryn:1 enkhbayar:1 tsakhiagiin:1 nominate:3 head:3 commander:1 chief:1 armed:1 national:3 security:1 council:2 limit:1 propose:1 call:1 dissolution:3 initiate:1 legislation:2 veto:2 part:1 override:1 third:1 issue:1 decree:2 become:1 effective:1 signature:1 absence:1 incapacity:1 inauguration:1 newly:1 confirm:2 choose:1 cabinet:2 subject:2 approval:1 occur:1 upon:2 simultaneous:1 half:1 currently:1 unity:1 get:1 announce:1 unilateral:1 end:1 grand:1 assume:1 full:1 series:1 negotiation:1 allow:1 august:1 ulaan:1 schedule:1 ministership:1 assembly:1 ulsyn:1 ikh:1 single:1 constituency:1 ger:1 set:1 campaign:1 khövsgöl:2 legal:1 general:1 court:9 gcc:2 select:1 judge:1 protect:1 high:1 judicial:2 justice:1 constitutionally:1 examine:1 low:2 decision:2 exclude:1 specialized:1 ruling:1 appeal:1 official:1 interpretation:2 except:1 specialize:1 civil:1 criminal:1 administrative:3 exist:1 level:2 supervision:1 local:2 authority:1 city:1 governor:1 ensure:1 abide:1 apex:1 constitutional:1 consist:1 nine:1 include:1 whose:1 jurisdiction:1 extend:1 solely:1 division:1 divide:1 aimags:2 province:1 municipality:1 hot:1 arkhangai:1 bayan:1 ölgii:1 bayankhongor:1 bulgan:1 darkhan:1 uul:1 dornod:1 dornogovi:1 dundgovi:1 govi:1 altai:1 govisümber:1 khentii:1 khovd:1 ömnögovi:1 orkhon:1 övörkhangai:1 selenge:1 sükhbaatar:1 töv:1 uvs:1 zavkhan:1 khurals:1 plus:1 capital:1 ulan:2 bator:2 next:1 provincial:1 subdivision:1 urban:1 subdistricts:1 see:1 relation:1 flag:1 external:1 link:1 erik:1 herron:1 east:1 central:1 eurasia:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 animal_husbandry:1 soviet_union:1 great_khural:8 vice_president:2 prime_minister:13 legislative_branch:2 unicameral_legislature:1 presidential_election:1 herald_tribune:1 presidential_candidate:1 commander_chief:1 prime_ministership:1 seat_constituency:1 supreme_court:2 ulan_bator:2 external_link:1 |
945 | West_Memphis_Three | The West Memphis 3 is the name given to three teenagers who were tried and convicted of the murders of three children in the Robin Hood Hills area of West Memphis, Arkansas, United States in 1993. Damien Echols was sentenced to death. Jessie Misskelley was sentenced to life in prison, plus 40 years (he received two 20 year sentences in addition to the life sentence). Jason Baldwin was sentenced to life imprisonment. The case has received considerable attention. Their supporters believe the arrests and convictions were a miscarriage of justice and that the defendants were wrongfully convicted during a period of intense media scrutiny. The defendants remain imprisoned, but legal proceedings are ongoing. As of July 2007, new forensic evidence is being presented in the case. A status report jointly issued by the State and the Defense team on July 17 states, "Although most of the genetic material recovered from the scene was attributable to the victims of the offenses, some of it cannot be attributed to either the victims or the defendants." On October 29, 2007, the defense filed a Second Amended Writ of Habeas Corpus, outlining the new evidence. "Second Amended Writ of Habeas Corpus"; Retrieved 2007-10-31 In September 2008, Judge David Burnett (Circuit Court) denied Echols' application for a hearing on the new DNA evidence. Hearings for Jason Baldwin and Jessie Misskelley are scheduled to continue in August, 2009. In May, 2008, an affidavit was provided to the defense attorneys by Lloyd Warford, a former prosecutor and head of the Arkansas Department of human Services. In the affidavit, Warford states that during the trial of Echols and Baldwin, he was contacted by Kent Arnold, the jury foreman, who indicated he had begun the trial with a strong prejudgment as to the guilt of the defendants, that the State "had presented a weak circumstantial case" and that "it would be up to him to obtain a conviction." Arnold then stated that he intended to ensure the other jurors of a statement made by defendant Jessie Misskelley which was inadmissible in the Echols Baldwin trial. In April, 2009, the Arkansas Supreme Court agreed to hear argument concerning the juror misconduct issue, which legal observers indicate will probably result in the vacating of the Echols Baldwin convictions. "West Memphis Three: Revelations Arkansas Times, April 22, 2009 Damien Echols' next stage in the legal process is an appeal to the Arkansas Supreme Court. Unless that court reverses the conviction, he will proceed to federal court on his pending writ of habeas corpus. Crime Three eight-year-old boys — Steve Branch, Christopher Byers, and Michael Moore — were reported missing on May 5, 1993. The first report to the police was made by Christopher Byers's adoptive father, John Mark Byers, at about 7:00 pm. The boys were last seen together entering the Robin Hood Hills at about 6:00 pm by a neighbor. "Synopsis of the Case" by Burk Sauls; Retrieved 2007-07-23 Initial police searches made that night were limited. Leveritt, Mara, The Devil's Knot: The True Story of the West Memphis Three, Atria, 2003, ISBN 0743417607 Friends and neighbors also conducted an impromptu yet unsuccessful search that night, which included at least a cursory visit to the location where the bodies were finally found. A more thorough police search for the children began at about 8:00 am on the morning of May 6, aided by Crittenden County Search and Rescue personnel. Searchers canvassed all of West Memphis, but focused primarily on the Robin Hood Hills, a frequent playground for children, and the last location where the boys were reported. Despite a human chain making a shoulder-to-shoulder search of the Robin Hood Hills, searchers found no sign of the missing boys. Search and Rescue personnel broke for lunch at 1:00 pm, but police and others continued searching. At about 1:45 pm, Juvenile Parole Officer Steve Jones spotted a boy's black shoe floating in a muddy creek that led to a major drainage canal in the Robin Hood Hills. A subsequent search of the ditch found the boys' bodies. They were stripped naked and had been hog-tied with their own shoelaces: their right ankles tied to their right wrists behind their backs, the same with their left limbs. Their clothing was found in the creek, some of it twisted around sticks that had been thrust in the muddy ditch bed. The clothing was mostly turned inside-out; two pairs of the boys' underwear were never recovered. "The Facts of the Case" by Dan Stidham; accessed July 20, 2007 All of the boys had been severely beaten on their heads and faces, and Byers further had a fractured skull. Chris Byers had deep lacerations and injuries to his scrotum and penis. The original autopsies were inconclusive as to time of death, but stated that Byers died of blood loss (from either stab wounds or a deep head wound), and the other boys drowned. Leveritt, Mara, "New evidence in West Memphis murders: Victim's mother believes defendants innocent", from the Arkansas Times, 7/19/07; URL retrieve 7/20/02 A later review of the case by a medical examiner for the defense attorneys determined the boys had been killed between 1:00 am and 5:00 am on May 6, 1993. The official interpretation of the crime scene forensics for the case remains controversial. Prosecution experts claim Chris Byers' wounds were the results of a knife attack and that he had been purposefully castrated by the murderer; defense experts claim the injuries may have been the result of animal predation. Police suspected the boys had been raped or sodomized; later expert testimony disputed this finding http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/frankp.html despite the fact trace amounts of sperm DNA were found on a pair of pants recovered from the scene. http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/ebtrial/michaeld.html Police believed the boys were assaulted and killed at the location they were found; critics argued the assault, at least, was unlikely to have occurred at the creek. Christopher Byers was the only victim with drugs in his system; he had been prescribed Ritalin in January 1993, as part of an attention-deficit disorder treatment. (The initial autopsy report describes the drug as Carbamazepine. http://callahan.8k.com/images/autopsy/byers/carbamazepine.jpg ) The fact that the dosage was found to be at sub-therapeutic level Christopher Byers Autopsy is consistent with John Mark Byers's statement that Christopher may not have taken his prescription on May 5, 1993. "Mr. Bojangles" Sighting of a possible black male suspect was implied during the beginnings of the trial, at which time the possibility of conviction of the initial suspects seemed slim. According to local West Memphis police officers, during the evening of May 5, 1993, at 8:42 pm, workers in the Bojangles' restaurant about a mile from the crime scene (a direct route through the bayou where the children were found) in Robin Hood Hills reported seeing an African American male "dazed and covered with blood and mud" inside the ladies' room of the restaurant. Defense attorneys later referred to this man as "Mr. Bojangles." The man was bleeding from his arm and had brushed against the walls. The man had defecated on himself on the floor. The police were called, but the man left the scene. Officer Regina Meeks responded (by inquiring at the drive through window) about 45 minutes later. By then, the man had left and police did not enter or examine the bloodstained bathroom on May 5. The following day, when the victims were found, Bojangles' manager Marty King, thinking there was a possible connection between the bloody, disoriented man and the killings, called police twice to inform them of his suspicions. After the second telephone call police gathered evidence from the restroom. Testimony, Echols/Baldwin Trial, Regina Meek Police wore the same shoes and clothes from the Robin Hood Woods crime scene into the Bojangles restaurant bathroom. Police detective Bryn Ridge later stated he lost the blood scrapings taken from the walls and tiles of the bathroom. Testimony, Echols/Baldwin Trial, Bryn Ridge A hair identified as belonging to an African American was later recovered from a sheet which had been used to wrap one of the victims. Investigation There has been widespread criticism of how the police handled the crime scene. Misskelley's former attorney Dan Stidham "Synopsis of the Case" by Dan Stidham URL accessed 20 July 2007 cites multiple substantial police errors at the crime scene, characterizing it as "literally trampled, especially the creek bed." The bodies, he said, had been removed from the water before the coroner arrived to examine the scene and determine the state of rigor mortis, allowing the bodies to decay on the creek bank, and to be exposed to sunlight and insects. The police did not even telephone the coroner until almost two hours after the discovery of the floating shoe, resulting in a late appearance by the coroner. Officials failed to drain the creek in a timely manner and secure possible evidence in the water (the creek was sandbagged after all three bodies were pulled from the water). Stidham calls the coroner's investigation "substandard." There was a small amount of blood found at the scene that was never tested. After the initial investigation, the police failed to control disclosure of information and speculation about the crime scene. According to Mara Leveritt, investigative journalist and author of Devil's Knot, "Police records were a mess. To call them disorderly would be putting it mildly." Leveritt speculated that the small local police force was overwhelmed by the crime, which was unlike any they had ever investigated. Police refused an unsolicited offer of aid and consultation from the violent crimes experts of the Arkansas State Police, and critics suggested this was due to the WMPD being investigated by the Arkansas State Police for suspected theft from the Crittenden County drug task force. Leveritt further noted that some of the physical evidence was stored in paper sacks obtained from a supermarket (with the supermarket's name pre-printed on the bags) rather than in containers of known and controlled origin. Leveritt also mistakenly presumed that the crime scene video was shot minutes after Detectives Mike Allen and Bryn Ridge recovered two of the bodies, when in fact the camera was not available for almost thirty minutes afterwards. When police speculated about the assailant, the juvenile probation officer assisting at the scene of the murders speculated that Echols was "capable" of committing the murders, stating "it looks like Damien Echols finally killed someone." One expert, in the film Paradise Lost 2, stated that human bite marks could have been left on at least one of the victims. However, these potential bite marks were first noticed in photographs years after the trials and were not inspected by a board-certified medical examiner until four years after the murders. The defense's own expert testified that the mark in question was not an adult bite mark, which is consistent with the testimony of the list of experts put on by the State who had concluded that there was no bite mark. The State's experts had examined the actual bodies for any marks and others conducted expert photo analysis of injuries. Upon further examination, it was concluded that if the marks were bite marks, they did not match the teeth of any of the three convicted. Police interviewed Echols two days after the bodies were discovered. During a polygraph examination, he denied any involvement, but the polygraph examiner claimed that Echols' chart indicated deception. When asked to produce the record of the examination, he indicated that he had no written record. Officer Durham, who administered the polygraph, also did not keep any record of the test. Recently, the report was found and is featured on the West Memphis Three Official Website, under the Evidence Archive. On May 10, 1993, four days after the bodies were found, Detective Bryn Ridge questioned Echols, asking Echols to speculate as to how the three victims died. Ridge's description of Echols' answer is abstracted as follows: He stated that the boys probably died of mutilation, some guy had cut the bodies up, heard that they were in the water, they may have drowned. He said at least one was cut up more than the others. Purpose of the killing may have been to scare someone. He believed that it was only one person for fear of squealing by another involved. At trial, Echols testified that Ridge's description of the conversation (which was not recorded) was inaccurate. At the time that Echols had allegedly made these statements, police thought that there was no public knowledge that one of the children had been mutilated more severely than the others. This contradicted John Mark Byers' (the stepfather of victim Christopher Byers) statement to reporters only minutes after the three bodies were found, "that two boys had been badly beaten and that the third had been even worse." At that time, Det. Gitchell had not released that information. Gitchell later said he had told John Mark Byers some details of the scene first, before the official release to the media. Leveritt also demonstrates that the police leaked some information, and that partly accurate gossip about the case was widely discussed among the public. Throughout the course of the trial and after, many teenagers came forward with statements regarding being questioned and polygraphed by the local police; they said that Durham, among others, was at times aggressive and verbally abusive if they did not say what was expected of them. After the test, when asked what he was afraid of, Echols replied, "The electric chair." Damien Echols Polygraph After a month had passed, with little progress in the case, police continued to focus their investigation upon Echols, interrogating him more times than any other person, but claiming he was not regarded as a direct suspect but a source of information. On June 3, police interrogated Misskelley. Misskelley, whose IQ was reported to be 72 (making him borderline mentally retarded), was questioned alone; his parents were not present during the interrogation. Misskelley's father gave permission for Misskelley to go with police, but did not explicitly give permission for his minor son to be questioned or interrogated. Misskelley was questioned for roughly twelve hours; only two segments, totaling 46 minutes, were recorded. BBC - collective - paradise lost, revelations dvd Misskelley quickly recanted his confession, citing intimidation, coercion, fatigue, and veiled threats from police. During Misskelley's trial, Dr. Richard Ofshe, an expert on false confessions and police coercion and Professor of Sociology at UC Berkeley, testified that the brief recording of Misskelley's interrogation was a "classic example" of police coercion. He has further described Misskelley's statement as "the stupidest fucking confession I've ever seen." http://www.wm3.org/display/quotes.php?id=42 Critics have also stated that Misskelley's "confession" was in many respects inconsistent with the particulars of the crime scene and murder victims, including (for example) an "admission" that Misskelley "watched Damien rape one of the boys." Police had initially suspected that the boys were raped due to their dilated anuses, but forensic evidence later proved conclusively that the murdered boys had not been raped at all, and their dilated anuses were a normal post-mortem condition. Jessie Misskelley's February 4, 1994, patrol car statement Jessie Misskelley's February 17, 1994 Statement Subsequent to his conviction, a police officer also alleged that Misskelley had also confessed to her. However, once again, no reliable details of the crime were provided. Misskelley was a minor when he was questioned, and though informed of his Miranda rights, he later claimed he did not fully understand them. The Arkansas Supreme Court determined that Misskelley's confession was voluntary and that he did, in fact, understand the Miranda warning and its consequences. cr94-848 Misskelley specifically said he was "scared of the police" during his first confession. Transcript, MissKelley, Jr. Confession Portions of Misskelley's statements to the police were leaked to the press and reported on the front page of the Memphis Commercial Appeal newspaper before any of the trials began. Shortly after Misskelley's original confession, police arrested Echols and his close friend Baldwin. Misskelley's attorney, Dan Stidham, who was later elected to a municipal judgeship, has written a detailed critique of what he asserts are major police errors and misconceptions during their investigation. WM3.org - Case Synopsis by Dan Stidham James Martin Sr. James Martin Sr., a new resident in the area and a known child molester, offered his testimony as an expert into the criminal mind. With the exception of John Mark Byers, he currently has the largest file (57 pages) at www.wm3.org and has often been thought to be the leading suspect, especially early on in the case. Why he was removed from the suspect list eludes many people. In addition to failing the polygraph test, he also described the crime in great detail, with much information that had not been released to the public at the time of his interview (including the fact that the boys had been tied with their own shoelaces). He presented obvious signs of Antisocial Personality Disorder, and had at one time been hospitalized and incarcerated for sexually assaulting both his stepson and stepdaughter. He currently lives in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Vicki Hutcheson Vicki Hutcheson, a new resident of West Memphis, would play an important role in the investigation, though she would later recant her testimony, stating her statements were fabricated, due in part to coercion from police. Steel, Fiona. "The West Memphis 3." Court TV. 17 Mar. 2006 May 6, 1993 (the day the murder victims were found), Hutcheson was given a polygraph exam by Detective Don Bray at the Marion Police Department to determine if she had stolen money from her West Memphis employer. Hutcheson's young son, Aaron, was also present, and proved such a distraction that Bray was unable to administer the polygraph. Aaron, a playmate of the murdered boys, mentioned to Bray that the boys had been killed at "the playhouse." When the bodies proved to have been discovered near where Aaron indicated, Bray asked Aaron for further details, and Aaron claimed that he had witnessed the murders committed by Satanists who spoke Spanish. Aaron's further statements were wildly inconsistent, and he was unable to identify Baldwin, Echols or Misskelley from photo line-ups, and there was no "playhouse" at the location Aaron indicated. A police officer leaked portions of Aaron's statements to the press, potentially contributing to the growing belief that the murders were part of a Satanic rite. On or about June 1, 1993, Hutcheson agreed to police suggestions to place hidden microphones in her home during an encounter with Echols. Misskelley agreed to introduce Hutcheson to Echols. During their conversation, Hutcheson reported that Echols made no incriminating statements. Police said the recording was "inaudible", but Hutcheson claimed the recording was audible. On June 2, 1993, Hutcheson told police that about two weeks after the murders were committed, she, Echols and Misskelley attended an Esbat in Turrell, Arkansas. Hutcheson claimed that, at the Esbat, a drunken Echols openly bragged about killing the three boys. Misskelley was first questioned on June 3, 1993, a day after Hutcheson's Esbat confession. Hutcheson was unable to recall the Esbat location, and did not name any other participants of the purported Esbat. Hutcheson was never charged with theft. http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/vickih.html She claims that she implicated Echols and Misskelley to avoid facing criminal charges, and to gain a reward for the discovery of the murderers. Suspects' background At the time of their arrests, Misskelley was 17 years old, Baldwin was 16, and Echols was 18. Baldwin and Misskelley had previous records for minor juvenile offenses (for vandalism and shoplifting, respectively) and Misskelley had a reputation for being hot tempered and engaging in frequent fistfights. Misskelley and Echols had dropped out of high school, but Baldwin earned above-average grades and demonstrated a talent for drawing and sketching, and due to encouragement from a school counselor, was considering studying graphic design in college. Echols and Baldwin were close friends, due in part to their similar tastes in music and fiction, and due to a shared distaste for the prevailing cultural climate of West Memphis, which was politically conservative and strongly Evangelical Christian. Baldwin and Echols were acquainted with Misskelley from school, but were not close friends with him. Echols' family was very poor, with frequent visits from social workers, and he rarely attended school. His tumultuous relationship with an early girlfriend culminated when the two ran off together. After breaking into a trailer during a rain storm, the pair were arrested, though only Echols was charged with burglary. Police heard rumors that the young lovers had planned to have a child and sacrifice the infant; Based on this story, they had Echols institutionalized for psychiatric evaluation. He was diagnosed as depressed and suicidal, and was prescribed the antidepressant imipramine. Subsequent testing demonstrated poor math skills, but also showed that Echols ranked above average in reading and verbal skills. Echols spent several months in a mental institution in Arkansas, and afterwards received "full disability" status from the Social Security Administration. During Echols' trial, Dr. George W. Woods testified (for the defense) that Echols suffered from: "... serious mental illness characterized by grandiose and persecutory delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations, disordered thought processes, substantial lack of insight, and chronic, incapacitating mood swings." At the time of his arrest, Echols was working part-time with a roofing company and expecting a child with his new girlfriend, Domini Teer. Trials Echols and Baldwin were tried together; Misskelley was tried separately. Misskelley was convicted of the slaying of the two boys in 1994. Aftermath Today, although some West Memphis police personnel continue to insist the West Memphis Three are guilty, many critics continue to call for further investigation into the verdict. The biological father of Christopher Byers, Rick Murray, described his doubts in 2000 on the West Memphis Three website. WM3.org - Case Information In August 2007, Pamela Hobbs, the mother of victim Steven Branch, and John Mark Byers, adoptive father of Christopher Byers, joined those who have publicly questioned the verdicts, calling for a reopening of the verdicts and further investigation of the evidence. Legal status The convictions were upheld on direct appeal. Echols v. State (Dudley, J.) CR94-928 Echols case recently petitioned for a retrial based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted. However, the original trial judge, Judge David Burnett, has disallowed hearing of this information in his court. It is expected that a reversal of Echols' conviction would result in the vacating of the Baldwin and Misskelley convictions. In July, 2008, it was revealed that Kent Arnold, the jury foreman on the Echols / Baldwin trial, had discussed the case with an attorney prior to the beginning of deliberations and advocated for the guilt of the West Memphis Three as a result of the inadmissible Jessie Misskelley statements. The resulting juror misconduct claim is expected to result in a reversal of the convictions by 2009.. Legal experts have agreed that this issue has the strong potential to result in the reversal of the convictions of Jason Baldwin and Damien Echols. If their convictions are reversed, the State is expected to retry them. In October, 2008, Attorney (now Judge) Daniel Stidham, who represented Jessie Misskelley in 1994 testified at a postconviction relief hearing. Stidham testified under oath that, during the trial, Judge David Burnett approached the then-deliberating jury in the Misskelley matter at approximately 11:50 a.m. and advised them they would be breaking for lunch. When the foreman answered "we may almost be done", Judge Burnett responded "well, you'll still have to return for sentencing." When the foreman asked "what if we find him not guilty?" Judge Burnett closed the door without answering. Stidham testified that his failure to request a mistrial based on this exchange was ineffective assistance of counsel and that Misskelley's conviction should therefore be vacated. Legal experts have agreed that this issue has the strong potential to result in the reversal of the conviction of Jessie Misskelley. If his conviction is reversed, the State is expected to retry him. John Mark Byers' knife gift John Mark Byers, the adoptive father of victim Christopher Byers, gave a knife to cameraman Doug Cooper, http://callahan.8k.com/images/cooper_statement.jpg who was working with documentary makers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky while they were filming the first Paradise Lost feature. The knife was a small utility-type knife, manufactured by Kershaw. http://callahan.8k.com/images/jmb/jmb_knife2.jpg According to the statements given by Berlinger and Sinofsky, Cooper informed them of his receipt of the knife on December 19, 1993. After the documentary crew returned to New York, Berlinger and Sinofsky reported to have discovered what appeared to be blood on the knife. HBO executives ordered them to return the knife to the West Memphis Police Department. http://callahan.8k.com/images/berlinger_statement.jpg http://callahan.8k.com/images/sinofsky_statement.jpg The knife was not received at the West Memphis Police Department until January 8, 1994. Testimony of Gary Gitchell - Echols/Baldwin Trial Byers initially claimed the knife had never been used. Blood was found on the knife, and Byers then stated that he had used it only once, to cut deer meat. John Mark Byers Statement - January 26, 1994 When told the blood matched both his and Chris' blood type, Byers said he had no idea how that blood might have gotten on the knife. During interrogation, West Memphis police suggested to Byers that he might have left the knife out accidentally, and Byers agreed with this. Byers later stated that he may have cut his thumb. Further testing on the knife produced inconclusive results, due in part to the rather small amount of blood, and due to the fact that both John Mark Byers and Chris Byers had the same HLA-DQα genotype. Genetic Design - January 27, 1994 Report The 2007 joint status report submitted to the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed that there was no DNA at the scene from Echols, Baldwin, nor Misskelley, yet DNA from a hair found at the scene did match the DNA of John Mark Byers. Possible teeth imprints As documented in Paradise Lost 2, Echols, Misskelley and Baldwin submitted imprints of their teeth (after their imprisonment) that were compared to apparent bite-marks on Steve Branch's forehead, originally overlooked in the original autopsy and trial. No matches were found. According to the film, John Mark Byers had his teeth removed in 1997—after the first trial. He has never offered a consistent reason for their removal; in one instance claiming they were knocked out in a fight, in another saying the medication he was taking made them fall out, and in yet another claiming that he had long planned to have them removed so as to obtain dentures. After an expert examined autopsy photos and noted what he thought might be the imprint of a belt buckle on Byers' corpse, the elder Byers revealed to the police that he had spanked his stepson shortly before the boy disappeared. He also had a 1988 conviction for terrorist threats that arose from an incident involving his ex-wife, Sandra Byers. Melissa Byers had contacted Christopher's school a few weeks before the murders, expressing concerns that her son was being sexually abused. A fact not revealed until after the trial was that John Mark Byers had acted as a police informant on several occasions. His prior conviction for the 1988 incident had been expunged in May, 1992, upon the completion of probation, despite the fact that other criminal charges against him should have invalidated his probation. Vicki Hutcheson recants In October 2003, Vicki Hutcheson, who played a part in the arrests of Miskelley, Echols and Baldwin, gave an interview to the Arkansas Times in which she stated that every word she had given to the police was a fabrication. She further asserted that the police had insinuated if she did not cooperate with them they would take away her child. She noted that when she visited the police station they had photographs of Echols, Baldwin and Misskelley on the wall and were using them as dart targets. She also claims that an audio tape the police claimed was "unintelligible" (and eventually lost) was perfectly clear and contained no incriminating statements. However, Hutcheson did not testify at the Echols/Baldwin trial. DNA testing and new physical evidence In 2007, DNA collected from the crime scene was tested. None was found to match DNA from Echols, Baldwin, nor Misskelley. WM3.org - DNA TESTING CONCLUDES In addition, a hair "not inconsistent with" Terry Hobbs, stepfather to Stevie Branch, was found tied into the knots used to bind victim Michael Moore. Arkansas Times WMC-TV: News, Weather, Traffic, Radar, and Sports for Memphis, TN; WMCTV.com | DNA evidence may connect family member to West Memphis 3 crime scene The prosecutors, while conceding that no DNA evidence ties the accused to the crime scene, has said that, "The State stands behind its convictions of Echols and his codefendants." KAIT: Mother of West Memphis 3 Victim Speaks About New DNA Evidence On October 29, 2007 papers were filed in federal court by Damien Echols' defense lawyers seeking a retrial or his immediate release from prison. The filing cited DNA evidence linking Terry Hobbs (stepfather of one of the victims) to the crime scene, and new statements from Hobbs' now ex-wife. Also presented in the filing is new expert testimony that the "knife" marks on the victims were the result of animal predation after the bodies had been dumped. Arkansas Blog : West Memphis 3 Press Conference On September 10, 2008 Circuit Court Judge David Burnett denied the request for a retrial, citing the DNA tests as inconclusive. Judge rejects request for new trial for 3 men convicted of 1993 slayings of 3 Arkansas boys John Mark Byers In late 2007, John Mark Byers, adoptive father to Christopher Byers, announced that he now believes that Echols, Misskelley and Baldwin are innocent. "I believe I would be the last person on the face of the earth that people would expect or dream to see say free the West Memphis 3," said Byers. "From looking at the evidence and the facts that were presented to me, I have no doubt the West Memphis 3 are innocent." Byers is writing a book, and a film biography is being considered for production. Victim's father wants West Memphis 3 set free Mr. Byers has been speaking to the media on behalf of the convicted and has expressed his desire for "justice for six families." Documentaries and studies Two films, Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills and Paradise Lost 2: Revelations, have documented this case, as have the books Blood of Innocents by Guy Reel and Devil's Knot by Mara Leveritt. The documentary films and Leveritt's book were strongly critical of the verdict, and argue that the suspects were wrongly convicted. Tributes and support The case has seen interest from celebrities staging fund-raisers. Actress Winona Ryder has supported the attempts to obtain a retrial. http://www.wm3.org/display/quotes.php?id=8 Under the direction of Henry Rollins, various hip-hop, heavy metal, punk, and other musicians came together to record Rise Above, a collection of cover songs originally performed by Black Flag. All profits from the record and the supporting tour were donated to the suspects' defense funds. Wilshire Gazette, January 2003, http://www.citizinemag.com/music/music-0301_blackflag.htm Another benefit album was 2000's Free the West Memphis 3 featuring artists such as Steve Earle, Tom Waits, The Supersuckers, Joe Strummer, Killing Joke, Eddie Vedder and L7. This album was organized by Eddie Spaghetti of The Supersuckers. The Evil Powers of Rock and Roll: The Supersuckers' Eddie Spaghetti Works to Free the West Memphis Three Zao featured a song named "Free the Three" on their 2002 album Parade of Chaos and on their greatest hits album Legendary. Track Listing http://www.amazon.com/Legendary-Zao/dp/B00011V8AO In 2003 a benefit exhibition titled Cruel And Unusual was held at the Los Angeles art gallery sixspace which was hosted by Winona Ryder and included artwork by Raymond Pettibon, Shepard Fairey, Marilyn Manson and others. The exhibition also included a series of talks by lawyers involved with the case and public figures such as Jello Biafra. Cruel And Unusual: A Benefit for the West Memphis Three :: sixspace In 2004, Leviathan released "West Memphis Three" on their album "Internal Inferno". Track Listing http://www.cduniverse.com/search/xx/music/pid/6750284/a/Internal+Inferno.htm Alkaline Trio has a song titled "Prevent This Tragedy" on their 2005 album Crimson about the West Memphis Three. Track Listing http://www.amazon.com/dp/B0009IW8VM/ The group also has a song titled "Do You Want To Know?" on their latest album Agony and Irony which is a further commentary on the WM3's current situation. Hip-hop artist, Sage Francis references both the West Memphis 3 and the Paradise Lost documentaries, on the track Slow Down Gandhi on his 2005 album A Healthy Distrust, with the line "The West Memphis Three lost paradise, it's death penalty versus Suicidal Tendencies" Comedian and political activist Margaret Cho has spoken out in support of the West Memphis 3 on several occasions on her blog. She has also posted correspondence with Damien Echols as well. In 2004 she posed for an American Library Association poster holding a copy of Almost Home: My Life Story Vol. 1 by Damien Echols. On May 12, 2006, Skeleton Key, an art auction with artists including Damien Echols, Cinquain, Norman Reedus, Jay Mueller, Mick Rock, Bob Gruen, Erik Rose and Lorri Davis, premiered "An Art Auction Benefiting the West Memphis Three" which presented Damien Echols' art along with all the above named artists at 111 Minna Gallery in San Francisco. The Cure's Robert Smith sported a Free The Memphis Three sticker on his guitar during the band's European Festival in 2005. The Undead members Bobby Steele and Joel Gausten have publicly supported the West Memphis Three and have performed benefit concerts on their behalf. Hank Williams III has a "Free The WM3" sticker on a red guitar used during his Assjack sets. On July 21, 2006, State Radio debuted a song entitled "Unfortunates", which is about the West Memphis 3. The song is featured on the album Year of the Crow. Skateboard company Zero Skateboards released three skateboard decks in support of the West Memphis 3 with a percentage of the profits going toward their defense fund. In November 2007, Dixie Chicks lead singer Natalie Maines started speaking out in support of the West Memphis Three by appearing at rallies and providing information on the band's websites. In 2008, Terry Hobbs brought suit against the band, claiming libel and intentional infliction of emotional distress, amongst other accusations. Former Misfits singer Michale Graves is a supporter of the West Memphis Three, and had Damien Echols contribute the lyrics to several songs on his 2007 album Illusions with Damien Echols. Michale Graves's website At the MTV Movie Awards in 2000, upon winning the award for Best Musical Performance for the song "Uncle Fucka", South Park creator Trey Parker, shouted at the end of his acceptance speech "Free the West Memphis 3!" Hip Hop project xReign Of Terrorx makes reference to the case in the song "Dear Martyr" John Gray, Skeleton Key, and Texas Fear Fest ran a silent auction the weekend of March 7-9, 2008 to support the WM3 legal defense fund. Texas Fear Fest is a Dallas, Texas based horror convention and featured items from horror celebrities Michale Graves, Kane Hodder, Robert Englund, and the entire cast of Fright Night. Echols also co-wrote a song on Pearl Jam's Pearl Jam album with Eddie Vedder called Army Reserve. In the Season 5 Finale of "Dawson's Creek", after using the PA system to stop Audrey from getting on a plane, Joshua Jackson's character Pacey says: "Free the West Memphis Three." References External links West Memphis 3 at the Court TV Crime Library | West_Memphis_Three |@lemmatized west:42 memphis:45 name:5 give:8 three:27 teenager:2 try:3 convict:8 murder:12 child:10 robin:8 hood:8 hill:7 area:2 arkansas:16 united:1 state:26 damien:13 echols:63 sentence:6 death:3 jessie:8 misskelley:48 life:4 prison:2 plus:1 year:7 receive:4 two:11 addition:3 jason:3 baldwin:26 imprisonment:2 case:19 considerable:1 attention:2 supporter:2 believe:6 arrest:6 conviction:19 miscarriage:1 justice:2 defendant:6 wrongfully:2 period:1 intense:1 medium:3 scrutiny:1 remain:2 imprisoned:1 legal:7 proceeding:1 ongoing:1 july:6 new:13 forensic:2 evidence:17 present:8 status:4 report:13 jointly:1 issue:4 defense:12 team:1 although:2 genetic:2 material:1 recover:5 scene:21 attributable:1 victim:18 offense:2 cannot:1 attribute:1 either:2 october:4 file:3 second:3 amended:1 writ:3 habeas:3 corpus:3 outline:1 amend:1 retrieve:3 september:2 judge:9 david:4 burnett:6 circuit:2 court:12 deny:3 application:1 hearing:4 dna:15 schedule:1 continue:5 august:2 may:18 affidavit:2 provide:4 attorney:7 lloyd:1 warford:2 former:3 prosecutor:2 head:3 department:4 human:3 service:1 trial:22 contact:2 kent:2 arnold:3 jury:3 foreman:4 indicate:6 begin:3 strong:3 prejudgment:1 guilt:2 weak:1 circumstantial:1 would:9 obtain:4 intend:1 ensure:1 juror:3 statement:18 make:10 inadmissible:2 april:2 supreme:4 agree:6 hear:2 argument:1 concern:2 misconduct:2 observer:1 probably:2 result:12 vacating:2 revelation:3 time:15 next:1 stage:1 process:2 appeal:3 unless:1 reverse:3 proceed:1 federal:2 pending:1 crime:18 eight:1 old:2 boy:23 steve:4 branch:4 christopher:11 byers:43 michael:2 moore:2 miss:2 first:7 police:56 adoptive:4 father:7 john:16 mark:25 pm:5 last:3 see:5 together:4 enter:2 neighbor:2 synopsis:3 burk:1 saul:1 initial:4 search:9 night:3 limit:1 leveritt:9 mara:4 devil:3 knot:4 true:1 story:3 atrium:1 isbn:1 friend:4 also:17 conduct:2 impromptu:1 yet:3 unsuccessful:1 include:6 least:4 cursory:1 visit:3 location:5 body:13 finally:2 find:20 thorough:1 morning:1 aid:2 crittenden:2 county:2 rescue:2 personnel:3 searcher:2 canvass:1 focus:2 primarily:1 frequent:3 playground:1 despite:3 chain:1 shoulder:2 sign:2 break:3 lunch:2 others:6 juvenile:3 parole:1 officer:7 jones:1 spot:1 black:3 shoe:3 float:2 muddy:2 creek:8 lead:3 major:2 drainage:1 canal:1 subsequent:3 ditch:2 strip:1 naked:1 hog:1 tie:5 shoelace:2 right:3 ankle:1 wrist:1 behind:2 back:1 left:1 limb:1 clothing:2 twist:1 around:1 stick:1 thrust:1 bed:2 mostly:1 turn:1 inside:2 pair:3 underwear:1 never:5 fact:10 dan:5 stidham:9 access:2 severely:2 beat:2 face:3 far:4 fracture:1 skull:1 chris:4 deep:2 laceration:1 injury:3 scrotum:1 penis:1 original:4 autopsy:6 inconclusive:3 die:3 blood:11 loss:1 stab:1 wound:3 drown:2 mother:3 innocent:4 url:2 late:4 review:1 medical:2 examiner:3 determine:4 kill:6 official:4 interpretation:1 forensics:1 controversial:1 prosecution:1 expert:15 claim:15 knife:15 attack:1 purposefully:1 castrate:1 murderer:2 animal:2 predation:2 suspect:11 rap:3 sodomize:1 later:11 testimony:8 dispute:1 finding:1 http:14 callahan:8 com:13 frankp:1 html:3 trace:1 amount:3 sperm:1 pant:1 ebtrial:1 michaeld:1 assault:3 critic:4 argue:2 unlikely:1 occur:1 drug:3 system:2 prescribe:2 ritalin:1 january:5 part:7 deficit:1 disorder:3 treatment:1 describe:4 carbamazepine:2 image:5 jpg:5 dosage:1 sub:1 therapeutic:1 level:1 consistent:3 take:4 prescription:1 mr:3 bojangles:5 sight:1 possible:4 male:2 imply:1 beginning:2 possibility:1 seem:1 slim:1 accord:4 local:3 evening:1 worker:2 restaurant:3 mile:1 direct:3 route:1 bayou:1 african:2 american:3 daze:1 cover:2 mud:1 lady:1 room:1 refer:1 man:6 bleed:1 arm:1 brush:1 wall:3 defecate:1 floor:1 call:8 leave:4 regina:2 meeks:1 respond:2 inquire:1 drive:1 window:1 minute:5 examine:4 bloodstained:1 bathroom:3 following:1 day:5 manager:1 marty:1 king:1 think:4 connection:1 bloody:1 disorient:1 killing:2 twice:1 inform:3 suspicion:1 telephone:2 gather:1 restroom:1 meek:1 wear:1 clothes:1 wood:2 detective:4 bryn:4 ridge:6 lose:10 scraping:1 tile:1 hair:3 identify:2 belong:1 sheet:1 use:7 wrap:1 one:10 investigation:8 widespread:1 criticism:1 handle:1 cite:4 multiple:1 substantial:2 error:2 characterize:2 literally:1 trample:1 especially:2 say:13 remove:4 water:4 coroner:4 arrive:1 rigor:1 mortis:1 allow:1 decay:1 bank:1 expose:1 sunlight:1 insect:1 even:2 almost:4 hour:2 discovery:2 appearance:1 fail:3 drain:1 timely:1 manner:1 secure:1 sandbag:1 pull:1 substandard:1 small:4 test:10 control:2 disclosure:1 information:8 speculation:1 investigative:1 journalist:1 author:1 record:9 mess:1 disorderly:1 put:2 mildly:1 speculate:4 force:2 overwhelm:1 unlike:1 ever:2 investigate:2 refuse:1 unsolicited:1 offer:3 consultation:1 violent:1 suggest:2 due:9 wmpd:1 theft:2 task:1 note:3 physical:2 store:1 paper:2 sack:1 supermarket:2 pre:1 print:1 bag:1 rather:2 container:1 know:3 origin:1 mistakenly:1 presume:1 video:1 shoot:1 mike:1 allen:1 camera:1 available:1 thirty:1 afterwards:2 assailant:1 probation:3 assist:1 capable:1 commit:3 look:2 like:1 someone:2 film:6 paradise:8 bite:6 could:1 however:4 potential:3 notice:1 photograph:2 inspect:1 board:1 certify:1 four:2 testify:8 question:9 adult:1 list:4 conclude:2 actual:1 photo:3 analysis:1 upon:4 examination:3 match:5 teeth:4 interview:3 discover:3 polygraph:7 involvement:1 chart:1 deception:1 ask:5 produce:2 write:4 durham:2 administer:2 keep:1 recently:2 feature:5 website:4 archive:1 description:2 answer:3 abstract:1 follow:1 mutilation:1 guy:2 cut:4 heard:1 purpose:1 scare:1 person:3 fear:3 squealing:1 another:4 involve:3 conversation:2 inaccurate:1 allegedly:1 public:4 knowledge:1 mutilate:1 contradicted:1 stepfather:3 reporter:1 badly:1 third:1 bad:1 det:1 gitchell:3 release:6 tell:3 detail:4 demonstrate:2 leak:3 partly:1 accurate:1 gossip:1 widely:1 discuss:2 among:2 throughout:1 course:1 many:4 come:2 forward:1 regard:2 polygraphed:1 aggressive:1 verbally:1 abusive:1 expect:7 afraid:1 reply:1 electric:1 chair:1 month:2 pass:1 little:1 progress:1 interrogate:3 source:1 june:4 whose:1 iq:1 borderline:1 mentally:1 retarded:1 alone:1 parent:1 interrogation:3 permission:2 go:2 explicitly:1 minor:3 son:3 roughly:1 twelve:1 segment:1 total:1 bbc:1 collective:1 dvd:1 quickly:1 recant:2 confession:9 intimidation:1 coercion:4 fatigue:1 veil:1 threat:2 dr:2 richard:1 ofshe:1 false:1 professor:1 sociology:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 brief:1 recording:3 classic:1 example:2 stupid:1 fucking:1 www:7 org:6 display:2 quote:2 php:2 id:2 respect:1 inconsistent:3 particular:1 admission:1 watch:1 rape:1 initially:2 dilated:2 anus:2 prove:3 conclusively:1 murdered:2 normal:1 post:3 mortem:1 condition:1 february:2 patrol:1 car:1 allege:1 confess:1 reliable:1 though:3 miranda:2 fully:1 understand:2 voluntary:1 warning:1 consequence:1 specifically:1 scar:1 transcript:1 jr:1 portion:2 press:3 front:1 page:2 commercial:1 newspaper:1 shortly:2 close:4 elect:1 municipal:1 judgeship:1 detailed:1 critique:1 assert:2 misconception:1 james:2 martin:2 sr:2 resident:2 molester:1 criminal:3 mind:1 exception:1 currently:2 large:1 often:1 early:2 eludes:1 people:2 great:2 much:1 obvious:1 antisocial:1 personality:1 hospitalize:1 incarcerate:1 sexually:2 stepson:2 stepdaughter:1 live:1 gatlinburg:1 tennessee:1 vicki:4 hutcheson:16 play:2 important:1 role:1 fabricate:1 steel:1 fiona:1 tv:3 mar:1 exam:1 bray:4 marion:1 steal:1 money:1 employer:1 young:2 aaron:8 distraction:1 unable:3 playmate:1 mention:1 playhouse:2 near:1 witness:1 satanist:1 speak:4 spanish:1 wildly:1 line:2 ups:1 potentially:1 contribute:2 grow:1 belief:1 satanic:1 rite:1 suggestion:1 place:1 hidden:1 microphone:1 home:2 encounter:1 introduce:1 incriminating:2 inaudible:1 audible:1 week:2 attend:2 esbat:5 turrell:1 drunken:1 openly:1 brag:1 recall:1 participant:1 purported:1 charge:4 vickih:1 implicate:1 avoid:1 gain:1 reward:1 background:1 previous:1 vandalism:1 shoplifting:1 respectively:1 reputation:1 hot:1 temper:1 engage:1 fistfight:1 drop:1 high:1 school:5 earn:1 average:2 grade:1 talent:1 draw:1 sketching:1 encouragement:1 counselor:1 consider:2 study:2 graphic:1 design:2 college:1 similar:1 taste:1 music:4 fiction:1 share:1 distaste:1 prevailing:1 cultural:1 climate:1 politically:1 conservative:1 strongly:2 evangelical:1 christian:1 acquaint:1 family:3 poor:2 social:2 rarely:1 tumultuous:1 relationship:1 girlfriend:2 culminate:1 run:2 trailer:1 rain:1 storm:1 burglary:1 rumor:1 lover:1 plan:2 sacrifice:1 infant:1 base:4 institutionalize:1 psychiatric:1 evaluation:1 diagnose:1 depressed:1 suicidal:2 antidepressant:1 imipramine:1 demonstrated:1 math:1 skill:2 show:1 rank:1 reading:1 verbal:1 spent:1 several:4 mental:2 institution:1 full:1 disability:1 security:1 administration:1 george:1 w:1 suffer:1 serious:1 illness:1 grandiose:1 persecutory:1 delusion:1 auditory:1 visual:1 hallucination:1 thought:1 lack:1 insight:1 chronic:1 incapacitate:1 mood:1 swing:1 work:3 roofing:1 company:2 domini:1 teer:1 separately:1 slaying:2 aftermath:1 today:1 insist:1 guilty:2 verdict:4 biological:1 rick:1 murray:1 doubt:2 pamela:1 hobbs:5 steven:1 join:1 publicly:2 reopening:1 uphold:1 v:1 dudley:1 j:1 petition:1 retrial:4 statute:1 permit:1 testing:1 technological:1 advance:1 since:1 might:4 exoneration:1 disallow:1 reversal:4 reveal:3 prior:2 deliberation:1 advocate:1 retry:2 daniel:1 represent:1 postconviction:1 relief:1 oath:1 approach:1 deliberate:1 matter:1 approximately:1 advise:1 well:2 still:1 return:3 door:1 without:1 failure:1 request:3 mistrial:1 exchange:1 ineffective:1 assistance:1 counsel:1 therefore:1 vacate:1 gift:1 cameraman:1 doug:1 cooper:2 documentary:5 maker:1 joe:2 berlinger:3 bruce:1 sinofsky:3 utility:1 type:2 manufacture:1 kershaw:1 jmb:1 receipt:1 december:1 crew:1 york:1 appear:2 hbo:1 executive:1 order:1 gary:1 deer:1 meat:1 idea:1 get:2 accidentally:1 thumb:1 hla:1 dqα:1 genotype:1 joint:1 submit:2 affirm:1 imprint:3 document:2 compare:1 apparent:1 forehead:1 originally:2 overlook:1 reason:1 removal:1 instance:1 knock:1 fight:1 medication:1 fall:1 claiming:1 long:1 denture:1 belt:1 buckle:1 corpse:1 elder:1 spank:1 disappear:1 terrorist:1 arise:1 incident:2 ex:2 wife:2 sandra:1 melissa:1 express:2 abuse:1 act:1 informant:1 occasion:2 expunge:1 completion:1 invalidate:1 recants:1 miskelley:1 every:1 word:1 fabrication:1 insinuate:1 cooperate:1 away:1 station:1 dart:1 target:1 audio:1 tape:1 unintelligible:1 eventually:1 perfectly:1 clear:1 contain:1 collect:1 none:1 concludes:1 terry:3 stevie:1 bind:1 wmc:1 news:1 weather:1 traffic:1 radar:1 sport:2 tn:1 wmctv:1 connect:1 member:2 concede:1 accuse:1 stand:1 codefendant:1 kait:1 speaks:1 lawyer:2 seek:1 immediate:1 filing:2 link:2 dump:1 blog:2 conference:1 reject:1 men:1 boys:1 announce:1 earth:1 dream:1 free:9 book:3 biography:1 production:1 want:2 set:2 behalf:2 desire:1 six:1 reel:1 critical:1 wrongly:1 tribute:1 support:8 interest:1 celebrity:2 stag:1 fund:4 raiser:1 actress:1 winona:2 ryder:2 attempt:1 direction:1 henry:1 rollins:1 various:1 hip:3 hop:3 heavy:1 metal:1 punk:1 musician:1 rise:2 collection:1 song:10 perform:2 flag:1 profit:2 tour:1 donate:1 wilshire:1 gazette:1 citizinemag:1 htm:2 benefit:5 album:11 artist:4 earle:1 tom:1 wait:1 supersuckers:3 strummer:1 joke:1 eddie:4 vedder:2 organize:1 spaghetti:2 evil:1 power:1 rock:2 roll:1 zao:2 parade:1 chaos:1 hit:1 legendary:2 track:4 amazon:2 dp:2 exhibition:2 title:3 cruel:2 unusual:2 hold:2 los:1 angeles:1 art:4 gallery:2 sixspace:2 host:1 artwork:1 raymond:1 pettibon:1 shepard:1 fairey:1 marilyn:1 manson:1 series:1 talk:1 figure:1 jello:1 biafra:1 leviathan:1 internal:2 inferno:2 listing:1 cduniverse:1 xx:1 pid:1 alkaline:1 trio:1 prevent:1 tragedy:1 crimson:1 group:1 agony:1 irony:1 commentary:1 current:1 situation:1 sage:1 francis:1 reference:3 slow:1 gandhi:1 healthy:1 distrust:1 penalty:1 versus:1 tendency:1 comedian:1 political:1 activist:1 margaret:1 cho:1 correspondence:1 pose:1 library:2 association:1 poster:1 copy:1 vol:1 skeleton:2 key:2 auction:3 cinquain:1 norman:1 reedus:1 jay:1 mueller:1 mick:1 bob:1 gruen:1 erik:1 lorri:1 davis:1 premier:1 along:1 minna:1 san:1 francisco:1 cure:1 robert:2 smith:1 sticker:2 guitar:2 band:3 european:1 festival:1 undead:1 bobby:1 steele:1 joel:1 gausten:1 concert:1 hank:1 williams:1 iii:1 red:1 assjack:1 radio:1 debut:1 entitle:1 unfortunate:1 crow:1 skateboard:3 zero:1 deck:1 percentage:1 toward:1 november:1 dixie:1 chick:1 singer:2 natalie:1 maine:1 start:1 rally:1 bring:1 suit:1 libel:1 intentional:1 infliction:1 emotional:1 distress:1 amongst:1 accusation:1 misfit:1 michale:3 graf:3 lyric:1 illusion:1 mtv:1 movie:1 award:2 win:1 best:1 musical:1 performance:1 uncle:1 fucka:1 south:1 park:1 creator:1 trey:1 parker:1 shout:1 end:1 acceptance:1 speech:1 project:1 xreign:1 terrorx:1 dear:1 martyr:1 gray:1 texas:3 fest:2 silent:1 weekend:1 march:1 dallas:1 horror:2 convention:1 featured:1 item:1 kane:1 hodder:1 englund:1 entire:1 cast:1 fright:1 co:1 pearl:2 jam:2 army:1 reserve:1 season:1 finale:1 dawson:1 pa:1 stop:1 audrey:1 plane:1 joshua:1 jackson:1 character:1 pacey:1 external:1 |@bigram robin_hood:8 memphis_arkansas:1 damien_echols:12 jessie_misskelley:8 writ_habeas:3 habeas_corpus:3 echols_baldwin:15 supreme_court:4 christopher_byers:9 adoptive_father:4 mark_byers:15 dan_stidham:5 fracture_skull:1 stab_wound:1 medical_examiner:2 callahan_com:8 url_access:1 rigor_mortis:1 mentally_retarded:1 uc_berkeley:1 http_www:6 php_id:2 post_mortem:1 miranda_warning:1 baldwin_misskelley:6 child_molester:1 echols_misskelley:6 mental_illness:1 belt_buckle:1 sexually_abuse:1 fund_raiser:1 winona_ryder:2 hip_hop:3 steve_earle:1 joe_strummer:1 eddie_vedder:2 cruel_unusual:2 los_angeles:1 shepard_fairey:1 marilyn_manson:1 jello_biafra:1 suicidal_tendency:1 san_francisco:1 hank_williams:1 emotional_distress:1 dallas_texas:1 pearl_jam:2 dawson_creek:1 external_link:1 |
946 | Baldr | "Each arrow overshot his head" (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith. Balder is a god in Norse Mythology associated with light and beauty. In the 12th century, Danish accounts by Saxo Grammaticus and other Danish Latin chroniclers recorded a euhemerized account of his story. Compiled in Iceland in the 13th century, but based on much older Old Norse poetry, the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda contain numerous references to the death of Baldr as both a great tragedy to the Æsir and a harbinger of Ragnarök. According to Gylfaginning, a book of Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, Baldr's wife is Nanna and their son is Forseti. In Gylfaginning, Snorri relates that Baldr had the greatest ship ever built, named Hringhorni, and that there is no place more beautiful than his hall, Breidablik. Attestations Merseburg Incantation One of the two Merseburg Incantations names Balder, and it also mentions a figure named Phol. It has been theorized that Phol may therefore be another name for Baldr. Calvin, Thomas. 'An Anthology of German Literature', D. C. Heath & co. ASIN: B0008BTK3E,B00089RS3K. P5-6. Poetic Edda "Mímer and Balder Consulting the Norns" (1821-1822) by H. E. Freund. In the Poetic Edda the tale of Baldr's death is referred to rather than recounted at length. Among the visions which the Völva sees and describes in the prophecy known as the Völuspá is one of the fatal mistletoe, the birth of Váli and the weeping of Frigg (stanzas 31-33). Yet looking far into the future the Völva sees a brighter vision of a new world, when both Höðr and Baldr will come back (stanza 62). The Eddic poem Baldr's Dreams mentions that Baldr has bad dreams which the gods then discuss. Odin rides to Hel and awakens a seeress, who tells him Höðr will kill Baldr but Vali will avenge him (stanzas 9, 11). Prose Edda Baldr's death is portrayed in this illustration from an 18th century Icelandic manuscript. In Gylfaginning, Baldur is described as follows: Annar sonur Óðins er Baldur, og er frá honum gott að segja. Hann er svá fagr álitum ok bjartr svá at lýsir af honum, ok eitt gras er svá hvítt at jafnat er til Baldrs brár. Þat er allra grasa hvítast, ok þar eptir máttu marka fegrð hans bæði á hár og á líki. Hann er vitrastr ása ok fegrst talaðr ok líknsamastr. En sú náttúra fylgir honum at engi má haldask dómr hans. Hann býr þar sem heita Breiðablik, þat er á himni. Í þeim stað má ekki vera óhreint[.] An online edition of the Old Norse text. The second son of Odin is Baldur, and good things are to be said of him. He is best, and all praise him; he is so fair of feature, and so bright, that light shines from him. A certain herb is so white that it is likened to Baldr's brow; of all grasses it is whitest, and by it thou mayest judge his fairness, both in hair and in body. He is the wisest of the Æsir, and the fairest-spoken and most gracious; and that quality attends him, that none may gainsay his judgments. He dwells in the place called Breidablik, which is in heaven; in that place may nothing unclean be[.] — Brodeur's translation Gylfaginning, XXII Apart from this description Baldr is known primarily for the story of his death. His death is seen as the first in the chain of events which will ultimately lead to the destruction of the gods at Ragnarok. Baldr will be reborn in the new world, according to Völuspá. He had a dream of his own death and his mother had the same dreams. Since dreams were usually prophetic, this depressed him, so his mother Frigg made every object on earth vow never to hurt Baldr. All objects made this vow except mistletoe. Frigg had thought it too unimportant and nonthreatening to bother asking it to make the vow (alternatively, it seemed too young to swear). "Odin's last words to Baldr" (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. When Loki, the mischief-maker, heard of this, he made a magical spear from this plant (in some later versions, an arrow). He hurried to the place where the gods were indulging in their new pastime of hurling objects at Baldr, which would bounce off without harming him. Loki gave the spear to Baldr's brother, the blind god Höðr, who then inadvertently killed his brother with it (other versions suggest that Loki guided the arrow himself). For this act, Odin and the giantess Rindr gave birth to Váli who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr. Gylfaginning, XLIX Baldr was ceremonially burnt upon his ship, Hringhorni, the largest of all ships. As he was carried to the ship, Odin whispered in his ear. This was to be a key riddle asked by Odin (in disguise) of the giant Vafthrudnir (and which was, of course, unanswerable) in the poem Vafthrudnismal. The riddle also appears in the riddles of Gestumblindi in Hervarar saga. According to Carolyne Larrington in her translation of the Poetic Edda it is assumed that what Odin whispered in Baldr's ear was a promise of resurrection. The dwarf Litr was kicked by Thor into the funeral fire and burnt alive. Nanna, Baldr's wife, also threw herself on the funeral fire to await Ragnarok when she would be reunited with her husband (alternatively, she died of grief). Baldr's horse with all its trappings was also burned on the pyre. The ship was set to sea by Hyrrokin, a giantess, who came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook. "Balder the Good" by Jacques Reich. Upon Frigg's entreaties, delivered through the messenger Hermod, Hel promised to release Baldr from the underworld if all objects alive and dead would weep for him. And all did, except a giantess, Þökk, who refused to mourn the slain god. And thus Baldr had to remain in the underworld, not to emerge until after Ragnarok, when he and his brother Höðr would be reconciled and rule the new earth together with Thor's sons. When the gods discovered that the giantess Þökk had been Loki in disguise, they hunted him down and bound him to three rocks. Then they tied a serpent above him, the venom of which dripped onto his face. His wife Sigyn gathered the venom in a bowl, but from time to time she had to turn away to empty it, at which point the poison would drip onto Loki, who writhed in pain, thus causing earthquakes. He would free himself, however, in time to attack the gods at Ragnarok. Gesta Danorum Writing at about the end of the 12th century, the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus tells the story of Baldr (recorded as Balderus) in a form which professes to be historical. According to him, Balderus and Høtherus were rival suitors for the hand of Nanna, daughter of Gewar, King of Norway. Now Balderus was a demigod and common steel could not wound his sacred body. The two rivals encountered each other in a terrific battle. Though Odin and Thor and the rest of the gods fought for Balderus, he was defeated and fled away, and Høtherus married the princess. Nevertheless Balderus took heart of grace and again met Høtherus in a stricken field. But he fared even worse than before. Høtherus dealt him a deadly wound with a magic sword, named Mistletoe Davidson, H.R. Ellis, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, Pelican Books 1964 , which he had received from Miming, the satyr of the woods; after lingering three days in pain Balderus died of his injury and was buried with royal honours in a barrow. Baldrs draumar (1893). Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundenses There are also two lesser known Danish Latin chronicles, the Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses of which the latter is included in the former. These two sources provide a second euhemerized account of Höðr's slaying of Baldr. It relates that Hother was the king of the Saxons and son of Hothbrod and the daughter of Hadding. Hother first slew Othen's (i.e. Odin) son Balder in battle and then chased Othen and Thor. Finally, Othen's son Both killed Hother. Hother, Balder, Othen and Thor were incorrectly considered to be gods. Utrecht Inscription A Latin votive inscription from Utrecht, from the 3rd or 4th century C.E., has been theorized as containing the dative form Baldruo, , p. 210 & pp. 218-20. , pointing to a Latin nominative singular *Baldruus, which some have identified with the Norse/Germanic god, , p. 126. although both the reading and this interpretation have been questioned. , p. 43. , p. 2. Eponyms Plants [[Image:Tripleurospermum perforatum.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Baldr's brow (Matricaria perforata)]] As referenced in Gylfaginning, in Sweden and Norway, the Scentless Mayweed (Matricaria perforata) and the similar Sea Mayweed (Matricaria maritima) are both called Balder's brow. In Iceland only the latter is found. Den virtuella floran (in Swedish) Toponyms There are few old place names in Scandinavia that contain the name Baldr. The most certain and notable one is the (former) parish name Balleshol in Hedmark county, Norway: "a Balldrshole" 1356 (where the last element is hóll m "mound; small hill"). Others may be (in Norse forms) Baldrsberg in Vestfold county, Baldrsheimr in Hordaland county Baldrsnes in Sør-Trøndelag county — and (very uncertain) the fjord and municipality Balsfjord in Troms county. In Belgium, the name Balder is also used in dialect for a village called Berlaar and in another village (Tielen), the Balderij is a street and a swampy area next to it. References Further reading Lindow, John (1997). Murder and Vengeance Among the Gods: Baldr in Scandinavian Mythology''. Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. ISBN 9514108094. | Baldr |@lemmatized arrow:3 overshot:1 head:1 elmer:1 boyd:1 smith:1 balder:8 god:13 norse:5 mythology:2 associate:1 light:2 beauty:1 century:5 danish:4 account:3 saxo:2 grammaticus:2 latin:4 chronicler:1 record:2 euhemerized:2 story:3 compile:1 iceland:2 base:1 much:1 old:4 poetry:1 poetic:4 edda:7 prose:3 contain:3 numerous:1 reference:3 death:6 baldr:30 great:2 tragedy:1 æsir:2 harbinger:1 ragnarök:1 accord:4 gylfaginning:6 book:2 snorri:2 sturluson:1 wife:3 nanna:3 son:6 forseti:1 relate:2 ship:6 ever:1 build:1 name:9 hringhorni:2 place:5 beautiful:1 hall:1 breidablik:2 attestation:1 merseburg:2 incantation:2 one:3 two:4 also:6 mention:2 figure:1 phol:2 theorize:2 may:4 therefore:1 another:2 calvin:1 thomas:1 anthology:1 german:1 literature:1 c:2 heath:1 co:1 asin:1 mímer:1 consult:1 norn:1 h:2 e:3 freund:1 tale:1 refer:1 rather:1 recount:1 length:1 among:2 vision:2 völva:2 see:3 describes:1 prophecy:1 know:3 völuspá:2 fatal:1 mistletoe:3 birth:2 váli:2 weeping:1 frigg:4 stanzas:1 yet:1 look:1 far:1 future:1 brighter:1 new:4 world:2 höðr:6 come:2 back:1 stanza:2 eddic:1 poem:2 dream:5 bad:2 discuss:1 odin:9 ride:1 hel:2 awaken:1 seeress:1 tell:2 kill:3 vali:1 avenge:1 portray:1 illustration:1 icelandic:1 manuscript:1 baldur:3 describe:1 follow:1 annar:1 sonur:1 óðins:1 er:8 og:2 frá:1 honum:3 gott:1 að:1 segja:1 hann:3 svá:3 fagr:1 álitum:1 ok:5 bjartr:1 lýsir:1 af:1 eitt:1 gras:1 hvítt:1 jafnat:1 til:1 brár:1 þat:2 allra:1 grasa:1 hvítast:1 þar:2 eptir:1 máttu:1 marka:1 fegrð:1 han:2 bæði:1 á:3 hár:1 líki:1 vitrastr:1 ása:1 fegrst:1 talaðr:1 líknsamastr:1 en:1 sú:1 náttúra:1 fylgir:1 engi:1 má:2 haldask:1 dómr:1 býr:1 sem:1 heita:1 breiðablik:1 himni:1 í:1 þeim:1 stað:1 ekki:1 vera:1 óhreint:1 online:1 edition:1 text:1 second:2 good:2 thing:1 say:1 best:1 praise:1 fair:2 feature:1 bright:1 shine:1 certain:2 herb:1 white:2 liken:1 brow:3 grass:1 thou:1 mayest:1 judge:1 fairness:1 hair:1 body:2 wise:1 speak:1 gracious:1 quality:1 attend:1 none:1 gainsay:1 judgment:1 dwell:1 call:3 heaven:1 nothing:1 unclean:1 brodeur:1 translation:2 xxii:1 apart:1 description:1 primarily:1 first:2 chain:1 event:1 ultimately:1 lead:1 destruction:1 ragnarok:4 reborn:1 mother:2 since:1 usually:1 prophetic:1 depress:1 make:4 every:1 object:4 earth:3 vow:3 never:1 hurt:1 except:2 think:1 unimportant:1 nonthreatening:1 bother:1 ask:2 alternatively:2 seem:1 young:1 swear:1 last:2 word:1 w:1 g:1 collingwood:1 loki:5 mischief:1 maker:1 heard:1 magical:1 spear:2 plant:2 late:1 version:2 hurry:1 indulge:1 pastime:1 hurl:1 would:6 bounce:1 without:1 harm:1 give:3 brother:3 blind:1 inadvertently:1 suggest:1 guide:1 act:1 giantess:4 rindr:1 grow:1 adulthood:1 within:1 day:2 slew:2 xlix:1 ceremonially:1 burnt:2 upon:2 large:1 carry:1 whisper:2 ear:2 key:1 riddle:3 disguise:2 giant:1 vafthrudnir:1 course:1 unanswerable:1 vafthrudnismal:1 appear:1 gestumblindi:1 hervarar:1 saga:1 carolyne:1 larrington:1 assume:1 promise:2 resurrection:1 dwarf:1 litr:1 kick:1 thor:5 funeral:2 fire:3 alive:2 throw:1 await:1 reunite:1 husband:1 die:2 grief:1 horse:1 trapping:1 burn:1 pyre:1 set:1 sea:2 hyrrokin:1 rid:1 wolf:1 push:1 flash:1 roller:1 shook:1 jacques:1 reich:1 entreaty:1 deliver:1 messenger:1 hermod:1 release:1 underworld:2 dead:1 weep:1 þökk:2 refuse:1 mourn:1 slain:1 thus:2 remain:1 emerge:1 reconcile:1 rule:1 together:1 discover:1 hunt:1 bind:1 three:2 rock:1 tie:1 serpent:1 venom:2 drip:2 onto:2 face:1 sigyn:1 gather:1 bowl:1 time:3 turn:1 away:2 empty:1 point:2 poison:1 writhe:1 pain:2 cause:1 earthquake:1 free:1 however:1 attack:1 gesta:1 danorum:1 writing:1 end:1 historian:1 balderus:6 form:3 profess:1 historical:1 høtherus:4 rival:2 suitor:1 hand:1 daughter:2 gewar:1 king:2 norway:3 demigod:1 common:1 steel:1 could:1 wind:1 sacred:1 encounter:1 terrific:1 battle:2 though:1 rest:1 fight:1 defeat:1 flee:1 marry:1 princess:1 nevertheless:1 take:1 heart:1 grace:1 meet:1 stricken:1 field:1 fare:1 even:1 deal:1 deadly:1 wound:1 magic:1 sword:1 davidson:1 r:1 elli:1 myth:1 northern:1 europe:1 pelican:1 receive:1 mime:1 satyr:1 wood:1 linger:1 injury:1 bury:1 royal:1 honour:1 barrow:1 draumar:1 chronicon:2 lethrense:2 annales:2 lundenses:2 less:1 chronicle:1 latter:2 include:1 former:2 source:1 provide:1 slaying:1 hother:4 saxon:1 hothbrod:1 hadding:1 othen:4 chase:1 finally:1 incorrectly:1 consider:1 utrecht:2 inscription:2 votive:1 dative:1 baldruo:1 p:4 pp:1 nominative:1 singular:1 baldruus:1 identify:1 germanic:1 although:1 reading:2 interpretation:1 question:1 eponym:1 image:1 tripleurospermum:1 perforatum:1 jpg:1 right:1 thumb:1 matricaria:3 perforata:2 sweden:1 scentless:1 mayweed:2 similar:1 maritima:1 find:1 den:1 virtuella:1 floran:1 swedish:1 toponym:1 scandinavia:1 notable:1 parish:1 balleshol:1 hedmark:1 county:5 balldrshole:1 element:1 hóll:1 mound:1 small:1 hill:1 others:1 baldrsberg:1 vestfold:1 baldrsheimr:1 hordaland:1 baldrsnes:1 sør:1 trøndelag:1 uncertain:1 fjord:1 municipality:1 balsfjord:1 troms:1 belgium:1 use:1 dialect:1 village:2 berlaar:1 tielen:1 balderij:1 street:1 swampy:1 area:1 next:1 lindow:1 john:1 murder:1 vengeance:1 scandinavian:1 suomalainen:1 tiedeakatemia:1 isbn:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:1 saxo_grammaticus:2 poetic_edda:4 edda_prose:1 prose_edda:3 snorri_sturluson:1 sturluson_prose:1 eddic_poem:1 hann_er:2 þat_er:2 brodeur_translation:1 hervarar_saga:1 burnt_alive:1 gesta_danorum:1 odin_thor:1 baldr_draumar:1 nominative_singular:1 |
947 | Extermination_camp | Extermination camps were built by Nazi Germany during World War II for the systematic killing of millions of people in what has become known as The Holocaust. Doris Bergen, Germany and the Camp System, part of Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State, Community Teledvision of Southern California, 2004-2005 During World War II, under the orders of Heinrich Himmler, extermination camps were built during a later phase of the program of annihilation. Victims’ corpses were usually cremated or buried in mass graves. The groups the Nazis sought to exterminate in these camps were primarily the Jews of Europe, Eastern Europeans, as well as Roma (Gypsies). The majority of prisoners brought to extermination camps were not expected to survive more than a few hours beyond arrival. Terminology Extermination camp () and death camp (Todeslager) are usually interchangeable and specifically refer to camps whose primary function is or was genocide. In a generic sense, a death camp was a concentration camp that was established for the purpose of killing prisoners delivered there. They were not intended as sites for punishing criminal actions; rather, they were intended to facilitate genocide. Historically, the most infamous death camps were the extermination camps built by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II. Dictionary definition on laborlawtalk.com Nazi-German extermination camps are different than concentration camps such as Dachau and Belsen, which were mostly intended as places of incarceration and forced labor for a variety of “enemies of the state”—the Nazi label for people they deemed undesirable. In the early years of the Holocaust, the Jews were primarily sent to concentration camps, but from 1942 onward they were mostly deported to the extermination camps. Extermination camps should also be distinguished from forced labor camps (Arbeitslager), which were set up in all German-occupied countries to exploit the labor of prisoners of various kinds, including prisoners of war. Many Jews were worked to death in these camps, but eventually the Jewish labor force, no matter how useful to the German war effort, was destined for extermination. In most Nazi camps (with the exception of POW camps for the non-Soviet soldiers and certain labor camps), there were usually very high death rates as a result of executions, starvation, disease, exhaustion, and extreme brutality; nevertheless, only the extermination camps were intended specifically for mass killing. The distinction between extermination camps and concentration camps was recognized by Germans themselves (although not expressed in the official nomenclature of the camps.). As early as September 1942, an SS doctor witnessed a gassing and wrote in his diary: “They don't call Auschwitz the camp of annihilation (das Lager der Vernichtung) for nothing!” Diary of Johann Paul Kremer When one of Adolf Eichmann’s deputies, Dieter Wisliceny, was interrogated at Nuremberg, he was asked for the names of extermination camps; his answer referred to Auschwitz and Majdanek as such. When asked “How do you classify the camps Mauthausen, Dachau and Buchenwald?” he replied, "They were normal concentration camps from the point of view of the department of Eichmann.” Overy, Richard. Interrogations, p 356–7. Penguin 2002. ISBN 0-14-028454-0 The camps Picture of extermination camp Auschwitz II (Birkenau) taken by an American surveillance plane, 25 Aug. 1944. Crematoria II and III and the holes used to throw cyanide into the gas chambers are visible. Most accounts of the Holocaust recognize six German Nazi extermination camps, all located in occupied Poland Holocaust Timeline: The Camps : Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau) Chełmno Bełżec Majdanek Sobibór Treblinka Of these, Auschwitz II and Chełmno were located within areas of western Poland annexed by Germany; the other four were located in the General Government area. Other recognized death camps outside of the main six include the little known Maly Trostenets, which was located in present day suburban Minsk, Belarus, near or in the occupation-time Lokot Republic. Similar camps existed in Warsaw and Janowska. The Jasenovac concentration camp was the only central extermination camp outside of Poland, and the only one not operated by Nazis. "Encyclopedia of the holocaust" M.Shelach (ed.), "History of the holocaust: Yugoslavia". Run by the Ustaše forces of the Independent State of Croatia, the majority of victims at this camp were Serbs, though tens of thousands of Roma and Jews were murdered there as well. The euphemism “Final Solution of the Jewish Question” (Endlösung der Judenfrage) was used by the Nazis to describe the systematic killing of Europe’s Jews. The decision to exterminate the Jews was presumably taken by the Nazi leadership during the first half of 1941, but no record of this decision was found. The first step of the "final solution" was made by the Einsatzgruppen that followed the Wehrmacht in Operation Barbarossa (the invasion to USSR from June 1941). However, the method of shooting the Jews in pits was found to be not efficient enough, so in late 1941 the Nazis decided to establish purpose-built camps for systematic murder in gas chambers. The details of the operation were discussed at Wannsee Conference in January 1942 and carried out under the administrative control of Adolf Eichmann. Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór were constructed during Operation Reinhard, the codename for the extermination of Poland’s Jews. While Auschwitz II was part of a labor camp complex, and Majdanek also had a labor camp, the Operation Reinhard camps and Chełmno were pure extermination camps—in other words, they were built solely and specifically to kill vast numbers of people, primarily Jews, within hours of arrival. Aktion Reinhard: Belzec, Sobibor & Treblinka, Nizkor Project The only prisoners sent to these camps not immediately killed were those needed as slave labor directly connected with the extermination process (for example, to remove corpses from the gas chambers. These camps were small in size—only several hundred meters on each side—as only minimal housing and support facilities were required. Arriving persons were told that they were merely at a transit stop for relocation further east or at a work camp. Non-Jews were also killed in these camps, including many gentile Poles and Soviet prisoners of war. :: Muzeum Auschwitz-Birkenau w Oświęcimiu EN :: Major deportation routes to the extermination camps Victim numbers The number of people killed at the death camps has been estimated as follows: Auschwitz-Birkenau: about 1,100,000 http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005189: “It is estimated that the SS and police deported at a minimum 1.3 million people to Auschwitz complex between 1940 and 1945. Of these, the camp authorities murdered 1.1 million.” (Number includes victims killed in other Auschwitz camps as well.) Treblinka: at least 700,000 [http://www.nizkor.org/faqs/reinhard/reinhard-faq-13.html Reinhard: Treblinka Deportations Bełżec: about 434,500 Between March and December 1942, the Germans deported approximately 434,500 Jews and an undetermined number of Poles and Roma(Gypsies)to Belzec, where they were killed. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005191 Sobibór: about 167,000 In all, the Germans and their auxiliaries killed at least 167,000 people at Sobibor. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005192 Chełmno: about 152,000 In all, the SS and police killed at least 152,000 people in Chelmno. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/media_cm.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005194&MediaId=130 Majdanek: 78,000 A recent study radically revised downward the estimated number of deaths at Majdanek. According to a piece “Majdanek Victims Enumerated” by Pawel P. Reszka, Lublin, Gazeta Wyborcza 12 December 2005, reproduced on the site of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, Lublin scholar Tomasz Kranz has recently established this number,and the Majdanek museum staff consider it to be authoritative. Earlier estimates were considerably higher: 360,000, in a much-cited 1948 publication by Zdzislaw Lukaszkiewicz, a judge who was a member of the Main Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland, and 235,000, from a 1992 article by Dr. Czesaw Rajca, now retired from the Majdanek museum staff. These numbers total just under 2,700,000 people. Among the lesser known death camps, estimates vary from 85,000 to 600,000 killed at Jasenovac. Yad Vashem At Maly Trostenets extermination camp at least 65,000 Jews were murdered, and estimations for non-Jewish people killed vary from 100,000 to 400,000 (no survivals, including operating personnel, were found). See Maly Trostinec at the campsYad Vashem website Selection of sites for the camps Nazi Germany selected occupied Poland to locate most of the camps for a number of reasons: Camps were built where most of the intended victims lived. Poland was home to the largest Jewish population in Europe The Jewish Virtual Library - Main The extermination camps could be kept in greater secrecy from German citizens. Conditions for Polish Jews During WWII The entire railway network in Eastern Europe was overwhelmed by the Nazi war effort; it was logistically impossible to organize on the back of the Eastern Front, the largest military operation the world has ever seen, tens of thousands of trains to transport the Jewish victims over longer distances. index The Nazis wanted to remove all the Jews from the Greater Germany before they agreed on the Final Solution. Western Europe was considered "Aryan," and the Nazis did not want to pollute it with massive numbers of Jews. Poland was ideal; it was occupied by half--human Slavs. (Based on a book: The Nazi Doctors). Moreover, the greatest complex of the death camps, Auschwitz Birkenau, was located in the eastern most Nazi Greater Germany, and, from the Nazi perspective, not in Poland. see also: Polish death camp controversy Operation of the camps Majdanek crematorium The method of killing at these camps was typically poison gas obtained from the German chemical company IG Farben, usually in gas chambers, although many prisoners died in mass shootings, by starvation, or by torture. Rudolf Höss (German spelling: Höß; not to be confused with Rudolf Hess), the commandant of Auschwitz, wrote after the war that many of the Einsatzkommandos involved in the mass shootings went mad or committed suicide, “unable to endure wading through blood any longer.” Hoss [sic], Rudolf (2005). “I, the Commandant of Auschwitz,” in Lewis, Jon E. (ed.), True War Stories, p. 321. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-1533-2. The bodies of those killed were destroyed in crematoria (except at Sobibór, Treblinka, Belzec and Chelmno, where they were cremated on outdoor pyres), and the ashes buried or scattered. At Auschwitz-Birkenau, the number of corpses defied burial or burning on pyres: the only way to dispose of them was in purpose-designed furnaces built on contract by Topf und Söhne, which ran day and night. In terms of operation, extermination camps divide into three groups: "Aktion Reinhardt" extermination camps: These are three camps established by the Nazis is the "Reinhardt Aktion": Treblinka, Sobibor, Belzec. These camps were extermination camps, but not concentration or labor camps: inmates were brought in and, without any selection, taken to immediate extermination. These camps initially utilized carbon monoxide gas in gas chambers and the bodies, which were at first buried, were burnt in pyres. In later stages, crematories were built in Treblinka and Belzec, and Zyklon-B was also put into use in Belzec. The victims were almost exclusively of Jewish origin, save deportations of gypsies to Treblinka and Sobibor. These camps were small and were closed, in large, by late 1943. See: M. Lifshitz, "Zionism" (משה ליפשיץ, "ציונות" )p. 304. Compare with H. Abraham, "History of Israel and the nations in the era of Holocaust and uprising (חדד אברהם, "תולדות ישראל והעמים בתקופת השואה והתקומה" )" Concentration and extermination camps: Camps that were also concentration camps, where selections took part and a minority of inmates, who were also labor-capable, were kept alive and accommodated as camp inmates. These camps underwent the upgrade of using crematories and Zyklon-B earlier, and usually remained operative until the end of the war. These included Auschwitz, Majdanek and Jasenovac. Ibidem Minor extermination camps: location not recognised as extermination camps until lately. These sites included smaller camps, used as detention centers and transit camps, temporarily used as extermination camps later in the war, by using portable gas-chambers or gas-vans. Chelmno, or Kulmhof, is basically such a camp, yet it is listed as a central extermination camp Ibidem, pp. 101-102 . Others include Sajmiste, Maly-Trostenets, Janowska and Gornija Rijeka. The camps differed slightly in operation, but all were designed to kill as efficiently as possible. For example Kurt Gerstein, an Obersturmführer in the SS medical service, testified to a Swedish diplomat during the war about what he had seen at the camps. He describes how he arrived at Belzec on August 19, 1942 (the camp's gas chambers used carbon monoxide from a gasoline engine) where he was proudly shown the unloading of 45 train cars stuffed with 6,700 Jews, many of whom were already dead, but the rest were marched naked to the gas chambers, where, he said:Unterscharführer Hackenholt was making great efforts to get the engine running. But it doesn’t go. Captain Wirth comes up. I can see he is afraid because I am present at a disaster. Yes, I see it all and I wait. My stopwatch showed it all, 50 minutes, 70 minutes, and the diesel did not start. The people wait inside the gas chambers. In vain. They can be heard weeping, “like in the synagogue,” says Professor Pfannenstiel, his eyes glued to a window in the wooden door. Furious, Captain Wirth lashes the Ukrainian assisting Hackenholt twelve, thirteen times, in the face. After 2 hours and 49 minutes—the stopwatch recorded it all—the diesel started. Up to that moment, the people shut up in those four crowded chambers were still alive, four times 750 persons in four times 45 cubic meters. Another 25 minutes elapsed. Many were already dead, that could be seen through the small window because an electric lamp inside lit up the chamber for a few moments. After 28 minutes, only a few were still alive. Finally, after 32 minutes, all were dead… Dentists hammered out gold teeth, bridges and crowns. In the midst of them stood Captain Wirth. He was in his element, and showing me a large can full of teeth, he said: “See for yourself the weight of that gold! It’s only from yesterday and the day before. You can’t imagine what we find every day—dollars, diamonds, gold. You’ll see for yourself!” According to Höss, the first time Zyklon B was used on the Jews, many suspected they would be killed, despite being led to believe that they were only being deloused. As a result, pains were taken to single out possibly “difficult individuals” in future gassings, so they could be separated and shot unobtrusively. Members of a Special Detachment (Sonderkommando)—a group of prisoners from the camp assigned to help carry out the exterminations—were also made to accompany the Jews into the gas chamber and remain with them until the doors closed. A guard from the SS also stood at the door to perpetuate the “calming effect.” To avoid giving the prisoners time to think about their fate, they were urged to undress as speedily as possible, with the Special Detachment helping those who might slow down the process. Höss, pp. 321–322. Jews from Carpathian Ruthenia arriving at Auschwitz-Birkenau in May 1944. At Auschwitz, the majority of deportees were killed shortly after their arrival (without being registered into the camp system) in gas chambers, such as those housed in Crematoria II and III whose chimneys are visible in the background. The Special Detachment reassured the Jews being gassed by talking of life in the camp, and tried to persuade them that everything would be all right. Many Jewish women hid their infants beneath their clothes once they had undressed, because they feared the disinfectant would harm them. Höss wrote that the “men of the Special Detachment were particularly on the look-out for this,” and would encourage the womenfolk to bring their children along. The Special Detachment men were also responsible for comforting older children that might cry “because of the strangeness of being undressed in this fashion.” Höss, pp. 322–323. These measures did not deceive all, however. Höss reported of several Jews “who either guessed or knew what awaited them nevertheless” but still “found the courage to joke with the children to encourage them, despite the mortal terror visible in their own eyes.” Some women would suddenly “give the most terrible shrieks while undressing, or tear their hair, or scream like maniacs.” These were immediately led away by the Special Detachment men to be shot. Höss, p. 323. Some others instead “revealed the addresses of those members of their race still in hiding” before being led into the gas chamber. Höss, p. 324. Once the door was sealed with the victims inside, powdered Zyklon B would be shaken down through special holes in the roof of the chamber. The camp commandant was required to witness every gassing carried out through a peephole, and supervise both the preparations and the aftermath. Höss reported that the gassed corpses “showed no signs of convulsion”; the doctors at Auschwitz attributed this to the “paralyzing effect on the lungs” that Zyklon B had, which ensured death came on before convulsions could begin. Höss, pp. 320, 328. After the gassings had been carried out, the Special Detachment men would remove the bodies, extract the gold teeth and shave the hair of the corpses before bringing them to the crematoria or the pits. In either case, the bodies would be cremated, with the men of the Special Detachment responsible for stoking the fires, draining off the surplus fat, and turning over the “mountain of burning corpses” so that the flames would constantly be fanned. Höss found the attitude and dedication of the Special Detachment amazing. Despite them being “well aware that … they, too, would meet exactly the same fate,” they managed to carry out their duties “in such a matter-of-course manner that they might themselves have been the exterminators.” According to Höss, many of the Special Detachment men ate and smoked while they worked, “even when engaged on the grisly job of burning corpses.” Occasionally, they would come across the body of a close relative, but although they “were obviously affected by this, … it never led to any incident.” Höss cited the case of a man who, while carrying bodies from the gas chamber to the fire pit, found the corpse of his wife, but behaved “as though nothing had happened.” Höss, pp. 325–326. Some high-ranking leaders from the Nazi Party and the SS were sent to Auschwitz on occasion to witness the gassings. Höss wrote that although “all were deeply impressed by what they saw,” some “who had previously spoken most loudly about the necessity for this extermination fell silent once they had actually seen the ‘final solution of the Jewish problem’.” Höss was repeatedly asked how he could stomach the exterminations. He justified them by explaining “the iron determination with which we must carry out Hitler’s orders,” but found that even “[Adolf] Eichmann, who [was] certainly tough enough, had no wish to change places with me.” Höss, p. 328. Post war The English-language memorial in Auschwitz-Birkenau camp As the Soviet Red Army advanced into eastern Poland in 1944, the eastern most camps (excluding Auschwitz which was near Upper Silesia) were partly or completely dismantled by the Nazis to conceal the crimes which had taken place there. Because most of the camps in the very east of the country like Belzec and Sobibor were erected from natural materials locally available, like lumber, their physical remnants succumbed to the elements quicker. The postwar Polish communist government did create monuments of various kinds at the sites of the former camps, but they usually did not mention the ethnic, religious or national origin of the inmate population. This was done to create the perception of as large a homogeneous group of victims of the Nazis so that it could be used for propaganda purposes by the communist authorities in their agenda of supporting the historical communist effort in the conquest over 'German Fascism'. The hope was of the indoctrination of this theme by the citizens of Poland, the other communist block countries and the West. After the fall of communism in 1989, the camp sites became more accessible to Western visitors to Poland and have become centers of tourism, particularly the most-infamous site at the Former Nazi-German Concentration Camp at Auschwitz near the town of Oświęcim. There had been a number of disputes in the early 1990s between world Jewish organizations and some Polish Catholics, about what are appropriate symbols of martyrdom at these sites, namely the site at Auschwitz. Some Jewish groups had objected strongly to the erection of Christian memorials at a quarry adjacent to the camp. In this, the most notable case—Auschwitz cross—a cross was located near Auschwitz I, where most of the victims were executed Poles, rather than near Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau), which was where the majority of the Jewish victims perished. Holocaust denial Some groups and individuals deny that the Nazis killed anyone using extermination camps, or they question the manner or extent of the Holocaust. For example, Robert Faurisson claimed in 1979 that “Hitler’s ‘gas chambers’ never existed.” He contended that the notion of the gas chambers was “essentially of Zionist origin”. Another famous denier is British historian David Irving, who was sentenced to prison in Austria for his Holocaust denials: Holocaust denial is a criminal offense in Austria. Scholars and historians point out that Holocaust denial is contradicted by the testimonies of survivors and perpetrators, material evidence, and photographs, as well as by the Nazis’ own record-keeping. Efforts such as the Nizkor Project, the work of Deborah Lipstadt, Simon Wiesenthal and his Simon Wiesenthal Center, and more at Holocaust resources, all track and explain Holocaust denial. The work of historians such as Raul Hilberg (who published The Destruction of the European Jews), Lucy Davidowicz (The War Against the Jews), Ian Kershaw, and many others relegate Holocaust denial to a minority fringe. Antisemitic political motivation is often imputed to those who deny the Holocaust. The current historical debates surrounding the Nazi-German concentration camps and the Holocaust involve the questions of complicity of the local populations. Although many Jews were saved by Christian neighbors, others ignored their plight or turned them in. Furthermore, it is becoming evident that many of the camps were in clear view and were tied up in local economies. For instance, goods were purchased and delivered to camps and local women provided housekeeping and company. Nazi officers patronized local taverns and even bartered with gold collected from victims. Horwitz, Gordon J. “Places Far Away, Places Very Near: Mauthausen, the camps of the Shoah, and the bystanders” in Omer Bartov, ed. The Holocaust See also German camps in occupied Poland during World War II Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland World War II crimes in Poland References Bibliography Bartov, Omer (ed.). The Holocaust, 2000. Gilbert, Martin. Holocaust Journey: Travelling in Search of the Past, Phoenix, 1997. An account of the sites of the extermination camps as they are today, plus historical information about them and about the fate of the Jews of Poland. Klee, Ernst. “‘Turning the tap on was no big deal’—The gassing doctors during the Nazi period and afterwards,” in Dauchau Review, vol. 2, 1990. Levi, Primo. The Drowned and the Saved, 1986. Notes External links The Holocaust History Project Holocaust and concentration camps information The Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team Official U.S. National Archive Footage of Nazi camps | Extermination_camp |@lemmatized extermination:35 camp:104 build:8 nazi:30 germany:7 world:7 war:16 ii:12 systematic:3 killing:3 million:3 people:11 become:4 know:3 holocaust:24 doris:1 bergen:1 system:2 part:3 auschwitz:30 inside:4 state:3 community:1 teledvision:1 southern:1 california:1 order:2 heinrich:1 himmler:1 late:4 phase:1 program:1 annihilation:2 victim:13 corps:7 usually:6 cremate:3 bury:3 mass:4 graf:2 group:6 nazis:2 seek:1 exterminate:2 primarily:3 jew:25 europe:5 eastern:6 european:2 well:5 rom:3 gypsy:3 majority:4 prisoner:9 bring:4 expect:1 survive:1 hour:3 beyond:1 arrival:3 terminology:1 death:12 todeslager:1 interchangeable:1 specifically:3 refer:2 whose:2 primary:1 function:1 genocide:2 generic:1 sense:1 concentration:12 establish:4 purpose:4 kill:17 deliver:2 intend:4 site:9 punish:1 criminal:2 action:1 rather:2 facilitate:1 historically:1 infamous:2 occupied:5 poland:17 dictionary:1 definition:1 laborlawtalk:1 com:1 german:14 different:1 dachau:2 belsen:1 mostly:2 place:5 incarceration:1 force:4 labor:10 variety:1 enemy:1 label:1 deem:1 undesirable:1 early:3 year:1 send:3 onward:1 deport:3 also:11 distinguish:1 arbeitslager:1 set:1 country:3 exploit:1 various:2 kind:2 include:8 many:12 work:5 eventually:1 jewish:12 matter:2 useful:1 effort:5 destine:1 exception:1 pow:1 non:3 soviet:3 soldier:1 certain:1 high:3 rate:1 result:2 execution:1 starvation:2 disease:1 exhaustion:1 extreme:1 brutality:1 nevertheless:2 distinction:1 recognize:3 although:5 express:1 official:2 nomenclature:1 september:1 doctor:4 witness:3 gassing:6 write:4 diary:2 call:1 das:1 lager:1 der:2 vernichtung:1 nothing:2 johann:1 paul:1 kremer:1 one:2 adolf:3 eichmann:4 deputy:1 dieter:1 wisliceny:1 interrogate:1 nuremberg:1 ask:3 name:1 answer:1 majdanek:10 classify:1 mauthausen:2 buchenwald:1 reply:1 normal:1 point:2 view:2 department:1 overy:1 richard:1 interrogation:1 p:7 penguin:1 isbn:2 camps:1 picture:1 birkenau:10 take:6 american:1 surveillance:1 plane:1 aug:1 crematorium:5 iii:2 hole:2 use:11 throw:1 cyanide:1 gas:19 chamber:18 visible:3 account:2 six:2 locate:7 timeline:1 chełmno:4 bełżec:3 sobibór:4 treblinka:9 within:2 area:2 western:3 annex:1 four:4 general:1 government:2 outside:2 main:3 little:1 known:1 maly:4 trostenets:3 present:2 day:4 suburban:1 minsk:1 belarus:1 near:6 occupation:1 time:6 lokot:1 republic:1 similar:1 exist:2 warsaw:1 janowska:2 jasenovac:3 central:2 operate:1 encyclopedia:1 shelach:1 ed:4 history:3 yugoslavia:1 run:3 ustaše:1 independent:1 croatia:1 serbs:1 though:2 ten:2 thousand:2 murder:4 euphemism:1 final:4 solution:4 question:3 endlösung:1 judenfrage:1 describe:2 decision:2 presumably:1 leadership:1 first:4 half:2 record:3 find:8 step:1 make:3 einsatzgruppen:1 follow:2 wehrmacht:1 operation:8 barbarossa:1 invasion:1 ussr:1 june:1 however:2 method:2 shoot:3 pit:3 efficient:1 enough:2 decide:1 detail:1 discuss:1 wannsee:1 conference:1 january:1 carry:7 administrative:1 control:1 construct:1 reinhard:6 codename:1 complex:3 pure:1 word:1 solely:1 vast:1 number:12 aktion:3 belzec:8 sobibor:5 nizkor:3 project:3 immediately:2 need:1 slave:1 directly:1 connect:1 process:2 example:3 remove:3 small:4 size:1 several:2 hundred:1 meter:2 side:1 minimal:1 housing:1 support:2 facility:1 require:2 arrive:3 person:2 tell:1 merely:1 transit:2 stop:1 relocation:1 far:2 east:2 gentile:1 pole:3 muzeum:1 w:1 oświęcimiu:1 en:5 major:1 deportation:3 route:1 estimate:4 http:5 www:5 ushmm:4 org:5 wlc:4 article:4 php:4 lang:4 moduleid:4 police:2 minimum:1 authority:2 least:4 faq:2 html:1 march:2 december:2 approximately:1 undetermined:1 auxiliary:1 chelmno:3 mediaid:1 recent:1 study:1 radically:1 revise:1 downward:1 estimated:1 accord:3 piece:1 enumerate:1 pawel:1 reszka:1 lublin:2 gazeta:1 wyborcza:1 reproduce:1 museum:3 scholar:2 tomasz:1 kranz:1 recently:1 staff:2 consider:2 authoritative:1 earlier:2 considerably:1 much:1 cited:1 publication:1 zdzislaw:1 lukaszkiewicz:1 judge:1 member:3 commission:1 investigation:1 crime:3 dr:1 czesaw:1 rajca:1 retire:1 total:1 among:1 less:1 vary:2 yad:1 vashem:2 estimation:1 survival:1 operating:1 personnel:1 see:12 trostinec:1 campsyad:1 website:1 selection:3 select:1 reason:1 intended:1 live:1 home:1 large:5 population:3 virtual:1 library:1 could:6 keep:3 great:5 secrecy:1 citizen:2 condition:1 polish:4 wwii:1 entire:1 railway:1 network:1 overwhelm:1 logistically:1 impossible:1 organize:1 back:1 front:1 military:1 ever:1 train:2 transport:1 long:2 distance:1 index:1 want:2 agree:1 aryan:1 pollute:1 massive:1 ideal:1 occupy:2 human:1 slav:1 base:1 book:1 moreover:1 perspective:1 controversy:1 typically:1 poison:1 obtain:1 chemical:1 company:2 ig:1 farben:1 die:1 shooting:2 torture:1 rudolf:3 höss:17 spelling:1 höß:1 confuse:1 hess:1 commandant:3 einsatzkommandos:1 involve:2 go:2 mad:1 committed:1 suicide:1 unable:1 endure:1 wad:1 blood:1 ho:1 sic:1 lewis:1 jon:1 e:1 true:1 story:1 carroll:1 publisher:1 body:6 destroy:1 except:1 outdoor:1 pyre:3 ash:1 scatter:1 defy:1 burial:1 burn:4 way:1 dispose:1 design:2 furnace:1 contract:1 topf:1 und:1 söhne:1 night:1 term:1 divide:1 three:2 reinhardt:2 inmate:4 without:2 immediate:1 initially:1 utilized:1 carbon:2 monoxide:2 stage:1 crematory:2 zyklon:5 b:5 put:1 almost:1 exclusively:1 origin:3 save:3 close:3 lifshitz:1 zionism:1 משה:1 ליפשיץ:1 ציונות:1 compare:1 h:1 abraham:1 israel:1 nation:1 era:1 uprising:1 חדד:1 אברהם:1 תולדות:1 ישראל:1 והעמים:1 בתקופת:1 השואה:1 והתקומה:1 minority:2 capable:1 alive:3 accommodate:1 undergo:1 upgrade:1 remain:2 operative:1 end:1 ibidem:2 minor:1 location:1 recognise:1 lately:1 detention:1 center:3 temporarily:1 later:1 portable:1 van:1 kulmhof:1 basically:1 yet:1 list:1 pp:5 others:4 sajmiste:1 gornija:1 rijeka:1 differ:1 slightly:1 efficiently:1 possible:2 kurt:1 gerstein:1 obersturmführer:1 medical:1 service:1 testify:1 swedish:1 diplomat:1 august:1 gasoline:1 engine:2 proudly:1 show:4 unloading:1 car:1 stuff:1 already:2 dead:3 rest:1 naked:1 say:3 unterscharführer:1 hackenholt:2 get:1 captain:3 wirth:3 come:3 afraid:1 disaster:1 yes:1 wait:2 stopwatch:2 minute:6 diesel:2 start:2 vain:1 hear:1 weep:1 like:4 synagogue:1 professor:1 pfannenstiel:1 eye:2 glue:1 window:2 wooden:1 door:4 furious:1 lash:1 ukrainian:1 assist:1 twelve:1 thirteen:1 face:1 moment:2 shut:1 crowd:1 still:4 cubic:1 another:2 elapse:1 electric:1 lamp:1 light:1 finally:1 dentist:1 hammer:1 gold:5 teeth:3 bridge:1 crown:1 midst:1 stand:2 element:2 full:1 weight:1 yesterday:1 imagine:1 every:2 dollar:1 diamond:1 suspect:1 would:11 despite:3 lead:4 believe:1 delouse:1 pain:1 single:1 possibly:1 difficult:1 individual:2 future:1 separate:1 unobtrusively:1 special:11 detachment:10 sonderkommando:1 assign:1 help:2 accompany:1 guard:1 perpetuate:1 calm:1 effect:2 avoid:1 give:2 think:1 fate:3 urge:1 undress:4 speedily:1 might:3 slow:1 carpathian:1 ruthenia:1 may:1 deportee:1 shortly:1 register:1 house:1 chimney:1 background:1 reassure:1 talk:1 life:1 try:1 persuade:1 everything:1 right:1 woman:3 hide:2 infant:1 beneath:1 clothes:1 fear:1 disinfectant:1 harm:1 men:6 particularly:2 look:1 encourage:2 womenfolk:1 child:3 along:1 responsible:2 comfort:1 old:1 cry:1 strangeness:1 fashion:1 measure:1 deceive:1 report:2 either:2 guess:1 await:1 courage:1 joke:1 mortal:1 terror:1 suddenly:1 terrible:1 shriek:1 tear:1 hair:2 scream:1 maniac:1 away:2 instead:1 reveal:1 address:1 race:1 seal:1 powder:1 shake:1 roof:1 peephole:1 supervise:1 preparation:1 aftermath:1 gassed:1 sign:1 convulsion:2 attribute:1 paralyze:1 lung:1 ensure:1 begin:1 extract:1 shave:1 case:3 stoke:1 fire:2 drain:1 surplus:1 fat:1 turn:3 mountain:1 flame:1 constantly:1 fan:1 attitude:1 dedication:1 amazing:1 aware:1 meet:1 exactly:1 manage:1 duty:1 course:1 manner:2 exterminator:1 eat:1 smoke:1 even:3 engage:1 grisly:1 job:1 occasionally:1 across:1 relative:1 obviously:1 affect:1 never:2 incident:1 cite:1 man:1 corpse:1 wife:1 behave:1 happen:1 rank:1 leader:1 party:1 occasion:1 deeply:1 impress:1 saw:1 previously:1 speak:1 loudly:1 necessity:1 fell:1 silent:1 actually:1 problem:1 repeatedly:1 stomach:1 justify:1 explain:2 iron:1 determination:1 must:1 hitler:2 certainly:1 tough:1 wish:1 change:1 post:1 english:1 language:1 memorial:2 red:1 army:1 advance:1 exclude:1 upper:1 silesia:1 partly:1 completely:1 dismantle:1 conceal:1 erect:1 natural:1 material:2 locally:1 available:1 lumber:1 physical:1 remnant:1 succumb:1 quicker:1 postwar:1 communist:4 create:2 monument:1 former:2 mention:1 ethnic:1 religious:1 national:2 perception:1 homogeneous:1 propaganda:1 agenda:1 historical:3 conquest:1 fascism:1 hope:1 indoctrination:1 theme:1 block:1 west:1 fall:1 communism:1 sit:1 accessible:1 visitor:1 tourism:1 town:1 oświęcim:1 dispute:1 organization:1 catholic:1 appropriate:1 symbol:1 martyrdom:1 namely:1 object:1 strongly:1 erection:1 christian:2 quarry:1 adjacent:1 notable:1 cross:2 execute:1 perish:1 denial:6 deny:2 anyone:1 extent:1 robert:1 faurisson:1 claim:1 contend:1 notion:1 essentially:1 zionist:1 famous:1 denier:1 british:1 historian:3 david:1 irving:1 sentence:1 prison:1 austria:2 offense:1 contradict:1 testimony:1 survivor:1 perpetrator:1 evidence:1 photographs:1 deborah:1 lipstadt:1 simon:2 wiesenthal:2 resource:1 track:1 raul:1 hilberg:1 publish:1 destruction:1 lucy:1 davidowicz:1 ian:1 kershaw:1 relegate:1 fringe:1 antisemitic:1 political:1 motivation:1 often:1 imputed:1 current:1 debate:1 surround:1 complicity:1 local:4 neighbor:1 ignore:1 plight:1 furthermore:1 evident:1 clear:1 tie:1 economy:1 instance:1 good:1 purchase:1 provide:1 housekeeping:1 officer:1 patronize:1 tavern:1 barter:1 collect:1 horwitz:1 gordon:1 j:1 shoah:1 bystander:1 omer:2 bartov:2 reference:1 bibliography:1 gilbert:1 martin:1 journey:1 travelling:1 search:1 past:1 phoenix:1 today:1 plus:1 information:2 klee:1 ernst:1 tap:1 big:1 deal:1 period:1 afterwards:1 dauchau:1 review:1 vol:1 levi:1 primo:1 drowned:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 education:1 archive:2 research:1 team:1 u:1 footage:1 |@bigram extermination_camp:29 heinrich_himmler:1 rom_gypsy:2 concentration_camp:10 pow_camp:1 adolf_eichmann:3 overy_richard:1 auschwitz_birkenau:9 minsk_belarus:1 operation_barbarossa:1 wannsee_conference:1 nizkor_project:2 http_www:5 gazeta_wyborcza:1 yad_vashem:1 ig_farben:1 rudolf_hess:1 commandant_auschwitz:2 committed_suicide:1 carroll_graf:1 carbon_monoxide:2 zyklon_b:5 almost_exclusively:1 gasoline_engine:1 cubic_meter:1 carpathian_ruthenia:1 upper_silesia:1 holocaust_denial:6 simon_wiesenthal:2 wiesenthal_center:1 ian_kershaw:1 omer_bartov:1 external_link:1 |
948 | Max_Planck | Max Planck (April 23, 1858 – October 4, 1947) was a German physicist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. Biography Planck came from a traditional, intellectual family. His paternal great-grandfather and grandfather were both theology professors in Göttingen, his father was a law professor in Kiel and Munich, and his paternal uncle was a judge. Max Planck's signature at ten years of age. Planck was born in Kiel, Holstein, to Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. He was baptised with the name of Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck; of his given names, Marx was indicated as the primary name. According to a report by the Spiegel Online of 24 April 2008, a recent examination of the documents of the Church Archives in Kiel has shown that Marx is the actual first name and not Max. The word Marx is the Germanized form of the Latin word Marcus.Source: Christoph Seidler, Gestatten, Marx Planck, Spiegel Online, 24 April 2008, . However, already by the age of ten he signed with the name Max, which he used for the rest of his life Press release of the Max Planck Society about Max Planck's name. . He was the sixth child in the family, though two of his siblings were from his father's first marriage. Among his earliest memories was the marching of Prussian and Austrian troops into Kiel during the Danish-Prussian war of 1864. In 1867 the family moved to Munich, and Planck enrolled in the Maximilians gymnasium school, where he came under the tutelage of Hermann Müller, a mathematician who took an interest in the youth, and taught him astronomy and mechanics as well as mathematics. It was from Müller that Planck first learned the principle of conservation of energy. Planck graduated early, at age 17. Encyclopædia Britannica: Max Planck This is how Planck first came in contact with the field of physics. Planck was gifted when it came to music. He took singing lessons and played piano, organ and cello, and composed songs and operas. However, instead of music he chose to study physics. The Munich physics professor Philipp von Jolly advised Planck against going into physics, saying, "in this field, almost everything is already discovered, and all that remains is to fill a few holes." Planck replied that he did not wish to discover new things, only to understand the known fundamentals of the field, and began his studies in 1874 at the University of Munich. Under Jolly's supervision, Planck performed the only experiments of his scientific career, studying the diffusion of hydrogen through heated platinum, but transferred to theoretical physics. In 1877 he went to Berlin for a year of study with physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff and the mathematician Karl Weierstrass. He wrote that Helmholtz was never quite prepared, spoke slowly, miscalculated endlessly, and bored his listeners, while Kirchhoff spoke in carefully prepared lectures which were dry and monotonous. He soon became close friends with Helmholtz. While there he undertook a program of mostly self-study of Clausius's writings, which led him to choose heat theory as his field. In October 1878 Planck passed his qualifying exams and in February 1879 defended his dissertation, Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie (On the second fundamental theorem of the mechanical theory of heat). He briefly taught mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich. In June 1880 he presented his habilitation thesis, Gleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen (Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures). Academic career With the completion of his habilitation thesis, Planck became an unpaid private lecturer in Munich, waiting until he was offered an academic position. Although he was initially ignored by the academic community, he furthered his work on the field of heat theory and discovered one after another the same thermodynamical formalism as Gibbs without realizing it. Clausius's ideas on entropy occupied a central role in his work. In April 1885 the University of Kiel appointed Planck as associate professor of theoretical physics. Further work on entropy and its treatment, especially as applied in physical chemistry, followed. He proposed a thermodynamic basis for Svante Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation. Within four years he was named the successor to Kirchhoff's position at the University of Berlin — presumably thanks to Helmholtz's intercession — and by 1892 became a full professor. In 1907 Planck was offered Boltzmann's position in Vienna, but turned it down to stay in Berlin. During 1909 he was the Ernest Kempton Adams Lecturer in Theoretical Physics at Columbia University in New York City. He retired from Berlin on January 10, 1926, and was succeeded by Erwin Schrödinger. Family In March 1887 Planck married Marie Merck (1861-1909), sister of a school fellow, and moved with her into a sublet apartment in Kiel. They had four children: Karl (1888-1916), the twins Emma (1889-1919) and Grete (1889-1917), and Erwin (1893-1945). After the appointment to Berlin, the Planck family lived in a villa in Berlin-Grunewald, Wangenheimstraße 21. Several other professors of Berlin University lived nearby, among them theologian Adolf von Harnack, who became a close friend of Planck. Soon the Planck home became a social and cultural centre. Numerous well-known scientists, such as Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner were frequent visitors. The tradition of jointly performing music had already been established in the home of Helmholtz. After several happy years the Planck family was struck by a series of disasters. In July 1909 Marie Planck died, possibly from tuberculosis. In March 1911 Planck married his second wife, Marga von Hoesslin (1882-1948); in December his third son Hermann was born. During the First World War Planck's second son Erwin was taken prisoner by the French in 1914, while his oldest son Karl was killed in action at Verdun. Grete died in 1917 while giving birth to her first child. Her sister died the same way two years later, after having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were named after their mothers. Planck endured these losses stoically. In January 1945, Erwin, to whom he had been particularly close, was sentenced to death by the Nazi Volksgerichtshof because of his participation in the failed attempt to assassinate Hitler in July 1944. Erwin was hanged on 23 January 1945. Wives: Marie Merck (m. 1887), Marga von Hoesslin (m. 1910) Children: Karl (1888-1916), twins Emma (1889-1919) and Grete (1889-1917), Erwin (1893-1945), Hermann (b. 1911) Professor at Berlin University In Berlin, Planck joined the local Physical Society. He later wrote about this time: "In those days I was essentially the only theoretical physicist there, whence things were not so easy for me, because I started mentioning entropy, but this was not quite fashionable, since it was regarded as a mathematical spook". Thanks to his initiative, the various local Physical Societies of Germany merged in 1898 to form the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG); from 1905 to 1909 Planck was the president. Planck started a six-semester course of lectures on theoretical physics, "dry, somewhat impersonal" according to Lise Meitner, "using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard" according to an English participant, James R. Partington, who continues: "There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture". Planck did not establish an actual "school", the number of his graduate students was only about 20, among them: Max Abraham 1897 (1875 - 1922) Moritz Schlick 1904 (1882 - 1936) Walther Meißner 1906 (1882 - 1974) Max von Laue 1906 (1879 - 1960) Fritz Reiche 1907 (1883 - 1960) Walter Schottky 1912 (1886 - 1976) Walther Bothe 1914 (1891 - 1957) Black-body radiation In 1894 Planck turned his attention to the problem of black-body radiation. He had been commissioned by electric companies to create maximum light from lightbulbs with minimum energy. The problem had been stated by Kirchhoff in 1859: how does the intensity of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body (a perfect absorber, also known as a cavity radiator) depend on the frequency of the radiation (e.g., the color of the light) and the temperature of the body? The question had been explored experimentally, but no theoretical treatment agreed with experimental values. Wilhelm Wien proposed Wien's law, which correctly predicted the behaviour at high frequencies, but failed at low frequencies. The Rayleigh-Jeans law, another approach to the problem, created what was later known as the "ultraviolet catastrophe", but contrary to many textbooks this was not a motivation for Planck. For a solid approach to the complexity of Planck's intellectual motivations for the quantum, for his reluctant acceptance of its implications, see Helge Kragh, Max Planck: the reluctant revolutionary, Physics World. December 2000. Planck's first proposed solution to the problem in 1899 followed from what Planck called the "principle of elementary disorder", which allowed him to derive Wien's law from a number of assumptions about the entropy of an ideal oscillator, creating what was referred-to as the Wien-Planck law. Soon it was found that experimental evidence did not confirm the new law at all, to Planck's frustration. Planck revised his approach, deriving the first version of the famous Planck black-body radiation law, which described the experimentally observed black-body spectrum well. It was first proposed in a meeting of the DPG on October 19, 1900 and published in 1901. This first derivation did not include energy quantisation, and did not use statistical mechanics, to which he held an aversion. In November 1900, Planck revised this first approach, relying on Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics as a way of gaining a more fundamental understanding of the principles behind his radiation law. As Planck was deeply suspicious of the philosophical and physical implications of such an interpretation of Boltzmann's approach, his recourse to them was, as he later put it, "an act of despair ... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics." The central assumption behind his new derivation, presented to the DPG on 14 December 1900, was the supposition that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form, in other words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit , where is Planck's constant, also known as Planck's action quantum (introduced already in 1899), and is the frequency of the radiation. Planck in 1918, the year he received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on quantum theory At first Planck considered that quantisation was only "a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it..."; nowadays this assumption, incompatible with classical physics, is regarded as the birth of quantum physics and the greatest intellectual accomplishment of Planck's career (Ludwig Boltzmann had been discussing in a theoretical paper in 1877 the possibility that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete). The full interpretation of the radical implications of Planck's work was advanced by Albert Einstein in 1905—for this reason, the philosopher and historian of science Thomas Kuhn argued that Einstein should be given credit for quantum theory more so than Planck, since Planck did not understand in a deep sense that he was "introducing the quantum" as a real physical entity. Thomas Kuhn, Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity: 1894-1912 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1978). Be that as it may, it was in recognition of Planck's monumental accomplishment that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. The discovery of Planck's constant enabled him to define a new universal set of physical units (such as the Planck length and the Planck mass), all based on fundamental physical constants. Subsequently, Planck tried to grasp the meaning of energy quanta, but to no avail. "My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble." Even several years later, other physicists like Rayleigh, Jeans, and Lorentz set Planck's constant to zero in order to align with classical physics, but Planck knew well that this constant had a precise nonzero value. "I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness — he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same as Hegel was for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts, if they are wrong." Max Born wrote about Planck: "He was by nature and by the tradition of his family conservative, averse to revolutionary novelties and skeptical towards speculations. But his belief in the imperative power of logical thinking based on facts was so strong that he did not hesitate to express a claim contradicting to all tradition, because he had convinced himself that no other resort was possible." Einstein and the theory of relativity In 1905 the three epochal papers of the hitherto completely unknown Albert Einstein were published in the journal Annalen der Physik. Planck was among the few who immediately recognized the significance of the special theory of relativity. Thanks to his influence this theory was soon widely accepted in Germany. Planck also contributed considerably to extend the special theory of relativity. Einstein's hypothesis of light quanta (photons), based on Philipp Lenard's 1902 discovery of the photoelectric effect, was initially rejected by Planck. He was unwilling to discard completely Maxwell's theory of electrodynamics. "The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age when Christian Huygens dared to fight against the mighty emission theory of Isaac Newton ..." In 1910 Einstein pointed out the anomalous behavior of specific heat at low temperatures as another example of a phenomenon which defies explanation by classical physics. Planck and Nernst, seeking to clarify the increasing number of contradictions, organized the First Solvay Conference (Brussels 1911). At this meeting Einstein was able to convince Planck. Meanwhile Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, whereby it was possible for him to call Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him (1914). Soon the two scientists became close friends and met frequently to play music together. World War and Weimar Republic At the onset of the First World War Planck was not immune to the general excitement of the public: "... besides of much horrible also much unexpectedly great and beautiful: the swift solution of the most difficult issues of domestic policy through arrangement of all parties... the higher esteem for all that is brave and truthful..." Admittedly, he refrained from the extremes of nationalism. He voted successfully for a scientific paper from Italy receiving a prize from the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1915 (Planck was one of its four permanent presidents), although at that time Italy was about to join the Allies. The infamous "Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals", a polemic pamphlet of war propaganda, was also signed by Planck, while Einstein retained a strictly pacifistic attitude which almost led to his imprisonment (he was saved by his Swiss citizenship). But already in 1915 Planck revoked (after several meetings with Dutch physicist Lorentz) parts of the Manifesto, and in 1916 he signed a declaration against German annexationism. In the turbulent post-war years, Planck, now the highest authority of German physics, issued the slogan "persevere and continue working" to his colleagues. In October 1920 he and Fritz Haber established the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (Emergency Organization of German Science), aimed at providing support for destitute scientific research. A considerable portion of the monies they distributed were raised abroad. In this time Planck held leading positions also at Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (which in 1948 became the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft). Under such conditions he was hardly able to conduct research. He became a member of the Deutsche Volks-Partei (German People's Party), the party of Nobel Peace Prize laureate Gustav Stresemann, which aspired to liberal aims for domestic policy and rather revisionistic aims for international politics. He disagreed with the introduction of universal suffrage and later expressed the view that the Nazi dictatorship resulted from "the ascent of the rule of the crowds". Quantum mechanics At the end of the 1920s Bohr, Heisenberg and Pauli had worked out the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, but it was rejected by Planck, as well as Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein. Planck expected that wave mechanics would soon render quantum theory—his own child—unnecessary. This was not to be the case, however. Further work only cemented quantum theory, even against his and Einstein's philosophical revulsions. Planck experienced the truth of his own earlier observation from his struggle with the older views in his younger years: "A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it." Quoted in Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970 ed.): p. 150. Nazi dictatorship and The Second World War When the Nazis seized power in 1933, Planck was 74. He witnessed many Jewish friends and colleagues expelled from their positions and humiliated, and hundreds of scientists emigrated from Germany. Again he tried the "persevere and continue working" slogan and asked scientists who were considering emigration to remain in Germany. He hoped the crisis would abate soon and the political situation would improve. There was also a deeper argument against emigration. Emigrating German non-Jewish scientists would need to look for academic positions abroad, but these positions better served Jewish scientists, who had no chance of continuing to work in Germany. Hahn asked Planck to gather well-known German professors in order to issue a public proclamation against the treatment of Jewish professors, but Planck replied, "If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others." In a slightly different translation, Hahn remembers Planck saying: “If you bring together 30 such men today, then tomorrow 150 will come to denounce them because they want to take their places.” This translated quote is found in: Heilbron, 2000, p. 150. Heilbron, at the end of the paragraph, on p. 151, cites the following references to Hahn’s writings: Otto Hahn Einige persönliche Erinnerungen an Max Planck MPG, Mitteilungen (1957) p. 244, and Otto Hahn My Life (Herder and Herder, 1970) p. 140. Under Planck's leadership, the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (KWG) avoided open conflict with the Nazi regime, except concerning Fritz Haber. Planck tried to discuss the issue with Adolf Hitler but was unsuccessful. In the following year, 1934, Haber died in exile. One year later, Planck, having been the president of the KWG since 1930, organized in a somewhat provocative style an official commemorative meeting for Haber. He also succeeded in secretly enabling a number of Jewish scientists to continue working in institutes of the KWG for several years. In 1936, his term as president of the KWG ended, and the Nazi government pressured him to refrain from seeking another term. As the political climate in Germany gradually became more hostile, Johannes Stark, prominent exponent of Deutsche Physik ("German Physics", also called "Aryan Physics") attacked Planck, Sommerfeld and Heisenberg for continuing to teach the theories of Einstein, calling them "white Jews." The "Hauptamt Wissenschaft" (Nazi government office for science) started an investigation of Planck's ancestry, but all they could find out was that he was "1/16 Jewish." In 1938 Planck celebrated his 80th birthday. The DPG held a celebration, during which the Max-Planck medal (founded as the highest medal by the DPG in 1928) was awarded to French physicist Louis de Broglie. At the end of 1938 the Prussian Academy lost its remaining independence and was taken over by Nazis (Gleichschaltung). Planck protested by resigning his presidency. He continued to travel frequently, giving numerous public talks, such as his talk on Religion and Science, and five years later he was sufficiently fit to climb 3,000-meter peaks in the Alps. During the Second World War, the increasing number of Allied bombing campaigns against Berlin forced Planck and his wife to leave the city temporarily and live in the countryside. In 1942 he wrote: "In me an ardent desire has grown to persevere this crisis and live long enough to be able to witness the turning point, the beginning of a new rise." In February 1944 his home in Berlin was completely destroyed by an air raid, annihilating all his scientific records and correspondence. Finally, he got into a dangerous situation in his rural retreat due to the rapid advance of the Allied armies from both sides. After the end of the war he was brought to a relative in Göttingen. Planck endured many personal tragedies after the age of 50. In 1909, his first wife died after 22 years of marriage, leaving him with two sons and twin daughters. Planck's oldest son, Karl, was killed in action in 1916. His daughter Margarete died in childbirth in 1917, and another daughter, Emma, married her late sister's husband and then also died in childbirth, in 1919. During World War II, Planck's house in Berlin was completely destroyed by bombs in 1944 and his youngest son, Erwin, was implicated in the attempt made on Hitler's life in the July 20 plot. Consequently, Erwin died a horrible death at the hands of the Gestapo in 1945. Although it is said that Erwin could have been spared had Planck joined the Nazi Party Planck took a stand and refused to join, as a consequence Erwin was hanged. Erwin's death destroyed Planck's will to live http://physics.nobel.brainparad.com/max_karl_ernst_ludwig_planck.html . By the end of the war, Planck, his second wife and his son by her, moved to Göttingen where he died on October 4, 1947. Religious view Planck was a devoted and persistent adherent of Christianity from early life to death, but he was very tolerant towards alternative views and religions, and so was discontented with the church organizations' demands for unquestioning belief. The God in which Planck believed was an almighty, all-knowing, benevolent but unintelligible God that permeated everything, manifest by symbols, including physical laws. His view may have been motivated by an opposition like Einstein's and Schrödinger's against the positivist, statistical subjective quantum mechanics universe of Bohr, Heisenberg and others. Planck was interested in truth and Universe beyond observation, and objected to atheism as an obsession with symbols. Planck regarded the scientist as a man of imagination and faith, "faith" interpreted as being similar to "having a working hypothesis". For example the causality principle isn't true or false, it is an act of faith. Thereby Planck may have indicated a view that points toward Imre Lakatos' research programs process descriptions, where falsification is mostly tolerable, in faith of its future removal. adherents.com: The Religious Affiliation of Physicist Max Planck Honours and awards 250px | The Max Planck DM2 coin. "Pour le Mérite" for Science and Arts 1915 (in 1930 he became chancellor of this order) Nobel Prize in Physics 1918 (awarded 1919) Lorentz Medal 1927 Adlerschild des Deutschen Reiches (1928), an award from the German Reich President Max Planck medal (1929, together with Einstein) Copley Medal (1929) Planck received honorary doctorates from the universities of Frankfurt, Munich (TH), Rostock, Berlin (TH), Graz, Athens, Cambridge, London, and Glasgow. The asteroid 1069 was named "Stella Planckia" by the International Astronomical Union (1938) See also Planck units Planck length Planck mass Planck time Planck temperature Planck charge Derived Planck units Planck current Planck power Planck density Planck's law of black body radiation Planck's constant Planck epoch Planck particle Planck postulate Max-Planck-Gesellschaft Planck (crater) Planck Surveyor Photon polarization Publications Planck, Max. (1897). Vorlesungen über Thermodynamik Planck, Max. (1900). “Entropy and Temperature of Radiant Heat.” Annalen der Physik, vol. 1. no 4. April, pg. 719-37. Planck, Max. (1901). "On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum". Annalen der Physik, vol. 4, p. 553 ff. Bibliography Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000) ISBN 0-674-00439-6 Rosenthal-Schneider, Ilse Reality and Scientific Truth: Discussions with Einstein, von Laue, and Planck (Wayne State University, 1980) ISBN 0-8143-1650-6 Clifford A. Pickover, Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of Science and the Great Minds Behind Them, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0195336115 References External links Biographies Annotated bibliography for Max Planck from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Max Planck - Encyclopaedia Britannica article Max Planck Biography – www.nobel-prize-winners.com Max Planck Institutes of Natural Science and Astrophysics Cinematic self portrait of Max Planck, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1942 Articles Life–Work–Personality - Exhibition on the 50th anniversary of Max Planck's death. Max Planck, Planck's constant, and Schrodinger's Cat | Max_Planck |@lemmatized max:29 planck:141 april:5 october:5 german:12 physicist:8 consider:3 founder:1 quantum:16 theory:19 one:4 important:1 twentieth:1 century:2 award:5 nobel:7 prize:7 physic:22 biography:3 come:6 traditional:1 intellectual:4 family:7 paternal:2 great:4 grandfather:2 theology:1 professor:9 göttingen:3 father:2 law:13 kiel:6 munich:7 uncle:1 judge:1 signature:1 ten:2 year:15 age:5 bear:3 holstein:1 johann:1 julius:1 wilhelm:4 second:8 wife:6 emma:4 patzig:1 baptise:1 name:9 karl:6 ernst:1 ludwig:2 marx:5 give:4 indicate:2 primary:1 accord:3 report:1 spiegel:2 online:2 recent:1 examination:1 document:1 church:2 archive:1 show:1 actual:2 first:15 word:3 germanized:1 form:3 latin:1 marcus:1 source:1 christoph:1 seidler:1 gestatten:1 however:3 already:5 sign:3 use:3 rest:1 life:5 press:3 release:1 society:5 sixth:1 child:5 though:1 two:4 sibling:1 marriage:2 among:4 early:4 memory:1 marching:1 prussian:5 austrian:1 troop:1 danish:1 war:11 move:3 enrol:1 maximilians:1 gymnasium:1 school:4 tutelage:1 hermann:4 müller:2 mathematician:2 take:7 interest:1 youth:1 teach:2 astronomy:1 mechanic:6 well:7 mathematics:2 learn:1 principle:4 conservation:1 energy:8 graduate:2 encyclopædia:1 britannica:2 contact:1 field:5 gift:1 music:4 sing:1 lesson:1 play:2 piano:1 organ:1 cello:1 compose:1 song:1 opera:1 instead:1 choose:2 study:5 philipp:2 von:7 jolly:2 advise:1 go:2 say:3 almost:2 everything:2 discover:3 remain:3 fill:1 hole:1 reply:2 wish:1 new:9 thing:2 understand:3 known:2 fundamental:4 begin:1 university:11 supervision:1 perform:2 experiment:1 scientific:7 career:3 diffusion:1 hydrogen:1 heat:7 platinum:1 transfer:1 theoretical:7 berlin:17 helmholtz:5 gustav:2 kirchhoff:4 weierstrass:1 write:4 never:4 quite:2 prepared:2 speak:2 slowly:1 miscalculate:1 endlessly:1 bore:1 listener:2 spoke:1 carefully:1 lecture:4 dry:2 monotonous:1 soon:7 become:10 close:5 friend:4 undertake:1 program:2 mostly:2 self:2 clausius:2 writing:2 lead:3 pass:1 qualify:1 exam:1 february:2 defend:1 dissertation:1 über:2 den:1 zweiten:1 hauptsatz:1 der:6 mechanischen:1 wärmetheorie:1 theorem:1 mechanical:1 briefly:1 taught:1 former:1 june:1 present:2 habilitation:2 thesis:2 gleichgewichtszustände:1 isotroper:1 körper:1 verschiedenen:1 temperaturen:1 equilibrium:1 state:4 isotropic:1 body:9 different:2 temperature:5 academic:4 completion:1 unpaid:1 private:1 lecturer:3 wait:1 offer:2 position:8 although:3 initially:2 ignore:1 community:1 work:12 another:5 thermodynamical:1 formalism:1 gibbs:1 without:1 realize:1 idea:1 entropy:5 occupy:1 central:2 role:1 appoint:2 associate:1 treatment:3 especially:1 apply:1 physical:11 chemistry:1 follow:2 propose:4 thermodynamic:1 basis:1 svante:1 arrhenius:1 electrolytic:1 dissociation:1 within:1 four:3 successor:1 presumably:1 thank:1 intercession:1 full:2 boltzmann:4 vienna:1 turn:2 stay:1 ernest:1 kempton:1 adam:1 columbia:1 york:1 city:2 retire:1 january:3 succeed:2 erwin:11 schrödinger:3 march:2 marry:4 marie:3 merck:2 sister:3 fellow:1 sublet:1 apartment:1 twin:3 grete:4 appointment:1 live:5 villa:1 grunewald:1 wangenheimstraße:1 several:6 nearby:1 theologian:1 adolf:2 harnack:1 home:3 social:1 cultural:1 centre:1 numerous:2 know:4 scientist:8 albert:3 einstein:16 otto:3 hahn:6 lise:2 meitner:2 frequent:1 visitor:1 tradition:3 jointly:1 establish:4 happy:1 strike:1 series:1 disaster:1 july:3 die:10 possibly:1 tuberculosis:1 marga:2 hoesslin:2 december:3 third:1 son:7 world:7 prisoner:1 french:2 old:3 kill:2 action:4 verdun:1 birth:2 way:2 later:8 widower:1 granddaughter:1 survive:1 mother:1 endure:2 loss:1 stoically:1 particularly:1 sentence:1 death:5 nazi:8 volksgerichtshof:1 participation:1 failed:1 attempt:3 assassinate:1 hitler:3 hang:2 b:1 join:4 local:2 time:6 day:1 essentially:1 whence:1 easy:1 start:3 mention:1 fashionable:1 since:3 regard:3 mathematical:1 spook:1 thanks:2 initiative:1 various:1 germany:6 merge:1 deutsche:3 physikalische:1 gesellschaft:5 dpg:5 president:5 six:1 semester:1 course:1 somewhat:2 impersonal:1 note:1 make:3 mistake:1 falter:1 best:1 ever:1 hear:1 english:1 participant:1 james:1 r:1 partington:1 continue:7 always:1 many:4 stand:2 around:1 room:2 rather:3 would:6 drop:1 floor:1 disturb:1 number:5 student:1 abraham:1 moritz:1 schlick:1 walther:2 meißner:1 laue:3 fritz:3 reiche:1 walter:1 schottky:1 bothe:1 black:7 radiation:8 attention:1 problem:4 commission:1 electric:1 company:1 create:3 maximum:1 light:5 lightbulb:1 minimum:1 intensity:1 electromagnetic:2 emit:2 perfect:1 absorber:1 also:11 cavity:1 radiator:1 depend:1 frequency:4 e:1 g:1 color:1 question:1 explore:1 experimentally:2 agree:1 experimental:2 value:2 wien:4 correctly:1 predict:1 behaviour:1 high:4 fail:1 low:2 rayleigh:2 jean:3 approach:5 ultraviolet:1 catastrophe:1 contrary:1 textbook:1 motivation:2 solid:1 complexity:1 reluctant:2 acceptance:1 implication:3 see:3 helge:1 kragh:1 revolutionary:2 physics:1 solution:2 call:4 elementary:2 disorder:1 allow:1 derive:3 assumption:4 ideal:1 oscillator:1 refer:1 find:3 evidence:1 confirm:1 frustration:1 revise:2 version:1 famous:1 describe:1 observed:1 spectrum:2 meeting:4 publish:2 derivation:2 include:2 quantisation:2 statistical:3 hold:3 aversion:1 november:1 rely:1 interpretation:4 thermodynamics:1 gain:1 understanding:1 behind:3 deeply:1 suspicious:1 philosophical:2 recourse:1 put:1 act:2 despair:1 ready:1 sacrifice:1 previous:1 conviction:1 supposition:1 could:5 quantized:1 multiple:1 unit:4 constant:7 introduce:2 receive:3 purely:1 formal:1 actually:1 think:1 much:5 nowadays:1 incompatible:1 classical:4 accomplishment:2 discuss:2 paper:3 possibility:1 system:1 discrete:1 radical:1 advance:2 reason:1 philosopher:1 historian:1 science:10 thomas:3 kuhn:3 argue:1 credit:1 deep:2 sense:1 real:1 entity:1 discontinuity:1 clarendon:1 oxford:2 may:3 recognition:1 monumental:1 discovery:2 enable:2 define:1 universal:2 set:2 length:2 mass:2 base:3 subsequently:1 try:3 grasp:1 meaning:1 avail:1 unavailing:1 somehow:1 reintegrate:1 extend:2 cause:1 trouble:1 even:2 like:2 lorentz:3 zero:1 order:3 align:1 knew:1 precise:1 nonzero:1 unable:1 stubbornness:1 example:3 theoretician:1 exist:1 hegel:1 philosophy:1 worse:1 fact:2 wrong:1 nature:1 conservative:1 averse:1 novelty:1 skeptical:1 towards:2 speculation:1 belief:2 imperative:1 power:3 logical:1 thinking:1 strong:1 hesitate:1 express:2 claim:1 contradict:1 convince:3 resort:1 possible:2 relativity:3 three:1 epochal:1 hitherto:1 completely:4 unknown:1 journal:1 annalen:3 physik:4 immediately:1 recognize:1 significance:1 special:2 influence:1 widely:1 accept:1 contribute:1 considerably:1 hypothesis:2 photon:2 lenard:1 photoelectric:1 effect:1 reject:2 unwilling:1 discard:1 maxwell:1 electrodynamics:1 throw:1 back:1 decade:1 christian:1 huygens:1 dare:1 fight:1 mighty:1 emission:1 isaac:1 newton:1 point:3 anomalous:1 behavior:1 specific:1 phenomenon:1 defy:1 explanation:1 nernst:1 seek:2 clarify:1 increase:2 contradiction:1 organize:2 solvay:1 conference:1 brussels:1 able:4 meanwhile:1 dean:1 whereby:1 professorship:1 meet:1 frequently:2 together:3 weimar:1 republic:1 onset:1 immune:1 general:1 excitement:1 public:3 besides:1 horrible:2 unexpectedly:1 beautiful:1 swift:1 difficult:1 issue:5 domestic:2 policy:2 arrangement:1 party:4 esteem:1 brave:1 truthful:1 admittedly:1 refrain:2 extreme:1 nationalism:1 vote:1 successfully:1 italy:2 academy:3 permanent:1 ally:1 infamous:1 manifesto:2 polemic:1 pamphlet:1 propaganda:1 retain:1 strictly:1 pacifistic:1 attitude:1 imprisonment:1 save:1 swiss:1 citizenship:1 revoke:1 dutch:1 part:1 declaration:1 annexationism:1 turbulent:1 post:1 authority:1 slogan:2 persevere:3 colleague:2 haber:4 notgemeinschaft:1 deutschen:2 wissenschaft:2 emergency:1 organization:2 aim:3 provide:1 support:1 destitute:1 research:3 considerable:1 portion:1 monies:1 distribute:1 raise:1 abroad:2 kaiser:2 condition:1 hardly:1 conduct:1 member:1 volks:1 partei:1 people:1 peace:1 laureate:1 stresemann:1 aspire:1 liberal:1 revisionistic:1 international:2 politics:1 disagree:1 introduction:1 suffrage:1 view:6 dictatorship:2 result:1 ascent:1 rule:1 crowd:1 end:6 bohr:2 heisenberg:3 pauli:1 copenhagen:1 expect:1 wave:1 render:1 unnecessary:1 case:1 cement:1 revulsion:1 experience:1 truth:4 observation:2 struggle:1 young:2 triumph:1 opponent:2 eventually:1 generation:1 grow:2 familiar:1 quote:2 structure:1 revolution:1 ed:1 p:6 nazis:1 seized:1 witness:2 jewish:6 expel:1 humiliate:1 hundred:1 emigrate:1 asked:1 emigration:2 hop:1 crisis:2 abate:1 political:2 situation:2 improve:1 argument:1 emigrating:1 non:1 need:1 look:1 better:1 serve:1 chance:1 ask:1 gather:2 proclamation:1 today:2 gentleman:1 tomorrow:2 others:3 eager:1 slightly:1 translation:1 remembers:1 bring:2 men:1 denounce:1 want:1 place:1 translated:1 heilbron:3 paragraph:1 cite:1 following:2 reference:2 einige:1 persönliche:1 erinnerungen:1 mpg:1 mitteilungen:1 herder:2 leadership:1 kwg:4 avoid:1 open:1 conflict:1 regime:1 except:1 concern:1 unsuccessful:1 exile:1 provocative:1 style:1 official:1 commemorative:1 secretly:1 institute:2 term:2 government:2 pressure:1 climate:1 gradually:1 hostile:1 johannes:1 stark:1 prominent:1 exponent:1 aryan:1 attack:1 sommerfeld:1 white:1 jew:1 hauptamt:1 office:1 investigation:1 ancestry:1 celebrate:1 birthday:1 celebration:1 medal:5 found:1 louis:1 de:2 broglie:1 lose:1 independence:1 gleichschaltung:1 protest:1 resign:1 presidency:1 travel:1 talk:2 religion:2 five:1 sufficiently:1 fit:1 climb:1 meter:1 peak:1 alp:1 allied:2 bomb:2 campaign:1 force:1 leave:2 temporarily:1 countryside:1 ardent:1 desire:1 long:1 enough:1 turning:1 beginning:1 rise:1 destroy:3 air:1 raid:1 annihilate:1 record:1 correspondence:1 finally:1 get:1 dangerous:1 rural:1 retreat:1 due:1 rapid:1 army:1 side:1 relative:1 personal:1 tragedy:1 daughter:3 margarete:1 childbirth:2 late:1 husband:1 ii:1 house:1 implicate:1 plot:1 consequently:1 hand:1 gestapo:1 spar:1 refuse:1 consequence:1 http:1 brainparad:1 com:3 html:1 religious:2 devoted:1 persistent:1 adherent:2 christianity:1 tolerant:1 alternative:1 discontent:1 demand:1 unquestioning:1 god:2 believe:1 almighty:1 knowing:1 benevolent:1 unintelligible:1 permeate:1 manifest:1 symbol:2 motivate:1 opposition:1 positivist:1 subjective:1 universe:2 interested:1 beyond:1 object:1 atheism:1 obsession:1 man:2 imagination:1 faith:4 interpret:1 similar:1 working:1 causality:1 true:1 false:1 thereby:1 toward:1 imre:1 lakatos:1 process:1 description:1 falsification:1 tolerable:1 future:1 removal:1 affiliation:1 honour:1 coin:1 pour:1 le:1 mérite:1 art:1 chancellor:1 awarded:1 adlerschild:1 reich:2 copley:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 frankfurt:1 th:2 rostock:1 graz:1 athens:1 cambridge:1 london:1 glasgow:1 asteroid:1 stella:1 planckia:1 astronomical:1 union:1 charge:1 current:1 density:1 epoch:1 particle:1 postulate:1 crater:1 surveyor:1 polarization:1 publication:1 vorlesungen:1 thermodynamik:1 radiant:1 vol:2 pg:1 distribution:1 normal:1 ff:1 bibliography:2 j:1 l:1 dilemma:1 upright:1 fortune:1 harvard:1 isbn:3 rosenthal:1 schneider:1 ilse:1 reality:1 discussion:1 wayne:1 clifford:1 pickover:1 archimedes:1 hawk:1 mind:1 external:1 link:1 annotate:1 alsos:1 digital:1 library:1 nuclear:1 encyclopaedia:1 article:2 www:1 winner:1 natural:1 astrophysics:1 cinematic:1 portrait:1 brandenburgische:1 akademie:1 wissenschaften:1 personality:1 exhibition:1 anniversary:1 schrodinger:1 cat:1 |@bigram max_planck:21 twentieth_century:1 nobel_prize:5 encyclopædia_britannica:1 philipp_von:1 von_helmholtz:1 gustav_kirchhoff:1 karl_weierstrass:1 über_den:1 erwin_schrödinger:1 von_harnack:1 albert_einstein:3 otto_hahn:3 lise_meitner:2 moritz_schlick:1 von_laue:2 walther_bothe:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 ultraviolet_catastrophe:1 statistical_mechanic:1 planck_constant:5 ludwig_boltzmann:1 thomas_kuhn:3 clarendon_press:1 annalen_der:3 der_physik:3 philipp_lenard:1 photoelectric_effect:1 isaac_newton:1 solvay_conference:1 weimar_republic:1 fritz_haber:2 der_deutschen:1 kaiser_wilhelm:2 wilhelm_gesellschaft:2 prize_laureate:1 universal_suffrage:1 quantum_mechanic:3 bohr_heisenberg:2 adolf_hitler:1 celebrate_birthday:1 de_broglie:1 turning_point:1 imre_lakatos:1 religious_affiliation:1 le_mérite:1 copley_medal:1 honorary_doctorate:1 photon_polarization:1 vorlesungen_über:1 physik_vol:2 clifford_pickover:1 external_link:1 annotate_bibliography:1 alsos_digital:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 akademie_der:1 der_wissenschaften:1 |
949 | Ian_Murdock | Ian Murdock (born April 28, 1973, in Konstanz, Germany) is the founder of the Debian GNU/Linux distribution and Progeny Linux Systems, a company providing services based on commercial distributions of operating systems built over the Linux kernel and distributed under a free software license such as the GNU General Public License GNU GPL. He wrote the Debian Manifesto in 1993 while a student at Purdue University, where he earned his bachelor's degree in computer science in 1996. He named Debian after himself and his then-girlfriend Debra, now his ex-wife, "Fort Wayne News-Sentinel" Divorce Listing thus Deb(ra) and Ian. "Getting Started with Linux - Lesson 1 / About Debian" On joining Sun, he led Project Indiana, which he described as "taking the lesson that Linux has brought to the operating system and providing that for Solaris," making a full OpenSolaris distribution with GNOME and userland tools from GNU plus a network-based package management system. The Unix Guardian-Q and A: Sun's Top Operating System Brass Talk OS Strategy He has since moved on to become Vice President of Emerging Platforms at Sun. Sun Executive Bio See also List of Debian Project Leaders Progeny Linux Systems References External links ianmurdock.com (with Weblog) LinuxJournal article on Debian from 1994 Linux Link Tech Show interview (audio), 2005 Linux Link Tech Show interview (audio), 2006 Community One Keynote Address May, 2008 (video) | Ian_Murdock |@lemmatized ian:2 murdock:1 bear:1 april:1 konstanz:1 germany:1 founder:1 debian:6 gnu:4 linux:8 distribution:3 progeny:2 system:6 company:1 provide:1 service:1 base:2 commercial:1 operate:1 build:1 kernel:1 distribute:1 free:1 software:1 license:2 general:1 public:1 gpl:1 write:1 manifesto:1 student:1 purdue:1 university:1 earn:1 bachelor:1 degree:1 computer:1 science:1 name:1 girlfriend:1 debra:1 ex:1 wife:1 fort:1 wayne:1 news:1 sentinel:1 divorce:1 list:2 thus:1 deb:1 ra:1 get:1 start:1 lesson:2 join:1 sun:4 lead:1 project:2 indiana:1 describe:1 take:1 bring:1 operating:2 providing:1 solaris:1 make:1 full:1 opensolaris:1 gnome:1 userland:1 tool:1 plus:1 network:1 package:1 management:1 unix:1 guardian:1 q:1 top:1 brass:1 talk:1 strategy:1 since:1 move:1 become:1 vice:1 president:1 emerge:1 platform:1 executive:1 bio:1 see:1 also:1 leader:1 reference:1 external:1 link:3 ianmurdock:1 com:1 weblog:1 linuxjournal:1 article:1 tech:2 show:2 interview:2 audio:2 community:1 one:1 keynote:1 address:1 may:1 video:1 |@bigram ian_murdock:1 debian_gnu:1 gnu_linux:1 linux_kernel:1 gnu_gpl:1 earn_bachelor:1 bachelor_degree:1 fort_wayne:1 vice_president:1 external_link:1 keynote_address:1 |
950 | Boolean_satisfiability_problem | Satisfiability is the problem of determining if the variables of a given Boolean formula can be assigned in such a way as to make the formula evaluate to TRUE. Equally important is to determine whether no such assignments exist, which would imply that the function expressed by the formula is identically FALSE for all possible variable assignments. In this latter case, we would say that the function is unsatisfiable; otherwise it is satisfiable. To emphasize the binary nature of this problem, it is frequently referred to as Boolean or propositional satisfiability. The shorthand "SAT" is also commonly used to denote it, with the implicit understanding that the function and its variables are all binary-valued. Basic definitions, terminology and applications In complexity theory, the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) is a decision problem, whose instance is a Boolean expression written using only AND, OR, NOT, variables, and parentheses. The question is: given the expression, is there some assignment of TRUE and FALSE values to the variables that will make the entire expression true? A formula of propositional logic is said to be satisfiable if logical values can be assigned to its variables in a way that makes the formula true. The boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete. The propositional satisfiability problem (PSAT), which decides whether a given propositional formula is satisfiable, is of central importance in various areas of computer science, including theoretical computer science, algorithmics, artificial intelligence, hardware design, electronic design automation, and verification. The problem can be significantly restricted while still remaining NP-complete. By applying De Morgan's laws, we can assume that NOT operators are only applied directly to variables, not expressions; we refer to either a variable or its negation as a literal. For example, both x1 and not(x2) are literals, the first a positive literal and the second a negative literal. If we OR together a group of literals, we get a clause, such as (x1 or not(x2)). Finally, let us consider formulae that are a conjunction (AND) of clauses - this is the conjunctive normal form (CNF). Determining whether a formula in this form is satisfiable is still NP-complete, even if each clause is limited to at most three literals. This last problem is called 3SAT, 3CNFSAT, or 3-satisfiability. On the other hand, if we restrict each clause to at most two literals, the resulting problem, 2SAT, is NL-complete. Alternately, if every clause must be a Horn clause, containing at most one positive literal, the resulting problem, Horn-satisfiability, is P-complete. The Cook–Levin theorem proves that the Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete, and in fact, this was the first decision problem proved to be NP-complete. However, beyond this theoretical significance, efficient and scalable algorithms for SAT that were developed over the last decade have contributed to dramatic advances in our ability to automatically solve problem instances involving tens of thousands of variables and millions of constraints. Examples of such problems in Electronic Design Automation (EDA) include combinational equivalence checking, model checking, formal verification of pipelined microprocessors, automatic test pattern generation, routing of FPGAs, and so on. In fact, an SAT-solving engine is now considered to be an essential component in the EDA toolbox and all EDA vendors provide such a capability (usually behind the scenes.) Complexity and restricted versions NP-completeness SAT was the first known NP-complete problem, as proved by Stephen Cook in 1971 (see Cook's theorem for the proof). Until that time, the concept of an NP-complete problem did not even exist. The problem remains NP-complete even if all expressions are written in conjunctive normal form with 3 variables per clause (3-CNF), yielding the 3SAT problem. This means the expression has the form: (x11 OR x12 OR x13) AND (x21 OR x22 OR x23) AND (x31 OR x32 OR x33) AND ... where each x is a variable or a negation of a variable, and each variable can appear multiple times in the expression. A useful property of Cook's reduction is that it preserves the number of accepting answers. For example, if a graph has 17 valid 3-colorings, the SAT formula produced by the reduction will have 17 satisfying assignments. NP-completeness only refers to the run-time of the worst case instances. Many of the instances that occur in practical applications can be solved much more quickly. See runtime behavior below. SAT is easier if the formulas are restricted to those in disjunctive normal form, that is, they are disjunction (OR) of terms, where each term is a conjunction (AND) of literals (possibly negated variables). Such a formula is indeed satisfiable if and only if at least one of its terms is satisfiable, and a term is satisfiable if and only if it does not contain both x and NOT x for some variable x. This can be checked in polynomial time. 2-satisfiability SAT is also easier if the number of literals in a clause is limited to 2, in which case the problem is called 2SAT. This problem can also be solved in polynomial time, and in fact is complete for the class NL. Similarly, if we limit the number of literals per clause to 2 and change the AND operations to XOR operations, the result is exclusive-or 2-satisfiability, a problem complete for SL = L. One of the most important restrictions of SAT is HORNSAT, where the formula is a conjunction of Horn clauses. This problem is solved by the polynomial-time Horn-satisfiability algorithm, and is in fact P-complete. It can be seen as P's version of the Boolean satisfiability problem. Provided that the complexity classes P and NP are not equal, none of these restrictions are NP-complete, unlike SAT. The assumption that P and NP are not equal is not currently proven. 3-satisfiability 3-satisfiability is a special case of k-satisfiability (k-SAT) or simply satisfiability (SAT), when each clause contains exactly k = 3 literals. It was one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems. Here is an example, where ¬ indicates NOT: E = (x1 or ¬x2 or ¬x3) and (x1 or x2 or x4) E has two clauses (denoted by parentheses), four literals (x1, x2, x3, x4), and k=3 (three literals per clause). To solve this instance of the decision problem we must determine whether there is a truth value (TRUE or FALSE) we can assign to each of the literals (x1 through x4) such that the entire expression is TRUE. In this instance, there is such an assignment (x1 = TRUE, x2 = TRUE, x3=TRUE, x4=TRUE), so the answer to this instance is YES. This is one of many possible assignments, with for instance, any set of assignments including x1 = TRUE being sufficient. If there were no such assignment(s), the answer would be NO. Since k-SAT (the general case) reduces to 3-SAT, and 3-SAT can be proven to be NP-complete, it can be used to prove that other problems are also NP-complete. This is done by showing how a solution to another problem could be used to solve 3-SAT. An example of a problem where this method has been used is "Clique". It's often easier to use reductions from 3-SAT than SAT to problems that researchers are attempting to prove NP-complete. 3-SAT can be further restricted to One-in-three 3SAT, where we ask if exactly one of the variables in each clause is true, rather than at least one. One-in-three 3SAT remains NP-complete. Horn-satisfiability A clause is Horn if it contains at most one positive literal. Such clauses are of interest because they are able to express implication of one variable from a set of other variables. Indeed, one such clause can be rewritten as , that is, if are all true, then needs to be true as well. The problem of deciding whether a set of Horn clauses is satisfiable is in P. This problem can indeed be solved by a single step of the Unit propagation, which produces the single minimal (w.r.t. the set of literal assigned to true) model of the set of Horn clauses. A generalization of the class of Horn formulae is that of renamable-Horn formulae, which is the set of formulae that can be placed in Horn form by replacing some variables with their respective negation. Checking the existence of such a replacement can be done in linear time; therefore, the satisfiability of such formulae is in P as it can be solved by first performing this replacement and then checking the satisfiability of the resulting Horn formula. Schaefer's dichotomy theorem The restrictions above (CNF, 2CNF, 3CNF, Horn) bound the considered formulae to be conjunction of subformulae; each restriction states a specific form for all subformulae: for example, only binary clauses can be subformulae in 2CNF. Schaefer's dichotomy theorem states that, for any restriction to Boolean operators that can be used to form these subformulae, the corresponding satisfiability problem is in P or NP-complete. The membership in P of the satisfiability of 2CNF and Horn formulae are special cases of this theorem. Runtime behavior As mentioned briefly above, though the problem is NP-complete, many practical instances can be solved much more quickly. Many practical problems are actually "easy", so the SAT solver can easily find a solution, or prove that none exists, relatively quickly, even though the instance has thousands of variables and tens of thousands of constraints. Other much smaller problems exhibit run-times that are exponential in the problem size, and rapidly become impractical. Unfortunately, there is no reliable way to tell the difficulty of the problem without trying it. Therefore, almost all SAT solvers include time-outs, so they will terminate even if they cannot find a solution. Finally, different SAT solvers will find different instances easy or hard, and some excel at proving unsatisfiability, and others at finding solutions. All of these behaviors can be seen in the SAT solving contests. Extensions of SAT An extension that has gained significant popularity since 2003 is Satisfiability modulo theories that can enrich CNF formulas with linear constraints, arrays, all-different constraints, uninterpreted functions, etc. Such extensions typically remain NP-complete, but very efficient solvers are now available that can handle many such kinds of constraints. The satisfiability problem becomes more difficult (PSPACE-complete) if we allow quantifiers such as "for all" and "there exists" that bind the Boolean variables. An example of such an expression would be: SAT itself uses only quantifiers. If we allow only quantifiers, it becomes the Co-NP-complete tautology problem. If we allow both, the problem is called the quantified Boolean formula problem (QBF), which can be shown to be PSPACE-complete. It is widely believed that PSPACE-complete problems are strictly harder than any problem in NP, although this has not yet been proved. A number of variants deal with the number of variable assignments making the formula true. Ordinary SAT asks if there is at least one such assignment. MAJSAT, which asks if the majority of all assignments make the formula true, is complete for PP, a probabilistic class. The problem of how many variable assignments satisfy a formula, not a decision problem, is in #P. UNIQUE-SAT or USAT is the problem of determining whether a formula known to have either zero or one satisfying assignments has zero or has one. Although this problem seems easier, it has been shown that if there is a practical (randomized polynomial-time) algorithm to solve this problem, then all problems in NP can be solved just as easily. The maximum satisfiability problem, an FNP generalization of SAT, asks for the maximum number of clauses which can be satisfied by any assignment. It has efficient approximation algorithms, but is NP-hard to solve exactly. Worse still, it is APX-complete, meaning there is no polynomial-time approximation scheme (PTAS) for this problem unless P=NP. Algorithms for solving SAT There are two classes of high-performance algorithms for solving instances of SAT in practice: modern variants of the DPLL algorithm, such as Chaff, GRASP or march, and stochastic local search algorithms, such as WalkSAT. A DPLL SAT solver employs a systematic backtracking search procedure to explore the (exponentially-sized) space of variable assignments looking for satisfying assignments. The basic search procedure was proposed in two seminal papers in the early 60s (see references below) and is now commonly referred to as the Davis-Putnam-Logemann-Loveland algorithm (“DPLL” or “DLL”). Modern SAT solvers (developed in the last ten years) come in two flavors: "conflict-driven" and "look-ahead". Conflict-driven solvers augment the basic DPLL search algorithm with efficient conflict analysis, clause learning, non-chronological backtracking (aka backjumping), as well as "two-watched-literals" unit propagation, adaptive branching, and random restarts. These "extras" to the basic systematic search have been empirically shown to be essential for handling the large SAT instances that arise in Electronic Design Automation (EDA). Look-ahead solvers have especially strengthened reductions (going beyond unit-clause propagation) and the heuristics, and they are generally stronger than conflict-driven solvers on hard instances (while conflict-driven solvers can be much better on large instances which have inside actually an easy instance). Modern SAT solvers are also having significant impact on the fields of software verification, constraint solving in artificial intelligence, and operations research, among others. Powerful solvers are readily available as free software, and are remarkably easy to use. In particular, the conflict-driven MiniSAT, which was relatively successful at the 2005 SAT competition, only has about 600 lines of code. An example for look-ahead solvers is march_dl, which won a prize at the 2007 SAT competition. Genetic algorithms and other general-purpose stochastic local search methods are also being used to solve SAT problems, especially when there is no or limited knowledge of the specific structure of the problem instances to be solved. Certain types of large random satisfiable instances of SAT can be solved by survey propagation (SP). Particularly in hardware design and verification applications, satisfiability and other logical properties of a given propositional formula are sometimes decided based on a representation of the formula as a binary decision diagram (BDD). Propositional satisfiability has various generalisations, including satisfiability for quantified Boolean formula problem, for first- and second-order logic, constraint satisfaction problems, 0-1 integer programming, and maximum satisfiability problem. Many other decision problems, such as graph coloring problems, planning problems, and scheduling problems, can be easily encoded into SAT. See also Unsatisfiable core References M. Davis and H. Putnam, , Journal of the Association for Computing Machinery, vol. 7, no., pp. 201–215, 1960. M. Davis, G. Logemann, and D. Loveland, , Communications of the ACM, vol. 5, no. 7, pp. 394–397, 1962. S. A. Cook, , in Proc. 3rd Ann. ACM Symp. on Theory of Computing, pp. 151–158, Association for Computing Machinery, 1971. A9.1: LO1 – LO7, pp.259 – 260. J. P. Marques-Silva and K. A. Sakallah, , IEEE Transactions on Computers, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 506–521, 1999. J.-P. Marques-Silva and T. Glass, , in Proc. Design, Automation and Test in Europe Conference, pp. 145–149, 1999. R. E. Bryant, S. M. German, and M. N. Velev, Microprocessor Verification Using Efficient Decision Procedures for a Logic of Equality with Uninterpreted Functions, in Analytic Tableaux and Related Methods, pp. 1–13, 1999. M. W. Moskewicz, C. F. Madigan, Y. Zhao, L. Zhang, and S. Malik, , in Proc. 38th ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conference, pp. 530–535, Las Vegas, Nevada, 2001. E. Clarke, A. Biere, R. Raimi, and Y. Zhu, , Formal Methods in System Design, vol. 19, no. 1, 2001. M. Perkowski and A. Mishchenko, "Logic Synthesis for Regular Layout using Satisfiability," in Proc. Intl Workshop on Boolean Problems, 2002. G.-J. Nam, K. A. Sakallah, and R. Rutenbar, , IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 674–684, 2002. N. Een and N. Sörensson, , in Satisfiability Workshop, 2003. D. Babić, J. Bingham, and A. J. Hu, , IEEE Transactions on Computers 55(11):1315–1324, 2006. C. Rodríguez, M. Villagra and B. Barán, , Bionetics2007, pp. 66-69, 2007. External links More information on SAT: SAT and MAX-SAT for the Lay-researcher SAT Applications: WinSAT v2.04: A Windows based SAT application made particularly for researchers. SAT Solvers: Chaff HyperSAT Spear The MiniSAT Solver UBCSAT Sat4j RSat Fast SAT Solver - simple but fast implementation of SAT solver based on Genetic algorithm CVC3 Conferences/Publications: SAT 2008: Eleventh International Conference on Theory and Applications of Satisfiability Testing SAT 2007: Tenth International Conference on Theory and Applications of Satisfiability Testing Journal on Satisfiability, Boolean Modeling and Computation Survey Propagation Benchmarks: Forced Satisfiable SAT Benchmarks IBM Formal Verification SAT Benchmarks SATLIB Software Verification Benchmarks SAT solving in general: http://www.satlive.org http://www.satisfiability.org Evaluation of SAT solvers: Yearly evaluation of SAT solvers SAT solvers evaluation results for 2008 This article includes material from a column in the ACM SIGDA e-newsletter by Prof. Karem Sakallah Original text is available here. | Boolean_satisfiability_problem |@lemmatized satisfiability:34 problem:61 determine:5 variable:24 give:4 boolean:13 formula:28 assign:4 way:3 make:6 evaluate:1 true:17 equally:1 important:2 whether:6 assignment:16 exist:3 would:4 imply:1 function:5 express:2 identically:1 false:3 possible:2 latter:1 case:6 say:2 unsatisfiable:2 otherwise:1 satisfiable:10 emphasize:1 binary:4 nature:1 frequently:1 refer:4 propositional:6 shorthand:1 sit:13 also:7 commonly:2 use:12 denote:2 implicit:1 understanding:1 value:4 basic:4 definition:1 terminology:1 application:7 complexity:3 theory:5 sat:42 decision:7 whose:1 instance:18 expression:9 write:2 parenthesis:2 question:1 entire:2 logic:4 logical:2 np:26 complete:28 psat:1 decide:3 central:1 importance:1 various:2 area:1 computer:5 science:2 include:6 theoretical:2 algorithmics:1 artificial:2 intelligence:2 hardware:2 design:9 electronic:3 automation:5 verification:7 significantly:1 restrict:4 still:3 remain:3 apply:2 de:1 morgan:1 law:1 assume:1 operator:2 directly:1 either:2 negation:3 literal:18 example:8 first:5 positive:3 second:2 negative:1 together:1 group:1 get:1 clause:23 finally:2 let:1 u:1 consider:3 conjunction:4 conjunctive:2 normal:3 form:8 cnf:4 even:5 limit:4 three:4 last:3 call:3 hand:1 two:6 result:5 nl:2 alternately:1 every:1 must:2 horn:14 contain:4 one:15 p:13 cook:5 levin:1 theorem:5 prof:2 fact:4 prove:9 however:1 beyond:2 significance:1 efficient:5 scalable:1 algorithm:12 develop:2 decade:1 contribute:1 dramatic:1 advance:1 ability:1 automatically:1 solve:19 involve:1 ten:3 thousand:3 million:1 constraint:7 eda:4 combinational:1 equivalence:1 checking:2 model:2 formal:3 pipelined:1 microprocessor:2 automatic:1 test:4 pattern:1 generation:1 rout:1 fpgas:1 engine:1 essential:2 component:1 toolbox:1 vendor:1 provide:2 capability:1 usually:1 behind:1 scene:1 restricted:1 version:2 completeness:2 know:2 stephen:1 see:6 proof:1 time:11 concept:1 per:3 yield:1 mean:2 x:4 appear:1 multiple:1 useful:1 property:2 reduction:4 preserve:1 number:6 accept:1 answer:3 graph:2 valid:1 coloring:1 produce:2 satisfy:4 run:2 bad:2 many:7 occur:1 practical:4 much:4 quickly:3 runtime:2 behavior:3 easy:8 disjunctive:1 disjunction:1 term:4 possibly:1 negate:1 indeed:3 least:3 check:3 polynomial:5 class:5 similarly:1 change:1 operation:3 xor:1 exclusive:1 sl:1 l:2 restriction:5 hornsat:1 equal:2 none:2 unlike:1 assumption:1 currently:1 special:2 k:7 simply:1 exactly:3 karp:1 indicate:1 e:5 four:1 truth:1 yes:1 set:6 sufficient:1 since:2 general:3 reduce:1 show:4 solution:4 another:1 could:1 method:4 clique:1 often:1 researcher:3 attempt:1 far:1 ask:3 rather:1 remains:1 interest:1 able:1 implication:1 rewrite:1 need:1 well:2 single:2 step:1 unit:3 propagation:5 minimal:1 w:2 r:4 generalization:2 renamable:1 place:1 replace:1 respective:1 existence:1 replacement:2 linear:2 therefore:2 perform:1 schaefer:2 dichotomy:2 bound:1 subformulae:4 state:2 specific:2 corresponding:1 membership:1 mention:1 briefly:1 though:2 actually:2 solver:20 easily:3 find:4 exists:1 relatively:2 small:1 exhibit:1 exponential:1 size:2 rapidly:1 become:3 impractical:1 unfortunately:1 reliable:1 tell:1 difficulty:1 without:1 try:1 almost:1 terminate:1 cannot:1 different:3 hard:4 excel:1 unsatisfiability:1 others:2 solving:2 contest:1 extension:3 gain:1 significant:2 popularity:1 modulo:1 enrich:1 array:1 uninterpreted:2 etc:1 typically:1 available:3 handle:2 kind:1 difficult:1 pspace:3 allow:3 quantifier:3 bind:1 co:1 tautology:1 quantified:2 qbf:1 widely:1 believe:1 strictly:1 although:2 yet:1 variant:2 deal:1 ordinary:1 asks:1 majsat:1 majority:1 pp:11 probabilistic:1 unique:1 usat:1 zero:2 satisfying:1 seem:1 randomize:1 maximum:3 fnp:1 approximation:2 apx:1 scheme:1 ptas:1 unless:1 high:1 performance:1 practice:1 modern:3 dpll:4 chaff:2 grasp:1 march:1 stochastic:2 local:2 search:6 walksat:1 employ:1 systematic:2 backtracking:2 procedure:3 explore:1 exponentially:1 space:1 look:4 propose:1 seminal:1 paper:1 early:1 reference:2 davis:3 putnam:2 logemann:2 loveland:2 dll:1 year:1 come:1 flavor:1 conflict:6 drive:1 ahead:3 driven:4 augment:1 analysis:1 learning:1 non:1 chronological:1 aka:1 backjumping:1 watch:1 adaptive:1 branching:1 random:2 restarts:1 extra:1 empirically:1 large:3 arise:1 especially:2 strengthen:1 go:1 heuristic:1 generally:1 strong:1 good:1 inside:1 impact:1 field:1 software:3 research:1 among:1 powerful:1 readily:1 free:1 remarkably:1 particular:1 minisat:2 successful:1 competition:2 line:1 code:1 win:1 prize:1 genetic:2 purpose:1 knowledge:1 structure:1 certain:1 type:1 survey:2 sp:1 particularly:2 sometimes:1 base:3 representation:1 diagram:1 bdd:1 generalisation:1 order:1 satisfaction:1 integer:1 programming:1 color:1 plan:1 schedule:1 encode:1 core:1 h:1 journal:2 association:2 compute:3 machinery:2 vol:5 g:2 communication:1 acm:4 proc:4 ann:1 symp:1 j:5 marque:2 silva:2 sakallah:3 ieee:4 transaction:3 glass:1 europe:1 conference:5 bryant:1 german:1 n:3 velev:1 equality:1 analytic:1 tableau:1 related:1 moskewicz:1 c:2 f:1 madigan:1 zhao:1 zhang:1 malik:1 las:1 vega:1 nevada:1 clarke:1 biere:1 raimi:1 zhu:1 system:2 perkowski:1 mishchenko:1 synthesis:1 regular:1 layout:1 intl:1 workshop:2 nam:1 rutenbar:1 aided:1 integrated:1 circuit:1 een:1 sörensson:1 babić:1 bingham:1 hu:1 rodríguez:1 villagra:1 b:1 barán:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 max:1 lay:1 winsat:1 window:1 hypersat:1 spear:1 ubcsat:1 rsat:1 fast:2 simple:1 implementation:1 publication:1 eleventh:1 international:2 tenth:1 modeling:1 computation:1 benchmark:3 force:1 ibm:1 satlib:1 benchmarks:1 http:2 www:2 satlive:1 org:2 evaluation:3 yearly:1 article:1 material:1 column:1 sigda:1 newsletter:1 karem:1 original:1 text:1 |@bigram satisfiability_problem:11 boolean_satisfiability:4 propositional_logic:1 np_complete:18 artificial_intelligence:2 np_completeness:2 sat_solver:8 sit_solver:4 pspace_complete:3 compute_machinery:2 communication_acm:1 ieee_transaction:3 las_vega:1 vega_nevada:1 proc_intl:1 computer_aided:1 integrated_circuit:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
951 | Four_Feather_Falls | Four Feather Falls was the third puppet TV show produced by Gerry Anderson for Granada Television, from an idea by Barry Gray. Background The series is set in the late 19th Century Western town of Four Feather Falls, Kansas and features the adventures of its Sheriff Tex Tucker. In the first episode, Grandpa Twink relates the story of how it all began to grandson, Little Jake. Tex is riding up from the valley and comes across a lost and hungry Indian boy, Makooya and saves him. Later when reunited with his father, Tex is given four magic feathers by Indian Chief Kalamakooya as a reward for saving his son, Makooya. Two of these feathers allow his guns to swivel and fire automatically (often while Tex's hands are raised) and the other two allow his horse (Rocky) and his dog (Dusty) to speak English. As Tex, his horse and dog are very thirsty, Kalamakooya also makes a waterfall where there had been no water before and so when the town was built, it was named after Tex's feathers and the waterfalls. The show was made on a tight budget and could not afford sophisticated special effects. To achieve the effect of the guns' muzzle flashes, small specks of black paint were carefully applied to the 35 mm negatives, so that they would appear as white flashes on the prints. The series was the first to use an early version of Anderson's Supermarionation puppetry process, although the term wouldn't be coined until Anderson's next series, Supercar. The original puppets produced for the series were made by Christine Glanville and had papier-mâché heads and nothing moved so unless a puppet moved up and down, you could not tell which one was talking. This was unsatisfactory to Anderson and he had some hollow fibre glass heads made, with rods inside which could move the eyes (though the puppets could not blink) and wires which with a 12 volt current could move the mouths. The wires used to control the puppets were eight feet long and made of tungsten (an improvement on the curtain wire used in the two earlier series) and were only 1/200 of an inch thick. Being shiny, the wires had to be blackened optically. The puppets were made one third life size with the puppeteers on a bridge eight feet above the set. The horses moved by being pulled along on a trolley which meant you never saw their feet when they were moving. Anderson approached singer Michael Holliday for a song for the show and paid him £2,000 for it. Tommy Reilly played the harmonica/mouth organ music for it, and for Tex Tucker when he played a mouth organ in the show. A number of people had been brought in for the voices and Denise Bryer suggested her husband for the voice of Tex Tucker. When Anderson asked if he had had any stage experience, she revealed that her husband's name was Nicholas Parsons. Anderson liked Parsons' voice and he got the job. The waterfall in the pilot episode was produced by making a model version of a library film of a waterfall available to Anderson and fading from the model to the film of a waterfall running, so the water seemed to appear by magic. A lot of fantastic scenery and buildings were produced by Reg Hill, his carpenter Bill James and an assistant, Bob Bell. Anderson said that Bob Bell got arrested while getting shrubs and trees for the show by taking cuttings in a local park. Reg Hill meanwhile got hold of huge chunks of coal and painted them white for rocks for the mountain and desert scenery. Shortly afterwards polystyrene appeared and Hill then carved his own "rocks" from this and painted them grey. The show was filmed in a mansion on the side of the River Thames in Leatherhead. The film used was not very sensitive and under the strong lights needed, something would start to smoke if left there too long. Pedro was introduced as a villain in the first show and was teamed up with Fernando by the second show, so someone to talk to, to plan with, to blame when things went wrong as they always did. Big Ben was another villain who appeared from time to time, and Red Scalp, the renegade Indian, since it was a western show. Other villains turned up for just one episode. The characters of the town were Grandpa Twink who did little but rest in a chair, Little Jake the only child in town, Ma Jones who run the town store, Doc Haggerty, Slim Jim the bartender of the Denison saloon, Marvin Jackson the bank manager and Dan Morse the telegraphist. Other characters appeared from time to time, for one episode, often just visiting town. Title card The series has not been repeated in Britain since the 1960s. In December 2004 it was announced that the rights had been acquired by Network Video, and was released on three Region 2 DVDs in May 2005. It is the only Supermarionation series not yet released to DVD in North America as of January 2006. Two British children's annuals were produced based on the show published by Collins in 1960 and 1961. They were both written by Sylvia Anderson and the first one featured a short text story based on the pilot episode of the TV series. The rights to the series remained with Granada until Carlton's recent acquisition of the company. Granada funded 39 episodes. All future Supermarionation ventures were funded by ITC, who later acquired the share capital in the company in 1962. Made by AP Films with Director - Gerry Anderson, Director of Photography by Arthur Provis, Art director by Reg Hill, Special Effects by John Read. Puppetry by Christine Glanville, Mary Turner and Roger Woodburn. Editorial Supervision by David Elliot, Production Supervision by Jim Marsh, Film Editor was Bert Rule. Dubbing Editor was John Kelly, Continuity by Sylvia Thamm (later married and became Sylvia Anderson). Technical Advisor was Bob Ledbetter. Screenplay was by Mary Cathcart Borer. Music Barry Gray, the show's inspirator, also composed the music for the series. The best known song to come out of the series was "Four Feather Falls", sung in some episodes by Michael Holliday in the style of Bing Crosby. This song is sometimes described as the theme song to the series, but it was not as another song referring to the Tex Tucker character actually opened the episodes. The closing theme song was "Two Gun Tex of Texas". Cast Nicholas Parsons as Tex Tucker. Denise Bryer as Ma Jones and Little Jake. Kenneth Connor as Rocky, Dusty, Pedro. David Graham as Grandpa Twink and Fernando. External links FANDERSON The official Gerry Anderson appreciation society site. Nostalgia Central. Television Heaven feature Four Feather Falls at ClassicKidsTV.co.uk | Four_Feather_Falls |@lemmatized four:5 feather:7 fall:4 third:2 puppet:6 tv:2 show:11 produce:5 gerry:3 anderson:13 granada:3 television:2 idea:1 barry:2 gray:2 background:1 series:12 set:2 late:1 century:1 western:2 town:6 kansa:1 feature:3 adventure:1 sheriff:1 tex:11 tucker:5 first:4 episode:8 grandpa:3 twink:3 relate:1 story:2 begin:1 grandson:1 little:4 jake:3 rid:1 valley:1 come:2 across:1 lost:1 hungry:1 indian:3 boy:1 makooya:2 save:2 later:3 reunite:1 father:1 give:1 magic:2 chief:1 kalamakooya:2 reward:1 son:1 two:5 allow:2 gun:3 swivel:1 fire:1 automatically:1 often:2 hand:1 raise:1 horse:3 rocky:2 dog:2 dusty:2 speak:1 english:1 thirsty:1 also:2 make:8 waterfall:5 water:2 build:1 name:2 tight:1 budget:1 could:5 afford:1 sophisticated:1 special:2 effect:3 achieve:1 muzzle:1 flash:2 small:1 speck:1 black:1 paint:3 carefully:1 apply:1 mm:1 negative:1 would:2 appear:5 white:2 print:1 use:4 early:2 version:2 supermarionation:3 puppetry:2 process:1 although:1 term:1 coin:1 next:1 supercar:1 original:1 christine:2 glanville:2 papier:1 mâché:1 head:2 nothing:1 move:6 unless:1 tell:1 one:5 talk:2 unsatisfactory:1 hollow:1 fibre:1 glass:1 rod:1 inside:1 eye:1 though:1 blink:1 wire:4 volt:1 current:1 mouth:3 control:1 eight:2 foot:3 long:2 tungsten:1 improvement:1 curtain:1 inch:1 thick:1 shiny:1 blacken:1 optically:1 life:1 size:1 puppeteer:1 bridge:1 pull:1 along:1 trolley:1 mean:1 never:1 saw:1 approach:1 singer:1 michael:2 holliday:2 song:6 pay:1 tommy:1 reilly:1 play:2 harmonica:1 organ:2 music:3 number:1 people:1 bring:1 voice:3 denise:2 bryer:2 suggest:1 husband:2 ask:1 stage:1 experience:1 reveal:1 nicholas:2 parson:3 like:1 get:4 job:1 pilot:2 model:2 library:1 film:6 available:1 fade:1 running:1 seem:1 lot:1 fantastic:1 scenery:2 building:1 reg:3 hill:4 carpenter:1 bill:1 james:1 assistant:1 bob:3 bell:2 say:1 arrest:1 shrub:1 tree:1 take:1 cutting:1 local:1 park:1 meanwhile:1 hold:1 huge:1 chunk:1 coal:1 rock:2 mountain:1 desert:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 polystyrene:1 carve:1 grey:1 mansion:1 side:1 river:1 thames:1 leatherhead:1 sensitive:1 strong:1 light:1 need:1 something:1 start:1 smoke:1 leave:1 pedro:2 introduce:1 villain:3 team:1 fernando:2 second:1 someone:1 plan:1 blame:1 thing:1 go:1 wrong:1 always:1 big:1 ben:1 another:2 time:4 red:1 scalp:1 renegade:1 since:2 turn:1 character:3 rest:1 chair:1 child:2 jones:2 run:1 store:1 doc:1 haggerty:1 slim:1 jim:2 bartender:1 denison:1 saloon:1 marvin:1 jackson:1 bank:1 manager:1 dan:1 morse:1 telegraphist:1 visit:1 title:1 card:1 repeat:1 britain:1 december:1 announce:1 right:2 acquire:2 network:1 video:1 release:2 three:1 region:1 dvd:2 may:1 yet:1 north:1 america:1 january:1 british:1 annual:1 base:2 publish:1 collins:1 write:1 sylvia:3 short:1 text:1 remain:1 carlton:1 recent:1 acquisition:1 company:2 fund:2 future:1 venture:1 itc:1 share:1 capital:1 ap:1 director:3 photography:1 arthur:1 provis:1 art:1 john:2 read:1 mary:2 turner:1 roger:1 woodburn:1 editorial:1 supervision:2 david:2 elliot:1 production:1 marsh:1 editor:2 bert:1 rule:1 dub:1 kelly:1 continuity:1 thamm:1 marry:1 become:1 technical:1 advisor:1 ledbetter:1 screenplay:1 cathcart:1 borer:1 inspirator:1 compose:1 best:1 know:1 sung:1 style:1 bing:1 crosby:1 sometimes:1 describe:1 theme:2 refer:1 actually:1 open:1 closing:1 texas:1 cast:1 kenneth:1 connor:1 graham:1 external:1 link:1 fanderson:1 official:1 appreciation:1 society:1 site:1 nostalgia:1 central:1 heaven:1 classickidstv:1 co:1 uk:1 |@bigram gerry_anderson:3 tex_tucker:5 papier_mâché:1 shortly_afterwards:1 bing_crosby:1 external_link:1 |
952 | Mechanics | Mechanics (Greek ) is the branch of physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effect of the bodies on their environment. The discipline has its roots in several ancient civilizations (see History of classical mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics). During the early modern period, scientists such as Galileo, Kepler, and especially Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. Classical versus quantum The major division of the mechanics discipline separates classical mechanics from quantum mechanics. Historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newton's Laws of motion in Principia Mathematica, while quantum mechanics didn't appear until 1900. Both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences. Essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them. Quantum mechanics is of a wider scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the correspondence principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of large quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the foundational level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at molecular and (sub)atomic level. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are unmanageably difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful and well used. Einsteinian versus Newtonian Analogous to the quantum versus classical reformation, Einstein's general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of mechanics beyond the mechanics of Newton and Galileo, and made fundamental corrections to them, that become significant and even dominant as speeds of material objects approach the speed of light, which cannot be exceeded. Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although General relativity has not been integrated; the two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which must be overcome in developing the Grand Unified Theory. Types of mechanical bodies Thus the often-used term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of objects, including particles, projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts of machinery, parts of solids, parts of fluids (gases and liquids), etc. Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of mechanics, concern the nature of the bodies being described. Particles are bodies with little (known) internal structure, treated as mathematical points in classical mechanics. Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain a simplicity close to that of the particle, adding just a few so-called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space. Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non-rigid, i.e. fluid. These subjects have both classical and quantum divisions of study. For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude (rotation), is described by the relativistic theory of classical mechanics, while the analogous movements of an atomic nucleus are described by quantum mechanics. Sub-disciplines in mechanics The following are two lists of various subjects that are studied in mechanics. Note that there is also the "theory of fields" which constitutes a separate discipline in physics, formally treated as distinct from mechanics, whether classical fields or quantum fields. But in actual practice, subjects belonging to mechanics and fields are closely interwoven. Thus, for instance, forces that act on particles are frequently derived from fields (electromagnetic or gravitational), and particles generate fields by acting as sources. In fact, in quantum mechanics, particles themselves are fields, as described theoretically by the wave function. Classical mechanics The following are described as forming Classical mechanics: Newtonian mechanics, the original theory of motion (kinematics) and forces (dynamics) Hamiltonian mechanics, a theoretical formalism, based on the principle of conservation of energy Lagrangian mechanics, another theoretical formalism, based on the principle of the least action Celestial mechanics, the motion of heavenly bodies: planets, comets, stars, galaxies, etc. Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, etc. Solid mechanics, elasticity, the properties of (semi-)rigid bodies Acoustics, sound ( = density variation propagation) in solids, fluids and gases. Statics, semi-rigid bodies in mechanical equilibrium Fluid mechanics, the motion of fluids Soil mechanics, mechanical behavior of soils Continuum mechanics, mechanics of continua (both solid and fluid) Hydraulics, mechanical properties of liquids Fluid statics, liquids in equilibrium Applied mechanics, or Engineering mechanics Biomechanics, solids, fluids, etc. in biology Biophysics, physical processes in living organisms Statistical mechanics, assemblies of particles too large to be described in a deterministic way Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics, universal gravitation Quantum mechanics The following are categorized as being part of Quantum mechanics: Particle physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of particles Nuclear physics, the motion, structure, and reactions of nuclei Condensed matter physics, quantum gases, solids, liquids, etc. Quantum statistical mechanics, large assemblies of particles Professional organizations Applied Mechanics Division, American Society of Mechanical Engineers Fluid Dynamics Division, American Physical Society Institution of Mechanical Engineers is the United Kingdom's qualifying body for Mechanical Engineers and has been the home of Mechanical Engineers for over 150 years. See also Analytical mechanics Applied mechanics Dynamics Engineering Kinematics Kinetics External links iMechanica: the web of mechanics and mechanicians Mechanics Blog by a Purdue University Professor The Mechanics program at Virginia Tech Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips from the University of New South Wales U.S. National Committee on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Interactive learning resources for teaching Mechanics | Mechanics |@lemmatized mechanic:57 greek:1 branch:1 physic:6 concern:2 behaviour:1 physical:4 body:12 subject:5 force:3 displacement:1 subsequent:1 effect:1 environment:1 discipline:6 root:1 several:1 ancient:1 civilization:1 see:2 history:1 classical:19 timeline:1 early:1 modern:1 period:1 scientist:1 galileo:2 kepler:1 especially:2 newton:3 lay:1 foundation:1 know:2 versus:3 quantum:19 major:1 division:4 separate:2 historically:1 come:1 first:1 comparatively:1 recent:1 invention:1 originate:1 isaac:1 law:1 motion:7 principia:1 mathematica:1 appear:1 commonly:1 hold:1 constitute:2 certain:2 knowledge:1 exist:1 nature:2 often:2 view:1 model:1 call:2 exact:1 science:1 essential:1 respect:1 relentless:1 use:2 mathematics:1 theory:8 well:2 decisive:1 role:1 play:1 experiment:1 generate:2 test:1 wider:1 scope:2 encompass:1 sub:4 apply:4 restricted:1 circumstance:1 accord:1 correspondence:2 principle:4 contradiction:1 conflict:1 two:3 simply:1 pertain:1 specific:1 situation:1 state:1 behavior:2 system:1 describe:7 reproduce:1 limit:1 large:3 number:1 supersede:1 foundational:1 level:2 indispensable:1 explanation:1 prediction:1 process:3 molecular:1 atomic:2 however:1 macroscopic:1 able:1 solve:1 problem:1 unmanageably:1 difficult:1 hence:1 remain:2 useful:1 einsteinian:2 newtonian:2 analogous:2 reformation:1 einstein:1 general:2 special:1 relativity:2 expand:1 beyond:1 make:1 fundamental:1 correction:2 become:1 significant:1 even:1 dominant:1 speed:2 material:1 object:2 approach:1 light:1 cannot:1 exceed:1 relativistic:3 also:3 need:2 although:1 integrate:1 incompatible:1 hurdle:1 must:1 overcome:1 develop:1 grand:1 unified:1 type:1 mechanical:8 thus:2 used:1 term:1 stand:1 wide:1 assortment:1 include:1 particle:9 projectile:1 spacecraft:3 star:2 part:4 machinery:1 solid:6 fluid:9 gas:3 liquid:4 etc:5 distinction:1 various:2 little:1 internal:1 structure:3 treat:2 mathematical:1 point:1 rigid:5 size:1 shape:1 retain:1 simplicity:1 close:1 add:1 degree:1 freedom:1 orientation:1 space:1 otherwise:1 may:1 semi:3 e:2 elastic:1 non:1 study:2 instance:2 regard:1 orbit:1 attitude:1 rotation:1 movement:1 nucleus:2 follow:3 list:1 note:1 field:7 formally:1 distinct:1 whether:1 actual:1 practice:1 belong:1 closely:1 interwoven:1 act:2 frequently:1 derive:1 electromagnetic:1 gravitational:1 source:1 fact:1 particles:1 theoretically:1 wave:1 function:1 forming:1 original:1 kinematics:2 dynamic:3 hamiltonian:1 theoretical:3 formalism:2 base:2 conservation:1 energy:1 lagrangian:1 another:1 least:1 action:1 celestial:1 heavenly:1 planet:1 comet:1 galaxy:1 astrodynamics:1 navigation:1 elasticity:1 property:2 acoustic:1 sound:1 density:1 variation:1 propagation:1 static:2 equilibrium:2 soil:2 continuum:2 hydraulics:1 engineering:2 biomechanics:1 biology:1 biophysics:1 living:1 organism:1 statistical:2 assembly:2 deterministic:1 way:1 universal:1 gravitation:1 categorize:1 reaction:2 nuclear:1 condense:1 matter:1 professional:1 organization:1 american:2 society:2 engineer:4 institution:1 united:1 kingdom:1 qualify:1 home:1 year:1 analytical:1 kinetics:1 external:1 link:1 imechanica:1 web:1 mechanicians:1 blog:1 purdue:1 university:2 professor:1 program:1 virginia:1 tech:1 physclips:1 animation:1 video:1 clip:1 new:1 south:1 wale:1 u:1 national:1 committee:1 applied:1 interactive:1 learning:1 resource:1 teach:1 |@bigram quantum_mechanic:11 isaac_newton:1 principia_mathematica:1 atomic_nucleus:1 newtonian_mechanic:1 hamiltonian_mechanic:1 celestial_mechanic:1 continuum_mechanic:1 statistical_mechanic:2 universal_gravitation:1 external_link:1 video_clip:1 |
953 | Cyrus_Griffin | Cyrus Griffin (July 16, 1748 – December 14, 1810) was a United States federal judge. Griffin was born in Farnham Parish, Virginia. He was in private practice of law in Lancaster, Virginia from 1774 to 1777. He was a Virginia commonwealth delegate from 1777 to 1778. He was a Member, Second Continental Congress from 1778 to 1780. He was a Justice, Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture from 1780 to 1787. He was a Virginia commonwealth delegate from 1786 to 1787. He was a Delegate, Continental Congress from 1787 to 1788. He was a U.S. Commissioner to Creek Nation in 1789. Griffin was a federal judge to the United States District Court for the District of Virginia. Griffin received a recess appointment from George Washington on November 28, 1789, to a new seat created by 1 Stat. 73; nominated on February 8, 1790; He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 10, 1790, and received commission the same day. Griffin's service was terminated on December 14, 1810, due to death. He died in Yorktown, Virginia. Sources :Category:1748 births :Category:1810 deaths :Category:Judges of the United States District Court for the District of Virginia | Cyrus_Griffin |@lemmatized cyrus:1 griffin:5 july:1 december:2 united:4 state:4 federal:2 judge:3 bear:1 farnham:1 parish:1 virginia:7 private:1 practice:1 law:1 lancaster:1 commonwealth:2 delegate:3 member:1 second:1 continental:2 congress:2 justice:1 court:3 appeal:1 case:1 capture:1 u:1 commissioner:1 creek:1 nation:1 district:4 receive:2 recess:1 appointment:1 george:1 washington:1 november:1 new:1 seat:1 create:1 stat:1 nominate:1 february:2 confirm:1 senate:1 commission:1 day:1 service:1 terminate:1 due:1 death:2 die:1 yorktown:1 source:1 category:3 birth:1 |@bigram recess_appointment:1 |
954 | Kenneth_Kaunda | Kenneth David Kaunda, commonly known as KK (born April 28, 1924) served as the first President of Zambia, from 1964 to 1991. Early life Kaunda was the youngest of eight children. He was born at Lubwa Mission in Chinsali, Northern Province of Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia. His father was the Reverend David Kaunda, an ordained Church of Scotland missionary and teacher, who was born in Malawi and had moved to Chinsali to work at Lubwa Mission. He attended Munali Training Centre in Lusaka (August 1941–1943). Kaunda was a teacher at the Upper Primary School and Boarding Master at Lubwa and then Headmaster at Lubwa from 1943 to 1945. He left Lubwa for Lusaka to become an instructor in the army but was dismissed. He was for a time working at the Salisbury and Bindura Mine. In early 1948, he became a teacher in Mufulira for the United Missions to the Copperbelt (UMCB). He was then assistant at an African Welfare Centre and Boarding Master of a Mine School in Mufulira. In this period, he was leading a Pathfinder Scout Group and was Choirmaster at a Church of Central Africa Congregation. He was also for a time Vice-Secretary of the Nchanga Branch of Congress. Independence struggle In April 1949 Kaunda returned to Lubwa to become part-time teacher, but resigned in 1951. In that year he became Organising Secretary of the Northern Rhodesian African National Congress for Northern Province, which included at that time Luapula Province. On 11 November 1953 he moved to Lusaka to take up the post of Secretary General of the ANC, under the presidency of Harry Nkumbula. The combined efforts of Kaunda and Nkumbula failed to mobilize the indigenous African people against the White-dominated Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. In 1955 Kaunda and Nkumbula were imprisoned for two months with hard labour for distributing "subversive" literature. Such imprisonment and other forms of harassment were normal rites of passage for African nationalist leaders. The experience of imprisonment had a radicalizing impact on Kaunda. The two leaders drifted apart as Nkumbula became increasingly influenced by white liberals and was seen as being willing to compromise on the issue of Black majority rule, waiting till the majority was 'ready' before extending the franchise. This was, however, to be determined by existing property and literacy qualifications, dropping race altogether. Nkumbula's allegedly autocratic leadership of the ANC eventually resulted in a split. Kaunda broke from the ANC and formed the Zambian African National Congress (ZANC) in October 1958. ZANC was banned in March 1959. In June Kaunda was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment, which he spent first in Lusaka, then in Salisbury (now called Harare). While Kaunda was in prison, Mainza Chona and other nationalists broke away from the ANC and, in October 1959, Chona became the first president of the United National Independence Party (UNIP), the successor to ZANC. However, Chona did not see himself as the party's main founder. When Kaunda was released from prison in January 1960 he was elected President of UNIP. In July 1961 Kaunda organized a civil disobedience campaign in Northern Province, the so called Cha-cha-cha campaign, which consisted of burning schools and blocking roads. Kaunda ran as a UNIP candidate during the 1962 elections. This resulted in a UNIP–ANC Coalition Government, with Kaunda as Minister of Local Government and Social Welfare. In January 1964 UNIP won the General Election under the new Constitution beating the ANC under Nkumbula. Kaunda was appointed Prime Minister. On 24 October 1964 he became the first President of independent Zambia. Reuben Kamanga was appointed as the first Vice President. Presidency In the year of independence, Kaunda had to deal with the independent Lumpa Church, led by Alice Lenshina in Chinsali, his home district in the Northern Province. The Lumpa Church tried to take up a neutral position in the political conflict between UNIP and the ANC, but was then accused by UNIP of collaboration with the White minority governments. Conflicts arose between UNIP youth and Lumpa members, especially in Chinsali District, where the headquarters of the church were. Kaunda, as Prime Minister of an African majority Government, sent in two battalions of the Northern Rhodesia Regiment. The fight led to the deaths of about 1500 villagers and the flight to Katanga of tens of thousands of followers of Lenshina. Kaunda banned the Lumpa Church in August 1964 and proclaimed a state of emergency that was retained until 1991.. Educational policies At the time of its independence, Zambia's modernization process was far from complete. It had just 109 university graduates and less than 0.5% of the population was estimated to have completed primary education. The nation's educational system was one of the most poorly developed in all of Britain's former colonies. Because of this, Zambia had to invest heavily in education at all levels. Kaunda instituted a policy where all children, irrespective of their parents' ability to pay, were given free exercise books, pens and pencils. The parents' main responsibility was to buy uniforms, pay a token "school fee" and ensure that the children attended school. This approach meant that the best pupils were promoted to achieve their best results, all the way from primary school to university level. Not every child could go to secondary school, for example, but those who did were well educated. The University of Zambia was opened in Lusaka in 1966, after Zambians all over the country had been encouraged to donate whatever they could afford towards its construction. Kaunda was appointed Chancellor and officiated at the first graduation ceremony in 1969. The main campus was situated on the Great East Road, while the medical campus was located at Ridgeway near the University Teaching Hospital. In 1979 another campus was established at the Zambia Institute of Technology in Kitwe. In 1988 the Kitwe campus was upgraded and renamed the Copperbelt University, offering business studies, industrial studies and environmental studies. The University of Zambia offers courses in agriculture, education, engineering, humanities and social sciences, law, medicine, mining, natural sciences, and veterinary medicine. The basic program is four years long, although engineering and medical courses are five and seven years long, respectively. Other tertiary-level institutions established during Kaunda's era were vocationally focused and fell under the aegis of the Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training. They include the Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce and the Natural Resources Development College (both in Lusaka), the Northern Technical College at Ndola, the Livingstone Trades Training Institute in Livingstone, and teacher-training colleges. Economic policies At independence Kaunda received a country with an economy that was completely under the control of foreigners. For example, the British South Africa Company (BSAC, originally setup by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes) retained commercial assets and mineral rights that it claimed it acquired from a concession signed with the Litunga of Bulozi in 1890 (the Lochner Concession). Only by threatening to expropriate it, on the eve of independence, did Kaunda manage to get the BSAC to assign its mineral rights to the incoming Zambian government. During the Federation, Northern Rhodesia's copper revenues were siphoned off by White Southern Rhodesians, since they were the dominant group in the polity. In their view, Southern Rhodesia was well-suited to providing managerial and administrative skills, Northern Rhodesia would provide the copper revenues, and Nyasaland would provide the labour. At independence, Salisbury, the capital of Southern Rhodesia, was much more developed than Lusaka, the capital of Zambia. This was what Northern Rhodesians called the "bamba zonke" ("grab everything" - Fanakalo) greed of White Southern Rhodesians. Following in the steps of the Soviet Union, Zambia instituted a program of national development plans, under the direction of the National Commission for Development Planning: the Transitional Development Plan) was followed by the First National Development Plan (1966–71). These two plans, which provided for major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, were largely implemented and were generally successful. This was not true for subsequent plans. A major switch in the structure of Zambia's economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April 1968: the government declared its intention to acquire an equity holding (usually 51% or more) in a number of key foreign-owned firms, to be controlled by the Industrial Development Corporation (INDECO). By January 1970, Zambia had acquired majority holding in the Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesia Selection Trust (RST); the two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively. Kaunda announced the creation of a new parastatal body, the Mining Development Corporation (MINDECO). The Finance and Development Corporation (FINDECO) allowed the Zambian government to gain control of insurance companies and building societies. The foreign-owned banks, such as Barclays, Standard Chartered and Grindlays, successfully resisted takeover. In 1971, INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the largest companies in sub-Saharan Africa, with Kaunda as Chairman of the Board. The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were ended in 1973. In 1982 NCCM and RCM were merged into the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd (ZCCM). Unfortunately for Kaunda and Zambia, these programs of nationalization, even assuming they could have worked, were ill-timed. Events that were beyond their control would wreck the country's plans for national development. In 1973 the massive increase in the price of oil was followed by a slump in copper prices in 1975 and a diminution of export earnings. In 1973 the price of copper accounted for 95% of all export earnings; this halved in value on the world market in 1975. By 1976 Zambia had a balance-of-payments crisis, and rapidly became massively indebted to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The Third National Development Plan (1978–83) had to be abandoned as crisis management replaced long-term planning. By the mid-1980s Zambia was one of the most indebted nations in the world, relative to its gross domestic product (GDP). The IMF was insisting that the Zambian government should introduce programs aimed at stabilizing the economy and restructuring it to reduce dependence on copper. The proposed measures included: the ending of price controls; devaluation of the kwacha (Zambia's currency); cut-backs in government expenditure; cancellation of subsidies on food and fertilizer; and increased prices for farm produce. Kaunda's removal of food subsidies caused massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs; the country's urban population rioted in protest. In desperation, Kaunda broke with the IMF in May 1987 and introduced a New Economic Recovery Programme in 1988. However, this did not help him and he eventually moved toward a new understanding with the IMF in 1989. In 1990, with the collapse of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (on which Kaunda’s ideology, Zambian Humanism had been fashioned) , Kaunda was forced to make a major policy shift: he announced the intention to partially privatize the parastatals. However, these changes came too late to prevent his fall from power, which was largely the result of the economic troubles. One-Party State and "African Socialism" In 1964 there was the Lumpa Uprising in Northern Zambia, four months before independence. Kaunda had a state of emergency declared which was not repealed until his fall from power. The state of emergency gave Kaunda absolute power. The Lumpa Church was destroyed and banned. It was a major source of opposition because it refused to allow church members to participate in politics which went against the 100% participation wanted by UNIP. This created a lot of animosity between the two groups and violence that began on a small scale escalated into a small civil war in which more than a thousand people were killed. The crisis was brought about by a combination of complacency on the part of the Colonial administration and UNIP intransigence. Kaunda tried to mediate the differences between the Church, local authorities and UNIP party members but was eventually unable to control party cadres in the North. Becoming increasingly intolerant of opposition, Kaunda banned all parties except UNIP, following violence during the 1968 elections. In 1972, he made Zambia a one-party state, probably because he was worried by Simon Kapwepwe's decision to leave UNIP and found a rival party, the United Progressive Party, which Kaunda immediately banned. Next, he appointed the Chona Commission, which was set up under the chairmanship of Mainza Chona in February 1972. Its task was to make recommendations for the constitution of a 'one-party participatory democracy' (i.e. a one-party state). The Commission's terms of reference did not permit it to discuss the pros and cons of Kaunda's decision. The sole surviving opposition party, the ANC, boycotted the Commission and unsuccessfully challenged the constitutional change in the courts. The Chona report was based on four months of public hearings and was submitted in October 1972. It was widely regarded as a 'liberal' document. Finally, Kaunda neutralised Nkumbula by getting him to wind-up the ANC, join UNIP and sign a document called the Choma Declaration on 27 June 1973. The ANC ceased to exist after the dissolution of parliament in October 1973. Allegedly Kaunda "bought off" Nkumbula by offering him an emerald mine. With no more opposition against him, Kaunda allowed the creation of a personality cult. He developed a left nationalist-socialist ideology, called Zambian Humanism. This was based on a combination of mid-twentieth-century ideas of central planning/state control and what he considered basic African values: mutual aid, trust and loyalty to the community. Similar forms of African socialism were introduced inter alia in Ghana by Kwame Nkrumah ("Consciencism") and Tanzania by Julius Nyerere ("Ujamaa"), while in Zaire, President Mobutu Sese Seko was at a loss until he hit on the ideal ideology - 'Mobutuism'. To elaborate his ideology, Kaunda published several books: Humanism in Zambia and a Guide to its Implementation, Parts 1, 2 and 3. Other publications on Zambian Humanism are: Fundamentals of Zambian Humanism, by Timothy Kandeke; Zambian Humanism, religion and social morality, by Cleve Dillion-Malone S.J. andZambian Humanism: some major spiritual and economic challenges, by Justin B. Zulu. Freedom fighters Although it was Kaunda's nationalization of the copper mining industry in the late 1960s that led to increased economic problems, matters were made worse by his economic and logistical support for the Black freedom fighters in the region: South Africa, the Portuguese colonies of Portuguese West Africa (now Angola)and Portuguese East Africa (now Mozambique) and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Kaunda tried to solve the conflict in Southern Africa between the White minority governments of Rhodesia, South Africa and Angola and Mozambique and the African freedom fighters by mediation and boycotts. On 25-26 August 1976, Kaunda met with the Prime Minister of South Africa, B.J. Vorster at Victoria Falls and again on 30 April 1982 with Prime Minister, Pieter Willem Botha on the Botswana border to discuss the political situation in South West Africa and South Africa. However, he did not manage to get serious concessions from the South African government. Kaunda was criticised in the African press for talking to representatives of the apartheid regime. Foreign policy During his early presidency he was an outspoken supporter of the anti-apartheid movement and opposed Ian Smith's white minority rule in Rhodesia. Kaunda allowed several African liberation fronts such as ZAPU and ZANU of Rhodesia and African National Congress to set headquarters in Zambia. Former ANC president Oliver Tambo spent a significant proportion of his 30 year exile living and working in Zambia. Oliver Tambo Biography Joshua Nkomo the leader of ZAPU also stationed a military base in Zambia. In retaliation the white minority governments of Rhodesia and South Africa frequently led espionage and bombing attacks in Zambia. Herbert Chitepo, prominent ZANU leader, was killed in a car bomb in Lusaka in 1975. The struggle in both Rhodesia and South Africa and its offshoot wars in Namibia, Angola and Mozambique placed a huge economic burden on Zambia as these were the country's main trading partners. As a response, Kaunda negotiated the TAZARA Railway (Tanzam) linking Kapiri Mposhi on the Zambian Copperbelt with Tanzania's port of Dar-es-Salaam on the Indian Ocean. Completed in 1975, this was the only route for bulk trade which did not have to pass white-controlled territories. This precarious situation lasted more than 20 years, until the end of apartheid in South Africa. When Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990, the first country he visited was Zambia on 27 February. http://www.aptnlibrary.com/c43_mandela_01.html During the Cold War, Kaunda was a strong supporter of the Non-Aligned Movement. He hosted a NAM summit in Lusaka in 1970 and served as the movement’s chairman from 1970 to 1973. He maintained a close friendship with Yugoslavia's long-time leader Tito and is remembered by many former citizens of Yugoslavia for weeping openly over his casket in 1980. He even had a house built in Lusaka for Tito's visits to the country. Kaunda had frequent but cordial differences with US President Ronald Reagan whom he met 1983 http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/33083c.htm and Margaret Thatcher BBC NEWS | In Pictures | In pictures: 40 years of Zambia mainly over what he saw as the West's blind eye to apartheid. He always maintained warm relations with the People's Republic of China who had provided assistance on many projects in Zambia including the TAZARA Railway. In the late 1980s prior to the first Gulf War Kaunda developed a friendship with Saddam Hussein with whom he struck various agreements to supply oil to Zambia. He named streets in Saddam's honour (Saddam Hussein blvd., now Los Angeles blvd.). During the events that led to the Gulf War, Saddam became increasingly isolated. In August 1989 Farzad Bazoft was arrested in Iraq for alleged espionage. He was accompanied by a British nurse, Daphne Parish who was arrested as well. Bazoft was an Iranian born British freelance journalist who was about to expose Saddam's gassing of the Kurds. Bazoft was later tried, sentenced to death and executed. Parish was sentenced to 15 years in prison. But in 1990 just as the Gulf War was about to break out Kaunda successfully managed to negotiate the release of Parish with Saddam. Eamonn Fitzgerald's Rainy Day: Remembering Farzad Bazoft . Kaunda served as chairman of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) from 1970 to 1973. UNIP and Kaunda's autocracy during the Second Republic After promulgation of the Second Republic, following Mainza Chona's recommendations for the constitution of a "one-party participatory democracy", Kaunda's leadership took on more autocratic characteristics. He personally appointed the Central Committee of UNIP, although the process was given a veneer of legitimacy by being "approved" by a National Congress of the party. In theory, Kaunda's nominations could be discarded by Congress, but in practice they were always accepted without modification. The argument used was that "the President knows the people who can work well with him, so if we modify the nominations we will end up with a less effective team". In turn, the Central Committee nominated a sole candidate for the post of President of the party. Of course, since the members of the Central Committee had been nominated by him, Kaunda was always the sole presidential candidate. After that charade, the rest of the Zambian population was given the opportunity to express approval or disapproval of the sole candidate's nomination by voting either "Yes" or "No". Since the presidential "election" was always accompanied by parliamentary elections, there was great pressure placed on parliamentary candidates to "campaign" for the president's "Yes" vote, in addition to their own campaigns. Parastatals companies (which were controlled through ZIMCO - Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation) were also under pressure to "campaign" for Kaunda by buying advertising space in the two national newspapers (Times of Zambia and Zambia Daily Mail) exhorting the electorate to give the president a "massive 'Yes' vote". The parliamentary elections were also controlled by Kaunda: the names of candidates had to be submitted to UNIP's Central Committee, which then selected three people to stand for any particular constituency. Anyone could be vetoed without the Central Committee giving any reason, since UNIP was supreme and its decisions were unchallengeable. Using these methods, Kaunda kept any enemies at bay by ensuring that they never got into political power. This was the tactic he used when he saw off Nkumbula and Kapwepwe's challenges to his sole candidacy for the 1978 UNIP elections. On that occasion, the UNIP's constitution was "amended" overnight to bring in rules that invalidated the two challengers' nominations: Kapwepwe was told he could not stand because only people who had been members for five years could be nominated to the presidency (he had only rejoined UNIP three years before); Nkumbula was outmaneuvered by introducing a new rule that said each candidate needed the signatures of 200 delegates from each province to back his candidacy. Less creative tactics were used on a third candidate called Chiluwe; he was just beaten up by the UNIP Youth Wing to within an inch of his life. This meant that he was in no state to submit his nomination. Fall from power Eventually, however, economic troubles and increasing international pressure to bring more democracy to Africa forced Kaunda to change the rules that kept him in power. People who had been afraid to criticise him were now emboldened to challenge his competence. His close friend Julius Nyerere had stepped down from the republican presidency in Tanzania in 1985 and was quietly encouraging Kaunda to follow suit. Pressure for a return to multiparty politics increased and Kaunda voluntarily yielded and called for multiparty elections in 1991, in which the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) won. Kaunda left office with the inauguration of MMD leader Frederick Chiluba as president on November 2, 1991. He was the second mainland African head of state to allow free multiparty elections and to have relinquished power when he lost: the first, Mathieu Kérékou of Benin, had done so in March of that year. Post presidency Chiluba later attempted to deport Kaunda on the grounds that he was a Malawian. The MMD dominated government under the leadership of Chiluba had the constitution amended, barring citizens with foreign parentage from standing for the presidency, to prevent Kaunda from contesting the next elections in 1996, and Kaunda retired from politics after he was accused of involvement in a failed 1997 coup attempt. In 1999 Kaunda was declared stateless by the Ndola High Court in a Judgment delivered by Mr. Justice Chalendo Sakala. A full transcript of the judgment was published in the Times of Zambia edition of 1 April, 1999. Kaunda however successfully challenged this decision in the Supreme Court of Zambia, which declared him to be a Zambian citizen in the year 2000. After retiring, he has been involved in various charitable organizations. From 2002 to 2004, he was an African President in Residence at Boston University. BU | APARC | About the Center Recently, he was seen in the attendance of an episode of Dancing With The Stars as Kaunda is an avid ballroom dancer. bizSanDiego - Business Management - Online Business Magazines On 19 October 2007 Kaunda was the recipient of the 2007 Ubuntu Award. References "Kaunda, Kenneth."Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. URL:http://search.eb.com/eb/article-3849 Accessed May 19, 2006. Fergus Macpherson, Kenneth Kaunda: The Times and the Man (1974) Richard Hall, The High Price of Principles: Kaunda and the White South (1969)David C. Mulford, Zambia: The Politics of Independence, 1957–1964 (1967)At Ipenburg'', 'All Good Men.' The Development of Lubwa Mission, Chinsali, Zambia, 1905-1967 (1992) See also Michael Sata Harry Nkumbula Simon Kapwepwe History of Church activities in Zambia External links 1964: President Kaunda takes power in Zambia Kaunda on Mugabe | Kenneth_Kaunda |@lemmatized kenneth:3 david:3 kaunda:75 commonly:1 know:2 kk:1 bear:3 april:5 serve:3 first:10 president:15 zambia:39 early:3 life:2 young:1 eight:1 child:4 lubwa:7 mission:4 chinsali:5 northern:12 province:6 rhodesia:14 father:1 reverend:1 ordain:1 church:10 scotland:1 missionary:1 teacher:5 malawi:1 move:3 work:5 attend:2 munali:1 training:3 centre:2 lusaka:10 august:4 upper:1 primary:3 school:7 boarding:1 master:2 headmaster:1 leave:2 become:11 instructor:1 army:1 dismiss:1 time:9 salisbury:3 bindura:1 mine:7 mufulira:2 united:3 copperbelt:3 umcb:1 assistant:1 african:17 welfare:2 board:2 period:1 lead:6 pathfinder:1 scout:1 group:3 choirmaster:1 central:7 africa:15 congregation:1 also:5 vice:2 secretary:3 nchanga:2 branch:1 congress:6 independence:9 struggle:2 return:2 part:3 resign:1 year:12 organise:1 rhodesian:1 national:11 include:4 luapula:1 november:2 take:4 post:3 general:2 anc:11 presidency:7 harry:2 nkumbula:11 combined:1 effort:1 fail:1 mobilize:1 indigenous:1 people:7 white:10 dominated:1 federation:2 nyasaland:2 imprison:1 two:9 month:4 hard:1 labour:2 distribute:1 subversive:1 literature:1 imprisonment:3 form:3 harassment:1 normal:1 rite:1 passage:1 nationalist:3 leader:6 experience:1 radicalizing:1 impact:1 drift:1 apart:1 increasingly:3 influence:1 liberal:2 see:4 willing:1 compromise:1 issue:1 black:2 majority:4 rule:5 wait:1 till:1 ready:1 extend:1 franchise:1 however:7 determine:1 exist:2 property:1 literacy:1 qualification:1 drop:1 race:1 altogether:1 allegedly:2 autocratic:2 leadership:3 eventually:4 result:4 split:1 broke:2 zambian:14 zanc:3 october:6 ban:5 march:2 june:2 sentence:3 nine:1 spend:2 call:6 harare:1 prison:4 mainza:3 chona:7 break:2 away:1 party:15 unip:22 successor:1 main:4 founder:1 release:3 january:3 elect:1 july:1 organize:1 civil:2 disobedience:1 campaign:5 called:1 cha:3 consist:1 burning:1 block:1 road:2 run:1 candidate:8 election:10 coalition:1 government:13 minister:5 local:2 social:3 win:2 new:5 constitution:5 beat:2 appoint:5 prime:4 independent:2 reuben:1 kamanga:1 deal:1 lumpa:6 alice:1 lenshina:2 home:1 district:2 try:3 neutral:1 position:1 political:3 conflict:3 accuse:2 collaboration:1 minority:4 arise:1 youth:2 member:5 especially:1 headquarters:2 send:1 battalion:1 regiment:1 fight:1 death:2 villager:1 flight:1 katanga:1 ten:1 thousand:2 follower:1 proclaim:1 state:9 emergency:3 retain:2 educational:2 policy:5 modernization:1 process:2 far:1 complete:3 university:7 graduate:1 less:3 population:3 estimate:1 education:4 nation:2 system:1 one:8 poorly:1 develop:3 britain:1 former:3 colony:2 invest:1 heavily:1 level:3 institute:4 irrespective:1 parent:2 ability:1 pay:2 give:6 free:2 exercise:1 book:2 pen:1 pencil:1 responsibility:1 buy:3 uniform:1 token:1 fee:1 ensure:2 approach:1 mean:1 best:2 pupil:1 promote:1 achieve:1 way:1 every:1 could:7 go:2 secondary:1 example:2 well:4 educate:1 open:1 country:7 encourage:1 donate:1 whatever:1 afford:1 towards:1 construction:1 chancellor:1 officiate:1 graduation:1 ceremony:1 campus:4 situate:1 great:2 east:2 medical:2 locate:1 ridgeway:1 near:1 teach:1 hospital:1 another:1 establish:2 technology:1 kitwe:2 upgrade:1 rename:1 offer:3 business:3 study:3 industrial:4 environmental:1 course:3 agriculture:1 engineering:2 humanity:1 science:2 law:1 medicine:2 mining:6 natural:2 veterinary:1 basic:3 program:4 four:3 long:4 although:3 five:2 seven:1 respectively:2 tertiary:1 institution:1 era:1 vocationally:1 focus:1 fell:1 aegis:1 department:1 technical:2 vocational:1 evelyn:1 hone:1 college:4 applied:1 art:1 commerce:1 resource:1 development:11 ndola:2 livingstone:2 trade:2 train:1 economic:8 receive:1 economy:3 completely:1 control:9 foreigner:1 british:4 south:11 company:4 bsac:2 originally:1 setup:1 imperialist:1 cecil:1 rhodes:1 commercial:1 asset:1 mineral:2 right:2 claim:1 acquire:3 concession:3 sign:2 litunga:1 bulozi:1 lochner:1 threaten:1 expropriate:1 eve:1 manage:3 get:4 assign:1 incoming:1 copper:8 revenue:2 siphon:1 southern:5 rhodesians:3 since:4 dominant:1 polity:1 view:1 suit:2 provide:5 managerial:1 administrative:1 skill:1 would:3 capital:2 much:1 developed:1 bamba:1 zonke:1 grab:1 everything:1 fanakalo:1 greed:1 follow:6 step:2 soviet:2 union:2 plan:8 direction:1 commission:4 planning:2 transitional:1 major:6 investment:1 infrastructure:1 manufacturing:1 largely:2 implement:1 generally:1 successful:1 true:1 subsequent:1 switch:1 structure:1 come:2 mulungushi:1 reform:1 declare:4 intention:2 equity:1 hold:2 usually:1 number:1 key:1 foreign:5 owned:2 firm:1 corporation:7 indeco:2 operation:2 anglo:2 american:2 selection:1 trust:2 rst:2 consolidate:3 nccm:2 roan:1 rcm:2 announce:2 creation:2 parastatal:2 body:1 mindeco:2 finance:1 findeco:2 allow:5 gain:1 insurance:1 building:1 society:1 bank:1 barclays:1 standard:1 charter:1 grindlays:1 successfully:3 resist:1 takeover:1 bring:4 together:1 omnibus:1 zimco:2 create:2 large:1 sub:1 saharan:1 chairman:3 management:3 contract:1 day:3 carry:1 end:4 merge:1 giant:1 ltd:1 zccm:1 unfortunately:1 nationalization:2 even:2 assume:1 ill:1 timed:1 event:2 beyond:1 wreck:1 massive:3 increase:6 price:7 oil:2 slump:1 diminution:1 export:2 earnings:2 account:1 halve:1 value:2 world:2 market:1 balance:1 payment:1 crisis:3 rapidly:1 massively:1 indebted:2 international:2 monetary:1 fund:1 imf:4 third:2 abandon:1 replace:1 term:2 mid:2 relative:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:1 gdp:1 insist:1 introduce:4 aim:1 stabilize:1 restructure:1 reduce:1 dependence:1 proposed:1 measure:1 devaluation:1 kwacha:1 currency:1 cut:1 back:2 expenditure:1 cancellation:1 subsidy:2 food:2 fertilizer:1 farm:1 produce:1 removal:1 cause:1 foodstuff:1 urban:1 riot:1 protest:1 desperation:1 may:2 recovery:1 programme:1 help:1 toward:1 understanding:1 collapse:1 eastern:1 europe:1 ideology:4 humanism:7 fashion:1 force:2 make:4 shift:1 partially:1 privatize:1 parastatals:2 change:3 late:3 prevent:2 fall:4 power:8 trouble:2 socialism:2 uprising:1 repeal:1 absolute:1 destroy:1 source:1 opposition:4 refuse:1 participate:1 politics:4 participation:1 want:1 lot:1 animosity:1 violence:2 begin:1 small:2 scale:1 escalate:1 war:6 kill:2 combination:2 complacency:1 colonial:1 administration:1 intransigence:1 tried:1 mediate:1 difference:2 authority:1 unable:1 cadre:1 north:1 intolerant:1 except:1 probably:1 worry:1 simon:2 kapwepwe:4 decision:4 find:1 rival:1 progressive:1 immediately:1 next:2 set:2 chairmanship:1 february:2 task:1 recommendation:2 participatory:2 democracy:4 e:2 reference:2 permit:1 discuss:2 pro:1 con:1 sole:5 surviving:1 boycott:2 unsuccessfully:1 challenge:5 constitutional:1 court:3 report:1 base:3 public:1 hearing:1 submit:3 widely:1 regard:1 document:2 finally:1 neutralise:1 wind:1 join:1 choma:1 declaration:1 cease:1 dissolution:1 parliament:1 emerald:1 personality:1 cult:1 left:2 socialist:1 twentieth:1 century:1 idea:1 consider:1 mutual:1 aid:1 loyalty:1 community:1 similar:1 inter:1 alia:1 ghana:1 kwame:1 nkrumah:1 consciencism:1 tanzania:3 julius:2 nyerere:2 ujamaa:1 zaire:1 mobutu:1 sese:1 seko:1 loss:1 hit:1 ideal:1 mobutuism:1 elaborate:1 publish:2 several:2 guide:1 implementation:1 publication:1 fundamental:1 timothy:1 kandeke:1 religion:1 morality:1 cleve:1 dillion:1 malone:1 j:2 andzambian:1 spiritual:1 justin:1 b:2 zulu:1 freedom:3 fighter:3 industry:1 problem:1 matter:1 worse:1 logistical:1 support:1 region:1 portuguese:3 west:3 angola:3 mozambique:3 zimbabwe:1 solve:1 mediation:1 meet:2 vorster:1 victoria:1 pieter:1 willem:1 botha:1 botswana:1 border:1 situation:2 serious:1 criticise:2 press:1 talk:1 representative:1 apartheid:4 regime:1 outspoken:1 supporter:2 anti:1 movement:4 opposed:1 ian:1 smith:1 liberation:1 front:1 zapu:2 zanu:2 oliver:2 tambo:2 significant:1 proportion:1 exile:1 living:1 biography:1 joshua:1 nkomo:1 station:1 military:1 retaliation:1 frequently:1 espionage:2 bomb:2 attack:1 herbert:1 chitepo:1 prominent:1 car:1 offshoot:1 namibia:1 place:2 huge:1 burden:1 trading:1 partner:1 response:1 negotiate:2 tazara:2 railway:2 tanzam:1 link:2 kapiri:1 mposhi:1 port:1 dar:1 salaam:1 indian:1 ocean:1 route:1 bulk:1 pass:1 controlled:1 territory:1 precarious:1 last:1 nelson:1 mandela:1 visit:2 http:3 www:2 aptnlibrary:1 com:2 html:1 cold:1 strong:1 non:1 align:1 host:1 nam:1 summit:1 maintain:2 close:2 friendship:2 yugoslavia:2 tito:2 remember:1 many:2 citizen:3 weep:1 openly:1 casket:1 house:1 build:1 frequent:1 cordial:1 u:1 ronald:1 reagan:2 utexas:1 edu:1 archive:1 speech:1 htm:1 margaret:1 thatcher:1 bbc:1 news:1 picture:2 mainly:1 saw:2 blind:1 eye:1 always:4 warm:1 relation:1 republic:3 china:1 assistance:1 project:1 prior:1 gulf:3 saddam:6 hussein:2 strike:1 various:2 agreement:1 supply:1 name:2 street:1 honour:1 blvd:2 los:1 angeles:1 isolate:1 farzad:2 bazoft:4 arrest:2 iraq:1 alleged:1 accompany:2 nurse:1 daphne:1 parish:3 iranian:1 born:1 freelance:1 journalist:1 expose:1 gassing:1 kurd:1 later:2 execute:1 eamonn:1 fitzgerald:1 rainy:1 remembering:1 organization:2 unity:1 oau:1 autocracy:1 second:3 promulgation:1 characteristic:1 personally:1 committee:5 veneer:1 legitimacy:1 approve:1 theory:1 nomination:5 discard:1 practice:1 accept:1 without:2 modification:1 argument:1 use:4 modify:1 effective:1 team:1 turn:1 nominate:3 presidential:2 charade:1 rest:1 opportunity:1 express:1 approval:1 disapproval:1 vote:3 either:1 yes:3 parliamentary:3 pressure:4 addition:1 advertising:1 space:1 newspaper:1 daily:1 mail:1 exhort:1 electorate:1 select:1 three:2 stand:3 particular:1 constituency:1 anyone:1 veto:1 reason:1 supreme:2 unchallengeable:1 method:1 keep:2 enemy:1 bay:1 never:1 tactic:2 candidacy:2 occasion:1 amend:2 overnight:1 invalidate:1 challenger:1 tell:1 rejoin:1 outmaneuver:1 say:1 need:1 signature:1 delegate:1 creative:1 chiluwe:1 wing:1 within:1 inch:1 meant:1 afraid:1 embolden:1 competence:1 friend:1 republican:1 quietly:1 encouraging:1 multiparty:4 voluntarily:1 yield:1 mmd:3 office:1 inauguration:1 frederick:1 chiluba:3 mainland:1 head:1 relinquish:1 lose:1 mathieu:1 kérékou:1 benin:1 attempt:2 deport:1 ground:1 malawian:1 dominate:1 bar:1 parentage:1 contest:1 retire:2 involvement:1 failed:1 coup:1 stateless:1 high:2 judgment:2 deliver:1 mr:1 justice:1 chalendo:1 sakala:1 full:1 transcript:1 edition:1 involve:1 charitable:1 residence:1 boston:1 bu:1 aparc:1 center:1 recently:1 attendance:1 episode:1 dance:1 star:1 avid:1 ballroom:1 dancer:1 bizsandiego:1 online:2 magazine:1 recipient:1 ubuntu:1 award:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 url:1 search:1 eb:2 article:1 access:1 fergus:1 macpherson:1 man:1 richard:1 hall:1 principle:1 c:1 mulford:1 ipenburg:1 good:1 men:1 michael:1 sata:1 history:1 activity:1 external:1 mugabe:1 |@bigram federation_rhodesia:1 rhodesia_nyasaland:1 civil_disobedience:1 cha_cha:2 prime_minister:4 vice_president:1 pen_pencil:1 graduation_ceremony:1 veterinary_medicine:1 vocational_training:1 cecil_rhodes:1 southern_rhodesia:2 soviet_union:2 owned_firm:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 export_earnings:2 balance_payment:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 gross_domestic:1 zambian_humanism:5 participatory_democracy:2 pro_con:1 twentieth_century:1 inter_alia:1 kwame_nkrumah:1 julius_nyerere:2 mobutu_sese:1 sese_seko:1 angola_mozambique:2 apartheid_regime:1 anti_apartheid:1 oliver_tambo:2 trading_partner:1 nelson_mandela:1 http_www:2 ronald_reagan:1 utexas_edu:1 margaret_thatcher:1 bbc_news:1 saddam_hussein:2 los_angeles:1 unity_oau:1 presidential_candidate:1 presidential_election:1 multiparty_democracy:1 supreme_court:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_encyclopædia:1 britannica_online:1 kenneth_kaunda:1 external_link:1 |
955 | Clyde_Tombaugh | Clyde William Tombaugh (February 4, 1906 – January 17, 1997) was an American astronomer. Tombaugh is best known for discovering the dwarf planet Pluto in 1930, but also discovered many asteroids, and called for serious scientific research of unidentified flying objects. Biography Tombaugh was born in Streator "I was born on a farm near Streator, Illinois, on 4 February 1906." , LaSalle County, Illinois. After his family moved to Burdett, Kansas, Tombaugh built his first telescope and sent drawings of his observations of Jupiter and Mars to the Lowell Observatory. These resulted in a job offer. Tombaugh was employed at the Lowell Observatory from 1929 to 1945. Following his discovery of Pluto, Tombaugh earned astronomy degrees from the University of Kansas and Northern Arizona University. He worked at the White Sands Missile Range in the early 1950s, and taught astronomy at New Mexico State University from 1955 until his retirement in 1973. He died in Las Cruces, New Mexico, 1997 and was survived by his wife Patricia, daughter Annette and son Alden, a retired banker. Tombaugh was an active Unitarian-Universalist. The asteroid 1604 Tombaugh, discovered in 1931, is named after him. He himself discovered 14 asteroids, beginning with 2839 Annette in 1929, mostly as a by-product of his search for Pluto and his further searches for other celestial objects. Tombaugh named some of them after his wife, children and grandchildren. The Royal Astronomical Society awarded him the Jackson-Gwilt Medal in 1931. Approximately one ounce of his ashes are being carried on the New Horizons spacecraft, launched in 2006 for a flyby of Pluto in 2014. The container includes the inscription: "Interned herein are remains of American Clyde W. Tombaugh, discoverer of Pluto and the solar system's 'third zone.' Adelle and Muron's boy, Patricia's husband, Annette and Alden's father, astronomer, teacher, punster, and friend: Clyde W. Tombaugh (1906–1997)." Discovery of Pluto Tombaugh created his photographic plates using this 13-inch astrograph While a young researcher working for the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, Tombaugh was given the job to perform a systematic search for a trans-Neptunian planet (also called Planet X), which had been predicted by Percival Lowell and William Pickering. Tombaugh used the observatory's 13-inch astrograph to take photographs of the same section of sky several nights apart. He then used a blink comparator to compare the different images. When he shifted between the two images, a moving object, such as a planet, would appear to jump from one position to another, while the more distant objects such as stars would appear stationary. Tombaugh noticed such a moving object in his search, and subsequent observations showed it to be the object we call Pluto. The discovery was made on Tuesday, February 18, 1930, using images taken in January of the same year. The name "Pluto" was suggested by Venetia Burney, then an 11-year-old English school girl, who died in April 2009, and who therefore lived to see the reclassification of Pluto as a dwarf planet. It won out over numerous other suggestions partly because it was named after the Roman god of the underworld (who was able to render himself invisible) and because Percival Lowell's initials PL formed the first 2 letters. The name Pluto was officially adopted on 1 May 1930. The photographic plates that were used to discover Pluto at apparent magnitude +15.4 Following the discovery of the Kuiper belt objects starting in the 1990s, Pluto began to be seen not as a planet orbiting alone at 40 AU, but as the largest of a group of icy bodies in that region of space. After it was shown that at least one such body was larger than Pluto, on August 24, 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) reclassified Pluto, grouping it with two similarly sized "dwarf planets" rather than with the eight "classical planets". Tombaugh's widow Patricia stated after the IAU's decision that while Clyde may have been disappointed with the change since he had resisted attempts to remove Pluto's planetary status in his lifetime, he would have accepted the decision now if he were alive. She notes that Clyde "was a scientist. He would understand they had a real problem when they start finding several of these things flying around the place." Further search Tombaugh continued searching for some years after the discovery of Pluto, and the lack of further discoveries left him satisfied that no other object of a comparable apparent magnitude existed near the ecliptic. No more Trans-Neptunian objects were discovered until , in 1992. However, more recently the relatively bright object has been discovered. It has a relatively high orbital inclination, but at the time of Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto, Makemake was only a few degrees from the ecliptic near the border of Taurus and Auriga based on Minor Planet Center online Minor Planet Ephemeris Service: March 1, 1930: RA: 05h51m, Dec: +29.0 at an apparent magnitude of 16. Unfortunately, this position was also very near the galactic equator, making it almost impossible to find such an object within the dense concentration of background stars of the Milky Way. Asteroids discovered Tombaugh compared his photographic plates using this blink comparator. Tombaugh discovered a total of 14 asteroids, during his search for Pluto and years of follow-up searches looking for another candidate for the postulated Planet X. Tombaugh is also credited with the discovery of comet C/1931 AN, though its orbit is currently unknown. + Asteroids discovered by Tombaugh Designation Discovery 2839 Annette October 5, 1929 2941 Alden December 24, 1930 3310 Patsy October 9, 1931 3583 Burdett October 5, 1929 3754 Kathleen March 16, 1931 3775 Ellenbeth October 6, 1931 3824 Brendalee October 5, 1929 4510 Shawna December 13, 1930 4755 Nicky October 6, 1931 5701 Baltuck November 3, 1929 (6618) 1936 SO September 16, 1936 (7101) 1930 UX October 17, 1930 October 11, 1929 October 10, 1931 Interest in UFOs Tombaugh was probably the most eminent astronomer to have reported seeing Unidentified flying objects and to support the Extraterrestrial hypothesis. On August 20, 1949, Tombaugh saw several UFOs near Las Cruces, New Mexico. He described them as six to eight rectangular lights, stating: "I doubt that the phenomenon was any terrestrial reflection, because... nothing of the kind has ever appeared before or since... I was so unprepared for such a strange sight that I was really petrified with astonishment." A similar shocked response has been reported by many others who claim to have seen mysterious aerial objects. Another sighting by Tombaugh a year or two later while at a White Sands observatory was of an object of −6 magnitude, four times brighter than Venus at its brightest, going from the zenith to the southern horizon in about 3 seconds. The object executed the same maneuvers as in Tombaugh's first sighting. Tombaugh was also later to report having seen three of the mysterious green fireballs, which suddenly appeared over New Mexico in late 1948 and continued at least through the early 1950s. Despite this, the final report of Project Twinkle — see external link — claimed that he "... never observed an unexplainable aerial object despite his continuous and extensive observations of the sky." In 1956 Tombaugh had the following to say about his various sightings: "I have seen three objects in the last seven years which defied any explanation of known phenomenon, such as Venus, atmospheric optic, meteors or planes. I am a professional, highly skilled, professional astronomer. In addition I have seen three green fireballs which were unusual in behavior from normal green fireballs ... I think that several reputable scientists are being unscientific in refusing to entertain the possibility of extraterrestrial origin and nature." Shortly after this in January 1957, in an Associated Press article in the Alamogordo Daily News titled "Celestial Visitors May Be Invading Earth's Atmosphere," Tombaugh was again quoted on his sightings and opinion about them. "Although our own solar system is believed to support no other life than on Earth, other stars in the galaxy may have hundreds of thousands of habitable worlds. Races on these worlds may have been able to utilize the tremendous amounts of power required to bridge the space between the stars..." Tombaugh said he has observed celestial phenomena which he could not explain, but has seen none personally since 1951 or 1952. "These things, which do appear to be directed, are unlike any other phenomena I ever observed. Their apparent lack of obedience to the ordinary laws of celestial motion gives credence." In 1949, Tombaugh had also told the Naval missile director at White Sands Missile Range, Commander Robert McLaughlin, that he had seen a bright flash on Mars in August 1941, which he now attributed to an atomic blast. Tombaugh also noted that the first atomic bomb tested in New Mexico would have lit up the dark side of the Earth like a neon sign and that Mars was coincidentally quite close at the time, the implication apparently being that the atomic test would have been visible from Mars. In June 1952, Dr. J. Allen Hynek, an astronomer acting as a scientific consultant to the Air Force's Project Blue Book UFO study, secretly conducted a survey of fellow astronomers on UFO sightings and attitudes while attending an astronomy convention. Tombaugh and four other astronomers told Hynek about their sightings, including Dr. Lincoln LaPaz of the University of New Mexico. Tombaugh also told Hynek that his telescopes were at the Air Force's disposal for taking photos of UFOs, if he was properly alerted. Near-Earth satellite search Clyde Tombaugh (left) discussing search for near-Earth satellites with Dr. Lincoln LaPaz (right), 3 March 1954. Photo from Albuquerque Journal Tombaugh's offer may have led to his involvement in a search for near-Earth satellites, first announced in late 1953 and sponsored by the Army Office of Ordnance Research. Another public statement was made on the search in March 1954 (photo at right), emphasizing the rationale that such an orbiting object would serve as a natural space station. However, according to Donald Keyhoe, later director of the National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (NICAP), the real reason for the sudden search was because two near-Earth orbiting objects had been picked up on new long-range radar in the summer of 1953, according to his Pentagon source. By May 1954, Keyhoe was making public statements that his sources told him the search had indeed been successful, and either one or two objects had been found. However, the story didn't really break until August 23, 1954, when Aviation Week magazine stated that two satellites had been found only 400 and 600 miles out. They were termed "natural satellites" and implied that they had been recently captured, despite this being a virtual impossibility. The next day, the story was in many major newspapers. Dr. LaPaz was implicated in the discovery in addition to Tombaugh. LaPaz had earlier conducted secret investigations on behalf of the Air Force on the green fireballs and other unidentified aerial phenomena over New Mexico. LaPaz vehemently denied his involvement in the search, although the New York Times reported on August 29 that a source close to the project said that the story was true and LaPaz was indeed involved, in fact had been the one to spot and identify the objects as natural rather than artificial satellites. The same source denied the search had anything to do with flying saucers. However, both LaPaz and Tombaugh were to issue public denials that anything had been found. The October 1955 issue of Popular Mechanics magazine reported: "Professor Tombaugh is closemouthed about his results. He won't say whether or not any small natural satellites have been discovered. He does say, however, that newspaper reports of 18 months ago announcing the discovery of natural satellites at 400 and 600 miles out are not correct. He adds that there is no connection between the search program and the reports of so-called flying saucers." At a meteor conference in Los Angeles in 1957, Tombaugh reiterated that his four year search for "natural satellites" had been unsuccessful. In 1959, Tombaugh was to issue a final report stating that nothing had been found in his search. References Further reading Falk, Dan, "More than a one-hit wonder", Astronomy, February 2006, 40–45. Clyde Tombaugh: Discoverer of Planet Pluto, David H. Levy, Sky Publishing Corporation, March 2006 External links Many biographical articles on Clyde Tombaugh Quote from Tombaugh on UFOs UFO activities of Tombaugh Academic paper on Tombaugh's UFO activities and near-earth satellite search Final report of Project Twinkle | Clyde_Tombaugh |@lemmatized clyde:8 william:2 tombaugh:46 february:4 january:3 american:2 astronomer:7 best:1 know:2 discover:11 dwarf:3 planet:12 pluto:19 also:8 many:4 asteroid:6 call:4 serious:1 scientific:2 research:2 unidentified:3 fly:5 object:21 biography:1 bear:2 streator:2 farm:1 near:10 illinois:2 lasalle:1 county:1 family:1 move:3 burdett:2 kansas:1 build:1 first:5 telescope:2 send:1 drawing:1 observation:3 jupiter:1 mar:4 lowell:5 observatory:5 result:2 job:2 offer:2 employ:1 follow:3 discovery:11 earn:1 astronomy:4 degree:2 university:4 kansa:1 northern:1 arizona:2 work:2 white:3 sand:3 missile:3 range:3 early:2 teach:1 new:10 mexico:7 state:5 retirement:1 die:2 la:1 crux:2 survive:1 wife:2 patricia:3 daughter:1 annette:4 son:1 alden:3 retired:1 banker:1 active:1 unitarian:1 universalist:1 name:5 begin:2 mostly:1 product:1 search:20 celestial:4 child:1 grandchild:1 royal:1 astronomical:2 society:1 award:1 jackson:1 gwilt:1 medal:1 approximately:1 one:6 ounce:1 ash:1 carry:1 horizon:2 spacecraft:1 launch:1 flyby:1 container:1 include:2 inscription:1 intern:1 herein:1 remain:1 w:2 discoverer:2 solar:2 system:2 third:1 zone:1 adelle:1 muron:1 boy:1 husband:1 father:1 teacher:1 punster:1 friend:1 create:1 photographic:3 plate:3 use:6 inch:2 astrograph:2 young:1 researcher:1 flagstaff:1 give:2 perform:1 systematic:1 trans:2 neptunian:2 x:2 predict:1 percival:2 pickering:1 take:3 photograph:1 section:1 sky:3 several:4 night:1 apart:1 blink:2 comparator:2 compare:2 different:1 image:3 shift:1 two:6 would:7 appear:5 jump:1 position:2 another:4 distant:1 star:4 stationary:1 notice:1 subsequent:1 show:2 make:4 tuesday:1 year:7 suggest:1 venetia:1 burney:1 old:1 english:1 school:1 girl:1 april:1 therefore:1 live:1 see:10 reclassification:1 win:2 numerous:1 suggestion:1 partly:1 roman:1 god:1 underworld:1 able:2 render:1 invisible:1 initial:1 pl:1 form:1 letter:1 officially:1 adopt:1 may:7 apparent:4 magnitude:4 kuiper:1 belt:1 start:2 orbit:3 alone:1 au:1 large:2 group:2 icy:1 body:2 region:1 space:3 least:2 august:5 international:1 union:1 iau:2 reclassify:1 similarly:1 size:1 rather:2 eight:2 classical:1 widow:1 decision:2 disappoint:1 change:1 since:3 resist:1 attempt:1 remove:1 planetary:1 status:1 lifetime:1 accept:1 alive:1 note:2 scientist:2 understand:1 real:2 problem:1 find:6 thing:2 around:1 place:1 far:2 continue:2 lack:2 leave:2 satisfy:1 comparable:1 exist:1 ecliptic:2 however:5 recently:2 relatively:2 bright:3 high:1 orbital:1 inclination:1 time:4 makemake:1 border:1 taurus:1 auriga:1 base:1 minor:2 center:1 online:1 ephemeris:1 service:1 march:5 ra:1 dec:1 unfortunately:1 galactic:1 equator:1 almost:1 impossible:1 within:1 dense:1 concentration:1 background:1 milky:1 way:1 total:1 look:1 candidate:1 postulated:1 credit:1 comet:1 c:1 though:1 currently:1 unknown:1 designation:1 october:10 december:2 patsy:1 kathleen:1 ellenbeth:1 brendalee:1 shawna:1 nicky:1 baltuck:1 november:1 september:1 ux:1 interest:1 ufos:3 probably:1 eminent:1 report:10 support:2 extraterrestrial:2 hypothesis:1 saw:1 las:1 describe:1 six:1 rectangular:1 light:2 doubt:1 phenomenon:6 terrestrial:1 reflection:1 nothing:2 kind:1 ever:2 unprepared:1 strange:1 sight:2 really:2 petrify:1 astonishment:1 similar:1 shock:1 response:1 others:1 claim:2 mysterious:2 aerial:4 sighting:5 later:3 four:3 brighter:1 venus:2 go:1 zenith:1 southern:1 second:1 execute:1 maneuver:1 three:3 green:4 fireball:4 suddenly:1 late:2 despite:3 final:3 project:4 twinkle:2 external:2 link:2 never:1 observe:3 unexplainable:1 continuous:1 extensive:1 following:1 say:5 various:1 last:1 seven:1 defy:1 explanation:1 atmospheric:1 optic:1 meteor:2 plane:1 professional:2 highly:1 skilled:1 addition:2 unusual:1 behavior:1 normal:1 think:1 reputable:1 unscientific:1 refuse:1 entertain:1 possibility:1 origin:1 nature:1 shortly:1 associated:1 press:1 article:2 alamogordo:1 daily:1 news:1 title:1 visitor:1 invade:1 earth:8 atmosphere:1 quote:2 opinion:1 although:2 believe:1 life:1 galaxy:1 hundred:1 thousand:1 habitable:1 world:2 race:1 utilize:1 tremendous:1 amount:1 power:1 require:1 bridge:1 could:1 explain:1 none:1 personally:1 direct:1 unlike:1 obedience:1 ordinary:1 law:1 motion:1 credence:1 tell:4 naval:1 director:2 commander:1 robert:1 mclaughlin:1 flash:1 attribute:1 atomic:3 blast:1 bomb:1 test:2 dark:1 side:1 like:1 neon:1 sign:1 coincidentally:1 quite:1 close:2 implication:1 apparently:1 visible:1 june:1 dr:4 j:1 allen:1 hynek:3 acting:1 consultant:1 air:3 force:3 blue:1 book:1 ufo:5 study:1 secretly:1 conduct:2 survey:1 fellow:1 attitude:1 attend:1 convention:1 lincoln:2 lapaz:7 disposal:1 photo:3 properly:1 alert:1 satellite:10 discuss:1 right:2 albuquerque:1 journal:1 lead:1 involvement:2 announce:2 sponsor:1 army:1 office:1 ordnance:1 public:3 statement:2 emphasize:1 rationale:1 orbiting:1 serve:1 natural:6 station:1 accord:2 donald:1 keyhoe:2 national:1 investigation:2 committee:1 nicap:1 reason:1 sudden:1 pick:1 long:1 radar:1 summer:1 pentagon:1 source:4 indeed:2 successful:1 either:1 story:3 break:1 aviation:1 week:1 magazine:2 mile:2 term:1 imply:1 capture:1 virtual:1 impossibility:1 next:1 day:1 major:1 newspaper:2 implicate:1 earlier:1 secret:1 behalf:1 vehemently:1 deny:2 york:1 true:1 involved:1 fact:1 spot:1 identify:1 artificial:1 anything:2 saucer:2 issue:3 denial:1 popular:1 mechanic:1 professor:1 closemouthed:1 whether:1 small:1 month:1 ago:1 correct:1 add:1 connection:1 program:1 conference:1 los:1 angeles:1 reiterate:1 unsuccessful:1 reference:1 reading:1 falk:1 dan:1 hit:1 wonder:1 david:1 h:1 levy:1 publishing:1 corporation:1 biographical:1 activity:2 academic:1 paper:1 |@bigram dwarf_planet:3 lowell_observatory:3 unitarian_universalist:1 photographic_plate:3 trans_neptunian:2 percival_lowell:2 apparent_magnitude:3 kuiper_belt:1 neptunian_object:1 orbital_inclination:1 milky_way:1 external_link:2 hundred_thousand:1 atomic_bomb:1 clyde_tombaugh:3 vehemently_deny:1 fly_saucer:2 los_angeles:1 |
956 | Citric_acid_cycle | Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle — also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), the Krebs cycle, or more rarely, the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle — is a series of enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part of cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. The components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established by seminal work from both Albert Szent-Györgyi and Hans Krebs. In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in the chemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water to generate a form of usable energy. Other relevant reactions in the pathway include those in glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation before the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation after it. In addition, it provides precursors for many compounds including some amino acids and is therefore functional even in cells performing fermentation. Steps Two carbons are oxidized to CO2, and the energy from these reactions is transferred to other metabolic processes by GTP (or ATP), and as electrons in NADH and QH2. The NADH generated in the TCA cycle may later donate its electrons in oxidative phosphorylation to drive ATP synthesis; FADH2 is covalently attached to succinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme functioning both in the TCA cycle and the mitochondrial electron transport chain in oxidative phosphorylation. FADH2 thereby facilitates transfer of electrons to coenzyme Q, which is the final electron acceptor of the reaction catalyzed by the Succinate:ubiquinone oxidoreductase complex, also acting as an intermediate in the electron transport chain. The citric acid cycle is continuously supplied with new carbons in the form of acetyl-CoA, entering at step 1 below. SubstratesProductsEnzymeReaction typeComment1Oxaloacetate +Acetyl CoA +H2OCitrate +CoA-SHCitrate synthaseAldol condensationrate limiting stage, extends the 4C oxaloacetate to a 6C molecule2Citratecis-Aconitate +H2OAconitase Dehydrationreversible isomerisation3cis-Aconitate +H2OIsocitrateHydration4Isocitrate +NAD+Oxalosuccinate +NADH + H +Isocitrate dehydrogenaseOxidationgenerates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP)5Oxalosuccinateα-Ketoglutarate +CO2Decarboxylationirreversible stage, generates a 5C molecule6α-Ketoglutarate +NAD+ +CoA-SHSuccinyl-CoA + NADH + H+ + CO2α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenaseOxidativedecarboxylationgenerates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP), regenerates the 4C chain (CoA excluded)7Succinyl-CoA + GDP + PiSuccinate +CoA-SH +GTPSuccinyl-CoA synthetasesubstrate level phosphorylationor ADP->ATP, generates 1 ATP or equivalent8Succinate + ubiquinone (Q)Fumarate + ubiquinol (QH2)Succinate dehydrogenaseOxidationuses FAD as a prosthetic group (FAD->FADH2 in the first step of the reaction) in the enzyme, Berg et al. (2002), page 501 generates the equivalent of 1.5 ATP9Fumarate + H2OL-MalateFumaraseH2O addition(hydration)10L-Malate+ NAD+Oxaloacetate + NADH + H+Malate dehydrogenaseOxidationgenerates NADH (equivalent of 2.5 ATP) Mitochondria in animals including humans possess two succinyl-CoA synthetases, one that produces GTP from GDP, and another that produces ATP from ADP. Plants have the type that produces ATP (ADP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase). Several of the enzymes in the cycle may be loosely-associated in a multienzyme protein complex within the mitochondrial matrix. The GTP that is formed by GDP-forming succinyl-CoA synthetase may be utilized by nucleoside-diphosphate kinase to form ATP (the catalyzed reaction is GTP + ADP → GDP + ATP). A simplified view of the process The citric acid cycle begins with acetyl-CoA transferring its two-carbon acetyl group to the four-carbon acceptor compound (oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon compound (citrate). The citrate then goes through a series of chemical transformations, losing first one, then a second carboxyl group as CO2. The carbons lost as CO2 originate from what was oxaloacetate, not directly from acetyl-CoA. The carbons donated by acetyl-CoA become part of the oxaloacetate carbon backbone after the first turn of the citric acid cycle. Loss of the acetyl-CoA-donated carbons as CO2 requires several turns of the citric acid cycle. However, because of the role of the citric acid cycle in anabolism, they may not be lost since many TCA cycle intermediates are also used as precursors for the biosynthesis of other molecules. Wolfe RR, Jahoor F. (1990) Recovery of labeled CO2 during the infusion of C-1- vs C-2-labeled acetate: implications for tracer studies of substrate oxidation. Am J Clin Nutr. 51(2):248-52. PMID 2106256 Most of the energy made available by the oxidative steps of the cycle is transferred as energy-rich electrons to NAD+, forming NADH. For each acetyl group that enters the citric acid cycle, three molecules of NADH are produced. Electrons are also transferred to the electron acceptor Q, forming QH2. At the end of each cycle, the four-carbon oxaloacetate has been regenerated, and the cycle continues. Products Products of the first turn of the cycle are: one GTP (or ATP), three NADH, one QH2, two CO2. Because two acetyl-CoA molecules are produced from each glucose molecule, two cycles are required per glucose molecule. Therefore, at the end of all cycles, the products are: two GTP, six NADH, two QH2, and four CO2 Description Reactants Products The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD+ + Q + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O → CoA-SH + 3 NADH + 3 H+ + QH2 + GTP + 2 CO2 Combining the reactions occurring during the pyruvate oxidation with those occurring during the citric acid cycle, the following overall pyruvate oxidation reaction is obtained: Pyruvic acid + 4 NAD+ + Q + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O → 4 NADH + 4 H+ + QH2 + GTP + 3 CO2 Combining the above reaction with the ones occurring in the course of glycolysis, the following overall glucose oxidation reaction (excluding reactions in the respiratory chain) is obtained: Glucose + 10 NAD+ + 2 Q + 2 ADP + 2 GDP + 4 Pi + 2 H2O → 10 NADH + 10 H+ + 2 QH2 + 2 ATP + 2 GTP + 6 CO2 The above reactions are equilibrated if Pi represents the H2PO4- ion, ADP and GDP the ADP2- and GDP2- ions, respectively, and ATP and GTP the ATP3- and GTP3- ions, respectively. The total number of ATP obtained after complete oxidation of one glucose in glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation is estimated to be between 30 and 38. A recent assessment of the total ATP yield with the updated proton-to-ATP ratios provides an estimate of 29.85 ATP per glucose molecule. Regulation Although pyruvate dehydrogenase is not technically a part of the citric acid cycle, its regulation is included here.'' The regulation of the TCA cycle is largely determined by substrate availability and product inhibition. NADH, a product of all dehydrogenases in the TCA cycle with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and also citrate synthase. Acetyl-coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase, while succinyl-CoA inhibits succinyl-CoA synthetase and citrate synthase. When tested in vitro with TCA enzymes, ATP inhibits citrate synthase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; however, ATP levels do not change more than 10% in vivo between rest and vigorous exercise. There is no known allosteric mechanism that can account for large changes in reaction rate from an allosteric effector whose concentration changes less than 10% Voet, D. & Voet, J. G. (2004) Biochemistry 3rd Edition (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York) p. 615 . Calcium is used as a regulator. It activates pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. This increases the reaction rate of many of the steps in the cycle, and therefore increases flux throughout the pathway. Citrate is used for feedback inhibition, as it inhibits phosphofructokinase, an enzyme involved in glycolysis that catalyses formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, a precursor of pyruvate. This prevents a constant high rate of flux when there is an accumulation of citrate and a decrease in substrate for the enzyme. Recent work has demonstrated an important link between intermediates of the citric acid cycle and the regulation of hypoxia inducible factors (HIF). HIF plays a role in the regulation of oxygen haemostasis, and is a transcription factor which targets angiogenesis, vascular remodelling, glucose utilization, iron transport and apoptosis. HIF is synthesized consititutively and hydroxylation of at least one of two critical proline residues mediates their interaction with the von Hippel Lindau E3 ubiquitin ligase complex which targets them for rapid degradation. This reaction is calalysed by prolyl 4-hydroxylases. Fumarate and succinate have been identified as potent inhibitors of prolyl hydroxylases thus leading to the stabilisation of HIF. Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle Several catabolic pathways converge on the TCA cycle. Reactions that form intermediates of the TCA cycle in order to replenish them (especially during the scarcity of the intermediates) are called anaplerotic reactions. The citric acid cycle is the third step in carbohydrate catabolism (the breakdown of sugars). Glycolysis breaks glucose (a six-carbon-molecule) down into pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule). In eukaryotes, pyruvate moves into the mitochondria. It is converted into acetyl-coA by decarboxylation and enters the citric acid cycle. In protein catabolism, proteins are broken down by proteases into their constituent amino acids. The carbon backbone of these amino acids can become a source of energy by being converted to acetyl-coA and entering into the citric acid cycle. In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In many tissues, especially heart tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation which results in acetyl-coA which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Beta oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of methylene groups produces propionyl CoA, which is then converted into succinyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle. The citric acid cycle is always followed by oxidative phosphorylation. This process extracts the energy (as electrons) from NADH and QH2, oxidizing them to NAD+ and Q, respectively, so that the cycle can continue. Whereas the citric acid cycle does not use oxygen, oxidative phosphorylation does. The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The citric acid cycle is called an amphibolic pathway because it participates in both catabolism and anabolism. See also Calvin cycle Oxidative decarboxylation Citric acid Glycolysis Pyruvate decarboxylation Oxidative phosphorylation Reverse (Reductive) Krebs cycle Glyoxylate cycle Hans Adolf Krebs References External links Citric acid cycle Animation(flash required) An animation of the citric acid cycle at Smith College Notes on citric acid cycle at rahulgladwin.com Citric acid cycle variants at MetaCyc Pathways connected to the citric acid cycle at Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes A more detailed tutorial animation at johnkyrk.com A citric-acid cycle self quiz flash applet at University of Pittsburgh The chemical logic behind the citric acid cycle Related information | Citric_acid_cycle |@lemmatized overview:1 citric:34 acid:42 cycle:57 also:6 know:2 tricarboxylic:1 tca:10 krebs:5 rarely:1 szent:2 györgyi:2 series:2 enzyme:7 catalysed:1 chemical:4 reaction:19 central:1 importance:1 living:1 cell:2 use:6 oxygen:3 part:4 cellular:1 respiration:1 eukaryote:3 occur:4 matrix:2 mitochondrion:3 component:1 establish:1 seminal:1 work:2 albert:1 han:1 aerobic:1 organism:1 metabolic:3 pathway:7 involve:2 conversion:1 carbohydrate:2 fat:2 protein:4 carbon:14 dioxide:1 water:1 generate:5 form:8 usable:1 energy:7 relevant:1 include:4 glycolysis:7 pyruvate:11 oxidation:8 oxidative:10 phosphorylation:8 addition:2 provide:2 precursor:3 many:4 compound:3 amino:3 therefore:3 functional:1 even:1 perform:1 fermentation:1 step:6 two:9 oxidize:2 transfer:5 process:4 gtp:10 atp:21 electron:10 nadh:17 may:4 later:1 donate:2 drive:1 synthesis:1 covalently:1 attach:1 succinate:5 dehydrogenase:11 function:1 mitochondrial:2 transport:3 chain:4 thereby:1 facilitates:1 coenzyme:1 q:7 final:1 acceptor:3 catalyze:2 ubiquinone:2 oxidoreductase:1 complex:3 act:1 intermediate:5 continuously:1 supply:1 new:2 acetyl:14 coa:27 enter:4 substratesproductsenzymereaction:1 shcitrate:1 synthasealdol:1 condensationrate:1 limiting:1 stage:2 extend:1 oxaloacetate:6 aconitate:2 dehydrationreversible:1 nad:8 oxalosuccinate:1 h:6 isocitrate:3 dehydrogenaseoxidationgenerates:2 equivalent:4 ketoglutarate:6 shsuccinyl:1 dehydrogenaseoxidativedecarboxylationgenerates:1 regenerate:2 exclude:2 gdp:8 pisuccinate:1 sh:2 gtpsuccinyl:1 synthetasesubstrate:1 level:2 phosphorylationor:1 adp:6 fumarate:2 ubiquinol:1 dehydrogenaseoxidationuses:1 fad:2 prosthetic:1 group:5 first:4 berg:1 et:1 al:1 page:1 hydration:1 malate:2 animal:1 human:1 possess:1 succinyl:6 synthetases:1 one:8 produce:6 another:1 plant:1 type:1 forming:2 synthetase:3 several:3 loosely:1 associate:1 multienzyme:1 within:1 utilize:1 nucleoside:1 diphosphate:1 kinase:1 simplified:1 view:1 begin:1 four:3 six:3 citrate:7 go:1 transformation:1 lose:3 second:1 carboxyl:1 originate:1 directly:1 become:2 backbone:2 turn:3 loss:1 donated:1 require:3 however:2 role:2 anabolism:2 since:1 biosynthesis:1 molecule:10 wolfe:1 rr:1 jahoor:1 f:1 recovery:1 labeled:1 infusion:1 c:2 v:1 label:1 acetate:1 implication:1 tracer:1 study:1 substrate:3 j:2 clin:1 nutr:1 pmid:1 make:1 available:1 rich:1 three:3 end:2 continue:2 product:6 glucose:10 per:2 description:1 reactant:1 sum:1 pi:4 combine:2 follow:3 overall:2 obtain:3 pyruvic:1 course:1 respiratory:1 equilibrate:1 represent:1 ion:3 respectively:3 total:3 number:2 complete:2 estimate:2 recent:2 assessment:1 yield:1 update:1 proton:1 ratio:1 regulation:5 although:1 technically:1 largely:1 determine:1 availability:1 inhibition:2 dehydrogenases:1 exception:1 inhibits:4 α:3 synthase:3 test:1 vitro:1 change:3 vivo:1 rest:1 vigorous:1 exercise:1 known:1 allosteric:2 mechanism:1 account:1 large:1 rate:3 effector:1 whose:1 concentration:1 less:1 voet:2 g:1 biochemistry:1 edition:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 york:1 p:1 calcium:1 regulator:1 activate:1 increase:2 flux:2 throughout:1 feedback:1 inhibit:1 phosphofructokinase:1 catalyse:1 formation:1 fructose:1 bisphosphate:1 prevent:1 constant:1 high:1 accumulation:1 decrease:1 demonstrate:1 important:1 link:2 hypoxia:1 inducible:1 factor:2 hif:4 play:1 haemostasis:1 transcription:1 target:2 angiogenesis:1 vascular:1 remodelling:1 utilization:1 iron:1 apoptosis:1 synthesize:1 consititutively:1 hydroxylation:1 least:1 critical:1 proline:1 residue:1 mediate:1 interaction:1 von:1 hippel:1 lindau:1 ubiquitin:1 ligase:1 rapid:1 degradation:1 calalysed:1 prolyl:2 hydroxylases:2 identify:1 potent:1 inhibitor:1 thus:1 lead:1 stabilisation:1 major:1 converge:2 catabolic:1 order:1 replenish:1 especially:2 scarcity:1 call:2 anaplerotic:1 third:1 catabolism:4 breakdown:2 sugar:1 break:4 move:1 convert:4 decarboxylation:3 protease:1 constituent:1 source:1 triglyceride:1 hydrolyze:1 fatty:3 glycerol:2 liver:1 via:1 dihydroxyacetone:1 phosphate:2 glyceraldehyde:1 way:1 gluconeogenesis:1 tissue:2 heart:1 beta:2 result:1 odd:1 methylene:1 propionyl:1 feed:1 always:1 extract:1 whereas:1 gain:1 equal:1 amphibolic:1 participate:1 see:1 calvin:1 reverse:1 reductive:1 glyoxylate:1 hans:1 adolf:1 reference:1 external:1 animation:3 flash:2 smith:1 college:1 note:1 rahulgladwin:1 com:2 variant:1 metacyc:1 connect:1 kyoto:1 encyclopedia:1 gene:1 genomes:1 detailed:1 tutorial:1 johnkyrk:1 self:1 quiz:1 applet:1 university:1 pittsburgh:1 logic:1 behind:1 relate:1 information:1 |@bigram citric_acid:34 tca_cycle:9 krebs_cycle:3 cellular_respiration:1 aerobic_organism:1 metabolic_pathway:2 carbohydrate_fat:1 carbon_dioxide:1 oxidative_phosphorylation:8 amino_acid:3 covalently_attach:1 succinate_dehydrogenase:2 dehydrogenase_enzyme:1 coenzyme_q:1 electron_acceptor:2 reaction_catalyze:1 acetyl_coa:12 adp_atp:1 et_al:1 succinyl_coa:6 atp_adp:2 mitochondrial_matrix:1 catalyze_reaction:1 glucose_glycolysis:2 glycolysis_citric:2 pyruvate_dehydrogenase:4 α_ketoglutarate:3 wiley_son:1 fatty_acid:3 acid_glycerol:1 external_link:1 |
957 | Location_parameter | In statistics, a location family is a class of probability distributions parametrized by a scalar- or vector-valued parameter μ, which determines the "location" or shift of the distribution. Formally, this means that the probability density functions or probability mass functions in this class have the form Here, μ is called the location parameter. In other words, when you graph the function, the location parameter determines where the origin will be located. If μ is positive, the origin will be shifted to the right, and if μ is negative, it will be shifted to the left. A location parameter can also be found in families having more than one parameter, such as location-scale families. In this case, the probability density function or probability mass function will have the form where μ is the location parameter, θ represents additional parameters, and is a function of the additional parameters. Additive noise An alternative way of thinking of location families is through the concept of additive noise. If μ is an unknown constant and w is random noise with probability density , then has probability density and is therefore a location family. See also Location test Invariant estimator Location-scale family Scale parameter Statistical dispersion | Location_parameter |@lemmatized statistic:1 location:11 family:6 class:2 probability:7 distribution:2 parametrized:1 scalar:1 vector:1 value:1 parameter:9 μ:6 determine:2 shift:3 formally:1 mean:1 density:4 function:6 mass:2 form:2 call:1 word:1 graph:1 origin:2 locate:1 positive:1 right:1 negative:1 left:1 also:2 find:1 one:1 scale:3 case:1 θ:1 represent:1 additional:2 additive:2 noise:3 alternative:1 way:1 thinking:1 concept:1 unknown:1 constant:1 w:1 random:1 therefore:1 see:1 test:1 invariant:1 estimator:1 statistical:1 dispersion:1 |@bigram probability_distribution:1 parameter_μ:1 |
958 | Demographics_of_Nepal | {{Infobox Ethnic group |group = Nepalese and people of Nepali/Nepa-lee origin |image = <div style="margin-top:1px; margin-bottom:1px;"> Manisha Koirala |image_caption = King Yalamber Han, King Tribhuvan, Narayan Gopal, Manisha Koirala, VC LIMBU, Thaman Gurung |population = 25 million|region1 = |pop1 = 29,519,114 |region2 = |pop2 = 50,000 |region3 = |pop3 = 15,950 |region4 = |pop4 = 4,100,000 |region5 = |pop5 = 7,000 |region6 = |pop6 = 110,00 |region7 = |pop7 = 110,616 |region8 = |pop8 = 20,348 |region9 = |pop9 = 350,000 |region10 = |pop10 = 3,780 |languages = Nepali language, English |religions = Predominantly Hinduism and significantly Buddhism; minority Islam, Kirant Mundhum, Christianity, Animism and others. |related = }} Perched on the southern slopes of the mighty Himalayas, Nepal is ethnically diverse, culturally rich and geographically varied with some of the world's highest mountain peaks that blend beautifully with terraced hills, broad valleys and large terrains of fertile plains. Nepal is unique in that in a small land size of only around 56,000 square miles, its varied landscape ranges from the highest point on earth to flat plains close to sea level, interspersed with thousands of rivers, lakes, dense forests and a rich assemblage of extoic wildlife. Nepalis are descendants of migrants from parts of earlier greater Nepal, Tibet, India and parts of Burma and Yunnan along with native tribal population. Among the earliest inhabitants were the Kirat of east mid-region, Newar of the Kathmandu Valley and aboriginal Tharu in the southern Terai region. The ancestors of the Bahun and Chhetri caste groups migrated eastward from Kumaon, Garwal and Kashmir, while other ethnic groups trace their origins to North Burma, Yunnan and Tibet, e.g. the Gurung and Magar in the west, Rai and Limbu in the east, and Sherpa and Bhotia in the north. In the Terai, a part of the Ganges Basin with 20% of the land, much of the population is physically and culturally similar to the Indo-Aryans of northern India. Indo-Aryan and East Asian looking mixed people live in the hill region. The mountainous region is sparsely populated above 3,000 meters, but in central and western Nepal ethnic Tibetans inhabit even higher semi-arid valleys north of the high Himalaya. Kathmandu Valley, in the middle hill region, constitutes a small fraction of the nation's area but is the most densely populated, with almost 5 percent of the nation's population. Nepal is a multilingual, multireligious and multiethnic society. Languages Nepal's diverse linguistic heritage evolved from four major language groups: Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Mongolian and various indigenous language isolates. According to the 2001 national census, 92 different living languages are spoken in Nepal (a 93rd category was "unidentified"). The major languages of Nepal (percent spoken as mother tongue) are Nepali (57%)(2007 est.), Maithili (10%), Bhojpuri (7%), Tharu (4%), Tamang (5%), Newari/Nepal Bhasa (3%), Magar (2%), Awadhi (2%), Rai (2.79%), Limbu (1%), and Bajjika (1%). The remaining 81 languages are each spoken as mother tongue by less than one percent of the population. Derived from Sanskrit, Nepali is considered the language closest to Sanskrit and written in Devanagari script. Nepali is the official, national language and serves as lingua franca among Nepalese of different ethnolinguistic groups. Hindi -- along with regional dialects Awadhi, Bhojpuri and Maithili -- are spoken in the southern Terai Region. Hindi is also widely understood by Nepalese who have worked, studied or traveled in India. Many Nepali in government and business speak English as well. Religion See also Religion in Nepal Religion is important in Nepal; the Kathmandu Valley alone has more than 2,700 religious shrines. The constitution of Nepal describes the country as a "Hindu Kingdom," although it does not establish Hinduism as the state religion. Nepal's constitution continues long-standing legal provisions prohibiting discrimination against other religions (but also proselytization). Nevertheless until 2006 Nepal remained the only officially Hindu country in the world. The king was deified as the earthly manifestation of the Hindu god, Vishnu. Then on May 19 2006, the government facing a constitutional crisis, the House of Representatives which had been just reformed, having been previously dissolved, declared Nepal a "secular state". The 2001 census identified 80.6% of the population as Hindu and 10.7% as Buddhist (although many people labeled Hindu or Buddhist often practice a syncretic blend of Hinduism, Buddhism or animist traditions). 4.2% of the population is Muslim and 3.6% of the population follows the indigenous Kirant Mundhum religion. Christianity is practiced by less than 0.5% of the population. Buddhist and Hindu shrines and festivals are respected and celebrated by most Nepalese. Certain animist practices of old indigenous religions survive. Ethnicity Selected ethnic groups of Nepal; Bhotia, Sherpa, Thakali Gurung Kiranti, Rai, Limbu Newari Pahari Tamang Elderly Limbu, Chong woman, Nepal. Nepal’s 2001 census enumerated 103 distinct castes and ethnic groups including an "unidentified group". The major caste/ethnic groups identified by the 2001 census are Chetri (15.8%), Bahun (12.7%)(Both are of the small population coming from Indo-Aryan ethnicity), Magar (7.1%), Tharu (6.8%), Tamang (5.6%), Newar (5.5%), Muslim (4.3%), Kami (3.9%), Rai (2.7%), Gurung (2.5%), and Damai/Dholi (2.4%). The remaining 92 caste/ethnic groups (including the world-famous Sherpa) each constitute less than 2 % of the population Central Bureau of Statistics, Ramshah Path, Kathmandu, Nepal: Statistical Pocket Book Nepal, 2002 . CASTE/ETHNIC GROUPS OF NEPAL CASTE OR ETHNIC GROUP POPULATION PERCENT OF TOTAL <TR>Chetri3,593,49615.80 <TR>Bahun2,896,47712.74 <TR>Magar1,622,4217.14 <TR>Tharu1,533,8796.75 <TR>Tamang1,282,3045.64 <TR>Newar1,245,2325.48 <TR>Muslim971,0564.27 <TR>Kami895,9543.94 <TR>Yadav895,4233.94 <TR>Rai635,1512.79 <TR>Gurung686,0002.39 <TR>Damai/Dholi390,3051.72 <TR>Limbu359,3791.58 <TR>Thakuri334,1201.47 <TR>Sarki318,9891.40 <TR>Teli304,5361.34 <TR>Chamar, Harijan, Ram269,6611.19 <TR>Koiri251,2741.11 <TR>Kurmi212,8420.94 <TR>Sanyasi199,1270.88 <TR>Dhanuk188,1500.83 <TR>Musahar172,4340.76 <TR>Dusad/Paswan/Pasi158,5250.70 <TR>Sherpa154,6220.68 <TR>Sonar145,0880.64 <TR>Kewat136,9530.60 <TR>Terai-Brahmin134,4960.59 <TR>Baniya126,9710.56 <TR>Gharti/Bhujel117,5680.52 <TR>Mallah115,9860.51 <TR>Kalwar115,6060.51 <TR>Kumal99,3890.44 <TR>Hajam/Thakur98,1690.43 <TR>Kanu95,8260.42 <TR>Rajbansi95,8120.42 <TR>Sunuwar95,2540.42 <TR>Sudhi89,8460.40 <TR>Lohar82,6370.36 <TR>Tatma76,5120.34 <TR>Khatwe74,9720.33 <TR>Dhobi73,4130.32 <TR>Majhi72,6140.32 <TR>Nuniya66,8730.29 <TR>Kumhar54,4130.24 <TR>Danuwar53,2290.23 <TR>Chepang52,2370.23 <TR>Haluwai50,5830.22 <TR>Rajput48,4540.21 <TR>Kayastha46,0710.20 <TR>Budhae45,9750.20 <TR>Marwadi43,9710.19 <TR>Santhal/Satar42,6980.19 <TR>Dhagar/Jhagar41,7640.18 <TR>Bantar35,8390.16 <TR>Barae35,4340.16 <TR>Kahar34,5310.15 <TR>Gangai31,3180.14 <TR>Lodha24,7380.11 <TR>Rajbhar24,2630.11 <TR>Thami22,9990.10 <TR>Dhimal19,5370.09 <TR>Bhote19,2610.08 <TR>Bing/Binda18,7200.08 <TR>Bhediyar/Gaderi17,7290.08 <TR>Nurang17,5220.08 <TR>Yakkha17,0030.07 <TR>Darai14,8590.07 <TR>Tajpuriya13,2500.06 <TR>Thakali12,9730.06 <TR>Chidimar12,2960.05 <TR>Pahari11,5050.05 <TR>Mali11,3900.05 <TR>Bangali9,8600.04 <TR>Chhantel9,8140.04 <TR>Dom8,9310.04 <TR>Kamar8,7610.04 <TR>Bote7,9690.04 <TR>Brahmu/Baramu7,3830.03 <TR>Gaine/Gandarbha5,8870.03 <TR>Jirel5,3160.02 <TR>Adivasi/Janajati5,2590.02 <TR>Duga5,1690.02 <TR>Churaute4,8930.02 <TR>Badi4,4420.02 <TR>Meche3,7630.02 <TR>Lepcha3,6600.02 <TR>Halkhor3,6210.02 <TR>Punjabi/Sikh3,0540.01 <TR>Kisan2,8760.01 <TR>Raji2,3990.01 <TR>Byangsi2,1030.01 <TR>Hayu1,8210.01 <TR>Koche1,4290.01 <TR>Dhunia1,2310.01 <TR>Walung1,1480.01 <TR>Jaine1,0150.00 <TR>Munda6600.00 <TR>Raute6580.00 <TR>Yehlmo5790.00 <TR>Patharkata/Kuswadiya5520.00 <TR>Kusunda1640.00 <TR>Dalit/Unidentified173,4010.76 <TR>Unidentified Caste/Ethnicity231,6411.02 <TR>Total22,736,934100.00 NATU and EU demographic statistics Demographics of Nepal, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook and , unless otherwise indicated.Population: 26,469,569 (July 2003 est.)Age structure:0-14 years: 39.7% (male 5,424,396; female 5,080,171) 15-64 years: 56.7% (male 7,692,134; female 7,320,059) 65 years and over: 3.6% (male 468,697; female 484,112) (2003 est.)Median age:total: 19.7 years male: 19.6 years female: 19.9 years (2002)Population growth rate: 1.99% (2006 est.)Birth rate: 28.16 births/1,000 population (2006 est.)Death rate: 9.08 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.)Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)Sex ratio:at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.97 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2003 est.)Infant mortality rate:total: 70.57 deaths/1,000 live births female: 72.27 deaths/1,000 live births male: 68.95 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)Life expectancy at birth: total population: 60.18 years male: 59.91 years female: 60.43 years (2006 est.)Total fertility rate: 3.89 children born/woman (2006 est.)Nationality:noun: Nepali (singular as well as plural); Nepalis (plural) adjective: Nepali or Nepalese The words "Nepali" and "Nepalis" are gaining widespread popularity in English usage as opposed to Nepalese, which is an Anglicized version.Ethnic groups:Chhettri 15.5%, Bahun 12.5%, Magar 7%, Tharu 6.6%, Tamang 5.5%, Newar 5.4%, Muslim 4.2%, Kami 3.9%, Yadav 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%Religions: Hinduism 80.2%, Buddhism 10.7%, Islam 4.2%, Yuma Samyo or Yumaism 3.6% other 1.2% (2006).Languages: Nepali (official; spoken by majority of the male population), about a 90 other languages and major dialects;note - many in government and business also speak English (1995)Literacy:definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 62.8% male: 69.7% female: 55.9% (2003 est.)People - note:''' Refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps. Presence and activity of Tibetan refugee population in Nepal also raises sporadic diplomatic conflicts with the People's Republic of China. Nepalese in the UK There is a long history of the 50,000+ Nepali people in the . Nepalese in Hong Kong Nepali people in Hong Kong are mainly the children of ex-Gurkhas born in Hong Kong during their parents' service with the British Army's Brigade of Gurkhas, which was based in Hong Kong from the 1970s until the handover. Large groups can be found in Shek Kong, Yuen Long District, one of the main bases of the British army. Many ex-Gurkhas remained in Hong Kong after the end of their service under the sponsorship of their Hong Kong-born children, who held right of abode. They often work as security guards for companies such as G4s, TNT, Guardforce, and Afc. Nepali Overseas CountryArticlesOverseas Nepali PopulationIndiaNepali Indian4,100,000Myanmar 400,000 Saudi Arabia 350,000 Malaysia 300,000 South Korea 10,000 United States 150,000 Bhutan 110,000 Qatar 100,000 Japan 100,000 UAE 50,000 Nepalese in United Kingdom50,000China 21,000 Continental Europe 20,000 Hong KongHong Kong16,000AustraliaAustralian Nepali10,000Canada 6,000Total Overseas Nepal Population ~5,643,000 References External links Nepal Encyclopedia Ethnicity Page CIA Fact Book Nepal information Site | Demographics_of_Nepal |@lemmatized infobox:1 ethnic:10 group:15 nepalese:9 people:7 nepali:16 nepa:1 lee:1 origin:2 image:1 div:1 style:1 margin:2 top:1 bottom:1 manisha:2 koirala:2 king:3 yalamber:1 han:1 tribhuvan:1 narayan:1 gopal:1 vc:1 limbu:5 thaman:1 gurung:4 population:23 million:1 language:11 english:4 religion:9 predominantly:1 hinduism:4 significantly:1 buddhism:3 minority:1 islam:2 kirant:2 mundhum:2 christianity:2 animism:1 others:1 related:1 perch:1 southern:3 slope:1 mighty:1 himalaya:2 nepal:27 ethnically:1 diverse:2 culturally:2 rich:2 geographically:1 vary:1 world:4 high:5 mountain:1 peak:1 blend:2 beautifully:1 terraced:1 hill:3 broad:1 valley:5 large:2 terrain:1 fertile:1 plain:2 unique:1 small:3 land:2 size:1 around:1 square:1 mile:1 varied:1 landscape:1 range:1 point:1 earth:1 flat:1 close:1 sea:1 level:1 intersperse:1 thousand:2 river:1 lake:1 dense:1 forest:1 assemblage:1 extoic:1 wildlife:1 descendant:1 migrant:2 part:3 early:2 great:1 tibet:2 india:3 burma:2 yunnan:2 along:2 native:1 tribal:1 among:2 inhabitant:2 kirat:1 east:3 mid:1 region:6 newar:3 kathmandu:4 aboriginal:1 tharu:4 terai:4 ancestor:1 bahun:3 chhetri:1 caste:7 migrate:1 eastward:1 kumaon:1 garwal:1 kashmir:1 trace:1 north:3 e:1 g:1 magar:4 west:1 rai:4 sherpa:3 bhotia:2 ganges:1 basin:1 much:1 physically:1 similar:1 indo:4 aryan:4 northern:1 asian:1 look:1 mixed:1 live:4 mountainous:1 sparsely:1 populate:1 meter:1 central:2 western:1 tibetan:2 inhabit:1 even:1 semi:1 arid:1 middle:1 constitute:2 fraction:1 nation:3 area:1 densely:1 populated:1 almost:1 percent:4 multilingual:1 multireligious:1 multiethnic:1 society:1 languages:1 linguistic:1 heritage:1 evolve:1 four:1 major:4 tibeto:1 burman:1 mongolian:1 various:1 indigenous:3 isolates:1 accord:1 national:2 census:4 different:2 living:1 speak:6 category:1 unidentified:3 mother:2 tongue:2 est:12 maithili:2 bhojpuri:2 tamang:4 newari:2 bhasa:1 awadhi:2 bajjika:1 remain:4 spoken:1 less:3 one:2 derive:1 sanskrit:2 consider:1 closest:1 write:2 devanagari:1 script:1 official:2 serve:1 lingua:1 franca:1 ethnolinguistic:1 hindi:2 regional:1 dialect:2 also:5 widely:1 understand:1 work:2 study:1 travel:1 many:4 government:3 business:2 well:2 see:1 important:1 alone:1 religious:1 shrine:2 constitution:2 describes:1 country:2 hindu:6 kingdom:1 although:2 establish:1 state:3 continue:1 long:3 stand:1 legal:1 provision:1 prohibit:1 discrimination:1 proselytization:1 nevertheless:1 officially:1 deify:1 earthly:1 manifestation:1 god:1 vishnu:1 may:1 face:1 constitutional:1 crisis:1 house:1 representative:1 reform:1 previously:1 dissolve:1 declare:1 secular:1 identify:2 buddhist:3 label:1 often:2 practice:3 syncretic:1 animist:2 tradition:1 muslim:3 follow:1 festival:1 respect:1 celebrate:1 certain:1 old:1 survive:1 ethnicity:3 select:1 thakali:1 kiranti:1 pahari:1 elderly:1 chong:1 woman:2 enumerate:1 distinct:1 include:2 chetri:1 come:1 kami:2 damai:2 dholi:1 famous:1 bureau:1 statistic:3 ramshah:1 path:1 statistical:1 pocket:1 book:2 total:7 tr:104 chamar:1 harijan:1 dusad:1 paswan:1 gharti:1 hajam:1 santhal:1 dhagar:1 bing:1 bhediyar:1 brahmu:1 gaine:1 adivasi:1 punjabi:1 patharkata:1 dalit:1 natu:1 eu:1 demographic:3 data:1 fao:1 year:13 number:1 following:1 cia:2 factbook:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 age:3 structure:1 male:13 female:12 median:1 growth:1 rate:6 birth:7 death:5 net:1 migration:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:3 bear:2 nationality:1 noun:1 singular:1 plural:2 adjective:1 word:1 nepalis:1 gain:1 widespread:1 popularity:1 usage:1 oppose:1 anglicized:1 version:1 chhettri:1 yadav:1 unspecified:1 yuma:1 samyo:1 yumaism:1 majority:1 note:2 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 refugee:4 issue:1 presence:2 approximately:1 bhutanese:1 seven:1 united:3 office:1 commissioner:1 unhcr:1 camp:1 activity:1 raise:1 sporadic:1 diplomatic:1 conflict:1 republic:1 china:1 uk:1 history:1 hong:7 kong:7 mainly:1 ex:2 gurkha:3 parent:1 service:2 british:2 army:2 brigade:1 base:2 handover:1 find:1 shek:1 yuen:1 district:1 main:1 end:1 sponsorship:1 born:1 hold:1 right:1 abode:1 security:1 guard:1 company:1 tnt:1 guardforce:1 afc:1 overseas:2 countryarticlesoverseas:1 populationindianepali:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 malaysia:1 south:1 korea:1 bhutan:1 qatar:1 japan:1 uae:1 continental:1 europe:1 konghong:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 page:1 fact:1 information:1 site:1 |@bigram ethnically_diverse:1 nepal_tibet:1 kathmandu_valley:3 indo_aryan:4 sparsely_populate:1 semi_arid:1 densely_populated:1 tibeto_burman:1 devanagari_script:1 lingua_franca:1 hinduism_buddhism:2 kathmandu_nepal:1 tr_tr:86 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 commissioner_refugee:1 hong_kong:6 saudi_arabia:1 external_link:1 |
959 | Anthem_of_Europe | Ode to Joy (German original title: "Ode an die Freude") is the anthem of the European Union and the Council of Europe; both of which refer to it as the European Anthem due to the Council's intention that it represent Europe as a whole, rather than any organisation. It is based on the final movement of Beethoven's 9th Symphony composed in 1823 and played on official occasions by both organisations. History Composer Ludwig van Beethoven Origin Friedrich Schiller wrote the poem An die Freude (To Joy) in 1785 as a "celebration of the brotherhood of man". In later life, the poet was contemptuous of this popularity and dismissed the poem as typical of "the bad taste of the age" in which it had been written. After Schiller's death, the poem provided the words for the choral movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th Symphony. Adoption In 1971 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe decided to propose adopting the prelude to the Ode To Joy from Beethoven's 9th Symphony as the European anthem, taking up a suggestion made by Count Richard Nikolaus von Coudenhove-Kalergi in 1955 http://www.coe.int/t/dgal/dit/ilcd/Historical_Content/hymn/kalergi1.pdf Letter to Paul Levy, 3 August 1955 . The Council of European Ministers officially announced the European Anthem on 19 January 1972 at Strasbourg: the prelude to "The Ode to Joy", 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th symphony. The same tune was later adopted as the National Anthem of Rhodesia, in 1974. Conductor Herbert von Karajan was asked to write three instrumental arrangements – for solo piano, for wind instruments and for symphony orchestra and he conducted the performance used to make the official recording. He wrote his decisions on the score, notably those concerning the tempo. Karajan decided on crotchet = 120 whereas Beethoven had written minim = 80. The anthem was launched via a major information campaign on Europe Day in 1972. In 1985, it was adopted by EU heads of State and government as the official anthem of the then European Community – since 1993 the European Union. It is not intended to replace the national anthems of the Member States but rather to celebrate the values they all share and their unity in diversity. It expresses the ideals of a united Europe: freedom, peace, and solidarity. Emblemes Council of Europe Recent events It was to have been included in the European Constitution along with the other European symbols, however the treaty failed ratification and was replaced by the Treaty of Lisbon which will not include any symbols. A declaration was attached to the treaty where 16 states formally recognised the symbols. Official Journal of the European Union, 2007 C 306-2 , p. 267 In response, the European Parliament decided it would make greater use of the anthem, for example at official occasions. In October 2008, Parliament changed its rules of procedure to have the anthem played at the opening of Parliament after elections and at formal sittings. Usage Ode to Joy is the anthem of the Council of Europe and the European Union, promoted as a symbol for the whole of Europe as are the other European symbols. It is used on occasions such as Europe Day and formal events such as the signing of treaties. The European Parliament seeks to make greater use of the music, Parliament President Hans-Gert Pöttering stated he was moved when the anthem was played for him on his visit to Israel and ought to be used in Europe more often. In 2008 it was used by Kosovo as its national anthem until it adopted its own, playing it at its declaration of independence, as a nod to the EU's role in its independence from Serbia. Unofficial lyrics Friedrich Schiller wrote An die Freude which became the basis for Beethoven's composition. However in the European anthem the words were dropped due to multilingualism. Due to the large number of languages used in the European Union, the anthem is purely instrumental and the German lyrics Friedrich Schiller wrote and Beethoven based the melody upon have no official status. Despite this, the German lyrics are often sung by choirs or ordinary people when the anthem is played: for example, at the 2004 enlargement on the German-Polish border, the crowd watching the ceremony playing the music sung along with the German lyrics. Aside from this, several translations of the poem used by Beethoven as well as original works have attempted to provide lyrics to the anthem in various languages. Recently, Latin, as a former lingua franca in many European countries, is the language of one proposal written by the Austrian composer Peter Roland. Hymnus Latinus Europae www.hymnus-europae.at The composer offered a copy of the anthem to Romano Prodi, then President of the European Commission during a meeting in Vienna in February 2004. European Commission, "Get your facts straight", February 2004, Versions of the anthem including lyrics have been sung outside official EU occasions. This is the case of the Latin version sung by the a cappella choir Wiener Singverein. In France, several adaptations of Beethoven's Ode were known long before the onset of European Union. A version by the librettist Maurice Bouchor (1855-1929) entitled Hymn to the Universal Humanity (Hymne à l'universelle humanité) adding several verses to a preceding version of Jean Ruault, was published. This version and another by Maurice Bouchor, published with Julien Thiersot under the title Hymn for future times (Hymne des temps futurs) in a music book which was widespread among basic schools, Chants populaires pour les écoles, librairie Hachette, published in several editions between 1902 and 1911 is performed unofficially by school choirs during European events. Another version by the Catholic writer Joseph Folliet (1903-1972) is also known. Original lyrics by Friedrich Schiller German originalEnglish translationAnonymous English Poetic Translation Joyful spark of hope and glory Unity with the divine Drunken under fire, goddess We approach thy holy Shrine Thy magic shall unite, ever, Those nations that which were not Every mortal becomes one and your rule shall not be forgot Latin lyrics by Peter Roland Latin originalRhymeless and literal English translation Media See also National symbols European symbols Flag of Europe References External links Beethoven's Ninth: A Political History, Esteban Buch (Trans. Richard Miller), ISBN 0-226-07824-8 (University Of Chicago Press) Delegation of the European Commission (mp3 available there) European anthem European NAvigator Inni d'Europa, Arma dei Carabinieri – a version performed by the Banda Musicale e delle Fanfare directed by Col. Vincenzo Borgia available for download (as well as other European anthems) The European Anthem and downloads – Council of Europe website The European Anthem – European Commission website | Anthem_of_Europe |@lemmatized ode:6 joy:5 german:6 original:3 title:2 die:3 freude:3 anthem:23 european:29 union:6 council:7 europe:12 refer:1 due:3 intention:1 represent:1 whole:2 rather:2 organisation:2 base:2 final:1 movement:3 beethoven:11 symphony:5 compose:1 play:6 official:7 occasion:4 history:2 composer:3 ludwig:3 van:3 origin:1 friedrich:4 schiller:5 write:8 poem:4 celebration:1 brotherhood:1 man:1 late:1 life:1 poet:1 contemptuous:1 popularity:1 dismiss:1 typical:1 bad:1 taste:1 age:1 death:1 provide:2 word:2 choral:1 adoption:1 parliamentary:1 assembly:1 decide:3 propose:1 adopt:4 prelude:2 take:1 suggestion:1 make:4 count:1 richard:2 nikolaus:1 von:2 coudenhove:1 kalergi:1 http:1 www:2 coe:1 int:1 dgal:1 dit:1 ilcd:1 hymn:3 pdf:1 letter:1 paul:1 levy:1 august:1 minister:1 officially:1 announce:1 january:1 strasbourg:1 tune:1 later:1 national:4 rhodesia:1 conductor:1 herbert:1 karajan:2 ask:1 three:1 instrumental:2 arrangement:1 solo:1 piano:1 wind:1 instrument:1 orchestra:1 conduct:1 performance:1 use:8 recording:1 decision:1 score:1 notably:1 concern:1 tempo:1 crotchet:1 whereas:1 minim:1 launch:1 via:1 major:1 information:1 campaign:1 day:2 eu:3 head:1 state:4 government:1 community:1 since:1 intend:1 replace:2 member:1 celebrate:1 value:1 share:1 unity:2 diversity:1 express:1 ideal:1 united:1 freedom:1 peace:1 solidarity:1 emblemes:1 recent:1 event:3 include:3 constitution:1 along:2 symbol:7 however:2 treaty:4 fail:1 ratification:1 lisbon:1 declaration:2 attach:1 formally:1 recognise:1 journal:1 c:1 p:1 response:1 parliament:5 would:1 great:2 example:2 october:1 change:1 rule:2 procedure:1 opening:1 election:1 formal:2 sitting:1 usage:1 promote:1 signing:1 seek:1 music:3 president:2 han:1 gert:1 pöttering:1 move:1 visit:1 israel:1 ought:1 often:2 kosovo:1 independence:2 nod:1 role:1 serbia:1 unofficial:1 lyric:8 become:2 basis:1 composition:1 drop:1 multilingualism:1 large:1 number:1 language:3 purely:1 melody:1 upon:1 status:1 despite:1 sing:2 choir:3 ordinary:1 people:1 enlargement:1 polish:1 border:1 crowd:1 watch:1 ceremony:1 sung:2 aside:1 several:4 translation:3 well:2 work:1 attempt:1 various:1 recently:1 latin:4 former:1 lingua:1 franca:1 many:1 country:1 one:2 proposal:1 austrian:1 peter:2 roland:2 hymnus:2 latinus:1 europae:2 offer:1 copy:1 romano:1 prodi:1 commission:4 meeting:1 vienna:1 february:2 get:1 fact:1 straight:1 version:7 outside:1 case:1 cappella:1 wiener:1 singverein:1 france:1 adaptation:1 know:2 long:1 onset:1 librettist:1 maurice:2 bouchor:2 entitle:1 universal:1 humanity:1 hymne:2 à:1 l:1 universelle:1 humanité:1 add:1 verse:1 precede:1 jean:1 ruault:1 publish:3 another:2 julien:1 thiersot:1 future:1 time:1 des:1 temps:1 futurs:1 book:1 widespread:1 among:1 basic:1 school:2 chant:1 populaires:1 pour:1 le:1 écoles:1 librairie:1 hachette:1 edition:1 perform:2 unofficially:1 catholic:1 writer:1 joseph:1 folliet:1 also:2 originalenglish:1 translationanonymous:1 english:2 poetic:1 joyful:1 spark:1 hope:1 glory:1 divine:1 drunken:1 fire:1 goddess:1 approach:1 thy:2 holy:1 shrine:1 magic:1 shall:2 unite:1 ever:1 nation:1 every:1 mortal:1 forget:1 originalrhymeless:1 literal:1 medium:1 see:1 flag:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 ninth:1 political:1 esteban:1 buch:1 trans:1 miller:1 isbn:1 university:1 chicago:1 press:1 delegation:1 available:2 navigator:1 inni:1 europa:1 arma:1 dei:1 carabinieri:1 banda:1 musicale:1 e:1 delle:1 fanfare:1 direct:1 col:1 vincenzo:1 borgia:1 download:1 downloads:1 website:2 |@bigram ode_joy:4 beethoven_symphony:4 ludwig_van:3 van_beethoven:3 friedrich_schiller:4 nikolaus_von:1 http_www:1 coe_int:1 von_karajan:1 symphony_orchestra:1 declaration_independence:1 lingua_franca:1 romano_prodi:1 cappella_choir:1 hope_glory:1 external_link:1 beethoven_ninth:1 |
960 | Japanese_sword | |A Japanese sword A Japanese sword, or , is one of the traditional bladed weapons of Japan. These are categorised in several types according to size and method of manufacture. The most commonly known type is the katana, which, like the similarly formed tachi, is a single-edged and, usually, curved long sword which was traditionally used by samurai from the 1400s onwards; Wakizashi is the shorter sword; Tsurugi are double-edged long swords; Ōtachi or Nodachi are older but longer single-edged versions. Although they are pole-mounted weapons, the Naginata and Yari are still considered part of the Nihonto family due to the methods by which they are forged. Japanese swords are still commonly seen; antique and modernly-forged swords can easily be found and purchased. Modern, authentic nihontō are made by a few hundred swordsmiths. Many examples can be seen at contests hosted by the All-Japan Swordsmiths Association. Etymology The word katana was used in ancient Japan and is still used today, whereas the word nihontō originated in China, in the poem 日本刀歌(literally Song of the Japanese sword) The way to Kwan Yi is distant and not accessible anymore, the legend of it(s sword) being able to cut jade is unbeatable. A treasured sword from the near country Japan(could be obtained easier), all you need to do is cross the sea to the east. The sheath is decorated by fish skin, the yellow and white parts are mixed by chalcopyrite and copper. A good help that could be bought by hundred gold, equipping it can dispel evil. Original script: 昆夷道遠不復通，世傳切玉誰能窮。寶刀近出日本國，越賈得之滄海東。魚皮裝貼香木鞘，黃白閒雜鍮與銅。百金傳入好事手，佩服可以禳妖凶。 see Chinese wikisource for full script. , the Song of Nihonto by the Song Dynasty poet Ouyang Xiu. The word nihonto became more common in Japan in the late Tokugawa shogunate. Due to importation of Western swords and culture, the word nihonto (literally "the sword of Japan") was adopted as an act of nationalism. Anatomy Blade Diagram showing the parts of a nihontō blade in transliterated Japanese Each blade has a unique profile, mostly dependent on the smith and the construction method. The most prominent is the middle ridge, or shinogi. In the earlier picture, the examples were flat to the shinogi, then tapering to the blade. However, swords could narrow down to the shinogi, then narrow further to the blade, or even expand outward towards the shinogi then shrink to the blade (producing a trapezoidal shape). A flat or narrowing shinogi is called shinogi-hikushi, whereas a fat blade is called a shinogi-takushi. The shinogi can be placed near the back of the blade for a longer, sharper, more fragile tip or a more moderate shinogi near the center of the blade. The sword also has an exact tip shape, which is considered an extremely important characteristic: the tip can be long (ōkissaki), medium (chūkissaki), short (kokissaki), or even hooked backwards (ikuri-ōkissaki). In addition, whether the front edge of the tip is more curved (fukura-tsuku) or (relatively) straight (fukura-kareru) is also important. The kissaki (point) is not a "chisel-like" point, nor is the Western knife interpretation of a "tanto point" found on true Japanese swords; a straight, linearly-sloped point has the advantage of being easy to grind, but it bears only a superficial similarity to traditional Japanese kissaki. Kissaki have a curved profile, and smooth three-dimensional curvature across their surface towards the edge - though they are bounded by a straight line called the yokote and have crisp definition at all their edges. A hole is drilled into the tang (nakago), called a mekugi-ana. It is used to anchor the blade using a mekugi, a small bamboo pin that is inserted into another cavity in the tsuka and through the mekugi-ana, thus restricting the blade from slipping out. To remove the tsuka one removes the mekugi. The swordsmith's signature (mei) is placed on the nakago. Robinson, H. Russell. Japanese Arms and Armor. New York: Crown Publishers Inc., 1969 Mountings In Japanese, the scabbard for a nihontō is referred to as a saya, and the handguard piece, often intricately designed as an individual work of art — especially in later years of the Edo period — was called the tsuba. Other aspects of the mountings (koshirae), such as the menuki (decorative grip swells), habaki (blade collar and scabbard wedge), fuchi and kashira (handle collar and cap), kozuka (small utility knife handle), kogai (decorative skewer-like implement), saya lacquer, and tsuka-ito (professional handle wrap, also named emaki), received similar levels of artistry. Classification Length Several nihontō and wakizashi blades, illustrating the variations in length and curvature. The nakago are well visible. What generally differentiates the different swords is their length. Japanese swords are measured in units of shaku (one shaku is approximately equivalent to 30 cm or one foot). The three main divisions of Japanese blade length are: 1 shaku (30.3cm) or less for tantō (knife or dagger). 1-2 shaku for (wakizashi or kodachi). 2 shaku or more for (long sword, such as katana or tachi). A blade shorter than one shaku is considered a tantō (knife). A blade longer than one shaku but less than two is considered a shōtō (short sword). The wakizashi and kodachi are in this category. The length is measured in a straight line across the back of the blade from tip to munemachi (where blade meets tang). Most blades that fall into the "shōtō" size range are wakizashi. However, some daitō were designed with blades slightly shorter than 2 shaku. These were called kodachi and are somewhere in between a true daitō and a wakizashi. A shōtō and a daitō together are called a daishō (literally, "big and small"). The daishō was the symbolic armament of the Edo period samurai. A blade longer than two shaku is considered a daitō, or long sword. To qualify as a daitō the sword must have a blade longer than 2 shaku (approximately 24 inches or 60 centimeters) in a straight line. While there is a well defined lower-limit to the length of a daitō, the upper limit is not well enforced; a number of modern historians, swordsmiths, etc. say that swords that are over 3 shaku in blade length are "longer than normal daitō" and are usually referred to or called ōdachi. The word "daitō" is often used when explaining the related terms shōtō (short sword) and daishō (the set of both large and small sword). Miyamoto Musashi refers to the long sword in The Book of Five Rings. He is referring to the katana in this, and refers to the nodachi and the odachi as "extra-long swords". Before 1500 most swords were usually worn suspended from cords on a belt, edge-down. This style is called jindachi-zukuri, and daitō worn in this fashion are called tachi (average blade length of 75-80 cm). From 1600 to 1867, more swords were worn through an obi (sash), paired with a smaller blade; both worn edge-up. This style is called buke-zukuri, and all daitō worn in this fashion are katana, averaging 70-74 cm (2 shaku 3 sun to 2 shaku 4 sun 5 bu) in blade length. However, nihontō of longer lengths also existed, including lengths up to 78 cm (2 shaku 5 sun 5 bu). The weight of a nihontō rarely exceeded 1 kg without the saya. A chisakatana is simply a shorter nihontō. It is longer than the wakizashi, lying between one and two shaku in length. The most common reference to a chiisakatana is a shorter nihontō that does not have a companion blade. They were most commonly made in the buke-zukuri mounting. Abnormally long blades (longer than 3 shaku), usually carried across the back, are called ōdachi or nodachi. The word ōdachi is also sometimes used as a synonym for nihontō. Odachi means "Great Sword", and Nodachi translates to "Field sword". Nodachi were used during war as the longer sword gave a foot soldier a reach advantage, but now the nodachi are illegal because of its effectiveness as a killing weapon. Citizens are not allowed to possess an odachi unless it is for ceremonial purposes. Here is a list of lengths for different types of swords: Nodachi, Ōdachi, Jin tachi: 90cm and over. Tachi, Katana: over 60,6 cm (more than two shaku) Wakizashi: between 30,3 cm - 60,6 cm (between one and two shaku) Tantō, Aikuchi: under 30,3 cm (under one shaku) Swords whose length is next to a different classification type are described with a prefix 'O-' (for great) or 'Ko-' (for small), e.g. a Wakizashi with a length of 59 cm is called a O-wakizashi (almost a Katana) whereas a Katana with 61 cm is called a Ko-Katana (for small Katana) . Since 1867, restrictions and/or the deconstruction of the samurai class meant that most blades have been worn jindachi-zukuri style, like Western navy officers. Recently (since 1953) there has been a resurgence in the buke-zukuri style, permitted only for demonstration purposes. Swords designed specifically to be tachi are generally kotō rather than shintō, so they are generally better manufactured and more elaborately decorated. However, these are still katana if worn in modern buke-zukuri style. School Most old Japanese swords can be traced back to one of five provinces, each of which had its own school, traditions and "trademarks" (e.g., the swords from Mino province were "from the start famous for their sharpness"). These schools are known as Gokaden (The Five Traditions). These traditions and provinces are as follows: Sōshū School, known for itame hada and midareba hamon in nie deki. Yamato School, known for masame hada and suguha hamon in nie deki. Bizen School, known for mokume hada and midareba hamon in nioi deki. Yamashiro School, known for mokume hada and suguha hamon in nei deki. Mino School, known for hard mokume hada and midareba mixed with togari-ba. In the Kotō era there were several other schools that did not fit within the Gokaden or were known to mix elements of each Gokaden, and they were called wakimono (small school). There were 19 commonly referenced wakimono. History Early history Tachi by Norishige ca. 1300 CE, made ō-suriage (greatly shortened) during the Edo period for use as a "katana" by cutting off the original nakago and reforming it higher up the cutting edge. Before 987, examples of Japanese swords were straight chokutō or jōkotō and others with unusual shapes. In the Heian period (8th to 11th centuries) sword-making developed through techniques brought over from China through trade in the early 10th century during the Tang Dynasty and through Siberia and Hokkaidō, territory of the Ainu people. The Ainu used and these influenced the nihontō, which was held with two hands and designed for cutting, rather than stabbing. According to legend, the Japanese sword was invented by a smith named Amakuni (ca.700 AD), along with the folded steel process. The folded steel process and single edge swords had been invented in the early 10th century Japan 財団法人日本美術刀剣保存協会 . Swords forged between 987 and 1597 are called (lit., "old swords"); these are considered the pinnacle of Japanese swordcraft. Early models had uneven curves with the deepest part of the curve at the hilt. As eras changed the center of the curve tended to move up the blade. The nihonto as we know it today with its deep, graceful curve has its origin in shinogi-zukuri (single-edged blade with ridgeline) tachi which were developed sometime around the middle of the Heian period to service the need of the growing military class. Its shape reflects the changing form of warfare in Japan. Cavalry were now the predominant fighting unit and the older straight chokutō were particularly unsuitable for fighting from horseback. The curved sword is a far more efficient weapon when wielded by a warrior on horseback where the curve of the blade adds considerably to the downward force of a cutting action. The tachi is a sword which is generally larger than a katana, and is worn suspended with the cutting edge down. This was the standard form of carrying the sword for centuries, and would eventually be displaced by the katana style where the blade was worn thrust through the belt, edge up. The tachi was worn slung across the left hip. The signature on the tang (nakago) of the blade was inscribed in such a way that it would always be on the outside of the sword when worn. This characteristic is important in recognising the development, function and different styles of wearing swords from this time onwards. When worn with full armour, the tachi would be accompanied by a shorter blade in the form known as koshigatana ("waist sword"); a type of short sword with no hand-guard (tsuba) and where the hilt and scabbard meet to form the style of mounting called an aikuchi ("meeting mouth"). Daggers (tantō), were also carried for close combat fighting as well as carried generally for personal protection. The Mongol invasions of Japan in the thirteenth century spurred further evolution of the Japanese sword. Often forced to abandon traditional mounted archery for hand-to-hand combat, many samurai found that their swords were too delicate and prone to damage when used against the thick leather armor of the invaders. In response, Japanese swordsmiths started to adopt thinner and simpler temper lines. Certain Japanese swordsmiths of this period began to make blades with thicker backs and bigger points as a response to the Mongol threat. By the fifteenth century, the Sengoku Jidai civil war erupted, and the vast need for swords together with the ferocity of the fighting caused the highly artistic techniques of the Kamakura period (known as the "Golden Age of Swordmaking") to be abandoned in favor of more utilitarian and disposable weapons. The export of nihontō reached its height during the Muromachi period when at least 200,000 nihontō were shipped to Ming Dynasty China in official trade in an attempt to soak up the production of Japanese weapons and make it harder for pirates in the area to arm. In the 15th and 16th centuries, samurai who increasingly found a need for a sword for use in closer quarters along with increasing use of foot-soldiers armed with spears lead to the creation of the uchigatana, in both one-handed and two-handed forms. As the Sengoku civil wars progressed, the uchigatana evolved into the modern katana, and replaced the tachi as the primary weapon of the samurai, especially when not wearing armor. Many longer tachi were shortened in the 15th-17th centuries to meet the demand for katana. The craft decayed as time progressed and firearms were introduced as a decisive force on the battlefield. At the end of the Muromachi era, the Tokugawa shoguns issued regulations controlling who could own and carry swords, and effectively standardized the description of a nihontō. New swords In times of peace, swordsmiths returned to the making of refined and artistic blades, and the beginning of the Momoyama period saw the return of high quality creations. As the techniques of the ancient smiths had been lost during the previous period of war, these swords were called , literally "new swords". Generally they are considered inferior to most kotō ("old swords"), and coincide with a decline in manufacturing skills. As the Edo period progressed, blade quality declined, though ornamentation was refined. Originally, simple and tasteful engravings known as horimono were added for religious reasons. Later, in the more complex work found on many shintō, form no longer strictly followed function. Under the isolationist Tokugawa shogunate, swordmaking and the use of firearms declined. Perrin, Noel. Giving Up the Gun: Japan's Reversion to the Sword, 1543-1879. Boston: David R. Godine, 1979. The master swordsmith Suishinshi Masahide (c.1750–1825); published opinions that the arts and techniques of the shintō swords were inferior to the kotō blades, and that research should be made by all swordsmiths to rediscover the lost techniques. Masahide traveled the land teaching what he knew to all who would listen, and swordsmiths rallied to his cause and ushered in a second renaissance in Japanese sword smithing. With the discarding of the shintō style, and the re-introduction of old and rediscovered techniques, swords made in the kotō style between 1761 and 1876 are , "new revival swords" or literally "new-new swords." These are considered superior to most shintō, but inferior to true kotō. The arrival of Matthew Perry in 1853 and the subsequent Convention of Kanagawa forcibly reintroduced Japan to the outside world; the rapid modernization of the Meiji Restoration soon followed. The Haitorei edict in 1876 all but banned carrying swords and guns on streets. Overnight, the market for swords died, many swordsmiths were left without a trade to pursue, and valuable skills were lost. The nihontō remained in use in some occupations such as the police force. At the same time, kendo was incorporated into police training so that police officers would have at least the training necessary to properly use one. In time, it was rediscovered that soldiers needed to be armed with swords, and over the decades at the beginning of the 20th century swordsmiths again found work. These swords, derisively called guntō, were often oil-tempered, or simply stamped out of steel and given a serial number rather than a chiseled signature. The mass-produced ones often look like Western cavalry sabers rather than nihontō, with blades slightly shorter than blades of the shintō and shinshintō periods. Swords would not have been there if it wasn't for samurais' sword in the medieval period. Military swords hand made in the traditional way are often termed as gendaitō. The craft of making swords was kept alive through the efforts of a few individuals, notably Gassan Sadakazu (月山貞一, 1836–1918) and Gassan Sadakatsu (月山貞勝, 1869–1943), who were employed as Imperial artisans. These smiths produced fine works that stand with the best of the older blades for the Emperor and other high ranking officials. The students of Sadakatsu went on to be designated Intangible Cultural Assets, "Living National Treasures," as they embodied knowledge that was considered to be fundamentally important to the Japanese identity. In 1934 the Japanese government issued a military specification for the shin guntō (new army sword), the first version of which was the Type 94 Katana, and many machine- and hand-crafted swords used in World War II conformed to this and later shin guntō specifications. Recent history and modern use Under the United States occupation at the end of World War II all armed forces in occupied Japan were disbanded and production of nihontō with edges was banned except under police or government permit. The ban was overturned through a personal appeal by Dr. Junji Honma. During a meeting with General Douglas MacArthur, Dr. Honma produced blades from the various periods of Japanese history and MacArthur was able to identify very quickly what blades held artistic merit and which could be considered purely weapons. As a result of this meeting, the ban was amended so that guntō weapons would be destroyed while swords of artistic merit could be owned and preserved. Even so, many nihontō were sold to American soldiers at a bargain price; in 1958 there were more Japanese swords in America than in Japan. The vast majority of these one million or more swords were guntō, but there were still a sizable number of older swords. After the Edo period, swordsmiths turned increasingly to the production of civilian goods. The Occupation and its regulations almost put an end to the production of nihonto. A few smiths continued their trade, and Dr. Honma went on to be a founder of the , who made it their mission to preserve the old techniques and blades. Thanks to the efforts of other like-minded individuals, the nihontō did not disappear, many swordsmiths continued the work begun by Masahide, and the old swordmaking techniques were rediscovered. Modern nihonto manufactured according to traditional methods are usually known as , meaning "newly made swords". Alternately, they can be termed when they are designed for combat as opposed to iaitō training swords. Due to their popularity in modern media, display-only "nihontō" have become widespread in the sword marketplace. Ranging from small letter openers to scale replica "wallhangers", these items are commonly made from stainless steel (which makes them either brittle or poor at holding an edge) and have either a blunt or very crude edge. There are accounts of good quality stainless steel nihontō, however, these are rare at best. Sword Forum Magazine - Metallurgy - Is Stainless Steel Suitable for Swords? Some replica nihontō have been used in modern-day armed robberies , which became the reason for a possible ban on sale, import and hire of samurai swords in the UK. As a part of marketing, modern a-historic blade styles and material properties are often stated as traditional and genuine, promulgating disinformation. In Japan, genuine edged hand-made Japanese swords, whether antique or modern, are classified as art objects (and not weapons) and must have accompanying certification in order to be legally owned. It should be noted that some companies and independent smiths outside of Japan produce katana as well, with varying levels of quality. Manufacturing Blacksmith Munechika (end of the 10th century), helped by a fox spirit, forging the blade kogitsune-maru ("Little fox"). The spirit is represented by a woman surrounded by foxes. Engraving by Ogata Gekkō (1859–1920), 1873. Nihontō and wakizashi were often forged with different profiles, different blade thicknesses, and varying amounts of grind. Wakizashi were not simply scaled-down nihontō; they were often forged in hira-zukuri or other such forms which were very rare on nihontō. The daishō was not always forged together. If a samurai was able to afford a daishō, it was often composed of whichever two swords could be conveniently acquired, sometimes by different smiths and in different styles. Even when a daishō contained a pair of blades by the same smith, they were not always forged as a pair or mounted as one. Daishō made as a pair, mounted as a pair, and owned/worn as a pair, are therefore uncommon and considered highly valuable, especially if they still retain their original mountings (as opposed to later mountings, even if the later mounts are made as a pair). The forging of a Japanese blade typically took hours, days, or even weeks and was considered a sacred art. As with many complex endeavors, rather than a single craftsman, several artists were involved. There was a smith to forge the rough shape, often a second smith (apprentice) to fold the metal, a specialist polisher (called a togi) as well as the various artisans that made the koshirae (the various fittings used to decorate the finished blade and saya (sheath) including the tsuka (hilt), fuchi (collar), kashira (pommel), and tsuba (hand guard)). Left|Engraving from the Edo period depicting forge scenes. The legitimate Japanese sword is made from Japanese steel "Tamahagane" 鉄と生活研究会編 『鉄の本 (Book of iron) 』 ISBN 9784526060120 . The Japanese sword blade is formed from a combination of two different steels: a harder outer jacket steel wrapped around a relatively softer, inner core of steel. This creates a blade which has a unique hard, highly razor sharp cutting edge with an inner core which is resilient and able to absorb shocks in a way which reduces the possibility of the blade breaking or bending when used in combat. The hadagane, for the outer skin of the blade, is produced by heating a block of high quality raw steel, which is then hammered out into a bar, and the flexible back portion. This is then cooled and broken up into smaller blocks which are checked for further impurities and then reassembled and reforged. During this process the billet of steel is heated and hammered, split and folded back upon itself many times and re-welded to create a complex structure of many thousands of layers. Each different steel is folded a differing number of times to provide the necessary strength and flexibility to the different steels. The precise way in which the steel is folded, hammered and re-welded determines the distinctive grain pattern of the blade, the jihada, (also called jigane when referring to the actual surface of the steel blade) a feature which is indicative of the period, place of manufacture and actual maker of the blade. The practice of folding also ensures a somewhat more homogeneous product, with the carbon in the steel being evenly distributed and the steel having no voids that could lead to fractures and failure of the blade in combat. The shingane (for the inner core of the blade) is of a relatively softer steel with a lower carbon content than the hadagane. For this, the block is again hammered, folded and welded in a similar fashion to the hadagane, but with fewer folds. At this point, the hadagane block is once again heated, hammered out and folded into a ‘U’ shape, into which the shingane is inserted to a point just short of the tip. The new composite steel billet is then heated and hammered out ensuring that no air or dirt is trapped between the two layers of steel. The bar increases in length during this process until it approximates the final size and shape of the finished sword blade. A triangular section is cut off from the tip of the bar and shaped to create what will be the kissaki. At this point in the process, the blank for the blade is of rectangular section. This rough shape is referred to as a sunobe. The sunobe is again heated, section by section and hammered to create a shape which has many of the recognisable characteristics of the finished blade. These are a thick back (mune), a thinner edge (ha), a curved tip (kissaki), notches on the edge (hamachi) and back (munemachi) which separate the blade from the tang (nakago). Details such as the ridge line (shinogi) another distinctive characteristic of the Japanese sword, are added at this stage of the process. The smith’s skill at this point comes in to play as the hammering process causes the blade to naturally curve in an erratic way, the thicker back tending to curve towards the thinner edge, and he must skillfully control the shape to give it the required upward curvature. The sunobe is finished by a process of filing and scraping which leaves all the physical characteristics and shapes of the blade recognisable. The surface of the blade is left in a relatively rough state, ready for the hardening processes. The sunobe is then covered all over with a clay mixture which is applied more thickly along the back and sides of the blade than along the edge. The blade is left to dry while the smith prepares the forge for the final heat treatment of the blade, the yaki-ire, the hardening of the cutting edge. This process takes place in a darkened smithy, traditionally at night, in order that the smith can judge by eye the colour and therefore the temperature of the sword as it is repeatedly passed through the glowing charcoal. When the time is deemed right (traditionally the blade should be the colour of the moon in February and August which are the two months that appear most commonly on dated inscriptions on the nakago of the Japanese sword), the blade is plunged edge down and point forward into a tank of water. The precise time taken to heat the sword, the temperature of the blade and of the water into which it is plunged are all individual to each smith and they have generally been closely guarded secrets. Legend tells of a particular smith who cut off his apprentice’s hand for testing the temperature of the water he used for the hardening process. In the different schools of swordmakers there are many subtle variations in the materials used in the various processes and techniques outlined above, specifically in the form of clay applied to the blade prior to the yaki-ire, but all follow the same general procedures. The application of the clay in different thicknesses to the blade allows the steel to cool more quickly along the thinner coated edge when plunged into the tank of water and thereby develop into the harder form of steel called martensite, which can be ground to razor-like sharpness. The thickly coated back cools more slowly retaining the pearlite steel characteristics of relative softness and flexibility. The precise way in which the clay is applied, and partially scraped off at the edge, is a determining factor in the formation of the shape and features of the crystalline structure known as the hamon. This distinctive tempering line found near the edge of the Japanese blade is one of the main characteristics to be assessed when examining a blade. The martensitic steel which forms from the edge of the blade to the hamon is in effect the transition line between these two different forms of steel, and is where most of the shapes, colours and beauty in the steel of the Japanese sword are to be found. The variations in the form and structure of the hamon are all indicative of the period, smith, school or place of manufacture of the sword. As well as the aesthetic qualities of the hamon, there are, perhaps not unsurprisingly, real practical functions. The hardened edge is where most of any potential damage to the blade will occur in battle. This hardened edge is capable of being reground and sharpened many times, although the process will alter the shape of the blade. Altering the shape will allow more resistance when fighting in hand to hand combat. Almost all blades are decorated, although not all blades are decorated on the visible part of the blade. Once the blade is cool, and the mud is scraped off, the blade may have designs or grooves (hi or bo-hi) cut into it. One of the most important markings on the sword is performed here: the file markings. These are cut into the nakago or the hilt-section of the blade, where they will be covered by the tsuka later. The nakago is never supposed to be cleaned: doing this can reduce the value of the sword by half or more. The purpose is to show how well the blade steel ages. Some other marks on the blade are aesthetic: dedications written in kanji as well as engravings called horimono depicting gods, dragons, or other acceptable beings. Some are more practical. The presence of a groove (the most basic type is called a hi) reduces the weight of the sword yet keeps its structural integrity and strength. Use The tachi became the primary weapon on the battlefield during the Kamakura period, used by cavalry mounted samurai. The sword was mostly considered as a secondary weapon until then, used in the battlefield only after the bow and spear were no longer feasible. During the Edo period samurai went about on foot unarmored, and with much less combat being fought on horseback in open battlefields the need for an effective close quarter weapon resulted in samurai being armed with daisho. Testing of swords, called tameshigiri, was practiced on a variety of materials (often the bodies of executed criminals) to test the sword's sharpness and practice cutting technique. Kenjutsu is the Japanese martial art of using the nihontō in combat. The nihontō was primarily a cutting weapon, or more specifically, a slicing one. However, the nihontō's moderate curve allows for effective thrusting as well. The hilt of the nihontō was held with two hands, though a fair amount of one-handed techniques exist. The placement of the right hand was dictated by both the length of the tsuka and the length of the wielder's arm. Two other martial arts were developed specifically for training to draw the sword and attack in one motion. They are battōjutsu and iaijutsu, which are superficially similar, but do generally differ in training theory and methods. For cutting, there was a specific technique called "ten-uchi." Ten-uchi refers to an organized motion made by arms and wrist, during a descending strike. As the sword is swung downwards, the elbow joint drastically extends at the last instant, popping the sword into place. This motion causes the swordsman's grip to twist slightly and if done correctly, is said to feel like wringing a towel (Thomas Hooper-sensei reference). This motion itself caused the nihontō's blade to impact its target with sharp force, and is used to break initial resistance. From there, fluidly continuing along the motion wrought by ten-uchi, the arms would follow through with the stroke, dragging the sword through its target. Because the nihontō slices rather than chops, it is this "dragging" which allows it to do maximum damage, and is thus incorporated into the cutting technique. At full speed, the swing will appear to be full stroke, the nihontō passing through the targeted object. The segments of the swing are hardly visible, if at all. Assuming that the target is, for example, a human torso, ten-uchi will break the initial resistance supplied by shoulder muscles and the clavicle. The follow through would continue the slicing motion, through whatever else it would encounter, until the blade inherently exited the body, due a combination of the motion and its curved shape. Nearly all styles of kenjutsu share the same five basic guard postures. They are as follows; chūdan-no-kamae (middle posture), jōdan-no-kamae (high posture), gedan-no-kamae (low posture), hassō-no-kamae (eight-sided posture), and waki-gamae (side posture). The nihontō's razor-edge was so hard that upon hitting an equally hard or harder object, such as another sword's edge, chipping became a definite risk. As such, blocking an oncoming blow blade-to-blade was generally avoided. In fact, evasive body maneuvers were preferred over blade contact by most, but, if such was not possible, the flat or the back of the blade was used for defense in many styles, rather than the precious edge. A popular method for defeating descending slashes was to simply beat the sword aside. In some instances, an "umbrella block", positioning the blade overhead, diagonally (point towards the ground, pommel towards the sky), would create an effective shield against a descending strike. If the angle of the block was drastic enough, the curve of the nihontō's spine would cause the attacker's blade to slide along its counter and off to the side. Carrying Nihontō were carried in several different ways, varying throughout Japanese history. The style most commonly seen in "samurai" movies is called buke-zukuri, with the nihontō (and wakizashi, if also present) carried edge up, with the saya (sheath) thrust through the obi (sash). The nihontō would be carried in a saya (sheath) and tucked into the samurai's belt. Originally, they would carry the sword with the blade turned down. This was a more comfortable way for the armored samurai to carry his very long sword. The bulk of the samurai armor made it difficult to draw the sword from any other place on his body. When unarmored, samurai would carry their sword with the blade facing up. This made it possible to draw the sword and strike in one quick motion. In order to draw the sword, the samurai would turn the saya (sheath) downward ninety degrees and pull it out of his obi (sash) just a bit with his left hand, then gripping the tsuka (hilt) with his right hand he would slide it out while sliding the saya (sheath) back to its original position. Gallery See also Tatara (furnace) List of Wazamono Tamahagane Tanka Kanenobu Kikuichi-monji Iaido Iaito - An unsharpened blade Wodao Types of swords Amakuni Masamune Muramasa Nagasone Kotetsu Shintōgo Kunimitsu Chinese swords Korean swords References Further reading External links Japanese Sword Index and Visual Glossary Diagrams of different nihontō and wakizashi blade shapes Dramatic and Accurate Explanation of Manufacture About Japanese Katana Swords | Japanese_sword |@lemmatized japanese:37 sword:118 one:21 traditional:6 bladed:1 weapon:14 japan:15 categorise:1 several:5 type:8 accord:3 size:3 method:6 manufacture:6 commonly:7 know:15 katana:19 like:8 similarly:1 form:14 tachi:14 single:5 edged:2 usually:5 curve:11 long:18 traditionally:3 use:29 samurai:18 onwards:2 wakizashi:14 shorter:2 tsurugi:1 double:1 edge:32 ōtachi:1 nodachi:7 old:10 version:2 although:3 pole:1 mounted:2 naginata:1 yari:1 still:6 consider:13 part:6 nihonto:7 family:1 due:4 forge:11 see:5 antique:2 modernly:1 easily:1 find:8 purchase:1 modern:10 authentic:1 nihontō:38 make:21 hundred:2 swordsmiths:12 many:15 example:4 contest:1 host:1 association:1 etymology:1 word:6 ancient:2 today:2 whereas:3 originate:1 china:3 poem:1 日本刀歌:1 literally:5 song:3 way:9 kwan:1 yi:1 distant:1 accessible:1 anymore:1 legend:3 able:4 cut:10 jade:1 unbeatable:1 treasured:1 near:4 country:1 could:8 obtain:1 easy:2 need:6 cross:1 sea:1 east:1 sheath:6 decorate:5 fish:1 skin:2 yellow:1 white:1 mix:2 chalcopyrite:1 copper:1 good:3 help:2 buy:1 gold:1 equip:1 dispel:1 evil:1 original:4 script:2 昆夷道遠不復通:1 世傳切玉誰能窮:1 寶刀近出日本國:1 越賈得之滄海東:1 魚皮裝貼香木鞘:1 黃白閒雜鍮與銅:1 百金傳入好事手:1 佩服可以禳妖凶:1 chinese:2 wikisource:1 full:4 dynasty:3 poet:1 ouyang:1 xiu:1 become:5 common:2 late:3 tokugawa:3 shogunate:2 importation:1 western:4 culture:1 adopt:2 act:1 nationalism:1 anatomy:1 blade:99 diagram:2 show:2 transliterated:1 unique:2 profile:3 mostly:2 dependent:1 smith:16 construction:1 prominent:1 middle:3 ridge:2 shinogi:11 early:5 picture:1 flat:3 taper:1 however:6 narrow:2 far:3 even:6 expand:1 outward:1 towards:5 shrink:1 produce:6 trapezoidal:1 shape:18 narrowing:1 call:27 hikushi:1 fat:1 takushi:1 place:7 back:14 longer:4 sharp:3 fragile:1 tip:8 moderate:2 center:2 also:10 exact:1 extremely:1 important:5 characteristic:7 ōkissaki:2 medium:2 chūkissaki:1 short:10 kokissaki:1 hooked:1 backwards:1 ikuri:1 addition:1 whether:2 front:1 curved:4 fukura:2 tsuku:1 relatively:4 straight:7 kareru:1 kissaki:5 point:11 chisel:1 knife:4 interpretation:1 tanto:1 true:3 linearly:1 slop:1 advantage:2 grind:3 bear:1 superficial:1 similarity:1 smooth:1 three:2 dimensional:1 curvature:3 across:4 surface:3 though:3 bound:1 line:7 yokote:1 crisp:1 definition:1 hole:1 drill:1 tang:5 nakago:9 mekugi:4 ana:2 anchor:1 small:10 bamboo:1 pin:1 insert:2 another:3 cavity:1 tsuka:7 thus:2 restrict:1 slip:1 remove:2 swordsmith:2 signature:3 mei:1 robinson:1 h:1 russell:1 arm:10 armor:4 new:8 york:1 crown:1 publisher:1 inc:1 mounting:5 scabbard:3 refer:5 saya:8 handguard:1 piece:1 often:12 intricately:1 design:6 individual:4 work:5 art:6 especially:3 year:1 edo:7 period:20 tsuba:3 aspect:1 koshirae:2 menuki:1 decorative:2 grip:3 swell:1 habaki:1 collar:3 wedge:1 fuchi:2 kashira:2 handle:3 cap:1 kozuka:1 utility:1 kogai:1 skewer:1 implement:1 lacquer:1 ito:1 professional:1 wrap:2 name:2 emaki:1 receive:1 similar:3 level:2 artistry:1 classification:2 length:18 illustrate:1 variation:3 well:11 visible:3 generally:9 differentiate:1 different:16 measure:2 unit:2 shaku:19 approximately:2 equivalent:1 cm:10 foot:4 main:2 division:1 less:3 tantō:4 dagger:2 kodachi:3 two:14 shōtō:4 category:1 munemachi:2 meet:3 fall:1 range:2 daitō:10 slightly:3 somewhere:1 together:3 daishō:7 big:2 symbolic:1 armament:1 qualify:1 must:3 inch:1 centimeter:1 define:1 low:3 limit:2 upper:1 enforce:1 number:4 historian:1 etc:1 say:2 normal:1 ōdachi:4 explain:1 related:1 term:3 set:1 large:2 miyamoto:1 musashi:1 refers:3 book:2 five:4 ring:1 odachi:3 extra:1 wear:10 suspend:2 cord:1 belt:3 style:15 jindachi:2 zukuri:9 worn:5 fashion:3 average:2 obi:3 sash:3 pair:7 buke:5 sun:3 bu:2 exist:2 include:2 weight:2 rarely:1 exceed:1 kg:1 without:2 chisakatana:1 simply:4 lie:1 reference:4 chiisakatana:1 companion:1 abnormally:1 carry:13 sometimes:2 synonym:1 mean:3 great:2 translates:1 field:1 war:6 give:4 soldier:4 reach:2 illegal:1 effectiveness:1 kill:1 citizen:1 allow:4 possess:1 unless:1 ceremonial:1 purpose:3 list:2 jin:1 aikuchi:2 whose:1 next:1 describe:1 prefix:1 ko:2 e:2 g:2 almost:3 since:2 restriction:1 deconstruction:1 class:2 navy:1 officer:2 recently:1 resurgence:1 permit:2 demonstration:1 specifically:4 kotō:6 rather:7 shintō:6 elaborately:1 school:12 trace:1 province:3 tradition:3 trademark:1 mino:2 start:2 famous:1 sharpness:3 gokaden:3 follow:7 sōshū:1 itame:1 hada:5 midareba:3 hamon:8 nie:2 deki:4 yamato:1 masame:1 suguha:2 bizen:1 mokume:3 nioi:1 yamashiro:1 nei:1 hard:7 mixed:1 togari:1 ba:1 era:3 fit:1 within:1 element:1 wakimono:2 history:5 norishige:1 ca:2 ce:1 ō:1 suriage:1 greatly:1 shorten:2 reform:1 high:5 cutting:6 chokutō:2 jōkotō:1 others:1 unusual:1 heian:2 century:10 making:2 develop:4 technique:13 bring:1 trade:4 siberia:1 hokkaidō:1 territory:1 ainu:2 people:1 influence:1 hold:4 hand:18 stab:1 invent:2 amakuni:2 ad:1 along:7 folded:2 steel:28 process:13 財団法人日本美術刀剣保存協会:1 lit:1 pinnacle:1 swordcraft:1 model:1 uneven:1 deep:2 hilt:6 change:2 tend:2 move:1 graceful:1 origin:1 ridgeline:1 sometime:1 around:2 service:1 grow:1 military:3 reflect:1 warfare:1 cavalry:3 predominant:1 fight:4 particularly:1 unsuitable:1 horseback:3 efficient:1 wield:1 warrior:1 add:3 considerably:1 downward:2 force:6 action:1 standard:1 would:17 eventually:1 displace:1 thrust:2 slung:1 left:2 hip:1 inscribe:1 always:3 outside:3 recognise:1 development:1 function:3 time:10 armour:1 accompany:2 koshigatana:1 waist:1 guard:3 mount:5 meeting:3 mouth:1 close:2 combat:8 fighting:2 personal:2 protection:1 mongol:2 invasion:1 thirteenth:1 spur:1 evolution:1 abandon:2 archery:1 delicate:1 prone:1 damage:3 thick:2 leather:1 invader:1 response:2 thinner:4 simpler:1 temper:1 certain:1 begin:2 thicker:2 threat:1 fifteenth:1 sengoku:2 jidai:1 civil:2 erupt:1 vast:2 ferocity:1 cause:6 highly:3 artistic:4 kamakura:2 golden:1 age:2 swordmaking:3 favor:1 utilitarian:1 disposable:1 export:1 height:1 muromachi:2 least:2 ship:1 ming:1 official:2 attempt:1 soak:1 production:4 pirate:1 area:1 increasingly:2 closer:1 quarter:2 increase:2 spear:2 lead:2 creation:2 uchigatana:2 progress:3 evolve:1 replace:1 primary:2 demand:1 craft:3 decay:1 firearm:2 introduce:1 decisive:1 battlefield:4 end:4 shoguns:1 issue:2 regulation:2 control:2 effectively:1 standardize:1 description:1 peace:1 return:2 refined:1 beginning:2 momoyama:1 saw:1 quality:6 lose:2 previous:1 inferior:3 coincide:1 decline:3 manufacturing:2 skill:3 ornamentation:1 refine:1 originally:2 simple:1 tasteful:1 engraving:2 horimono:2 religious:1 reason:2 later:4 complex:3 strictly:1 isolationist:1 perrin:1 noel:1 gun:2 reversion:1 boston:1 david:1 r:1 godine:1 master:1 suishinshi:1 masahide:3 c:1 publish:1 opinion:1 research:1 rediscover:4 lost:1 travel:1 land:1 teach:1 listen:1 rally:1 ushered:1 second:2 renaissance:1 smithing:1 discarding:1 introduction:1 revival:1 superior:1 arrival:1 matthew:1 perry:1 subsequent:1 convention:1 kanagawa:1 forcibly:1 reintroduce:1 world:3 rapid:1 modernization:1 meiji:1 restoration:1 soon:1 haitorei:1 edict:1 ban:5 street:1 overnight:1 market:1 die:1 leave:5 pursue:1 valuable:2 remain:1 occupation:3 police:4 kendo:1 incorporate:2 train:3 training:2 necessary:2 properly:1 decade:1 derisively:1 guntō:5 oil:1 tempered:1 stamp:1 serial:1 chiseled:1 mass:1 look:1 saber:1 shinshintō:1 medieval:1 gendaitō:1 keep:2 alive:1 effort:2 notably:1 gassan:2 sadakazu:1 月山貞一:1 sadakatsu:2 月山貞勝:1 employ:1 imperial:1 artisan:2 fine:1 stand:1 best:2 emperor:1 ranking:1 student:1 go:3 designate:1 intangible:1 cultural:1 asset:1 live:1 national:1 treasure:1 embody:1 knowledge:1 fundamentally:1 identity:1 government:2 specification:2 shin:2 army:1 first:1 machine:1 ii:2 conform:1 recent:1 united:1 state:3 occupied:1 disband:1 except:1 overturn:1 appeal:1 dr:3 junji:1 honma:3 general:2 douglas:1 macarthur:2 various:4 identify:1 quickly:2 blades:1 merit:2 purely:1 result:2 amend:1 destroy:1 preserve:2 sell:1 american:1 bargain:1 price:1 america:1 majority:1 million:1 sizable:1 turn:3 civilian:1 put:1 continue:4 founder:1 mission:1 thanks:1 minded:1 disappear:1 newly:1 alternately:1 oppose:2 iaitō:1 popularity:1 display:1 widespread:1 marketplace:1 letter:1 opener:1 scale:2 replica:2 wallhangers:1 item:1 stainless:3 either:2 brittle:1 poor:1 blunt:1 crude:1 account:1 rare:2 forum:1 magazine:1 metallurgy:1 suitable:1 day:2 robbery:1 possible:3 sale:1 import:1 hire:1 uk:1 marketing:1 historic:1 material:3 property:1 genuine:2 promulgate:1 disinformation:1 classify:1 object:3 certification:1 order:3 legally:1 note:1 company:1 independent:1 vary:3 blacksmith:1 munechika:1 fox:3 spirit:2 kogitsune:1 maru:1 little:1 represent:1 woman:1 surround:1 engrave:2 ogata:1 gekkō:1 thickness:2 amount:2 hira:1 afford:1 compose:1 whichever:1 conveniently:1 acquire:1 contain:1 therefore:2 uncommon:1 retain:2 forging:1 typically:1 take:3 hour:1 week:1 sacred:1 endeavor:1 craftsman:1 artist:1 involve:1 rough:3 apprentice:2 fold:8 metal:1 specialist:1 polisher:1 togi:1 fitting:1 finish:4 pommel:2 depict:2 scene:1 legitimate:1 tamahagane:2 鉄と生活研究会編:1 鉄の本:1 iron:1 isbn:1 combination:2 harder:1 outer:2 jacket:1 softer:1 inner:3 core:3 create:5 razor:3 resilient:1 absorb:1 shock:1 reduce:3 possibility:1 breaking:1 bending:1 hadagane:4 heat:7 block:7 raw:1 hammer:7 bar:3 flexible:1 portion:1 cool:4 break:3 check:1 impurity:1 reassemble:1 reforge:1 billet:2 split:1 upon:2 weld:3 structure:3 thousand:1 layer:2 differ:2 provide:1 strength:2 flexibility:2 precise:3 determine:2 distinctive:3 grain:1 pattern:1 jihada:1 jigane:1 actual:2 feature:2 indicative:2 maker:1 practice:3 ensure:2 somewhat:1 homogeneous:1 product:1 carbon:2 evenly:1 distribute:1 void:1 fracture:1 failure:1 shingane:2 soft:1 content:1 u:1 composite:1 air:1 dirt:1 trap:1 approximate:1 final:2 triangular:1 section:5 blank:1 rectangular:1 sunobe:4 recognisable:2 mune:1 ha:1 notch:1 hamachi:1 separate:1 detail:1 stage:1 come:1 play:1 hammering:1 naturally:1 erratic:1 skillfully:1 required:1 upward:1 filing:1 scrap:3 physical:1 ready:1 hardening:3 cover:2 clay:4 mixture:1 apply:3 thickly:2 side:4 dry:1 prepare:1 treatment:1 yaki:2 ire:2 darkened:1 smithy:1 night:1 judge:1 eye:1 colour:3 temperature:3 repeatedly:1 pass:2 glowing:1 charcoal:1 deem:1 right:3 moon:1 february:1 august:1 month:1 appear:2 dated:1 inscription:1 plunge:3 forward:1 tank:2 water:4 closely:1 guarded:1 secret:1 tell:1 particular:1 test:2 swordmakers:1 subtle:1 outline:1 prior:1 procedure:1 application:1 coat:2 thereby:1 martensite:1 slowly:1 pearlite:1 relative:1 softness:1 partially:1 factor:1 formation:1 crystalline:1 tempering:1 assess:1 examine:1 martensitic:1 effect:1 transition:1 beauty:1 aesthetic:2 perhaps:1 unsurprisingly:1 real:1 practical:2 hardened:2 potential:1 occur:1 battle:1 capable:1 reground:1 sharpen:1 alter:2 resistance:3 mud:1 may:1 groove:2 hi:3 bo:1 marking:2 perform:1 file:1 never:1 suppose:1 clean:1 value:1 half:1 mark:1 dedication:1 write:1 kanji:1 god:1 dragon:1 acceptable:1 presence:1 basic:2 yet:1 structural:1 integrity:1 secondary:1 bow:1 feasible:1 unarmored:2 much:1 open:1 effective:3 daisho:1 testing:1 tameshigiri:1 variety:1 body:4 executed:1 criminal:1 kenjutsu:2 martial:2 primarily:1 slice:2 allows:1 thrusting:1 fair:1 placement:1 dictate:1 wielder:1 draw:4 attack:1 motion:8 battōjutsu:1 iaijutsu:1 superficially:1 theory:1 specific:1 ten:4 uchi:4 organize:1 wrist:1 descending:2 strike:3 swung:1 downwards:1 elbow:1 joint:1 drastically:1 extend:1 last:1 instant:1 pop:1 swordsman:1 twist:1 correctly:1 feel:1 wring:1 towel:1 thomas:1 hooper:1 sensei:1 impact:1 target:3 initial:2 fluidly:1 wrought:1 stroke:2 drag:1 chop:1 dragging:1 maximum:1 speed:1 swing:2 targeted:1 segment:1 hardly:1 assume:1 human:1 torso:1 supply:1 shoulder:1 muscle:1 clavicle:1 slicing:1 whatever:1 else:1 encounter:1 inherently:1 exit:1 nearly:1 share:1 posture:6 chūdan:1 kamae:4 jōdan:1 gedan:1 hassō:1 eight:1 waki:1 gamae:1 hit:1 equally:1 chip:1 definite:1 risk:1 oncoming:1 blow:1 avoid:1 fact:1 evasive:1 maneuver:1 prefer:1 contact:1 defense:1 precious:1 popular:1 defeat:1 descend:1 slash:1 beat:1 aside:1 instance:1 umbrella:1 position:2 overhead:1 diagonally:1 ground:1 sky:1 shield:1 angle:1 drastic:1 enough:1 spine:1 attacker:1 slide:3 counter:1 throughout:1 movie:1 present:1 tuck:1 comfortable:1 armored:1 bulk:1 difficult:1 face:1 quick:1 ninety:1 degree:1 pull:1 bit:1 gallery:1 tatara:1 furnace:1 wazamono:1 tanka:1 kanenobu:1 kikuichi:1 monji:1 iaido:1 iaito:1 unsharpened:1 wodao:1 masamune:1 muramasa:1 nagasone:1 kotetsu:1 shintōgo:1 kunimitsu:1 korean:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 index:1 visual:1 glossary:1 dramatic:1 accurate:1 explanation:1 |@bigram tokugawa_shogunate:2 superficial_similarity:1 hole_drill:1 utility_knife:1 inch_centimeter:1 buke_zukuri:5 elaborately_decorate:1 cutting_edge:4 heian_period:2 tang_dynasty:1 mongol_invasion:1 ming_dynasty:1 meiji_restoration:1 douglas_macarthur:1 vast_majority:1 stainless_steel:3 saya_sheath:5 evenly_distribute:1 closely_guarded:1 guarded_secret:1 structural_integrity:1 martial_art:2 external_link:1 |
961 | Alcuin | Rabanus Maurus (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), presents his work to Otgar of Mainz Alcuin of York () or Ealhwine, nicknamed Albinus or Flaccus (c. 735 – May 19, 804) was a scholar, ecclesiastic, poet and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student of Ecgbert at York. At the invitation of Charlemagne, he became a leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian court, where he remained a figure at court in the 780s and 790s. He wrote many theological and dogmatic treatises, as well as a few grammatical works and a number of poems. He was made abbot of Saint Martin's at Tours in 796, where he remained until his death. He is considered among the most important architects of the Carolingian Renaissance. Among his pupils were many of the dominant intellectuals of the Carolingian era. Biography Alcuin of York had a long career as a teacher and scholar, first at the school at York now known as St Peter's School, York (founded AD 627) and later as Charlemagne's leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs. From 796 until his death he was abbot of the great monastery of St. Martin of Tours. Alcuin came to the cathedral school of York in the golden age of Ecgbert and Eadbert. Egbert had been a disciple of the Venerable Bede who urged him to have York raised to an archbishopric. Eadbert was the king and brother to Egbert. These two men oversaw the reenergizing and reorganization of the English church with an emphasis on reforming the clergy and on the tradition of learning begun under Bede. Alcuin thrived under Egbert’s tutelage who loved him especially. It was in York that he formed his love of classical poetry, though he was sometimes troubled by the fact that it was written by non-Christians. The York school was renowned as a centre of learning not only in religious matters but also in the liberal arts, literature and science named the seven liberal arts. It was from here that Alcuin drew inspiration for the school he would lead at the Frankish court. He revived the school with disciplines such as the trivium and the quadrivium. Two codices were written, by himself on the trivium, and by his student Hraban. on the quadrivium. Alcuin graduated from student to teacher sometime in the 750s. His ascendancy to the headship of the York school began after Aelbert became Archbishop of York in 767. Around the same time Alcuin became a deacon in the church. He was never ordained as a priest and there is no real evidence that he became an actual monk, but he lived his life like one. In 781, King Elfwald sent Alcuin to Rome to petition the Pope for official confirmation of York’s status as an archbishopric and to confirm the election of a new archbishop, Eanbald I. On his way home he met Charlemagne, though not for the first time, in the Italian city of Parma. Alcuin was reluctantly persuaded to join Charles's court. His love of the church and his intellectual curiosity made the offer one that he could not refuse. He was to join an already illustrious group of scholars that Charles had gathered around him like Peter of Pisa, Paulinus of Aquileia, Rado, and Abbot Fulrad. He would later write that "the Lord was calling me to the service of King Charles." Alcuin was welcomed at the Palace School of Charlemagne. The school had been founded under the king’s ancestors as a place for educating the royal children, mostly in manners and the ways of the court. However, King Charles wanted more than this – he wanted to include the liberal arts and, most importantly, the study of the religion that he held sacred. From 782 to 790, Alcuin had as pupils Charlemagne himself, his sons Pepin and Louis, the young men sent for their education to the court, and the young clerics attached to the palace chapel. Bringing with him from York his assistants Pyttel, Sigewulf and Joseph, Alcuin revolutionized the educational standards of the Palace School, introducing Charlemagne to the liberal arts and creating a personalised atmosphere of scholarship and learning to the extent that the institution came to be known as the "school of Master Albinus". Charlemagne was master at gathering the best men of every nation in his court. He himself became far more than just the king at the centre. It seems that Charlemagne made many of these men his closest friends and counsellors. They referred to him as "David", a reference to the Biblical King David. Alcuin soon found himself on intimate terms with the king and with the other men at court to whom he gave nicknames to be used for work and play. Alcuin himself was known as "Albinus" or "Flaccus". Alcuin’s friendships also extended to the ladies of the court, especially the queen mother and the daughters of the king. His relationships with these women, however, never reached the intense level of those with the men around him. Modern commentators John Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality , have identified, for example, the homo-erotic tone of some of Alcuin's poetry, emphasising the spiritual and idealistic aspects of his love for his friends and his pupils David Bromell in Who's who in Gay and Lesbian History, London, 2000 (Ed. Wotherspoon and Aldrich) . While at Aachen, his pupils were given pet names, derived from classical allusions (mainly from Virgil's Eclogues). In 790 Alcuin went back to England, to which he had always been greatly attached. He dwelt there for some time, but Charlemagne then invited him back to help in the fight against the Adoptionist heresy which was at that time making great progress in Toledo, Spain, the old capital town of the Visigoths and still a major city for the Christians under Islamic rule in Spain. He is believed to have had contacts with Beatus of Liébana, from the Kingdom of Asturias, who fought against Adoptionism. At the Council of Frankfurt in 794, Alcuin upheld the orthodox doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the heresiarch Felix of Urgel. Having failed during his stay in England to influence King Aethelraed of Northumbria in the conduct of his reign, Alcuin never returned to live in England. Alcuin was back at Charlemagne's court by at least mid 792, writing a series of letters to Aethelraed of Northumbria, to Hygbald, Bishop of Lindisfarne, and Aethelheard, Archbishop of Canterbury in the succeeding months, which deal with the attack on Lindisfarne by Viking raiders in July 792. These letters, and Alcuin's poem on the subject De clade Lindisfarnensis monasterii provide the only significant contemporary account of these events. In 796 Alcuin was in his sixties. He hoped to be free from court duties and was given the chance when Abbot Itherius of Saint Martin at Tours died. Charlemagne gave the abbey into Alcuin's care with the understanding that he should be available if the king ever needed his counsel. As a Carolingian Renaissance figure He made the abbey school into a model of excellence, and many students flocked to it; he had many manuscripts copied, the calligraphy of which is of outstanding beauty. He wrote many letters to his friends in England, to Arno, bishop of Salzburg, and above all to Charlemagne. These letters, of which 311 are extant, are filled mainly with pious meditations, but they further form a mine of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are the most reliable authority for the history of humanism in the Carolingian age. He also trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuits that he died. Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the Carolingian Renaissance, in which three main periods have been distinguished: in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the Italians occupy the central place; in the second, Alcuin and the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in 804, the influence of Theodulf the Visigoth is preponderant. We owe to him, too, some manuals used in his educational work; a grammar and works on rhetoric and dialectics. They are written in the form of dialogues, and in the two last the interlocutors are Charlemagne and Alcuin. He also wrote several theological treatises: a De fide Trinitatis, commentaries on the Bible, etc. Alcuin transmitted to the Franks the knowledge of Latin culture which had existed in England. We still have a number of his works. His letters have already been mentioned; his poetry is equally interesting. Besides some graceful epistles in the style of Venantius Fortunatus, he wrote some long poems, and notably a whole history in verse of the church at York: Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae. Alcuin died on May 19, 804, some ten years before the emperor. He was buried at St. Martin’s Church under an epitaph that partly read: At the end of his life, Alcuin had a reputation for holiness, yet he is not included in the canon of saints and never advanced to holy orders beyond those of deacon. Alcuin College, one of the colleges of the University of York, is named after him. The Alcuin Society brings together lovers of books and awards an annual prize for excellence in book design. On freedom of conscience As chief adviser to Charles the Great, he bravely tackled the emperor over his policy of forcing pagans to be baptised on pain of death. He argued, “Faith is a free act of the will, not a forced act. We must appeal to the conscience, not compel it by violence. You can force people to be baptised, but you cannot force them to believe.” His arguments prevailed; Charlemagne abolished the death penalty for paganism in 797. Needham, Dr. N.R., Two Thousand Years of Christ’s Power, Part Two: The Middle Ages, Grace Publications, 2000, page 52. Alcuin as a mathematician The textbook Propositiones ad acuendos juvenes The first few problems of Alcuin's on original Latin (English: Problems to sharpen the young, proper title Propositiones Alcuini Doctoris Caroli Magni Imperatoris ad Acuendes Juvenes—) is usually attributed to Alcuin. Ivars Peterson's MathTrek Nov 21, 2005 Atkinson, L. 2005. 'When the Pope was a mathematician'. College Mathematics Journal 36 (November): 354-362 It contains about 53 mathematical word problems with solutions, in no particular pedagogical order. Among the most famous of these problems are four that involve river crossings, including the problem of three jealous husbands, each of whom can't let another man be alone with his wife Animation of the problem of the three jealous husbands (German) (Problem 17), the problem of the wolf, goat, and cabbage (Problem 18), and the problem of "the two adults and two children where the children weigh half as much as the adults" (Problem 19). Selected Works The following is partially based on an overview by Robert Levine and Whitney Bolton Poetry Carmina, ed. Ernst Dümmler. Poetae Latini Aevi Carolini. vol 1. Berlin, 1881. Godman, Peter (tr.). Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. 118-49. Isbell, Harold (tr.). The Last Poets of Imperial Rome. Baltimore: Penguin, 1971. Epitaph for Cone Poem on York, Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae, ed. and tr. Peter Godman, De pontificibus et sanctis Ecclesiae Eboracensis, The Bishops, Kings, and Saints of York. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. De clade Lindisfarnensis monasterii, "On the destruction of the monastery of Lindisfarne Epistolae (Letters) Of Alcuin's letters, just over 310 have survived. Dümmler, Ernst (ed.). 'Alkuini Epistolae' in MGH Epistolae IV (Berlin 1895) 1-493. Jaffe, Philipp, Ernst Dümmler, W. Wattenbach (eds.). Monumenta Alcuiniana, Berlin, Weidmann, 1873, pp. 132-897. Chase, Colin (ed.). Two Alcuin Letter-books. Toronto, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1975. Allott, Stephen (tr.). Alcuin of York, c. AD 732 to 804. His life and letters. York, 1974. Sturgeon, Thomas G. (tr.). The Letters of Alcuin: Part One, the Aachen Period (762-796). Harvard University Ph.D. Thesis, 1953. Dorothy Whitelock (tr.), English Historical Documents. Didactic works Ars grammatica De orthographia, ed. H. Keil, Grammatici Latini VII, 1880. 295-312. De dialectica Disputatio regalis et nobilissimi juvenis Pippini cum Albino scholastico "Dialogue of Pepin, the Most Noble and Royal Youth, with the Teacher Albinus", ed. L.W. Daly and W. Suchier, Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti Philosophi. Urbana, 1939. 134-46; ed. Wilhelm Wilmanns, "Disputatio regalis et nobilissimi juvenis Pippini cum Albino scholastico." Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum 14 (1869): 530-55, 562. Disputatio de rhetorica et de virtutibus sapientissimi regis Carli et Albini magistri, ed. and tr. Wilbur Samuel Howell, The Rhetoric of Alcuin and Charlemagne. New York: Russell and Russell, 1965 (1941); ed. C. Halm, Rhetorici Latini Minores. 1863. 523-50. De virtutibus et vitiis, also De vitiis et virtutum (moral treatise dedicated to Count Wido of Brittany, 799 x 800), ed. J.P. Migne. PL 101. Paris, 1851. 613-639 (transcript available online). A new critical edition is being prepared for the Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis. De animae ratione (ad Eulaliam virginem) (written for Gundrada, Charlemagne's cousin) De Cursu et Saltu Lunae ac Bissexto, astronomical treatise. Hagiography Vita II Vedastis episcopi Atrebatensis. Revision of the earlier Vita Vedastis by Jonas of Bobbio. Vita Richarii confessoris Centulensis. Revision of an earlier anonymous life. Vita Willibrordi archiepiscopi Traiectensis, ed. W. Levison, Passiones vitaeque sanctorum aevi Merovingici. MGH Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum 7/2. Hanover, 1920. 81–141. Further reading Alcuin of York, his life and letters, Stephen Allot ISBN 0-900657-21-9 Alcuin: achievement and reputation, Donald Bullough, 2004 Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools by Andrew Fleming West ISBN 0-8371-1635-X Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne, Eleanor Shipley Duckett, 1951 Carolingian Portraits, Eleanor Shipley Duckett, 1962 The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy, F. L. Ganshof, ISBN 0-582-48227-5 Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality, John Boswell, ISBN 0-226-06710-6 Friendship, and Community: The Monastic Experience, Brian P. McGuire, ISBN 0-87907-895-2 Medieval Latin Love Poems of Male Love and Friendship, Thomas Stehling Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance, Peter Godman, ISBN 0-7156-1768-0 Page, Rolph Barlow. The Letters of Alcuin. New York: Forest Press, 1909. Notes References External links Alcuin's book, Problems for the Quickening of the Minds of the Young Introduction to Alcuin's writings by Robert Levine and Whitney Bolton The Alcuin Society Anglo-Saxon York on History of York site Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexes Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis: new critical editions in preparation Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography | Alcuin |@lemmatized rabanus:1 maurus:1 left:1 support:1 alcuin:49 middle:2 present:1 work:8 otgar:1 mainz:1 york:25 ealhwine:1 nickname:2 albinus:4 flaccus:2 c:3 may:2 scholar:4 ecclesiastic:1 poet:2 teacher:5 northumbria:3 bear:1 around:4 become:6 student:4 ecgbert:2 invitation:1 charlemagne:17 lead:3 carolingian:10 court:12 remain:2 figure:3 write:10 many:6 theological:2 dogmatic:1 treatise:4 well:1 grammatical:1 number:2 poem:5 make:5 abbot:4 saint:4 martin:4 tour:3 death:4 consider:1 among:3 important:1 architect:1 renaissance:5 pupil:4 dominant:2 intellectual:2 era:1 biography:1 long:2 career:1 first:4 school:13 know:3 st:3 peter:5 founded:1 ad:5 later:2 advisor:1 ecclesiastical:1 educational:3 affair:1 great:3 monastery:2 come:2 cathedral:1 golden:1 age:3 eadbert:2 egbert:3 disciple:1 venerable:1 bede:2 urge:1 raise:1 archbishopric:2 king:12 brother:1 two:8 men:6 oversee:1 reenergizing:1 reorganization:1 english:3 church:5 emphasis:1 reform:1 clergy:1 tradition:1 learn:2 begin:3 thrive:1 tutelage:1 love:6 especially:2 form:3 classical:2 poetry:6 though:2 sometimes:1 troubled:1 fact:1 non:1 christian:3 renowned:1 centre:2 religious:1 matter:1 also:5 liberal:4 art:4 literature:1 science:1 name:3 seven:1 drew:1 inspiration:1 would:2 frankish:2 revive:1 discipline:1 trivium:2 quadrivium:2 codex:1 hraban:1 graduate:1 sometime:1 ascendancy:1 headship:1 aelbert:1 archbishop:3 time:5 deacon:2 never:4 ordain:1 priest:1 real:1 evidence:1 actual:1 monk:2 live:2 life:5 like:2 one:4 elfwald:1 send:2 rome:2 petition:1 pope:2 official:1 confirmation:1 status:1 confirm:1 election:1 new:5 eanbald:1 way:2 home:1 meet:1 italian:2 city:2 parma:1 reluctantly:1 persuade:1 join:2 charles:5 curiosity:1 offer:1 could:1 refuse:1 already:2 illustrious:1 group:1 gather:2 pisa:1 paulinus:1 aquileia:1 rado:1 fulrad:1 lord:1 call:1 service:1 welcome:1 palace:3 found:1 ancestor:1 place:2 educate:1 royal:2 child:3 mostly:1 manner:1 however:2 want:2 include:3 importantly:1 study:2 religion:1 hold:1 sacred:1 son:1 pepin:2 louis:1 young:4 education:1 cleric:1 attach:2 chapel:1 bring:2 assistant:1 pyttel:1 sigewulf:1 joseph:1 revolutionize:1 standard:1 introduce:1 create:1 personalise:1 atmosphere:1 scholarship:1 learning:1 extent:1 institution:1 master:2 best:1 every:1 nation:1 far:1 seem:1 close:1 friend:4 counsellor:1 refer:1 david:3 reference:2 biblical:1 soon:1 find:1 intimate:1 term:1 give:4 use:2 play:1 friendship:3 extend:1 lady:1 queen:1 mother:1 daughter:1 relationship:1 woman:1 reach:1 intense:1 level:1 modern:1 commentator:1 john:2 boswell:2 christianity:2 social:3 tolerance:2 homosexuality:2 identify:1 example:1 homo:1 erotic:1 tone:1 emphasise:1 spiritual:1 idealistic:1 aspect:1 bromell:1 gay:1 lesbian:1 history:4 london:1 ed:12 wotherspoon:1 aldrich:1 aachen:2 pet:1 derive:1 allusion:1 mainly:2 virgil:1 eclogue:1 go:1 back:3 england:5 always:1 greatly:1 dwell:1 invite:1 help:1 fight:2 adoptionist:1 heresy:1 progress:1 toledo:1 spain:2 old:1 capital:1 town:1 visigoth:2 still:2 major:1 islamic:1 rule:1 believe:2 contact:1 beatus:1 liébana:1 kingdom:1 asturias:1 adoptionism:1 council:1 frankfurt:1 uphold:1 orthodox:1 doctrine:1 obtain:1 condemnation:1 heresiarch:1 felix:1 urgel:1 fail:1 stay:1 influence:2 aethelraed:2 conduct:1 reign:1 return:1 least:1 mid:1 series:1 letter:12 hygbald:1 bishop:3 lindisfarne:3 aethelheard:1 canterbury:1 succeeding:1 month:1 deal:1 attack:1 viking:1 raider:1 july:1 subject:1 de:14 clade:2 lindisfarnensis:2 monasterii:2 provide:1 significant:1 contemporary:1 account:1 event:1 sixty:1 hop:1 free:2 duty:1 chance:1 itherius:1 die:3 abbey:3 care:1 understanding:1 available:2 ever:1 need:1 counsel:1 model:1 excellence:2 flock:1 manuscript:1 copy:1 calligraphy:1 outstanding:1 beauty:1 arno:1 salzburg:1 extant:1 fill:1 pious:1 meditation:1 mine:1 information:1 literary:1 condition:1 reliable:1 authority:1 humanism:1 train:1 numerous:1 piety:1 midst:1 pursuit:1 prominent:1 three:3 main:1 period:2 distinguish:1 arrival:1 occupy:1 central:1 second:1 anglo:2 saxon:2 third:1 theodulf:1 preponderant:1 owe:1 manual:1 grammar:1 rhetoric:2 dialectic:1 dialogue:2 last:2 interlocutor:1 several:1 fide:1 trinitatis:1 commentary:1 bible:1 etc:1 transmit:1 frank:1 knowledge:1 latin:3 culture:1 exist:1 mention:1 equally:1 interesting:1 besides:1 graceful:1 epistle:1 style:1 venantius:1 fortunatus:1 notably:1 whole:1 verse:1 versus:2 patribus:2 regibus:2 et:11 sanctis:3 eboracensis:3 ecclesiae:3 ten:1 year:2 emperor:2 bury:1 epitaph:2 partly:1 read:2 end:1 reputation:2 holiness:1 yet:1 canon:1 advance:1 holy:1 order:2 beyond:1 college:3 university:3 society:2 together:1 lover:1 book:4 award:1 annual:1 prize:1 design:1 freedom:1 conscience:2 chief:1 adviser:1 bravely:1 tackle:1 policy:1 force:4 pagan:1 baptise:2 pain:1 argue:1 faith:1 act:2 must:1 appeal:1 compel:1 violence:1 people:1 cannot:1 argument:1 prevail:1 abolish:1 penalty:1 paganism:1 needham:1 dr:1 n:1 r:1 thousand:1 christ:1 power:1 part:2 grace:1 publication:1 page:2 mathematician:2 textbook:1 proposition:1 acuendos:1 juvenes:2 problem:12 original:1 sharpen:1 proper:1 title:1 propositiones:1 alcuini:1 doctoris:1 carolus:1 magni:1 imperatoris:1 acuendes:1 usually:1 attribute:1 ivars:1 peterson:1 mathtrek:1 nov:1 atkinson:1 l:3 mathematics:1 journal:1 november:1 contain:1 mathematical:1 word:1 solution:1 particular:1 pedagogical:1 famous:1 four:1 involve:1 river:1 crossing:1 jealous:2 husband:2 let:1 another:1 man:1 alone:1 wife:1 animation:1 german:1 wolf:1 goat:1 cabbage:1 adult:2 weigh:1 half:1 much:1 select:1 following:1 partially:1 base:1 overview:1 robert:2 levine:2 whitney:2 bolton:2 carmina:1 ernst:3 dümmler:3 poetae:1 latini:3 aevi:2 carolini:1 vol:1 berlin:3 godman:3 tr:7 norman:1 oklahoma:1 press:3 isbell:1 harold:1 imperial:1 baltimore:1 penguin:1 cone:1 pontificibus:1 oxford:1 clarendon:1 destruction:1 epistolae:3 survive:1 alkuini:1 mgh:2 iv:1 jaffe:1 philipp:1 w:4 wattenbach:1 eds:1 monumenta:1 alcuiniana:1 weidmann:1 pp:1 chase:1 colin:1 toronto:1 pontifical:1 institute:1 mediaeval:1 allott:1 stephen:2 sturgeon:1 thomas:2 g:1 harvard:1 ph:1 thesis:1 dorothy:1 whitelock:1 historical:1 document:1 didactic:1 ar:1 grammatica:1 orthographia:1 h:1 keil:1 grammatici:1 vii:1 dialectica:1 disputatio:3 regalis:2 nobilissimi:2 juvenis:2 pippini:2 cum:2 albino:2 scholastico:2 noble:1 youth:1 daly:1 suchier:1 altercatio:1 hadriani:1 augusti:1 epicteti:1 philosophi:1 urbana:1 wilhelm:1 wilmanns:1 zeitschrift:1 für:1 deutsches:1 altertum:1 rhetorica:1 virtutibus:2 sapientissimi:1 regis:1 carli:1 albini:1 magistri:1 wilbur:1 samuel:1 howell:1 russell:2 halm:1 rhetorici:1 minores:1 vitiis:2 virtutum:1 moral:1 dedicate:1 count:1 wido:1 brittany:1 x:2 j:1 p:2 migne:2 pl:1 paris:1 transcript:1 online:1 critical:2 edition:2 prepare:1 corpus:3 christianorum:2 continuatio:2 medievalis:1 animae:1 ratione:1 eulaliam:1 virginem:1 gundrada:1 cousin:1 cursu:1 saltu:1 lunae:1 ac:1 bissexto:1 astronomical:1 hagiography:1 vita:4 ii:1 vedastis:2 episcopi:1 atrebatensis:1 revision:2 early:2 jonas:1 bobbio:1 richarii:1 confessoris:1 centulensis:1 anonymous:1 willibrordi:1 archiepiscopi:1 traiectensis:1 levison:1 passiones:1 vitaeque:1 sanctorum:1 merovingici:1 scriptores:1 rerum:1 merovingicarum:1 hanover:1 allot:1 isbn:6 achievement:1 donald:1 bullough:1 rise:1 andrew:1 fleming:1 west:1 eleanor:2 shipley:2 duckett:2 portrait:1 monarchy:1 f:1 ganshof:1 community:1 monastic:1 experience:1 brian:1 mcguire:1 medieval:1 male:1 stehling:1 rolph:1 barlow:1 forest:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 quickening:1 mind:1 introduction:1 writing:1 site:1 opera:1 omnia:1 patrologia:1 latina:1 analytical:1 index:1 mediaevalis:1 preparation:1 grammaticorum:1 latinorum:1 complete:1 text:1 full:1 bibliography:1 |@bigram rabanus_maurus:1 carolingian_renaissance:5 venerable_bede:1 trivium_quadrivium:1 ordain_priest:1 gay_lesbian:1 archbishop_canterbury:1 anglo_saxon:2 venantius_fortunatus:1 jealous_husband:2 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 ph_thesis:1 zeitschrift_für:1 external_link:1 opera_omnia:1 omnia_migne:1 migne_patrologia:1 patrologia_latina:1 |
962 | Common_Language_Infrastructure | The Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) is an open specification (published under ECMA-335 and ISO/IEC 23271) developed by Microsoft that describes the executable code and runtime environment that form the core of a number of runtimes including the Microsoft .NET Framework, Mono, and Portable.NET. The specification defines an environment that allows multiple high-level languages to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures. Overview Visual overview of the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) Among other things, the CLI specification describes the following four aspects:- The Common Type System (CTS) A set of types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages. Metadata Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language you are not using. Common Language Specification (CLS) A set of base rules to which any language targeting the CLI should conform in order to interoperate with other CLS-compliant languages. The CLS rules define a subset of the Common Type System. Virtual Execution System (VES) The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime. All compatible languages compile to Common Intermediate Language (CIL), which is an intermediate language that is abstracted from the platform hardware. When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the machine language according to the specific hardware. Standardization and licensing In August 2000, Microsoft, Hewlett-Packard, Intel, and others worked to standardize CLI. By December 2001, it was ratified by the ECMA, with ISO standardization following in April 2003. While Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI, ECMA and ISO require that all patents essential to implementation be made available under "reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms." Support for dynamic languages The Common Language Infrastructure has currently no built-in support for Dynamically typed languages, because the existing Common Intermediate Language is statically typed . The Dynamic Language Runtime is an ongoing effort to bring this support to the CLR. Implementations The .NET Framework is built on the Common Language Runtime, Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for desktop and server systems, and also encompasses a large collection of programming frameworks and libraries. Shared Source Common Language Infrastructure is a reference implementation of the CLI available from Microsoft, under the Shared source licensing program. .NET Compact Framework is Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for portable devices and Xbox 360. Net60 is redFIVElabs' commercial implementation of .NET Compact Network on Symbian-based devices. Microsoft Silverlight, an implementation for use in web browsers - for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Mono development platform is an open source implementation of CLI and accompanying technologies, sponsored by Novell. Portable.NET, part of the dotGNU project, is an open source / Free Software implementation of ECMA-335 by Free Software Foundation. VMKit part of Low Level Virtual Machine toolkit as of version 2.3. Implements very incomplete and alpha stage support of a Virtual Execution System. It is based on DotGNU, Portable.NET corelib and class libraries. Ildjit- Another free software Virtual Execution System implementation based on DotGNU, DotGNU libJIT, and DotGNU Portable.NET corelib and class libraries. Implements very incomplete and alpha stage support of a Virtual Execution System. ILDJIT Intermediate Language Distributed Just In Time (ILDJIT) is developed by Formal Languages And Compilers Group Politecnico di Milano. Notes References Common Language Specification | Common_Language_Infrastructure |@lemmatized common:11 language:23 infrastructure:4 cli:11 open:3 specification:5 publish:1 ecma:4 iso:3 iec:1 develop:2 microsoft:9 describe:2 executable:1 code:4 runtime:4 environment:2 form:1 core:1 number:1 runtimes:1 include:1 net:8 framework:4 mono:2 portable:5 define:2 allow:1 multiple:1 high:1 level:2 use:4 different:1 computer:1 platform:4 without:1 rewrite:1 specific:3 architecture:1 overview:2 visual:1 among:1 thing:1 following:1 four:1 aspect:1 type:5 system:7 ct:2 set:2 operation:1 share:3 compliant:2 programming:1 metadata:2 information:1 program:4 structure:1 agnostic:1 reference:3 tool:1 make:2 easy:1 work:2 write:1 cl:2 base:4 rule:2 target:1 conform:1 order:1 interoperate:1 cls:1 subset:1 virtual:5 execution:4 f:3 load:1 execute:2 compatible:2 combine:1 separately:1 generated:1 piece:1 compile:2 intermediate:4 cil:2 abstract:1 hardware:2 machine:2 accord:1 standardization:2 licensing:1 august:1 hewlett:1 packard:1 intel:1 others:1 standardize:1 december:1 ratify:1 follow:1 april:1 partner:1 hold:1 patent:2 require:1 essential:1 implementation:10 available:2 reasonable:1 non:1 discriminatory:1 rand:1 term:1 support:5 dynamic:2 languages:1 currently:1 build:2 dynamically:1 exist:1 statically:1 ongoing:1 effort:1 bring:1 clr:1 commercial:3 desktop:1 server:1 also:1 encompass:1 large:1 collection:1 library:3 source:4 license:1 compact:2 device:2 xbox:1 redfivelabs:1 network:1 symbian:1 silverlight:1 web:1 browser:1 window:1 mac:1 x:1 development:1 accompany:1 technology:1 sponsor:1 novell:1 part:2 dotgnu:5 project:1 free:3 software:3 foundation:1 vmkit:1 low:1 toolkit:1 version:1 implement:2 incomplete:2 alpha:2 stage:2 corelib:2 class:2 ildjit:3 another:1 libjit:1 distribute:1 time:1 formal:1 compiler:1 group:1 politecnico:1 di:1 milano:1 note:1 |@bigram ecma_iso:3 iso_iec:1 hewlett_packard:1 statically_type:1 microsoft_silverlight:1 web_browser:1 microsoft_window:1 di_milano:1 |
963 | Gregory_Chaitin | Gregory John Chaitin (born 1947) is an Argentine-American mathematician and computer scientist. Beginning in the late 1960s, Chaitin made contributions to algorithmic information theory and metamathematics, in particular a new incompleteness theorem in reaction to Gödel's incompleteness theorem. He attended the Bronx High School of Science and City College of New York, where he (still in his teens) developed the theories that led to his independent discovery of Kolmogorov complexity. <ref>Li and Vitanyi, An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, page 86: G.J.Chaitin had finished the Bronx High School of Science , and was an 18-year-old undergraduate student at City College of the City University of New York, when he submitted two papers [...] In his [second] paper, Chaitin puts forward the notion of Kolmogorov complexity [...]"</ref> Chaitin has defined Chaitin's constant Ω, a real number whose digits are equidistributed and which is sometimes informally described as an expression of the probability that a random program will halt. Ω has the mathematical property that it is definable but not computable. Chaitin's early work on algorithmic information theory paralleled the earlier work of Kolmogorov. Chaitin also writes about philosophy, especially metaphysics and philosophy of mathematics (particularly about epistemological matters in mathematics). In metaphysics, Chaitin claims that algorithmic information theory is the key to solving problems in the field of biology (obtaining a formal definition of ‘life’, its origin and evolution) and neuroscience (the problem of consciousness and the study of the mind). Indeed, in recent writings, he defends a position known as digital philosophy. In the epistemology of mathematics, he claims that his findings in mathematical logic and algorithmic information theory show there are “mathematical facts that are true for no reason, they're true by accident. They are random mathematical facts”. Chaitin proposes that mathematicians must abandon any hope of proving those mathematical facts and adopt a quasi-empirical methodology. Chaitin is also the originator of using graph coloring to do register allocation in compiling, a process known as Chaitin's algorithm. In 1995 he was given the degree of doctor of science honoris causa by the University of Maine. In 2002 he was given the title of honorary professor by the University of Buenos Aires in Argentina, where his parents were born and where Chaitin spent part of his youth. He is a research staff member at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center and also a visiting professor at the Computer Science Department of the University of Auckland, and on the international committee of the Valparaíso Complex Systems Institute. Criticism Some philosophers and logicians strongly disagree with the philosophical conclusions that Chaitin has drawn from his theorems. Panu Raatikainen "Exploring Randomness and The Unknowable" Notices of the American Mathematical Society Book Review October 2001 The logician Torkel Franzén Torkel Franzén Gödel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to its Use and Abuse. Wellesley, Massachusetts: A K Peters, Ltd., 2005. x + 172 pp. ISBN 1-56881-238-8. criticizes Chaitin’s interpretation of Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem and the alleged explanation for it that Chaitin’s work represents. See also Halting problem BibliographyAlgorithmic Information Theory, (Cambridge University Press, 1987) online,Information, Randomness & Incompleteness, (World Scientific, 1987),Information-Theoretic Incompleteness, (World Scientific, 1992) online,The Limits of Mathematics, (Springer-Verlag 1998),The Unknowable, (Springer-Verlag 1999),Exploring Randomness, (Springer-Verlag 2001),Conversations with a Mathematician, (Springer-Verlag 2002),From Philosophy to Program Size, (Tallinn Cybernetics Institute 2003),Meta Math!: The Quest for Omega, (Pantheon Books 2005),Thinking about Gödel & Turing, (World Scientific, 2007). Notes References Ugo Pagallo, Introduzione alla filosofia digitale. Da Leibniz a Chaitin, (, 2005)ISBN 88-348-5635-X Cristian S. Calude (ed.), Randomness and Complexity. From Leibniz to Chaitin'', (World Scientific, 2007)ISBN 13 978-981-277-082-0 External links G J Chaitin Home Page List of publications of G J Chaitin New Scientist article (March, 2001) on Chaitin, Omegas and Super-Omegas A short version of Chaitin's proof | Gregory_Chaitin |@lemmatized gregory:1 john:1 chaitin:22 born:1 argentine:1 american:2 mathematician:3 computer:2 scientist:2 begin:1 late:1 make:1 contribution:1 algorithmic:4 information:7 theory:6 metamathematics:1 particular:1 new:4 incompleteness:5 theorem:5 reaction:1 gödel:4 attend:1 bronx:2 high:2 school:2 science:4 city:3 college:2 york:2 still:1 teen:1 develop:1 lead:1 independent:1 discovery:1 kolmogorov:4 complexity:4 ref:2 li:1 vitanyi:1 introduction:1 application:1 page:2 g:3 j:4 finish:1 year:1 old:1 undergraduate:1 student:1 university:5 submit:1 two:1 paper:2 second:1 put:1 forward:1 notion:1 define:1 constant:1 ω:2 real:1 number:1 whose:1 digit:1 equidistributed:1 sometimes:1 informally:1 describe:1 expression:1 probability:1 random:2 program:2 halt:2 mathematical:6 property:1 definable:1 computable:1 early:2 work:3 parallel:1 also:4 write:1 philosophy:4 especially:1 metaphysics:2 mathematics:4 particularly:1 epistemological:1 matter:1 claim:2 key:1 solve:1 problem:3 field:1 biology:1 obtain:1 formal:1 definition:1 life:1 origin:1 evolution:1 neuroscience:1 consciousness:1 study:1 mind:1 indeed:1 recent:1 writing:1 defend:1 position:1 know:2 digital:1 epistemology:1 finding:1 logic:1 show:1 fact:3 true:2 reason:1 accident:1 proposes:1 must:1 abandon:1 hope:1 prove:1 adopt:1 quasi:1 empirical:1 methodology:1 originator:1 use:2 graph:1 color:1 register:1 allocation:1 compiling:1 process:1 algorithm:1 give:2 degree:1 doctor:1 honoris:1 causa:1 maine:1 title:1 honorary:1 professor:2 buenos:1 aire:1 argentina:1 parent:1 bear:1 spent:1 part:1 youth:1 research:2 staff:1 member:1 ibm:1 thomas:1 watson:1 center:1 visiting:1 department:1 auckland:1 international:1 committee:1 valparaíso:1 complex:1 system:1 institute:2 criticism:1 philosopher:1 logician:2 strongly:1 disagree:1 philosophical:1 conclusion:1 draw:1 panu:1 raatikainen:1 explore:2 randomness:4 unknowable:2 notice:1 society:1 book:2 review:1 october:1 torkel:2 franzén:2 incomplete:1 guide:1 abuse:1 wellesley:1 massachusetts:1 k:1 peter:1 ltd:1 x:2 pp:1 isbn:3 criticizes:1 interpretation:1 alleged:1 explanation:1 represent:1 see:1 bibliographyalgorithmic:1 cambridge:1 press:1 online:2 world:4 scientific:4 theoretic:1 limit:1 springer:4 verlag:4 conversation:1 size:1 tallinn:1 cybernetics:1 meta:1 math:1 quest:1 omega:3 pantheon:1 think:1 turing:1 note:1 reference:1 ugo:1 pagallo:1 introduzione:1 alla:1 filosofia:1 digitale:1 da:1 leibniz:2 cristian:1 calude:1 ed:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 list:1 publication:1 article:1 march:1 super:1 short:1 version:1 proof:1 |@bigram incompleteness_theorem:3 gödel_incompleteness:2 kolmogorov_complexity:3 chaitin_constant:1 honoris_causa:1 buenos_aire:1 aire_argentina:1 visiting_professor:1 philosopher_logician:1 springer_verlag:4 external_link:1 |
964 | Integrated_Services_Digital_Network | Integrated Services Digital Network is a telephone system network. Prior to the ISDN, the phone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of the ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to the ISDN defined: Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN). ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, that also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in better voice quality than an analog phone. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data), and packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kbit/s. Another major market application is Internet access, where ISDN typically provides a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions (which can be considered to be broadband speed, since it exceeds the narrowband speeds of standard analog 56k telephone lines). ISDN B-channels can be bonded to achieve a greater data rate, typically 3 or 4 BRIs (6 to 8 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded. ISDN should not be mistaken for its use with a specific protocol, such as Q.931 whereby ISDN is employed as the network, data-link and physical layers in the context of the OSI model. In a broad sense ISDN can be considered a suite of digital services existing on layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. ISDN is designed to provide access to voice and data services simultaneously. However, common use has reduced ISDN to be limited to Q.931 and related protocols, which are a set of protocols for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced call features for the user. They were introduced in 1986. Future trends R. Aaron, R. Wyndrum, AT&T Bell Laboratories, IEEE Communications Magazine, March 1986, Vol 24 #3, pp 38-43. Retrieved 2007-09-02. In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems. ISDN elements Integrated Services refers to ISDN's ability to deliver at minimum two simultaneous connections, in any combination of data, voice, video, and fax, over a single line. Multiple devices can be attached to the line, and used as needed. That means an ISDN line can take care of most people's complete communications needs at a much higher transmission rate, without forcing the purchase of multiple analog phone lines. Basic Rate Interface The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic Rate Interface (BRI), a 144 kbit/s service delivered over a pair of standard telephone copper wires. The 144 kbit/s rate is broken down into two 64 kbit/s bearer channels ('B' channels) and one 16 kbit/s signaling channel ('D' channel or Delta channel). BRI is sometimes referred to as 2B+D The Interface specifies the following network interfaces: The U interface is a two-wire interface between the exchange and the Network Terminating Unit which is usually the demarcation point in non-North American networks. The T interface is a serial interface between a computing device and a Terminal Adapter, which is the digital equivalent of a modem. The S interface is a four-wire bus that ISDN consumer devices plug into; the S & T reference points are commonly implemented as a single interface labeled 'S/T' on an NT1 The R interface defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a terminal adapter (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device. BRI-ISDN is very popular in Europe but is much less common in North America. A graph includes "U,T,S,R" can be found at http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/internetworking/technology/handbook/ISDN.html Primary Rate Interface The other ISDN service available is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI) which is carried over an E1 (2048 kbit/s) in most parts of the world. An E1 is 30 'B' channels of 64 kbit/s, one 'D' channel of 64 kbit/s and a timing and alarm channel of 64 kbit/s. In North America PRI service is delivered on one or more T1s (sometimes referred to as 23B+D) of 1544 kbit/s (24 channels). A T1 has 23 'B' channels and 1 'D' channel for signalling (Japan uses a circuit called a J1, which is similar to a T1). In North America, NFAS allows two or more PRIs to be controlled by a single D channel, and is sometimes called "23B+D + n*24B". D-channel backup allows you to have a second D channel in case the primary fails. One popular use of NFAS is on a T3. PRI-ISDN is popular throughout the world, especially for connection of PSTN circuits to PBXs. Even though many network professionals use the term "ISDN" to refer to the lower-bandwidth BRI circuit, in North America by far the majority of ISDN services are in fact PRI circuits serving PBXs. Data Channel The bearer channel (B) is a standard 64 kbit/s voice channel of 8 bits sampled at 8 kHz with G.711 encoding. B-Channels can also be used to carry data, since they are nothing more than digital channels. Each one of these channels is known as a DS0. Most B channels can carry a 64 kbit/s signal, but some were limited to 56K because they traveled over RBS lines. This was more of a problem in the past, and is not commonly encountered nowadays. Signalling Channel The signalling channel (D) uses Q.931 for signalling with the other side of the link. X.25 X.25 can be carried over the B or D channels of a BRI line, and over the B channels of a PRI line. X.25 over the D channel is used at many point-of-sale (credit card) terminals because it eliminates the modem setup, and because it connects to the central system over a B channel, thereby eliminating the need for modems and making much better use of the central system's telephone lines. X.25 was also part of an ISDN protocol called "Always On/Dynamic ISDN", or AO/DI. This allowed a user to have a constant multi-link PPP connection to the internet over X.25 on the D channel, and brought up one or two B channels as needed. Frame Relay In theory, Frame Relay can operate over the D channel of BRIs and PRIs, but it is seldom, if ever, used. Consumer and industry perspectives There are two points of view into the ISDN world. The most common viewpoint is that of the end user, who wants to get a digital connection into the telephone/data network from home, whose performance would be better than an ordinary analog modem connection. The typical end-user's connection to the Internet is related to this point of view, and discussion on the merits of various ISDN modems, carriers' offerings and tarriffing (features, pricing) are from this perspective. Much of the following discussion is from this point of view, but it should be noted that as a data connection service, ISDN has been mostly superseded by DSL. There is a second viewpoint: that of the telephone industry, where ISDN is a core technology. A telephone network can be thought of as a collection of wires strung between switching systems. The common electrical specification for the signals on these wires is T1 or E1. Between telephone company switches, the signaling is performed via SS7. Normally, a corporate or other PBX is connected via a T1, and the signalling was done with A&B bits to indicate on-hook or off-hook conditions and MF and DTMF tones to encode the destination number. ISDN is much better because messages can be sent much more quickly than by trying to encode numbers as long (100 per digit) tone sequences. This translated to much faster call setup times. Also, a greater number of features are available and fraud is reduced. ISDN is also used as a smart-network technology intended to add new services to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) by giving users direct access to end-to-end circuit-switched digital services and as a backup or failsafe circuit solution for critical use data circuits. United States and Canada ISDN-BRI (Basic Rate Interface) has never gained popularity as a telephone access technology in Canada and the US and today remains a niche product. The service was seen as a solution in search of a problem, and the extensive array of options and features were difficult for most customers to understand and utilize. ISDN has long been known by several derogatory acronyms highlighting these issues, such as It Still Does Nothing, Innovations Subscribers Don't Need, and I Still Don't kNow. One of the few places where BRI still exists is in videoconferencing. High-end videoconferencing made by companies such as Sony, Polycom and Tandberg bond up to 6 B-channels together (using a BRI circuit for every 2 channels) to provide digital, circuit-switched video connections to almost anywhere in the world. This is very expensive, and is being replaced by IP-based conferencing, but where cost is no object, and perfect quality required, BRI is the preferred choice. Another user of BRI lines is the US government. Another major user of ISDN BRI is the radio broadcast industry, who can use a single BRI line to send 20kHz stereo bi-directional audio to/from a remote location, provided there is an ISDN BRI line in place and the correct Codec box is used (ABC, CBS, etc. are all big users of ISDN BRI...also voice talent who do work for distant customers use ISDN BRI to get the finished product to the customer, though using the Internet is much easier nowadays). Part of the difficulty is that as BRI was coming into service, the concept of what the word broadband meant was being revised upward to mean at least 256 kbit/s incoming to the customer. As ADSL grew in popularity in the United States, the consumer market for BRI imploded. Its only remaining positive element is that while ADSL has a functional distance limitation, BRI has a greater limit and can use repeaters. As such, BRI may be acceptable in situations where the customer is too remote for ADSL to work. This is further stymied by some North American CLECs having given up on BRI and will not install it as a new option for remote/rural exchanges. AT&T in most states (especially the former SBC/SWB territory) will still install an ISDN BRI line anywhere a normal analog line can be placed and the monthly charge is roughly $55. This gives the user two "voice" lines that can also be used for internet dialup into an ISDN line at 64 or 128kb/s. However, most modern non-VoIP PBXs use ISDN-PRI (Primary Rate Interface) circuits. These are connected via T1 lines with the central office switch, replacing older analog two-way and Direct Inward Dialing (DID) trunks. PRI is capable of delivering Automatic Number Identification (ANI) in both directions so that the telephone number of an extension, rather than a company's main number, can be sent. It is still commonly used in recording studios, when a voice-over actor is in one studio, but the director and producer are in a studio at another location. The ISDN protocol delivers channelized, not-over-the-Internet service, powerful call setup and routing features, faster setup and tear down, superior audio fidelity (as compared to POTS service), lower delay and, at higher densities, lower cost. Japan In Japan, it became popular to some extent from around 1999 to 2001, but now that ADSL has been introduced, the number of subscribers is in decline. NTT, a dominant Japanese telephone company, provides an ISDN service with the names INS64 and INS1500, which are much less recognized than ISDN. United Kingdom In the UK, British Telecom (BT) provides ISDN2e (BRI) as well as ISDN30 (PRI). Until April 2006, they also offered Home Highway and Business Highway, which are BRI ISDN-based services that offer integrated analog connectivity as well as ISDN. Later versions of the Highway products also included built-in USB sockets for direct computer access. Home Highway has been bought by many home users, usually for Internet connection, although not as fast as ADSL, because it was available before ADSL and in places where ADSL does not reach. Virgin Media also use ISDN lines for customers of Virgin Broadband who live in cable TV areas. France France Telecom offers ISDN services under their product name Numeris (2 B+D), of which a professional Duo and home Itoo version is available. ISDN is generally known as RNIS in France and has widespread availability. The introduction of ADSL is reducing ISDN use for data transfer and Internet access, although it is still common in more rural and outlying areas, and for applications such as business voice and point-of-sale terminals. Germany In Germany, ISDN is very popular with an installed base of 25 million channels (29% of all subscriber lines in Germany as of 2003 and 20% of all ISDN channels worldwide). Due to the success of ISDN, the number of installed analog lines is decreasing. Deutsche Telekom (DTAG) offers both BRI and PRI. Competing phone companies often offer ISDN only and no analog lines. Because of the widespread availability of ADSL services, ISDN is today primarily used for voice and fax traffic, but is still very popular thanks to the pricing policy of German telecommunication providers. Today ISDN (BRI) and ADSL/VDSL are often bundled on the same line, mainly because the combination of ADSL with an analog line has no cost advantage over a combined ISDN-ADSL line. India Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, the largest communication service provider in India and a state owned company, is offering both ISDN BRI and PRI services across the country over its ISDN network. After the introduction of ADSL broadband technology with static IPs, the data transfer load is taken up by ADSL. But ISDN still plays a very big role as a backup network for point-to-point leased line customers and low cost reliable data network for organisations located all over India, such as banks, E-seva centres, Life Insurance Corporation of India, SBI ATM's and so on. Reliance (ADAG) is also provides ISDN services, so is VSNL. International occurrence A study Studie des BMBF: ISDN-Verbreitung http://www.bmbf.de/pub/sdi-19-07.pdf of the German Department of Science shows the following spread of ISDN-channels per 1000 inhabitants in the year 2005: Norway 401 Denmark 339 Germany 333 Switzerland 331 Japan 240 160 Finland 160 Sweden 135 Italy 105 France 85 Spain 58 United States 47 Configurations In ISDN, there are two types of channels, B (for "Bearer") and D (for "Delta"). B channels are used for data (which may include voice), and D channels are intended for signaling and control (but can also be used for data). There are two ISDN implementations. Basic Rate Interface (BRI), also called Basic Rate Access (BRA) in Europe — consists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 kbit/s, and one D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. Together these three channels can be designated as 2B+D. Primary Rate Interface (PRI), also called Primary Rate Access (PRA) in Europe — contains a greater number of B channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s. The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the nation: in North America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in Europe, India and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1). Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN) is another ISDN implementation and it is able to manage different types of services at the same time. It is primarily used within network backbones and employs ATM. Another alternative ISDN configuration can be used in which the B channels of an ISDN basic rate interface are bonded to provide a total duplex bandwidth of 128 kbit/s. This precludes use of the line for voice calls while the internet connection is in use. The B channels of several BRIs can be BONDED, a typical use is a 384K videoconferencing channel. Using bipolar with eight-zero substitution encoding technique, call data is transmitted over the data (B) channels, with the signaling (D) channels used for call setup and management. Once a call is set up, there is a simple 64 kbit/s synchronous bidirectional data channel (actually implemented as two simplex channels, one in each direction) between the end parties, lasting until the call is terminated. There can be as many calls as there are bearer channels, to the same or different end-points. Bearer channels may also be multiplexed into what may be considered single, higher-bandwidth channels via a process called B channel BONDING, or via use of Multi-Link PPP "bundling" or by using an H0, H11, or H12 channel on a PRI. The D channel can also be used for sending and receiving X.25 data packets, and connection to X.25 packet network, this is specified in X.31. In practice, X.31 was only commercially implemented in UK, France and Japan. Reference points A set of reference points are defined in the ISDN standard to refer to certain points between the telco and the end user ISDN equipment. R - defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a terminal adapter (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device S - defines the point between the ISDN equipment (or TA) and a Network Termination Type 2 (NT-2) device T - defines the point between the NT-2 and NT-1 devices1 1 Most NT-1 devices can perform the functions of the NT-2 as well, and so the S and T reference points are generally collapsed into the S/T reference point. ² Inside North America, the NT-1 device is considered customer premises equipment (CPE) and must be maintained by the customer, thus, the U interface is provided to the customer. In other locations, the NT-1 device is maintained by the telco, and the S/T interface is provided to the customer. In India, service providers provide U interface and an NT1 may be supplied by Service provider as part of service offering Types of communications Among the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64 kbit/s channels are pulse-code modulated voice calls, providing access to the traditional voice PSTN. This information can be passed between the network and the user end-point at call set-up time. In North America, ISDN is now used mostly as an alternative to analog connections, most commonly for Internet access. Some of the services envisioned as being delivered over ISDN are now delivered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany in particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a phone with features, as opposed to a POTS phone (Plain Old Telephone Service) with few or no features. Meanwhile, features that were first available with ISDN (such as Three-Way Call, Call Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly available for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this advantage of ISDN. Another advantage of ISDN was the possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased popularity and reduced prices of mobile telephony this has become less interesting as well, making ISDN unappealing to the private customer. However, ISDN is typically more reliable than POTS, and has a significantly faster call setup time compared with POTS, and IP connections over ISDN typically have some 30–35ms round trip time, as opposed to 120–180ms (both measured with otherwise unused lines) over 56k or V.34/V.92 modems, making ISDN more reliable and more efficient for telecommuters. Where an analog connection requires a modem, an ISDN connection requires a terminal adapter (TA). The function of an ISDN terminal adapter is often delivered in the form of a PC card with an S/T interface, and single-chip solutions seem to exist, considering the plethora of combined ISDN- and ADSL-routers. ISDN is commonly used in radio broadcasting. Since ISDN provides a high quality connection this assists in delivering good quality audio for transmission in radio. Most radio studios are equipped with ISDN lines as their main form of communication with other studios or standard phone lines. Equipment made by companies such as Omnia (the popular Zephyr codec) and others are used regularly by radio broadcasters. Sometimes a dipswitch setting must be changed on one codec to "talk" with another made by a different manufactuer. Sample call The following is an example of a Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN call showing the Q.921/LAPD and the Q.931/Network message intermixed (i.e. exactly what was exchanged on the D-channel). The call is originating from the switch where the trace was taken and goes out to some other switch, possibly an end-office LEC, who terminates the call. The first line format is <time> <D-channel> <Transmitted/Received> <LAPD/ISDN message ID>. If the message is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the message is attempted showing the various Information Elements that make up the message. All ISDN messages are tagged with an ID number relative to the switch that started the call (local/remote). Following this optional decoding is a dump of the bytes of the message in <offset> <hex> ... <hex> <ascii> ... <ascii> format. The RR messages at the beginning prior to the call are the keep alive messages. Then you will see a SETUP message that starts the call. Each message is acknowledged by the other side with a RR. 10:49:47.33 21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01 01 a5 .... 10:49:47.34 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 b9 .... 10:50:17.57 21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01 01 a5 .... 10:50:17.58 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 b9 .... 10:50:24.37 21/1/24 T SETUP Call Reference : 000062-local Bearer Capability : CCITT, Speech, Circuit mode, 64 kbit/s Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive Calling Party Number : 8018023000 National number User-provided, not screened Presentation allowed Called Party Number : 3739120 Type: SUBSCRB 0000 00 01 a4 b8 08 02 00 3e 05 04 03 80 90 a2 18 03 .......>........ 0010 a9 83 85 6c 0c 21 80 38 30 31 38 30 32 33 30 30 ...l.!.801802300 0020 30 70 08 c1 33 37 33 39 31 32 30 0p..3739120 10:50:24.37 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 a6 .... 10:50:24.77 21/1/24 R CALL PROCEEDING Call Reference : 000062-local Channel ID : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive 0000 02 01 b8 a6 08 02 80 3e 02 18 03 a9 83 85 .......>...... 10:50:24.77 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 ba .... 10:50:25.02 21/1/24 R ALERTING Call Reference : 000062-local Progress Indicator : CCITT, Public network serving local user, In-band information or an appropriate pattern is now available 0000 02 01 ba a6 08 02 80 3e 01 1e 02 82 88 .......>..... 10:50:25.02 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 bc .... 10:50:28.43 21/1/24 R CONNECT Call Reference : 000062-local 0000 02 01 bc a6 08 02 80 3e 07 .......>. 10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 be .... 10:50:28.43 21/1/24 T CONNECT_ACK Call Reference : 000062-local 0000 00 01 a6 be 08 02 00 3e 0f .......>. 10:50:28.44 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 a8 .... 10:50:35.69 21/1/24 T DISCONNECT Call Reference : 000062-local Cause : 16, Normal call clearing. 0000 00 01 a8 be 08 02 00 3e 45 08 02 8a 90 .......>E.... 10:50:35.70 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 aa .... 10:50:36.98 21/1/24 R RELEASE Call Reference : 000062-local 0000 02 01 be aa 08 02 80 3e 4d .......>M 10:50:36.98 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 c0 .... 10:50:36.99 21/1/24 T RELEASE COMPLETE Call Reference : 000062-local 0000 00 01 aa c0 08 02 00 3e 5a .......>Z 10:50:36.00 21/1/24 R RR 0000 00 01 01 ac .... 10:51:06.10 21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01 01 ad .... 10:51:06.10 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 c1 .... 10:51:36.37 21/1/24 R RR 0000 02 01 01 ad .... 10:51:36.37 21/1/24 T RR 0000 02 01 01 c1 .... See also Protocols DSS1 (ETSI "Euro-ISDN", also used in many non-European countries) DSS2 (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2) ETS 300 specification at ETSI NI-1 (US National ISDN Phase 1) NI-2 (US National ISDN Phase 2) 4ESS (Lucent 4ESS specific protocol defined in AT&T TR 41459) INS-NET 64/1500 (Japanese national/NTT carrier-specific protocol) DACS used in the UK by British Telecom it uses non standard D channel signalling for Pair gain QSIG Remote operations service element protocol (ROSE) Q.931 FTZ 1 TR 6 (obsolete German national protocol) TS.013/TS.014 (obsolete Australian national protocol) VN2/VN3/VN4 (obsolete French national protocols) Specifications defining the physical layer and part of the data link layers of ISDN: ISDN BRI: ITU-T I.430. ISDN PRI: ITU-T I.431. From the point of view of the OSI architecture, an ISDN line has a stack of three protocols physical layer data link layer network layer (the ISDN protocol, properly) Other CAPI ADSL ATM B-ISDN Internet H.320 ETSI List of device bandwidths References External links http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-I/e (list of published recommendations available in English, french and Spanish) http://hea-www.harvard.edu/~fine/ISDN/ http://www.ralphb.net/ISDN/ http://www.roblee.com/isdn.htm be-x-old:ISDN | Integrated_Services_Digital_Network |@lemmatized integrate:5 service:31 digital:10 network:24 telephone:16 system:10 prior:2 isdn:107 phone:8 view:5 way:3 transport:1 voice:17 special:1 available:10 data:26 key:1 feature:10 speech:2 line:32 add:2 classic:1 several:3 kind:2 access:12 interface:28 define:8 basic:7 rate:19 bri:29 primary:8 pri:16 broadband:6 b:26 circuit:14 switch:12 also:18 provide:18 packet:4 switched:2 design:2 allow:5 transmission:4 ordinary:3 copper:2 wire:6 result:1 good:4 quality:4 analog:13 offer:8 connection:19 either:1 increment:1 kbit:22 another:8 major:2 market:3 application:2 internet:12 typically:4 maximum:1 upstream:1 downstream:1 direction:3 consider:5 speed:2 since:3 exceed:1 narrowband:1 standard:6 channel:66 bond:5 achieve:1 great:4 bris:3 mistake:1 use:43 specific:3 protocol:13 q:6 whereby:1 employ:2 link:7 physical:3 layer:7 context:1 osi:3 model:2 broad:1 sense:1 suite:1 exist:3 simultaneously:1 however:3 common:5 reduce:3 limit:4 related:1 set:4 establish:1 break:2 advanced:1 call:41 user:14 introduce:2 future:1 trend:1 r:17 aaron:1 wyndrum:1 bell:1 laboratory:1 ieee:1 communication:5 magazine:1 march:1 vol:1 pp:1 retrieve:1 videoconference:1 simultaneous:3 video:3 text:1 individual:1 desktop:1 videoconferencing:5 group:1 room:1 element:4 refers:1 ability:1 deliver:8 minimum:1 two:12 combination:2 fax:2 single:6 multiple:3 device:12 attach:1 need:5 mean:2 take:3 care:1 people:1 complete:2 much:9 high:5 without:1 force:1 purchase:1 entry:1 level:2 pair:2 bearer:6 one:12 signal:9 delta:2 sometimes:4 refer:4 specify:2 following:4 u:9 exchange:3 terminate:3 unit:1 usually:2 demarcation:1 point:21 non:6 north:9 american:2 serial:1 compute:1 terminal:7 adapter:5 equivalent:1 modem:7 four:1 bus:1 consumer:3 plug:1 reference:14 commonly:6 implement:3 label:1 ta:4 translation:2 popular:7 europe:5 less:3 america:7 graph:1 include:3 find:1 http:6 www:6 cisco:1 com:2 en:1 docs:1 internetworking:1 technology:5 handbook:1 html:1 carry:4 part:5 world:4 timing:1 alarm:1 japan:6 similar:1 nfas:2 pris:2 control:2 n:1 backup:3 second:2 case:1 fail:1 throughout:1 especially:2 pstn:3 pbxs:3 even:1 though:2 many:5 professional:2 term:1 low:4 bandwidth:7 far:1 majority:1 fact:1 serve:2 bit:4 sample:2 khz:1 g:2 encode:4 nothing:2 know:4 travel:1 rbs:1 problem:2 past:1 encounter:1 nowadays:2 signalling:2 side:2 x:10 sale:2 credit:1 card:2 eliminate:3 setup:8 connect:4 central:3 thereby:1 make:7 always:1 dynamic:1 ao:1 di:1 constant:1 multi:2 ppp:2 bring:1 frame:2 relay:2 theory:1 operate:1 seldom:1 ever:1 industry:3 perspective:2 viewpoint:2 end:10 want:1 get:2 home:5 whose:1 performance:1 would:1 typical:2 relate:1 discussion:2 merit:1 various:2 carrier:2 offering:1 tarriffing:1 pricing:2 note:1 mostly:2 supersede:1 dsl:1 core:1 think:1 collection:1 string:1 electrical:1 specification:3 company:7 signaling:2 perform:2 via:5 normally:1 corporate:1 pbx:1 indicate:1 hook:2 condition:1 mf:1 dtmf:1 tone:2 destination:1 number:14 well:6 message:13 send:4 quickly:1 try:1 long:2 per:3 digit:1 sequence:1 translate:1 fast:3 time:6 fraud:1 smart:1 intend:2 new:2 public:2 give:3 direct:3 failsafe:1 solution:3 critical:1 united:4 state:5 canada:2 never:1 gain:2 popularity:3 today:3 remain:2 niche:1 product:4 see:3 search:1 extensive:1 array:1 option:2 difficult:1 customer:12 understand:1 utilize:1 derogatory:1 acronym:1 highlight:1 issue:1 still:8 innovation:1 subscriber:4 place:4 sony:1 polycom:1 tandberg:1 together:2 every:1 almost:1 anywhere:2 expensive:1 replace:2 ip:3 base:3 conferencing:1 cost:4 object:1 perfect:1 require:3 preferred:1 choice:1 government:1 radio:5 broadcast:1 stereo:1 bi:1 directional:1 audio:3 remote:5 location:3 correct:1 codec:3 box:1 abc:1 cbs:1 etc:2 big:3 talent:1 work:2 distant:1 finished:1 easy:1 difficulty:1 come:1 concept:1 word:1 meant:1 revise:1 upward:1 least:1 incoming:1 adsl:16 grow:1 implode:1 positive:1 functional:1 distance:1 limitation:1 repeater:1 may:5 acceptable:1 situation:1 stymie:1 clecs:1 install:2 rural:2 former:1 sbc:1 swb:1 territory:1 normal:2 monthly:1 charge:1 roughly:1 dialup:1 modern:1 voip:1 office:2 old:3 inward:1 dialing:1 trunk:1 capable:1 automatic:1 identification:1 ani:1 extension:1 rather:1 main:2 record:1 studio:5 actor:1 director:1 producer:1 delivers:1 channelize:1 powerful:1 routing:1 tear:1 superior:1 fidelity:1 compare:2 pot:3 delay:1 density:1 become:2 extent:1 around:1 decline:1 ntt:2 dominant:1 japanese:2 name:2 recognize:1 kingdom:1 uk:3 british:2 telecom:3 bt:1 april:1 highway:4 business:2 connectivity:1 late:1 version:2 build:1 usb:1 socket:1 computer:1 buy:1 although:2 reach:1 virgin:2 medium:1 live:1 cable:1 tv:1 area:2 france:5 numeris:1 duo:1 itoo:1 generally:2 rnis:1 widespread:2 availability:2 introduction:2 transfer:2 outlying:1 germany:5 installed:2 million:1 worldwide:1 due:1 success:1 decrease:1 deutsche:1 telekom:1 dtag:1 compete:1 often:3 primarily:2 traffic:1 thanks:1 policy:1 german:3 telecommunication:1 provider:4 vdsl:1 bundle:2 mainly:1 advantage:3 combined:2 india:6 bharat:1 sanchar:1 nigam:1 large:1 across:1 country:2 static:1 load:1 play:1 role:1 lease:1 reliable:3 organisation:1 locate:1 bank:1 e:5 seva:1 centre:1 life:1 insurance:1 corporation:1 sbi:1 atm:3 reliance:1 adag:1 vsnl:1 international:1 occurrence:1 study:1 studie:1 de:2 bmbf:2 verbreitung:1 pub:1 sdi:1 pdf:1 department:1 science:1 show:3 spread:1 inhabitant:1 year:1 norway:1 denmark:1 switzerland:1 finland:1 sweden:1 italy:1 spain:1 configuration:2 type:5 implementation:2 bra:1 consist:1 three:3 designate:1 pra:1 contain:1 varies:1 accord:1 nation:1 aggregate:2 mbit:2 australia:1 bisdn:1 able:1 manage:1 different:3 within:1 backbone:1 alternative:2 total:1 duplex:1 preclude:1 bipolar:1 eight:1 zero:1 substitution:1 technique:1 transmit:2 management:1 simple:1 synchronous:1 bidirectional:1 actually:1 simplex:1 party:3 last:1 multiplexed:1 process:1 bonding:1 receive:2 practice:1 commercially:1 certain:1 telco:2 equipment:4 termination:1 nt:7 function:2 collapse:1 inside:1 premise:1 cpe:1 must:2 maintain:2 thus:1 supply:1 among:1 move:1 pulse:1 code:1 modulated:1 traditional:1 information:3 pass:1 envision:1 instead:1 particular:1 successfully:1 oppose:2 pots:1 plain:1 meanwhile:1 first:2 forwarding:1 caller:1 id:7 possibility:1 family:1 increase:1 reduced:1 price:1 mobile:1 telephony:1 interesting:1 unappealing:1 private:1 significantly:1 faster:1 round:1 trip:1 measure:1 otherwise:1 unused:1 v:2 efficient:1 telecommuters:1 form:2 pc:1 chip:1 seem:1 plethora:1 router:1 broadcasting:1 assist:1 equip:1 omnia:1 zephyr:1 others:1 regularly:1 broadcaster:1 dipswitch:1 setting:1 change:1 talk:1 manufactuer:1 example:1 lapd:2 intermixed:1 exactly:1 originate:1 trace:1 go:1 possibly:1 lec:1 format:2 decoding:2 attempt:1 tag:1 relative:1 start:2 local:10 follow:1 optional:1 dump:1 byte:1 offset:1 hex:2 ascii:2 rr:18 begin:1 keep:1 alive:1 acknowledge:1 capability:1 ccitt:2 mode:1 implicit:2 implies:2 current:2 span:2 exclusive:2 national:7 screen:1 presentation:1 subscrb:1 l:1 proceed:1 ba:2 alert:1 progress:1 indicator:1 band:1 appropriate:1 pattern:1 bc:2 disconnect:1 cause:1 clearing:1 aa:3 release:2 z:1 ac:1 ad:2 protocols:1 etsi:3 euro:1 european:1 ets:1 ni:2 phase:2 lucent:1 tr:2 ins:1 net:2 dacs:1 qsig:1 operation:1 rise:1 ftz:1 obsolete:3 australian:1 french:2 itu:3 architecture:1 stack:1 properly:1 capi:1 h:1 list:2 external:1 int:1 rec:2 publish:1 recommendation:1 english:1 spanish:1 hea:1 harvard:1 edu:1 fine:1 ralphb:1 roblee:1 htm:1 |@bigram upstream_downstream:1 layer_osi:1 http_www:5 dtmf_tone:1 isdn_bri:9 bi_directional:1 static_ip:1 nt_nt:2 caller_id:1 mobile_telephony:1 euro_isdn:1 external_link:1 itu_int:1 |
965 | Philip_K._Dick | Philip Kindred Dick (December 16, – March 2, ) was an American novelist, short story writer, and essayist whose published work during his lifetime was almost entirely in the science fiction genre. Dick explored sociological, political and metaphysical themes in novels dominated by monopolistic corporations, authoritarian governments, and altered states. In his later works, Dick's thematic focus strongly reflected his personal interest in metaphysics and theology. He often drew upon his own life experiences and addressed the nature of drug use, paranoia and schizophrenia, and transcendental experiences in novels such as A Scanner Darkly and VALIS. The novel The Man in the High Castle bridged the genres of alternate history and science fiction, earning Dick a Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1963. Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said, a novel about a celebrity who awakens in a parallel universe where he is unknown, won the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for best novel in 1975. "I want to write about people I love, and put them into a fictional world spun out of my own mind, not the world we actually have, because the world we actually have does not meet my standards," Dick wrote of these stories. "In my writing I even question the universe; I wonder out loud if it is real, and I wonder out loud if all of us are real." Dick referred to himself as a "fictionalizing philosopher." In addition to thirty-six novels, Dick wrote approximately 121 short stories, many of which appeared in science fiction magazines. Although Dick spent most of his career as a writer in near-poverty, nine of his stories have been adapted into popular films since his death, including Blade Runner, Total Recall, A Scanner Darkly and Minority Report. In 2005, Time magazine named Ubik one of the one hundred greatest English-language novels published since 1923. In 2007, Dick became the first science fiction writer to be included in The Library of America series. Stoffman, Judy "A milestone in literary heritage" Toronto Star (February 10, 2007) Library of America Philip K. Dick: Four Novels of the 1960s Library of America H.P. Lovecraft: Tales Associated Press "Library of America to issue volume of Philip K. Dick" USA Today (November 28, 2006) Life Early life Philip Kindred Dick and his twin sister, Jane Charlotte Dick, were born six weeks prematurely to Dorothy Kindred Dick and Joseph Edgar Dick in Chicago. Dick's father, a fraud investigator for the United States Department of Agriculture, had recently taken out life insurance policies on the family. An insurance nurse was dispatched to the Dick household. Upon seeing the malnourished Philip and injured Jane, the nurse rushed the babies to hospital. Baby Jane died en route, just five weeks after her birth (January 26, 1929). The death of Philip's twin sister profoundly affected his writing, relationships, and every aspect of his life, leading to the recurrent motif of the "phantom twin" in many of his books. The family moved to the San Francisco Bay Area. When Philip turned five, his father was transferred to Reno, Nevada. Dorothy refused to move, and she and Joseph were divorced. Joseph fought her for custody of Philip but did not win the case. Dorothy, determined to raise Philip alone, took a job in Washington, D.C. and moved there with her son. Philip K. Dick was enrolled at John Eaton Elementary School from 1936 to 1938, completing the second through the fourth grades. His lowest grade was a "C" in written composition, although a teacher remarked that he "shows interest and ability in story telling." In June 1938, Dorothy and Philip returned to California. Dick attended Berkeley High School in Berkeley, California. He and Ursula K. Le Guin were members of the same high school graduating class (1947), yet were unknown to each other at the time. After graduating from high school he briefly attended the University of California, Berkeley as a German major, but dropped out before completing any coursework rather than participate in mandatory ROTC training. At Berkeley, Dick befriended poets Robert Duncan and poet and linguist Jack Spicer, who gave Dick ideas for a Martian language. Dick claimed to have been host of a classical music program on KSMO Radio in 1947. From 1948 to 1952 he worked in a record store. In 1955, Dick and his second wife, Kleo Apostolides, received a visit from the FBI. They believed this resulted from Kleo's socialist views and left-wing activities. The couple briefly befriended one of the FBI agents. Career Dick sold his first story in . From that point on he wrote full-time, selling his first novel in . The 1950s were a difficult and impoverished time for Dick. He once said, "We couldn't even pay the late fees on a library book." He published almost exclusively within the science fiction genre, but dreamed of a career in the mainstream of American literature. During the 1950s he produced a series of nongenre, non-science fiction novels. In 1960 he wrote that he was willing to "take twenty to thirty years to succeed as a literary writer." The dream of mainstream success formally died in January when the Scott Meredith Literary Agency returned all of his unsold mainstream novels. Only one of these works, Confessions of a Crap Artist, was published during Dick’s lifetime. In , Dick won the Hugo Award for The Man in the High Castle. Although he was hailed as a genius in the science fiction world, the mainstream literary world was unappreciative, and he could publish books only through low-paying science fiction publishers such as Ace. Even in his later years, he continued to have financial troubles. In the introduction to the short story collection The Golden Man, Dick wrote: "Several years ago, when I was ill, Heinlein offered his help, anything he could do, and we had never met; he would phone me to cheer me up and see how I was doing. He wanted to buy me an electric typewriter, God bless him—one of the few true gentlemen in this world. I don't agree with any ideas he puts forth in his writing, but that is neither here nor there. One time when I owed the IRS a lot of money and couldn't raise it, Heinlein loaned the money to me. I think a great deal of him and his wife; I dedicated a book to them in appreciation. Robert Heinlein is a fine-looking man, very impressive and very military in stance; you can tell he has a military background, even to the haircut. He knows I'm a flipped-out freak and still he helped me and my wife when we were in trouble. That is the best in humanity, there; that is who and what I love." The last novel published during Dick's life was The Transmigration of Timothy Archer. In , Dick donated his manuscripts and papers to the Special Collections Library at California State University, Fullerton where they are archived in the Philip K. Dick Science Fiction Collection in the Pollak Library. It was in Fullerton that Philip K. Dick befriended budding science-fiction writers K. W. Jeter, James Blaylock, and Tim Powers. Mental health In his boyhood, around the age of thirteen, Dick had a recurring dream for several weeks. He dreamed he was in a bookstore, trying to find an issue of Astounding Magazine. This issue of the magazine would contain the story titled "The Empire Never Ended", which would reveal the secrets of the universe to him. As the dream recurred, the pile of magazines he searched grew smaller and smaller, but he never reached the bottom. Eventually, he became anxious that discovering the magazine would drive him mad (as in Lovecraft's Necronomicon or Chambers' The King in Yellow, promising insanity to the reader). Shortly thereafter, the dreams ceased, but the phrase "The Empire Never Ended" would appear later in his work. Dick was a voracious reader of religion, philosophy, metaphysics and Gnosticism, ideas of which appear in many of his stories and visions. On February 20, 1974, Dick was recovering from the effects of sodium pentothal administered for the extraction of an impacted wisdom tooth. Answering the door to receive delivery of extra analgesic, he noticed that the delivery woman was wearing a pendant with a symbol that he called the "vesicle pisces". This name seems to have been based on his confusion of two related symbols, the ichthys (two intersecting arcs delineating a fish in profile) that early Christians used as a secret symbol, and the vesica piscis. After the delivery woman's departure, Dick began experiencing strange visions. Although they may have been initially attributable to the medication, after weeks of visions he considered this explanation implausible. "I experienced an invasion of my mind by a transcendentally rational mind, as if I had been insane all my life and suddenly I had become sane," Dick told Charles Platt. Throughout February and March 1974, he experienced a series of visions, which he referred to as "two-three-seventy four" (2-3-74), shorthand for February-March 1974. He described the initial visions as laser beams and geometric patterns, and, occasionally, brief pictures of Jesus and of ancient Rome. As the visions increased in length and frequency, Dick claimed he began to live a double life, one as himself, "Philip K. Dick", and one as "Thomas", a Christian persecuted by Romans in the 1st century A.D. Despite his history of drug use and elevated stroke risk, Dick began seeking other rationalist and religious explanations for these experiences. He referred to the "transcendentally rational mind" as "Zebra", "God" and, most often, "VALIS". Dick wrote about the experiences in the semi-autobiographical novels VALIS and Radio Free Albemuth. At one point Dick felt that he had been taken over by the spirit of the prophet Elijah. He believed that an episode in his novel Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said was a detailed retelling of a story from the Biblical Book of Acts, which he had never read. In time, Dick became paranoid, imagining plots against him by the KGB and FBI. At one point, he alleged they were responsible for a burglary of his house, from which documents were stolen. He later came to suspect that he might have committed the burglary against himself, and then forgotten he had done so. Dick himself speculated as to whether he may have suffered from schizophrenia. Personal life Dick married five times, and had two daughters and a son; each marriage ended in divorce. May 1948, to Jeanette Marlin – lasted six months June 1950, to Kleo Apostolides – divorced 1959 1959, to Anne Williams Rubinstein – divorced 1964 child: Laura Archer, born February 25, 1960 1966, to Nancy Hackett – divorced 1972 child: Isolde, "Isa", born 1967 April 18, 1973, to Leslie (Tessa) Busby – divorced 1977 child: Christopher, born 1973 Death Philip K. Dick Android in the Nextfest Exhibition at Navy Pier Philip K. Dick died in Santa Ana, California, on March 2, . He had suffered a stroke five days earlier, and was disconnected from life support after his EEG had been consistently isoelectric since losing consciousness. After his death, his father Edgar took his son's ashes to Fort Morgan, Colorado. When his twin sister Jane died, her tombstone had both their names carved on it, with an empty space for Dick's death date. Brother and sister were eventually buried next to each other. Dick was "resurrected" by his fans in the form of a remote-controlled android designed in his likeness. The android of Philip K. Dick was included on a discussion panel in a San Diego Comic Con presentation about the film adaptation of the novel, A Scanner Darkly. In February 2006, an America West Airlines employee misplaced the android, and it has not yet been found. Biographical treatments Books Lawrence Sutin's biography of Dick, Divine Invasions: A Life of Philip K. Dick, is considered the standard biographical treatment of Dick's life. In , French writer Emmanuel Carrère published "Je suis vivant et vous êtes morts" which was first translated and published in English in as I Am Alive and You Are Dead: A Journey Into the Mind of Philip K. Dick, which the author describes in his preface in this way:The book you hold in your hands is a very peculiar book. I have tried to depict the life of Philip K. Dick from the inside, in other words, with the same freedom and empathy – indeed with the same truth – with which he depicted his own characters. Critics of the book have complained about the lack of fact checking, sourcing, notes and index, "the usual evidence of deep research that gives a biography the solid stamp of authority." It can be considered a non-fiction novel about his life. Films On August 8, 2006, actor Paul Giamatti announced that his company, Touchy Feely Films, plans to produce a biopic about Dick, with the permission of his daughter Isa Dick Hackett, through her company Electric Shepherd Productions. The film will bear the title of Dick's unfinished novel The Owl in Daylight, but is not to be an adaptation of it. , it was scheduled to open in 2009. Tony Grisoni, who wrote the screenplays for Terry Gilliam's Tideland and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, is writing the script, and Giamatti will play Dick. Writer-director John Alan Simon is making a semiautobiograhical film based on Dick's novel Radio Free Albemuth starring Shea Whigham as the author. A film titled Your Name Here, by Matthew Wilder, features Bill Pullman as science fiction author William J. Frick, a character based on Dick. BBC2 released in a biography called Arena - Philip K Dick: A day in the afterlife. Arena - Philip K Dick: A day in the afterlife Style and works Pen names Dick occasionally wrote under pen names, most notably Richard Philips and Jack Dowland. The surname Dowland refers to Renaissance composer John Dowland, who is featured in several works. The title Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said directly refers to Dowland's best-known composition, "Flow My Tears". In the novel The Divine Invasion, the 'Linda Fox' character is an intergalactically famous singer whose entire body of work consists of recordings of John Dowland compositions. Also, some protagonists in Dick's short fiction are named 'Dowland'. The short story "Orpheus with Clay Feet" was published under the pen name "Jack Dowland". The protagonist desires to be the muse for fictional author Jack Dowland, considered the greatest science fiction author of the 20th century. In the story, Dowland publishes a short story titled "Orpheus with Clay Feet", under the pen name "Philip K. Dick". In the semi-autobiographical novel VALIS, the protagonist is named "Horselover Fat"; "Philip", or "Phil-Hippos", is Greek for "horselover", while "dick" is German for "fat" (a cognate of thick). Although he never used it himself, Dick's fans and critics often refer to him familiarly as "PKD" (cf. Jorge Luis Borges' "JLB"), and use the comparative literary adjectives "Dickian" and "Phildickian" in describing his style and themes (cf. Kafkaesque, Orwellian). Themes Dick's stories typically focus on the fragile nature of what is "real" and the construction of personal identity. His stories often become surreal fantasies as the main characters slowly discover that their everyday world is actually an illusion constructed by powerful external entities (such as in Ubik), vast political conspiracies, or simply from the vicissitudes of an unreliable narrator. "All of his work starts with the basic assumption that there cannot be one, single, objective reality," writes science fiction author Charles Platt. "Everything is a matter of perception. The ground is liable to shift under your feet. A protagonist may find himself living out another person's dream, or he may enter a drug-induced state that actually makes better sense than the real world, or he may cross into a different universe completely." Alternate universes and simulacra were common plot devices, with fictional worlds inhabited by common, working people, rather than galactic elites. "There are no heroes in Dick's books," Ursula K. Le Guin wrote, "but there are heroics. One is reminded of Dickens: what counts is the honesty, constancy, kindness and patience of ordinary people." Dick made no secret that much of his ideas and work were heavily influenced by the writings of Carl Jung, the Swiss founder of the theory of the human psyche he called "Analytical Psychology" (to distinguish it from Freud's theory of psychoanalysis). Jung was a self-taught expert on the unconscious and mythological foundations of conscious experience and was open to the reality underlying mystical experiences. The Jungian constructs and models that most concerned Dick seem to be the archetypes of the collective unconscious, group projection/ hallucination, synchronicities, and personality theory. Many of Dick's protagonists overtly analyze reality and their perceptions in Jungian terms (see Lies Inc.), while other times, the themes are so obviously in reference to Jung their usage needs no explanation. Dick's self-named "Exegesis" also contained many notes on Jung in relation to theology and mysticism. Mental illness was a constant interest of Dick's, and themes of mental illness permeate his work. The character Jack Bohlen in the novel Martian Time-Slip is an "ex-schizophrenic". The novel Clans of the Alphane Moon centers on an entire society made up of descendants of lunatic asylum inmates. In 1965 he wrote the essay titled Schizophrenia and the Book of Changes. Drug use was also a theme in many of Dick’s works, such as A Scanner Darkly and The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch. Dick was a drug user for much of his life. According to a 1975 interview in Rolling Stone, Dick wrote all of his books published before 1970 high on amphetamines. "A Scanner Darkly () was the first complete novel I had written without speed," said Dick in the interview. He also experimented briefly with psychedelics, but wrote The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch, which Rolling Stone dubs "the classic LSD novel of all time," before he had ever tried them. Despite his heavy amphetamine use, however, Dick later said that doctors had told him that the amphetamines never actually affected him, that his liver had processed them before they reached his brain. Selected works The Man in the High Castle () occurs in an alternate universe United States ruled by the victorious Axis powers. It is considered a defining novel of the alternate history sub-genre, The Man in the High Castle by Philip K Dick - an infinity plus review Adam Roberts, Infinity Plus and is the only Dick novel to win a Hugo Award. Philipkdickfans.com recommends this novel, along with Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and Ubik, as an introductory novel to readers new to the writing of Philip K. Dick. The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch () utilizes an array of science fiction concepts and features several layers of reality and unreality. It is also one of Dick’s first works to explore religious themes. The novel takes place in the twenty-first century, when, under United Nations authority, mankind has colonized the solar system's every habitable planet and moon. Life is physically daunting and psychologically monotonous for most colonists, so the UN must draft people to go to the colonies. Most entertain themselves using "Perky Pat" dolls and accessories manufactured by Earth-based "P.P. Layouts". The company also secretly creates "Can-D", an illegal but widely available hallucinogenic drug allowing the user to "translate" into Perky Pat (if the drug user is a woman) or Pat's boyfriend, Walt (if the drug user is a man). This recreational use of Can-D allows colonists to experience a few minutes of an idealized life on Earth by participating in a collective hallucination. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? () is the story of a bounty hunter policing the local android population. It occurs on a dying, poisoned Earth de-populated of all "successful" humans; the only remaining inhabitants of the planet are people with no prospects off-world. Androids, also known as andys, all have a preset "death" date. However, a few andys seek to escape this fate and supplant the humans on Earth. The 1968 story is the literary source of the film Blade Runner (1982). It is both a conflation and an intensification of the pivotally Dickian question, What is real, what is fake? Are the human-looking and human-acting androids fake or real humans? Should we treat them as machines or as people? What crucial factor defines humanity as distinctly 'alive', versus those merely alive only in their outward appearance? Ubik () uses extensive networks of psychics and a suspended state after death in creating a state of eroding reality. A group of psychics is sent to investigate a group of rival psychics, but several of them are apparently killed by a saboteur's bomb. Much of the novel flicks between a number of equally plausible realities; the "real" reality, a state of half-life and psychically manipulated realities. In 2005, Time Magazine listed it among the "All-TIME 100 Greatest Novels" published since 1923. Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said () concerns Jason Taverner, a television star living in a dystopian near-future police state. After being attacked by an angry ex-girlfriend, Taverner awakens in a dingy Los Angeles hotel room. He still has his money in his wallet, but his identification cards are missing. This is no minor inconvenience, as security checkpoints (manned by "pols" and "nats", the police and National Guard) are set up throughout the city to stop and arrest anyone without valid ID. Jason at first thinks that he was robbed, but soon discovers that his entire identity has been erased. There is no record of him in any official database, and even his closest associates do not recognize or remember him. For the first time in many years, Jason has no fame or reputation to rely on. He has only his innate charisma to help him as he tries to find out what happened to his past and avoid the attention of the pols. The novel was Dick's first published novel after years of silence, during which time his critical reputation had grown, and this novel was awarded the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel. It is the only Philip K. Dick novel nominated both for a Hugo and for a Nebula Award. In an essay written two years before dying, Dick described how he learned from his Episcopalian priest that an important scene in Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said – involving its other main character, Police General Felix Buckman, the policeman of the title – was very similar to a scene in the Book of Acts. Film director Richard Linklater discusses this novel in his film Waking Life, which begins with a scene reminiscent of another Dick novel, Time Out of Joint. A Scanner Darkly () is a bleak mixture of science fiction and police procedural novels; in its story, an undercover narcotics police detective begins to lose touch with reality after falling victim to the same permanently mind altering drug, Substance D, he was enlisted to help fight. Substance D is instantly addictive, beginning with a pleasant euphoria which is quickly replaced with increasing confusion, hallucinations and eventually total psychosis. In this novel, as with all Dick novels, there is an underlying thread of paranoia and dissociation with multiple realities perceived simultaneously. It was adapted to film by Richard Linklater. VALIS () is perhaps Dick’s most postmodern and autobiographical novel, examining his own unexplained experiences (see above). It may also be his most academically studied work, and was adapted as an opera by Tod Machover. VALIS was voted Philip K. Dick‘s best novel at the website philipkdickfans.com. Later works like the VALIS trilogy were heavily autobiographical, many with "two-three-seventy-four" (2-3-74) references and influences. The word VALIS is the acronym for Vast Active Living Intelligence System; it is the title of a novel (and is continued thematically in at least three more novels). Later, PKD theorized that VALIS was both a "reality generator" and a means of extraterrestrial communication. A fourth VALIS manuscript, Radio Free Albemuth, although composed in , was discovered after his death and published in 1985. This work is described by the publisher (Arbor House) as "an introduction and key to his magnificent VALIS trilogy." Regardless of the feeling that he was somehow experiencing a divine communication, Dick was never fully able to rationalize the events. For the rest of his life, he struggled to comprehend what was occurring, questioning his own sanity and perception of reality. He transcribed what thoughts he could into an eight-thousand-page, one-million-word journal dubbed the Exegesis. From until his death in , Dick spent sleepless nights writing in this journal, often under the influence of prescription amphetamines. A recurring theme in Exegesis is PKD's hypothesis that history had been stopped in the 1st century A.D., and that "the Empire never ended". He saw Rome as the pinnacle of materialism and despotism, which, after forcing the Gnostics underground, had kept the population of Earth enslaved to worldly possessions. Dick believed that VALIS had communicated with him, and anonymous others, to induce the impeachment of U.S. President Richard M. Nixon, whom Dick believed to be the current Emperor of Rome incarnate. In a essay titled "Self Portrait", collected in the book The Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick, Dick reflects on his work and lists which books he feels "might escape World War Three": Eye in the Sky, The Man in the High Castle, Martian Time-Slip, Dr. Bloodmoney, The Zap Gun, The Penultimate Truth, The Simulacra, The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch (which he refers to as "the most vital of them all"), Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, and Ubik. Philip K. Dick, "Self Portrait", 1968, (The Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick, 1995) In a 1976 interview, Dick cited A Scanner Darkly as his best work, feeling that he "had finally written a true masterpiece, after 25 years of writing". AN INTERVIEW WITH PHILIP K. DICK Daniel DePerez, SEPTEMER 10, 1976, Science Fiction Review, No. 19, Vol. 5, no. 3, August 1976 Awards and honors During his lifetime, Dick received the following awards and nominations: Hugo Awards Best Novel - winner: The Man in the High Castle - nominee: Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said Best Novelette - nominee: Faith of Our Fathers Nebula Awards Best Novel - nominee: Dr. Bloodmoney 1965 - nominee: The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch - nominee: Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? - nominee: Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said - nominee: The Transmigration of Timothy Archer John W. Campbell Memorial Award Best Novel - winner: Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said Graouilly d'Or (Festival de Metz, France) - winner: A Scanner Darkly Also of note is the convention Norwescon which each year presents the Philip K. Dick Award. Influence and legacy Dick has influenced many writers, including William Gibson, William Gibson on PKD, philipkdickfans.com Jonathan Lethem, Gun With Occasional Music Review, sff.net and Ursula K. Le Guin. The SF Site Featured Review: The Lathe of Heaven, SF Site Dick has also influenced filmmakers, his work being compared to films such as the Wachowski brothers's The Matrix, Scriptorium - Philip K. Dick, The Modern Word David Cronenberg's Videodrome, How Hollywood woke up to a dark genius, The Daily Telegraph eXistenZ, and Spider, Charlie Kaufman's Being John Malkovich, Adaptation, and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, Slant Magazine DVD Review: Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, Slant Magazine Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, The Guardian Alex Proyas's Dark City, Peter Weir's The Truman Show, Andrew Niccol's Gattaca, Terry Gilliam's 12 Monkeys, Wes Craven's A Nightmare on Elm Street, On Writers and Writing; It's Philip Dick's World, We Only Live in It, New York Times David Lynch's Mulholland Drive, David Fincher and Chuck Palahniuk's Fight Club, Cameron Crowe's Vanilla Sky, Darren Aronofsky's Pi, Philip K. Dick's Future Is Now, Washington Post Richard Kelly's Donnie Darko Donnie Darko, Salon.com, and Southland Tales, Richard Kelly’s Revelations: Defending Southland Tales., Cinema Scope and Christopher Nolan's Memento. Philip K. Dick's Hollywood Afterlife, Slashdot Adaptations Films A number of Dick's stories have been made into films. Dick himself wrote a screenplay for an intended film adaptation of Ubik in 1974, but the film was never made. Many film adaptations have not used Dick's original titles. When asked why this was, Dick's ex-wife Tessa said, "Actually, the books rarely carry Phil's original titles, as the editors usually wrote new titles after reading his manuscripts. Phil often commented that he couldn't write good titles. If he could, he would have been an advertising writer instead of a novelist." Films based on Dick's writing have accumulated a total revenue of around US $700 million as of 2004. Blade Runner (), based on Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, directed by Ridley Scott and starring Harrison Ford. A screenplay had been in the works for years before Scott took the helm, with Dick being extremely critical of all versions. Dick was still apprehensive about how his story would be adapted for the film when the project was finally put into motion. Among other things, he refused to do a novelization of the film. But contrary to his initial reactions, when he was given an opportunity to see some of the special effects sequences of Los Angeles 2019, Dick was amazed that the environment was "exactly as how I'd imagined it!" Though Ridley Scott has mentioned he had never even read the source material. Following the screening, Dick and Scott had a frank but cordial discussion of Blade Runner's themes and characters, and although they had incredibly differing views, Dick fully backed the film from then on. Dick died from a stroke less than four months before the release of the film. Total Recall (), based on the short story "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale", directed by Paul Verhoeven and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger. The film evokes a feeling similar to that of the original story while streamlining the plot; however, the action-film protagonist is totally unlike Dick's typical nebbishy protagonist, a fearful and insecure anti-hero. The film includes such Dickian elements as the confusion of fantasy and reality, the progression towards more fantastic elements as the story progresses, machines talking back to humans, and the protagonist's doubts about his own identity. Total Recall 2070 (), a single season Canadian TV show (22 episodes), based on thematic elements from "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and interwoven with snippets of other Dick stories, is much closer in feel to both Dick's works than the better-known films based on them. The main character is aptly named David Hume. Minority Report (2002), based on Dick's short story of "The Minority Report", directed by Steven Spielberg and starring Tom Cruise. The film translates many of Dick's themes, but changes major plot points and adds an action-adventure framework. Dick's story "Impostor" has been adapted twice: first in for the British anthology television series Out of This World and then in 2002 for the movie Impostor, directed by Gary Fleder and starring Gary Sinise. Impostor utilizes two of Dick's most common themes: mental illness, which diminishes the sufferer's ability to discriminate between reality and hallucination, and a protagonist persecuted by an oppressive government. Screamers (), based on Dick's short story "Second Variety", directed by Christian Duguay and starring Peter Weller. The location was altered from a war-devastated Earth to a generic science fiction environment of a distant planet. A sequel without Weller, titled Screamers: The Hunting, was released straight to DVD in 2009. Paycheck (), directed by John Woo and starring Ben Affleck, based on Dick's short story of the same name. Confessions d'un Barjo (), titled Barjo in its English-language release, a French film based on Dick's non-science-fiction novel Confessions of a Crap Artist. Reflecting Dick's popularity and critical respect in France, Barjo faithfully conveys a strong sense of Dick's aesthetic sensibility, unseen in the better-known film adaptations. A brief science fiction homage is slipped into the film in the form of a TV show. A Scanner Darkly (), directed by Richard Linklater and starring Keanu Reeves, Winona Ryder, and Robert Downey Jr., based on Dick's novel of the same name. The film was produced using the process of rotoscoping: it was first shot in live-action and then the live footage was animated over. Next (), directed by Lee Tamahori and starring Nicolas Cage, loosely based on the short story "The Golden Man." Future Future films based on Dick's writing include the animated adaptation King of the Elves from the Walt Disney Animation Studios, set to be released in the winter of ; Radio Free Albemuth, based on Dick's novel of the same name, which has been completed and is currently awaiting distribution; and a film adaptation of Ubik which, according to Dick's daughter, Isa Dick Hackett, is in advanced negotiation. calendarlive.com In February of 2009, it was reported that Dick's 1954 short story "Adjustment Team" will be developed as a film titled The Adjustment Bureau starring Matt Damon. Studios weigh star packages MICHAEL FLEMING, Feb. 24, 2009, Variety In May of 2009, The Halcyon Company, known for developing the Terminator franchise, announced that after Terminator Salvation, they will next adapt Dick's Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said. Philip K. Dick's 'Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said' Being Adapted Alex Billington, FirstShowing.net, 12 May 2009 Halcyon acquired the first-look rights to the works of Philip K. Dick in 2007. Stage and Radio At least two of Dick's works have been adapted for the stage. The first was the opera VALIS, composed and with libretto by Tod Machover, which premiered at the Pompidou Center in Paris on December 1, , with a French libretto. It was subsequently revised and readapted into English, and was recorded and released on CD (Bridge Records BCD9007) in . The second known stage adaptation was Flow My Tears, the Policeman Said, produced by the New York-based avant-garde company Mabou Mines. It premiered in Boston at the Boston Shakespeare Theatre (June 18-30, 1985) and was subsequently staged in New York and Chicago. A radio drama adaptation of Dick's short story "Mr. Spaceship" was aired by the Finnish Broadcasting Company (Yleisradio) in 1996 under the name Menolippu Paratiisiin. Radio dramatizations of Dick's short stories Colony and The Defenders The Defenders at Gutenberg.org were aired by NBC in radio as part of the series X Minus One. Comics Marvel Comics plans to adapt Dick's short story "The Electric Ant" as a limited series to be released in 2009. The comic will be produced by writer David Mack (Daredevil) and artist Pascal Alixe (Ultimate X-Men), with covers provided by artist Paul Pope. Also in 2009, BOOM! Studios will publish a 24-issue miniseries comic book adaptation of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Philip K. Dick Press Release - BOOM! ANNOUNCES DO ANDROIDS DREAM OF ELECTRIC SHEEP? philipkdick.com Blade Runner, the 1982 film adapted from Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, had previously been adapted to comics as A Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner. In popular culture Since his death, Dick has appeared as a character in a number of novels and stories, most notably Michael Bishop's The Secret Ascension (1987; currently published as Philip K. Dick Is Dead, Alas), which is set in a Gnostic alternative universe where his non-genre work is published but his science fiction is banned by a totalitarian USA in thrall to a demonically possessed Richard Nixon. Other fictional post-mortem appearances by Dick include: the short story "The Transmigration of Philip K" () by Michael Swanwick (to be found in the 1991 collection Gravity's Angels), the short play Kindred Blood in Kensington Gore () by Brian W. Aldiss, the Faction Paradox novel Of the City of the Saved... () by Philip Purser-Hallard. the Spanish feature film PROXIMA () by Carlos Atanes, where the character Felix Cadecq is based on Dick. A play entitled 800 Words: the Transmigration of Philip K. Dick by Victoria Stewart re-imagines Dick's final days. Contemporary philosophy Few other writers of fiction have had such an impact on contemporary philosophy as Dick. His foreshadowing of postmodernity has been noted by philosophers as diverse as Jean Baudrillard, Fredric Jameson and Slavoj Žižek . Žižek is especially fond of using Dick's short stories to articulate the ideas of Jacques Lacan. Jean Baudrillard offers this interpretation: "It is hyperreal. It is a universe of simulation, which is something altogether different. And this is so not because Dick speaks specifically of simulacra. SF has always done so, but it has always played upon the double, on artificial replication or imaginary duplication, whereas here the double has disappeared. There is no more double; one is always already in the other world, an other world which is not another, without mirrors or projection or utopias as means for reflection. The simulation is impassable, unsurpassable, checkmated, without exteriority. We can no longer move "through the mirror" to the other side, as we could during the golden age of transcendence." Bibliography See also Philip K. Dick Award Paranoid fiction Notes External links Philip K. Dick official site A complete pictorial bibliography of Philip K. Dick Blows Against the Empire The New Yorker's Adam Gopnik on Philip K. Dick Philip K Dick, A Critical Appreciation, Reviews from The Open Critic VALBS - An online secondary bibliography on Dick and his works "The Religious Experience of Philip K. Dick" by R. Crumb, Weirdo #17, Summer 1986. The Second Coming of Philip K. Dick by Frank Rose, an article from Wired about movies based on the Dick's novels How To Build A Universe That Doesn't Fall Apart Two Days Later (Essay by PKD on his "discovery" that we are living in the Roman Empire) Philip K. Dick: A Visionary Among the Charlatans, Stanislaw Lem's essay about the state of American science fiction circa 1975 with an extended appreciation of Dick Dark Roasted Blend: Science Fiction and Fantasy Reading Experience: Philip K. Dick Philip K. Dick Book Cover Art Gallery The Last Days of Philip K. Dick | Philip_K._Dick |@lemmatized philip:56 kindred:4 dick:170 december:2 march:4 american:3 novelist:2 short:18 story:36 writer:12 essayist:1 whose:2 published:1 work:27 lifetime:3 almost:2 entirely:1 science:23 fiction:27 genre:5 explore:2 sociological:1 political:2 metaphysical:1 theme:11 novel:56 dominate:1 monopolistic:1 corporation:1 authoritarian:1 government:2 alter:3 state:10 later:7 thematic:2 focus:2 strongly:1 reflect:3 personal:3 interest:3 metaphysics:2 theology:2 often:6 draw:1 upon:3 life:20 experience:14 address:1 nature:2 drug:9 use:13 paranoia:2 schizophrenia:3 transcendental:1 scanner:9 darkly:9 vali:13 man:11 high:10 castle:6 bridge:2 alternate:4 history:4 earn:1 hugo:5 award:14 best:11 flow:12 tear:12 policeman:12 say:15 celebrity:1 awaken:1 parallel:1 universe:9 unknown:2 win:4 john:9 w:5 campbell:3 memorial:3 want:2 write:27 people:6 love:2 put:3 fictional:4 world:15 spin:1 mind:9 actually:6 meet:2 standard:2 writing:5 even:6 question:3 wonder:2 loud:2 real:7 u:3 refer:5 fictionalize:1 philosopher:2 addition:1 thirty:2 six:3 approximately:1 many:11 appear:4 magazine:9 although:7 spend:1 career:3 near:2 poverty:1 nine:1 adapt:11 popular:2 film:36 since:5 death:10 include:7 blade:6 runner:6 total:5 recall:3 minority:3 report:4 time:17 name:16 ubik:7 one:16 hundred:1 great:4 english:4 language:3 publish:15 become:5 first:14 library:7 america:5 series:6 stoffman:1 judy:1 milestone:1 literary:6 heritage:1 toronto:1 star:13 february:7 k:48 four:4 h:1 p:3 lovecraft:2 tale:3 associate:2 press:2 issue:4 volume:1 usa:2 today:1 november:1 early:2 twin:4 sister:4 jane:4 charlotte:1 bear:2 week:4 prematurely:1 dorothy:4 joseph:3 edgar:2 chicago:2 father:4 fraud:1 investigator:1 united:3 department:1 agriculture:1 recently:1 take:7 insurance:2 policy:1 family:2 nurse:2 dispatch:1 household:1 see:6 malnourish:1 injured:1 rush:1 baby:2 hospital:1 die:6 en:1 route:1 five:4 birth:1 january:2 profoundly:1 affect:2 relationship:1 every:2 aspect:1 lead:1 recurrent:1 motif:1 phantom:1 book:18 move:4 san:2 francisco:1 bay:1 area:1 turn:1 transfer:1 reno:1 nevada:1 refuse:2 divorce:5 fight:3 custody:1 case:1 determine:1 raise:2 alone:1 job:1 washington:2 c:2 son:3 enrol:1 eaton:1 elementary:1 school:4 complete:5 second:5 fourth:2 grade:2 low:2 composition:3 teacher:1 remark:1 show:4 ability:2 tell:4 june:3 return:2 california:5 attend:2 berkeley:4 ursula:3 le:3 guin:3 member:1 graduate:2 class:1 yet:2 briefly:3 university:2 german:2 major:2 drop:1 coursework:1 rather:2 participate:2 mandatory:1 rotc:1 training:1 befriend:3 poet:2 robert:4 duncan:1 linguist:1 jack:5 spicer:1 give:3 idea:5 martian:3 claim:2 host:1 classical:1 music:2 program:1 ksmo:1 radio:9 record:4 store:1 wife:4 kleo:3 apostolides:2 receive:3 visit:1 fbi:3 believe:4 result:1 socialist:1 view:2 leave:1 wing:1 activity:1 couple:1 agent:1 sell:2 point:4 full:1 difficult:1 impoverished:1 pay:2 late:2 fee:1 exclusively:1 within:1 dream:16 mainstream:4 literature:1 produce:5 nongenre:1 non:4 willing:1 twenty:2 year:9 succeed:1 success:1 formally:1 scott:5 meredith:1 agency:1 unsold:1 confession:3 crap:2 artist:4 hail:1 genius:2 unappreciative:1 could:5 publisher:2 ace:1 continue:2 financial:1 trouble:2 introduction:2 collection:4 golden:3 several:5 ago:1 ill:1 heinlein:3 offer:2 help:4 anything:1 never:11 would:7 phone:1 cheer:1 buy:1 electric:12 typewriter:1 god:2 bless:1 true:2 gentleman:1 agree:1 forth:1 neither:1 owe:1 irs:1 lot:1 money:3 loan:1 think:2 deal:1 dedicate:1 appreciation:3 fine:1 look:3 impressive:1 military:2 stance:1 background:1 haircut:1 know:6 flip:1 freak:1 still:3 humanity:2 last:3 transmigration:4 timothy:2 archer:3 donate:1 manuscript:3 paper:1 special:3 fullerton:2 archive:1 pollak:1 bud:1 jeter:1 james:1 blaylock:1 tim:1 power:2 mental:4 health:1 boyhood:1 around:2 age:2 thirteen:1 recur:3 bookstore:1 try:4 find:5 astound:1 contain:2 title:16 empire:5 end:4 reveal:1 secret:4 pile:1 search:1 grow:2 small:2 reach:2 bottom:1 eventually:3 anxious:1 discover:3 drive:2 mad:1 necronomicon:1 chamber:1 king:2 yellow:1 promising:1 insanity:1 reader:2 shortly:1 thereafter:1 cease:1 phrase:1 voracious:1 religion:1 philosophy:3 gnosticism:1 vision:6 recover:1 effect:2 sodium:1 pentothal:1 administer:1 extraction:1 impacted:1 wisdom:1 tooth:1 answer:1 door:1 delivery:3 extra:1 analgesic:1 notice:1 woman:3 wear:1 pendant:1 symbol:3 call:3 vesicle:1 pisces:1 seem:2 base:20 confusion:3 two:9 related:1 ichthys:1 intersect:1 arc:1 delineate:1 fish:1 profile:1 christian:3 vesica:1 piscis:1 departure:1 begin:6 strange:1 may:9 initially:1 attributable:1 medication:1 consider:5 explanation:3 implausible:1 invasion:3 transcendentally:2 rational:2 insane:1 suddenly:1 sane:1 charles:2 platt:2 throughout:2 three:9 seventy:2 shorthand:1 describe:5 initial:2 laser:1 beam:1 geometric:1 pattern:1 occasionally:2 brief:2 picture:1 jesus:1 ancient:1 rome:3 increase:2 length:1 frequency:1 live:6 double:4 thomas:1 persecute:2 roman:2 century:4 despite:2 elevate:1 stroke:3 risk:1 seek:2 rationalist:1 religious:3 zebra:1 semi:2 autobiographical:4 free:4 albemuth:4 felt:1 spirit:1 prophet:1 elijah:1 episode:2 detailed:1 retelling:1 biblical:1 act:3 read:3 paranoid:2 imagine:2 plot:4 kgb:1 allege:1 responsible:1 burglary:2 house:2 document:1 steal:1 come:1 suspect:1 might:2 commit:1 forget:1 speculate:1 whether:1 suffer:2 marry:1 daughter:3 marriage:1 jeanette:1 marlin:1 month:2 anne:1 williams:1 rubinstein:1 divorced:1 child:3 laura:1 born:3 nancy:1 hackett:3 isolde:1 isa:3 april:1 leslie:1 tessa:2 busby:1 christopher:2 android:16 nextfest:1 exhibition:1 navy:1 pier:1 santa:1 ana:1 day:6 earlier:1 disconnect:1 support:1 eeg:1 consistently:1 isoelectric:1 lose:2 consciousness:1 ash:1 fort:1 morgan:1 colorado:1 tombstone:1 carve:1 empty:1 space:1 date:2 brother:2 bury:1 next:3 resurrect:1 fan:2 form:2 remote:1 control:1 design:1 likeness:1 discussion:2 panel:1 diego:1 comic:7 con:1 presentation:1 adaptation:12 west:1 airline:1 employee:1 misplace:1 biographical:2 treatment:2 lawrence:1 sutin:1 biography:3 divine:3 french:3 emmanuel:1 carrère:1 je:1 suis:1 vivant:1 et:1 vous:1 êtes:1 morts:1 translate:3 alive:3 dead:2 journey:1 author:6 preface:1 way:1 hold:1 hand:1 peculiar:1 depict:2 inside:1 word:5 freedom:1 empathy:1 indeed:1 truth:2 character:10 critic:3 complain:1 lack:1 fact:1 checking:1 source:3 note:5 index:1 usual:1 evidence:1 deep:1 research:1 solid:1 stamp:1 authority:2 august:2 actor:1 paul:3 giamatti:2 announce:2 company:6 touchy:1 feely:1 plan:2 biopic:1 permission:1 shepherd:1 production:1 unfinished:1 owl:1 daylight:1 schedule:1 open:3 tony:1 grisoni:1 screenplay:3 terry:2 gilliam:2 tideland:1 fear:1 loathing:1 la:1 vega:1 script:1 play:4 director:2 alan:1 simon:1 make:6 semiautobiograhical:1 shea:1 whigham:1 matthew:1 wilder:1 feature:5 bill:1 pullman:1 william:3 j:1 frick:1 release:8 arena:2 afterlife:3 style:2 pen:4 notably:2 richard:8 dowland:9 surname:1 refers:2 renaissance:1 composer:1 directly:1 linda:1 fox:1 intergalactically:1 famous:1 singer:1 entire:3 body:1 consists:1 recording:1 also:12 protagonist:9 orpheus:2 clay:2 foot:3 desire:1 muse:1 publishes:1 horselover:2 fat:2 phil:3 hippo:1 greek:1 cognate:1 thick:1 familiarly:1 pkd:5 cf:2 jorge:1 luis:1 borges:1 jlb:1 comparative:1 adjective:1 dickian:3 phildickian:1 kafkaesque:1 orwellian:1 typically:1 fragile:1 construction:1 identity:3 surreal:1 fantasy:3 main:3 slowly:1 everyday:1 illusion:1 construct:2 powerful:1 external:2 entity:1 vast:2 conspiracy:1 simply:1 vicissitude:1 unreliable:1 narrator:1 start:1 basic:1 assumption:1 cannot:1 single:2 objective:1 reality:16 everything:1 matter:1 perception:3 ground:1 liable:1 shift:3 another:3 person:1 enter:1 induced:1 well:1 sense:2 cross:1 different:2 completely:1 simulacrum:3 common:3 device:1 inhabit:1 galactic:1 elite:1 hero:2 heroic:1 remind:1 dickens:1 count:1 honesty:1 constancy:1 kindness:1 patience:1 ordinary:1 much:4 heavily:2 influence:6 carl:1 jung:4 swiss:1 founder:1 theory:3 human:7 psyche:1 analytical:1 psychology:1 distinguish:1 freud:1 psychoanalysis:1 self:4 taught:1 expert:1 unconscious:2 mythological:1 foundation:1 conscious:1 underlie:2 mystical:1 jungian:2 model:1 concerned:1 archetype:1 collective:2 group:3 projection:2 hallucination:4 synchronicity:1 personality:1 overtly:1 analyze:1 term:1 lie:1 inc:1 obviously:1 reference:2 usage:1 need:1 exegesis:3 relation:1 mysticism:1 illness:3 constant:1 permeate:1 bohlen:1 slip:3 ex:3 schizophrenic:1 clan:1 alphane:1 moon:2 center:2 society:1 descendant:1 lunatic:1 asylum:1 inmate:1 essay:5 change:2 stigma:5 palmer:5 eldritch:5 user:4 accord:2 interview:4 roll:2 stone:2 amphetamine:4 without:5 speed:1 experiment:1 psychedelics:1 dub:2 classic:1 lsd:1 ever:1 heavy:1 however:3 doctor:1 liver:1 process:2 brain:1 select:1 occur:3 rule:1 victorious:1 axis:1 define:1 sub:1 infinity:2 plus:2 review:6 adam:2 philipkdickfans:3 com:6 recommend:1 along:1 sheep:9 introductory:1 readers:1 new:6 utilize:1 array:1 concept:1 layer:1 unreality:1 place:1 nation:1 mankind:1 colonize:1 solar:1 system:2 habitable:1 planet:3 physically:1 daunt:1 psychologically:1 monotonous:1 colonist:2 un:2 must:1 draft:1 go:1 colony:2 entertain:1 perky:2 pat:3 doll:1 accessory:1 manufacture:1 earth:6 layouts:1 secretly:1 create:2 illegal:1 widely:1 available:1 hallucinogenic:1 allow:2 boyfriend:1 walt:2 recreational:1 minute:1 idealized:1 bounty:1 hunter:1 police:6 local:1 population:2 dying:1 poison:1 de:2 populate:1 successful:1 remain:1 inhabitant:1 prospect:1 andys:2 preset:1 escape:2 fate:1 supplant:1 conflation:1 intensification:1 pivotally:1 fake:2 treat:1 machine:2 crucial:1 factor:1 defines:1 distinctly:1 versus:1 merely:1 outward:1 appearance:2 extensive:1 network:1 psychic:3 suspended:1 erode:1 send:1 investigate:1 rival:1 apparently:1 kill:1 saboteur:1 bomb:1 flick:1 number:3 equally:1 plausible:1 half:1 psychically:1 manipulated:1 list:2 among:3 concern:1 jason:3 taverner:2 television:2 living:2 dystopian:1 future:4 attack:1 angry:1 girlfriend:1 awakens:1 dingy:1 los:2 angeles:2 hotel:1 room:1 wallet:1 identification:1 card:1 miss:1 minor:1 inconvenience:1 security:1 checkpoint:1 pol:2 nats:1 national:1 guard:1 set:3 city:3 stop:2 arrest:1 anyone:1 valid:1 id:1 rob:1 soon:1 discovers:1 erase:1 official:2 database:1 closest:1 recognize:1 remember:3 fame:1 reputation:2 rely:1 innate:1 charisma:1 happen:1 past:1 avoid:1 attention:1 silence:1 critical:4 nominate:1 nebula:2 learn:1 episcopalian:1 priest:1 important:1 scene:3 involve:1 general:1 felix:2 buckman:1 similar:2 linklater:3 discuss:1 wake:2 reminiscent:1 joint:1 bleak:1 mixture:1 procedural:1 undercover:1 narcotic:1 detective:1 touch:1 fall:2 victim:1 permanently:1 substance:2 enlist:1 instantly:1 addictive:1 pleasant:1 euphoria:1 quickly:1 replace:1 psychosis:1 thread:1 dissociation:1 multiple:1 perceive:1 simultaneously:1 perhaps:1 postmodern:1 examine:1 unexplained:1 academically:1 studied:1 opera:2 tod:2 machover:2 vote:1 website:1 like:1 trilogy:2 acronym:1 active:1 intelligence:1 thematically:1 least:2 theorize:1 generator:1 mean:2 extraterrestrial:1 communication:2 compose:2 arbor:1 key:1 magnificent:1 regardless:1 feeling:2 somehow:1 fully:2 able:1 rationalize:1 event:1 rest:1 struggle:1 comprehend:1 sanity:1 transcribe:1 thought:1 eight:1 thousand:1 page:1 million:2 journal:2 spent:1 sleepless:1 night:1 prescription:1 hypothesis:1 saw:1 pinnacle:1 materialism:1 despotism:1 force:1 gnostic:2 underground:1 keep:1 enslave:1 worldly:1 possession:1 communicate:1 anonymous:1 others:1 induce:1 impeachment:1 president:1 nixon:2 current:1 emperor:1 incarnate:1 portrait:2 collect:1 feel:3 war:2 eye:1 sky:2 dr:2 bloodmoney:2 zap:1 gun:2 penultimate:1 vital:1 cite:1 finally:2 masterpiece:1 daniel:1 deperez:1 septemer:1 vol:1 honor:1 following:1 nomination:1 winner:3 nominee:7 novelette:1 faith:1 graouilly:1 festival:1 metz:1 france:2 convention:1 norwescon:1 present:1 legacy:1 gibson:2 jonathan:1 lethem:1 occasional:1 sff:1 net:2 sf:3 site:3 lathe:1 heaven:1 filmmaker:1 compare:1 wachowski:1 matrix:1 scriptorium:1 modern:1 david:5 cronenberg:1 videodrome:1 hollywood:2 dark:3 daily:1 telegraph:1 existenz:1 spider:1 charlie:1 kaufman:1 malkovich:1 eternal:3 sunshine:3 spotless:3 slant:2 dvd:2 guardian:1 alex:2 proyas:1 peter:2 weir:1 truman:1 andrew:1 niccol:1 gattaca:1 monkey:1 wes:1 craven:1 nightmare:1 elm:1 street:1 york:3 lynch:1 mulholland:1 fincher:1 chuck:1 palahniuk:1 club:1 cameron:1 crowe:1 vanilla:1 darren:1 aronofsky:1 pi:1 post:2 kelly:2 donnie:2 darko:2 salon:1 southland:2 revelation:1 defend:1 cinema:1 scope:1 nolan:1 memento:1 slashdot:1 intended:1 original:3 ask:1 rarely:1 carry:1 editor:1 usually:1 comment:1 good:3 advertising:1 instead:1 accumulate:1 revenue:1 direct:8 ridley:2 harrison:1 ford:1 helm:1 extremely:1 version:1 apprehensive:1 project:1 motion:1 thing:1 novelization:1 contrary:1 reaction:1 opportunity:1 sequence:1 amaze:1 environment:2 exactly:1 though:1 mention:1 material:1 follow:1 screening:1 frank:2 cordial:1 incredibly:1 differ:1 back:2 less:1 wholesale:2 verhoeven:1 arnold:1 schwarzenegger:1 evoke:1 streamline:1 action:3 totally:1 unlike:1 typical:1 nebbishy:1 fearful:1 insecure:1 anti:1 element:3 progression:1 towards:1 fantastic:1 progress:1 talk:1 doubt:1 season:1 canadian:1 tv:2 interwoven:1 snippet:1 closer:1 aptly:1 hume:1 steven:1 spielberg:1 tom:1 cruise:1 add:1 adventure:1 framework:1 impostor:3 twice:1 british:1 anthology:1 movie:2 gary:2 fleder:1 sinise:1 utilizes:1 diminish:1 sufferer:1 discriminate:1 oppressive:1 screamer:2 variety:2 duguay:1 weller:2 location:1 devastate:1 generic:1 distant:1 sequel:1 hunting:1 straight:1 paycheck:1 woo:1 ben:1 affleck:1 barjo:3 popularity:1 respect:1 faithfully:1 convey:1 strong:1 aesthetic:1 sensibility:1 unseen:1 homage:1 keanu:1 reef:1 winona:1 ryder:1 downey:1 jr:1 rotoscoping:1 shot:1 footage:1 animate:1 lee:1 tamahori:1 nicolas:1 cage:1 loosely:1 animated:1 elf:1 disney:1 animation:1 studio:3 winter:1 currently:2 await:1 distribution:1 advanced:1 negotiation:1 calendarlive:1 adjustment:2 team:1 develop:2 bureau:1 matt:1 damon:1 weigh:1 package:1 michael:3 fleming:1 feb:1 halcyon:2 terminator:2 franchise:1 salvation:1 billington:1 firstshowing:1 acquire:1 right:1 stage:3 libretto:2 premier:2 pompidou:1 paris:1 subsequently:2 revise:1 readapt:1 cd:1 known:1 avant:1 garde:1 mabou:1 mine:1 boston:2 shakespeare:1 theatre:1 stag:1 drama:1 mr:1 spaceship:1 air:2 finnish:1 broadcasting:1 yleisradio:1 menolippu:1 paratiisiin:1 dramatization:1 defender:2 gutenberg:1 org:1 nbc:1 part:1 x:2 minus:1 marvel:2 ant:1 limited:1 mack:1 daredevil:1 pascal:1 alixe:1 ultimate:1 men:1 cover:2 provide:1 pope:1 boom:2 miniseries:1 announces:1 philipkdick:1 previously:1 super:1 culture:1 bishop:1 ascension:1 ala:1 alternative:1 ban:1 totalitarian:1 thrall:1 demonically:1 possessed:1 mortem:1 swanwick:1 gravity:1 angel:1 blood:1 kensington:1 gore:1 brian:1 aldiss:1 faction:1 paradox:1 saved:1 purser:1 hallard:1 spanish:1 proxima:1 carlos:1 atanes:1 cadecq:1 entitle:1 victoria:1 stewart:1 imago:1 final:1 contemporary:2 impact:1 foreshadowing:1 postmodernity:1 diverse:1 jean:2 baudrillard:2 fredric:1 jameson:1 slavoj:1 žižek:2 especially:1 fond:1 articulate:1 jacques:1 lacan:1 interpretation:1 hyperreal:1 simulation:2 something:1 altogether:1 speaks:1 specifically:1 always:3 artificial:1 replication:1 imaginary:1 duplication:1 whereas:1 disappear:1 already:1 mirror:2 utopias:1 reflection:1 impassable:1 unsurpassable:1 checkmate:1 exteriority:1 longer:1 side:1 transcendence:1 bibliography:3 link:1 pictorial:1 blow:1 yorker:1 gopnik:1 valbs:1 online:1 secondary:1 r:1 crumb:1 weirdo:1 summer:1 coming:1 rise:1 article:1 wire:1 build:1 apart:1 discovery:1 visionary:1 charlatan:1 stanislaw:1 lem:1 circa:1 extended:1 roast:1 blend:1 reading:1 art:1 gallery:1 |@bigram writer_essayist:1 science_fiction:23 scanner_darkly:9 tear_policeman:11 blade_runner:6 en_route:1 profoundly_affect:1 san_francisco:1 reno_nevada:1 ursula_k:3 le_guin:3 almost_exclusively:1 robert_heinlein:1 w_jeter:1 mental_health:1 shortly_thereafter:1 voracious_reader:1 laser_beam:1 semi_autobiographical:2 free_albemuth:4 prophet_elijah:1 santa_ana:1 san_diego:1 lawrence_sutin:1 je_suis:1 dick_hackett:2 terry_gilliam:2 fear_loathing:1 loathing_la:1 la_vega:1 bill_pullman:1 jorge_luis:1 luis_borges:1 carl_jung:1 collective_unconscious:1 mental_illness:3 lunatic_asylum:1 stigma_palmer:5 palmer_eldritch:5 roll_stone:2 android_dream:9 habitable_planet:1 perky_pat:2 hallucinogenic_drug:1 bounty_hunter:1 ex_girlfriend:1 los_angeles:2 hugo_nebula:1 richard_linklater:3 sleepless_night:1 recur_theme:1 richard_nixon:2 award_nomination:1 wachowski_brother:1 david_cronenberg:1 daily_telegraph:1 john_malkovich:1 eternal_sunshine:3 sunshine_spotless:3 spotless_mind:3 wes_craven:1 nightmare_elm:1 elm_street:1 mulholland_drive:1 david_fincher:1 chuck_palahniuk:1 vanilla_sky:1 donnie_darko:2 christopher_nolan:1 ridley_scott:2 remember_wholesale:2 paul_verhoeven:1 arnold_schwarzenegger:1 david_hume:1 steven_spielberg:1 tom_cruise:1 gary_sinise:1 ben_affleck:1 aesthetic_sensibility:1 keanu_reef:1 winona_ryder:1 robert_downey:1 downey_jr:1 nicolas_cage:1 walt_disney:1 matt_damon:1 terminator_salvation:1 avant_garde:1 marvel_comic:2 philipkdick_com:1 post_mortem:1 jean_baudrillard:2 slavoj_žižek:1 jacques_lacan:1 external_link:1 adam_gopnik:1 stanislaw_lem:1 |
966 | Estimator | In statistics, an estimator is a statistic (a function of the observable sample data) that is used to estimate an unknown population parameter (which is called the estimand); an estimate is the result from the actual application of the function to a particular sample of data. Many different estimators are possible for any given parameter. Some criterion is used to choose between the estimators, although it is often the case that a criterion cannot be used to clearly pick one estimator over another. To estimate a parameter of interest (e.g., a population mean, a binomial proportion, a difference between two population means, or a ratio of two population standard deviations), the usual procedure is as follows: Select a random sample from the population of interest. Calculate the point estimate of the parameter. Calculate a measure of its variability, often a confidence interval. Associate with this estimate a measure of variability. There are many types of estimators, including point estimators, interval estimators, density estimators, as well as function estimators. Point estimators Suppose we have a fixed parameter that we wish to estimate. Then an estimator is a function that maps a sample design to a set of sample estimates. An estimator of is usually denoted by the symbol . A sample design can be thought of as an ordered pair where is a set of samples (or outcomes), and is the probability density function. The probability density function maps the set to the closed interval [0,1], and has the property that the sum (or integral) of the values of , over all in , is equal to 1. For any given subset of , the sum or integral of over all in is . For all the properties below, the value , the estimation formula, the set of samples, and the set probabilities of the collection of samples, can be considered fixed. Yet since some of the definitions vary by sample (yet for the same set of samples and probabilities), we must use in the notation. Hence, the estimate for a given sample is denoted as . We have the following definitions and attributes. For a given sample , the error of the estimator is defined as , where is the estimate for sample , and is the parameter being estimated. Note that the error depends not only on the estimator (the estimation formula or procedure), but on the sample. The mean squared error of is defined as the expected value (probability-weighted average, over all samples) of the squared errors; that is, . It is used to indicate how far, on average, the collection of estimates are from the single parameter being estimated. Consider the following analogy. Suppose the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, the estimator is the process of shooting arrows at the target, and the individual arrows are estimates. Then high MSE means the average distance of the arrows from the target is high, and low MSE means the average distance from the target is low. The arrows may or may not be clustered. For example, even if all arrows hit the same point, yet grossly miss the target, the MSE is still relatively large. Note, however, that if the MSE is relatively low, then the arrows are likely more highly clustered (than highly dispersed). For a given sample , the sampling deviation of the estimator is defined as , where is the estimate for sample , and is the expected value of the estimator. Note that the sampling deviation depends not only on the estimator, but on the sample. The variance of is simply the expected value of the squared sampling deviations; that is, . It is used to indicate how far, on average, the collection of estimates are from the expected value of the estimates. Note the difference between MSE and variance. If the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, and the arrows are estimates, then a relatively high variance means the arrows are dispersed, and a relatively low variance means the arrows are clustered. Some things to note: even if the variance is low, the cluster of arrows may still be far off-target, and even if the variance is high, the diffuse collection of arrows may still be unbiased. Finally, note that even if all arrows grossly miss the target, if they nevertheless all hit the same point, the variance is zero. The bias of is defined as . It is the distance between the average of the collection of estimates, and the single parameter being estimated. It also is the expected value of the error, since . If the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, and the arrows are estimates, then a relatively high absolute value for the bias means the average position of the arrows is off-target, and a relatively low absolute bias means the average position of the arrows is on target. They may be dispersed, or may be clustered. The relationship between bias and variance is analogous to the relationship between accuracy and precision. is an unbiased estimator of if and only if . Note that bias is a property of the estimator, not of the estimate. Often, people refer to a "biased estimate" or an "unbiased estimate," but they really are talking about an "estimate from a biased estimator," or an "estimate from an unbiased estimator." Also, people often confuse the "error" of a single estimate with the "bias" of an estimator. Just because the error for one estimate is large, does not mean the estimator is biased. In fact, even if all estimates have astronomical absolute values for their errors, if the expected value of the error is zero, the estimator is unbiased. Also, just because an estimator is biased, does not preclude the error of an estimate from being zero (we may have gotten lucky). The ideal situation, of course, is to have an unbiased estimator with low variance, and also try to limit the number of samples where the error is extreme (that is, have few outliers). Yet unbiasedness is not essential. Often, if we permit just a little bias, then we can find an estimator with lower MSE and/or fewer outlier sample estimates. The MSE, variance, and bias, are related: i.e. mean squared error = variance + square of bias. In particular, for an unbiased estimator, the variance equals the MSE. The standard deviation of an estimator of θ (the square root of the variance), or an estimate of the standard deviation of an estimator of θ, is called the standard error of θ. Consistency A consistent sequence of estimators is a sequence of estimators that converge in probability to the quantity being estimated as the index (usually the sample size) grows without bound. In other words, increasing the sample size increases the probability of the estimator being close to the population parameter. Mathematically, a sequence of estimators is a consistent estimator for parameter if and only if, for all , no matter how small, we have The consistency defined above may be called weak consistency. The sequence is strongly consistent, if it converges almost surely to the true value. An estimator that converges to a multiple of a parameter can be made into a consistent estimator by multiplying the estimator by a scale factor, namely the true value divided by the asymptotic value of the estimator. This occurs frequently in estimation of scale parameters by measures of statistical dispersion. Asymptotic normality An asymptotically normal estimator is a consistent estimator whose distribution around the true parameter approaches a normal distribution with standard deviation shrinking in proportion to as the sample size grows. Using to denote convergence in distribution, is asymptotically normal if for some , which is called the asymptotic variance of the estimator. The central limit theorem implies asymptotic normality of the sample mean as an estimator of the true mean. More generally, maximum likelihood estimators are asymptotically normal under fairly weak regularity conditions — see the asymptotics section of the maximum likelihood article. Efficiency Two naturally desirable properties of estimators are for them to be unbiased and have minimal mean squared error (MSE). These cannot in general both be satisfied simultaneously: a biased estimator may have lower mean squared error (MSE) than any unbiased estimator: despite having bias, the estimator variance may be sufficiently smaller than that of any unbiased estimator, and it may be preferable to use, despite the bias; see estimator bias. Among unbiased estimators, there often exists one with the lowest variance, called the minimum variance unbiased estimator (MVUE). In some cases an unbiased efficient estimator exists, which, in addition to having the lowest variance among unbiased estimators, satisfies the Cramér-Rao bound, which is an absolute lower bound on variance for statistics of a variable. Concerning such "best unbiased estimators", see also Cramér-Rao bound, Gauss-Markov theorem, Lehmann-Scheffé theorem, Rao-Blackwell theorem. Robustness See: Robust estimator, Robust statistics Other properties Sometimes, estimators should satisfy further restrictions (restricted estimators) - e.g., one might require an estimated probability to be between zero and one, or an estimated variance to be nonnegative. Sometimes this conflicts with the requirement of unbiasedness; for an example, see the example in estimator bias concerning the estimation of the exponent of based on a sample of size one from the Poisson distribution with mean . See also Best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE) Cramér–Rao bound Estimation theory Estimator bias Invariant estimator Kalman filter Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) Maximum a posteriori (MAP) Maximum likelihood Mean squared error Method of moments, generalized method of moments Minimum mean squared error (MMSE) Minimum variance unbiased estimator (MVUE) Particle filter Signal Processing Testimator Wiener filter External links A maths course on estimators Fundamentals of Estimation Theory | Estimator |@lemmatized statistic:4 estimator:65 function:6 observable:1 sample:28 data:2 use:8 estimate:33 unknown:1 population:6 parameter:16 call:5 estimand:1 result:1 actual:1 application:1 particular:2 many:2 different:1 possible:1 give:5 criterion:2 choose:1 although:1 often:6 case:2 cannot:2 clearly:1 pick:1 one:6 another:1 interest:2 e:3 g:2 mean:18 binomial:1 proportion:2 difference:2 two:3 ratio:1 standard:5 deviation:7 usual:1 procedure:2 follow:1 select:1 random:1 calculate:2 point:5 measure:3 variability:2 confidence:1 interval:3 associate:1 type:1 include:1 density:3 well:1 suppose:2 fix:2 wish:1 map:3 design:2 set:6 usually:2 denote:3 symbol:1 think:1 ordered:1 pair:1 outcomes:1 probability:8 closed:1 property:5 sum:2 integral:2 value:13 equal:2 subset:1 estimation:6 formula:2 collection:5 consider:2 yet:4 since:2 definition:2 vary:1 must:1 notation:1 hence:1 following:2 attribute:1 error:17 define:5 note:7 depend:2 square:7 expect:3 weighted:1 average:8 squared:3 indicate:2 far:3 single:3 analogy:1 bull:3 eye:3 target:11 process:1 shoot:1 arrow:13 individual:1 high:5 mse:10 distance:3 low:12 may:11 cluster:5 example:3 even:5 arrows:2 hit:2 grossly:2 miss:2 still:3 relatively:6 large:2 however:1 likely:1 highly:2 dispersed:1 expected:3 variance:21 simply:1 sampling:1 disperse:2 thing:1 diffuse:1 unbiased:17 finally:1 nevertheless:1 zero:4 bias:17 also:6 absolute:4 position:2 relationship:2 analogous:1 accuracy:1 precision:1 people:2 refer:1 really:1 talk:1 biased:2 confuse:1 fact:1 astronomical:1 preclude:1 get:1 lucky:1 ideal:1 situation:1 course:2 try:1 limit:2 number:1 extreme:1 outlier:2 unbiasedness:2 essential:1 permit:1 little:1 find:1 relate:1 θ:3 root:1 consistency:3 consistent:5 sequence:4 converge:3 quantity:1 index:1 size:4 grow:1 without:1 bound:5 word:1 increase:2 close:1 mathematically:1 matter:1 small:2 weak:2 strongly:1 almost:1 surely:1 true:4 multiple:1 make:1 multiply:1 scale:2 factor:1 namely:1 divide:1 asymptotic:4 occur:1 frequently:1 statistical:1 dispersion:1 normality:2 asymptotically:3 normal:4 whose:1 distribution:4 around:1 approach:1 shrink:1 grows:1 convergence:1 central:1 theorem:4 implies:1 generally:1 maximum:4 likelihood:3 fairly:1 regularity:1 condition:1 see:6 asymptotics:1 section:1 article:1 efficiency:1 naturally:1 desirable:1 minimal:1 general:1 satisfy:3 simultaneously:1 despite:2 sufficiently:1 preferable:1 among:2 exist:1 minimum:3 mvue:2 efficient:1 exists:1 addition:1 cramér:3 rao:4 variable:1 concern:2 best:2 gauss:1 markov:2 lehmann:1 scheffé:1 blackwell:1 robustness:1 robust:2 sometimes:2 restriction:1 restricted:1 might:1 require:1 estimated:1 nonnegative:1 conflict:1 requirement:1 exponent:1 base:1 poisson:1 linear:1 blue:1 theory:2 invariant:1 kalman:1 filter:3 chain:1 monte:1 carlo:1 mcmc:1 posteriori:1 method:2 moment:2 generalize:1 mmse:1 particle:1 signal:1 processing:1 testimator:1 wiener:1 external:1 link:1 maths:1 fundamental:1 |@bigram ordered_pair:1 closed_interval:1 weighted_average:1 expected_value:3 unbiased_estimator:12 biased_estimator:2 estimator_bias:5 estimator_variance:2 maximum_likelihood:3 likelihood_estimator:1 poisson_distribution:1 markov_chain:1 monte_carlo:1 signal_processing:1 external_link:1 |
967 | Dialectical_materialism | Dialectical materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the Materialism of Feuerbach. According to many followers of Karl Marx's thinking, it is the philosophical basis of Marxism. The term Dialectical materialism was coined in 1887 by Joseph Dietzgen, a socialist tanner who corresponded with Marx both during and after the failed 1848 German Revolution. Casual mention of the term is also found in Kautsky's Frederick Engels http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1887/xx/engels.htm , written in the same year. Marx himself had talked about the "materialist conception of history", which was later referred as "historical materialism" by Engels. Engels further exposed the "materialist dialectic" — not "dialectical materialism" — in his Dialectics of Nature in 1883. Georgi Plekhanov, the father of Russian Marxism, later introduced the term dialectical materialism to Marxist literature For instance, Plekhanov, The development of the monist view of history, (1895) . Stalin further codified it as Diamat and imposed it as the doctrine of Marxism-Leninism. The term wasn't coupled by Marx himself, and it refers to the combination of dialectics and materialism in Marx's thinking as material forces causing social and economic changes. It is sometimes seen as complementary to historical materialism which is the name given to Marx's methodology in the study of society, economics and history. Dialectical Materialism is the philosophy of Karl Marx which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the Materialism of Feuerbach, extracting from it a concept of progress in terms of the contradictory, interacting forces called the thesis and antithesis, culminating at a critical nodal point where one overthrows the other, giving rise to the synthesis, and applying it to the history of social development and deriving therefrom an essentially revolutionary concept of social change. Aspects Dialectical materialism originates from two major aspects of Marx's philosophy. One is his transformation of Hegel's idealistic understanding of dialectics into a materialist one, an act commonly said to have "put Hegel's dialectics back on its feet". The other is his core idea that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" as stated in The Communist Manifesto in 1848. Materialism is based in the conviction that all phenomena can be explained through natural means. Some aspects of Marxism are informed by materialist philosophy. According to materialism, matter is the total explanation for space, nature, man, psychic consciousness, human intelligence, society, history and every other aspect of existence. Marxism assigns the task of knowing all truth to science. If science can get to know everything about matter, then it can get to know about everything. Conclusively, matter is accepted as the beginning and ending of all reality. Matter's sovereignty in determining the course of nature is a vital part of Marxist thought and what separates dialectical materialism from the Hegelian method of dialectical idealism. Hegel Dialectical materialism is essentially characterized by the thesis that history is the product of class struggles and follows the general Hegelian principle of philosophy of history, that is the development of the thesis into its antithesis which is sublated by the Aufhebung ("synthesis"). The term Aufhebung was not used by Hegel to describe his dialectics. The Aufhebung conserves the thesis and the antithesis and transcends them both (Aufheben — this contradiction explains the difficulties of Hegel's thought). In particular, see Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy, chapter II, first observation, where he uses this formulation. Hegelians tend to attribute this formula to Marx's teacher - Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus - a Kantian who conflated Hegel's dialectic with the Fichtean triad thesis, antithesis, synthesis. It is suggested that after Marx's use of the phrase, Hegel has always been associated with the triad, which he rejected (cf ). However, one might cite Marx's explanation of the development of the dialectic in the cited passage of The Poverty of Philosophy: "This new [synthesis] unfolds itself again into two contradictory thoughts" which appears to be reaching beyond the limits of this misleading external triad to an inner inherent unfolding, more along the Hegelian lines. Hegel's dialectics aims to explain the development of human history. He considered that truth was the product of history and that it passed through various moments, including the moment of error; error and negativity are part of the development of truth. Hegel's idealism considered history a product of the Spirit (Geist or also Zeitgeist — the "Spirit of the Time"). By contrast, Marx's dialectical materialism considers history as a product of material class struggle in society. Thus, theory has its roots in the materiality of social existence. Three laws of dialectical materialism Marxism sets out to answer questions related to both nature and humanity, including questions on: the origin of energy or motion in nature; why galaxies, solar system, planets, animals and all kingdoms of nature constantly increase in number; the origin of life, the origin of species and the origin of consciousness and mind; the origin of societal order and its direction Marx and Engels answer these questions by using the three laws of motion, i.e. dialectics, first discovered by the Greek philosophers and codified by Hegel. Law of Opposites Marx and Engels started with the observation that everything in existence is a unity of opposites. For example, electricity is characterized by a positive and negative charge, and atoms consist of protons and electrons which are unified but ultimately contradictory forces. A star is held together by gravity pulling the molecules towards the center, and heat pushing them away from the center. If either force completely succeeds, the star ceases to be; if heat wins it explodes into a supernova, and if gravity wins it implodes into a neutron star or a black hole. Living things strive to balance internal and external forces to maintain homeostasis, which is simply a balance of opposing forces such as acidity and alkalinity. Marx concludes that everything "contains mutually incompatible and exclusive but nevertheless equally essential and indispensable parts or aspects." This unity of opposites is what makes each entity auto-dynamic and provides a constant motivation for movement and change. This idea was borrowed from Georg Wilhelm Hegel who said: "Contradiction in nature is the root of all motion and of all life." Some opposites are antagonistic, as in the competition between capitalists and laborers. Factory owners offer the lowest wages possible, while workers seek the highest wages. Sometimes, this antagonism sparks strikes or lockouts. Law of Negation The law of negation was created to account for the tendency in nature to constantly increase the number of all things. Marx and Engels demonstrated that entities tend to negate themselves in order to advance or reproduce a higher quantity. This means that the nature of opposition, which causes conflict in each element and gives it motion, also tends to negate the thing itself. This dynamic process of birth and destruction is what causes entities to advance. This law is commonly simplified as the cycle of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. In nature, Engels often cited the case of the barley seed which, in its natural state, germinates and out of its own death or negation produces a plant; the plant in turn grows to maturity, and is itself negated after bearing many barley seeds. Thus, all nature is constantly expanding through cycles. In society, we have the case of class. For example, the aristocracy was negated by the bourgeoisie; the bourgeoisie then created the proletariat that will one day negate them. This illustrates that the cycle of negation is eternal, as each class creates its "grave-digger", its successor, as soon as it finishes burying its creator. Law of Transformation This law states that continuous quantitative development results in qualitative "leaps" in nature whereby a completely new form or entity is produced. This is how "quantitative development becomes qualitative change". Transformation also allows the reverse process, where quality affects quantity. This theory draws many parallels to the Theory of Evolution. Marxist philosophers concluded that entities, through quantitative accumulations, are also inherently capable of "leaps" to new forms and levels of reality. The law illustrates that during a long period of time, through a process of small, almost irrelevant accumulations, nature develops noticeable changes in direction. In nature, this can be illustrated by the eruption of a volcano which is caused by years of pressure building up. The volcano may no longer be a mountain but when its lava cools, it will become fertile land where previously there was none. In society, it can be illustrated by a revolution which is caused by years of tensions between opposing factions. The law also occurs in reverse. An example is that by introducing better (changing quality) tools to farm, the tools will help to increase the production. Materialism in dialectical materialism Marx's doctoral thesis concerned the atomism of Epicurus and Democritus, which (along with stoicism) is considered the foundation of materialist philosophy. Marx was also familiar with Lucretius's theory of clinamen. Materialism asserts the primacy of the material world: in short, matter precedes thought. Materialism holds that the world is material; that all phenomena in the universe consist of "matter in motion," wherein all things are interdependent and interconnected and develop according to natural law; that the world exists outside us and independently of our perception of it; that thought is a reflection of the material world in the brain, and that the world is in principle knowable. "The ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought." --Karl Marx, Das Kapital, Vol. 1. Marx endorsed this materialist philosophy against Hegel's idealism; he "turned Hegel's dialectics upside down." However, Marx also criticized classical materialism as another idealist philosophy. According to the famous Theses on Feuerbach (1845), philosophy had to stop "interpreting" the world in endless metaphysical debates, in order to start "changing" the world, as was being done by the rising workers' movement observed by Engels in England (Chartist movement) and by Marx in France and Germany. Thus, dialectical materialists tend to accord primacy to class struggle. The ultimate sense of Marx's materialist philosophy is that philosophy itself must take a position in the class struggle based on objective analysis of physical and social relations. Otherwise, it will be reduced to spiritualist idealism, such as the philosophies of Kant or Hegel, which are only ideologies, that is the material product of social existence. Thus Marx's materialism opened up the way for Frankfurt School's critical theory, which combined philosophy with the social sciences in an attempt to diagnose the ailments of society. Dialectics in dialectical materialism Dialectics is the science of the general and abstract laws of the development of nature, society, and thought. Its principal features are: The universe is an integral whole in which things are interdependent, rather than a mixture of things isolated from each other. The natural world or cosmos is in a state of constant motion: "All nature, from the smallest thing to the biggest, from a grain of sand to the sun, from the protista to man, is in a constant state of coming into being and going out of being, in a constant flux, in a ceaseless state of movement and change." --Friedrich Engels, Dialectics of Nature. Development is a process whereby insignificant and imperceptible quantitative changes lead to fundamental, qualitative changes. Qualitative changes occur not gradually, but rapidly and abruptly, as leaps from one state to another. A simple example from the physical world is the heating of water: a one degree increase in temperature is a quantitative change, but between 99 and 100 degrees there is a qualitative change - water to steam. "Merely quantitative differences, beyond a certain point, pass into qualitative changes." --Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1. All things contain within themselves internal dialectical contradictions, which are the primary cause of motion, change, and development in the world. It is important to note that 'dialectical contradiction' is not about simple 'opposites' or 'negation'. For formal approaches, the core message of 'dialectical opposition / contradiction' must be understood as 'some sense' opposition between the objects involved in a directly associated context. For the application of the dialectic to history see Historical materialism. Engels' laws of dialectics As mentioned above, Engels determined three laws of dialectics from his reading of Hegel's Science of Logic Engels, Dialectics of nature . They are: The law of the unity and conflict of opposites; The law of the passage of quantitative changes into qualitative changes; The law of the negation of the negation The first law was seen by both Hegel and Lenin as the central feature of a dialectical understanding of things "It is in this dialectic as it is here understood, that is, in the grasping of oppositions in their unity, or of the positive in the negative, that speculative thought consists. It is the most important aspect of dialectic." Hegel, Science of Logic, § 69, (p 56 in the Miller edition) "The splitting of a single whole and the cognition of its contradictory parts is the essence (one of the "essentials", one of the principal, if not the principal, characteristics or features) of dialectics. That is precisely how Hegel, too, puts the matter." Lenin's Collected Works VOLUME 38, p359: On the question of dialectics. and originates with the ancient Ionian philosopher Heraclitus. cf, for instance. 'The Doctrine of Flux and the Unity of Opposites' in the 'Heraclitus' entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The second law Hegel took from Aristotle, and it is equated with what scientists call "phase transitions". It may be traced to the ancient Ionian philosophers (particularly Anaximenes), from whom Aristotle, Hegel and Engels inherited the concept. For all these authors, one of the main illustrations is the phase transitions of water. The third law is Hegel's own. It was the expression through which (amongst other things) Hegel's dialectic became fashionable during his life-time. In drawing up these laws, Engels presupposes a holistic approach outlined above and in Lenin's three elements of dialectic below, and emphasizes elsewhere that all things are in motion. The discovery that heat was actually the movement of atoms or molecules was the very latest science of the period in which Engels was writing in his late period, in which what today we would express in terms of "energy" was just beginning to be grasped. Lenin's elements of dialectics After reading Hegel's Science of Logic in 1914, Lenin made some brief notes outlining three "elements" of logic. Lenin's Summary of Hegel's Dialectics They are: Lenin develops these in a further series of notes, and appears to argue that "the transition of quantity into quality and vice versa" is an example of the unity and opposition of opposites expressed tentatively as "not only the unity of opposites, but the transitions of every determination, quality, feature, side, property into every other [into its opposite?]." History of dialectical materialism Lenin's contributions Dialectical materialism was first elaborated by Lenin in Materialism and Empiriocriticism in 1908 around three axes: the "materialist inversion" of Hegelian dialectics, the historicity of ethical principles ordered to class struggle and the convergence of "laws of evolution" in physics (Helmholtz), biology (Darwin) and in political economics (Marx). Lenin hence took position between a historicist Marxism (Labriola) and a determinist Marxism, close to "social Darwinism" (Kautsky). New discoveries in physics, including x-rays, electrons, and the beginnings of quantum mechanics challenged previous conceptions of matter and materialism. Matter seemed to be disappearing. Lenin disagreed: 'Matter disappears' means that the limit within which we have hitherto known matter disappears and that our knowledge is penetrating deeper; properties of matter are disappearing that formerly seemed absolute, immutable and primary, and which are now revealed to be relative and characteristic only of certain states of matter. For the sole 'property' of matter with whose recognition philosophical materialism is bound up is the property of being an objective reality, of existing outside of the mind. Lenin was following on from the work of Friedrich Engels, who had noted that "with each epoch-making discovery even in the sphere of natural science, materialism has to change its form." http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1886/ludwig-feuerbach/ch02.htm Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy One of Lenin's challenges was distancing materialism as a viable philosophical outlook from what he referred to as the "vulgar materialism" expressed in statements like "the brain secretes thought in the same way as the liver secretes bile" (attributed to 18th century physician Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis, 1757-1808); "metaphysical materialism" (matter is composed of immutable, unchanging particles); and 19th-century "mechanical materialism" (matter was like little molecular billiard balls interacting according to simple laws of mechanics). Lenin's (and Engels') solution to this challenge was "dialectical materialism", where matter was understood in the broader sense of "objective reality" and consistent with new developments in science. Lukács' additions Georg Lukács, who had been minister of Culture in Béla Kun's short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919), published History and Class Consciousness in 1923. This book defined dialectical materialism as the knowledge of society as a whole, knowledge which in itself was immediately the class consciousness of the proletariat. In the first chapter, "What is Orthodox Marxism?", Lukács defined orthodoxy as the fidelity to the "Marxist method", and not to the "dogmas": "Orthodox Marxism, therefore, does not imply the uncritical acceptance of the results of Marx’s investigations. It is not the ‘belief’ in this or that thesis, nor the exegesis of a ‘sacred’ book. On the contrary, orthodoxy refers exclusively to method. It is the scientific conviction that dialectical materialism is the road to truth and that its methods can be developed, expanded and deepened only along the lines laid down by its founders." (§1) Lukács criticized revisionist attempts by calling for the return to this Marxist method. In much the same way that Althusser would later define Marxism and psychoanalysis as "conflictual sciences", Louis Althusser, "Marx and Freud", in Writings on Psychoanalysis, Stock/IMEC, 1993 (French edition) Lukács conceives "revisionism" and political splits as inherent to Marxist theory and praxis, insofar as dialectical materialism is, according to him, the product of class struggle: "For this reason the task of orthodox Marxism, its victory over Revisionism and utopianism can never mean the defeat, once and for all, of false tendencies. It is an ever-renewed struggle against the insidious effects of bourgeois ideology on the thought of the proletariat. Marxist orthodoxy is no guardian of traditions, it is the eternally vigilant prophet proclaiming the relation between the tasks of the immediate present and the totality of the historical process." (end of §5) Furthermore, he stated that "The premise of dialectical materialism is, we recall: 'It is not men’s consciousness that determines their existence, but on the contrary, their social existence that determines their consciousness.'... Only when the core of existence stands revealed as a social process can existence be seen as the product, albeit the hitherto unconscious product, of human activity." (§5) In line with Marx's thought, he thus criticized the individualist bourgeois philosophy of the subject, which founds itself on the voluntary and conscious subject. Against this ideology, he asserts the primacy of social relations. Existence — and thus the world — is the product of human activity; but this can be seen only if the primacy of social process on individual consciousness is accepted. He classified this consciousness as an effect of ideological mystification. His thesis doesn't entail that Lukács restrains human liberty on behalf of some kind of sociological determinism: to the contrary, this production of existence is the possibility of praxis. However, this heterodox definition, that "orthodox Marxism" is fidelity to the Marxist "method", and not to "dogmas", was condemned, along with Karl Korsch's work, in July 1924, during the 5th Comintern Congress, by Grigory Zinoviev. Stalin's doctrine of diamat Following the 1917 October Revolution, Soviet philosophy became divided between "dialecticians" (Deborin) and "mechanists" (Bukharin). In 1931, Stalin decided the debate with a decree which identified dialectical materialism as pertaining solely to Marxism-Leninism. He then codified it in Dialectical and Historical Materialism (1938) by enumerating the "laws of dialectics". The laws are the grounds of particular disciplines and in particular of the science of history, and guarantee their conformity to the "proletarian conception of the world". Thus, diamat was imposed on most Communist parties affiliated to the Third International. Diamat became the official philosophy of the Soviet Union and remained as such until its fall. Marxist criticisms of dialectical materialism Dialectical materialism has been criticized by many Marxist theorists, including Marxist philosophers Louis Althusser and Antonio Gramsci, who proposed a Marxist "philosophy of praxis" instead. Other thinkers in Marxist philosophy have had recourse to the original texts of Marx and Engels and have created other Marxist philosophical projects and concepts which present alternatives to dialectical materialism. As early as 1937, Mao Zedong proposed another interpretation in his essay On Contradiction, in which he rejected the "laws of dialectics" and insisted on the complexity of the contradiction. Mao's text inspired Althusser's work on the contradiction, which was a driving theme in his well-known essay For Marx (1965). Althusser attempted to nuance the Marxist concept of "contradiction" by borrowing the concept of "overdetermination" from psychoanalysis. He criticized the alleged teleological reading of Marx as a return to Hegel's idealism. Althusser developed the concept of "random materialism" (matérialisme aléatoire) in contrast to dialectical materialism, a move which grew out of Althusser's project of 'anti-humanism,' or the "philosophy of the subject." In an attempt to approach the problem in a new way, Italian philosopher Ludovico Geymonat constructed a historical epistemology from dialectical materialism. Althusser soon backed the epistemological method centred on the rejection of the dichotomy between subject and object, which makes Marx's work incompatible with its antecedents. Quotations "The question whether objective truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a practical question. Man must prove the truth, i.e., the reality and power, the this-worldliness of his thinking in practice." --Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbach Endnotes Selected readings on dialectical materialism Dialectical Materialism, Alexander Spirkin Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy, Friedrich Engels Anti-Dühring, Friedrich Engels Dialectics of Nature, Friedrich Engels Materialism and Empirio-Criticism, V.I. Lenin On the Question of Dialectics, V.I. Lenin Dialectical and Historical Materialism, Joseph Stalin On Contradiction, Mao Zedong On the Materialist Dialectic, Louis Althusser Dialectical Materialism, V.G. Afanasyev Materialism And Historical Materialism, Anton Pannekoek Reason in Revolt, Marxist Philosophy and Modern Science, Ted Grant and Alan Woods History and Class Consciousness, Georg Lukacs Ioan, Petru "Logic and Dialectics" A.I. Cuza University Press, Iaşi 1998. "Dialectical Materialism", Theory and History, Ludwig von Mises The Origins of Dialectical Materialism, Z.A. Jordan Dialectics For Kids Dialectical Materialism: Its Laws, Categories, and Practice, Ira Gollobin, Petras Press, NY, 1986. Dialectics for the New Century, ed. Bertell Ollman and Tony Smith, Palgrave Macmillan, England, 2008. See also People Heraclitus Georg Wilhelm Hegel Friedrich Engels Karl Marx Georg Lukacs Joseph Dietzgen Ludovico Geymonat Concepts Classical Marxism Dialectical monism Historical materialism Marxism Marxist philosophy of nature Methodological naturalism Orthodox Marxism Parametric determinism Philosophy in the Soviet Union External links @nti-dialectics – website presenting contemporary criticism of dialectical materialism be-x-old:Дыялектычны матэрыялізм | Dialectical_materialism |@lemmatized dialectical:41 materialism:60 philosophy:27 karl:8 marx:38 formulate:2 take:5 dialectic:38 hegel:28 join:2 feuerbach:7 accord:7 many:4 follower:1 thinking:4 philosophical:4 basis:1 marxism:17 term:7 coin:1 joseph:3 dietzgen:2 socialist:1 tanner:1 correspond:1 failed:1 german:3 revolution:3 casual:1 mention:2 also:9 find:1 kautsky:3 frederick:1 engels:23 http:2 www:2 marxist:19 org:2 archive:2 xx:1 htm:2 write:2 year:3 talk:1 materialist:10 conception:3 history:19 later:3 refer:3 historical:9 far:2 expose:1 nature:20 georgi:1 plekhanov:2 father:1 russian:1 introduce:2 literature:1 instance:2 development:12 monist:1 view:1 stalin:4 codify:3 diamat:4 impose:2 doctrine:3 leninism:2 couple:1 combination:1 material:7 force:6 cause:6 social:12 economic:1 change:18 sometimes:2 see:7 complementary:1 name:1 give:3 methodology:1 study:1 society:9 economics:2 extract:1 concept:8 progress:1 contradictory:4 interact:2 call:3 thesis:10 antithesis:5 culminate:1 critical:2 nodal:1 point:2 one:11 overthrow:1 rise:2 synthesis:5 apply:1 derive:1 therefrom:1 essentially:2 revolutionary:1 aspect:6 originates:1 two:2 major:1 transformation:3 idealistic:1 understanding:2 act:1 commonly:2 say:2 put:2 back:2 foot:1 core:3 idea:2 hitherto:3 exist:3 class:12 struggle:8 state:9 communist:2 manifesto:1 base:2 conviction:2 phenomenon:2 explain:3 natural:5 mean:4 inform:1 matter:17 total:1 explanation:2 space:1 man:3 psychic:1 consciousness:9 human:7 intelligence:1 every:3 existence:10 assign:1 task:3 know:5 truth:6 science:13 get:2 everything:4 conclusively:1 accept:2 beginning:2 end:4 reality:5 sovereignty:1 determine:4 course:1 vital:1 part:4 thought:7 separate:1 hegelian:5 method:7 idealism:5 characterize:2 product:9 follow:3 general:2 principle:3 sublated:1 aufhebung:3 use:4 describe:1 conserve:1 transcend:1 aufheben:1 contradiction:10 difficulty:1 think:4 particular:3 poverty:2 chapter:2 ii:1 first:5 observation:2 formulation:1 tend:4 attribute:3 formula:1 teacher:1 heinrich:1 moritz:1 chalybäus:1 kantian:1 conflate:1 fichtean:1 triad:3 suggest:1 phrase:1 always:1 associate:2 reject:2 cf:2 however:3 might:1 cite:2 cited:1 passage:2 new:7 unfold:1 appear:2 reach:1 beyond:2 limit:2 misleading:1 external:3 inner:1 inherent:2 unfolding:1 along:4 line:3 aim:1 consider:3 pass:1 various:1 moment:2 include:4 error:2 negativity:1 spirit:2 geist:1 zeitgeist:1 time:3 contrast:2 considers:1 thus:7 theory:8 root:2 materiality:1 three:6 law:27 set:1 answer:2 question:8 relate:1 humanity:1 origin:6 energy:2 motion:8 galaxy:1 solar:1 system:1 planet:1 animal:1 kingdom:1 constantly:3 increase:4 number:2 life:3 specie:1 mind:3 societal:1 order:4 direction:2 e:2 discover:1 greek:1 philosopher:6 opposite:10 start:2 unity:7 example:5 electricity:1 positive:2 negative:2 charge:1 atom:2 consist:3 proton:1 electron:2 unify:1 ultimately:1 star:3 hold:2 together:1 gravity:2 pull:1 molecule:2 towards:1 center:2 heat:3 push:1 away:1 either:1 completely:2 succeed:1 cease:1 win:2 explode:1 supernova:1 implode:1 neutron:1 black:1 hole:1 living:1 thing:11 strive:1 balance:2 internal:2 maintain:1 homeostasis:1 simply:1 oppose:2 acidity:1 alkalinity:1 conclude:2 contain:2 mutually:1 incompatible:2 exclusive:1 nevertheless:1 equally:1 essential:2 indispensable:1 make:3 entity:5 auto:1 dynamic:2 provide:1 constant:4 motivation:1 movement:5 borrow:2 georg:5 wilhelm:2 antagonistic:1 competition:1 capitalist:1 laborer:1 factory:1 owner:1 offer:1 low:1 wage:2 possible:1 worker:2 seek:1 high:2 antagonism:1 spark:1 strike:1 lockout:1 negation:7 create:4 account:1 tendency:2 demonstrate:1 negate:5 advance:2 reproduce:1 quantity:3 opposition:5 conflict:2 element:4 process:7 birth:1 destruction:1 simplify:1 cycle:3 often:1 case:2 barley:2 seed:2 germinates:1 death:1 produce:2 plant:2 turn:1 grows:1 maturity:1 bear:1 expand:2 aristocracy:1 bourgeoisie:2 proletariat:3 day:1 illustrate:4 eternal:1 grave:1 digger:1 successor:1 soon:2 finish:1 bury:1 creator:1 continuous:1 quantitative:7 result:2 qualitative:7 leap:3 whereby:2 form:4 becomes:1 allow:1 reverse:2 quality:4 affect:1 draw:2 parallel:1 evolution:2 accumulation:2 inherently:1 capable:1 level:1 long:1 period:3 small:2 almost:1 irrelevant:1 develop:5 noticeable:1 eruption:1 volcano:2 pressure:1 build:1 may:2 longer:1 mountain:1 lava:1 cool:1 become:4 fertile:1 land:1 previously:1 none:1 tension:1 faction:1 occur:2 good:1 tool:2 farm:1 help:1 production:2 doctoral:1 concern:1 atomism:1 epicurus:1 democritus:1 stoicism:1 foundation:1 familiar:1 lucretius:1 clinamen:1 assert:2 primacy:4 world:13 short:2 precedes:1 universe:2 wherein:1 interdependent:2 interconnected:1 outside:2 u:1 independently:1 perception:1 reflection:1 brain:2 knowable:1 ideal:1 nothing:1 else:1 reflect:1 translate:1 das:1 kapital:1 vol:2 endorse:1 turned:1 upside:1 criticize:5 classical:4 another:3 idealist:1 famous:1 stop:1 interpret:1 endless:1 metaphysical:2 debate:2 observe:1 england:2 chartist:1 france:1 germany:1 ultimate:1 sense:3 must:3 position:2 objective:4 analysis:1 physical:2 relation:3 otherwise:1 reduce:1 spiritualist:1 kant:1 ideology:3 open:1 way:4 frankfurt:1 school:1 combine:1 attempt:4 diagnose:1 ailment:1 abstract:1 principal:3 feature:4 integral:1 whole:3 rather:1 mixture:1 isolate:1 cosmos:1 big:1 grain:1 sand:1 sun:1 protista:1 come:1 go:1 flux:2 ceaseless:1 friedrich:6 insignificant:1 imperceptible:1 lead:1 fundamental:1 gradually:1 rapidly:1 abruptly:1 simple:3 heating:1 water:3 degree:2 temperature:1 steam:1 merely:1 difference:1 certain:2 pas:1 capital:1 within:2 primary:2 important:2 note:4 formal:1 approach:3 message:1 understood:2 object:2 involve:1 directly:1 context:1 application:1 reading:3 logic:5 lenin:16 central:1 grasping:1 speculative:1 p:1 miller:1 edition:2 splitting:1 single:1 cognition:1 essence:1 characteristic:2 precisely:1 collect:1 work:6 volume:1 originate:1 ancient:2 ionian:2 heraclitus:3 entry:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:1 second:1 aristotle:2 equate:1 scientist:1 phase:2 transition:4 trace:1 particularly:1 anaximenes:1 inherit:1 author:1 main:1 illustration:1 third:2 expression:1 amongst:1 fashionable:1 presuppose:1 holistic:1 outline:2 emphasize:1 elsewhere:1 discovery:3 actually:1 late:2 today:1 would:2 express:3 begin:1 grasp:1 read:1 brief:1 summary:1 series:1 argue:1 vice:1 versa:1 tentatively:1 determination:1 side:1 property:4 contribution:1 elaborate:1 empiriocriticism:1 around:1 ax:1 inversion:1 historicity:1 ethical:1 convergence:1 physic:2 helmholtz:1 biology:1 darwin:1 political:2 hence:1 historicist:1 labriola:1 determinist:1 close:1 darwinism:1 x:2 ray:1 quantum:1 mechanic:2 challenge:3 previous:1 seem:2 disappear:2 disagreed:1 disappears:2 knowledge:3 penetrate:1 deep:1 formerly:1 absolute:1 immutable:2 reveal:2 relative:1 sole:1 whose:1 recognition:1 bind:1 epoch:1 making:1 even:1 sphere:1 ludwig:4 distance:1 viable:1 outlook:1 vulgar:1 statement:1 like:2 secretes:1 liver:1 secrete:1 bile:1 century:3 physician:1 pierre:1 jean:1 george:1 cabanis:1 compose:1 unchanging:1 particle:1 mechanical:1 little:1 molecular:1 billiard:1 ball:1 solution:1 understand:1 broad:1 consistent:1 lukács:6 addition:1 minister:1 culture:1 béla:1 kun:1 live:1 hungarian:1 soviet:4 republic:1 publish:1 book:2 define:3 immediately:1 orthodox:5 orthodoxy:3 fidelity:2 dogma:2 therefore:1 imply:1 uncritical:1 acceptance:1 investigation:1 belief:1 exegesis:1 sacred:1 contrary:3 refers:1 exclusively:1 scientific:1 road:1 deepen:1 lay:1 founder:1 revisionist:1 return:2 much:1 althusser:9 psychoanalysis:3 conflictual:1 louis:3 freud:1 writing:1 stock:1 imec:1 french:1 conceives:1 revisionism:2 split:1 praxis:3 insofar:1 reason:2 victory:1 utopianism:1 never:1 defeat:1 false:1 ever:1 renew:1 insidious:1 effect:2 bourgeois:2 guardian:1 tradition:1 eternally:1 vigilant:1 prophet:1 proclaim:1 immediate:1 present:2 totality:1 furthermore:1 premise:1 recall:1 men:1 stand:1 albeit:1 unconscious:1 activity:2 individualist:1 subject:4 found:1 voluntary:1 conscious:1 individual:1 classify:1 ideological:1 mystification:1 entail:1 restrains:1 liberty:1 behalf:1 kind:1 sociological:1 determinism:2 possibility:1 heterodox:1 definition:1 condemn:1 korsch:1 july:1 comintern:1 congress:1 grigory:1 zinoviev:1 october:1 divide:1 dialectician:1 deborin:1 mechanist:1 bukharin:1 decide:1 decree:1 identify:1 pertain:1 solely:1 enumerate:1 ground:1 discipline:1 guarantee:1 conformity:1 proletarian:1 party:1 affiliate:1 international:1 official:1 union:2 remain:1 fall:1 criticism:3 theorist:1 antonio:1 gramsci:1 propose:2 instead:1 thinker:1 recourse:1 original:1 text:2 project:2 alternative:1 early:1 mao:3 zedong:2 interpretation:1 essay:2 insist:1 complexity:1 inspire:1 driving:1 theme:1 well:1 nuance:1 overdetermination:1 alleged:1 teleological:1 random:1 matérialisme:1 aléatoire:1 move:1 grow:1 anti:2 humanism:1 problem:1 italian:1 ludovico:2 geymonat:2 construct:1 epistemology:1 epistemological:1 centre:1 rejection:1 dichotomy:1 antecedent:1 quotation:1 whether:1 practical:1 prove:1 power:1 worldliness:1 practice:2 theses:1 endnotes:1 select:1 alexander:1 spirkin:1 dühring:1 empirio:1 v:3 g:1 afanasyev:1 anton:1 pannekoek:1 revolt:1 modern:1 ted:1 grant:1 alan:1 wood:1 lukacs:2 ioan:1 petru:1 cuza:1 university:1 press:2 iaşi:1 von:1 mises:1 z:1 jordan:1 kid:1 category:1 ira:1 gollobin:1 petras:1 ny:1 ed:1 bertell:1 ollman:1 tony:1 smith:1 palgrave:1 macmillan:1 people:1 monism:1 methodological:1 naturalism:1 parametric:1 link:1 nti:1 website:1 presenting:1 contemporary:1 old:1 дыялектычны:1 матэрыялізм:1 |@bigram dialectical_materialism:32 karl_marx:7 http_www:2 marxism_leninism:2 thesis_antithesis:5 hegel_dialectic:6 idealism_hegel:1 antithesis_synthesis:2 hegel_idealism:3 marx_engels:4 black_hole:1 georg_wilhelm:2 eruption_volcano:1 doctoral_thesis:1 das_kapital:1 chartist_movement:1 friedrich_engels:6 holistic_approach:1 vice_versa:1 quantum_mechanic:1 ludwig_feuerbach:3 billiard_ball:1 georg_lukács:1 béla_kun:1 louis_althusser:3 grigory_zinoviev:1 soviet_union:2 antonio_gramsci:1 mao_zedong:2 ludwig_von:1 von_mises:1 palgrave_macmillan:1 methodological_naturalism:1 external_link:1 |
968 | Germanium | Clemens Winkler Germanium () is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon. Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes ranging in atomic mass number from 70 to 76. It forms a large number of organometallic compounds, including tetraethylgermane and isobutylgermane. Because few minerals contain it in large concentration, germanium was discovered comparatively late despite the fact that it is relatively abundant in the Earth's crust. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties based on its position on his periodic table and called the element ekasilicon. Nearly two decades later, in 1886, Clemens Winkler found it in the mineral argyrodite. Winkler found that experimental observations agreed with Mendeleev's predictions and named the element after his country, Germany. Germanium is an important semiconductor material used in transistors and various other electronic devices. Its major end uses are fiber-optic systems and infrared optics, but it is also used for polymerization catalysts, in electronics and in solar electric applications. Germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite, though it is also recovered from silver, lead, and copper ores. Some germanium compounds, such as germanium chloride and germane, can irritate the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat. History In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements, in 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown elements, including one filling a gap in the carbon family, between silicon and tin. Because of its position in the table, he called it ekasilicon (Es) and assigned it an atomic weight of 72. Dmitri Mendeleev In mid-1885, in a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a new mineral was found. It was named argyrodite, because of its high silver content. Clemens Winkler examined this new mineral and was able to isolate an element similar to antimony in 1886. Before he published his results on the new element Winkler intended to name the element neptunium, as the actual discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had been preceded by mathematical prediction of its existence. However, the name neptunium had already been given to an element (though not the element that today bears the name neptunium, discovered in 1940), and instead, Winkler named the new metal germanium (from the Latin Germania for Germany) in honor of his fatherland. Because the element showed similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony, its place in the periodic table was under discussion, but the similarities between Mendeleev's ekasilicon and germanium confirmed its place. With further material from 500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical properties of the new element in 1887. He also determined an atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride (), while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of the element. Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium, including the fluorides, chlorides, sulfides, germanium dioxide, and tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4), the first organogermane. The physical data from these compounds—which corresponded with Mendeleev's predictions—made the discovery an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity. Here is a comparison between the prediction and Winkler's data: Property Ekasilicon Germanium atomic mass 72 72.59 density (g/cm3) 5.5 5.35 melting point (°C) high 947 color gray gray oxide type refractory dioxide refractory dioxide oxide density (g/cm3) 4.7 4.7 oxide activity feebly basic feebly basic chloride boiling point (°C) under 100 86 (GeCl4) chloride density (g/cm3) 1.9 1.9 Until the late 1930s, germanium was believed to be a poorly conducting metal. It did not become economically significant until after 1945, when its properties as a semiconductor were recognized as being valuable in electronics. It was only during World War II, in 1941, that germanium diodes began to supplant vacuum tubes in electronic devices. Its first major use was the point contact Schottky diodes for radar reception during WWII. The first silicon-germanium alloys were obtained in 1955. Before 1945, only a few hundred kilograms of the element were produced each year, but by the end of the 1950s, annual worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons. The development of the germanium transistor in 1948 opened the door to countless applications of solid state electronics. From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but requires much higher purity—a purity which could not be commercially achieved in the early days. Meanwhile, demand for germanium in fiber optics communication networks, infrared night vision systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically. These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000. The U.S. government even designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146 ton (132 t) supply in the national defense stockpile in 1987. Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply of silicon is only limited by production capacity, while that for germanium is limited by the availability of exploitable sources. As a result, while silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than $10 per kg, the price of 1 kg of germanium was then almost $800. Characteristics Under standard conditions germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element. This form constitutes an allotrope technically known as α-germanium, which has a metallic luster and a diamond cubic crystal structure, the same as diamond. At pressures above 120 kbar, a different allotrope known as β-germanium forms, which has the same structure as β-tin. Along with silicon, gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, it is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies (i.e. freezes) from its molten state. Germanium is a semiconductor. Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 1010, making it one of the purest materials ever obtained. The first metallic material discovered (in 2005) to become a superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of germanium with uranium and rhodium. Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very long screw dislocations, referred to as germanium whiskers. The growth of these whiskers is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium; depending on what they eventually touch, they may lead to an electrical short. Chemistry Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO2 at 250 °C. Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis but dissolves slowly in concentrated sulfuric acid and reacts violently with molten alkalis to produce germanates (). Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state +4 although many compounds are known with the oxidation state of +2. Other oxidation states are rare, such as +3 found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6, and +3 and +1 observed on the surface of oxides, or negative oxidation states in germanes, such as -4 in . Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) such as Ge42−, Ge94−, Ge92−, [(Ge9)2]6− have been prepared by the extraction from alloys containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a cryptand. The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integers—similar to the ozonides O3−. Two oxides of germanium are known: germanium dioxide (, germania) and germanium monoxide, (). The dioxide, GeO2 can be obtained by roasting germanium sulfide (), and is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates. The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge metal. The dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparency to infrared light. Bismuth germanate, Bi4Ge3O12, (BGO) is used as a scintillator. Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known, such as the disulfide (), diselenide (), and the monosulfide (GeS), selenide (GeSe), and telluride (GeTe). GeS2 forms as a white precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV). The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides. Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element. By heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Upon melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium compounds form salts known as thiogermanates. Germane is similar to methane. Four tetrahalides are known. Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example, germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4, is obtained as a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1 °C by heating the metal with chlorine. All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolysed to hydrated germanium dioxide. GeCl4 is used in the production of organogermanium compounds. All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric solids. Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula GenCl2n+2 are known. The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains the Ge5Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure. Germane (GeH4) is a compound similar in structure to methane. Polygermanes—compounds that are similar to alkanes—with formula GenH2n+2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known. The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues. GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the GeH3− anion. The germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless reactive liquids. Nucleophilic addition with an organogermanium compound The first organogermanium compound was synthesised by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane (). Organogermanes of the type R4Ge (where R is an alkyl) such as tetramethylgermane () and tetraethylgermane are accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane () were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications. Many germanium reactive intermediates are known: germyl free radicals, germylenes (similar to carbenes), and germynes (similar to carbynes). The organogermanium compound 2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor qualities. Isotopes Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes, 70Ge, 72Ge, 73Ge, 74Ge, and 76Ge. Of these, 76Ge is very slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of 1.58 × 1021 years. 74Ge is the most common isotope, having a natural abundance of approximately 36%. 76Ge is the least common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%. When bombarded with alpha particles, the isotope 72Ge will generate stable 77Se, releasing high energy electrons in the process. Because of this, it is used in combination with radon for nuclear batteries. At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most stable of these is 68Ge, decaying by electron capture with a half-life of 270.95 d. The least stable is 60Ge with a half-life of 30 ms. While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by beta decay, 61Ge and 64Ge decay by β+ delayed proton emission. 84Ge through 87Ge also have minorβ− delayed neutron emission decay paths. Natural abundance Germanium is created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant stars. Germanium has been detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter and in some of the most distant stars. Its abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 1.6 ppm. There are only a few minerals like argyrodite, briartite, germanite, and renierite that contain appreciable amounts of germanium, but no minable deposits exist for any of them. Nonetheless, none is mined for its germanium content. Some zinc-copper-lead ore bodies contain enough germanium that it can be extracted from the final ore concentrate. An unusual enrichment process causes a high content of germanium in some coal seams, which was discovered by Victor Mordechai Goldschmidt during a broad survey for germanium deposits. The highest concentration ever found was in the Hartley coal ash with up to 1.6% of germanium. The coal deposits near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia, contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium. Production Renierite Worldwide production in 2006 was roughly 100 tonnes of germanium. Currently, it is recovered as a by-product from sphalerite zinc ores where it is concentrated in amounts of up to 0.3%, especially from sediment-hosted, massive Zn–Pb–Cu(–Ba) deposits and carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb deposits. Figures for worldwide Ge reserves are not available, but in the US it is estimated to be around 500 tonnes. In 2007 35% of the demand was met by recycled germanium. While it is produced mainly from sphalerite, it is also found in silver, lead, and copper ores. Another source of germanium is fly ash of coal power plants which use coal from certain coal deposits with a large concentration of germanium. Russia and China used this as a source for germanium. Russia's deposits are located in the far east of the country on Sakhalin Island. The coal mines northeast of Vladivostok have also been used as a germanium source. The deposits in China are mainly located in the lignite mines near Lincang, Yunnan; coal mines near Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia are also used. Year Cost($/kg) 1999 1,400 2000 1,2502001 890 2002 6202003 3802004 6002005 6602006 880 2007 1240 The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic; they are converted to the oxides by heating under air, in a process known as roasting: GeS2 + 3 O2 → GeO2 + 2 SO2 Part of the germanium ends up in the dust produced during this process, while the rest is converted to germanates which are leached together with the zinc from the cinder by sulfuric acid. After neutralisation only the zinc stays in solution and the precipitate contains the germanium and other metals. After reducing the amount of zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz process, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The dioxide is obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium tetrachloride, which has a low boiling point and can be distilled off: GeO2 + 4 HCl → GeCl4 + 2 H2O GeO2 + 2 Cl2 → GeCl4 + O2 Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolysed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by fractional distillation and then hydrolysed. The highly pure GeO2 is now suitable for the production of germanium glass. The pure germanium oxide is reduced by the reaction with hydrogen to obtain germanium suitable for the infrared optics or semiconductor industry: GeO2 + 4 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using carbon: GeO2 + C → Ge + CO2 Applications The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for fiber-optic systems, 30% infrared optics, 15% for polymerization catalysts, and 15% for electronics and solar electric applications. The remaining 5% went into other uses such as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy. Optics The most notable physical characteristics of germania (GeO2) are its high index of refraction and its low optical dispersion. These make it especially useful for wide-angle camera lenses, microscopy, and for the core part of optical fibers. It also replaced titania as the silica dopant for silica fiber, eliminating the need for subsequent heat treatment, which made the fibers brittle. At the end of 2002 the fiber optics industry accounted for 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but this use accounts for less than 10% of world wide consumption. GeSbTe is a phase change alloy used for its optic properties, such as in rewritable DVDs. Because germanium is transparent in the infrared it is a very important infrared optical material, that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron wavelength range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, night vision system in cars, and fire fighting applications. It is therefore used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors. Electronics The alloy silicon germanide (commonly referred to as "silicon-germanium", or SiGe) is rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material, for use in high speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone. Silicon-germanium is beginning to replace gallium arsenide (GaAs) in wireless communications devices. The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the silicon chip industry. The recent rise in energy cost has improved the economics of solar panels, a potential major new use of germanium. Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency multijunction photovoltaic cells for space applications. Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell Because germanium and gallium arsenide have very similar lattice constants, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide solar cells. The Mars Exploration Rovers and several satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells. Germanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized chips. Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps, and germanium-base solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Germanium transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the "fuzz"-tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face. Other uses A PET bottle Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerisation in the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The high brilliance of the produced polyester is especially used for PET bottles marketed in Japan. However, in the United States, no germanium is used for polymerization catalysts. Due to the similarity between silica (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2), the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography columns can be replaced by GeO2. In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys. In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it has been found to reduce firescale, increase tarnish resistance, and increase the alloy's response to precipitation hardening. A tarnish-proof sterling silver alloy, trademarked Argentium, requires 1.2% germanium. The material has a very high refractive index (4.0) and so needs to be anti-reflection coated. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental rough treatment. High purity germanium single crystal detectors can precisely identify radiation sources—for example in airport security. Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and high energy X-ray applications. Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter. Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects against certain bacteria. This property makes these compounds useful as chemotherapeutic agents. Precautions As early as 1922, doctors in the United States used the inorganic form of germanium to treat patients with anemia. It was used in other forms of treatments, but its efficiency has been dubious. Its role in cancer treatments has been debated. U.S. Food and Drug Administration research has concluded that germanium, when used as a nutritional supplement, "presents potential human health hazard". Germanium is not thought to be essential to the health of plants or animals. Some of its compounds present a hazard to human health, however. For example, germanium chloride and germane (GeH4) are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat. Germanium has little or no impact on the environment because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials, and is used in very small quantities in commercial applications. Footnotes <li>From Greek, argyrodite means silver-containing. <li> Just as the existence of the new element was predicted, the existence of the planet Neptune was predicted around 1843 by the mathematicians John Couch Adams and Urbain Leverrier for the fact that Uranus was being pulled slightly out of position in its orbit. James Challis started searching for it in July 1846 and sighted the planet 23 September 1846. <li> R. Hermann published in 1877 claims of the discovery of a new element beneath tantalum, which he named neptunium. But this was later regarded as some mixture of niobium and tantalum. The name neptunium was eventually given to the synthetic element past uranium discovered in 1940. References External links WebElements.com – Germanium | Germanium |@lemmatized clemens:3 winkler:11 germanium:107 chemical:3 element:24 symbol:1 ge:9 atomic:6 number:3 lustrous:1 hard:3 grayish:1 white:5 metalloid:1 carbon:4 group:2 chemically:1 similar:9 neighbor:1 tin:3 silicon:17 five:3 naturally:2 occur:4 isotope:5 range:3 mass:3 form:10 large:3 organometallic:1 compound:19 include:4 tetraethylgermane:4 isobutylgermane:2 mineral:5 contain:10 concentration:3 discover:6 comparatively:1 late:2 despite:1 fact:2 relatively:1 abundant:1 earth:2 crust:2 dmitri:3 mendeleev:7 predict:4 existence:5 property:10 base:2 position:3 periodic:3 table:3 call:3 ekasilicon:4 nearly:1 two:3 decade:1 later:2 find:8 argyrodite:4 experimental:1 observation:1 agree:1 prediction:4 name:8 country:2 germany:2 important:4 semiconductor:7 material:9 use:37 transistor:5 various:1 electronic:2 device:3 major:4 end:6 us:3 fiber:7 optic:9 system:4 infrared:9 also:11 polymerization:4 catalyst:5 electronics:6 solar:5 electric:2 application:9 mine:7 primarily:1 sphalerite:3 though:2 recover:2 silver:6 lead:5 copper:3 ore:7 chloride:5 germane:5 irritate:2 eye:2 skin:2 lung:2 throat:2 history:1 report:2 law:1 several:3 unknown:1 one:6 fill:1 gap:1 family:1 e:2 assign:1 weight:2 mid:1 near:4 freiberg:1 saxony:2 new:9 high:19 content:3 examine:1 able:2 isolate:1 antimony:3 publish:2 result:2 intend:1 neptunium:5 actual:1 discovery:3 planet:3 neptune:2 precede:1 mathematical:1 however:3 already:1 give:2 today:1 bear:1 instead:1 metal:8 latin:1 germania:3 honor:1 fatherland:1 show:1 similarity:3 arsenic:1 place:2 discussion:1 confirm:2 kg:4 determine:1 analyze:1 pure:4 tetrachloride:6 lecoq:1 de:1 boisbaudran:1 deduce:1 comparison:2 line:1 spark:1 spectrum:1 prepare:3 fluoride:1 sulfide:4 dioxide:10 first:6 organogermane:1 physical:2 data:2 correspond:1 make:8 confirmation:1 idea:1 periodicity:1 density:3 g:3 melt:2 point:4 c:5 color:2 gray:2 oxide:11 type:2 refractory:2 activity:1 feebly:2 basic:2 boil:1 believe:1 poorly:1 conducting:1 become:3 economically:1 significant:1 recognize:1 valuable:1 world:2 war:1 ii:1 diode:5 begin:3 supplant:1 vacuum:1 tube:1 contact:1 schottky:1 radar:1 reception:1 wwii:1 alloy:8 obtain:7 hundred:1 kilogram:1 produce:5 year:4 annual:2 worldwide:5 production:10 reach:1 metric:1 ton:2 development:1 open:1 door:1 countless:1 solid:4 state:11 early:4 area:1 provide:1 increase:5 market:2 purity:5 replace:4 rectifier:1 superior:1 electrical:2 require:3 much:3 could:2 commercially:1 achieve:1 day:1 meanwhile:1 demand:2 communication:2 network:1 night:2 vision:2 dramatically:1 represent:1 consumption:2 u:3 government:1 even:1 designate:1 strategic:1 critical:1 supply:2 national:1 defense:1 stockpile:1 differs:1 limited:1 capacity:1 limit:1 availability:1 exploitable:1 source:5 buy:1 less:5 per:1 price:1 almost:1 characteristic:2 standard:1 condition:2 brittle:2 silvery:1 semi:1 metallic:4 constitute:1 allotrope:2 technically:1 know:13 α:1 luster:2 diamond:4 cubic:1 crystal:4 structure:4 pressure:1 kbar:1 different:1 β:3 along:1 gallium:6 bismuth:2 water:4 substance:1 expand:1 solidify:1 freeze:1 molten:2 zone:1 refine:1 technique:2 crystalline:2 impurity:1 part:3 purest:1 ever:2 superconductor:1 presence:2 extremely:2 strong:1 electromagnetic:1 field:1 uranium:2 rhodium:1 spontaneously:1 extrude:1 long:1 screw:1 dislocation:1 refer:2 whisker:2 growth:1 primary:1 reason:1 failure:1 old:1 depend:1 eventually:2 touch:1 may:2 short:1 chemistry:1 elemental:1 oxidize:1 slowly:2 insoluble:1 dilute:1 acid:5 alkali:7 dissolve:1 concentrated:1 sulfuric:2 reacts:1 violently:1 germanates:4 mostly:3 oxidation:5 although:1 many:2 rare:1 observe:1 surface:2 negative:1 germanes:2 cluster:1 anion:2 zintl:1 ion:2 extraction:1 alloys:1 liquid:7 ammonia:2 ethylenediamine:1 cryptand:1 integer:1 ozonide:1 monoxide:2 roast:1 powder:1 slightly:3 soluble:4 react:2 germanous:1 temperature:1 reaction:3 related:1 exhibit:1 unusual:3 refractive:3 index:4 visible:1 light:4 transparency:1 germanate:1 bgo:1 scintillator:1 binary:1 chalcogens:1 disulfide:3 diselenide:1 monosulfide:2 selenide:1 gese:1 telluride:1 gete:1 precipitate:4 hydrogen:3 pass:1 strongly:1 solution:4 iv:1 appreciably:1 caustic:2 alkaline:2 nevertheless:1 acidic:1 allow:1 heat:4 current:1 sublime:1 thin:1 plate:1 dark:2 upon:1 carbonate:2 sulfur:1 salt:1 thiogermanates:1 methane:2 four:2 tetrahalide:3 normal:1 gas:5 others:1 volatile:2 example:3 colourless:1 fume:1 boiling:2 chlorine:2 readily:2 hydrolyse:3 hydrate:1 organogermanium:4 dihalides:1 contrast:1 polymeric:1 additionally:1 formula:2 unit:1 neopentane:1 polygermanes:1 alkane:1 atom:2 reactive:3 corresponding:1 analogue:1 hydrohalides:1 three:1 halogen:1 colorless:1 nucleophilic:1 addition:1 synthesise:1 diethylzinc:1 yield:1 organogermanes:1 r:2 alkyl:2 tetramethylgermane:1 access:1 cheapest:1 available:2 precursor:1 nucleophiles:1 organic:1 hydride:1 hazardous:1 substitute:1 toxic:2 intermediate:1 germyl:1 free:1 radical:1 germylenes:1 carbenes:1 germynes:1 carbynes:1 carboxyethylgermasesquioxane:1 dietary:1 supplement:2 think:2 possibly:1 anti:2 tumor:1 quality:1 radioactive:1 decay:7 double:1 beta:2 half:3 life:3 common:2 natural:3 abundance:4 approximately:3 least:3 bombard:1 alpha:1 particle:1 generate:1 stable:3 release:1 energy:3 electron:2 process:8 combination:1 radon:1 nuclear:1 battery:1 radioisotope:2 synthesize:1 capture:2 delay:2 proton:1 emission:2 minorβ:1 neutron:4 path:1 create:1 stellar:1 nucleosynthesis:1 asymptotic:1 giant:2 branch:1 star:3 slow:1 inside:1 pulsate:1 red:1 detect:1 atmosphere:1 jupiter:1 distant:1 ppm:1 like:2 briartite:1 germanite:1 renierite:2 appreciable:1 amount:3 minable:1 deposit:8 exist:1 nonetheless:1 none:1 zinc:5 body:1 enough:1 extract:1 final:1 concentrate:3 enrichment:1 cause:1 coal:8 seam:1 victor:1 mordechai:1 goldschmidt:1 broad:1 survey:1 hartley:1 ash:2 xilinhaote:2 inner:2 mongolia:2 estimated:1 tonne:3 roughly:1 currently:1 product:1 ores:1 especially:4 sediment:1 host:2 massive:1 zn:2 pb:2 cu:1 ba:1 figure:1 reserve:1 estimate:2 around:2 meet:1 recycled:1 mainly:2 another:1 fly:1 power:1 plant:2 certain:3 russia:2 china:2 locate:2 far:1 east:1 sakhalin:1 island:1 northeast:1 vladivostok:1 lignite:1 lincang:1 yunnan:1 cost:3 sulfidic:1 convert:3 air:1 roasting:1 dust:1 rest:1 leach:2 together:1 cinder:1 neutralisation:1 stay:1 reduce:4 waelz:2 reside:1 second:1 time:1 hydrochloric:1 low:4 distil:1 hcl:1 either:1 purify:1 fractional:1 distillation:1 highly:1 suitable:2 glass:1 industry:3 steel:1 industrial:1 normally:1 remain:1 go:1 phosphor:2 metallurgy:1 chemotherapy:1 optics:1 notable:1 refraction:1 optical:4 dispersion:1 useful:3 wide:2 angle:1 camera:2 lenses:1 microscopy:1 core:1 titania:1 silica:4 dopant:1 eliminate:1 need:2 subsequent:1 treatment:4 account:2 united:3 gesbte:1 phase:2 change:1 rewritable:1 dvd:1 transparent:1 cut:1 polish:1 lens:1 window:1 front:1 thermal:2 imaging:2 work:1 micron:1 wavelength:1 passive:1 hot:1 spot:1 detection:1 military:1 car:1 fire:1 fighting:1 therefore:1 spectroscope:1 equipment:1 sensitive:1 detector:3 germanide:1 commonly:1 sige:3 rapidly:1 speed:2 integrate:1 circuit:2 utilize:1 si:1 junction:2 faster:1 alone:1 arsenide:5 gaas:1 wireless:1 chip:3 well:1 establish:1 recent:2 rise:1 improve:1 economics:1 panel:1 potential:3 substrate:3 wafer:1 efficiency:2 multijunction:1 photovoltaic:1 cell:4 space:1 lattice:1 constant:1 mar:1 exploration:1 rover:1 satellite:1 triple:1 insulator:1 see:2 replacement:1 miniaturize:1 fluorescent:1 lamp:1 emit:1 led:1 still:1 effect:2 pedal:1 musician:1 wish:1 reproduce:1 distinctive:1 tonal:1 character:1 fuzz:2 tone:1 rock:1 roll:1 era:1 notably:1 dallas:1 arbiter:1 face:1 pet:3 bottle:2 polymerisation:1 polyethylene:1 terephthalate:1 brilliance:1 produced:1 polyester:1 japan:1 due:1 stationary:1 chromatography:1 column:1 precious:1 sterling:2 instance:1 firescale:1 tarnish:2 resistance:1 response:1 precipitation:1 hardening:1 proof:1 trademark:1 argentium:1 reflection:1 coat:1 particularly:1 special:1 antireflection:1 coating:1 dlc:1 good:1 match:1 withstand:1 environmental:1 rough:1 single:2 precisely:1 identify:1 radiation:1 airport:1 security:1 monochromators:1 beamlines:1 scattering:1 synchrotron:1 x:2 ray:2 diffraction:1 reflectivity:1 advantage:1 gamma:1 spectroscopy:1 search:2 matter:1 toxicity:1 mammal:1 bacteria:1 chemotherapeutic:1 agent:1 precaution:1 doctor:1 inorganic:1 treat:1 patient:1 anemia:1 dubious:1 role:1 cancer:1 debate:1 food:1 drug:1 administration:1 research:1 conclude:1 nutritional:1 present:2 human:2 health:3 hazard:2 essential:1 animal:1 respectively:1 little:1 impact:1 environment:1 usually:1 trace:1 carbonaceous:1 small:1 quantity:1 commercial:1 footnote:1 li:3 greek:1 mean:1 containing:1 mathematician:1 john:1 couch:1 adam:1 urbain:1 leverrier:1 uranus:1 pull:1 orbit:1 james:1 challis:1 start:1 july:1 sight:1 september:1 hermann:1 claim:1 beneath:1 tantalum:2 regard:1 mixture:1 niobium:1 synthetic:1 past:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 |@bigram grayish_white:1 silicon_germanium:4 organometallic_compound:1 earth_crust:2 dmitri_mendeleev:3 mendeleev_predict:2 periodic_table:2 fiber_optic:4 irritate_eye:2 germanium_tetrachloride:6 lecoq_de:1 de_boisbaudran:1 fluoride_chloride:1 germanium_dioxide:5 vacuum_tube:1 schottky_diode:1 metric_ton:1 silvery_white:1 metallic_luster:2 diode_transistor:1 concentrated_sulfuric:1 sulfuric_acid:2 reacts_violently:1 alkali_metal:2 refractive_index:3 hydrogen_sulfide:1 caustic_alkali:2 alkali_alkaline:1 dietary_supplement:1 radioactive_decay:1 beta_decay:2 stellar_nucleosynthesis:1 asymptotic_giant:1 zinc_copper:1 coal_seam:1 inner_mongolia:2 hydrochloric_acid:1 boiling_point:1 fractional_distillation:1 index_refraction:1 optical_fiber:1 integrate_circuit:1 gallium_arsenide:5 arsenide_gaas:1 photovoltaic_cell:1 triple_junction:1 fluorescent_lamp:1 emit_diode:1 diode_led:1 polyethylene_terephthalate:1 stationary_phase:1 precious_metal:1 neutron_scattering:1 ray_diffraction:1 chemotherapeutic_agent:1 nutritional_supplement:1 niobium_tantalum:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
969 | Paula_Abdul | Paula Julie Abdul (, born June 19, 1962) Paula Abdul - LoveToKnow Celebrity is an American pop singer, record producer, dancer, choreographer, actress and television personality. In the 1980s, Abdul rose from being a cheerleader for the Los Angeles Lakers to being a sought-after choreographer at the height of the music video era, then to being a Pop-R&B singer with a string of hits in the late-1980s and early-1990s. She has scored six number one singles on the Billboard Hot 100, placing her in a tie for fifth among the female solo performers who have reached #1 there. She won a Grammy for "Best Music Video - Short Form" for "Opposites Attract" and twice won the "Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography." After her initial period of success, she suffered a series of setbacks in her professional and personal life, until she found renewed fame and success in the 2000s as a judge on the television series, American Idol. Abdul was most recently featured in the eighth season of American Idol. Abdul has been working on a new album, and hopes to have the album released by the end of 2009. Abdul has a mezzo-soprano vocal range. Thecelebezine Paula Abdul. Background Paula Abdul was born in the San Fernando Valley, to Harry Abdul, a former livestock trader and owner of a sand and gravel business, and Lorraine Rykiss, a concert pianist who once worked as film director Billy Wilder's assistant. Her father, a Syrian Jew, was born in Syria, raised in Brazil, and subsequently immigrated to the United States Abdul's mother, also Jewish, is originally from Saint Boniface (now part of Winnipeg), Manitoba, Canada. Her mother's birth in Canada makes Abdul a Canadian citizen. http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/information/faq/citizenship/cit-rules-faq09.asp An avid dancer, Abdul was inspired towards a show business career by Gene Kelly in the classic film Singin' in the Rain as well as Debbie Allen, Fred Astaire, and Bob Fosse A&E Biography . Abdul began taking dance lessons at the age of eight and showed a natural talent. She attended Van Nuys High School, where she was a cheerleader and an honor student. At 15, she received a scholarship to a dance camp near Palm Springs, and in 1978 appeared in a low-budget Independent musical film, Junior High School. Abdul studied broadcasting at California State University, Northridge. During her first year, she was selected from a pool of 700 candidates for the cheerleading squad of the Los Angeles Lakers — the famed Laker Girls. Within three months, she became head choreographer. Six months later, she left college to focus on her choreography career. Career Dance and choreography Abdul was discovered by The Jacksons, after a few of the band members had watched her while attending a Laker game. She was signed to do the choreography for the video to their single "Torture" . "My only problem was how to tell the Jacksons how to dance," Abdul later recalled. "Imagine me telling them what routines to do. I was young, I was scared. I'm not quite sure how I got through that." The success of the choreography in the video helped lead to Abdul's then new career of choreographer in music videos. It was also due to the success of the video that Abdul was chosen to be the choreographer for the Jacksons' Victory tour. Abdul choreographed videos for several singers throughout the 1980s, including many videos for Janet Jackson during her Control era. In 1995, Abdul released a dance workout video entitled Paula Abdul's Get Up and Dance! (re-released on DVD in 2003), a fast-paced, hip-hop style workout. In 1998 she released a second video called Cardio Dance (re-released on DVD in 2000). In December 2005, Abdul launched a cheerleading/fitness/dance DVD series called Cardio Cheer, which is marketed to children and teenage girls involved with cheerleading and dance. In film, Abdul choreographed sequences for the giant keyboard scene involving Tom Hanks’s character in Big. Further credits include Coming to America, Action Jackson, Jerry McGuire, The Running Man, American Beauty (1999 film), and Oliver Stone's, The Doors. The Official Website of Paula Abdul. PaulaAbdul.com. Retrieved on February 24, 2008 Television credits include The Tracey Ullman Show, American Music Awards, the Academy Awards, and several commercials, such as The King's touchdown celebration, as seen in a string of popular Burger King television commercials that aired during the 2005-2006 NFL season. Forever Your Girl era (1987-1990) Paula Abdul, 1990 In 1987, Abdul used her savings to make a singing demo. Although her voice was relatively untrained, her exceptional dancing proved marketable to the visually-oriented, MTV-driven, pop music industry. In 1988, Abdul released her pop debut album, Forever Your Girl. The album took 62 weeks to hit #1 on the Billboard 200 album sales chart — the longest an album has been on the market before hitting #1 — and spent 10 weeks there. The album eventually became multi-platinum in the spring and summer of 1989, and it spawned five American Top Three singles, four of them #1s (three in 1989 and one in 1990): "Straight Up", "Forever Your Girl", "Cold Hearted", "(It's Just) The Way That You Love Me", and "Opposites Attract". A remix album, Shut Up and Dance, was also released and reached #7 on Billboard's album chart, becoming one of the most successful remix albums to date. The Grammy award-winning video for "Opposites Attract" featured an animated cat named MC Skat Kat. Abdul also went on a Club MTV tour where she performed songs from her album. Several other acts were also on the tour. In the early 1990s, Yvette Marine, backing vocalist on Forever Your Girl, claimed that she sang lead vocals on the album and sued Paula and Virgin Records for compensation. After one month of court proceedings, Abdul and Virgin won the case. Paula Abdul did lead on 'Forever Your Girl': jury - Brief Article Spellbound era (1991-1994) Abdul's follow-up album, 1991's Spellbound, contained another string of hits, and sold 13 million copies worldwide. The first single from Spellbound was the ballad, "Rush, Rush", which topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for five consecutive weeks, and was noted for its music video and Rebel Without a Cause motif featuring Keanu Reeves in the James Dean role. "Promise of a New Day," the second release from the album, also hit No. 1, and it was followed by the Top 10 hit "Blowing Kisses in the Wind" and two Top 20 hits: "Vibeology" and "Will You Marry Me?." The album, Spellbound, retained much of the dance-oriented formula heard on her debut album. The track "U" was written for Paula by Prince. "U" was supposed to be the final single from the album, but was never actually released. Abdul promoted the album through the "Under My Spell Tour", which was named by an MTV contest for fans. This tour was nearly cancelled due to an accident during rehearsals. The tour began on schedule and ran from October 1991 to the summer of 1992. In 1991, Abdul embraced advertising and starred in a popular Diet Coke commercial in which she danced with a digital image of her idol, a young Gene Kelly. Head Over Heels era (1995-1996) By 1995 Paula Abdul had recovered from her battle with the eating disorder bulimia nervosa and prepared to return to the spotlight with her new album Head Over Heels. The album received mixed reviews, and its singles became modest radio hits. The first single off the album, "My Love Is for Real" featured a fusion of R&B and traditional Middle Eastern instruments, and was performed with Yemeni-Israeli singer Ofra Haza. Its accompanying Lawrence of Arabia-inspired music video was played in theaters across the world as a preface to the film Clueless. It was a hit in the clubs (peaking at #1 on Billboard's Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart), but the single stalled at #28 on Billboard's Hot 100 chart. Despite the lack of mainstream chart success, the single was nominated for several MTV Video Music Awards. The second single, "Crazy Cool" became a minor hit in the U.S. yet managed to peak at #13 on the dance charts. "Ain't Never Gonna Give You Up" served as the third and final single but failed to chart in the Hot 100. To date Head Over Heels has sold 3 million copies worldwide, Abdul's lowest selling studio album. Musical hiatus After the low sales of Head Over Heels and conquering her personal problems, Abdul took a hiatus from the music industry. In 2000, Abdul’s Paula Abdul: Greatest Hits CD was released by Virgin Records (with whom Abdul was already no longer affiliated). It featured all of her hit singles and other noteworthy tracks. The song "Bend Time Back 'Round" had previously been heard only on the 1992 soundtrack for the hit television series Beverly Hills 90210. The album was not a commercial success; however, it did sell more than one million copies worldwide. In 1997, Abdul co-wrote "Spinning Around" along with fellow American Idol judge, Kara DioGuardi; a dance-pop track intended to be the lead single off her new album. The album never materialized and "Spinning Around" was given to Kylie Minogue as a single. The song became highly successful and re-launched Minogue's career, as it was intended to do for Abdul, and reached #1 in numerous countries. American Idol In 2002, Abdul appeared as one of three judges for the reality television music competition show American Idol. Abdul, along with fellow judges Simon Cowell and Randy Jackson (joined by Kara DioGuardi in 2009) were to evaluate the talent of a large group of young amateur singers, eliminate most of them in various audition rounds, and then judge the finalists as American television viewers voted on which finalists would continue to each successive round, until all but the winner were eliminated. Abdul won praise as a sympathetic and compassionate judge. She seemed especially kind compared to fellow judge Simon Cowell, who was often very blunt in his appraisals of the contestants' performances. When she realized that Cowell's over-the-top judging style was heartbreaking for many young contestants, Abdul was so horrified, she considered leaving the show. Although their differences often resulted in extremely heated on-air exchanges and confrontations, Cowell says he played a major role in convincing Abdul not to leave the show. Cowell, S (2003): I don't mean to be rude, but..., p. 116-117, Random House. ISBN 978-0-7679-1741-4 Now a bona fide television celebrity, Abdul accepted a second assignment as reporter for Entertainment Tonight. Her knack for finding something positive in almost every performance, her emotion-laden praise for contestants whose style she really likes, and her unique fingers-bent-outwards handclapping style have fueled the belief among some that she is drunk during auditions. This rumor has been the subject of satire, especially by Amy Poehler during Saturday Night Live sketches and Nicole Parker on MADtv. This ability to give positive feedback to every performance has also led some people to say she is a poor judge incapable of constructive criticism. Abdul has been criticized for falling back on the same cliches and pat phrases when praising or critiquing Idol contestants with comments like "America loves you!", "You're authentic!" or "It wasn't your best performance." Several American comedy shows, including Saturday Night Live, The Simpsons, and Mad TV, have capitalized on these catch-phrases when doing sketches involving an Abdul impersonator. They also imitate Abdul's unusual "arm-flapping" style of clapping her hands. Paula was referenced in an episode of the hit animated series Family Guy, titled "The Father, the Son, and the Holy Fonz". During a routine 'cutaway gag', a clip from Paula's video for her earlier hit Opposites Attract is shown, with Peter Griffin replacing MC Skat Kat in both image and voice. According to the Family Guy: Volume 4 DVD commentary, the vocals of Skat Kat on the track could not be separated from Paula's, so she came in and re-recorded the chorus of the song for the show. This would be her first Family Guy guest star credit. On March 28, 2006 FOX announced that Abdul had signed to stay on American Idol as a judge for at least three more years. Later that year, fellow American Idol judge Simon Cowell invited her to be a guest judge at some of the early auditions for the third series of his similar talent show The X Factor. Abdul was present at the initial audition of the eventual winner, Leona Lewis. The week of May 14 to May 18, 2007 (the week before the season 6 finale), Abdul broke her nose when she tried to "avoid tripping over her pet chihuahua". She was present at the May 22 performance and the May 23 finale. Her second greatest-hits CD, entitled Greatest Hits: Straight Up!, was released by Virgin on May 8, 2007. This album was put together by Virgin Records, with whom Abdul was no longer signed as a recording artist. At this time, they also released the music videos to all six of her #1 singles to iTunes. Bravo announced a reality television series following Abdul through her day-to-day life, called Hey Paula. The series was produced by Scott Sternberg Productions and debuted on June 28, 2007. MovieWeb.com News Paula's behavior as depicted on the show has been described as 'erratic' by comedian Rosie O'Donnell. http://www.nationalledger.com/artman/publish/article_272615124.shtml and decried by numerous fans and critics. Abdul's American Idol wardrobe often includes a number of necklaces, rings, bracelets, and earrings that she designs, and she often gives show contestants custom-designed jewelry. In 2007, Paula Abdul Jewelry launched its nationwide consumer debut on QVC, with the tagline "fashion jewelry designed with heart and soul". Paula Abdul Jewelry homepage on QVC, retrieved May 13, 2007. Paula's first QVC appearance resulted in 15 sellouts of her first jewelry collection involving more than 34,000 pieces. GuyoutBrothers.com Jewelry Industry News Paula is currently about to release her own perfume entitled "Sexy Thoughts." In January 2008, Paula returned to the music charts for the first time in nearly 13 years with the single "Dance Like There's No Tomorrow", which is the first track on the album Randy Jackson's Music Club Vol 1. The song debuted on On Air with Ryan Seacrest Paula, Randy & Ryan Unveil Her New Single Retrieved January 18, 2008 . The song was a modest comeback hit for Paula, peaking at #62 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #2 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. Paula's MTV show "RAH!" premiered in January 2009. The 90-minute special featured eight collegiate cheerleading squads, which competed in a series of challenges in order to be crowned the winner by Paula. Abdul's Rah! Cheerleading Bowl, retrieved January 13, 2009. A snippet of Paula's latest single "Boombox", a cover of a Kylie Minogue song, also premiered on the show. On May 5, 2009, Paula debuted her new song "I'm Just Here for the Music" (originally an unreleased song from Kylie Minogue's ninth album Body Language) on the Ryan Seacrest Radio KIIS-FM show. On May 6, 2009, Paula performed her new song on the American Idol results show. On May 8, 2009, Paula released "I'm Just Here For The Music" to the US iTunes Store. Personal life Abdul was married to Emilio Estevez from April 29, 1992 to May 1994. In a June 19, 2005 interview with People magazine Abdul stated that they broke up over the issue of children; she wanted them to have a child together, while Estevez (who already had two children from a prior relationship) did not. She later married sportswear designer Brad Beckerman in 1996. They divorced in 1998. Having recovered from her eating disorder after treatment in 1994, she later became a spokeswoman for NEDA, and was presented with the Profiles In Living Award in late 2005. She then continued her work by recording Public Service Announcements in 2006. In April 2005, she revealed that she suffers from a rare neurological disorder called Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy (CRPS) that causes chronic pain. Abdul says odd behavior not drug-related, USA Today, 2005-04-20. Retrieved on 2005-04-20 Paula practices Judaism and is proud of her heritage. She once stated, "My father is a Syrian Jew whose family immigrated to Brazil. My mother is Canadian with Jewish roots. My dream is to come to Israel for a real holiday." In November 2006, Israeli Tourist Minister Isaac Herzog invited her to Israel, Abdul responding with a hug, adding, "I will come; you have helped me make a dream come true." On Valentine's Day 2006, Abdul appeared on Dr. Phil as part of a prime time special on love and relationships. She was set up on two dates and Phil McGraw gave her advice. Paula is also a dog lover who is currently raising awareness about National Guide Dog Month in May 2009 and she is teaming up with Dick Van Patten to help people with blindness to have more independence through the help of guide dogs. In mid July 2007, Abdul announced that she had begun dating J.T. Torregiani, Paula Abdul Finally Restores Her Love Life, All Headline News, 2007-07-19. Retrieved on 2007-07-19 a restaurant owner 12 years her junior. The View, episode airing July 19, 2007 She told Access Hollywood: "He is a good guy. Things are looking upwards. It's looking good right now. I wasn't even looking for someone and that's what usually happens." Access Hollywood, episode airing July 18, 2007 Paula and JT broke up in June 2008, citing their hectic work schedules. Controversies Corey Clark In May 2005, ABC's news magazine Primetime Live reported claims by Season 2 American Idol contestant Corey Clark that he and Abdul had an affair during that season, and that she had coached him on how to succeed in the competition. The fact that Clark came forward at a time when he was marketing a CD and trying to get a book deal was seen as suspicious by some, but Clark maintains that his career was being prejudiced because of his relationship with Abdul and that is why he came forward with the information to clear his name. For the most part, Abdul refused to comment on Clark's allegations. At the height of the debacle, Abdul appeared in a Saturday Night Live skit, making light of the situation. AP., Abdul pokes fun at sex scandal on ‘SNL’, MSNBC.com (2005-05-11), Retrieved on 2007-02-12 While Fox launched an investigation, Abdul received numerous calls of support from celebrities, including Oprah Winfrey; Barbara Walters even addressed the camera during an episode of ABC's The View to say she was ashamed to be part of an operation that would report Clark's flimsy tabloid claims under the guise of a news story. In August 2005 the Fox network confirmed that she would be returning to the show, as the investigation had found "insufficient evidence that the communications between Mr. Clark and Ms. Abdul in any way aided his performance". AP., After probe, Paula Abdul to remain on ‘Idol’, MSNBC.com (2005-08-24), Retrieved on 2007-02-12. Legal issues On December 20, 2004, Abdul was driving her Mercedes on an L.A.-area freeway when she changed lanes and hit another vehicle. The driver and passenger snapped a photograph with a cell phone camera and wrote down the license plate number of the car, which was traced to Abdul. On March 24, 2005, Abdul was fined $900 and given 24 months of informal probation after pleading no contest to misdemeanor hit-and-run driving in Los Angeles. In addition to the fines she was ordered to pay $775 for damage to the other car. AP., 'Idol' Judge Fined For Hit-And-Run, CBSnews.com, 2005-03-24, Retrieved on 2007-02-10. On April 4, 2006, Abdul filed a report at a Hollywood police station claiming she had been a victim of battery at a private party at about 1 a.m. April 2, according to L.A.P.D. spokesman police Lt. Paul Vernon. "According to Abdul, the man at the party argued with her, grabbed her by the arm and threw her against a wall", Vernon said. "She said she had sustained a concussion and spinal injuries". AP, Paula Abdul Tells Police She Was Assaulted, MSN.com, 2006-04-06, Retrieved on 2007-02-10. Substance abuse allegations Substance abuse allegations arose as the result of what some described as "erratic behavior" by Abdul during episodes of American Idol. After reading these allegations on message boards, Abdul told People magazine in April 2005 that she suffered from chronic pain for years following a "cheerleading accident" at age 17 and was diagnosed with reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) in November 2004. Abdul says she is now pain-free following treatment, including the anti-inflammatory medication Enbrel. Allegations arose again in January 2007 when videos circulated on the Internet of Abdul appearing to sway in her chair and slur her speech during a set of interviews. Paula Abdul seen slurring in TV interview, Reuters via MSNBC.com, 2007-01-15, Retrieved on 2007-04-09. Abdul's publicist attributed this to fatigue and technical difficulties during the recording of the interviews. It was revealed on the Bravo show Hey Paula, which had followed Abdul with a video camera prior to the interviews, that Abdul had not been sleeping, perhaps suffering from some mild form of insomnia. In February 2007, Abdul told Us Weekly that she had never been drunk or used illegal drugs and called the allegations "lies". Paula Abdul claims she’s ‘squeaky clean’, Associated Press via MSNBC.com, 2007-02-13, Retrieved on 2007-02-15 In a March 2007 appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Abdul joked that her scrutinized behavior was caused by her being "abducted by aliens". Paula was left in debilitating pain after a 1992 car accident and 1993 plane crash that required 15 spinal surgeries and left her dependent on pain medication for years. Media gossips reported that she had become an addict she continues to defend herself against allegations that she filmed the television show high on drugs. Paula is admitting that she's come to terms with her dependency and is determined to stay sober once and for all. In May 2009, Ladies' Home Journal posted an article on its Web site that said Abdul told them she attended the La Costa Resort and Spa the previous year to recover from physical dependence on prescription pain medications. Paula Abdul Reveals Struggle with Prescription Painkillers, People, 2009-05-05, Retrieved on 2009-05-06 The medications, prescribed due to injuries and her RSD diagnosis, included a pain patch, nerve medication, and a muscle relaxant. According to the article, Abdul said the medications made her "get weird" at times and that she suffered from physical withdrawal symptoms during her recovery. Later that same week, though, in an interview with Detroit radio station WKQI, Abdul rejected the article's accuracy. She told the radio station she never checked into a rehab clinic and never had a drug abuse problem. Tours The Club MTV Tour The Under My Spell Tour Discography Studio albums Year Album details Peak chart positions Certifications(sales threshold) US US R&B UK AUS NOR SWE 1988 Forever Your Girl Released: Released: June 13, 1988 Label: Virgin Records 1 4 3 1 17 6 US: 7× Multi-Platinum UK: Platinum CAN: 7× Platinum 1991 Spellbound Released: May 14, 1991 Label: Virgin Records 1 5 4 3 — 6 US: 3× Multi-Platinum UK: Gold CAN: 2× Platinum 1995 Head Over Heels Released: June 13, 1995 Label: Virgin Records 18 31 61 18 — — US: Gold "—" denotes the album failed to chart or not released Compilations Year Album details Peak chart positions Certifications(sales threshold) US US R&B UK AUS SWE 1990 Shut Up and Dance Released: May 8, 1990 Label: Virgin Records 7 65 40 16 24 US: Platinum CAN: Platinum 2000 Greatest Hits Released: September 26, 2000 Label: Virgin Records — — — — — 2007 Greatest Hits: Straight Up! Released: May 8, 2007 Label: Virgin/EMI — 86 — — — "—" denotes the album failed to chart or not released Singles Year Single Peak chart positions Billboard.com - Artist Chart History - Paula Abdul Album US US R&B US Dance US AC UK AUS IRE CAN GER 1988 "Knocked Out" 41 8 14 — 41 — 17 — — Forever Your Girl "(It's Just) The Way That You Love Me" 88 10 18 — — — — — — 1989 "Straight Up" 1 2 3 — 3 27 1 1 3 "Forever Your Girl" 1 54 28 11 24 51 21 1 17 "Cold Hearted" 1 — 19 — 46 68 — 1 38 "(It's Just) The Way You Love Me" (re-release) 3 — — — 74 76 — 9 — "Opposites Attract" (with The Wild Pair) 1 3 24 — 2 1 8 1 13 1990 "Straight Up" (Ultimix Mix) — — — — — 55 — — — Shut Up and Dance "1990 Medley Mix" — — — — — 33 — — — 1991 "Rush Rush" 1 20 — 1 6 2 11 1 12 Spellbound "The Promise of a New Day" 1 — — 26 52 31 — 1 86 1992 "Blowing Kisses in the Wind" 6 — — 5 — — — 4 — "Vibeology" 16 — 17 — 19 63 29 7 — "Will You Marry Me?" 19 — — 17 73 54 — — 74 1995 "My Love Is for Real" 28 96 1 — 28 7 — 23 87 Head Over Heels "Crazy Cool" 58 — 13 — — 76 — 16 89 1996 "Ain't Never Gonna Give You Up" 112 — — — — — — — — 2008 "Dance Like There's No Tomorrow" (with Randy Jackson) 62 — 2 29 — — — 68 — Randy Jackson'sMusic Club, Vol. 1 2009 "I'm Just Here for the Music"A 87 TBD Number-one songs 6 — 1 1 — 1 1 6 — Top-ten hits 8 4 3 2 3 3 2 9 1 Top-forty hits 11 5 10 6 7 6 6 11 5 "—" denotes the single failed to chart or wasn't released to that country A Current single. Filmography Film and television Year Film http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000716/ Role Notes 1978 Junior High School Sherry 1987 Can't Buy Me Love Dancer (uncredited) 1997 Touched By Evil Elle Collier TV Movie 1998 The Waiting Game Amy Fuentes TV Movie"Sabrina the Teenage Witch (TV series)" Herself 1 Episode 1999 The Wayans Bros. Sasha 1 Episode Mr. Rock 'n' Roll: The Alan Freed Story Denise Walton TV Movie 2002 - present American Idol Judge 2004 That's So Raven Undercover Judge 1 Episode 2005 Romy and Michele: In the Beginning Herself TV MovieLess Than Perfect Kathleen 1 Episode Robots Watch 2007 Hey Paula As herself 7 Episodes, also Executive Producer 2009 ''RAH! Paula Abdul's Cheerleading BowlAs Herself Host As choreographer Year Film Notes 1983 Private School 1986 A Smoky Mountain Christmas1987 The Tracey Ullman Show Won 1989 Emmy Award for "Outstanding Achievement in Choreography"Can't Buy Me Love The Running Man1988 Action Jackson Big Coming To America1989 She's Out of Control Dance To Win The Karate Kid, Part III 1990 17th American Music Awards Won 1990 Emmy Award for "Outstanding Achievement in Choreography" 1991 The Doors Val Kilmer's choreographer 1996 Jerry Maguire 1999 American Beauty 2001 Black Knight 2002 The Master of Disguise See also List of Jews from the Arab World List of number-one hits (United States) List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States) List of artists by total number of USA number one singles List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Adult Contemporary chart List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart List of artists who reached number one on the Australian singles chart References External links Paula Abdul official Site for her New Album A Direct Interview with Paula Abdul | Paula_Abdul |@lemmatized paula:47 julie:1 abdul:99 bear:3 june:6 lovetoknow:1 celebrity:3 american:20 pop:5 singer:5 record:11 producer:2 dancer:3 choreographer:7 actress:1 television:11 personality:1 rise:1 cheerleader:2 los:3 angeles:3 lakers:2 seek:1 height:2 music:18 video:18 era:5 r:5 b:5 string:3 hit:27 late:4 early:4 score:1 six:3 number:12 one:13 single:24 billboard:9 hot:8 place:1 tie:1 fifth:1 among:2 female:1 solo:1 performer:1 reach:7 win:8 grammy:2 best:2 short:1 form:2 opposites:2 attract:5 twice:1 primetime:2 emmy:3 award:9 outstanding:3 choreography:7 initial:2 period:1 success:6 suffer:5 series:10 setback:1 professional:1 personal:3 life:4 find:3 renew:1 fame:1 judge:14 idol:16 recently:1 feature:5 eighth:1 season:5 work:4 new:10 album:35 hop:2 release:25 end:1 mezzo:1 soprano:1 vocal:3 range:1 thecelebezine:1 background:1 san:1 fernando:1 valley:1 harry:1 former:1 livestock:1 trader:1 owner:2 sand:1 gravel:1 business:2 lorraine:1 rykiss:1 concert:1 pianist:1 film:10 director:1 billy:1 wilder:1 assistant:1 father:3 syrian:2 jew:3 syria:1 raise:2 brazil:2 subsequently:1 immigrate:2 united:3 state:6 mother:3 also:13 jewish:2 originally:2 saint:1 boniface:1 part:5 winnipeg:1 manitoba:1 canada:2 birth:1 make:5 canadian:2 citizen:1 http:3 www:3 cic:1 gc:1 ca:1 english:1 information:2 faq:1 citizenship:1 cit:1 rule:1 asp:1 avid:1 inspire:1 towards:1 show:21 career:6 gene:2 kelly:2 classic:1 singin:1 rain:1 well:1 debbie:1 allen:1 fred:1 astaire:1 bob:1 fosse:1 e:1 biography:1 begin:4 take:3 dance:24 lesson:1 age:2 eight:2 natural:1 talent:3 attend:3 van:2 nuys:1 high:4 school:4 honor:1 student:1 receive:3 scholarship:1 camp:1 near:1 palm:1 spring:2 appear:5 low:3 budget:1 independent:1 musical:2 junior:3 study:1 broadcasting:1 california:1 university:1 northridge:1 first:8 year:13 select:1 pool:1 candidate:1 cheerlead:4 squad:2 famed:1 laker:2 girl:10 within:1 three:5 month:5 become:8 head:7 later:6 leave:5 college:1 focus:1 discover:1 jackson:10 band:1 member:1 watch:2 game:2 sign:3 torture:1 problem:3 tell:8 recall:1 imagine:1 routines:1 young:4 scar:1 quite:1 sure:1 get:4 help:4 lead:5 due:3 choose:1 victory:1 tour:9 choreographed:1 several:5 throughout:1 include:8 many:2 janet:1 control:2 workout:2 entitle:3 dvd:4 fast:1 pace:1 hip:1 style:5 second:5 call:6 cardio:2 december:2 launch:4 cheerleading:3 fitness:1 cheer:1 market:3 child:4 teenage:2 involve:4 choreograph:1 sequence:1 giant:1 keyboard:1 scene:1 tom:1 hank:1 character:1 big:2 credit:3 come:9 america:2 action:2 jerry:2 mcguire:1 run:3 man:2 beauty:2 oliver:1 stone:1 door:2 official:2 website:1 paulaabdul:1 com:12 retrieve:13 february:2 tracey:2 ullman:2 academy:1 commercial:4 king:2 touchdown:1 celebration:1 see:4 popular:2 burger:1 air:5 nfl:1 forever:8 use:2 saving:1 singing:1 demo:1 although:2 voice:2 relatively:1 untrained:1 exceptional:1 dancing:1 prove:1 marketable:1 visually:1 orient:2 mtv:6 driven:1 industry:3 debut:6 week:6 sale:4 chart:20 long:1 spend:1 eventually:1 multi:3 platinum:8 summer:2 spawn:1 five:2 top:7 four:1 straight:5 cold:2 hearted:2 way:4 love:10 opposite:3 remix:2 shut:3 successful:2 date:4 animated:1 cat:1 name:4 mc:2 skat:3 kat:3 go:1 club:7 perform:3 song:10 act:1 yvette:1 marine:1 back:3 vocalist:1 claim:5 sing:1 sue:1 virgin:11 compensation:1 court:1 proceeding:1 case:1 jury:1 brief:1 article:4 spellbound:6 follow:6 contain:1 another:2 sell:3 million:3 copy:3 worldwide:3 ballad:1 rush:4 consecutive:1 note:3 rebel:1 without:1 cause:3 motif:1 keanu:1 reef:1 james:1 dean:1 role:3 promise:2 day:5 blow:2 kiss:2 wind:2 two:3 vibeology:2 marry:4 retain:1 much:1 formula:1 heard:1 track:5 u:20 write:3 prince:1 suppose:1 final:2 never:7 actually:1 promote:1 spell:2 contest:2 fan:2 nearly:2 cancel:1 accident:3 rehearsal:1 schedule:2 ran:1 october:1 embrace:1 advertising:1 star:2 diet:1 coke:1 digital:1 image:2 heel:6 recover:3 battle:1 eat:2 disorder:3 bulimia:1 nervosa:1 prepare:1 return:3 spotlight:1 mixed:1 review:1 modest:2 radio:4 real:3 fusion:1 traditional:1 middle:1 eastern:1 instrument:1 yemeni:1 israeli:2 ofra:1 haza:1 accompany:1 lawrence:1 arabia:1 inspired:1 play:4 theater:1 across:1 world:2 preface:1 clueless:1 peak:6 stall:1 despite:1 lack:1 mainstream:1 nominate:1 crazy:2 cool:2 minor:1 yet:1 manage:1 gonna:2 give:7 serve:1 third:2 fail:4 selling:1 studio:2 hiatus:2 conquer:1 great:5 cd:3 already:2 longer:2 affiliated:1 noteworthy:1 bend:1 time:6 round:3 previously:1 hear:1 soundtrack:1 beverly:1 hill:1 however:1 co:1 spin:2 around:2 along:2 fellow:4 kara:2 dioguardi:2 intend:2 materialize:1 kylie:3 minogue:4 highly:1 numerous:3 country:2 reality:2 competition:2 simon:3 cowell:6 randy:5 join:1 evaluate:1 large:1 group:1 amateur:1 eliminate:2 various:1 audition:4 finalist:2 viewer:1 vote:1 would:4 continue:3 successive:1 winner:3 praise:3 sympathetic:3 compassionate:1 seem:1 especially:2 kind:1 compare:1 often:4 blunt:1 appraisal:1 contestant:6 performance:6 realize:1 judging:1 heartbreaking:1 horrified:1 consider:1 difference:1 result:4 extremely:1 heat:1 exchange:1 confrontation:1 say:9 major:1 convince:1 mean:1 rude:1 p:2 random:1 house:1 isbn:1 bona:1 fide:1 accept:1 assignment:1 reporter:1 entertainment:1 tonight:1 knack:1 something:1 positive:2 almost:1 every:2 emotion:1 laden:1 whose:2 really:1 like:4 unique:1 finger:1 bent:1 outwards:1 handclapping:1 fuel:1 belief:1 drunk:2 rumor:1 subject:1 satire:1 amy:2 poehler:1 saturday:3 night:3 live:5 sketch:2 nicole:1 parker:1 madtv:1 ability:1 feedback:1 people:5 poor:1 incapable:1 constructive:1 criticism:1 criticize:1 fall:1 cliche:1 pat:1 phrase:2 critique:1 comment:2 authentic:1 comedy:1 simpson:1 mad:1 tv:7 capitalize:1 catch:1 impersonator:1 imitate:1 unusual:1 arm:2 flapping:1 clap:1 hand:1 reference:2 episode:10 animate:1 family:4 guy:4 title:1 son:1 holy:1 fonz:1 routine:1 cutaway:1 gag:1 clip:1 peter:1 griffin:1 replace:1 accord:4 volume:1 commentary:1 could:1 separate:1 chorus:1 guest:2 march:3 fox:3 announce:3 stay:2 least:1 invite:2 similar:1 x:1 factor:1 present:4 eventual:1 leona:1 lewis:1 may:16 finale:2 break:3 nose:1 try:2 avoid:1 tripping:1 pet:1 chihuahua:1 put:1 together:2 recording:2 artist:7 itunes:2 bravo:2 hey:3 produce:1 scott:1 sternberg:1 production:1 movieweb:1 news:5 behavior:4 depict:1 describe:2 erratic:2 comedian:1 rosie:1 donnell:1 nationalledger:1 artman:1 publish:1 shtml:1 decry:1 critic:1 wardrobe:1 necklace:1 ring:1 bracelet:1 earring:1 design:3 custom:1 jewelry:6 nationwide:1 consumer:1 qvc:3 tagline:1 fashion:1 heart:1 soul:1 homepage:1 appearance:2 sellout:1 collection:1 piece:1 guyoutbrothers:1 currently:2 perfume:1 sexy:1 thought:1 january:5 tomorrow:2 vol:2 ryan:3 seacrest:2 unveil:1 comeback:1 rah:3 premier:2 minute:1 special:2 featured:1 collegiate:1 compete:1 challenge:1 order:2 crown:1 bowl:1 snippet:1 boombox:1 cover:1 unreleased:1 ninth:1 body:1 language:1 kiis:1 fm:1 store:1 emilio:1 estevez:2 april:5 interview:7 magazine:3 issue:2 want:1 prior:2 relationship:3 sportswear:1 designer:1 brad:1 beckerman:1 divorce:1 treatment:2 spokeswoman:1 neda:1 profile:1 public:1 service:1 announcement:1 reveal:2 rare:1 neurological:1 reflex:2 dystrophy:2 crp:1 chronic:2 pain:7 odd:1 drug:4 relate:1 usa:2 today:1 practice:1 judaism:1 proud:1 heritage:1 root:1 dream:2 israel:2 holiday:1 november:2 tourist:1 minister:1 isaac:1 herzog:1 respond:1 hug:1 add:1 true:1 valentine:1 dr:1 phil:2 prime:1 set:2 mcgraw:1 advice:1 dog:3 lover:1 awareness:1 national:1 guide:2 team:1 dick:1 patten:1 blindness:1 independence:1 mid:1 july:3 j:1 torregiani:1 finally:1 restore:1 headline:1 restaurant:1 view:2 access:2 hollywood:3 good:2 thing:1 look:3 upwards:1 right:1 even:2 someone:1 usually:1 happen:1 jt:1 cite:1 hectic:1 controversy:1 corey:2 clark:7 abc:2 report:4 affair:1 coach:1 succeed:1 fact:1 forward:2 book:1 deal:1 suspicious:1 maintains:1 prejudice:1 clear:1 refuse:1 allegation:7 debacle:1 skit:1 light:1 situation:1 ap:4 poke:1 fun:1 sex:1 scandal:1 snl:1 msnbc:4 investigation:2 support:1 oprah:1 winfrey:1 barbara:1 walter:1 address:1 camera:3 ashamed:1 operation:1 flimsy:1 tabloid:1 guise:1 story:2 august:1 network:1 confirm:1 insufficient:1 evidence:1 communication:1 mr:2 aid:1 probe:1 remain:1 legal:1 drive:1 mercedes:1 l:2 area:1 freeway:1 change:1 lane:1 vehicle:1 driver:1 passenger:1 snap:1 photograph:1 cell:1 phone:1 license:1 plate:1 car:3 trace:1 fin:2 informal:1 probation:1 plead:1 misdemeanor:1 driving:1 addition:1 fine:1 pay:1 damage:1 cbsnews:1 file:1 police:3 station:3 victim:1 battery:1 private:2 party:2 spokesman:1 lt:1 paul:1 vernon:2 argue:1 grab:1 throw:1 wall:1 sustain:1 concussion:1 spinal:2 injury:2 assault:1 msn:1 substance:2 abuse:3 arose:1 read:1 message:1 board:1 diagnose:1 rsd:2 free:2 anti:1 inflammatory:1 medication:6 enbrel:1 arise:1 circulate:1 internet:1 sway:1 chair:1 slur:2 speech:1 reuters:1 via:2 publicist:1 attribute:1 fatigue:1 technical:1 difficulty:1 sleep:1 perhaps:1 mild:1 insomnia:1 weekly:1 illegal:1 lie:1 squeaky:1 clean:1 associate:1 press:1 david:1 letterman:1 joke:1 scrutinized:1 abduct:1 alien:1 debilitate:1 plane:1 crash:1 require:1 surgery:1 dependent:1 medium:1 gossip:1 addict:1 defend:1 admit:1 term:1 dependency:1 determine:1 sober:1 lady:1 home:1 journal:1 post:1 web:1 site:2 la:1 costa:1 resort:1 spa:1 previous:1 physical:2 dependence:1 prescription:2 reveals:1 struggle:1 painkiller:1 prescribe:1 diagnosis:1 patch:1 nerve:1 muscle:1 relaxant:1 weird:1 withdrawal:1 symptom:1 recovery:1 though:1 detroit:1 wkqi:1 reject:1 accuracy:1 check:1 rehab:1 clinic:1 discography:1 detail:2 position:3 certification:2 threshold:2 uk:5 au:3 swe:2 label:6 gold:2 denote:3 compilation:1 september:1 emi:1 history:1 ac:1 ire:1 ger:1 knock:1 wild:1 pair:1 ultimix:1 mix:2 medley:1 smusic:1 tbd:1 songs:1 ten:1 forty:1 current:1 filmography:1 imdb:1 sherry:1 buy:2 uncredited:1 touch:1 evil:1 elle:1 collier:1 movie:3 wait:1 fuentes:1 sabrina:1 witch:1 wayans:1 bros:1 sasha:1 rock:1 n:1 roll:1 alan:1 denise:1 walton:1 raven:1 undercover:1 romy:1 michele:1 movieless:1 perfect:1 kathleen:1 robot:1 executive:1 bowlas:1 host:1 smoky:1 mountain:1 achievement:2 running:1 karate:1 kid:1 iii:1 val:1 kilmer:1 maguire:1 black:1 knight:1 master:1 disguise:1 list:8 arab:1 total:1 adult:1 contemporary:1 australian:1 external:1 link:1 direct:1 |@bigram paula_abdul:22 dancer_choreographer:1 los_angeles:3 angeles_lakers:2 billboard_hot:6 primetime_emmy:1 emmy_award:3 mezzo_soprano:1 sand_gravel:1 billy_wilder:1 saint_boniface:1 winnipeg_manitoba:1 http_www:3 gc_ca:1 singin_rain:1 fred_astaire:1 bob_fosse:1 van_nuys:1 cheerlead_squad:2 dance_choreography:1 janet_jackson:1 hip_hop:1 teenage_girl:1 tom_hank:1 tracey_ullman:2 grammy_award:1 keanu_reef:1 diet_coke:1 bulimia_nervosa:1 beverly_hill:1 never_materialize:1 kylie_minogue:3 bona_fide:1 saturday_night:3 positive_feedback:1 clap_hand:1 itunes_store:1 emilio_estevez:1 neurological_disorder:1 chronic_pain:2 poke_fun:1 oprah_winfrey:1 plead_contest:1 cbsnews_com:1 erratic_behavior:1 anti_inflammatory:1 slur_speech:1 david_letterman:1 medication_prescribe:1 muscle_relaxant:1 withdrawal_symptom:1 discography_studio:1 www_imdb:1 imdb_com:1 sabrina_teenage:1 teenage_witch:1 smoky_mountain:1 val_kilmer:1 external_link:1 |
970 | Amyl_alcohol | Amyl alcohol is an organic compound with the formula C5H12O. All eight isomers of amyl alcohol are known: {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Isomers of amyl alcohol |- ! Common Name !! Structure !! Type !! IUPAC Name !! Boiling Point (°C) Calculated boiling points from ChemSpider. |- | normal amyl alcohol | | primary | 1-pentanol | 138.5 |- | isobutyl carbinolor isoamyl alcoholor isopentyl alcohol | | primary | 3-methyl-1-butanol | 131.2 |- | active amyl alcohol | | primary | 2-methyl-1-butanol | 128.7 |- | tertiary butyl carbinolor neopentyl alcohol | | primary | 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol | 113.1 |- | diethyl carbinol | | secondary | 3-pentanol | 115.3 |- | methyl (n) propyl carbinol | | secondary | 2-pentanol | 118.8 |- | methyl isopropyl carbinol | | secondary | 3-methyl-2-butanol | 113.6 |- | dimethyl ethyl carbinolor tertiary amyl alcohol | | tertiary | 2-methyl-2-butanol | 102 |} Three of these alcohols, active amyl alcohol, methyl (n) propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol, are optically active, as they contain an asymmetric carbon atom. The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this being the chief constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, and consequently a constituent of fusel oil. It can be separated from fusel oil by shaking with strong brine solution, separating the oily layer from the brine layer and distilling it, the portion boiling between 125 and 140 °C. being collected. For further purification it may be shaken with hot lime water, the oily layer separated, dried with calcium chloride and fractionated, the fraction boiling between 128 and 132 °C only being collected. It may be synthesized from isobutanol by conversion into isovaleraldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of sodium amalgam. It is a colourless liquid of density 0.8247 g/cm³ (0 °C), boiling at 131.6 °C, slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in organic solvents. It possesses a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning taste. When pure, it is nontoxic, while the impure product is toxic. On passing its vapour through a red-hot tube, it decomposes with production of acetylene, ethylene, propylene, and other compounds. It is oxidized by chromic acid to isovaleraldehyde, and it forms crystalline addition compounds with calcium chloride and tin(IV) chloride. The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult to obtain, its synthesis having first been reported in 1891, by L. Tissier (Comptes Rendus, 1891, 112, p. 1065) by the reduction of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid and trimethylacetyl chloride with sodium amalgam. It is a solid that melts at 48 to 50 °C and boils at 112.3 °C. References | Amyl_alcohol |@lemmatized amyl:9 alcohol:12 organic:2 compound:3 formula:1 eight:1 isomer:2 know:1 class:1 wikitable:1 sortable:1 common:1 name:2 structure:1 type:1 iupac:1 boiling:1 point:2 c:7 calculate:1 boil:5 chemspider:1 normal:1 primary:4 pentanol:3 isobutyl:3 carbinolor:3 isoamyl:1 alcoholor:1 isopentyl:1 methyl:8 butanol:4 active:3 tertiary:4 butyl:2 neopentyl:1 dimethyl:2 propanol:1 diethyl:1 carbinol:8 secondary:3 n:2 propyl:2 isopropyl:2 ethyl:1 three:1 optically:1 contain:1 asymmetric:1 carbon:1 atom:1 important:1 chief:1 constituent:2 fermentation:1 consequently:1 fusel:2 oil:2 separate:3 shake:2 strong:2 brine:2 solution:1 oily:2 layer:3 distil:1 portion:1 collect:2 purification:1 may:3 hot:2 lime:1 water:2 dry:1 calcium:2 chloride:4 fractionate:1 fraction:1 synthesize:1 isobutanol:1 conversion:1 isovaleraldehyde:2 subsequently:1 reduce:1 mean:1 sodium:2 amalgam:2 colourless:1 liquid:1 density:1 g:1 slightly:1 soluble:2 easily:1 solvent:1 possess:1 characteristic:1 smell:1 sharp:1 burning:1 taste:1 pure:1 nontoxic:1 impure:1 product:1 toxic:1 pass:1 vapour:1 red:1 tube:1 decompose:1 production:1 acetylene:1 ethylene:1 propylene:1 oxidize:1 chromic:1 acid:2 form:1 crystalline:1 addition:1 tin:1 iv:1 obtain:2 synthetically:1 difficult:1 synthesis:1 first:1 report:1 l:1 tissier:1 comptes:1 rendus:1 p:1 reduction:1 mixture:1 trimethyl:1 acetic:1 trimethylacetyl:1 solid:1 melt:1 reference:1 |@bigram amyl_alcohol:9 organic_compound:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_sortable:1 boiling_point:1 methyl_butanol:4 carbon_atom:1 fusel_oil:2 calcium_chloride:2 organic_solvent:1 chromic_acid:1 comptes_rendus:1 acetic_acid:1 chloride_sodium:1 |
971 | KGB | KGB (transliteration of "КГБ") is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security (; Komityet Gosudarstvjennoj Biezopasnosti), which was the official name of the umbrella organization serving as the Soviet Union's premier security agency, secret police, and intelligence agency, from 1954 to 1991. The KGB's function was illustrated by its official emblem: bearing both shield and sword, the KGB was an organization with a military hierarchy aimed at providing national defense. On December 21 1995, the President of Russia Boris Yeltsin signed the decree that disbanded the KGB, which was then replaced by the FSB, the current domestic state security agency of the Russian Federation. In Belarus, a former Soviet republic, the official Russian name of the State Security Agency remains "KGB." The term is also sometimes used figuratively in the Western press to refer to the current FSB committee after the 1991 renaming due to its recognition and public perception. Safe as houses: the KGB-proof mansion - Times Online Most of the information about the KGB remains secret, although there are two sources of documents of KGB available online. http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/buk.html archive of documents about KPSS and KGB, collected by Vladimir Bukovsky. Origin of the KGB The first of the forerunners of the KGB, the Cheka, was established on December 19, 1917. It replaced the Tsarist Okhrana. The Cheka underwent several name and organizational changes over the years, becoming in succession the State Political Directorate (OGPU) (1923), People's Commissariat for State Security (NKGB) (1941), and Ministry for State Security (MGB) (1946), among others. In March 1953, Lavrentiy Beria consolidated the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) and the MGB into one body—the MVD; within a year, Beria was executed and MVD was split. The reformed MVD retained its police and law enforcement powers, while the second, new agency, the KGB, assumed internal and external security and intelligence functions, and was subordinate to the Council of Ministers. On July 5, 1978 the KGB was re-christened as the "KGB of the Soviet Union," with its chairman holding a ministerial council seat. The KGB was dissolved when its chief, Colonel-General Vladimir Kryuchkov, used the KGB's resources to aid the August 1991 coup attempt to overthrow Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. On August 23, 1991 Colonel-General Kryuchkov was arrested, and General Vadim Bakatin was appointed KGB Chairman—and mandated to dissolve the KGB of the Soviet Union. On November 6, 1991, the KGB officially ceased to exist. Its services were divided into two separate organizations; the FSB for Internal Security and the Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR) for Foreign Intelligence Gathering. From its inception, the KGB was envisioned as the "sword and shield" of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). The KGB achieved a remarkable string of successes in the early stages of its history. The then-comparatively lax security of foreign powers such as the United States and the United Kingdom allowed the KGB unprecedented opportunities to penetrate the foreign intelligence agencies and governments with its own ideologically-motivated agents such as the Cambridge Five. Arguably, the Soviet Union’s most important intelligence coup, the Cambridge Five, detailed information concerning the building of the atomic bomb (the Manhattan Project), which occurred due to well-placed KGB agents within that project such as Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall. The KGB also pursued enemies of the Soviet Union and of Joseph Stalin. These include people such as Leon Trotsky and groups like the counter-revolutionary White Guards, eventually achieving Trotsky's assassination. During the Cold War, the KGB played a critical role in the survival of the Soviet one-party state through its suppression of political dissent (termed "ideological subversion") and hounding of notable public figures such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov. It also achieved notable successes in the foreign intelligence arena, including continued gathering of Western science and technology (including much of the technical information used in the design of the Tupolev Tu-144, which was copied from the Anglo-French Concorde) from agents like Melita Norwood and the infiltration of West Germany’s government under Willy Brandt, alongside the East German Stasi. However, the double blow of the compromise of existing KGB operations through high-profile defections like those of Elizabeth Bentley in the United States and Oleg Gordievsky in Britain, as well as the drying up of ideological recruitment after the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the 1968 Prague Spring, resulted in a major decline in the extent of the KGB’s capabilities. However, the KGB was assisted by some mercenary Western defectors such as the CIA mole Aldrich Ames and the FBI mole Robert Hanssen, helping to partly counteract its own hemorrhage of skilled agents. Modus operandi Many experts agree that the KGB then was the world's most effective intelligence agency. Eyes of the Kremlin Like most such agencies, the KGB operated legal and illegal residencies in its target countries. The legal residencies operated from the Soviet embassy via diplomatic immunity, thus, if caught or discovered spying, legal residents were free from prosecution. At best, the legal resident’s intelligence gathering would be compromised; either the KGB recalled the legal resident to home or the host country would expel him or her. Whereas, illegal residents spied without diplomatic immunity from prosecution (like the CIA's non-official cover). Especially in its early years, the KGB often valued illegal residencies more than legal residencies, primarily because the illegals operate undercover more readily to infiltrate the targets. Using the ideological attraction of the first worker-peasant state, and later fighting fascism and the Great Patriotic War, the Soviets successfully recruited high-level spies, however, the 1939 signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the defeat of the 1956 Hungarian Uprising, and the 1968 Prague Spring mostly exhausted ideological recruitment; young radicals were repelled by the Red Army’s violations of sovereignty and the geriatric Brezhnev’s leadership. Instead, the KGB turned to blackmail and bribery to recruit Western agents. At legal residencies, operations were divided into four major sectors: political, economic, military strategic intelligence, and disinformation, called active measures in espionage parlance (PR Line), counter-intelligence and security (KR Line), and scientific and technological intelligence (X Line), which took on increasing importance throughout the Cold War. Other major operations included the collection of SIGINT (RP Line), illegal support (N Line). Illegal residencies tended to be more decentralized and lacked official organizational structures. The KGB, like its Western counterparts, divided its intelligence personnel into agents, who provided the information, and controllers, who relayed the information to the Kremlin and were responsible for keeping track of and paying the agents. Some of the most important agents, like the Cambridge Five, had multiple controllers over their espionage careers. Ironically, Kim Philby, who had thought of himself as a KGB officer, was rudely informed of this distinction when he defected to the Soviet Union; as a foreign agent, he was not even allowed to enter KGB headquarters. To give cover for its illegals who were often born in Russia, the KGB constructed elaborate legends for them, involving them assuming the identity of a "live double," who handed over his or her identity to assist in the fabrication, or a "dead double," whose identity was based on a real (though deceased) person but was heavily altered by the KGB itself. These legends were usually supplemented by the agent living out the role given to him by the KGB in a foreign country before arriving at his final destination; one of the KGB’s favorite tactics was to send agents bound for the United States through its Ottawa residency in Canada. KGB agents practiced standard espionage craft such as the retrieval and photographing of classified documents using concealed cameras and microfilm, code-names in communication to disguise agents, contacts, targets, and the use of dead letter boxes to relay intelligence. In addition, the KGB made skillful use of agents provocateur, who infiltrated a target’s entourage by posing as sympathizers to the target’s cause or group. These agents provocateur were then used to sow dissent, influence policy, or help arrange kidnapping or assassination operations. History of the KGB The start of the KGB originates with the establishment of the Cheka six weeks after the 1917 October Revolution in order to defend the nascent Bolshevik state from its powerful, "bourgeois" enemies, chief among them the White Army. The Cheka set out to brutally suppress dissent by interrogating and torturing suspected counter-revolutionists and was credited by Lenin as playing a key role in the new regime’s survival. With Lenin’s approval, a new foreign intelligence department of the Cheka, the INO (Innostranyi Otdel) was established on December 20, 1920; it was the precursor to the First Chief Directorate (FCD) of the KGB. The Cheka itself was renamed the State Political Directorate (OGPU), a name it would retain throughout much of Stalin’s early reign (1920s-30s). The OGPU continued to expand its operations at home and abroad; however, the growing paranoia of Stalin, which would foreshadow the later period of the purges, strongly influenced the performance and direction of the intelligence agency. Under Stalin, the pursuit of imaginary conspiracies against the state like that of the Trotskyists became a central focus of intelligence. As Stalin acted as his own intelligence analyst, the role of intelligence processing was subordinated to that of collection, and often reports submitted to Stalin were designed to reflect only what he wanted to hear. Of the many agents OGPU offered, only Nikolai Vlasik was chosen as Stalin's longtime bodyguard. This was only a slight nod to the organization as a whole. This period in the KGB’s history culminated in the eventual liquidation of many intelligence officers and chaos within the organization’s internal and external operations during the Great Purge, such as the conviction of former KGB chairman Genrikh Yagoda of treason and conspiring with Trotskyists, and of former KGB chairman Nikolai Yezhov, on similar charges, who ironically had denounced Yagoda and carried out the Terror under Stalin’s orders from 1936 to 1938. The agency, now called the NKGB and later part of the NKVD, sought to rebuild itself after the disaster of Stalin’s purges. Under Lavrentiy Beria, it continued its sycophantic role of producing intelligence to corroborate Stalin’s own conspiracy theories while simultaneously achieving some of the deepest penetration of Western powers ever achieved by any intelligence agency. The next major organizational shuffle was to come in the form of the KI (Komitet Informatsii), the brainchild of Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, which would centralize the intelligence system by combining the foreign intelligence services of the agency, renamed the MGB, and the GRU, and place the ambassador in an embassy at the head of the both the MGB’s and the GRU’s legal residency. The KI unraveled after Molotov fell out of favor with Stalin. Meanwhile, Beria, now the head of the MVD, had been consolidating his power with the ambition to succeed Stalin as leader of the Soviet Union. Following Stalin’s death in 1953, Beria merged the MGB into the MVD. Fearing an attempt at a coup d'état, Beria’s colleagues in the Presidium united against him and he was charged with "criminal anti-Party and anti-state activities" and executed him for treason. The MGB was split off from the MVD and underwent its final renaming to become the KGB. The next KGB chairman to possess high ambitions was the relatively youthful Aleksandr Shelepin (chairman from 1958–61), who helped in the coup against Khrushchev in 1964. His protégé at the KGB, Vladimir Semichastny (1961–67), was sacked, and Shelepin himself was sidelined from the powerful post of chairman of the Committee of Party and State Control into the unimportant chairmanship of the Trade Union Council by Brezhnev and the Communist Party, whose memories of Beria were still fresh in their minds. In 1967, Yuri Andropov, the longest serving and most influential KGB chairman in its history, began his tenure at the head of the KGB. Andropov would go on to make himself heir-apparent to Brezhnev, helped by the general secretary’s growing feeble-mindedness, and succeeded him in 1982. Andropov’s legacy at the KGB was an increased focus on combating ideological subversion in all its forms, no matter how apparently minor or trivial. Vladimir Kryuchkov, grew dismayed at Gorbachev’s efforts to open up Soviet society (glasnost) and was one of the principal organizers of the 1991 coup. However, declining respect for the KGB and other factors had fatally weakened the Soviet regime, and following the coup’s failure, the KGB was disbanded, officially on November 6, 1991. Its successor agency, the FSB, now performs most of the functions of the former KGB, though the largest, most important directorate of the KGB, the FCD, was broken off to become the SVR (Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki). Former Russian President and current prime minister Vladimir Putin started out his career in the KGB working in the Fifth Directorate, monitoring the activities of the students of the Leningrad University. He later worked for the KGB in East Germany. KGB operations within the United States Pre-Cold War As the Soviet Union had viewed the United States as a lower priority target than Britain and other European countries, the KGB had been slow to establish an agent network there. Responsibilities for infiltration thus fell to the GRU, which recruited Julian Wadleigh and possibly Alger Hiss, who began providing documents from the State Department. The KGB, at that time called the NKVD, first made its presence known in 1935 with the establishment of a legal residency under Boris Bazarov and an illegal residency under Iskhak Akhmerov. The Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and its general secretary Earl Browder assisted with recruitment efforts, and soon the KGB’s network was providing high-grade intelligence from within the United States government and defense and technology firms. Among the most important agents gathering political intelligence recruited during this time period were Laurence Duggan and Michael Whitney Straight, who passed classified State Department documents, Harry Dexter White, who performed a similar role in the Treasury Department, and Lauchlin Currie, an economic adviser to President Roosevelt. A notorious spy ring, the Silvermaster Group, run by Greg Silvermaster, also operated at this time, though it was somewhat detached from the KGB itself. The KGB thus succeeded in penetrating major branches of the United States government at a time when the US had no significant countervailing espionage operations in the Soviet Union. When Whittaker Chambers, a former courier for Hiss and others, approached Roosevelt with information fingering Duggan, White, and others as Soviet spies, his claims were dismissed as nonsense. At the theran, Yalta, and Potsdam Conferences during World War II, Stalin was vastly more knowledgeable about what cards the United States held in its bargaining deck than Roosevelt, or his successor Truman, were about Stalin and Soviet intelligence. In scientific intelligence, the KGB achieved an even more spectacular success. British physicist Klaus Fuchs, recruited by the GRU in 1941, was part of the British team collaborating with the United States in the Manhattan Project, which developed the first atomic bomb. Fuchs was the most prominent agent involved in Julius and Ethel Rosenberg's spy ring. The New York City residency also infiltrated Los Alamos National Laboratory (where much of the work on the atomic bomb program was done) with its recruitment of then nineteen-year-old Harvard physicist Theodore Hall in 1944; Lona Cohen served as his courier. The stealing of the secrets to the atomic bomb was only the capstone of the Soviet espionage effort in the American scientific community. Soviet agents reported back information on advancements in the fields of jet propulsion, radar, and encryption, among other concepts. The unraveling of the KGB’s network came about as a result of some key defections, like that of Elizabeth Bentley and Igor Gouzenko, and the Venona project decrypts. Bentley, a courier to the Silvermaster group, had fallen out with Akhmerov and started informing on her former spy colleagues to the FBI in 1945. Her efforts, and the resulting "spy mania" in the United States, led to the recall of most of the senior KGB staff, leaving the spy network temporarily headless in the US. Information on VENONA, which threatened to compromise the entire spy network, caused shock and panic within KGB headquarters. However, damage was minimized as KGB agent Bill Weisband and then-SIS Washington Kim Philby passed on information about VENONA and agents it identified from 1947 onwards, five years before the CIA was informed. Still, the KGB had to rebuild most of its operations from scratch, and never again would achieve such thorough penetration of a foreign power. Cold War Former Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev was the first Muslim member of the KGB and is credited with bringing stability to Azerbaijan after its uneasy independence. The KGB attempted, largely without success, to rebuild its illegal residencies in the United States during the Cold War. The residual effects of the Red Scare and McCarthyism and the evisceration of the CPUSA severely damaged KGB recruitment efforts. The last major illegal, "Willie" Vilyam Fisher, better known as Rudolf Abel, was betrayed by his assistant Reino Häyhänen in 1957, in all likelihood leaving the KGB without a single illegal residency in the United States, at least for a major span of time. Legal residencies became more successful in the absence of illegals. The KGB’s recruitment efforts turned towards mercenary agents recruited because of monetary, not ideological, reasons. It was particularly successful in gathering scientific intelligence, as firms such as IBM retained lax security while security within the government tightened. The one notable and significant exception was the highly successful Walker spy ring, which enabled the Soviets to decipher over one million classified US messages, and directly led to the development of the Akula class submarine, which addressed a significant advantage over what the US had in submarine technology. As the Walkers were taken offline in 1985, the KGB scored its most important intelligence coup of the Cold War with the walk-ins of Aldrich Ames (that same year) and Robert Hanssen (who started spying in 1979), who compromised dozens of undercover Soviet agents, including Gordievsky, who was now on the verge of being appointed as head of the British legal residency. Walker and Ames began their careers by simply walking into the Soviet embassy in Washington, DC, and volunteering their positions in exchange for money while Hannsen contacted the KGB secretly under the alias "Ramon". They were paid millions of dollars each for their efforts. KGB operations in the Soviet Bloc KGB prison doors on display in the Museum of Occupations, Tallinn, Estonia. The KGB, along with its satellite state intelligence agency allies, monitored extensively public and private opinion, subversion, and possible revolutionary plots in the Soviet Bloc during the Cold War. It played an instrumental role in the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, the destruction of the 1968 Prague Spring and "socialism with a human face," and general operations to prop up Soviet-friendly puppet states in the Bloc. During the Hungarian uprising, KGB chairman Ivan Serov personally visited Hungary in order to supervise the "normalization" of Hungary following the invasion of the Red Army. The KGB monitored incidences of "harmful attitudes" and "hostile acts" in the satellite states as minute as listening to pop music. But it was during the Prague Spring that the KGB was to have the greatest role in bringing down a regime. The KGB began preparing the way for the Red Army by infiltrating Czechoslovakia with a large number of illegals posing as Western tourists. In classic KGB fashion, they attempted to gain the confidence of some of the most outspoken proponents of the new Alexander Dubček government in order to pass on information about their activities. Additionally, the illegals were tasked with planting evidence, in order to justify a Soviet invasion, that rightist groups with the help of Western intelligence agencies were planning to overthrow the government. Finally, the KGB prepared hardline, pro-Soviet members of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (CPC), such as Alois Indra and Vasil Biľak, to assume power following the invasion. The betrayal of the often courageous leaders of the Prague Spring did not leave untouched the KGB's own agents, however; the famous defector Oleg Gordievsky would later remark "It was that dreadful event, that awful day, which determined the course of my own life" (The Sword and the Shield, 261). The KGB’s success in Czechoslovakia would be matched by a relatively unsuccessful suppression of the Solidarity labor movement in Poland in the 1980s. The KGB had forecast future instability in Poland with the election of the first Polish Pope, Karol Wojtyla, known better as Pope John Paul II, who had been categorized as subversive through his sermons criticizing the Polish regime. Though it accurately foresaw the coming crisis in the Polish government, the KGB was hindered in its attempts to crush the nascent Solidarity-backed movement against the one-party state by the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP) itself, who feared an explosion of bloodshed if they imposed martial law like the KGB suggested. The KGB, with the help of their Polish counterparts in the Służba Bezpieczeństwa (SB), succeeded in installing spies in Solidarity and the Catholic Church, and coordinated the declaration of martial law along with Wojciech Jaruzelski and the PUWP (Operation X). However, the PUWP’s vacillating, conciliatory approach had blunted the KGB’s effectiveness, and the movement would fatally weaken the PUWP government later on in 1989. Suppression of dissent Monument to the victims of KGB terror in Vilnius, Lithuania. One of the KGB’s chief preoccupations during the Cold War was the suppression of unorthodox beliefs, the persecution of the Soviet dissidents, and the containment of their opinions. Indeed, this obsession with "ideological subversion" only increased throughout the Cold War, primarily due to the rise of Yuri Andropov in the KGB and his appointment as chairman in 1967. Andropov declared that every instance of dissent, including for example religious movements that rejected the Communist Party, were a threat to the Soviet state that must be challenged. He mobilized the resources of the KGB to achieve this goal. Soon after Yuri Andropov's appointment one of the KGB departments was assigned to deal with religious leaders, churches and its members. Most dissidents were apprehended by the KGB and sent to gulags for indefinite periods, where their dissent would lack the strength it might have had in public. Documents from the archive of Yale University http://www.yale.edu/annals/sakharov/sakharov_list.htm, The KGB File of Andrei Sakharov edited by Joshua Rubenstein and Alexander Gribanov; Russian and English versions are available indicate the principal role of the heads of KGB, Yuri Andropov and then Vitali Fedorchuk, was the repression of dissidents. Under Khrushchev, the tight controls over subversive beliefs had been partially relaxed following his denunciation of Stalinist-era terror in a secret speech. This resulted in the reemergence of critical literary works, most notably the publication in One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich in 1962 by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. However, following Khrushchev’s fall from power, the Soviet state and the KGB quickly moved to crack down on all forms of dissent. The KGB routinely searched the homes and monitored the movements of prominent dissidents in an attempt to find incriminating documents. For example, a search in 1965 of Moscow dissidents turned up manuscripts given by Solzhenitsyn (codenamed PAUK, or spider, by the KGB) to a friend that contained allegedly "slanderous fabrications." The KGB also tracked down writers who published their work anonymously abroad. The infamous case of Andrei Sinyavsky and Yuli Daniel, who were put on trial in 1965 for their writing of subversive texts, illustrates the reach and obsession of the KGB in its ideological war. Sinyavsky, going by the pseudonym of "Abram Tertz," and Daniel, using the alias of "Nikolai Arzhak," were caught by Soviet surveillance of their apartment flats in Moscow after a tip-off from a KGB agent planted within the Moscow literary world. Soon after the Prague Spring, Andropov set up a Fifth Directorate whose express purpose was to monitor and crack down on dissent. Andropov was especially concerned with the activities of the two leading Soviet dissidents, Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov, both declared to be "Public Enemy Number One" (The Sword and the Shield, 325) by Andropov. Andropov was unsuccessful in expelling Solzhenitsyn until 1974, while Sakharov was exiled to the closed Soviet city of Gorky (now Nizhny Novgorod) in 1980. The prevention of the Nobel Peace Prize being awarded to Sakharov in 1975 (which failed) and the same award being given to Yuri Orlov in 1978 (which succeeded, but probably not due to the KGB’s efforts) were missions of the highest importance and personally overseen by Andropov himself. The KGB employed multiple methods to infiltrate the dissident community. It planted agents who appeared to sympathize with the dissidents’ cause, employed smear campaigns to discredit the more public figures like Sakharov, and prosecuted dissidents in show trials or harassed the more prominent ones. In prison, Soviet interrogators attempted to wear down their charges while sympathetic KGB informants tried to gain their confidence. Eventually, with the emergence of Mikhail Gorbachev and his policy of glasnost, persecution of dissidents was given relaxed priority in the KGB, as Gorbachev himself began to implement some of the policy changes first demanded by the dissidents. Other notable operations NKVD Headquarters on Lubyanka Square was designed by Aleksey Schusev. The OGPU scored a number of successes against counter-revolutionary elements like the White Guards by luring prominent leaders into the Soviet Union to be executed with skillful, imaginative use of agents provocateurs (Trust Operation). The KGB's predecessor, the NKVD, was used by Stalin to infiltrate and undermine Trotskyists’ movements. Trotsky himself was assassinated by an NKVD agent, Ramón Mercader, in Mexico in 1940. The KGB favored the spread of disinformation to discredit its enemies. Disinformation efforts, termed active measures, were headed by Service A of the FCD. The KGB planned elaborate sabotage operations in the event of the outbreak of war behind enemy lines, planting arms caches in strategic locations. James Jesus Angleton, the CIA's counter-intelligence chief from the 1950s to the 1970s, acting on information provided by KGB defector Anatoliy Golitsyn, feared that the KGB had moles in two key places: (i) the CIA's counter-intelligence section, and (ii) the FBI's counter-intelligence department. With those moles in place, the KGB would be aware of and therefore could control US counter-spy efforts to detect, capture, and arrest their spies; it could protect their moles by safely redirecting investigations that might uncover them, or provide them sufficient advance warning to allow their escape. Moreover, KGB counter-intelligence vetted foreign sources of intelligence, so that moles in that area were positioned to stamp their approval of double agents sent against the CIA. In retrospect, in the context of the capture of the Soviet moles Aldrich Ames and Robert Hanssen, it appears Angleton's fears—then deemed excessively paranoid—were well-grounded, although both Ames and Hanssen operated and were exposed long after Angleton left the CIA in 1974. Still, his officially disbelieved assertions cost him his counter-intelligence post in the CIA. Occasionally, the KGB conducted assassinations abroad, mainly of Soviet Bloc defectors, and often helped other Communist country security services with their assassinations. An infamous example is the September 1978 killing of Bulgarian émigré Georgi Markov in London, where Bulgarian secret agents used a KGB-designed umbrella gun to shoot Markov dead with a ricin-poisoned pellet. There are also disputed allegations that the KGB was behind the assassination attempt against Pope John Paul II in 1981 and the death of Dag Hammarskjöld in an air crash in 1961. Italian Panel: Soviets Behind Pope Attack The highest-ranking Soviet Bloc intelligence defector, Lt. Gen. Ion Mihai Pacepa, described his conversation with the head of the Romanian Communist Party Nicolae Ceauşescu who told him about "ten international leaders the Kremlin killed or tried to kill": "Laszlo Rajk and Imre Nagy of Hungary; Lucretiu Patrascanu and Gheorghiu-Dej in Romania; Rudolf Slansky, the head of Czechoslovakia, and Jan Masaryk, that country’s chief diplomat; the shah of Iran; Palmiro Togliatti of Italy; American President John F. Kennedy; and China's Mao Zedong." Pacepa provided some additional details, such as a plot to kill Mao Zedong with the help of Lin Biao organized by KGB and noted that "among the leaders of Moscow’s satellite intelligence services there was unanimous agreement that the KGB had been involved in the assassination of President Kennedy." The Kremlin’s Killing Ways - by Ion Mihai Pacepa, National Review Online, November 28, 2006 Organization The KGB was a national intelligence and security agency for the Soviet Union, and directly controlled the republic-level KGB organizations; however, as Russia was the core republic of the Soviet Union, the KGB itself was also Russia's republic-level KGB. As everything in the Soviet Union, the KGB was controlled by the CPSU. Senior staff The Senior staff consisted of a Chairman, one or two First Deputy Chairmen, and four to six Deputy Chairmen. Collegium—a Chairman, deputy chairmen, Directorate chiefs, and one or two republic-level KGB organization chairmen—affected key policy decisions. The Directorates The KGB was organized into several directorates, with certain directorates assigned a “chief” status due to their importance. Some were: The First Chief Directorate (Foreign Operations) responsible for foreign operations and intelligence-gathering. This chief directorate had many sub-directorates of its own. The Second Chief Directorate responsible for counter-intelligence and internal political control of citizens and foreigners in the Soviet Union. The Third Chief Directorate (Armed Forces) controlled military counter-intelligence and the political surveillance of the Soviet armed forces. The Fourth Directorate (Transportation Security) The Fifth Chief Directorate also responsible for internal security; originally combated political dissent; later assumed tasks of the Second Chief Directorate, such as controlling religious dissent, monitoring artists, and the censorship of media; it was renamed Directorate Z (to Protect the Constitutional Order) in 1989. The Sixth Directorate (Economic Counterintelligence and Industrial Security) The Seventh Directorate (Surveillance) handled surveillance, providing equipment to follow and monitor activities of both foreigners and Soviet citizens. The Eighth Chief Directorate responsible for communications, monitoring foreign communications, and the cryptologic systems used by KGB divisions, KGB transmissions to overseas stations, and the development of communications technology. The Ninth Directorate (Guards) (later the KGB Protection Service) 40,000-man uniformed guard force providing bodyguard services to the principal CPSU leaders (and families) and major Soviet government facilities (including nuclear-weapons stocks). It operated the Moscow VIP subway system, and the secure government telephone system linking high-level government and CPSU officers; it became the Federal Protective Service (FPS) under Boris Yeltsin. The Fifteenth Directorate (Security of Government Installations) The Sixteenth Directorate (Communications Interception and SIGINT) upgraded from Department to Directorate, operated the Soviet Union's government telephone and telegraph systems, thus ensuring successful interception of all communications of interest to the KGB. The Border Guards Directorate 245,000-man border security force dealt with smuggling along the Soviet Union's borders with land, naval, and air contingents. The Operations and Technology Directorate encompasses all the laboratories and scientific research centers for creating bugging, taping, and shooting devices (including Laboratory 12 which developed poisons and manufactured psychotropic substances). Other sections The KGB also contained these independent sections and detachments: KGB Personnel Department Secretariat of the KGB KGB Technical Support Staff KGB Finance Department KGB Archives Administration Department of the KGB, and The CPSU Committee. KGB OSNAZ, (Spetsnaz or Special Operations) detachments such as: The Alpha Group The Vympel, etc.; missions and command-control structures remain unknown. Kremlin Guard Force beyond control of the Ninth Guards Directorate. The uniformed Kremlin Guard Force were the bodyguard of the Presidium, et al.; it later became the Federal Protective Service (FPS). The evolution of the KGB (as depicted in The Sword and the Shield, page xv) DatesOrganizationDecember 1917ChekaFebruary 1922Incorporated into NKVD (as GPU)July 1923OGPUJuly 1934Reincorporated in NKVD (as GUGB)February 1941NKGBJuly 1941Reincorporated in NKVD (as GUGB)April 1943NKGBMarch 1946MGBOctober 1947 – November 1951Foreign Intelligence transferred to KIMarch 1953Combined with MVD to form enlarged MVDMarch 1954KGBNovember 1991FSK (as depicted in The Sword and the Shield, Appendix A) OrganizationChairmanDatesCheka/GPU/OGPUFelix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky1917–1926OGPUVyacheslav Rudolfovich Menzhinsky1926–1934 NKVDGenrikh Grigoryevich Yagoda1934–1936Nikolai Ivanovich Yezhov1936–1938Lavrenti Pavlovich Beria1938–1941NKGBVsevolod Nikolayevich Merkulov1941 (February–July)NKVDLavrenti Pavlovich Beria1941–1943NKGB/MGBVsevolod Nikolayevich Merkulov1943–1946 MGBViktor Semyonovich Abakumov1946–1951Semyon Denisovich Ignatyev1951–1953Lavrenti Pavlovich Beria1953 (March–June)Sergei Nikiforovich Kruglov1953–1954 KGBIvan Aleksandrovich Serov1954–1958Aleksandr Nikolayevich Shelepin1958–1961Vladimir Yefimovich Semichastny1961–1967Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov1967–1982Vitali Vasilyevich Fedorchuk1982 (May–December)Viktor Mikhailovich Chebrikov1982–1988Vladimir Aleksandrovich Kryuchkov1988–1991Vadim Viktorovich Bakatin1991 (August–November) See also Active measures Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies History of Soviet espionage Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (FSB), the post-Soviet successor organization to the KGB Foreign Intelligence Service Formerly the First Chief Directorate, now an independent agency. FAPSI Created from the Eighth and Sixteenth Chief Directorates of the KGB, now an independent agency. Federal Protective Service (FPS) Formerly the Ninth (Guards) Directorate Mitrokhin Archive (smuggled records of KGB naming spies, agents and plans) Numbers station Presidential Security Service Formerly the Kremlin Guard Force. SMERSH World Peace Council MVD KGB victim memorials Eastern Bloc politics References Sources Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West, Gardners Books (2000), ISBN 0-14-028487-7 Basic Books (1999), hardcover, ISBN 0-465-00310-9; trade paperback (September, 2000), ISBN 0-465-00312-5 John Barron, "KGB: The Secret Work of Soviet Secret Agents",Reader's Digest Press (1974), ISBN 0-88349-009-9 Vasili Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World, Basic Books (2005) hardcover, 677 pages ISBN 0465003117 Further reading Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia Past, Present, and Future. Farrar Straus Giroux (1994) ISBN 0-374-52738-5. John Barron. KGB: The Secret Works Of Soviet Secret Agents. Bantam Books (1981) ISBN 0-553-23275-4 Vadim J. Birstein. The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science. Westview Press (2004) ISBN 0-8133-4280-5 (describes a secret KGB lab engaged in development and testing of poisons) John Dziak, Chekisty: A History of the KGB, Lexington Books (1988) ISBN 978-0669102581 Бережков, Василий Иванович (2004). Руководители Ленинградского управления КГБ : 1954-1991. Санкт-Петербург: Выбор, 2004. ISBN 5-93518-035-9 (in Russian) External links For evidence on the KGB's activities in the United States during the Cold War, see the full text of Alexander Vassiliev's Notebooks from the Cold War International History Project (CWIHP) KGB Information Center from FAS.org Chebrikov, Viktor M., et al., eds. Istoriya sovetskikh organov gosudarstvennoi bezopasnosti. (1977) Slaves of KGB. 20th Century. The religion of betrayal (Russian) - book by Yuri Shchekochikhin be-x-old:Камітэт дзяржаўнай бясьпекі | KGB |@lemmatized kgb:159 transliteration:1 кгб:2 russian:9 abbreviation:1 committee:4 state:35 security:21 komityet:1 gosudarstvjennoj:1 biezopasnosti:1 official:5 name:6 umbrella:2 organization:9 serve:2 soviet:56 union:18 premier:1 agency:19 secret:11 police:3 intelligence:46 function:3 illustrate:2 emblem:1 bearing:1 shield:6 sword:6 military:3 hierarchy:1 aim:1 provide:9 national:4 defense:2 december:4 president:7 russia:5 boris:3 yeltsin:2 sign:1 decree:1 disband:2 replace:2 fsb:5 current:3 domestic:1 federation:2 belarus:1 former:8 republic:5 remain:3 term:3 also:11 sometimes:1 use:13 figuratively:1 western:8 press:3 refer:1 rename:4 due:5 recognition:1 public:6 perception:1 safe:1 house:1 proof:1 mansion:1 time:6 online:3 information:12 although:2 two:6 source:3 document:7 available:2 http:2 psi:1 ece:1 jhu:1 edu:2 kaplan:1 iruss:1 buk:2 gbarc:1 html:1 archive:5 kp:1 collect:1 vladimir:5 bukovsky:1 origin:1 first:11 forerunner:1 cheka:6 establish:3 tsarist:1 okhrana:1 underwent:2 several:2 organizational:3 change:2 year:6 become:7 succession:1 political:8 directorate:31 ogpu:5 people:2 commissariat:1 nkgb:2 ministry:2 mgb:6 among:5 others:3 march:2 lavrentiy:2 beria:7 consolidate:2 internal:6 affair:1 mvd:9 one:14 body:1 within:9 execute:3 split:2 reformed:1 retain:3 law:3 enforcement:1 power:7 second:3 new:5 assume:4 external:3 subordinate:2 council:4 minister:3 july:3 christen:1 chairman:16 hold:3 ministerial:1 seat:1 dissolve:2 chief:17 colonel:2 general:6 kryuchkov:3 resource:2 aid:1 august:3 coup:7 attempt:8 overthrow:2 mikhail:2 gorbachev:4 arrest:2 vadim:2 bakatin:1 appoint:2 mandate:1 november:5 officially:3 cease:1 exist:2 service:14 divide:3 separate:1 foreign:16 svr:2 gathering:4 inception:1 envision:1 bolshevik:2 revolution:4 communist:7 party:11 cpsu:5 achieve:8 remarkable:1 string:1 success:6 early:3 stage:1 history:7 comparatively:1 lax:2 united:15 kingdom:1 allow:3 unprecedented:1 opportunity:1 penetrate:2 government:14 ideologically:1 motivated:1 agent:34 cambridge:3 five:4 arguably:1 important:5 detail:2 concern:2 building:1 atomic:4 bomb:4 manhattan:2 project:5 occur:1 well:4 place:4 klaus:2 fuchs:3 theodore:2 hall:2 pursue:1 enemy:5 joseph:1 stalin:16 include:8 leon:1 trotsky:3 group:6 like:12 counter:12 revolutionary:3 white:5 guard:10 eventually:2 assassination:6 cold:11 war:15 play:3 critical:2 role:9 survival:2 suppression:4 dissent:10 ideological:8 subversion:4 hounding:1 notable:4 figure:2 aleksandr:3 solzhenitsyn:5 andrei:4 sakharov:7 arena:1 continue:3 science:2 technology:5 much:3 technical:2 design:4 tupolev:1 tu:1 copy:1 anglo:1 french:1 concorde:1 melita:1 norwood:1 infiltration:2 west:2 germany:2 willy:1 brandt:1 alongside:1 east:2 german:1 stasi:1 however:10 double:4 blow:1 compromise:4 operation:19 high:7 profile:1 defection:2 elizabeth:2 bentley:3 oleg:2 gordievsky:3 britain:2 dry:1 recruitment:6 crushing:2 hungarian:4 prague:6 spring:6 result:4 major:8 decline:2 extent:1 capability:1 assist:3 mercenary:2 defector:5 cia:8 mole:7 aldrich:3 ames:5 fbi:3 robert:3 hanssen:4 help:8 partly:1 counteract:1 hemorrhage:1 skilled:1 modus:1 operandi:1 many:4 expert:1 agree:1 world:6 effective:1 eye:1 kremlin:7 operate:7 legal:11 illegal:9 residency:15 target:6 country:6 embassy:3 via:1 diplomatic:2 immunity:2 thus:4 catch:2 discover:1 spying:1 resident:4 free:1 prosecution:2 best:1 would:12 either:1 recall:2 home:3 host:1 expel:2 whereas:1 spy:15 without:3 non:1 cover:2 especially:2 often:5 value:1 primarily:2 illegals:5 undercover:2 readily:1 infiltrate:6 attraction:1 worker:2 peasant:1 later:7 fight:1 fascism:1 great:3 patriotic:1 successfully:1 recruit:6 level:5 signing:1 molotov:3 ribbentrop:1 pact:1 defeat:1 uprising:2 mostly:1 exhaust:1 young:1 radical:1 repel:1 red:4 army:4 violation:1 sovereignty:1 geriatric:1 brezhnev:3 leadership:1 instead:1 turn:3 blackmail:1 bribery:1 four:2 sector:1 economic:3 strategic:2 disinformation:3 call:3 active:3 measure:3 espionage:6 parlance:1 pr:1 line:6 kr:1 scientific:5 technological:1 x:3 take:2 increase:2 importance:3 throughout:3 collection:2 sigint:2 rp:1 support:2 n:1 tend:1 decentralized:1 lack:2 structure:2 counterpart:2 personnel:2 controller:2 relay:2 responsible:5 keep:1 track:2 pay:2 multiple:2 career:3 ironically:2 kim:2 philby:2 think:1 officer:3 rudely:1 inform:3 distinction:1 defect:1 even:2 enter:1 headquarters:3 give:5 bear:1 construct:1 elaborate:2 legend:2 involve:3 identity:3 live:2 hand:1 fabrication:2 dead:3 whose:3 base:1 real:1 though:4 decease:1 person:1 heavily:1 alter:1 usually:1 supplement:1 arrive:1 final:2 destination:1 favorite:1 tactic:1 send:3 bound:1 ottawa:1 canada:1 practiced:1 standard:1 craft:1 retrieval:1 photographing:1 classified:2 concealed:1 camera:1 microfilm:1 code:1 communication:6 disguise:1 contact:2 letter:1 box:1 addition:1 make:3 skillful:2 provocateur:3 entourage:1 pose:2 sympathizer:1 cause:3 sow:1 influence:2 policy:4 arrange:1 kidnapping:1 start:4 originate:1 establishment:2 six:2 week:1 october:1 order:6 defend:1 nascent:2 powerful:2 bourgeois:1 set:2 brutally:1 suppress:1 interrogate:1 torture:1 suspect:1 revolutionist:1 credit:2 lenin:2 key:4 regime:4 approval:2 department:10 ino:1 innostranyi:1 otdel:1 precursor:1 fcd:3 reign:1 expand:1 abroad:3 grow:3 paranoia:1 foreshadow:1 late:2 period:4 purge:3 strongly:1 performance:1 direction:1 pursuit:1 imaginary:1 conspiracy:2 trotskyist:3 central:1 focus:2 act:3 analyst:1 processing:1 report:2 submit:1 reflect:1 want:1 hear:1 offer:1 nikolai:3 vlasik:1 choose:1 longtime:1 bodyguard:3 slight:1 nod:1 whole:1 culminate:1 eventual:1 liquidation:1 chaos:1 conviction:1 genrikh:1 yagoda:2 treason:2 conspire:1 yezhov:1 similar:2 charge:3 denounce:1 carry:1 terror:3 part:2 nkvd:8 seek:1 rebuild:3 disaster:1 sycophantic:1 produce:1 corroborate:1 theory:1 simultaneously:1 deep:1 penetration:2 ever:1 next:2 shuffle:1 come:3 form:4 ki:2 komitet:1 informatsii:1 brainchild:1 vyacheslav:1 centralize:1 system:5 combine:1 gru:4 ambassador:1 head:8 unravel:1 fell:2 favor:2 meanwhile:1 ambition:2 succeed:5 leader:7 follow:7 death:2 merge:1 fear:4 état:1 colleague:2 presidium:2 unite:1 criminal:1 anti:2 activity:6 renaming:1 possess:1 relatively:2 youthful:1 shelepin:2 khrushchev:3 protégé:1 semichastny:1 sack:1 sideline:1 post:3 control:10 unimportant:1 chairmanship:1 trade:2 memory:1 still:3 fresh:1 mind:1 yuri:6 andropov:12 long:2 serving:1 influential:1 begin:5 tenure:1 go:3 heir:1 apparent:1 secretary:2 feeble:1 mindedness:1 legacy:1 increased:1 combat:2 matter:1 apparently:1 minor:1 trivial:1 dismay:1 effort:10 open:1 society:1 glasnost:2 principal:3 organizer:1 respect:1 factor:1 fatally:2 weaken:2 failure:1 successor:3 perform:2 large:2 break:1 sluzhba:1 vneshney:1 razvedki:1 prime:1 putin:1 work:7 fifth:3 monitor:7 student:1 leningrad:1 university:2 pre:1 view:1 low:1 priority:2 european:1 slow:1 network:5 responsibility:1 julian:1 wadleigh:1 possibly:1 alger:1 hiss:2 presence:1 know:3 bazarov:1 iskhak:1 akhmerov:2 usa:1 cpusa:2 earl:1 browder:1 soon:3 grade:1 firm:2 gather:2 laurence:1 duggan:2 michael:1 whitney:1 straight:1 pass:3 harry:1 dexter:1 treasury:1 lauchlin:1 currie:1 adviser:1 roosevelt:3 notorious:1 ring:3 silvermaster:3 run:1 greg:1 somewhat:1 detach:1 branch:1 states:1 u:5 significant:3 countervailing:1 whittaker:1 chamber:1 courier:3 approach:2 finger:1 claim:1 dismiss:1 nonsense:1 theran:1 yalta:1 potsdam:1 conference:1 ii:4 vastly:1 knowledgeable:1 card:1 bargaining:1 deck:1 truman:1 spectacular:1 british:3 physicist:2 team:1 collaborate:1 develop:2 prominent:4 julius:1 ethel:1 rosenberg:1 york:1 city:2 los:1 alamos:1 laboratory:3 program:1 nineteen:1 old:2 harvard:1 lona:1 cohen:1 stealing:1 capstone:1 american:2 community:2 back:2 advancement:1 field:1 jet:1 propulsion:1 radar:1 encryption:1 concept:1 unraveling:1 igor:1 gouzenko:1 venona:3 decrypts:1 fall:2 mania:1 lead:3 senior:3 staff:4 leave:4 temporarily:1 headless:1 threaten:1 entire:1 shock:1 panic:1 damage:2 minimize:1 bill:1 weisband:1 si:1 washington:2 identify:1 onwards:1 scratch:1 never:1 thorough:1 azerbaijani:1 heydar:1 aliyev:1 muslim:1 member:3 bring:2 stability:1 azerbaijan:1 uneasy:1 independence:1 largely:1 residual:1 effect:1 scare:1 mccarthyism:1 evisceration:1 severely:1 last:1 willie:1 vilyam:1 fisher:1 good:1 rudolf:2 abel:1 betray:1 assistant:1 reino:1 häyhänen:1 likelihood:1 single:1 least:1 span:1 successful:4 absence:1 towards:1 monetary:1 reason:1 particularly:1 ibm:1 tighten:1 exception:1 highly:1 walker:3 enable:1 decipher:1 million:2 classify:1 message:1 directly:2 development:3 akula:1 class:1 submarine:2 address:1 advantage:1 offline:1 score:2 walk:2 dozen:1 verge:1 simply:1 dc:1 volunteer:1 position:2 exchange:1 money:1 hannsen:1 secretly:1 alias:2 ramon:1 dollar:1 bloc:6 prison:2 door:1 display:1 museum:1 occupation:1 tallinn:1 estonia:1 along:3 satellite:3 ally:1 extensively:1 private:1 opinion:2 possible:1 plot:2 instrumental:1 destruction:1 socialism:1 human:1 face:1 prop:1 friendly:1 puppet:1 ivan:2 serov:1 personally:2 visit:1 hungary:3 supervise:1 normalization:1 invasion:3 incidence:1 harmful:1 attitude:1 hostile:1 minute:1 listen:1 pop:1 music:1 prepare:1 way:3 czechoslovakia:4 number:4 tourist:1 classic:1 fashion:1 gain:2 confidence:2 outspoken:1 proponent:1 alexander:3 dubček:1 additionally:1 task:2 plant:4 evidence:2 justify:1 rightist:1 plan:3 finally:1 prepared:1 hardline:1 pro:1 cpc:1 alois:1 indra:1 vasil:1 biľak:1 betrayal:2 courageous:1 untouched:1 famous:1 remark:1 dreadful:1 event:2 awful:1 day:2 determine:1 course:1 life:2 match:1 unsuccessful:2 solidarity:3 labor:1 movement:6 poland:2 forecast:1 future:2 instability:1 election:1 polish:5 pope:4 karol:1 wojtyla:1 john:6 paul:2 categorize:1 subversive:3 sermon:1 criticize:1 accurately:1 foresee:1 crisis:1 hinder:1 crush:1 puwp:4 explosion:1 bloodshed:1 impose:1 martial:2 suggest:1 służba:1 bezpieczeństwa:1 sb:1 instal:1 catholic:1 church:2 coordinate:1 declaration:1 wojciech:1 jaruzelski:1 vacillating:1 conciliatory:1 blunt:1 effectiveness:1 monument:1 victim:2 vilnius:1 lithuania:1 preoccupation:1 unorthodox:1 belief:2 persecution:2 dissident:11 containment:1 indeed:1 obsession:2 rise:1 appointment:2 declare:2 every:1 instance:1 example:3 religious:3 reject:1 threat:1 must:1 challenge:1 mobilize:1 goal:1 assign:2 deal:1 apprehend:1 gulags:1 indefinite:1 strength:1 might:2 yale:2 www:1 annals:1 htm:1 file:1 edit:1 joshua:1 rubenstein:1 gribanov:1 english:1 version:1 indicate:1 vitali:1 fedorchuk:1 repression:1 tight:1 partially:1 relax:1 denunciation:1 stalinist:1 era:1 speech:1 reemergence:1 literary:2 notably:1 publication:1 denisovich:2 quickly:1 move:1 crack:2 routinely:1 search:2 find:1 incriminating:1 moscow:5 manuscript:1 codenamed:1 pauk:1 spider:1 friend:1 contain:2 allegedly:1 slanderous:1 writer:1 publish:1 anonymously:1 infamous:2 case:1 sinyavsky:2 yuli:1 daniel:2 put:1 trial:2 writing:1 text:2 reach:1 pseudonym:1 abram:1 tertz:1 arzhak:1 surveillance:4 apartment:1 flat:1 tip:1 express:1 purpose:1 exile:1 closed:1 gorky:1 nizhny:1 novgorod:1 prevention:1 nobel:1 peace:2 prize:1 award:2 fail:1 orlov:1 probably:1 mission:2 overseen:1 employed:1 method:1 appear:2 sympathize:1 employ:1 smear:1 campaign:1 discredit:2 prosecute:1 show:1 harass:1 interrogator:1 wear:1 sympathetic:1 informant:1 try:2 emergence:1 relaxed:1 implement:1 demand:1 lubyanka:1 square:1 aleksey:1 schusev:1 element:1 lure:1 imaginative:1 trust:1 predecessor:1 undermine:1 assassinate:1 ramón:1 mercader:1 mexico:1 spread:1 sabotage:1 outbreak:1 behind:3 arm:1 cache:1 location:1 james:1 jesus:1 angleton:3 anatoliy:1 golitsyn:1 section:3 aware:1 therefore:1 could:2 detect:1 capture:2 protect:2 safely:1 redirect:1 investigation:1 uncover:1 sufficient:1 advance:1 warning:1 escape:1 moreover:1 vet:1 area:1 stamp:1 retrospect:1 context:1 deem:1 excessively:1 paranoid:1 ground:1 expose:1 disbelieve:1 assertion:1 cost:1 occasionally:1 conduct:1 mainly:1 september:2 killing:1 bulgarian:2 émigré:1 georgi:1 markov:2 london:1 gun:1 shoot:2 ricin:1 poisoned:1 pellet:1 dispute:1 allegation:1 dag:1 hammarskjöld:1 air:2 crash:1 italian:1 panel:1 attack:1 rank:1 lt:1 gen:1 ion:2 mihai:2 pacepa:3 describe:2 conversation:1 romanian:1 nicolae:1 ceauşescu:1 tell:1 ten:1 international:2 kill:4 laszlo:1 rajk:1 imre:1 nagy:1 lucretiu:1 patrascanu:1 gheorghiu:1 dej:1 romania:1 slansky:1 jan:1 masaryk:1 diplomat:1 shah:1 iran:1 palmiro:1 togliatti:1 italy:1 f:1 kennedy:2 china:1 mao:2 zedong:2 additional:1 lin:1 biao:1 organize:2 note:1 unanimous:1 agreement:1 review:1 core:1 everything:1 consist:1 deputy:3 collegium:1 affected:1 decision:1 directorates:1 certain:1 status:1 sub:1 citizen:2 foreigner:2 third:2 armed:2 force:7 fourth:1 transportation:1 originally:1 monitoring:1 artist:1 censorship:1 medium:1 z:1 constitutional:1 sixth:1 counterintelligence:1 industrial:1 seventh:1 handle:1 equipment:1 eighth:2 cryptologic:1 division:1 transmission:1 overseas:1 station:2 ninth:3 protection:1 man:2 uniformed:2 family:1 facility:1 nuclear:1 weapon:1 stock:1 vip:1 subway:1 secure:1 telephone:2 link:2 federal:4 protective:3 fps:3 fifteenth:1 installation:1 sixteenth:2 interception:2 upgrade:1 telegraph:1 ensure:1 interest:1 border:3 dealt:1 smuggle:1 land:1 naval:1 contingent:1 encompass:1 research:1 center:2 create:2 bugging:1 tap:1 device:1 poison:2 manufacture:1 psychotropic:1 substance:1 independent:3 detachment:2 secretariat:1 finance:1 administration:1 osnaz:1 spetsnaz:1 special:1 alpha:1 vympel:1 etc:1 command:1 unknown:1 beyond:1 et:2 al:2 evolution:1 depict:2 page:2 xv:1 datesorganizationdecember:1 gpu:2 gugb:2 february:2 april:1 transfer:1 kimarch:1 enlarge:1 mvdmarch:1 appendix:1 organizationchairmandatescheka:1 ogpufelix:1 edmundovich:1 rudolfovich:1 nkvdgenrikh:1 grigoryevich:1 ivanovich:1 pavlovich:3 nikolayevich:3 nkvdlavrenti:1 mgbvsevolod:1 mgbviktor:1 semyonovich:1 june:1 sergei:1 nikiforovich:1 kgbivan:1 aleksandrovich:2 yefimovich:1 vladimirovich:1 vasilyevich:1 may:1 viktor:2 mikhailovich:1 viktorovich:1 see:2 chronology:1 formerly:3 fapsi:1 mitrokhin:4 smuggled:1 record:1 presidential:1 smersh:1 memorial:1 eastern:1 politics:1 reference:1 christopher:2 andrew:2 vasili:2 europe:1 gardner:1 book:6 isbn:10 basic:2 hardcover:2 paperback:1 barron:2 reader:1 digest:1 battle:1 read:1 yevgenia:1 albats:1 catherine:1 fitzpatrick:1 past:1 present:1 farrar:1 straus:1 giroux:1 bantam:1 j:1 birstein:1 perversion:1 knowledge:1 true:1 story:1 westview:1 lab:1 engage:1 testing:1 dziak:1 chekisty:1 lexington:1 бережков:1 василий:1 иванович:1 руководители:1 ленинградского:1 управления:1 санкт:1 петербург:1 выбор:1 full:1 vassiliev:1 notebook:1 cwihp:1 fa:1 org:1 chebrikov:1 ed:1 istoriya:1 sovetskikh:1 organov:1 gosudarstvennoi:1 bezopasnosti:1 slave:1 century:1 religion:1 shchekochikhin:1 камітэт:1 дзяржаўнай:1 бясьпекі:1 |@bigram soviet_union:17 boris_yeltsin:2 lavrentiy_beria:2 mikhail_gorbachev:2 atomic_bomb:4 klaus_fuchs:2 leon_trotsky:1 aleksandr_solzhenitsyn:2 andrei_sakharov:3 tupolev_tu:1 willy_brandt:1 robert_hanssen:3 modus_operandi:1 illegal_residency:6 diplomatic_immunity:2 immunity_prosecution:1 molotov_ribbentrop:1 ribbentrop_pact:1 kim_philby:2 agent_provocateur:3 brutally_suppress:1 minister_vyacheslav:1 vyacheslav_molotov:1 coup_état:1 yuri_andropov:4 heir_apparent:1 fatally_weaken:2 prime_minister:1 vladimir_putin:1 alger_hiss:1 united_states:1 states_government:1 potsdam_conference:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 jet_propulsion:1 venona_project:1 heydar_aliyev:1 severely_damage:1 washington_dc:1 tallinn_estonia:1 vilnius_lithuania:1 http_www:1 nizhny_novgorod:1 smear_campaign:1 jesus_angleton:1 lt_gen:1 nicolae_ceauşescu:1 imre_nagy:1 mao_zedong:2 nuclear_weapon:1 psychotropic_substance:1 et_al:2 mitrokhin_archive:2 eastern_bloc:1 andrew_vasili:1 vasili_mitrokhin:2 reader_digest:1 farrar_straus:1 straus_giroux:1 westview_press:1 external_link:1 |
972 | Gilbert_N._Lewis | Gilbert Newton Lewis (October 23, 1875 – March 23, 1946) was an American physical chemist known for the discovery of the covalent bond (see his Lewis dot structures and his 1916 paper "The Atom and the Molecule"), his purification of heavy water, his reformulation of chemical thermodynamics in a mathematically rigorous manner accessible to ordinary chemists, his theory of Lewis acids and bases, and his photochemical experiments. In 1926, Lewis coined the term "photon" for the smallest unit of radiant energy. He was a brother of Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistry fraternity. Career After earning his Ph.D. at Harvard under the direction of Theodore Richards, Lewis stayed as an instructor for a year before taking a traveling fellowship, studying under the physical chemists Wilhelm Ostwald at Leipzig and Walther Nernst at Göttingen. During Lewis's stay in Nernst's lab, Nernst and Lewis apparently developed an enmity that lasted their entire lives. A friend of Nernst's, Walther Palmaer, was a member of the Nobel Chemistry Committee; there is evidence that he used the Nobel nominating and reporting procedures to block a Nobel Prize for Lewis in thermodynamics by nominating Lewis for the prize three times, and then using his position as a committee member to write negative reports. Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008: 195-207. After his stay in Nernst's lab, Lewis returned to Harvard as an instructor for three more years, and in 1904 left to become Superintendent of Weights and Measures for the Bureau of Science of the Philippine Islands in Manila. The next year he returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts when the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) appointed him to a faculty position, in which he had a chance to join a group of outstanding physical chemists under the direction of Arthur Amos Noyes. He quickly rose in rank, becoming assistant professor in 1907, associate professor on 1908, and full professor in 1911. He left MIT to become professor of physical chemistry and dean of the College of Chemistry at the University of California, Berkeley in 1912. Lewis Hall at Berkeley, built in 1948, is named in his honor. Timeline Lewis' cubical atoms (as drawn in 1902) About 1902 Lewis started to use unpublished drawings of cubical atoms in his lecture notes, in which the corners of the cube represented possible electron positions. Lewis later cited these notes in his classic 1916 paper on chemical bonding, as being the first expression of his ideas. In 1908 he published the first of several papers on relativity, in which he derived the mass-energy relationship in a different way from Albert Einstein's derivation. In 1909 he combined his methods with the principle of relativity. He also introduced the thermodynamic concept of activity and coined the term "fugacity." "The osmotic pressure of concentrated solutions, and the laws of the perfect solution," J. Am. Chem. Soc. 30, 668-683 (1908) On June 21, 1912, he married Mary Hinckley Sheldon, daughter of a Harvard professor of Romance languages. They had two sons, both of whom became chemistry professors, and a daughter. In 1913, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. He resigned in 1934, refusing to state the cause for his resignation; it has been speculated that it was due to a dispute over the internal politics of that institution or to the failure of those he had nominated to be elected. His decision to resign may have been sparked by resentment over the award of the 1934 Nobel Prize for chemistry to his student, Harold Urey, for the discovery of deuterium, a prize Lewis almost certainly felt he should have shared for his work on purification and characterization of heavy water.<ref>Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: 221-222.</ref> In 1916, he published his classic paper on chemical bonding, The Atom and the Molecule in which he formulated the idea of what would become known as the covalent bond, consisting of a shared pair of electrons, and he defined the term odd molecule (the modern term is free radical) when an electron is not shared. He included what became known as Lewis dot structures as well as the cubical atom model. These ideas on chemical bonding were expanded upon by Irving Langmuir and became the inspiration for the studies on the nature of the chemical bond by Linus Pauling. In 1919, by studying the magnetic properties of solutions of oxygen in liquid nitrogen, he found that O4 molecules were formed. This was the first evidence for tetratomic oxygen. In 1921, Lewis was the first to propose an empirical equation describing the failure of strong electrolytes to obey the law of mass action, a problem that had perplexed physical chemists for twenty years. His empirical equations for what he called ionic strength were later confirmed to be in accord with the Debye-Hückel equation for strong electrolytes, published in 1923. In 1923, he formulated the electron-pair theory of acid-base reactions. In the so-called Lewis theory of acids and bases, a "Lewis acid" is an electron-pair acceptor and a "Lewis base" is an electron-pair donor. This year he also published a monograph on his theories of the chemical bond Gilbert N. Lewis, Valence and the Nature of the Chemical Bond, Chemical Catalog Company, 1926. Based on work by J. Willard Gibbs, it was known that chemical reactions proceeded to an equilibrium determined by the free energy of the substances taking part. Lewis spent 25 years determining free energies of various substances. In 1923 he and Merle Randall published the results of this study, Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall, Thermodynamics and the Free Energies of Chemical Substances, McGraw-Hill, 1923. which helped formalize modern chemical thermodynamics. In 1926, he coined the term "photon" for the smallest unit of radiant energy, although his photon differed from the photon of modern quantum physics. Lewis was the first to produce a pure sample of deuterium oxide (heavy water) in 1933. By accelerating deuterons (deuterium nuclei) in Ernest O. Lawrence's cyclotron, he was able to study many of the properties of atomic nuclei. During the 1930s, he was mentor to Glenn T. Seaborg, who was retained for post-doctoral work as Lewis' personal research assistant. Seaborg went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and have the element Seaborgium named in his honor while he was still alive. Later years In the last years of his life, Lewis and graduate student Michael Kasha established that phosphorescence of organic molecules involves an excited triplet state (a state in which electrons that would normally be paired with opposite spins are instead excited to have their spin vectors in the same direction) and measured the magnetic properties of this triplet state. During his career he published on many other subjects besides those mentioned in this article, ranging from the nature of light quanta to the economics of price stabilization. He died at age 70 of a heart attack while working in his laboratory in Berkeley. He had been working on an experiment with liquid hydrogen cyanide, and deadly fumes from a broken line were leaking into the laboratory when a graduate student found the professor's lifeless body under a workbench. The coroner said Gilbert N. Lewis died of coronary artery disease; some believe that the death may have been a suicide. UC Berkeley Professor Emeritus William Jolly, who reported the various views on Gilbert N. Lewis' death in his 1987 history of the University of California, Berkeley’s College of Chemistry, From Retorts to Lasers, said one higher-up in the department believed the suicide theory. A possible explanation for the suicide theories was depression following a lunch with Irving Langmuir. Langmuir and Lewis had a long rivalry, dating back to Langmuir's extensions of Lewis's theories on the chemical bond, and Langmuir had been awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his theories of surface chemistry, while Lewis had not received the Nobel Prize despite 35 nominations. On the day of Lewis' death, Langmuir and Lewis met for lunch at the University of California, Berkeley, a meeting that was recalled by Lewis's last research associate, Michael Kasha, only years later. Coffey, Cathedrals of Science, 310-315. It was reported by associates that Gilbert N. Lewis came back from the meeting in a dark mood. He reportedly sat down for a morose game of bridge with some colleagues, and then went back to work in his lab. An hour later, Gilbert N. Lewis was dead. Irving Langmuir's papers at the Library of Congress confirm that Irving Langmuir was on the University of California, Berkeley campus that day. Irving Langmuir had gone to the University of California, Berkeley to receive an honorary degree. References See also History of the molecule Further reading Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-532134-0 External links Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946) and Irving Langmuir (1881–1957) - Chemical Achievers Gilbert Lewis - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography Lewis Acid-Base Concept - Overview Key Participants: G. N. Lewis - Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History'' | Gilbert_N._Lewis |@lemmatized gilbert:9 newton:2 lewis:40 october:1 march:1 american:1 physical:5 chemist:5 know:4 discovery:2 covalent:2 bond:7 see:2 dot:2 structure:2 paper:5 atom:5 molecule:6 purification:2 heavy:3 water:3 reformulation:1 chemical:14 thermodynamics:4 mathematically:1 rigorous:1 manner:1 accessible:1 ordinary:1 theory:8 acid:5 base:6 photochemical:1 experiment:2 coin:3 term:5 photon:4 small:2 unit:2 radiant:2 energy:6 brother:1 alpha:1 chi:1 sigma:1 professional:1 chemistry:12 fraternity:1 career:2 earn:1 ph:1 harvard:3 direction:3 theodore:1 richards:1 stay:3 instructor:2 year:9 take:2 travel:1 fellowship:1 study:5 wilhelm:1 ostwald:1 leipzig:1 walther:2 nernst:5 göttingen:1 lab:3 apparently:1 develop:1 enmity:1 last:3 entire:1 life:2 friend:1 palmaer:1 member:2 nobel:7 committee:2 evidence:2 use:3 nominating:1 reporting:1 procedure:1 block:1 prize:7 nominate:2 three:2 time:1 position:3 write:1 negative:1 report:3 patrick:2 coffey:4 cathedral:4 science:6 personality:2 rivalry:3 make:2 modern:5 oxford:2 university:7 press:2 return:2 leave:2 become:7 superintendent:1 weight:1 measure:2 bureau:1 philippine:1 island:1 manila:1 next:1 cambridge:1 massachusetts:2 institute:1 technology:1 mit:2 appoint:1 faculty:1 chance:1 join:1 group:1 outstanding:1 arthur:1 amos:1 noyes:1 quickly:1 rise:1 rank:1 assistant:2 professor:8 associate:3 full:1 dean:1 college:2 california:5 berkeley:8 hall:1 build:1 name:2 honor:2 timeline:1 cubical:3 drawn:1 start:1 unpublished:1 drawing:1 lecture:1 note:2 corner:1 cube:1 represent:1 possible:2 electron:7 later:4 cite:1 classic:2 bonding:3 first:5 expression:1 idea:3 publish:6 several:1 relativity:2 derive:1 mass:2 relationship:1 different:1 way:1 albert:1 einstein:1 derivation:1 combine:1 method:1 principle:1 also:3 introduce:1 thermodynamic:1 concept:2 activity:1 fugacity:1 osmotic:1 pressure:1 concentrated:1 solution:3 law:2 perfect:1 j:2 chem:1 soc:1 june:1 marry:1 mary:1 hinckley:1 sheldon:1 daughter:2 romance:1 language:1 two:1 son:1 elect:2 national:1 academy:1 resign:2 refuse:1 state:4 cause:1 resignation:1 speculate:1 due:1 dispute:1 internal:1 politics:1 institution:1 failure:2 decision:1 may:2 spark:1 resentment:1 award:2 student:3 harold:1 urey:1 deuterium:3 almost:1 certainly:1 felt:1 share:3 work:6 characterization:1 ref:2 formulate:2 would:2 consist:1 pair:5 define:1 odd:1 free:4 radical:1 include:1 well:1 model:1 expand:1 upon:1 irving:6 langmuir:10 inspiration:1 nature:4 linus:2 pauling:2 magnetic:2 property:3 oxygen:2 liquid:2 nitrogen:1 find:2 form:1 tetratomic:1 propose:1 empirical:2 equation:3 describe:1 strong:2 electrolyte:2 obey:1 action:1 problem:1 perplex:1 twenty:1 call:2 ionic:1 strength:1 confirm:2 accord:1 debye:1 hückel:1 reaction:2 acceptor:1 donor:1 monograph:1 n:7 valence:1 catalog:1 company:1 willard:1 gibbs:1 proceed:1 equilibrium:1 determine:2 substance:3 part:1 spent:1 various:2 merle:2 randall:2 result:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 help:1 formalize:1 although:1 differ:1 quantum:2 physic:1 produce:1 pure:1 sample:1 oxide:1 accelerate:1 deuteron:1 nucleus:2 ernest:1 lawrence:1 cyclotron:1 able:1 many:2 atomic:1 mentor:1 glenn:1 seaborg:2 retain:1 post:1 doctoral:1 personal:1 research:2 go:3 win:1 element:1 seaborgium:1 still:1 alive:1 late:1 graduate:2 michael:2 kasha:2 establish:1 phosphorescence:1 organic:1 involve:1 excited:1 triplet:2 normally:1 opposite:1 spin:2 instead:1 excite:1 vector:1 subject:1 besides:1 mention:1 article:1 range:1 light:1 economics:1 price:1 stabilization:1 die:2 age:1 heart:1 attack:1 laboratory:2 hydrogen:1 cyanide:1 deadly:1 fume:1 broken:1 line:1 leak:1 lifeless:1 body:1 workbench:1 coroner:1 say:2 coronary:1 artery:1 disease:1 believe:2 death:3 suicide:3 uc:1 emeritus:1 william:1 jolly:1 view:1 history:3 retort:1 laser:1 one:1 high:1 department:1 explanation:1 depression:1 follow:1 lunch:2 long:1 date:1 back:3 extension:1 surface:1 receive:2 despite:1 nomination:1 day:2 met:1 meeting:2 recall:1 come:1 dark:1 mood:1 reportedly:1 sit:1 morose:1 game:1 bridge:1 colleague:1 hour:1 dead:1 library:1 congress:1 campus:1 honorary:1 degree:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 achiever:1 eric:1 weisstein:1 world:1 scientific:1 biography:1 overview:1 key:1 participant:1 g:1 documentary:1 |@bigram covalent_bond:2 chi_sigma:1 nobel_prize:5 patrick_coffey:2 coffey_cathedral:4 albert_einstein:1 osmotic_pressure:1 chem_soc:1 harold_urey:1 irving_langmuir:6 linus_pauling:2 ionic_strength:1 willard_gibbs:1 mcgraw_hill:1 deuterium_oxide:1 ernest_lawrence:1 atomic_nucleus:1 glenn_seaborg:1 hydrogen_cyanide:1 coronary_artery:1 artery_disease:1 uc_berkeley:1 professor_emeritus:1 external_link:1 eric_weisstein:1 |
973 | NATO | The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO; , )); ), also called "the (North) Atlantic Alliance", is a military alliance established by the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, Boulevard Leopold III-laan, B-1110 BRUSSELS, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels. and the organization constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down". Reynolds, The origins of the Cold War in Europe. International perspectives, p.13 Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion - doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure from 1966. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization became drawn into the Balkans while building better links with former potential enemies to the east, which culminated with several former Warsaw Pact states joining the alliance in 1999 and 2004. On April 1, 2009, membership was enlarged to 28 with the entrance of Albania and Croatia. Albania, Croatia join NATO military alliance, AFP, April 1, 2009 Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, NATO has attempted to refocus itself to new challenges and has deployed troops to Afghanistan as well as trainers to Iraq. The Berlin Plus agreement is a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the on 16 December 2002. With this agreement the was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act – the so-called "right of first refusal". Bram Boxhoorn, Broad Support for NATO in the Netherlands, 21-09-2005, Only if NATO refused to act would the EU have the option to act. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending, with the United States alone accounting for about half the total military spending of the world and the United Kingdom and France accounting for a further 10%. History Beginnings The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and the United Kingdom is considered the precursor to the NATO agreement. The treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Union's Defense Organization in September 1948. David C. Isby & Charles Kamps Jr, Armies of NATO's Central Front, Jane's Publishing Company Ltd 1985, p.13 However, participation of the United States was thought necessary in order to counter the military power of the USSR, and therefore talks for a new military alliance began almost immediately. These talks resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4 April 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states, as well as the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous; some Icelanders commenced a pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot in March 1949. Such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force does not necessarily mean that other member states will respond with military action against the aggressor(s). Rather they are obliged to respond, but maintain the freedom to choose how they will respond. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels (which founded the Western European Union) which clearly states that the response however often assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily. Further, the article limits the organization's scope to Europe and North America, which explains why the invasion of the British Falkland Islands did not result in NATO involvement. The creation of NATO brought about some standardisation of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, which in many cases meant European countries adopting U.S. practices. The roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements (STANAGs) codifies the standardisation that NATO has achieved. Hence, the 7.62×51 NATO rifle cartridge was introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries. Fabrique Nationale's FAL became the most popular 7.62 NATO rifle in Europe and served into the early 1990s. Also, aircraft marshalling signals were standardized, so that any NATO aircraft could land at any NATO base. Other standards such as the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use. Cold War The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe; 12 of 26 divisions in 1985. The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 was crucial for NATO as it raised the apparent threat level greatly (all Communist countries were suspected of working together) and forced the alliance to develop concrete military plans. David C. Isby & Charles Kamps Jr, Armies of NATO's Central Front, Jane's Publishing Company Ltd 1985, p.13-14 The 1952 Lisbon conference, seeking to provide the forces necessary for NATO's Long-Term Defence Plan, called for an expansion to 96 divisions. However this requirement was dropped the following year to roughly 35 divisions with heavier use to be made of nuclear weapons. At this time, NATO could call on about fifteen ready divisions in Central Europe, and another ten in Italy and Scandinavia. Robert E. Osgood, 'NATO: The Entangling Alliance,' University Press, Chicago, 1962, p.76, in William Park 'Defending the West,' Wheatsheaf Books, 1986, p.28 Also at Lisbon, the post of Secretary General of NATO as the organization's chief civilian was also created, and Baron Hastings Ismay eventually appointed to the post. Time magazine, The Man with the Oilcan, March 24, 1952 Later, in September 1952, the first major NATO maritime exercises began; Operation Mainbrace brought together 200 ships and over 50,000 personnel to practice the defence of Denmark and Norway. Greece and Turkey joined the alliance the same year, forcing a series of controversial negotiations, in which the United States and Britain were the primary disputants, over how to bring the two countries into the military command structure. Sean M. Maloney, 'To Secure Command of the Sea: NATO Command Organization and Naval Planning for the Cold War at Sea, 1945-54,' MA thesis, University of New Brunswick, 1991, p.270-291 Meanwhile, while this overt military preparation was going on, covert stay-behind arrangements to continue resistance after a successful Soviet invasion ('Operation Gladio'), initially made by the Western European Union, were being transferred to NATO control. Ultimately unofficial bonds began to grow between NATO's armed forces, such as the NATO Tiger Association and competitions such as the Canadian Army Trophy for tank gunnery. In 1954, the Soviet Union suggested that it should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe. The NATO countries, fearing that the Soviet Union's motive was to weaken the alliance, ultimately rejected this proposal. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" by Halvard Lange, Foreign Minister of Norway at the time. BBC On This Day "West Germany accepted into Nato" bbc.co.uk A major reason for Germany's entry into the alliance was that without German manpower, it would have been impossible to field enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion. David C. Isby & Charles Kamps Jr, Armies of NATO's Central Front, Jane's Publishing Company Ltd 1985, p.15 Indeed, one of its immediate results was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany, as a formal response to this event, thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War. French withdrawal Map of the NATO air bases in France before Charles de Gaulle's 1966 withdrawal from NATO military integrated command. The unity of NATO was breached early on in its history, with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle's presidency of France from 1958 onward. De Gaulle protested the United States' strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between the United States and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the United States and the United Kingdom, and also for the expansion of NATO's coverage to include geographical areas of interest to France, most notably Algeria, where France was waging a counter-insurgency and sought NATO assistance. Considering the response given to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began to build an independent defence for his country. He also wanted to give France, in the event of a East German incursion into West Germany, the option of coming to a separate peace with the Eastern bloc instead of being drawn into a NATO-Warsaw Pact global war. On 11 March 1959, France withdrew its Mediterranean fleet from NATO command; three months later, in June 1959, de Gaulle banned the stationing of foreign nuclear weapons on French soil. This caused the United States to transfer two hundred military aircraft out of France and return control of the ten major air force bases that had operated in France since 1950 to the French by 1967. Though France showed solidarity with the rest of NATO during the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, de Gaulle continued his pursuit of an independent defence by removing France's Atlantic and Channel fleets from NATO command. In 1966, all French armed forces were removed from NATO's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO troops were asked to leave France. This withdrawal forced the relocation of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) from Rocquencourt near Paris to Casteau, north of Mons, Belgium, by 16 October 1967. France remained a member of the alliance, and committed to the defence of Europe from possible Communist attack with its own forces stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany throughout the Cold War. A series of secret accords between U.S. and French officials, the Lemnitzer-Aillert Agreements, detailed how French forces would dovetail back into NATO's command structure should East-West hostilities break out. Washington Post, After 43 Years, France to Rejoin NATO as Full Member, MArch 2009 for the return of French forces under NATO command see below. Détente Détente led to many high level meetings between leaders from both NATO and the Warsaw Pact. During most of the duration of the Cold War, NATO maintained a holding pattern with no actual military engagement as an organization. On 1 July 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opened for signature: NATO argued that its nuclear weapons sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as U.S. forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged. On 30 May 1978, NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance, to maintain security and pursue détente. This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race. On 12 December 1979, in light of a build-up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of U.S. GLCM cruise missiles and Pershing II theatre nuclear weapons in Europe. The new warheads were also meant to strengthen the western negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament. This policy was called the Dual Track policy. Similarly, in 1983–84, responding to the stationing of Warsaw Pact SS-20 medium-range missiles in Europe, NATO deployed modern Pershing II missiles tasked to hit military targets such as tank formations in the event of war. This action led to peace movement protests throughout Western Europe. Escalation With the background of the build-up of tension between the Soviet Union and the United States, NATO decided, under the impetus of the Reagan presidency, to deploy Pershing II and cruise missiles in Western Europe, primarily West Germany. These missiles were theatre nuclear weapons intended to strike targets on the battlefield if the Soviets invaded West Germany. Yet support for the deployment was wavering and many doubted whether the push for deployment could be sustained. On 1 September 1983, the Soviet Union shot down a Korean airliner, loaded with passengers, when it crossed into Soviet airspace - an act which Reagan characterized as a "massacre". The barbarity of this act, as the U.S. and indeed the world understood it, galvanized support for the deployment - which stood in place until the later accords between Reagan and Mikhael Gorbachev. The membership of the organization in this time period likewise remained largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdrew its forces from NATO's military command structure, but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when, following a referendum, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance. In November 1983, NATO manoeuvres simulating a nuclear launch caused panic in the Kremlin. The Soviet leadership, led by ailing General Secretary Yuri Andropov, became concerned that the manoeuvres, codenamed Able Archer 83, were the beginnings of a genuine first strike. In response, Soviet nuclear forces were readied and air units in East Germany and Poland were placed on alert. Though at the time written off by U.S. intelligence as a propaganda effort, many historians now believe that the Soviet fear of a NATO first strike was genuine. Post Cold War Map showing European membership of the EU and NATO The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO. This caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature and tasks. In practice this ended up entailing a gradual (and still ongoing) expansion of NATO to Eastern Europe, as well as the extension of its activities to areas that had not formerly been NATO concerns. The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with the reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. This had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier in the year. To secure Soviet approval of a united Germany remaining in NATO, it was agreed that foreign troops and nuclear weapons would not be stationed in the east. The scholar Stephen F. Cohen argued in 2005 that a commitment was given that NATO would never expand further east, Gorbachev's Lost Legacy by Stephen F. Cohen (link) The Nation, 24 February 2005 but according to Robert B. Zoellick, then a State Department official involved in the Two Plus Four negotiating process, this appears to be a misperception; no formal commitment of the sort was made. Robert B. Zoellick, The Lessons of German Unification, The National Interest, September 22, 2000 On May 7, 2008, The Daily Telegraph held an interview with Gorbachev in which he repeated his view that such a commitment had been made. Gorbachev said "the Americans promised that NATO wouldn't move beyond the boundaries of Germany after the Cold War but now half of central and eastern Europe are members, so what happened to their promises? It shows they cannot be trusted." Gorbachev: US could start new Cold War Telegraph Retrieved on May 22, 2008 As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe agreed between NATO and the Warsaw Pact and signed in Paris in 1990, mandated specific reductions. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, signed some years later. France rejoined NATO's Military Committee in 1995, and since that time has intensified working relations with the military structure. The policies of current French President Nicolas Sarkozy have resulted in a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on April 4, 2009 which also included France rejoining the integrated military command of NATO, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent. Stratton, Allegra. "Sarkozy military plan unveiled". The Guardian, 17 June 2008 Balkans interventions NATO planes engaged in aerial bombardments during Operation Deliberate Force after the Srebrenica massacre. The first NATO military operation caused by the conflict in the former Yugoslavia was Operation Sharp Guard, which ran from June 1993–October 1996. It provided maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first military action, shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating a U.N.-mandated no-fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina. A NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began in August, 1995, against the Army of Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Operation Deny Flight, the no-fly-zone enforcement mission, had begun two years before, on 12 April 1993, and was to continue until 20 December 1995. NATO air strikes that year helped bring the war in Bosnia to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement, which in turn meant that NATO deployed a peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, first named IFOR and then SFOR, which ran from December 1996 to December 2004. Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations. Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbours were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. On 8 July 1997, three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland, were invited to join NATO, which finally happened in 1999. In 1998, the NATO-Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. On 24 March 1999, NATO saw its first broad-scale military engagement in the Kosovo War, where it waged an 11-week bombing campaign, which NATO called Operation Allied Force, against what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in an effort to stop Serbian-led crackdown on Albanian civilians in Kosovo. A formal declaration of war never took place (in common with all wars since World War II). The conflict ended on 11 June 1999, when Yugoslavian leader Slobodan Milošević agreed to NATO’s demands by accepting UN resolution 1244. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo. NATO website describing AFOR NATO then helped establish the KFOR, a NATO-led force under a United Nations mandate that operated the military mission in Kosovo. In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia. NATO's role in FYROM The United States, the United Kingdom, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the U.N. Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed U.N. approval. The U.S./U.K. side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington Summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management. After the September 11 attacks The September 11 attacks caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in its history. The Article says that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. NATO Update: Invocation of Article 5 confirmed - 2 October 2001 The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour. Operation Active Endeavour is a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea and is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general. It began on 4 October 2001. Despite this early show of solidarity, NATO faced a crisis little more than a year later, when on 10 February 2003, France and Belgium vetoed the procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for Turkey in case of a possible war with Iraq. Germany did not use its right to break the procedure but said it supported the veto. On the issue of Afghanistan on the other hand, the alliance showed greater unity: On 16 April 2003 NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on August 11, and marked the first time in NATO’s history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area. Canada had originally been slated to take over ISAF by itself on that date. In January 2004, NATO appointed Minister Hikmet Çetin, of Turkey, as the Senior Civilian Representative (SCR) in Afghanistan. Minister Cetin is primarily responsible for advancing the political-military aspects of the Alliance in Afghanistan. In August 2004, following U.S. pressure, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission - Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the U.S. led MNF-I. NATO Training Mission - Iraq, Introduction, September 17, 2007 On 31 July 2006, a NATO-led force, made up mostly of troops from Canada, the United Kingdom, Turkey and the Netherlands, took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a U.S.-led anti-terrorism coalition. Expansion and restructuring Current membership of NATO in Europe. New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished: The NATO Response Force (NRF) was launched at the 2002 Prague Summit on 21 November. On 19 June 2003, a major restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic were abolished and a new command, Allied Command Transformation (ACT), was established in Norfolk, Virginia, United States, and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became the Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO, whilst ACO is responsible for current operations. Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more Northern European and Eastern European countries to NATO: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and also Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague Summit, and joined NATO on 29 March 2004, shortly before the 2004 Istanbul Summit. The same month, NATO's Baltic Air Policing began, which supported the sovereignty of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia by providing fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions. Four fighters are based in Lithuania, provided in rotation by virtually all the NATO states. Operation Peaceful Summit temporarily enhanced this patrolling during the 2006 Riga Summit. L. Neidinger "NATO team ensures safe sky during Riga Summit", December 8, 2006, The 2006 NATO summit was held in Riga, Latvia, which had joined the Atlantic Alliance two years earlier. It is the first NATO summit to be held in a country that was part of the Soviet Union, and the second one in a former COMECON country (after the 2002 Prague Summit). Energy Security was one of the main themes of the Riga Summit. At the April 2008 summit in Bucharest, Romania, NATO agreed to the accession of Croatia and Albania and invited them to join. Both countries joined NATO in April 2009. Ukraine and Georgia were also told that they will eventually become members. U.S. wins NATO backing for missile defense shield - CNN.com International Security Assistance Force In August 2003, NATO commenced its first mission ever outside Europe when it assumed control over International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. However, some critics feel that national caveats or other restrictions undermine the efficiency of ISAF. For instance, political scientist Joseph Nye stated in a 2006 article that Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, France has recently allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts. LeMonde.fr : La France et l'OTAN If these caveats were to be eliminated, it is argued that this could help NATO to succeed. NATO is also training the ANA (Afghan National Army) to be better equipped in forcing out the Taliban. NATO missile defense The NATO Secretary General, the U.S. President, and the Prime Ministers of Latvia, Slovenia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Estonia after a ceremony welcoming them into NATO on 29 March 2004 at the Istanbul Summit. For some years, the United States negotiated with Poland and the Czech Republic for the deployment of interceptor missiles and a radar tracking system in the two countries against wishes of local population U.S. Might Negotiate on Missile Defense Both countries' governments indicated that they would allow the deployment. In August 2008, Poland and the United States signed a preliminary deal to place part of the missile defense shield in Poland that would be linked to air-defense radar in the Czech Republic. CNN | Europe | Poland, U.S. sign missile shield deal In answer on this agreement more than 130,000 Czechs signed petition for referendum about the base , which is by far the largest citizen initiative since the Velvet Revolution, but it has been refused. Více jak 130 000 podpisů pro referendum The proposed American missile defense site in Central Europe is expected to be fully operational by 2015 and would be capable of covering most of Europe except parts of Romania plus Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey. Xinhua - English In April 2007, NATO's European allies called for a NATO missile defense system which would complement the American National Missile Defense system to protect Europe from missile attacks and NATO's decision-making North Atlantic Council held consultations on missile defense in the first meeting on the topic at such a senior level. In response, Russian president Vladimir Putin claimed that such a deployment could lead to a new arms race and could enhance the likelihood of mutual destruction. He also suggested that his country would freeze its compliance with the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)—which limits military deployments across the continent—until all NATO countries had ratified the adapted CFE treaty. BBC News | Europe | Russia in defense warning to US Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer claimed the system would not affect strategic balance or threaten Russia, as the plan is to base only 10 interceptor missiles in Poland with an associated radar in the Czech Republic. BBC News | Europe | Nato chief dismisses Russia fears On 14 July 2007, Russia gave notice of its intention to suspend the CFE treaty, effective 150 days later. BBC NEWS, "Russia suspends arms control pact", 14 July 2007 Y. Zarakhovich, "Why Putin Pulled Out of a Key Treaty" in Time, July 14, 2007 On 14 August 2008, the United States and Poland came to an agreement to place a base with 10 interceptor missiles with associated MIM-104 Patriot air defense systems in Poland. This came at a time when tension was high between Russia and most of NATO and resulted in a nuclear threat on Poland by Russia if the building of the missile defenses went ahead. On 20 August 2008 the United States and Poland signed the agreement, with a statement from Russia saying their response "Will Go Beyond Diplomacy" and is an "extremely dangerous bundle" of military projects." Also, on 20 August 2008, Russia sent word to Norway that it was suspending ties with NATO. MSNBC http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315674/ Membership NATO has added new members seven times since first forming in 1949 (the last 2 in 2009). NATO comprises twenty-eight members: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Future enlargement New membership in the alliance has been largely from Eastern Europe and the Balkans, including former members of the Warsaw Pact. At the 2008 summit in Bucharest, three countries were promised future invitations: the Republic of Macedonia, In NATO official statements, the country is always referred to as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, with a footnote stating that "Turkey recognises the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name"; see Macedonia naming dispute. Georgia and Ukraine. Though they have completed the requirements for membership, accession of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is blocked by Greece, pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute. Turkey has also threatened to block an attempt from Cyprus. Other potential candidate countries include Montenegro and Bosnia & Herzegovina, which joined the Adriatic Charter of potential members in 2008. Russia, as referred to above, continues to oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and U.S. President George H. W. Bush that allowed for a peaceful unification of Germany. NATO's expansion policy is seen by Moscow as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia. NATO Seeking to Weaken CIS by Expansion — Russian General (link) MosNews 01.12.2005 and Ukraine moves closer to NATO membership By Taras Kuzio, Jamestown Foundation and Global Realignment and Condoleezza Rice wants Russia to acknowledge United States's interests on post-Soviet space, Pravda 04.05.2006 Cooperation with non-member states Euro-Atlantic Partnership A double framework has been established to help further co-operation between the 28 NATO members and 22 "partner countries". The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership. http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/index.html http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig-date.html Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all 49 participants. NATO Topics: The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council Additionally, the Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. Partnership for PeaceMediterraneanDialogueMap of NATO PartnershipsCommonwealth ofIndependent StatesOther Cold Warsocialist economiesMilitarily neutral ColdWar capitalist economiesAs part of YugoslaviaAs part of the Soviet Union Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework: Afghanistan Declaration by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan . Individual Partnership Action Plans Individual Partnership Action Plans were launched at the 2002 Summit in Prague. Launched at the November 2002 Prague Summit, Individual Partnership Action Plans (IPAPs) are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO. NATO Topics: Individual Partnership Action Plans Currently IPAPs are in implementation with the following countries: (22 November 2002) NATO-Ukraine Action Plan (29 October 2004) (27 May 2005) (16 December 2005) (31 January 2006) (19 May 2006) (10 January 2008) (June 2008) Contact Countries Since 1990-91, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of the above cooperative groupings. Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and a range of non-NATO countries have contributed to peacekeeping operations in the former Yugoslavia. The Allies established a set of general guidelines on relations with other countries, beyond the above groupings in 1998. NATO, Relations with Contact Countries, accessed 18 June 2008 The guidelines do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies’ desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term Contact Countries was agreed by the Allies in 2004. Australia, New Zealand, South Korea and Japan currently have this status. Structures Sign showing how the new NATO HQ will look, in front of the site where it will be built Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer meeting George W. Bush on March 20, 2006. The NATO website divides the internal NATO organization into political structures, military structures, and agencies & organizations immediately subordinate to NATO headquarters. The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard Léopold III, B-1110 Brussels, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality. A new headquarters building is currently in construction nearby, due for completion in 2012. The current design is an adaptation of the original award-winning scheme designed by Larry Oltmanns and his team when he was a Design Partner with SOM. Political structure Like any alliance, NATO is ultimately governed by its 28 member states. However, the North Atlantic Treaty, and other agreements, outline how decisions are to be made within NATO. Each of the 28 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO’s headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador (and holding that diplomatic rank). Together, the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective political authority and powers of decision in NATO. From time to time the Council also meets at higher levels involving Foreign Ministers, Defence Ministers or Heads of State or Government (HOSG) and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO’s policies are generally taken. However, it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision-making, and its decisions have the same status and validity, at whatever level it meets. NATO summits also form a further venue for decisions on complex issues, such as enlargement. The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General of NATO and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions. NATO Military Committee The second pivotal member of each country's delegation is the Military Representative, a senior officer from each country's armed forces. Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee (MC), a body responsible for recommending to NATO’s political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy. It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders, whose representatives attend its meetings, and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council. Like the council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of defence, the most senior military officer in each nation's armed forces. The Defence Planning Committee excludes France, due to that country's 1966 decision to remove itself from NATO's integrated military structure. On a practical level, this means that issues that are acceptable to most NATO members but unacceptable to France may be directed to the Defence Planning Committee for more expedient resolution. Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom. The current Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Giampaolo Di Paola of Italy (since 2008). NATO Parliamentary Assembly The NATO Parliamentary Assembly, presided by José Lello, is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. NATO PA - About the NATO Parliamentary Assembly It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies. Subordinate to the political structure are the International Staff and International Military Staff, which administer NATO programmes and carry out high-level political, military, and also civil emergency planning. NATO Handbook 2001, Over the years, non-governmental citizens' groups have grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council/Atlantic Treaty Association movement. List of officials Former Prime Minister of Denmark Anders Fogh Rasmussen has been named as the next Secretary General of NATO, and is expected to take office in August 2009. + Secretaries General NATO Who's who? - Secretaries General of NATO 1 General Lord Ismay 4 April 1952–16 May 1957 2 Paul-Henri Spaak 16 May 1957–21 April 1961 3 Dirk Stikker 21 April 1961–1 August 1964 4 Manlio Brosio 1 August 1964–1 October 1971 5 Joseph Luns 1 October 1971–25 June 1984 6 Lord Carrington 25 June 1984–1 July 1988 7 Manfred Wörner 1 July 1988–13 August 1994 8 Sergio Balanzino 13 August 1994–17 October 1994|- | 9 | Willy Claes | | 17 October 1994–20 October 1995 |- | 10 | Sergio Balanzino | | 20 October 1995–5 December 1995 11 Javier Solana 5 December 1995–6 October 1999 12 Lord Robertson of Port Ellen 14 October 1999–17 December 2003 13 Alessandro Minuto-Rizzo 17 December 2003–1 January 2004 14 Jaap de Hoop Scheffer 1 January 2004–present + Deputy Secretaries General NATO Who's who? - Deputy Secretaries General of NATO # Name Country Duration 1 Jonkheer van Vredenburch 1952-1956 2 Baron Adolph Bentinck 1956-1958 3 Alberico Casardi 1958-1962 4 Guido Colonna di Paliano 1962-1964 5 James A. Roberts 1964-1968 6 Osman Olcay 1969-1971 7 Paolo Pansa Cedronio 1971-1978 8 Rinaldo Petrignani 1978-1981 9 Eric da Rin 1981-1985 10 Marcello Guidi 1985-1989 11 Amedeo de Franchis 1989-1994 12 Sergio Balanzino 1994–2001 13 Alessandro Minuto Rizzo 2001–2007 14 Claudio Bisogniero 2007–present Military structure NATO E-3A flying with US F-16s in a NATO exercise. NATO's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee, and split into two Strategic Commands both commanded by a senior US officer assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command. Before 2003 the Strategic Commanders were the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) and the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) but the current arrangement is to separate command responsibility between Allied Command Transformation (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces, and Allied Command Operations, responsible for NATO operations world wide. The commander of Allied Command Operations retained the title "Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR)", and is based in the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) located at Casteau, north of the Belgian city of Mons. This is about 80 km (50 miles) south of NATO’s political headquarters in Brussels. ACO is headed by SACEUR, a US four star general with the dual-hatted role of heading US European Command, which is headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany. SHAPE was in Rocquencourt, west of Paris, until 1966, when French president Charles de Gaulle withdrew French forces from the Atlantic Alliance. NATO's headquarters were then forced to move to Belgium, while many military units had to move. ACO includes Joint Force Command Brunssum in the Netherlands, Joint Force Command Naples in Italy, and Joint Command Lisbon in Portugal, all multinational headquarters with many nations represented. JFC Brunssum has its land component, Allied Land Component Command Headquarters Heidelberg at Heidelberg, Germany, its air component at Ramstein in Germany, and its naval component at the Northwood Headquarters in the northwest suburbs of London. JFC Naples has its land component in Madrid, air component at Izmir, Turkey, and naval component in Naples, Italy. It also directs KFOR in Kosovo. JC Lisbon is a smaller HQ with no subordinate commands. Lajes Field, in the Portuguese Azores, is an important transatlantic staging post. Directly responsible to SACEUR is the NATO Airborne Early Warning Force at NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen in Germany where a jointly funded fleet of E-3 Sentry AWACS airborne radar aircraft is located. The C-17s of the NATO Strategic Airlift Capability, to be made operational in the next few years, will be based at Pápa airfield in Hungary, and probably come under SACEUR's control. Allied Command Transformation (ACT) is based in the former Allied Command Atlantic headquarters in Norfolk, Virginia, United States. Allied Command Atlantic, usually known as SACLANT (Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic), after its commander, became ACT in 2003. It is headed by the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (SACT), a US four-star general or admiral with the dual-hatted role as commander US Joint Forces Command (COMUSJFCOM). There is also an ACT command element located at SHAPE in Mons, Belgium. Subordinate ACT organizations include the Joint Warfare Centre (JWC) located in Stavanger, Norway (in the same site as the Norwegian NJHQ); the Joint Force Training Centre (JFTC) in Bydgoszcz, Poland; the Joint Analysis and Lessons Learned Centre (JALLC) in Monsanto, Portugal; and the NATO Undersea Research Centre (NURC), NURC Home La Spezia, Italy. Organizations and agencies The NATO website lists forty-three different agencies and organizations and five project committees/offices as of 15 May 2008. NATO, Organizations and Agencies, accessed May 2008 They include: nine logistics bodies (including five pipeline and one medical), which include the: NATO Maintenance and Supply Agency Central European Pipeline System NATO Pipeline System five production logistics bodies, including the: NATO Eurofighter and Tornado Management Agency four standardisation bodies, including the NATO Standardization Agency three civil emergency planning bodies five Air Defence & Air Traffic Control bodies, including the: NATO ACCS Management Agency (NACMA), based in Brussels, manages around a hundred persons in charge of the Air Control and Command System (ACCS) due for 2009. NATO Programming Centre one AEW body, the NATO Airborne Early Warning & Control Programme Management Organization eight communications & information systems bodies, including the: NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency (NC3A), NATO C3 Agency reporting to the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Organization (NC3O). The SHAPE Technical Centre (STC) in The Hague (Netherlands) merged in 1996 with the NATO Communications and Information Systems Operating and Support Agency (NACOSA) based in Brussels (Belgium), forming the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Agency (NC3A). The agency comprises around 650 staff, of which around 400 are located in The Hague and 250 in Brussels. It reports to the NATO Consultation, Command and Control Board (NC3B). NATO Communications and Information Systems Services Agency (NCSA), NATO Communication and Information Systems Agency based in Mons (BEL), was established in August 2004 from the former NATO Communications and Information Systems Operating and Support Agency (NACOSA). one electronic warfare agency one meteorological body, the Military Committee Meteorological Group (MCMG) one oceanography body, the Military Oceanography (MILOC) Group the Research and Technology Agency (RTA), NATO Research & Technology Organization reporting to the NATO Research and Technology Organization (RTO); four education & training bodies, including the NATO School and NATO Defence College five project committees and offices: Alliance Ground Surveillance Capability Provisional Project Office (AGS/PPO) Battlefield Information Collection and Exploitation System (BICES) NATO Continuous Acquisition and Life Cycle Support Office (CALS) NATO FORACS Office Munitions Safety Information Analysis Center (MSIAC) See also List of diplomatic missions to NATO Notes References David C. Isby & Charles Kamps Jr, Armies of NATO's Central Front, Jane's Publishing Company Ltd 1985 Further reading Further Reading - Early period Eisenhower, Dwight D. The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower. Vols. 12 and 13: NATO and the Campaign of 1952 : Louis Galambos et al., ed. Johns Hopkins U. Press, 1989. 1707 pp. in 2 vol. Gearson, John and Schake, Kori, ed. The Berlin Wall Crisis: Perspectives on Cold War Alliances Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. 209 pp. John C. Milloy. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, 1948–1957: Community or Alliance? (2006), focus on non-military issues Smith, Joseph, ed. The Origins of NATO Exeter, UK U. of Exeter Press, 1990. 173 pp. Further Reading- Late Cold War period Smith, Jean Edward, and Canby, Steven L.The Evolution of NATO with Four Plausible Threat Scenarios. Canada Department of Defense: Ottawa, 1987. 117 pp. Further Reading - Post Cold War period Asmus, Ronald D. Opening NATO's Door: How the Alliance Remade Itself for a New Era Columbia U. Press, 2002. 372 pp. Bacevich, Andrew J. and Cohen, Eliot A. War over Kosovo: Politics and Strategy in a Global Age. Columbia U. Press, 2002. 223 pp. Daclon, Corrado Maria Security through Science: Interview with Jean Fournet, Assistant Secretary General of NATO, Analisi Difesa, 2004. no. 42 Gheciu, Alexandra. NATO in the 'New Europe''' Stanford University Press, 2005. 345 pp. Hendrickson, Ryan C. Diplomacy and War at NATO: The Secretary General and Military Action After the Cold War Univ. of Missouri Press, 2006. 175 pp. Lambeth, Benjamin S. NATO's Air War in Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2001. 250 pp. Further Reading - General historiesKaplan, Lawrence S. The Long Entanglement: NATO's First Fifty Years. Praeger, 1999. 262 pp. Kaplan, Lawrence S. NATO Divided, NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance. Praeger, 2004. 165 pp. Létourneau, Paul. Le Canada et l'OTAN après 40 ans, 1949–1989 Quebec: Cen. Québécois de Relations Int., 1992. 217 pp. Paquette, Laure. NATO and Eastern Europe After 2000 (New York: Nova Science, 2001). Powaski, Ronald E. The Entangling Alliance: The United States and European Security, 1950–1993. Greenwood, 1994. 261 pp. Telo, António José. Portugal e a NATO: O Reencontro da Tradiçoa Atlântica Lisbon: Cosmos, 1996. 374 pp. Sandler, Todd and Hartley, Keith. The Political Economy of NATO: Past, Present, and into the 21st Century. Cambridge U. Press, 1999. 292 pp. Zorgbibe, Charles. Histoire de l'OTAN Brussels: Complexe, 2002. 283 pp.Further Reading - Other IssuesKaplan, Lawrence S., ed. American Historians and the Atlantic Alliance.'' Kent State U. Press, 1991. 192 pp. External links NATO including Basic NATO Documents Andrew J. Pierre, NATO at Fifty: New Challenges, Future Uncertainties U.S. Institute of Peace, 22 March 1999, link verified February 2009 Bridget Kendall, NATO searches for defining role BBC, February 2005 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, One for all: The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (extracts, 1947-2003, link verified February 2009) Fundación para el análisis y los estudios sociales (Spain), NATO: an Alliance for Freedom, 2005 United States Air Force Air War College, Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding NATO, link verified February 2009 be-x-old:Арганізацыя Паўночнаатлянтычнай дамовы | NATO |@lemmatized north:18 atlantic:30 treaty:24 organization:23 nato:255 also:25 call:7 alliance:37 military:61 establish:11 signing:1 april:14 headquarters:17 brussels:14 belgium:9 boulevard:2 leopold:1 iii:2 laan:1 b:4 haren:2 part:10 city:3 constitute:2 system:15 collective:1 defense:15 whereby:1 member:29 state:39 agree:9 mutual:2 response:9 attack:11 external:2 party:1 first:20 year:14 much:1 political:13 association:3 however:8 korean:3 war:33 galvanize:2 integrated:2 structure:16 build:6 direction:3 two:12 u:35 supreme:10 commander:13 secretary:11 general:21 lord:4 ismay:3 famously:1 goal:1 keep:1 russian:3 american:5 german:5 reynolds:1 origin:2 cold:19 europe:35 international:8 perspective:2 p:7 doubt:4 strength:1 relationship:3 european:12 united:31 ebb:1 flow:1 along:1 credibility:1 defence:15 prospective:1 soviet:20 invasion:5 lead:14 development:1 independent:5 french:13 nuclear:15 deterrent:2 withdrawal:4 fall:1 berlin:4 wall:2 become:7 draw:2 balkan:3 good:2 link:8 former:14 potential:3 enemy:1 east:8 culminate:2 several:1 warsaw:10 pact:11 join:12 membership:12 enlarge:1 entrance:1 albania:7 croatia:4 afp:1 since:8 september:10 terrorist:2 attempt:3 refocus:1 new:19 challenge:3 deploy:5 troop:4 afghanistan:9 well:5 trainer:1 iraq:4 plus:4 agreement:12 comprehensive:1 package:1 make:13 december:11 give:5 possibility:1 use:5 asset:1 case:4 want:4 act:13 independently:1 crisis:7 condition:1 right:2 refusal:1 bram:1 boxhoorn:1 broad:2 support:10 netherlands:7 refuse:2 would:15 eu:2 option:2 combined:1 spending:3 world:5 alone:1 account:1 half:2 total:1 kingdom:7 france:26 accounting:1 history:5 beginning:2 sign:10 march:10 luxembourg:2 consider:5 precursor:1 blockade:1 creation:4 western:6 union:11 david:5 c:8 isby:4 charles:8 kamps:4 jr:4 army:7 central:10 front:5 jane:4 publishing:4 company:4 ltd:4 participation:3 think:1 necessary:5 order:3 counter:2 power:6 ussr:1 therefore:1 talk:3 begin:11 almost:1 immediately:2 result:6 washington:3 include:19 five:6 canada:6 portugal:5 italy:7 norway:6 denmark:4 iceland:2 popular:2 unanimous:1 icelander:1 commence:2 pro:2 neutrality:1 anti:2 riot:1 action:13 deem:1 armed:4 force:46 necessarily:1 mean:4 respond:4 aggressor:1 rather:1 oblige:1 maintain:4 freedom:3 choose:2 differs:1 article:6 iv:1 found:1 clearly:1 often:1 assume:2 aid:2 attacked:1 militarily:1 far:8 limit:2 scope:1 america:1 explain:1 british:1 falkland:1 island:1 involvement:1 brought:1 standardisation:3 allied:8 terminology:1 procedure:3 technology:4 many:7 meant:2 country:39 adopt:2 practice:3 roughly:2 standardization:2 stanags:1 codify:1 achieve:1 hence:1 rifle:2 cartridge:2 introduce:1 standard:2 firearm:1 among:1 fabrique:1 nationale:1 fal:1 serve:1 early:6 aircraft:6 marshalling:1 signal:1 standardize:1 could:8 land:6 base:15 phonetic:1 alphabet:1 way:2 beyond:4 civilian:4 bundeswehr:1 provide:7 large:2 element:2 guard:2 frontier:1 division:4 outbreak:1 crucial:1 raise:1 apparent:1 threat:3 level:10 greatly:1 communist:3 suspect:1 work:2 together:6 develop:1 concrete:1 plan:10 lisbon:5 conference:1 seek:3 long:2 term:3 expansion:8 requirement:2 drop:1 following:2 heavy:1 weapon:8 time:17 fifteen:1 ready:1 another:1 ten:2 scandinavia:1 robert:4 e:5 osgood:1 entangle:1 university:3 press:9 chicago:1 william:1 park:1 defend:1 west:8 wheatsheaf:1 book:1 post:10 chief:3 create:1 baron:2 hastings:1 eventually:2 appoint:2 magazine:1 man:1 oilcan:1 later:5 major:6 maritime:2 exercise:3 operation:26 mainbrace:1 bring:4 ship:1 personnel:1 greece:5 turkey:9 series:2 controversial:1 negotiation:1 britain:1 primary:1 disputant:1 command:40 sean:1 maloney:1 secure:2 sea:3 naval:4 planning:4 thesis:1 brunswick:1 meanwhile:1 overt:1 preparation:1 go:5 covert:1 stay:1 behind:1 arrangement:4 continue:4 resistance:1 successful:1 gladio:1 initially:1 transfer:2 control:15 ultimately:3 unofficial:1 bond:1 grow:2 arm:8 tiger:1 competition:1 canadian:2 trophy:1 tank:2 gunnery:1 suggest:2 preserve:1 peace:6 fear:3 motive:1 weaken:2 reject:1 proposal:1 incorporation:1 germany:22 may:15 describe:1 decisive:1 turning:1 point:2 continent:2 halvard:1 lange:1 foreign:4 minister:9 bbc:6 day:2 accept:2 co:2 uk:2 reason:1 entry:1 without:2 manpower:1 impossible:1 field:2 enough:1 conventional:4 resist:1 indeed:3 one:11 immediate:1 hungary:4 czechoslovakia:1 poland:14 bulgaria:5 romania:6 formal:4 event:3 thereby:1 delineate:1 oppose:3 side:2 map:2 air:16 de:14 gaulle:7 integrate:3 unity:2 breach:2 occur:1 presidency:2 onward:1 protest:2 strong:1 role:6 perceive:1 special:1 memorandum:1 send:3 president:6 dwight:3 eisenhower:3 prime:3 harold:1 macmillan:2 argue:4 tripartite:1 directorate:1 put:1 equal:1 footing:1 coverage:1 geographical:1 area:6 interest:3 notably:1 algeria:1 wag:2 insurgency:1 assistance:4 unsatisfactory:1 incursion:1 come:6 separate:2 eastern:6 bloc:1 instead:1 global:3 withdraw:3 mediterranean:4 fleet:3 three:5 month:2 june:9 ban:1 stationing:2 soil:1 cause:5 hundred:2 return:3 operate:2 though:3 show:6 solidarity:2 rest:1 cuban:1 missile:20 pursuit:1 remove:4 channel:1 non:6 ask:1 leave:1 relocation:1 ally:18 shape:6 rocquencourt:2 near:1 paris:3 casteau:2 mon:4 october:15 remain:3 commit:1 possible:2 station:2 federal:4 republic:15 throughout:2 secret:1 accord:4 official:5 lemnitzer:1 aillert:1 detail:1 dovetail:1 back:3 hostility:1 break:2 rejoin:3 full:2 see:5 détente:3 high:5 meeting:6 leader:3 duration:2 hold:6 pattern:1 actual:1 engagement:2 july:8 proliferation:1 open:3 signature:1 share:2 decision:13 longer:1 know:3 officially:2 define:2 complementary:1 aim:2 security:12 pursue:1 suppose:1 matching:1 render:1 offensive:1 capability:5 spur:1 race:2 light:1 approve:3 deployment:8 glcm:1 cruise:2 pershing:3 ii:4 theatre:2 warhead:1 strengthen:1 negotiating:2 position:2 regard:3 disarmament:1 policy:7 dual:3 track:2 similarly:1 medium:1 range:2 modern:1 task:2 hit:1 target:2 formation:1 movement:3 escalation:1 background:1 tension:2 decide:1 impetus:1 reagan:3 primarily:2 intend:1 strike:6 battlefield:2 invade:1 yet:1 waver:1 whether:1 push:1 sustain:1 shoot:2 airliner:1 load:1 passenger:1 cross:1 airspace:1 characterize:1 massacre:3 barbarity:1 understood:1 stand:1 place:6 late:2 mikhael:1 gorbachev:6 period:4 likewise:1 largely:2 static:1 consequence:1 turkish:2 cyprus:2 cooperation:4 readmitted:1 gain:1 follow:4 referendum:3 newly:1 democratic:1 spain:3 november:4 manoeuvre:2 simulate:1 launch:4 panic:1 kremlin:1 leadership:1 ail:1 yuri:1 andropov:1 concerned:1 codenamed:1 able:1 archer:1 genuine:2 readied:1 unit:2 alert:1 write:1 intelligence:1 propaganda:1 effort:4 historian:2 believe:1 end:4 dissolution:1 facto:1 main:3 adversary:1 strategic:9 evaluation:1 purpose:2 nature:1 entail:1 gradual:1 still:1 ongoing:1 extension:1 activity:2 formerly:1 concern:2 reunification:1 four:9 earlier:2 approval:3 scholar:1 stephen:2 f:3 cohen:3 commitment:3 never:2 expand:2 lose:1 legacy:1 nation:7 february:7 zoellick:2 department:2 involve:2 process:1 appear:1 misperception:1 sort:1 lesson:2 unification:2 national:4 daily:1 telegraph:2 interview:2 repeat:1 view:1 say:4 promise:2 move:5 boundary:1 happen:2 cannot:1 trust:1 start:2 retrieve:1 restructuring:2 cut:1 reorganize:1 rapid:1 reaction:2 corp:1 mandate:3 specific:1 reduction:1 change:1 collapse:1 balance:2 recognize:2 adapted:2 committee:13 intensify:1 relation:6 current:7 nicolas:1 sarkozy:2 reform:1 stratton:1 allegra:1 unveil:1 guardian:1 intervention:2 plane:1 engage:1 aerial:2 bombardment:1 deliberate:2 srebrenica:2 conflict:4 yugoslavia:5 sharp:1 run:2 enforcement:2 embargo:1 economic:1 sanction:1 take:10 bosnian:1 serb:1 violate:1 n:3 fly:3 zone:2 bosnia:3 herzegovina:2 bombing:2 campaign:3 august:15 republika:1 srpska:1 deny:1 flight:1 mission:10 help:4 dayton:1 turn:1 peacekeeping:2 joint:9 endeavor:1 name:6 ifor:1 sfor:1 award:2 service:3 medal:2 wide:2 forum:2 regional:1 neighbour:1 set:2 like:3 partnership:12 dialogue:4 initiative:2 euro:5 council:15 czech:6 invite:3 finally:1 russia:14 permanent:4 saw:1 scale:1 kosovo:7 week:2 stop:1 serbian:1 crackdown:1 albanian:2 declaration:2 common:3 yugoslavian:1 slobodan:1 milošević:1 demand:1 un:1 resolution:3 ace:1 mobile:1 afor:2 deliver:1 humanitarian:1 refugee:1 website:3 describing:1 kfor:2 mount:1 essential:1 harvest:1 disarm:1 ethnic:1 militia:1 macedonia:7 fyrom:1 require:2 serbia:1 others:1 claim:4 need:1 k:1 undermine:2 authority:5 note:3 china:1 veto:3 block:3 future:5 thus:1 nullify:1 entire:1 potency:1 environment:1 concept:1 summit:17 emphasize:1 prevention:1 management:4 invoke:1 charter:2 shall:1 invocation:2 confirm:2 determine:1 eligible:1 update:1 eight:3 eagle:1 assist:3 active:2 endeavour:2 design:4 prevent:1 mass:1 destruction:2 enhance:3 shipping:1 despite:1 face:1 little:1 silent:1 timing:1 protective:1 measure:2 issue:5 hand:1 great:1 isaf:5 request:1 nineteen:1 ambassador:2 unanimously:1 handover:1 mark:1 charge:2 outside:2 originally:1 slat:1 date:2 january:5 hikmet:1 çetin:1 senior:7 representative:5 scr:1 cetin:1 responsible:9 advance:1 aspect:1 pressure:1 form:7 training:5 iraqi:2 conjunction:1 mnf:1 train:2 introduction:1 mostly:1 south:4 terrorism:1 coalition:1 restructure:1 old:2 abolish:2 nrf:1 prague:5 transformation:6 norfolk:2 virginia:2 aco:4 drive:1 whilst:1 accession:3 seven:2 northern:1 estonia:4 latvia:5 lithuania:5 slovenia:3 slovakia:3 shortly:1 istanbul:2 baltic:1 police:1 sovereignty:2 fighter:3 react:1 unwanted:1 intrusion:1 rotation:1 virtually:1 peaceful:2 temporarily:1 patrolling:1 riga:4 l:5 neidinger:1 team:2 ensure:1 safe:1 sky:1 second:2 comecon:1 energy:1 theme:1 bucharest:2 ukraine:4 georgia:2 tell:1 win:2 shield:3 cnn:2 com:2 ever:1 critic:1 feel:1 caveat:2 restriction:1 efficiency:1 instance:1 scientist:1 joseph:3 nye:1 due:4 intensity:1 fighting:1 recently:1 allow:4 squadron:1 mirage:1 kandahar:1 reinforce:1 lemonde:1 fr:1 la:2 et:3 otan:3 eliminate:1 succeed:1 ana:1 afghan:1 equip:1 taliban:1 ceremony:1 welcome:1 negotiate:2 interceptor:3 radar:4 wish:1 local:1 population:1 might:1 government:2 indicate:1 preliminary:1 deal:2 answer:1 petition:1 citizen:2 velvet:1 revolution:1 více:1 jak:1 podpisů:1 propose:1 site:3 expect:2 fully:1 operational:4 capable:1 cover:1 except:1 xinhua:1 english:1 complement:1 protect:1 consultation:6 topic:3 vladimir:1 putin:2 likelihood:1 freeze:1 compliance:1 cfe:3 across:2 ratify:1 news:3 warning:3 jaap:3 hoop:3 scheffer:3 affect:1 threaten:2 associate:2 dismiss:1 notice:1 intention:1 suspend:3 effective:2 zarakhovich:1 pull:1 key:1 associated:1 mim:1 patriot:1 building:2 defenses:1 ahead:1 statement:2 diplomacy:2 extremely:1 dangerous:1 bundle:1 project:4 word:1 tie:1 msnbc:2 http:3 www:3 msn:1 id:1 add:1 forming:1 last:1 comprise:2 twenty:1 enlargement:2 promised:1 invitation:1 always:1 refer:2 yugoslav:2 footnote:1 recognise:1 constitutional:1 dispute:2 complete:2 pending:1 candidate:1 montenegro:1 adriatic:1 inconsistent:1 understanding:1 mikhail:1 george:2 h:1 w:2 bush:2 moscow:1 continuation:1 surround:1 isolate:1 ci:1 mosnews:1 closer:1 tara:1 kuzio:1 jamestown:1 foundation:1 realignment:1 condoleezza:1 rice:1 acknowledge:1 space:1 pravda:1 double:1 framework:2 partner:3 pfp:5 programme:4 individual:5 bilateral:1 extent:1 wing:1 int:3 index:1 html:2 sig:1 commonwealth:1 eapc:1 regular:1 coordination:1 participant:1 additionally:1 coordinate:1 similar:1 israel:1 africa:1 peacemediterraneandialoguemap:1 partnershipscommonwealth:1 ofindependent:1 statesother:1 warsocialist:1 economiesmilitarily:1 neutral:1 coldwar:1 capitalist:1 economiesas:1 yugoslaviaas:1 third:1 contact:5 organisation:3 islamic:1 ipaps:2 ability:1 deepen:1 currently:3 implementation:1 gradually:1 increase:2 cooperative:1 grouping:2 japan:2 contribute:1 guideline:2 access:2 institutionalization:1 reflect:1 desire:1 extensive:1 debate:1 australia:1 zealand:1 korea:1 status:2 hq:2 look:1 divide:2 internal:1 agency:18 subordinate:5 locate:6 léopold:1 municipality:1 construction:1 nearby:1 completion:1 adaptation:1 original:1 scheme:1 larry:1 oltmanns:1 som:1 govern:1 outline:1 within:2 delegation:3 generally:2 civil:3 servant:1 experienced:1 diplomatic:2 rank:1 nac:1 body:12 meet:4 least:1 head:4 hosg:1 worth:1 making:1 validity:1 whatever:1 venue:1 complex:1 chair:1 upon:1 basis:1 unanimity:1 voting:1 majority:1 represent:2 table:1 retain:2 responsibility:2 pivotal:1 officer:3 mc:1 recommend:1 principal:1 advice:1 strategy:2 guidance:1 matter:2 whose:1 attend:1 overall:2 conduct:2 affair:1 namely:1 exclude:1 practical:1 acceptable:1 unacceptable:1 direct:3 expedient:1 chairman:2 giampaolo:1 di:2 paola:1 parliamentary:3 assembly:3 preside:1 josé:2 lello:1 legislator:1 thirteen:1 pa:1 different:2 deputy:3 discuss:1 staff:4 administer:1 carry:1 emergency:2 handbook:1 governmental:1 group:3 broadly:1 banner:1 list:3 anders:1 fogh:1 rasmussen:1 next:2 office:6 secretaries:3 paul:2 henri:1 spaak:1 dirk:1 stikker:1 manlio:1 brosio:1 luns:1 carrington:1 manfred:1 wörner:1 sergio:3 balanzino:3 willy:1 claes:1 javier:1 solana:1 robertson:1 port:1 ellen:1 alessandro:2 minuto:2 rizzo:2 present:3 jonkheer:1 van:1 vredenburch:1 adolph:1 bentinck:1 alberico:1 casardi:1 guido:1 colonna:1 paliano:1 james:1 osman:1 olcay:1 paolo:1 pansa:1 cedronio:1 rinaldo:1 petrignani:1 eric:1 da:2 rin:1 marcello:1 guidi:1 amedeo:1 franchis:1 claudio:1 bisogniero:1 split:1 drawn:1 saceur:5 saclant:2 title:1 belgian:1 km:1 mile:1 star:2 hatted:2 headquarter:1 stuttgart:1 brunssum:2 naples:3 multinational:1 jfc:2 component:7 heidelberg:2 ramstein:1 northwood:1 northwest:1 suburb:1 london:1 madrid:1 izmir:1 jc:1 small:1 lajes:1 portuguese:1 azores:1 important:1 transatlantic:1 staging:1 directly:1 airborne:3 geilenkirchen:1 jointly:1 fund:1 sentry:1 awacs:1 airlift:1 pápa:1 airfield:1 probably:1 usually:1 sact:1 admiral:1 comusjfcom:1 warfare:2 centre:6 jwc:1 stavanger:1 norwegian:1 njhq:1 jftc:1 bydgoszcz:1 analysis:2 learn:1 jallc:1 monsanto:1 undersea:1 research:5 nurc:2 home:1 spezia:1 forty:1 nine:1 logistics:2 pipeline:3 medical:1 maintenance:1 supply:1 production:1 eurofighter:1 tornado:1 traffic:1 acc:2 nacma:1 manage:1 around:3 person:1 program:1 aew:1 communication:5 information:7 report:3 technical:1 stc:1 hague:2 merge:1 operating:2 nacosa:2 board:1 ncsa:1 bel:1 electronic:1 meteorological:2 mcmg:1 oceanography:2 miloc:1 rta:1 reporting:1 rto:1 education:1 school:1 college:2 ground:1 surveillance:1 provisional:1 ags:1 ppo:1 collection:1 exploitation:1 bices:1 continuous:1 acquisition:1 life:1 cycle:1 cals:1 foracs:1 munition:1 safety:1 center:1 msiac:1 reference:1 read:6 paper:1 vols:1 louis:1 galambos:1 al:1 ed:4 john:3 hopkins:1 pp:17 vol:1 gearson:1 schake:1 kori:1 palgrave:1 milloy:1 community:1 focus:1 smith:2 exeter:2 jean:2 edward:1 canby:1 steven:1 evolution:2 plausible:1 scenario:1 ottawa:1 asmus:1 ronald:2 door:1 remake:1 era:1 columbia:2 bacevich:1 andrew:2 j:2 eliot:1 politics:1 age:1 daclon:1 corrado:1 maria:1 science:2 fournet:1 assistant:1 analisi:1 difesa:1 gheciu:1 alexandra:1 stanford:1 hendrickson:1 ryan:1 univ:1 missouri:1 lambeth:1 benjamin:1 assessment:1 santa:1 monica:1 calif:1 rand:1 historieskaplan:1 lawrence:3 entanglement:1 fifty:2 praeger:2 kaplan:1 létourneau:1 le:1 après:1 quebec:1 cen:1 québécois:1 paquette:1 laure:1 york:1 nova:1 powaski:1 entangling:1 greenwood:1 telo:1 antónio:1 reencontro:1 tradiçoa:1 atlântica:1 cosmos:1 sandler:1 todd:1 hartley:1 keith:1 economy:1 past:1 century:1 cambridge:1 zorgbibe:1 histoire:1 complexe:1 issueskaplan:1 kent:1 basic:1 document:1 pierre:1 uncertainty:1 institute:1 verify:3 bridget:1 kendall:1 search:1 broadcast:1 corporation:1 extract:1 fundación:1 para:1 el:1 análisis:1 los:1 estudios:1 sociales:1 congressional:1 cr:1 x:1 арганізацыя:1 паўночнаатлянтычнай:1 дамовы:1 |@bigram brussels_belgium:3 ebb_flow:1 nuclear_deterrent:2 warsaw_pact:10 c_isby:4 rifle_cartridge:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 nuclear_weapon:6 soviet_union:8 turning_point:1 de_gaulle:7 dwight_eisenhower:1 prime_minister:3 harold_macmillan:1 equal_footing:1 counter_insurgency:1 eastern_bloc:1 cuban_missile:1 cruise_missile:2 nuclear_disarmament:1 yuri_andropov:1 de_facto:1 daily_telegraph:1 nicolas_sarkozy:1 aerial_bombardment:1 srebrenica_massacre:2 arm_embargo:1 bosnian_serb:1 bosnia_herzegovina:2 republika_srpska:1 czech_republic:5 slobodan_milošević:1 humanitarian_aid:1 republic_macedonia:5 estonia_latvia:1 latvia_lithuania:3 riga_latvia:1 summit_bucharest:2 bucharest_romania:1 cnn_com:1 romania_bulgaria:1 interceptor_missile:3 vladimir_putin:1 bbc_news:3 hoop_scheffer:3 http_www:3 msnbc_msn:1 romania_slovakia:1 slovakia_slovenia:1 mikhail_gorbachev:1 w_bush:2 condoleezza_rice:1 decision_making:1 henri_spaak:1 javier_solana:1 lisbon_portugal:1 izmir_turkey:1 lajes_field:1 airborne_radar:1 strategic_airlift:1 airlift_capability:1 stavanger_norway:1 la_spezia:1 hague_netherlands:1 diplomatic_mission:1 eisenhower_dwight:1 et_al:1 palgrave_macmillan:1 santa_monica:1 external_link:1 |
974 | Charles_Martel | Charles Martel () (ca. 688 – 22 October 741), called Charles the Hammer, was a Frankish military and political leader, who served as Mayor of the Palace under the Merovingian kings and ruled de facto during an interregnum (737–43) at the end of his life, using the title Duke and Prince of the Franks. In 739 he was offered the title of Consul by the Pope, but he refused. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History He is perhaps best remembered for winning the Battle of Tours in 732, in which he defeated an invading Muslim army and halted northward Islamic expansion in western Europe. "Charles's victory has often been regarded as decisive for world history, since it preserved western Europe from Muslim conquest and Islamization." Battle of Tours - Britannica Online Encyclopedia A brilliant general—he lost only one battle in his career (the Battle of Cologne)—he is a founding figure of the Middle Ages, often credited with a seminal role in the development of feudalism and knighthood, and laying the groundwork for the Carolingian Empire.<ref name=Fouracre>Fouracre, John. “The Age of Charles Martel</ref> Birth and youth Martel was born in Herstal, in present-day Belgium, the illegitimate son of the mayor and duke Pippin II and his concubine Chalpaida. The following tale is told of Charles and of the origins of his name: in 676, Pepin of Herstal and his wife Plectrude were talking together in a room when they were intruded upon by a messenger, bringing news that the Mayor's mistress, Alpaida, had given birth to a son at Herstal.The messenger, fearful of arousing the wrath of Plectrude, decided not to announce the news directly. Instead, he said: "Long live the king, it is a carl" ('man'). Pepin, equally cautious of his wife, dismissed the messenger as follows: "A carl, is it? Then let him be called that." This was done, and, so legend claims, the child was named "Carl". In Germany he's still called "Karl Martell". Alpaida also bore Pepin another son, Childebrand. Contesting for power The Frankish kingdoms at the time of the death of Pepin of Heristal. Note that Aquitaine (yellow) was outside of Arnulfing authority and Neustria and Burgundy (pink) were united in opposition to further Arnulfing dominance of the highest offices. Only Austrasia (green) supported an Arnulfing mayor, first Theudoald then Charles. Note that the German duchies to the east of the Rhine were de facto outside of Frankish suzerainty at this time. In December 714, Pepin of Heristal died. Prior to his death, he had, at his wife Plectrude's urging, designated Theudoald, his grandson by their son Grimoald, his heir in the entire realm. This was immediately opposed by the nobles because Theudoald was a child of only eight years of age. To prevent Charles using this unrest to his own advantage, Plectrude had him gaoled in Cologne, the city which was destined to be her capital. This prevented an uprising on his behalf in Austrasia, but not in Neustria. Civil war of 715-718 In 715, the Neustrian noblesse proclaimed Ragenfrid mayor of their palace on behalf of, and apparently with the support of, Dagobert III, the young king, who in theory had the legal authority to select a mayor, though by this time the Merovingian dynasty had lost most such powers. The Austrasians were not to be left supporting a woman and her young son for long. Before the end of the year, Charles Martel had escaped from prison and been acclaimed mayor by the nobles of that kingdom. The Neustrians had been attacking Austrasia and the nobles were waiting for a strong man to lead them against their invading countrymen. That year, Dagobert died and the Neustrians proclaimed Chilperic II king without the support of the rest of the Frankish people. In 716, Chilperic and Ragenfrid together led an army into Austrasia. The Neustrians allied with another invading force under Radbod, King of the Frisians and met Charles in battle near Cologne, which was still held by Plectrude. Charles had little time to gather men, or prepare, and the result was his only defeat. According to Strauss and Gustave, Martel fought a brilliant battle, but realized he could not prevail because he was outnumbered so badly, and retreated. In fact, he fled the field as soon as he realized he did not have the time or the men to prevail, retreating to the mountains of the Eifel to gather men, and train them. The king and his mayor then turned to besiege their other rival in the city and took it and the treasury, and received the recognition of both Chilperic as king and Ragenfrid as mayor. Plectrude surrendered on Theudoald's behalf. Magnanimous in victory At this juncture, however, events turned in favour of Charles. Having made the proper preparations, he fell upon the triumphant army near Malmedy as it was returning to its own province, and, in the ensuing Battle of Amblève, routed it and it fled. Several things were notable about this battle, in which Charles set the pattern for the remainder of his military career: First, he appeared where his enemies least expected him, while they were marching triumphantly home and far outnumbered him. He also attacked when least expected, at midday, when armies of that era traditionally were resting. Finally, he attacked them how they least expected it, by feigning a retreat to draw his opponents into a trap. The feigned retreat, next to unknown in Western Europe at that time—it was a traditionally eastern tactic—required both extraordinary discipline on the part of the troops and exact timing on the part of their commander. Charles, in this battle, had begun demonstrating the military genius that would mark his rule, in that he never attacked his enemies where, when, or how they expected, and the result was an unbroken victory streak that lasted until his death. In Spring 717, Charles returned to Neustria with an army and confirmed his supremacy with a victory at the Battle of Vincy, near Cambrai. He chased the fleeing king and mayor to Paris, before turning back to deal with Plectrude and Cologne. He took her city and dispersed her adherents. However, he allowed both Plectrude and the young Theudoald to live and treated them with kindness—unusual for those Dark Ages, when mercy to a former jailer, or a potential rival, was rare. On this success, he proclaimed Clotaire IV king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic and deposed the archbishop of Rheims, Rigobert, replacing him with Milo, a lifelong supporter. Consolidation of power After subjugating all Austrasia, he marched against Radbod and pushed him back into his territory, even forcing the concession of West Frisia (later Holland). He also sent the Saxons back over the Weser and thus secured his borders—in the name of the new king Clotaire, of course. In 718, Chilperic responded to Charles' new ascendancy by making an alliance with Odo the Great (or Eudes, as he is sometimes known), the duke of Aquitaine, who had made himself independent during the civil war in 715, but was again defeated, at the Battle of Soissons, by Charles. The king fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the Loire and Ragenfrid fled to Angers. Soon Clotaire IV died and Odo gave up on Chilperic and, in exchange for recognising his dukedom, surrendered the king to Charles, who recognised his kingship over all the Franks in return for legitimate royal affirmation of his mayoralty, likewise over all the kingdoms (718). The Saracen Army outside Paris, 730-32 AD Foreign wars from 718-732 The ensuing years were full of strife. Between 718 and 723, Charles secured his power through a series of victories: he won the loyalty of several important bishops and abbots (by donating lands and money for the foundation of abbeys such as Echternach), he subjugated Bavaria and Alemannia, and he defeated the pagan Saxons. Having unified the Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia. Therefore, late in 718, he laid waste their country to the banks of the Weser, the Lippe, and the Ruhr. He defeated them in the Teutoburg Forest. In 719, Charles seized West Frisia without any great resistance on the part of the Frisians, who had been subjects of the Franks but had seized control upon the death of Pippin. Although Charles did not trust the pagans, their ruler, Aldegisel, accepted Christianity, and Charles sent Willibrord, bishop of Utrecht, the famous "Apostle to the Frisians" to convert the people. Charles also did much to support Winfrid, later Saint Boniface, the "Apostle of the Germans." When Chilperic II died the following year (720), Charles appointed as his successor the son of Dagobert III, Theuderic IV, who was still a minor, and who occupied the throne from 720 to 737. Charles was now appointing the kings whom he supposedly served, rois fainéants who were mere puppets in his hands; by the end of his reign they were so useless that he didn't even bother appointing one. At this time, Charles again marched against the Saxons. Then the Neustrians rebelled under Ragenfrid, who had left the county of Anjou. They were easily defeated (724), but Ragenfrid gave up his sons as hostages in turn for keeping his county. This ended the civil wars of Charles' reign. The next six years were devoted in their entirety to assuring Frankish authority over the dependent Germanic tribes. Between 720 and 723, Charles was fighting in Bavaria, where the Agilolfing dukes had gradually evolved into independent rulers, recently in alliance with Liutprand the Lombard. He forced the Alemanni to accompany him, and Duke Hugbert submitted to Frankish suzerainty. In 725 and 728, he again entered Bavaria and the ties of lordship seemed strong. From his first campaign, he brought back the Agilolfing princess Swanachild, who apparently became his concubine. In 730, he marched against Lantfrid, duke of Alemannia, who had also become independent, and killed him in battle. He forced the Alemanni capitulation to Frankish suzerainty and did not appoint a successor to Lantfrid. Thus, southern Germany once more became part of the Frankish kingdom, as had northern Germany during the first years of the reign. But by 730, his own realm secure, Charles began to prepare exclusively for the coming storm from the south and west. In 721, the emir of Córdoba had built up a strong army from Morocco, Yemen, and Syria to conquer Aquitaine, the large duchy in the southwest of Gaul, nominally under Frankish sovereignty, but in practice almost independent in the hands of the Odo the Great, the Duke of Aquitaine, since the Merovingian kings had lost power. The invading Muslims besieged the city of Toulouse, then Aquitaine's most important city, and Odo (also called Eudes, or Eudo) immediately left to find help. He returned three months later just before the city was about to surrender and defeated the Muslim invaders on June 9, 721, at what is now known as the Battle of Toulouse. This critical defeat was essentially the result of a classic enveloping movement by Odo's forces. (After Odo originally fled, the Muslims became overconfident and, instead of maintaining strong outer defenses around their siege camp and continuous scouting, they did neither.) Thus, when Odo returned, he was able to launch a near complete surprise attack on the besieging force, scattering it at the first attack, and slaughtering units caught resting or that fled without weapons or armour. Due to the situation in Iberia, Martel believed he needed a virtually fulltime army—one he could train intensely—as a core of veteran Franks who would be augmented with the usual conscripts called up in time of war. (During the Early Middle Ages, troops were only available after the crops had been planted and before harvesting time.) To train the kind of infantry that could withstand the Muslim heavy cavalry, Charles needed them year-round, and he needed to pay them so their families could buy the food they would have otherwise grown. To obtain money he seized church lands and property, and used the funds to pay his soldiers. The same Charles who had secured the support of the ecclesia by donating land, seized some of it back between 724 and 732. Of course, Church officials were enraged, and, for a time, it looked as though Charles might even be excommunicated for his actions. But then came a significant invasion. Eve of Tours Historian Paul K. Davis said in 100 Decisive Battles "Having defeated Eudes, he turned to the Rhine to strengthen his northeastern borders - but in 725 was diverted south with the activity of the Muslims in Acquitane." Martel then concentrated his attention to the Umayyads, virtually for the remainder of his life. Davis1999, p. 104. Indeed, 12 years later, when he had thrice rescued Gaul from Umayyad invasions, Antonio Santosuosso noted when he destroyed an Umayyad army sent to reinforce the invasion forces of the 735 campaigns, "Charles Martel again came to the rescue". Santosuosso, Anthony . Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels2004 It has been noted that Charles Martel could have pursued the wars against the Saxons—but he was determined to prepare for what he thought was a greater danger. It is also vital to note that the Muslims were not aware, at that time, of the true strength of the Franks, or the fact that they were building a real army instead of the typical barbarian hordes that had dominated Europe after Rome's fall. They considered the Germanic tribes, including the Franks, simply barbarians and were not particularly concerned about them. The Arab Chronicles, the history of that age, show that Arab awareness of the Franks as a growing military power came only after the Battle of Tours when the Caliph expressed shock at his army's catastrophic defeat. Battle of Tours Leadup and importance The Cordoban emirate had previously invaded Gaul and had been stopped in its northward sweep at the Battle of Toulouse, in 721. The hero of that less celebrated event had been Odo the Great, Duke of Aquitaine, who was not the progenitor of a race of kings and patron of chroniclers. It has previously been explained how Odo defeated the invading Muslims, but when they returned, things were far different. The arrival in the interim of a new emir of Cordoba, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, who brought with him a huge force of Arabs and Berber horsemen, triggered a far greater invasion. Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi had been at Toulouse, and the Arab Chronicles make clear he had strongly opposed the Emir's decision not to secure outer defenses against a relief force, which allowed Odo and his relief force to attack with impunity before the Islamic cavalry could assemble or mount. Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi had no intention of permitting such a disaster again. This time the Umayyad horsemen were ready for battle, and the results were horrific for the Aquitanians. Odo, hero of Toulouse, was badly defeated in the Muslim invasion of 732 at the battle prior to the Muslim sacking of Bordeaux, and when he gathered a second army, at the Battle of the River Garonne—where the western chroniclers state, "God alone knows the number of the slain"— and the city of Bordeaux was sacked and looted. Odo fled to Charles, seeking help. Charles agreed to come to Odo's rescue, provided Odo acknowledged Charles and his house as his overlords, which Odo did formally at once. Thus, Odo faded into history while Charles marched into it. It is interesting to note that Charles was pragmatic; while most commanders would never use their enemies in battle, Odo and his remaining Aquitanian nobles formed the right flank of Charles' forces at Tours. The Battle of Tours earned Charles the cognomen "Martel" ('Hammer'), for the merciless way he hammered his enemies. Many historians, including the great military historian Sir Edward Creasy, believe that had he failed at Tours, Islam would probably have overrun Gaul, and perhaps the remainder of western Christian Europe. Gibbon made clear his belief that the Umayyad armies would have conquered from Rome to the Rhine, and even England, having the English Channel for protection, with ease, had Martel not prevailed. Creasy said "the great victory won by Charles Martel ... gave a decisive check to the career of Arab conquest in Western Europe, rescued Christendom from Islam, [and] preserved the relics of ancient and the germs of modern civilization." Gibbon's belief that the fate of Christianity hinged on this battle is echoed by other historians including John B. Bury, and was very popular for most of modern historiography. It fell somewhat out of style in the twentieth century, when historians such as Bernard Lewis contended that Arabs had little intention of occupying northern France. More recently, however, many historians have tended once again to view the Battle of Tours as a very significant event in the history of Europe and Christianity. Equally, many, such as William Watson, still believe this battle was one of macrohistorical world-changing importance, if they do not go so far as Gibbon does rhetorically. In the modern era, Matthew Bennett and his co-authors of "Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World", published in 2005, argue that "few battles are remembered 1,000 years after they are fought...but the Battle of Poitiers, (Tours) is an exception...Charles Martel turned back a Muslim raid that had it been allowed to continue, might have conquered Gaul." Michael Grant, author of "History of Rome", grants the Battle of Tours such importance that he lists it in the macrohistorical dates of the Roman era. It is important to note however that modern western historians, military historians, and writers, essentially fall into three camps. The first, those who believe Gibbon was right in his assessment that Martel saved Christianity and western civilization by this battle are typified by Bennett, Paul Davis, Robert Martin, and educationalist Dexter B. Wakefield who writes in An Islamic EuropeThe second camp of contemporary historians believe that a failure by Martel at Tours could have been a disaster, destroying what would become western civilization after the Renaissance. Certainly all historians agree that no power would have remained in Europe able to halt Islamic expansion had the Franks failed. William E. Watson, one of the most respected historians of this era, strongly supports Tours as a macrohistorical event, but distances himself from the rhetoric of Gibbon and Drubeck, writing, for example, of the battle's importance in Frankish, and world, history in 1993: The final camp of western historians believe that Tours was vastly overrated. This view is typified by Alessandro Barbero, who writes, "Today, historians tend to play down the significance of the battle of Poitiers, pointing out that the purpose of the Arab force defeated by Charles Martel was not to conquer the Frankish kingdom, but simply to pillage the wealthy monastery of St-Martin of Tours". Barbero, 2004, p. 10. Similarly, Tomaž Mastnak writes: However, it is vital to note, when assessing Charles Martel's life, that even those historians who dispute the significance of this one Battle as the event that saved Christianity, do not dispute that Martel himself had a huge effect on western history. Modern military historian Victor Davis Hanson acknowledges the debate on this battle, citing historians both for and against its macrohistorical placement: After Tours In the subsequent decade, Charles led the Frankish army against the eastern duchies, Bavaria and Alemannia, and the southern duchies, Aquitaine and Provence. He dealt with the ongoing conflict with the Frisians and Saxons to his northeast with some success, but full conquest of the Saxons and their incorporation into the Frankish empire would wait for his grandson Charlemagne, primarily because Martel concentrated the bulk of his efforts against Muslim expansion. So instead of concentrating on conquest to his east, he continued expanding Frankish authority in the west, and denying the Emirate of Córdoba a foothold in Europe beyond Al-Andalus. After his victory at Tours, Martel continued on in campaigns in 736 and 737 to drive other Muslim armies from bases in Gaul after they again attempted to get a foothold in Europe beyond Al-Andalus. Wars from 732-737 Between his victory of 732 and 735, Charles reorganized the kingdom of Burgundy, replacing the counts and dukes with his loyal supporters, thus strengthening his hold on power. He was forced, by the ventures of Radbod, duke of the Frisians (719-734), son of the Duke Aldegisel who had accepted the missionaries Willibrord and Boniface, to invade independence-minded Frisia again in 734. In that year, he slew the duke, who had expelled the Christian missionaries, in the battle of the Boarn and so wholly subjugated the populace (he destroyed every pagan shrine) that the people were peaceful for twenty years after. The dynamic changed in 735 because of the death of Odo the Great, who had been forced to acknowledge, albeit reservedly, the suzerainty of Charles in 719. Though Charles wished to unite the duchy directly to himself and went there to elicit the proper homage of the Aquitainians, the nobility proclaimed Odo's son, Hunold, whose dukedom Charles recognised when the Umayyads invaded Provence the next year, and who equally was forced to acknowledge Charles as overlord as he had no hope of holding off the Muslims alone. This naval Arab invasion was headed by Abdul Rahman's son. It landed in Narbonne in 736 and moved at once to reinforce Arles and move inland. Charles temporarily put the conflict with Hunold on hold, and descended on the Provençal strongholds of the Umayyads. In 736, he retook Montfrin and Avignon, and Arles and Aix-en-Provence with the help of Liutprand, King of the Lombards. Nîmes, Agde, and Béziers, held by Islam since 725, fell to him and their fortresses were destroyed. He crushed one Umayyad army at Arles, as that force sallied out of the city, and then took the city itself by a direct and brutal frontal attack, and burned it to the ground to prevent its use again as a stronghold for Umayyad expansion. He then moved swiftly and defeated a mighty host outside of Narbonnea at the River Berre, but failed to take the city. Military historians believe he could have taken it, had he chosen to tie up all his resources to do so—but he believed his life was coming to a close, and he had much work to do to prepare for his sons to take control of the Frankish realm. A direct frontal assault, such as took Arles, using rope ladders and rams, plus a few catapults, simply was not sufficient to take Narbonne without horrific loss of life for the Franks, troops Martel felt he could not lose. Nor could he spare years to starve the city into submission, years he needed to set up the administration of an empire his heirs would reign over. He left Narbonne therefore, isolated and surrounded, and his son would return to liberate it for Christianity. Notable about these campaigns was Charles' incorporation, for the first time, of heavy cavalry with stirrups to augment his phalanx. His ability to coordinate infantry and cavalry veterans was unequaled in that era and enabled him to face superior numbers of invaders, and to decisively defeat them again and again. Some historians believe the Battle against the main Muslim force at the River Berre, near Narbonne, in particular was as important a victory for Christian Europe as Tours. In Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels, Antonio Santosuosso, Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario, and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute, puts forth an interesting modern opinion on Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's son in 736-737. Santosuosso presents a compelling case that these later defeats of invading Muslim armies were at least as important as Tours in their defence of Western Christendom and the preservation of Western monasticism, the monasteries of which were the centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of her Middle Ages. He also makes a compelling argument, after studying the Arab histories of the period, that these were clearly armies of invasion, sent by the Caliph not just to avenge Tours, but to begin the conquest of Christian Europe and bring it into the Caliphate. Further, unlike his father at Tours, Rahman's son in 736-737 knew that the Franks were a real power, and that Martel personally was a force to be reckoned with. He had no intention of allowing Martel to catch him unawares and dictate the time and place of battle, as his father had, and concentrated instead on seizing a substantial portion of the coastal plains around Narbonne in 736 and heavily reinforced Arles as he advanced inland. They planned from there to move from city to city, fortifying as they went, and if Martel wished to stop them from making a permanent enclave for expansion of the Caliphate, he would have to come to them, in the open, where, he, unlike his father, would dictate the place of battle. All worked as he had planned, until Martel arrived, albeit more swiftly than the Moors believed he could call up his entire army. Unfortunately for Rahman's son, however, he had overestimated the time it would take Martel to develop heavy cavalry equal to that of the Muslims. The Caliphate believed it would take a generation, but Martel managed it in five short years. Prepared to face the Frankish phalanx, the Muslims were totally unprepared to face a mixed force of heavy cavalry and infantry in a phalanx. Thus, Charles again championed Christianity and halted Muslim expansion into Europe, as the window was closing on Islamic ability to do so. These defeats, plus those at the hands of Leo in Anatolia were the last great attempt at expansion by the Umayyad Caliphate before the destruction of the dynasty at the Battle of the Zab, and the rending of the Caliphate forever, especially the utter destruction of the Umayyad army at River Berre near Narbonne in 737. Interregnum In 737, at the tail end of his campaigning in Provence and Septimania, the king, Theuderic IV, died. Martel, titling himself maior domus and princeps et dux Francorum, did not appoint a new king and nobody acclaimed one. The throne lay vacant until Martel's death. As the historian Charles Oman says (The Dark Ages, pg 297), "he cared not for name or style so long as the real power was in his hands." Gibbon has said Martel was "content with the titles of Mayor or Duke of the Franks, but he deserved to become the father of a line of kings," which he did. Gibbon also says of him, "in the public danger, he was summoned by the voice of his country." The interregnum, the final four years of Charles' life, was more peaceful than most of it had been and much of his time was now spent on administrative and organisational plans to create a more efficient state. Though, in 738, he compelled the Saxons of Westphalia to do him homage and pay tribute, and in 739 checked an uprising in Provence, the rebels being under the leadership of Maurontus. Charles set about integrating the outlying realms of his empire into the Frankish church. He erected four dioceses in Bavaria (Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, and Passau) and gave them Boniface as archbishop and metropolitan over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at Mainz. Boniface had been under his protection from 723 on; indeed the saint himself explained to his old friend, Daniel of Winchester, that without it he could neither administer his church, defend his clergy, nor prevent idolatry. It was Boniface who had defended Charles most stoutly for his deeds in seizing ecclesiastical lands to pay his army in the days leading to Tours, as one doing what he must to defend Christianity. In 739, Pope Gregory III begged Charles for his aid against Liutprand, but Charles was loathe to fight his onetime ally and ignored the Papal plea. Nonetheless, the Papal applications for Frankish protection showed how far Martel had come from the days he was tottering on excommunication, and set the stage for his son and grandson to rearrange Italian political boundaries to suit the Papacy, and protect it. Death Tomb of Charles Martel, Basilique Saint-Denis. Charles Martel died on October 22, 741, at Quierzy-sur-Oise in what is today the Aisne département in the Picardy region of France. He was buried at Saint Denis Basilica in Paris. His territories were divided among his adult sons a year earlier: to Carloman he gave Austrasia and Alemannia (with Bavaria as a vassal), to Pippin the Younger Neustria and Burgundy (with Aquitaine as a vassal), and to Grifo nothing, though some sources indicate he intended to give him a strip of land between Neustria and Austrasia. Gibbon called him "the hero of the age" and declared "Christendom ... delivered ... by the genius and good fortune of one man, Charles Martel." Legacy At the beginning of Charles Martel's career, he had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, Clotaire IV. By his end, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, no hallowed Meroving was needed, neither for defence nor legitimacy: Charles divided his realm between his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son Bernard). In between, he strengthened the Frankish state by consistently defeating, through superior generalship, the host of hostile foreign nations which beset it on all sides, including the heathen Saxons, which his grandson Charlemagne would fully subdue, and Moors, which he halted on a path of continental domination. Though he never cared about titles, his son Pippin did, and finally asked the Pope "who should be King, he who has the title, or he who has the power?" The Pope, highly dependent on Frankish armies for his independence from Lombard and Byzantine power (the Byzantine Emperor still considered himself to be the only legitimate "Roman Emperor", and thus, ruler of all of the provinces of the ancient empire, whether recognised or not), declared for "he who had the power" and immediately crowned Pippin. Decades later, in 800, Pippin's son Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the Pope, further extending the principle by delegitimising the nominal authority of the Byzantine Emperor in the Italian peninsula (which had, by then, shrunk to encompass little more than Apulia and Calabria at best) and ancient Roman Gaul, including the Iberian outposts Charlemagne had established in the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees, what today forms Catalonia. In short, though the Byzantine Emperor claimed authority over all the old Roman Empire, as the legitimate "Roman" Emperor, it was simply not reality. The bulk of the Western Roman Empire had come under Carolingian rule, the Byzantine Emperor having had almost no authority in the West since the sixth century, though Charlemagne, a consummate politician, preferred to avoid an open breach with Constantinople. An institution unique in history was being born: the Holy Roman Empire. Though the sardonic Voltaire ridiculed its nomenclature, saying that the Holy Roman Empire was "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire," it constituted an enormous political power for a time, especially under the Saxon and Salian dynasties and, to a lesser, extent, the Hohenstaufen. It lasted until 1806, by then it was a nonentity. Though his grandson became its first emperor, the "empire" such as it was, was largely born during the reign of Charles Martel. Charles was that rarest of commodities in the Middle Ages: a brilliant strategic general, who also was a tactical commander par excellence, able in the heat of battle to adapt his plans to his foe's forces and movement — and amazingly, to defeat them repeatedly, especially when, as at Tours, they were far superior in men and weaponry, and at Berre and Narbonne, when they were superior in numbers of fighting men. Charles had the last quality which defines genuine greatness in a military commander: he foresaw the dangers of his foes, and prepared for them with care; he used ground, time, place, and fierce loyalty of his troops to offset his foe's superior weaponry and tactics; third, he adapted, again and again, to the enemy on the battlefield, shifting to compensate for the unforeseen and unforeseeable. Gibbon, whose tribute to Martel has been noted, was not alone among the great mid era historians in fervently praising Martel; Thomas Arnold ranks the victory of Charles Martel even higher than the victory of Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in its impact on all of modern history: "Charles Martel's victory at Tours was among those signal deliverances which have affected for centuries the happiness of mankind." [History of the later Roman Commonwealth, vol ii. p. 317.] German historians are especially ardent in their praise of Martel and in their belief that he saved Europe and Christianity from then all-conquering Islam, praising him also for driving back the ferocious Saxon barbarians on his borders. Schlegel speaks of this " mighty victory " in terms of fervent gratitude, and tells how " the arm of Charles Martel saved and delivered the Christian nations of the West from the deadly grasp of all-destroying Islam", and Ranke points out, "as one of the most important epochs in the history of the world, the commencement of the eighth century, when on the one side Mohammedanism threatened to overspread Italy and Gaul, and on the other the ancient idolatry of Saxony and Friesland once more forced its way across the Rhine. In this peril of Christian institutions, a youthful prince of Germanic race, Karl Martell, arose as their champion, maintained them with all the energy which the necessity for self-defence calls forth, and finally extended them into new regions." In 1922 and 1923, Belgian historian Henri Pirenne published a series of papers, known collectively as the "Pirenne Thesis", which remain influential to this day. Pirenne held that the Roman Empire continued, in the Frankish realms, up until the time of the Arab conquests in the 7th century. These conquests disrupted Mediterranean trade routes leading to a decline in the European economy. Such continued disruption would have meant complete disaster except for Charles Martel's halting of Islamic expansion into Europe from 732 on. What he managed to preserve led to the Carolingian Renaissance, named after him. Professor Santosuosso Santosuosso, Antonio. Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels perhaps sums up Martel best when he talks about his coming to the rescue of his Christian allies in Provence, and driving the Muslims back into the Iberian Peninsula forever in the mid and late 730's:: "After assembling forces at Saragossa the Muslims entered French territory in 735, crossed the River Rhone and captured and looted Arles. From there they struck into the heart of Provence, ending with the capture of Avignon, despite strong resistance. Islamic forces remained in French territory for about four years, carrying raids to Lyon, Burgundy, and Piedmont. Again Charles Martel came to the rescue, reconquering most of the lost territories in two campaigns in 736 and 739, except for the city of Narbonne, which finally fell in 759. The second (Muslim) expedition was probably more dangerous than the first to Poiters. Yet its failure (at Martel's hands) put an end to any serious Muslim expedition across the Pyrenees (forever)." In the Netherlands, a vital part of the Carolingian Empire, and in the low countries, he is considered a hero. In France and Germany, he is revered as a hero of epic proportions. Skilled as an administrator and ruler, Martel organized what would become the medieval European government: a system of fiefdoms, loyal to barons, counts, dukes and ultimately the King, or in his case, simply maior domus and princeps et dux Francorum. ("First or Dominant Mayor and Prince of the Franks") His close coordination of church with state began the medieval pattern for such government. He created what would become the first western standing army since the fall of Rome by his maintaining a core of loyal veterans around which he organized the normal feudal levies. In essence, he changed Europe from a horde of barbarians fighting with one another, to an organized state. Beginning of the Reconquista Although it took another two generations for the Franks to drive all the Arab garrisons out of Septimania and across the Pyrenees, Charles Martel's halt of the invasion of French soil turned the tide of Islamic advances, and the unification of the Frankish kingdoms under Martel, his son Pippin the Younger, and his grandson Charlemagne created a western power which prevented the Emirate of Córdoba from expanding over the Pyrenees. Martel, who in 732 was on the verge of excommunication, instead was recognised by the Church as its paramount defender. Pope Gregory II wrote him more than once, asking his protection and aid, Medieval Sourcebook: Pope Gregory II - Appeal to Charles Martel and he remained, till his death, fixated on stopping the Muslims. Martel's son Pippin the Younger kept his father's promise and returned and took Narbonne by siege in 759, and his grandson, Charlemagne, actually established the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This sector of what is now Spain was then called "The Moorish Marches" by the Carolingians, who saw it as not just a check on the Muslims in Hispania, but the beginning of taking the entire country back. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Islam, which became the basis, along with the King of Asturias, named Pelayo (718-737, who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of Covadonga, 722) and his descendants, for the Reconquista until all of the Muslims were expelled from the Iberian Peninsula. Military legacy Heavy infantry and permanent army Victor Davis Hanson argues that Charles Martel launched "the thousand year struggle" between European heavy infantry and Muslim cavalry. Hanson, 2001, p. 141-166. Of course, Martel is also the father of heavy cavalry in Europe, as he integrated heavy armoured cavalry into his forces. This creation of a real army would continue all through his reign, and that of his son, Pepin the Short, until his Grandson, Charlemagne, would possess the world's largest and finest army since the peak of Rome. Bennett, Michael. Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World Equally, the Muslims used infantry - indeed, at the Battle of Toulouse most of their forces were light infantry. It was not till Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi brought a huge force of Arab and Berber cavalry with him when he assumed the emirate of Al-Andulus that the Muslim forces became primarily cavalry. Martel's army was known primarily for being the first standing permanent army since Rome's fall in 476, and for the core of tough, seasoned heavy infantry who stood so stoutly at Tours. The Frankish infantry wore as much as 70 pounds of armour, including their heavy wooden shields with an iron boss. Standing close together, and well disciplined, they were unbreakable at Tours. Hanson, 2001, p. 154. Martel had taken the money and property he had seized from the church and paid local nobles to supply trained ready infantry year round. This was the core of veterans who served with him on a permanent basis, and as Hanson says, "provided a steady supply of dependable troops year around." This was the first permanent army since Rome. " While other Germanic cultures, such as the Visigoths or Vandals, had a proud martial tradition, and the Franks themselves had an annual muster of military aged men, such tribes were only able to field armies around planting and harvest. It was Martel's creation of a system whereby he could call on troops year round that gave the Carolingians the first standing and permanent army since Rome's fall in the west. And, first and foremost, Charles Martel will always be remembered for his victory at Tours. Creasy argues that the Martel victory "preserved the relics of ancient and the germs of modern civilizations." Gibbon called those eight days in 732, the week leading up to Tours, and the battle itself, "the events that rescued our ancestors of Britain, and our neighbors of Gaul [France], from the civil and religious yoke of the Koran." Paul Akers, in his editorial on Charles Martel, says for those who value life and freedom "you might spare a minute sometime today, and every October, to say a silent 'thank you' to a gang of half-savage Germans and especially to their leader, Charles 'The Hammer' Martel." Fredericksburg.com - Why Islam didn't conquer the world I vs. From the plains of medieval France to the modern Mideast, militant Muslims test Christians and Jews In his vision of what would be necessary for him to withstand a larger force and superior technology (the Muslim horsemen had adopted the armour and accoutrements of heavy cavalry from the Sassanid Warrior Class, which made the first knights possible), he, daring not to send his few horsemen against the Islamic cavalry, used his army to fight in a formation used by the ancient Greeks to withstand superior numbers and weapons by discipline, courage, and a willingness to die for their cause: a phalanx. He had trained a core of his men year round, using mostly Church funds, and some had literally been with him since his earliest days after his father's death. It was this hard core of disciplined veterans that won the day for him at Tours. Hanson emphasizes that Martel's greatest accomplishment as a General may have been his ability to keep his troops under control. This absolute iron discipline saved his infantry from the fate of so many infantrymen - such as the Saxons at Hastings - who broke formation and were slaughtered piecemeal. After using this infantry force by itself at Tours, he studied the foe's forces and further adapted to them, initially using stirrups and saddles recovered from the foe's dead horses, and armour from the dead horsemen. Brilliant generalship Martel earned his reputation for brilliant generalship, in an age generally bereft of same, by his ability to use what he had and by integrating new ideas and technology. As a consequence, he was undefeated from 716 to his death against a wide range of opponents, including the Muslim cavalry (at that time, the world's best) and the fierce barbarian Saxons on his own borders—and all this in spite of virtually always being outnumbered. He was the only general in the Middle Ages in Europe to use the eastern battle technique of feigned retreat. His ability to attack where he was least expected and when he was least expected was legendary. The process of the development of the famous chivalry of France continued in the Edict of Pistres of his great-great-grandson and namesake Charles the Bald. The defeats Martel inflicted on the Muslims were vital in that the split in the Islamic world left the Caliphate unable to mount an all out attack on Europe via its Iberian stronghold after 750. His ability to meet this challenge, until the Muslims self-destructed, is considered by most historians to be of macrohistorical importance, and is why Dante writes of him in Heaven as one of the "Defenders of the Faith." After 750, the door to western Europe, the Iberian emirate, was in the hands of the Umayyads, while most of the remainder of the Muslim world came under the control of the Abbasids, making an invasion of Europe a logistical impossibility while the two Muslim empires battled. This put off Islamic invasion of Europe until the Turkish conquest of the Balkans half a millennium later. H. G. Wells says of Charles Martel's decisive defeat of the Muslims in his "Short History of the World: "The Moslim when they crossed the Pyrenees in 720 found this Frankish kingdom under the practical rule of Charles Martel, the Mayor of the Palace of a degenerate descendant of Clovis, and experienced the decisive defeat of Poitiers (732) at his hands. This Charles Martel was practically overlord of Europe north of the Alps from the Pyrenees to Hungary." 45. The Development of Latin Christendom. Wells, H.G. 1922. A Short History of the World John H. Haaren says in “Famous Men of the Middle Ages” ”The battle of Tours, or Poitiers, as it should be called, is regarded as one of the decisive battles of the world. It decided that Christians, and not Moslems, should be the ruling power in Europe. Charles Martel is especially celebrated as the hero of this battle.” Just as his grandson, Charlemagne, would become famous for his swift and unexpected movements in his campaigns, Charles was legendary for never doing what his enemies forecast he would do. It was this ability to do the unforeseen, and move far faster than his opponents believed he could, that characterized the military career of Charles Martel. It is notable that the Northmen did not begin their European raids until after the death of Martel's grandson, Charlemagne. They had the naval capacity to begin those raids at least three generations earlier, but chose not to challenge Martel, his son Pippin, or his grandson, Charlemagne. This was probably fortunate for Martel, who despite his enormous gifts, would probably not have been able to repel the Vikings in addition to the Muslims, Saxons, and everyone else he defeated. However, it is notable that again, despite the ability to do so, (the Danes had constructed defenses to defend from counterattacks by land, and had the ability to launch their wholesale sea raids as early as Martel's reign), they chose not to challenge Charles Martel. Conclusion J.M. Roberts says of Charles Martel in his note on the Carolingians on page 315 of his 1993 History of the World: It (the Carolingian line) produced Charles Martel, the soldier who turned the Arabs back at Tours, and the supporter of Saint Boniface, the Evangelizer of Germany. This is a considerable double mark to have left on the history of Europe." Gibbon perhaps summarized Charles Martel's legacy most eloquently: "in a laborious administration of 24 years he had restored and supported the dignity of the throne..by the activity of a warrior who in the same campaign could display his banner on the Elbe, the Rhone, and shores of the ocean." Family and children Charles Martel married twice: His first wife was Rotrude of Treves, (690-724) (daughter of St. Leutwinus, Bishop of Treves). They had the following children: Hiltrud (d. 754), married Odilo I, Duke of Bavaria Carloman Landrade (Landres), married Sigrand, Count of Hesbania Auda, Aldana, or Alane, married Thierry IV, Count of Autun and Toulouse Pippin the Short His second wife was Swanhild. They had the following child: Grifo Charles Martel also had a mistress, Ruodhaid. They had the following children: Bernard (b. before 732-787) Hieronymus Remigius, archbishop of Rouen (d. 771) Ian (d. 783) Ancestors Notes References Watson, William E., "The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited", Providence: Studies in Western Civilization, 2 (1993) Poke,The Battle of Tours, from Sir Edward Creasy, MA, Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to WaterlooEdward Gibbon, The Battle of Tours, Decline and Fall of the Roman EmpireMichael Grant "History of Rome" External links Ian Meadows, "The Arabs in Occitania": A sketch giving the context of the conflict from the Arab point of view. http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm Poke's edition of Creasy's "15 Most Important Battles Ever Fought According to Edward Shepherd Creasy" Chapter VII. The Battle of Tours, A.D. 732.'' Richard Hooker, "Civil War and the Umayyads" The Battle of Tours 732, from the "Jewish Virtual Library" website: A division of the American-Israeli Cooperative. Tours, Poiters, from "Leaders and Battles Database" online. Robert W. Martin, "The Battle of Tours is still felt today", from about.com Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732 Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739 Foundation for Medieval Genealogy | Charles_Martel |@lemmatized charles:93 martel:81 ca:1 october:3 call:12 hammer:4 frankish:25 military:12 political:3 leader:3 serve:3 mayor:13 palace:3 merovingian:3 king:22 rule:5 de:2 facto:2 interregnum:3 end:8 life:7 use:15 title:6 duke:15 prince:3 frank:17 offer:1 consul:1 pope:7 refuse:1 kingdom:9 encyclopedia:2 world:17 history:19 perhaps:4 best:4 remember:2 win:4 battle:58 tour:42 defeat:23 invading:3 muslim:39 army:32 halt:5 northward:2 islamic:11 expansion:8 western:19 europe:26 victory:15 often:2 regard:2 decisive:7 since:10 preserve:4 conquest:8 islamization:1 britannica:1 online:2 brilliant:5 general:4 lose:4 one:15 career:5 cologne:4 founding:1 figure:1 middle:6 age:14 credit:1 seminal:1 role:1 development:3 feudalism:1 knighthood:1 lay:3 groundwork:1 carolingian:8 empire:14 ref:2 name:7 fouracre:2 john:3 birth:2 youth:1 bear:3 herstal:3 present:2 day:7 belgium:1 illegitimate:1 son:25 pippin:10 ii:7 concubine:2 chalpaida:1 following:5 tale:1 tell:2 origin:1 pepin:6 wife:5 plectrude:8 talk:2 together:3 room:1 intrude:1 upon:3 messenger:3 bring:5 news:2 mistress:2 alpaida:2 give:9 fearful:1 arouse:1 wrath:1 decide:2 announce:1 directly:2 instead:6 say:13 long:3 live:2 carl:3 man:3 equally:4 cautious:1 dismiss:1 follow:1 let:1 legend:1 claim:2 child:6 germany:6 still:6 karl:2 martell:2 also:13 bore:1 another:4 childebrand:1 contest:1 power:16 time:20 death:11 heristal:2 note:11 aquitaine:8 yellow:1 outside:4 arnulfing:3 authority:7 neustria:5 burgundy:4 pink:1 unite:2 opposition:3 far:11 dominance:1 high:2 office:1 austrasia:9 green:1 support:8 first:17 theudoald:5 german:4 duchy:5 east:3 rhine:5 suzerainty:4 december:1 die:7 prior:2 urging:1 designate:1 grandson:12 grimoald:1 heir:2 entire:3 realm:6 immediately:3 oppose:2 noble:5 eight:2 year:25 prevent:5 unrest:1 advantage:1 gaol:1 city:14 destine:1 capital:1 uprising:2 behalf:3 civil:5 war:8 neustrian:1 noblesse:1 proclaim:4 ragenfrid:6 apparently:2 dagobert:3 iii:3 young:6 theory:1 legal:1 select:1 though:11 dynasty:3 austrasians:1 leave:6 woman:1 escape:1 prison:1 acclaim:2 neustrians:4 attack:10 wait:2 strong:5 lead:8 countryman:1 chilperic:7 without:6 rest:3 people:3 ally:4 invade:7 force:29 radbod:3 frisian:5 meet:2 near:6 hold:6 little:3 gather:3 men:8 prepare:6 result:4 accord:2 strauss:1 gustave:1 fight:10 realize:2 could:15 prevail:3 outnumber:3 badly:2 retreat:5 fact:2 flee:7 field:2 soon:2 mountain:2 eifel:1 train:4 turn:8 besiege:2 rival:2 take:14 treasury:1 receive:1 recognition:1 surrender:3 magnanimous:1 juncture:1 however:8 event:6 favour:1 make:9 proper:2 preparation:1 fell:4 triumphant:1 malmedy:1 return:8 province:2 ensuing:1 amblève:1 rout:1 several:2 thing:2 notable:4 set:4 pattern:2 remainder:4 appear:1 enemy:6 least:7 expect:6 march:6 triumphantly:1 home:1 midday:1 era:7 traditionally:2 finally:4 feign:1 draw:1 opponent:4 trap:1 feigned:2 next:3 unknown:1 eastern:3 tactic:2 require:1 extraordinary:1 discipline:4 part:6 troop:7 exact:1 timing:1 commander:4 begin:6 demonstrate:1 genius:2 would:25 mark:2 never:4 unbroken:1 streak:1 last:4 spring:1 confirm:1 supremacy:1 vincy:1 cambrai:1 chase:1 fleeing:1 paris:3 back:10 deal:2 disperse:1 adherent:1 allow:4 treat:1 kindness:1 unusual:1 dark:2 mercy:1 former:1 jailer:1 potential:1 rare:1 success:2 clotaire:4 iv:6 depose:1 archbishop:3 rheims:1 rigobert:1 replace:2 milo:1 lifelong:1 supporter:3 consolidation:1 subjugate:3 push:1 territory:5 even:6 concession:1 west:7 frisia:3 late:5 holland:1 send:5 saxon:14 weser:2 thus:7 secure:5 border:4 new:6 course:3 respond:1 ascendancy:1 alliance:2 odo:19 great:14 eudes:3 sometimes:1 know:6 independent:4 soissons:1 ducal:1 land:8 south:3 loire:1 anger:1 exchange:1 recognise:5 dukedom:2 kingship:1 legitimate:3 royal:1 affirmation:1 mayoralty:1 likewise:1 saracen:1 ad:1 foreign:2 ensue:1 full:2 strife:1 series:2 loyalty:2 important:7 bishop:3 abbot:1 donate:2 money:3 foundation:2 abbey:1 echternach:1 bavaria:7 alemannia:4 pagan:3 unify:1 banner:2 determine:2 punish:1 therefore:2 waste:1 country:4 bank:1 lippe:1 ruhr:1 teutoburg:2 forest:2 seize:7 resistance:2 subject:1 control:4 although:2 trust:1 ruler:4 aldegisel:2 accepted:1 christianity:9 willibrord:2 utrecht:1 famous:4 apostle:2 convert:1 much:4 winfrid:1 later:5 saint:5 boniface:6 appoint:6 successor:2 theuderic:2 minor:1 occupy:2 throne:3 supposedly:1 rois:1 fainéants:1 mere:1 puppet:1 hand:7 reign:7 useless:1 bother:1 rebel:2 county:2 anjou:1 easily:1 hostage:1 keep:3 six:1 devote:1 entirety:1 assure:1 dependent:2 germanic:4 tribe:3 agilolfing:2 gradually:1 evolve:1 recently:2 liutprand:3 lombard:3 alemanni:2 accompany:1 hugbert:1 submit:1 enter:2 tie:2 lordship:1 seem:1 campaign:8 princess:1 swanachild:1 become:12 lantfrid:2 kill:1 capitulation:1 southern:2 northern:2 exclusively:1 come:12 storm:1 emir:3 córdoba:3 build:2 morocco:1 yemen:1 syria:1 conquer:5 large:3 southwest:1 gaul:9 nominally:1 sovereignty:1 practice:1 almost:2 toulouse:7 eudo:1 find:2 help:3 three:4 month:1 invader:2 june:1 critical:1 essentially:2 classic:1 enveloping:1 movement:3 originally:1 overconfident:1 maintain:3 outer:1 defense:3 around:5 siege:2 camp:4 continuous:1 scouting:1 neither:4 able:5 launch:3 complete:2 surprise:1 besieging:1 scatter:1 slaughter:2 unit:1 catch:2 weapon:2 armour:4 due:1 situation:1 iberia:1 believe:12 need:6 virtually:3 fulltime:1 intensely:1 core:6 veteran:5 augment:2 usual:1 conscript:1 early:3 available:1 crop:1 plant:2 harvesting:1 kind:1 infantry:12 withstand:3 heavy:11 cavalry:14 round:4 pay:5 family:2 buy:1 food:1 otherwise:1 grow:2 obtain:1 church:8 property:2 fund:2 soldier:2 ecclesia:1 official:1 enrage:1 look:1 might:3 excommunicate:1 action:1 significant:2 invasion:10 eve:1 historian:24 paul:3 k:1 davis:4 strengthen:3 northeastern:1 divert:1 activity:2 acquitane:1 concentrate:4 attention:1 umayyad:13 p:5 indeed:3 thrice:1 rescue:7 antonio:3 santosuosso:6 destroy:5 reinforce:3 anthony:1 barbarian:8 marauder:3 pursue:1 think:1 danger:3 vital:4 aware:1 true:1 strength:1 real:4 typical:1 horde:2 dominate:1 rome:9 fall:6 consider:5 include:7 simply:5 particularly:1 concern:1 arab:17 chronicle:2 show:2 awareness:1 caliph:2 express:1 shock:1 catastrophic:1 leadup:1 importance:5 cordoban:1 emirate:5 previously:2 stop:3 sweep:1 hero:6 less:2 celebrated:1 progenitor:1 race:2 patron:1 chronicler:2 explain:2 different:1 arrival:1 interim:1 cordoba:1 abdul:5 rahman:8 al:7 ghafiqi:4 huge:3 berber:2 horseman:5 trigger:1 clear:2 strongly:2 decision:1 relief:2 impunity:1 assemble:2 mount:2 intention:3 permit:1 disaster:3 ready:2 horrific:2 aquitanians:1 sacking:1 bordeaux:2 second:4 river:5 garonne:1 state:5 god:1 alone:3 number:4 slain:1 sack:1 loot:2 seek:1 agree:2 provide:2 acknowledge:4 house:1 overlord:3 formally:1 fade:1 interest:1 pragmatic:1 remain:5 aquitanian:1 form:3 right:2 flank:1 earn:2 cognomen:1 merciless:1 way:2 many:5 sir:2 edward:3 creasy:6 fail:3 islam:7 probably:4 overrun:1 christian:9 gibbon:12 belief:3 england:1 english:1 channel:1 protection:4 ease:1 check:3 christendom:4 relic:2 ancient:6 germ:2 modern:9 civilization:5 fate:2 hinge:1 echo:1 b:3 bury:2 popular:1 historiography:1 somewhat:1 style:2 twentieth:1 century:5 bernard:3 lewis:1 contend:1 france:6 tend:2 view:3 william:3 watson:3 macrohistorical:5 change:4 go:3 rhetorically:1 matthew:1 bennett:3 co:1 author:2 technique:3 medieval:10 publish:2 argue:3 remembered:1 fought:1 poitier:5 exception:1 raid:5 continue:6 michael:2 grant:3 list:1 date:1 roman:12 writer:1 assessment:1 save:5 typify:2 robert:3 martin:3 educationalist:1 dexter:1 wakefield:1 write:3 europethe:1 contemporary:1 failure:2 renaissance:2 certainly:1 e:2 respected:1 distance:1 rhetoric:1 drubeck:1 writing:1 example:1 final:2 vastly:1 overrate:1 alessandro:1 barbero:2 today:6 play:1 significance:2 point:3 purpose:1 pillage:1 wealthy:1 monastery:2 st:2 similarly:1 tomaž:1 mastnak:1 writes:2 assess:1 dispute:3 effect:1 victor:2 hanson:6 debate:1 cite:1 placement:1 subsequent:2 decade:2 provence:7 ongoing:1 conflict:3 northeast:1 incorporation:2 charlemagne:11 primarily:3 bulk:2 effort:1 expand:2 deny:1 foothold:2 beyond:2 andalus:2 drive:4 base:1 attempt:2 get:1 reorganize:1 count:4 loyal:3 venture:1 accept:1 missionary:2 independence:2 mind:1 slew:1 expel:2 boarn:1 wholly:1 populace:1 every:2 shrine:1 peaceful:2 twenty:1 dynamic:2 albeit:2 reservedly:1 wish:2 elicit:1 homage:2 aquitainians:1 nobility:1 hunold:2 whose:2 hope:1 naval:2 head:1 narbonne:9 move:5 arles:6 inland:2 temporarily:1 put:4 descend:1 provençal:1 stronghold:3 retake:1 montfrin:1 avignon:2 aix:1 en:1 nîmes:1 agde:1 béziers:1 fortress:1 crush:1 sallied:1 direct:2 brutal:1 frontal:2 burn:1 ground:2 swiftly:2 mighty:2 host:2 narbonnea:1 berre:4 choose:3 resource:1 close:4 work:2 assault:1 rope:1 ladder:1 ram:1 plus:2 catapult:1 sufficient:1 loss:1 felt:3 spare:2 starve:1 submission:1 administration:2 isolate:1 surround:1 liberate:1 stirrup:2 phalanx:4 ability:9 coordinate:1 unequaled:1 enable:1 face:3 superior:7 decisively:1 main:1 particular:1 infidel:2 professor:2 emeritus:1 university:1 ontario:1 expert:1 forth:2 interesting:1 opinion:1 compelling:2 case:2 defence:3 preservation:1 monasticism:1 center:1 learn:1 ultimately:2 argument:1 study:3 period:1 clearly:1 avenge:1 caliphate:6 unlike:2 father:7 personally:1 reckon:1 unawares:1 dictate:2 place:3 substantial:1 portion:1 coastal:1 plain:2 heavily:1 advance:2 plan:4 fortify:1 permanent:7 enclave:1 open:2 arrive:1 moor:3 unfortunately:1 overestimate:1 develop:1 equal:1 generation:3 manage:2 five:1 short:6 totally:1 unprepared:1 mixed:1 champion:2 window:1 leo:1 anatolia:1 destruction:2 zab:1 rending:1 forever:3 especially:6 utter:1 tail:1 campaigning:1 septimania:2 maior:2 domus:2 princeps:2 et:2 dux:2 francorum:2 nobody:1 vacant:1 oman:1 pg:1 care:3 content:1 deserve:1 line:2 public:1 summon:1 voice:1 four:3 spend:1 administrative:1 organisational:1 create:3 efficient:1 compel:1 westphalia:1 tribute:2 leadership:1 maurontus:1 integrate:3 outlying:1 erect:1 diocese:1 salzburg:1 regensburg:1 freising:1 passau:1 metropolitan:1 seat:1 mainz:1 old:2 friend:1 daniel:1 winchester:1 administer:1 defend:4 clergy:1 idolatry:2 stoutly:2 deed:1 ecclesiastical:1 must:1 gregory:4 beg:1 aid:2 loathe:1 onetime:1 ignore:2 papal:2 plea:1 nonetheless:1 application:1 totter:1 excommunication:2 stage:1 rearrange:1 italian:2 boundary:1 suit:1 papacy:1 protect:1 tomb:1 basilique:1 denis:2 quierzy:1 sur:1 oise:1 aisne:1 département:1 picardy:1 region:2 basilica:1 divide:2 among:3 adult:1 earlier:2 carloman:2 vassal:2 grifo:2 nothing:1 source:1 indicate:1 intend:1 strip:1 declare:2 deliver:2 good:1 fortune:1 legacy:3 beginning:3 internal:1 kingly:1 claimant:1 rulership:1 francia:1 hallow:1 meroving:1 legitimacy:1 consistently:1 generalship:3 hostile:1 nation:2 beset:1 side:2 heathen:1 fully:1 subdue:1 path:1 continental:1 domination:1 ask:2 highly:1 byzantine:5 emperor:8 whether:1 crown:2 extend:2 principle:1 delegitimising:1 nominal:1 peninsula:3 shrunk:1 encompass:1 apulia:1 calabria:1 iberian:5 outpost:1 establish:2 marca:2 hispanica:2 across:5 pyrenees:7 catalonia:2 reality:1 sixth:1 consummate:1 politician:1 prefer:1 avoid:1 breach:1 constantinople:1 institution:2 unique:1 holy:3 sardonic:1 voltaire:1 ridicule:1 nomenclature:1 constitute:1 enormous:2 salian:1 extent:1 hohenstaufen:1 nonentity:1 largely:1 rarest:1 commodity:1 strategic:1 tactical:1 par:1 excellence:1 heat:1 adapt:3 foe:5 amazingly:1 repeatedly:1 weaponry:2 quality:1 define:1 genuine:1 greatness:1 foresee:1 fierce:2 offset:1 third:1 battlefield:1 shift:1 compensate:1 unforeseen:2 unforeseeable:1 mid:2 fervently:1 praise:3 thomas:1 arnold:1 rank:1 arminius:1 impact:1 signal:1 deliverance:1 affect:1 happiness:1 mankind:1 commonwealth:1 vol:1 ardent:1 conquering:1 ferocious:1 schlegel:1 speaks:1 term:1 fervent:1 gratitude:1 arm:1 deadly:1 grasp:1 ranke:1 epoch:1 commencement:1 eighth:1 mohammedanism:1 threaten:1 overspread:1 italy:1 saxony:1 friesland:1 forced:1 peril:1 youthful:1 arose:1 energy:1 necessity:1 self:2 belgian:1 henri:1 pirenne:3 paper:1 collectively:1 thesis:1 influential:1 disrupt:1 mediterranean:1 trade:1 route:1 decline:2 european:4 economy:1 continued:1 disruption:1 mean:1 except:2 halting:1 sum:1 saragossa:1 french:3 cross:2 rhone:2 capture:2 strike:1 heart:1 despite:3 carry:1 lyon:1 piedmont:1 reconquer:2 lost:1 two:3 expedition:2 dangerous:1 poiters:2 yet:1 serious:1 netherlands:1 low:1 revere:1 epic:1 proportion:1 skilled:1 administrator:1 organize:3 government:2 system:2 fiefdom:1 baron:1 dominant:1 coordination:1 stand:3 normal:1 feudal:1 levy:1 essence:1 reconquista:2 garrison:1 soil:1 tide:1 unification:1 younger:1 verge:1 paramount:1 defender:2 sourcebook:4 appeal:1 till:2 fixate:1 promise:1 actually:1 girona:1 barcelona:1 sector:1 spain:1 moorish:1 saw:1 hispania:1 buffer:1 zone:1 basis:2 along:1 asturias:1 pelayo:1 start:1 covadonga:1 descendant:2 thousand:1 struggle:1 armoured:1 creation:2 possess:1 fine:1 peak:1 light:1 assume:1 andulus:1 standing:2 tough:1 seasoned:1 wear:1 pound:1 wooden:1 shield:1 iron:2 bos:1 well:3 unbreakable:1 local:1 supply:2 trained:1 steady:1 dependable:1 culture:1 visigoth:1 vandal:1 proud:1 martial:1 tradition:1 annual:1 muster:1 harvest:1 whereby:1 foremost:1 always:2 week:1 ancestor:2 britain:1 neighbor:1 religious:1 yoke:1 koran:1 akers:1 editorial:1 value:1 freedom:1 minute:1 sometime:1 silent:1 thank:1 gang:1 half:2 savage:1 fredericksburg:1 com:2 vs:1 mideast:1 militant:1 test:1 jew:1 vision:1 necessary:1 technology:2 adopt:1 accoutrement:1 sassanid:1 warrior:2 class:1 knight:1 possible:1 dare:1 formation:2 greek:1 courage:1 willingness:1 cause:1 mostly:1 literally:1 hard:1 disciplined:1 emphasize:1 accomplishment:1 may:1 absolute:1 infantryman:1 hastings:1 break:1 piecemeal:1 initially:1 saddle:1 recover:1 dead:2 horse:1 reputation:1 generally:1 bereft:1 idea:1 consequence:1 undefeated:1 wide:1 range:1 spite:1 legendary:2 process:1 chivalry:1 edict:1 pistres:1 namesake:1 bald:1 inflict:1 split:1 unable:1 via:1 challenge:3 destruct:1 dante:1 heaven:1 faith:1 door:1 abbasids:1 logistical:1 impossibility:1 turkish:1 balkan:1 millennium:1 h:3 g:2 moslem:2 practical:1 degenerate:1 clovis:1 experience:1 practically:1 north:1 alp:1 hungary:1 latin:1 haaren:1 celebrate:1 swift:1 unexpected:1 forecast:1 faster:1 characterize:1 northman:1 capacity:1 fortunate:1 gift:1 repel:1 viking:1 addition:1 everyone:1 else:1 dane:1 construct:1 counterattack:1 wholesale:1 sea:1 conclusion:1 j:1 page:1 produce:1 evangelizer:1 considerable:1 double:1 summarize:1 eloquently:1 laborious:1 restore:1 dignity:1 display:1 elbe:1 shore:1 ocean:1 marry:4 twice:1 rotrude:1 treves:2 daughter:1 leutwinus:1 hiltrud:1 odilo:1 landrade:1 landres:1 sigrand:1 hesbania:1 auda:1 aldana:1 alane:1 thierry:1 autun:1 swanhild:1 ruodhaid:1 hieronymus:1 remigius:1 rouen:1 ian:2 reference:1 revisit:1 providence:1 poke:2 fifteen:1 marathon:1 waterlooedward:1 empiremichael:1 external:1 link:1 meadow:1 occitania:1 sketch:1 context:1 http:1 www:1 standin:1 se:1 htm:1 edition:1 ever:1 shepherd:1 chapter:1 vii:1 richard:1 hooker:1 jewish:1 virtual:1 library:1 website:1 division:1 american:1 israeli:1 cooperative:1 database:1 w:1 account:1 internet:1 genealogy:1 |@bigram charles_martel:36 de_facto:2 britannica_online:1 lay_groundwork:1 frankish_suzerainty:3 ensuing_battle:1 duke_aquitaine:3 teutoburg_forest:2 saint_boniface:2 germanic_tribe:2 emir_córdoba:1 abdul_rahman:5 al_ghafiqi:4 edward_creasy:2 twentieth_century:1 davis_hanson:2 grandson_charlemagne:8 al_andalus:2 en_provence:1 frontal_assault:1 decisively_defeat:1 professor_emeritus:1 catch_unawares:1 coastal_plain:1 umayyad_caliphate:1 pay_tribute:1 pope_gregory:3 apulia_calabria:1 marca_hispanica:2 salian_dynasty:1 par_excellence:1 battle_teutoburg:1 carolingian_renaissance:1 iberian_peninsula:2 medieval_sourcebook:4 buffer_zone:1 armoured_cavalry:1 visigoth_vandal:1 self_destruct:1 everyone_else:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
975 | Gothenburg | Gothenburg (Swedish: ) ) is the second-largest city in Sweden (after Stockholm) and the fifth-largest amongst the Nordic countries. Situated on the south-west coast of Sweden, the city proper has a population of 510,491 in 2005, with a total of 906,691 inhabitants in the metropolitan area. The City of Gothenburg was founded in 1621 by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. It is situated by the sea at the mouth of Göta Älv - the river running through the city - and is the largest sea port of the Nordic countries. Swedish National Encyclopedia (password needed) Gothenburg is also home to many students, as the city includes both the University of Gothenburg (Scandinavia's largest university) and Chalmers University of Technology. Name The city was named after the Geats (Swedish: Götar varied: Geatas, Gautar, Goths, Gotar, Gøtar, Götar), the inhabitants of Gothia, now southern Sweden - i.e. "Defense of the Geats". Hellquist, E. Svensk etymologisk ordbok. Pamp, B. Ortnamnen i Sverige. Svenska ortnamnsarkiv. AWE/Gebers serie om ortnamnen i våra landskap. The river on which the city sits is the Götaälv or Gothia River. Göta borg is the fort on the Göta River, built to protect the port, which was created to be Sweden's commercial window to the west. In Dutch, Scots, German and English — all languages with a long history of being spoken in the trade and maritime-oriented city — the name Gothenburg has traditionally been used for the city. The French form of the city name is Gothembourg. Gottenburg can also be seen in some older English texts. These traditional forms are now sometimes replaced with the use of the Swedish Göteborg, for example by the Göteborg Opera, Göteborg Ballet, Göteborg International Film Festival, and by the city itself (in English, the City of Göteborg). Many British newspapers, and the U.S. Navy, also refer to the city in English as Göteborg. Effective February 1, 2008, however, Göteborgs universitet, previously designated as Göteborg University in English, changed to the University of Gothenburg University of Gothenburg, University of Gothenburg - the University's new English name . Other old variations in Swedish are Götheborgh, and the more common, Götheborg. One English text written in the late 15th century says the name as "Guthaeborg". History Gothenburg circa 1700 from Suecia Antiqua et Hodierna In the 16th and 17th century, the configuration of Sweden's borders made Gothenburg strategically important as the Swedish gateway to the west, lying on the west coast in the narrow area between the territories of Denmark-Norway. After several failed attempts, Gothenburg was successfully founded in 1621 by King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustaf II Adolf). The city was heavily influenced by the Dutch. Dutch city planners were contracted to build the city as they had the skills needed to build in the marshy areas around the city. The town was planned after Dutch cities to have canals like Amsterdam, and the blueprint for the canals of Gothenburg are actually the same as those used for Jakarta. The Dutchmen initially won political power and it was not until 1652, when the last Dutch politician in the city's council died, that the Swedes acquired political power over Gothenburg. Henriksson, Dick and Älveby, Rustan. (1994). Vårt Levebröd - Göteborgregionens näringsliv Igår, I dag och I morgon. Publisher: Akademiförlaget. Page 5. ISBN 91-24-16635-9 During the Dutch period the town followed Dutch town laws and there were propositions to make Dutch the official language in the town. Along with the Dutch, the town also was influenced by the Scottish, that came to settle down in Gothenburg. Many became people of high profile and one such person was William Chalmers, who donated his fortunes to create what later became Chalmers University of Technology. The Scottish influence can still be felt in Gothenburg in present day as names like Glenn and Morgan, which in the rest of Sweden usually are rare, are not uncommon in Gothenburg, and the use of a Scottish sounding "r" in the local dialect. The Gothenburg coat of arms was based on the lion of the coat of arms of Sweden, symbolically holding a shield with the national emblem, the Three Crowns, to defend against its enemies. In the Treaty of Roskilde (1658) Denmark-Norway ceded the then Danish province Halland, to the south, and the Norwegian province of Bohus County or Bohuslän to the north, leaving Gothenburg in a less exposed position. Gothenburg was able to grow into an important port and trade centre on the west coast thanks to the fact that it was the only city on the west coast that was granted, together with Marstrand, the rights to trade with merchants from other countries. In the 18th century, fishing was the most important industry. However, in 1731 the Swedish East India Company was founded, and the city flourished due to its foreign trade with highly profitable commercial expeditions to Asian countries. Gothenburg's 1864 expansion plan; today's street grid looks much the same. The harbour developed into Sweden's main harbour for trade towards the west, and with the Swedish emigration to North America increasing, Gothenburg became Sweden's main point of departure. The impact of Gothenburg as a main port of embarkation for Swedish emigrants is reflected by Gothenburg, Nebraska, a small Swedish settlement in the United States. With the 19th century, Gothenburg evolved into a modern industrial city that continued on into the 20th century. The population increased tenfold in the century, from 13,000 (1800) to 130,000 (1900). In the 20th century major companies that developed included SKF (est. 1907) and Volvo (est. 1926). In more recent years however, the industrial section has faced a recession, which has spurred the development of new sectors such as increased merchandising, tourism and cultural and educational institutions. In 2001, major protests occurred in the city during the EU summit and the visit by U.S. president George W. Bush. Geography Gothenburg viewed from space Gothenburg is located on the west coast, in Southwestern Sweden, approximately half way between the capitals Copenhagen, Denmark, and Oslo, Norway. The location at the mouth of the river Göta älv, which feeds into Kattegatt, an arm of the North Sea, has helped the city grow in significance as a trading city. Due to the Gulf Stream, the city has a mild climate and quite a lot of rain. The archipelago of Gothenburg consists of rough, barren rocks and cliffs, which also is typical for the coast of Bohuslän. The Gothenburg Metropolitan Area extends to the municipalities of Ale, Härryda, Kungälv, Lerum, Mölndal, Partille, Stenungsund, Tjörn, Öckerö in Västra Götaland County, and Kungsbacka in Halland County. Climate Gothenburg has an oceanic climate according to Köppen climate classification. Despite its high northern latitude, temperatures are quite mild throughout the year and much warmer than places in similar latitude, or even somewhat further south, mainly because of the moderating influence of the warm Gulf Stream. During the summer, daylight extends 17 hours, but lasts only around 7 hours in late December. Summers are warm and pleasant with average high temperatures of 22°C (72°F) and lows of 13°C (55°F), but temperatures of 25 - 30°C (77 - 86°F) occur on many days during the summer. Winters are cold and windy with temperatures around the freezing point, even though it rarely drops below −10 °C (14 °F). Winters are much warmer than other places in same latitude, and are not colder than either Canada and most of northern United States. Precipitation is regular but generally moderate throughout the year. Snow mainly occurs from January to March. Snow cover occurs but usually does not remain very long. Typical temperatures and precipitation for each month: Goteborg, The Official Visitors Guide, Climate 2006-07-18 Culture Poseidon statue by Carl Milles – an often used symbol of Gothenburg. The sea, trade and industrial history of the city is evident in the cultural life of Gothenburg. The biggest attraction in the city is the amusement park Liseberg (see Sites of interest). Another fact related to the industrial heritage of the city is that many of the cultural institutions, as well as hospitals and the university, were created thanks to donations from rich merchants and industrialists, for example the Röhsska Museum. There are many free theatre ensembles in the city, besides institutions like Gothenburg City Theatre, Backa Theatre (youth theatre), and Folkteatern. In December 29th 2004 the Museum of World Culture was opened in Gothenburg, located near Korsvägen. The Gothenburg Film Festival, held each year, is the biggest film festival in Scandinavia. Göteborg International Film Festival 2008: Göteborg International Film Festival Similarly, the Gothenburg Book Fair, held every year in September, is the largest such event in Scandinavia. Architecture Many buildings in the old part of the city were built along canals There are very few houses left from the 17th century when the city was founded, since all but the military and royal houses were built of wood. Nationalencyklopedin (NE), The Swedish National Encyclopedia (Most of this section is based on NE) One example is Skansen Crown. The first major architecturally interesting period is the 18th century when the East India Company made Gothenburg an important trade city. Imposing stone houses with a Classical look were erected around the canals. One example from this period is the East India House, which today houses Gothenburg’s City Museum. In the 19th century, the wealthy bourgeoisie begun to move outside the city walls which had protected the city when the Union of Denmark and Norway was still a threat. The style now was an eclectic, academic, somewhat over decorated style which the middle-class favoured. The working class lived in the overcrowded city district Haga, in wooden houses. In the 19th century the first important town plan after the founding of city was created, which led to the construction of the main street, Kungsportsavenyn. The perhaps most significant type of houses of the city, Landshövdingehusen, were built in the end of the 19th century; three storey-houses with the first floor in stone and the other two in wood. A very important period in the architectural history of the city was the early 20th century, when the National Romantic style dominated. Among the many monumental building erected the Masthugget Church can be mentioned. And in the beginning of the 1920s, when the city celebrated its 300th anniversary, the Götaplatsen square with its Neo-Classical look was built. After this the predominant style in Gothenburg and rest of Sweden was Functionalism which especially dominated the suburbs like Västra Frölunda and Bergsjön. The prominent Swedish functionalist architect Uno Åhrén served as the city planner here from 1932 through 1943. In the 1950s the big stadium Ullevi was erected when Sweden hosted the 1958 FIFA World Cup. The modern architecture of the city is being formed by such architects as Gert Wingårdh who started as a Post-Modernist in the 1980s. A further remarkable construction is Brudaremossen TV Tower, one of the few partially guyed towers in the world. Music Gothenburg Opera Gothenburg has a rich music life - the Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra is the best known when it comes to classical music. Gothenburg also was the birthplace of the Swedish composer Kurt Atterberg. Bands like The Soundtrack of Our Lives and Ace of Base are well known pop representatives of the city. There is also an active indie scene. For example, the musician Jens Lekman was born in the suburb of Angered and named his 2007 release Night Falls Over Kortedala after another suburb (Kortedala). Other internationally claimed indie artists are the electro pop duo Studio (band), dance group The Tough Alliance, songwriter José González and pop singer El Perro Del Mar. The city is also noted for being the centre of the heavy metal subgenre melodic death metal (sometimes even called "The Gothenburg sound"). Gothenburg metal is distinct to the traditional death metal because of its mixture of melody, harmony and extensive guitar solos. Often, keyboards and clean singing are incorporated (instead of using the traditional death metal growl vocal style). Gothenburg's own commercially successful At the Gates, In Flames and Dark Tranquillity are credited with pioneering this melodic style, although first made by Michael Amott of Arch Enemy, Spiritual Beggars, ex-Carcass and ex-Carnage. Another well known band in the Gothenburg scene is Soilwork, although they hail from Helsingborg. Progressive power metal band Evergrey also hails from this city. Gothenburg is also known for being the last location Metallica played with Cliff Burton, who died that night from a bus accident along the way to their next concert. Food and drink Gothenburg, with its location by the sea, is famous for its many fish dishes and varieties of these dishes. Various fish restaurants exist in the city, from low-class shacks to world-class eateries. The city also has a number of star chefs – over the past decade, seven of the Swedish Chef of the Year Awards have been won by Gothenburgers. New York Times article A popular place to buy fish ingredients is the Feskekôrka ("Fish Church"); an indoor fish market, which got its name from the building's resemblance to a Gothic church. Five Gothenburg restaurants have a star in the 2008 Michelin Guide: 28 +, Basement, Fond, Kock & Vin and Sjömagasinet. Information from the tourist company Göteborg & Co, website www.goteborg.com Sports With around 20,000 sailboats and yachts scattered about the city, sailing is a popular sports activity in the region, particularly because of the nearby Gothenburg Archipelago. Ullevi Stadium, the biggest football arena in Scandinavia As in all of Sweden, a variety of sports are followed, including but not limited to ice hockey, football, basketball, and team handball. There is a varied amateur and professional sports clubs scene. Gothenburg is the birthplace of football in Sweden as the first football match in Sweden was played there in 1892. The city's three major clubs, IFK Göteborg, Örgryte IS and GAIS share a total of 34 Swedish Championships between them. IFK has also won the UEFA Cup twice. Other notable clubs include BK Häcken (football), Pixbo Wallenstam IBK (floorball), multiple national team handball champion Redbergslids IK, and three time national ice hockey champion Frölunda HC. The city's most notable sports venues are Scandinavium (ice hockey), and Nya Ullevi (multisport) and the new-built Gamla Ullevi Gamla Ullevi, Higabgruppen , website (Swedish) http://www.higab.se/fotbollsarenan/default.asp (football). Gothenburg has hosted a number of international sporting events including the 1958 FIFA World Cup, the 1992 European Football Championship, the 1993 and the 2002 World Men's Handball Championship, the 1995 World Championships in Athletics, the 1997 World Championships in Swimming (Short track), the 2002 Ice Hockey World Championships, the 2004 UEFA Cup final, the 2006 European Championships in Athletics, and the 2008 World Figure Skating Championships. Annual events held in the city are the Gothia Cup and the Göteborgsvarvet. Gothenburg will host the XIII FINA World Masters Championships 2010. http://www.2010finamasters.org/ XIII FINA World Masters Championships 2010 website Diving, swimming, synchronized swimming and open water competitions will take place from July 28 to August 7. The water polo events will be held on the neighboring city of Borås. Economy The SKF factory in Gothenburg. Due to the Gothenburg's advantageous location in the centre of Scandinavia, trade and shipping have always played a major role in the city's economic history, and they continue to do so. Gothenburg port has come to be the largest harbour in the whole of Scandinavia. Apart from trade, the second pillar of Gothenburg has traditionally been manufacturing, and industry which significantly contributes to the city's wealth. Major companies operating plants in the area include SKF, Volvo, and Ericsson. Volvo Cars is the largest employer in Gothenburg, not including jobs in supply companies. The blue collar industries which have dominated the city for long are still important factors in the city's economy, but they are being gradually replaced by high tech industries. Banking and finance are also important trades as well as the event and tourist industry. Historically, Gothenburg was home base of the 18th century Swedish East India Company. Government Demographics Gothenburg, as with most Swedish metropolitan areas, has a large immigrant population. Statistics Sweden According to Statistics Sweden in 2005, there are 108,480 immigrants resident in Gothenburg, Exceldocument from the townships homepage which is about 20% of the population, out of which 10% are from Finland and 9% from Iran. The Iranian population, as well as other immigrants from the Middle East (notably Iraq), Somalia and former Yugoslavia, is concentrated in Angered (most notably Hjällbo and Hammarkullen) and other suburbs in the north east (Bergsjön), while other immigrants from Scandinavia, Southern Europe (notably Portugal, Italy and Greece) and Eastern Europe are far less segregated. Education Gothenburg has two universities, both of which started off as colleges founded by private donations in the 19th century. The University of Gothenburg has approximately 25,000 students and is one of the largest university in Scandinavia About the university - University of Gothenburg and one of the most versatile in Sweden. Chalmers University of Technology is a well known university located in Johanneberg 2 km south of inner city, lately also established at Lindholmen in Norra Älvstranden, Hisingen [Chalmers University of Technology official webpage: Premises and campus http://www.chalmers.se/en/sections/about_chalmers/premises-campus] . There are also four folk high schools (Arbetarrörelsens Folkhögskola i Göteborg, Folkhögskolan i Angered, Göteborgs Folkhögskola, and Kvinnofolkhögskolan). Gothenburg has some 25-30 high schools. Four of the more notable schools are Schillerska gymnasiet, Donnergymnasiet, Hvitfeldtska gymnasiet, Burgardens Utbildningscentrum and Göteborgs Högre Samskola. There are also some high-schools connected to big Swedish companies. One is SKF Technical high-school(belonging to SKF) and Gothenburgs technical high-school(belonging to Volvo). Points of interest Liseberg, the largest amusement park in Scandinavia. Nordstan, the biggest shopping centre in Scandinavia. Gothenburg is a popular destination for tourists on the Swedish west-coast, and offers a number of cultural and architectural highlights. The main boulevard is called Kungsportsavenyn (commonly known as Avenyn, "The Avenue"). It is about one kilometre long and starts at Götaplatsen — which is the location of the Gothenburg Museum of Art, the city's theatre, and the city library — and stretches out all the way to Kungsportsplatsen in the old city centre of Gothenburg, crossing a canal and a small park. The Avenyn was created in the 1860s and 1870s as a result of an international architecture contest, and is the product of a period of extensive town planning and re-modelling. Guide till Sveriges arkitektur, red. Waern, Caldenby, Arkitektur förlag Avenyn has Gothenburg's biggest concentration of pubs and clubs. Scandinavia's largest shopping centre, Nordstan, is located in central Gothenburg. Gothenburg's Haga district is known for its picturesque wooden houses and its cafés. The Gothenburg Opera house was inaugurated in 1994, and is an architectural landmark situated right next to the Göta älv river. Museums include the Gothenburg Museum of Art, Göteborgs Konsthall, Röhss Museum, and several museums of sea and navigation history, natural history, the sciences, and East India. The Museum of World Culture http://www.varldskulturmuseet.se/smvk/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=126&l=sv_SE was inaugurated in 2004. The Göteborg Botanical Garden Göteborg Botanical Garden is considered to be one of the most important botanical gardens in Europe with three stars in the French Guide Rouge. Next to the botanical garden is Gothenburg's largest park, Slottsskogen, where the Natural History Museum (Naturhistoriska Museet) is located. The park is also home to the city's oldest observatorie. The amusement park Liseberg is located in the central part of the city. Liseberg is Scandinavia's largest amusement park by number of rides, Forbes Magazine article and the most popular attraction in Sweden by number of visitors per year (>3 millions). Located near Liseberg is a science discovery centre named Universeum. One of Gothenburg's most popular natural tourist attractions is the Southern Gothenburg Archipelago, which is a set of many picturesque islands that can be reached by ferry boat. Within the archipelago Älvsborg Fortress, Vinga and Styrsö islands are popular places to visit. Sister cities Aarhus, Denmark Bergen, Norway Chicago, United States Kraków, Poland Lyon, France Oslo, Norway Rostock, Germany Shanghai, People's Republic of China Saint Petersburg, Russia Tallinn, Estonia Turku, Finland Port Elizabeth, Republic of South Africa Transport Centralstationen – Gothenburg Central Station. Spårvägen – Gothenburg's popular tram system covers most of the city. The tram service in Gothenburg is the biggest one in Scandinavia. Air Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport is an international airport serving the Gothenburg region in Sweden. With 4.3 million passengers in 2006 it is Sweden's second-largest airport. It is operated by the Swedish Civil Aviation Administration (Luftfartsverket). The airport is named after the small town of Landvetter, which is located in the municipality of Härryda. It is located 20 km east of Gothenburg. Gothenburg's second international airport is Gothenburg City Airport formerly known as Säve Flygplats and Sweden's 7th largest airport. :sv:Lista över flygplatser i Sverige It is located within the borders of Gothenburg Municipality. Prior to the arrival of Ryanair in 2001, the airport had 9000 passengers per year, only business jets etc. In 2007, more than 700,000 flew from City Airport. In addition to commercial airlines, the airport is also operated by a number of rescue services, including the Swedish Coast Guard. Due to its location many business jets prefer flying to City Airport rather than Landvetter. Gothenburg City Airport can handle planes up to the size of a Boeing 757, an Airbus A320 or similar jets. Sea The Swedish company Stena Line operates between Gothenburg/Fredrikshavn in Denmark and Gothenburg/Kiel in Germany The "England ferry" (Englandsfärjan) to Newcastle over Kristiansand (run by the Danish company DFDS Seaways) ceased at the end of October 2006, "DFDS scraps Newcastle-Gothenburg line", The Local, 7 September 2006: "Danish shipping company DFDS Seaways is to scrap the only passenger ferry route between Sweden and Britain, with the axing of the Gothenburg-Newcastle route at the end of October." after being a Gothenburg institution since the 19th century. The company cited high fuel prices and new competition from low-cost air services, especially Ryanair, as being the cause. DFDS Seaways' sister company, DFDS Tor Line, will continue to run scheduled freight ships between Gothenburg and several English ports, and these have limited capacity for passengers, but not private vehicles. Rail and intercity bus Other major transportation hubs are Centralstationen (Gothenburg Central Station) and the Nils Ericson Terminal with trains and buses to various destinations in Sweden, as well as connections to Oslo and Copenhagen (via Malmö). Freight Gothenburg is a logistic centre, with transports by train and truck from Sweden and Norway to Gothenburg harbour which is by far the largest port in Scandinavia with a cargo turnover of 36.9 million tonnes a year (2004). Statistics from the homepage of the Port of Göteborg Public transport With over 80 km of double track the Gothenburg tram is the largest tram/light rail network in Scandinavia. The bus network, however, is almost as important. There are also some boat and ferry services. The lack of a subway is due to the soft ground on which Göteborg is situated. Tunneling is very expensive in such conditions. There is also a commuter rail in Gothenburg. Notable people See also Metropolitan Gothenburg Gothenburg archipelago East Indiaman Götheborg Largest European metropolitan areas Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits Notes and references External links Goteborg.se - City of Gothenburg website Goteborg.com - Gothenburg tourism portal VisitSweden - VisitSweden's profile of Gothenburg | Gothenburg |@lemmatized gothenburg:102 swedish:23 second:4 large:19 city:73 sweden:26 stockholm:1 fifth:1 amongst:1 nordic:2 country:4 situate:4 south:5 west:9 coast:8 proper:1 population:6 total:2 inhabitant:2 metropolitan:5 area:7 found:5 king:2 gustavus:2 adolphus:2 sea:7 mouth:2 göta:5 älv:3 river:6 run:3 port:9 national:6 encyclopedia:2 password:1 need:2 also:21 home:3 many:11 student:2 include:9 university:18 scandinavia:15 chalmers:6 technology:4 name:11 geats:2 götar:2 vary:1 geatas:1 gautar:1 goth:1 gotar:1 gøtar:1 gothia:3 southern:3 e:2 defense:1 hellquist:1 svensk:1 etymologisk:1 ordbok:1 pamp:1 b:1 ortnamnen:2 sverige:2 svenska:1 ortnamnsarkiv:1 awe:1 gebers:1 serie:1 om:1 våra:1 landskap:1 sit:1 götaälv:1 borg:1 fort:1 build:8 protect:2 create:5 commercial:3 window:1 dutch:9 scot:1 german:1 english:8 language:2 long:4 history:8 speak:1 trade:10 maritime:1 orient:1 traditionally:2 use:5 french:2 form:3 gothembourg:1 gottenburg:1 see:3 old:5 text:2 traditional:3 sometimes:2 replace:2 göteborg:16 example:5 opera:3 ballet:1 international:7 film:5 festival:5 british:1 newspaper:1 u:2 navy:1 refer:1 effective:1 february:1 however:4 göteborgs:4 universitet:1 previously:1 designate:1 change:1 new:5 variation:1 götheborgh:1 common:1 götheborg:2 one:12 write:1 late:2 century:16 say:1 guthaeborg:1 circa:1 suecia:1 antiqua:1 et:1 hodierna:1 configuration:1 border:2 make:4 strategically:1 important:10 gateway:1 lie:1 narrow:1 territory:1 denmark:6 norway:7 several:3 fail:1 attempt:1 successfully:1 gustaf:1 ii:1 adolf:1 heavily:1 influence:4 planner:2 contract:1 skill:1 marshy:1 around:5 town:8 plan:4 canal:5 like:5 amsterdam:1 blueprint:1 actually:1 jakarta:1 dutchman:1 initially:1 win:3 political:2 power:3 last:3 politician:1 council:1 die:2 swede:1 acquire:1 henriksson:1 dick:1 älveby:1 rustan:1 vårt:1 levebröd:1 göteborgregionens:1 näringsliv:1 igår:1 dag:1 och:1 morgon:1 publisher:1 akademiförlaget:1 page:1 isbn:1 period:5 follow:2 law:1 proposition:1 official:3 along:3 scottish:3 come:3 settle:1 become:3 people:3 high:10 profile:2 person:1 william:1 donate:1 fortune:1 later:1 still:3 felt:1 present:1 day:2 glenn:1 morgan:1 rest:2 usually:2 rare:1 uncommon:1 sounding:1 r:1 local:2 dialect:1 coat:2 arm:3 base:4 lion:1 symbolically:1 hold:5 shield:1 emblem:1 three:5 crown:2 defend:1 enemy:2 treaty:1 roskilde:1 cede:1 danish:3 province:2 halland:2 norwegian:1 bohus:1 county:3 bohuslän:2 north:4 leave:2 less:2 exposed:1 position:1 able:1 grow:2 centre:8 thanks:2 fact:2 grant:1 together:1 marstrand:1 right:2 merchant:2 fishing:1 industry:5 east:9 india:5 company:13 flourish:1 due:5 foreign:1 highly:1 profitable:1 expedition:1 asian:1 expansion:1 today:2 street:2 grid:1 look:3 much:3 harbour:4 develop:2 main:5 towards:1 emigration:1 america:1 increasing:1 point:3 departure:1 impact:1 embarkation:1 emigrant:1 reflect:1 nebraska:1 small:3 settlement:1 united:3 state:3 evolve:1 modern:2 industrial:4 continue:3 increase:1 tenfold:1 major:7 skf:5 est:2 volvo:4 recent:1 year:9 section:3 face:1 recession:1 spur:1 development:1 sector:1 increased:1 merchandising:1 tourism:2 cultural:4 educational:1 institution:4 protest:1 occur:3 eu:1 summit:1 visit:2 president:1 george:1 w:1 bush:1 geography:1 view:1 space:1 locate:10 southwestern:1 approximately:2 half:1 way:3 capital:1 copenhagen:2 oslo:3 location:6 feed:1 kattegatt:1 help:1 significance:1 trading:1 gulf:2 stream:2 mild:2 climate:5 quite:2 lot:1 rain:1 archipelago:5 consists:1 rough:1 barren:1 rock:1 cliff:2 typical:2 extend:2 municipality:3 ale:1 härryda:2 kungälv:1 lerum:1 mölndal:1 partille:1 stenungsund:1 tjörn:1 öckerö:1 västra:2 götaland:1 kungsbacka:1 oceanic:1 accord:2 köppen:1 classification:1 despite:1 northern:2 latitude:3 temperature:5 throughout:2 warm:4 place:5 similar:2 even:3 somewhat:2 mainly:2 moderate:2 summer:3 daylight:1 hour:2 december:2 pleasant:1 average:1 c:4 f:4 low:3 winter:2 cold:2 windy:1 freezing:1 though:1 rarely:1 drop:1 either:1 canada:1 precipitation:2 regular:1 generally:1 snow:2 january:1 march:1 cover:2 occurs:1 remain:1 month:1 goteborg:4 visitor:2 guide:4 culture:3 poseidon:1 statue:1 carl:1 milles:1 often:2 used:1 symbol:1 evident:1 life:3 big:8 attraction:3 amusement:4 park:7 liseberg:5 site:1 interest:2 another:3 relate:1 heritage:1 well:7 hospital:1 donation:2 rich:2 industrialist:1 röhsska:1 museum:10 free:1 theatre:5 ensemble:1 besides:1 backa:1 youth:1 folkteatern:1 world:13 open:2 near:2 korsvägen:1 similarly:1 book:1 fair:1 every:1 september:2 event:5 architecture:3 building:3 part:2 house:10 since:2 military:1 royal:1 wood:2 nationalencyklopedin:1 ne:2 skansen:1 first:5 architecturally:1 interesting:1 impose:1 stone:2 classical:3 erect:3 wealthy:1 bourgeoisie:1 begin:1 move:1 outside:1 wall:1 union:2 threat:1 style:6 eclectic:1 academic:1 decorate:1 middle:2 class:4 favour:1 work:1 live:1 overcrowded:1 district:2 haga:2 wooden:2 founding:1 lead:1 construction:2 kungsportsavenyn:2 perhaps:1 significant:1 type:1 landshövdingehusen:1 end:3 storey:1 floor:1 two:2 architectural:3 early:1 romantic:1 dominate:3 among:1 monumental:1 masthugget:1 church:3 mention:1 beginning:1 celebrate:1 anniversary:1 götaplatsen:2 square:1 neo:1 predominant:1 functionalism:1 especially:2 suburb:4 frölunda:2 bergsjön:2 prominent:1 functionalist:1 architect:2 uno:1 åhrén:1 serve:2 stadium:2 ullevi:5 host:3 fifa:2 cup:5 gert:1 wingårdh:1 start:3 post:1 modernist:1 remarkable:1 brudaremossen:1 tv:1 tower:2 partially:1 guyed:1 music:3 symphony:1 orchestra:1 best:1 known:1 birthplace:2 composer:1 kurt:1 atterberg:1 band:4 soundtrack:1 ace:1 know:7 pop:3 representative:1 active:1 indie:2 scene:3 musician:1 jens:1 lekman:1 bear:1 angered:1 release:1 night:2 fall:1 kortedala:2 internationally:1 claim:1 artist:1 electro:1 duo:1 studio:1 dance:1 group:1 tough:1 alliance:1 songwriter:1 josé:1 gonzález:1 singer:1 el:1 perro:1 del:1 mar:1 note:2 heavy:1 metal:6 subgenre:1 melodic:2 death:3 call:2 sound:1 distinct:1 mixture:1 melody:1 harmony:1 extensive:2 guitar:1 solo:1 keyboard:1 clean:1 singing:1 incorporate:1 instead:1 growl:1 vocal:1 commercially:1 successful:1 gate:1 flame:1 dark:1 tranquillity:1 credit:1 pioneer:1 although:2 michael:1 amott:1 arch:1 spiritual:1 beggar:1 ex:2 carcass:1 carnage:1 soilwork:1 hail:2 helsingborg:1 progressive:1 evergrey:1 metallica:1 play:3 burton:1 bus:4 accident:1 next:3 concert:1 food:1 drink:1 famous:1 fish:5 dish:2 variety:2 various:2 restaurant:2 exist:1 shack:1 eatery:1 number:6 star:3 chef:2 past:1 decade:1 seven:1 award:1 gothenburgers:1 york:1 time:2 article:2 popular:7 buy:1 ingredient:1 feskekôrka:1 indoor:1 market:1 get:1 resemblance:1 gothic:1 five:1 michelin:1 basement:1 fond:1 kock:1 vin:1 sjömagasinet:1 information:1 tourist:4 co:1 website:4 www:5 com:2 sport:6 sailboat:1 yacht:1 scatter:1 sailing:1 activity:1 region:2 particularly:1 nearby:1 football:7 arena:1 limited:1 ice:4 hockey:4 basketball:1 team:2 handball:3 varied:1 amateur:1 professional:1 club:4 match:1 ifk:2 örgryte:1 gais:1 share:1 championship:8 uefa:2 twice:1 notable:4 bk:1 häcken:1 pixbo:1 wallenstam:1 ibk:1 floorball:1 multiple:1 champion:2 redbergslids:1 ik:1 hc:1 venue:1 scandinavium:1 nya:1 multisport:1 gamla:2 higabgruppen:1 http:4 higab:1 se:4 fotbollsarenan:1 default:1 asp:1 european:4 men:1 athletics:2 swimming:3 short:1 track:2 final:1 figure:1 skate:1 annual:1 göteborgsvarvet:1 xiii:2 fina:2 master:2 championships:2 org:1 diving:1 synchronize:1 water:2 competition:2 take:1 july:1 august:1 polo:1 neighboring:1 borås:1 economy:2 factory:1 advantageous:1 shipping:2 always:1 role:1 economic:1 whole:1 apart:1 pillar:1 manufacture:1 significantly:1 contribute:1 wealth:1 operate:4 plant:1 ericsson:1 car:1 employer:1 job:1 supply:1 blue:1 collar:1 factor:1 gradually:1 tech:1 banking:1 finance:1 historically:1 government:1 demographic:1 immigrant:4 statistic:3 resident:1 exceldocument:1 township:1 homepage:2 finland:2 iran:1 iranian:1 notably:3 iraq:1 somalia:1 former:1 yugoslavia:1 concentrate:1 anger:2 hjällbo:1 hammarkullen:1 europe:3 portugal:1 italy:1 greece:1 eastern:1 far:2 segregated:1 education:1 college:1 private:2 versatile:1 johanneberg:1 km:3 inner:1 lately:1 establish:1 lindholmen:1 norra:1 älvstranden:1 hisingen:1 webpage:1 premise:2 campus:2 en:1 four:2 folk:1 school:6 arbetarrörelsens:1 folkhögskola:2 folkhögskolan:1 kvinnofolkhögskolan:1 schillerska:1 gymnasiet:2 donnergymnasiet:1 hvitfeldtska:1 burgardens:1 utbildningscentrum:1 högre:1 samskola:1 connect:1 technical:2 belong:2 gothenburgs:1 nordstan:2 shopping:2 destination:2 offer:1 highlight:1 boulevard:1 commonly:1 avenyn:3 avenue:1 kilometre:1 art:2 library:1 stretch:1 kungsportsplatsen:1 cross:1 result:1 contest:1 product:1 planning:1 modelling:1 till:1 sveriges:1 arkitektur:2 red:1 waern:1 caldenby:1 förlag:1 concentration:1 pub:1 central:4 picturesque:2 cafés:1 inaugurate:2 landmark:1 konsthall:1 röhss:1 navigation:1 natural:3 science:2 varldskulturmuseet:1 smvk:1 jsp:2 polopoly:1 l:1 botanical:4 garden:4 consider:1 rouge:1 slottsskogen:1 naturhistoriska:1 museet:1 observatorie:1 ride:1 forbes:1 magazine:1 per:2 million:3 discovery:1 universeum:1 set:1 island:2 reach:1 ferry:4 boat:2 within:3 älvsborg:1 fortress:1 vinga:1 styrsö:1 sister:2 aarhus:1 bergen:1 chicago:1 kraków:1 poland:1 lyon:1 france:1 rostock:1 germany:2 shanghai:1 republic:2 china:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 russia:1 tallinn:1 estonia:1 turku:1 elizabeth:1 africa:1 transport:3 centralstationen:2 station:2 spårvägen:1 tram:4 system:1 service:4 air:2 landvetter:3 airport:12 passenger:4 civil:1 aviation:1 administration:1 luftfartsverket:1 formerly:1 säve:1 flygplats:1 sv:1 lista:1 över:1 flygplatser:1 prior:1 arrival:1 ryanair:2 business:2 jet:3 etc:1 flew:1 addition:1 airline:1 rescue:1 guard:1 prefer:1 fly:1 rather:1 handle:1 size:1 boeing:1 airbus:1 stena:1 line:3 fredrikshavn:1 kiel:1 england:1 englandsfärjan:1 newcastle:3 kristiansand:1 dfds:5 seaway:3 cease:1 october:2 scrap:2 route:2 britain:1 axing:1 cite:1 fuel:1 price:1 cost:1 cause:1 tor:1 schedule:1 freight:2 ship:1 limit:2 capacity:1 vehicle:1 rail:3 intercity:1 transportation:1 hub:1 nil:1 ericson:1 terminal:1 train:2 connection:1 via:1 malmö:1 logistic:1 truck:1 cargo:1 turnover:1 tonne:1 public:1 double:1 light:1 network:2 almost:1 lack:1 subway:1 soft:1 ground:1 tunneling:1 expensive:1 condition:1 commuter:1 indiaman:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 portal:1 visitsweden:2 |@bigram gustavus_adolphus:2 adolphus_sweden:1 göta_älv:3 strategically_important:1 coat_arm:2 increase_tenfold:1 w_bush:1 copenhagen_denmark:1 oslo_norway:2 köppen_climate:1 amusement_park:4 celebrate_anniversary:1 symphony_orchestra:1 melody_harmony:1 commercially_successful:1 cliff_burton:1 ice_hockey:4 uefa_cup:2 http_www:4 default_asp:1 handball_championship:1 figure_skate:1 volvo_car:1 shopping_centre:2 botanical_garden:4 forbes_magazine:1 tourist_attraction:1 aarhus_denmark:1 bergen_norway:1 saint_petersburg:1 petersburg_russia:1 tallinn_estonia:1 turku_finland:1 boeing_airbus:1 intercity_bus:1 commuter_rail:1 external_link:1 |
976 | Horror_fiction | Horror fiction is fiction in any medium intended to scare, unsettle, or horrify the audience. Historically, the cause of the "horror" experience has often been the intrusion of a supernatural element into everyday human experience. Since the 1960s, any work of fiction with a morbid, gruesome, surreal, or exceptionally suspenseful or frightening theme has come to be called "horror". Horror fiction often overlaps science fiction or fantasy, all three categories of which are sometimes placed under the umbrella classification speculative fiction. Haunting is used as a plot device in horror fiction and paranormal-based fiction. Legends about haunted houses have long appeared in literature. For example, the Arabian Nights tale of "Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad" revolves around a house haunted by jinns. The influence of the Arabian Nights on modern horror fiction is certainly discernible in some of the work of H. P. Lovecraft. Achievements in horror fiction are recognized by numerous awards. The Horror Writer's Association presents the Bram Stoker Awards for Superior Achievement, named in honor of Bram Stoker, author of the seminal horror work, Dracula. http://www.horror.org/stokers.htm Today horror is one of the most popular categories of film. See also List of horror films H.P. Lovecraft, Supernatural Horror in Literature, 1927, rev. 1934, collected in Dagon and Other Macabre Tales Arkham House, 1965. References External links Horror Writers Association | Horror_fiction |@lemmatized horror:14 fiction:10 medium:1 intend:1 scare:1 unsettle:1 horrify:1 audience:1 historically:1 cause:1 experience:2 often:2 intrusion:1 supernatural:2 element:1 everyday:1 human:1 since:1 work:3 morbid:1 gruesome:1 surreal:1 exceptionally:1 suspenseful:1 frightening:1 theme:1 come:1 call:1 overlap:1 science:1 fantasy:1 three:1 category:2 sometimes:1 place:1 umbrella:1 classification:1 speculative:1 haunting:1 use:1 plot:1 device:1 paranormal:1 base:1 legends:1 haunt:3 house:4 long:1 appear:1 literature:2 example:1 arabian:2 night:2 tale:2 ali:1 cairene:1 baghdad:1 revolve:1 around:1 jinns:1 influence:1 modern:1 certainly:1 discernible:1 h:2 p:2 lovecraft:2 achievement:2 recognize:1 numerous:1 award:2 writer:2 association:2 present:1 bram:2 stoker:3 superior:1 name:1 honor:1 author:1 seminal:1 dracula:1 http:1 www:1 org:1 htm:1 today:1 one:1 popular:1 film:2 see:1 also:1 list:1 rev:1 collect:1 dagon:1 macabre:1 arkham:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram science_fiction:1 revolve_around:1 bram_stoker:2 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
977 | Guglielmo_Marconi | Marchese Guglielmo Marconi (; 25 April 1874 – 20 July 1937) was an Italian inventor, best known for his development of a radiotelegraph system, which served as the foundation for the establishment of numerous affiliated companies worldwide. He shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun, "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". "Guglielmo Marconi: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909" Later in life, Marconi was an active Italian Fascist Physicsworld.com, "Guglielmo Marconi: radio star", 2001 and an apologist for their ideology (such as the attack by Italian forces in Ethiopia). Biography Early years Marconi was born near Bologna, Italy, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi, an Italian landowner, and his Irish wife, Annie Jameson, granddaughter of the founder of the Jameson Whiskey distillery. Marconi was educated in Bologna in the lab of Augusto Righi, in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero, and, later, in Livorno. As a child Marconi did not do well in school. Robert McHenry, "Guglielmo Marconi," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1993. Baptized as a Catholic, he was also member of the Anglican Church being married into it, however still received a Catholic annulment. Radio work During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity. One of the scientific developments during this era came from Heinrich Hertz, who, beginning in 1888, demonstrated that one could produce and detect electromagnetic radiation—now generally known as "radio waves", at the time more commonly called "Hertzian waves" or "aetheric waves". Hertz's death in 1894 brought published reviews of his earlier discoveries, and a renewed interest on the part of Marconi. He was permitted to briefly study the subject under Augusto Righi, a University of Bologna physicist and neighbour of Marconi who had done research on Hertz's work. Righi had a subscription to The Electrician where Oliver Lodge published detailed accounts of the apparatus used in his (Lodge's) public demonstrations of wireless telegraphy in 1894. Early experimental devices Marconi began to conduct experiments, building much of his own equipment in the attic of his home at the Villa Griffone in Pontecchio, Italy. His goal was to use radio waves to create a practical system of "wireless telegraphy"—i.e. the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. This was not a new idea—numerous investigators had been exploring wireless telegraph technologies for over 50 years, but none had proven commercially successful. Marconi did not discover any new and revolutionary principle in his wireless-telegraph system, but rather he assembled and improved an array of facts, unified and adapted them to his system. Williams, H. S., & Williams, E. H. (1910). Every-day science. New York: Goodhue Company. Page 54. Marconi's system had the following components: Marconi delineated his 1895 apparatus in his Nobel Award speech. See: Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphic Communication: Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1909." Nobel Lectures. Physics 1901-1921. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, 1967: 196-222. Page 198. A relatively simple oscillator, or spark producing radio transmitter, which was closely modeled after one designed by Righi, in turn similar to what Hertz had used; A wire or capacity area placed at a height above the ground; A coherer receiver, which was a modification of Edouard Branly's original device, with refinements to increase sensitivity and reliability; A telegraph key to operate the transmitter to send short and long pulses, corresponding to the dots-and-dashes of Morse code; and A telegraph register, activated by the coherer, which recorded the received Morse code dots and dashes onto a roll of paper tape. Similar configurations using spark-gap transmitters plus coherer-receivers had been tried by others, but many were unable to achieve transmission ranges of more than a few hundred metres. At first, Marconi could only signal over limited distances. In the summer of 1895 he moved his experimentation outdoors. After increasing the length of the transmitter and receiver antennas, and arranging them vertically, and positioning the antenna so that it touched the ground, the range increased significantly. This fact was known to many as, in 1893, Tesla stated in the widely known "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena" speech which was delivered before the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, in February, and before the National Electric Light Association, St. Louis, in March, that "One of the terminals of the source would be connected to Earth [as a electric ground connection ...] the other to an insulated body of large surface". Marconi did acknowledge this later in his Nobel Award speech. See: Marconi, "Wireless Telegraphic Communication: Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1909." Nobel Lectures. Physics 1901-1921. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, 1967: 196-222. Page 206. Soon he was able to transmit signals over a hill, a distance of approximately . By this point he concluded that with additional funding and research, a device could become capable of spanning greater distances and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Finding limited interest in his work in Italy, in early 1896 at the age of 21, Marconi traveled to London, England, accompanied by his mother to seek support for his work; Marconi spoke fluent English in addition to Italian. While there, he gained the interest and support of William Preece, the Chief Electrical Engineer of the British Post Office. The apparatus that Marconi possessed at that time was strikingly similar to that of one in 1882 by A. E. Dolbear, of Tufts College, which used a spark coil generator and a carbon granular rectifier for reception. Alfred Thomas Story, The Story of Wireless Telegraphy. 1904. Page 58. John J. O'Neill, Prodigal Genius:The Life of Nikola Tesla. Ives Washburn, New York, 1944 A series of demonstrations for the British government followed—by March, 1897, Marconi had transmitted Morse code signals over a distance of about across the Salisbury Plain. On 13 May 1897, Marconi sent the first ever wireless communication over open sea. It transversed the Bristol Channel from Lavernock Point (South Wales) to Flat Holm Island, a distance of . The message read "Are you ready". BBC Wales, "Marconi's Waves" The receiving equipment was almost immediately relocated to Brean Down Fort on the Somerset coast, stretching the range to . Impressed by these and other demonstrations, Preece introduced Marconi's ongoing work to the general public at two important London lectures: "Telegraphy without Wires", at the Toynbee Hall on 11 December 1896; and "Signaling through Space without Wires", given to the Royal Institution on 4 June 1897. Numerous additional demonstrations followed, and Marconi began to receive international attention. In July 1897, he carried out a series of tests at La Spezia in his home country, for the Italian government. A test for Lloyds between Ballycastle and Rathlin Island, Ireland, was conducted on 6 July 1898. The English channel was crossed on 27 March 1899, from Wimereux, France to South Foreland Lighthouse, England, and in the fall of 1899, the first demonstrations in the United States took place, with the reporting of the America's Cup international yacht races at New York. Marconi sailed to the United States at the invitation of the New York Herald newspaper to cover the America's Cup races off Sandy Hook, NJ. The transmission was done aboard the SS Ponce, a passenger ship of the Porto Rico Line. According to the Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute by the United States Naval Institute, the Marconi instruments were tested around 1899 and the tests concerning his wireless system found that the "[...] coherer, principle of which was discovered some twenty years ago, [was] the only electrical instrument or device contained in the apparatus that is at all new". United States Naval Institute, Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute. The Institute, 1899. Page 857. Transatlantic transmissions Around the turn of the century, Marconi began investigating the means to signal completely across the Atlantic, in order to compete with the transatlantic telegraph cables. Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, Rosslare Strand, Co. Wexford in 1901 to act as a link between Poldhu in Cornwall and Clifden in Co. Galway. He soon made the announcement that on 12 December 1901, using a kite-supported antenna for reception, the message was received at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland (now part of Canada) signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The distance between the two points was about . Heralded as a great scientific advance, there was — and continues to be — some skepticism about this claim, partly because the signals had been heard faintly and sporadically. There was no independent confirmation of the reported reception, and the transmissions, consisting of the Morse code letter S sent repeatedly, were difficult to distinguish from atmospheric noise. (A detailed technical review of Marconi's early transatlantic work appears in John S. Belrose's work of 1995.) The Poldhu transmitter was a two-stage circuit. "Marconi and the History of Radio". John S. Belrose, "Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio -- 5–7 September 1995. The first stage operated at lower voltage and provided the energy for the second stage to spark at a higher voltage. Nikola Tesla, a rival in transatlantic transmission, stated after being told of Marconi's reported transmission that "Marconi [... was] using seventeen of my patents." Margaret Cheney, Tesla, Man Out of Time, New Jersey : Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1981 Margaret Cheney and Robert Uth, Tesla: Master of Lightning, Barnes&Noble, 1999. Feeling challenged by skeptics, Marconi prepared a better organized and documented test. In February, 1902, the SS Philadelphia sailed west from Great Britain with Marconi aboard, carefully recording signals sent daily from the Poldhu station. The test results produced coherer-tape reception up to , and audio reception up to . Interestingly, the maximum distances were achieved at night, and these tests were the first to show that for mediumwave and longwave transmissions, radio signals travel much farther at night than in the day. During the daytime, signals had only been received up to about , less than half of the distance claimed earlier at Newfoundland, where the transmissions had also taken place during the day. Because of this, Marconi had not fully confirmed the Newfoundland claims, although he did prove that radio signals could be sent for hundreds of kilometres, despite some scientists' belief they were essentially limited to line-of-sight distances. On 17 December 1902, a transmission from the Marconi station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada, became the first radio message to cross the Atlantic from North America. On 18 January 1903, a Marconi station built near South Wellfleet, Massachusetts in 1901 sent a message of greetings from Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States, to King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, marking the first transatlantic radio transmission originating in the United States. However, consistent transatlantic signalling was difficult to establish. Marconi began to build high-powered stations on both sides of the Atlantic to communicate with ships at sea, in competition with other inventors. In 1904 a commercial service was established to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which could incorporate them into their on-board newspapers. A regular transatlantic radio-telegraph service was finally begun on 17 October 1907 The Clifden Station of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph System, Scientific American, November 23, 1907 between Clifden Ireland and Glace Bay, but even after this the company struggled for many years to provide reliable communication. Titanic The two radio operators aboard the Titanic - Jack Phillips and Harold Bride - were not employed by the White Star Line but by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company. Following the sinking of the ocean liner, survivors were rescued by the Carpathia of the Cunard Line. When it docked in New York, Marconi went aboard with a reporter from the New York Times to talk with Bride, the surviving operator. John P. Eaton & Charles A. Haas Titanic - Triumph and Tragedy, A Chronicle in Words and Pictures. 1994 On 18 June 1912, Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry into the loss of the Titanic regarding the marine telegraphy's functions and the procedures for emergencies at sea. Court of Inquiry Loss of the S.S. Titanic 1912 Britain's postmaster-general summed up, referring to the Titanic disaster, "Those who have been saved, have been saved through one man, Mr. Marconi...and his marvellous invention." Patent disputes <div class="noprint">Main articles: Invention of radio and History of radio.</div> Marconi's work built upon the discoveries of numerous other scientists and experimenters. His "two-circuit" equipment, consisting of a spark-gap transmitter plus a coherer-receiver, was similar to those used by other experimenters, and in particular to that employed by Oliver Lodge in a series of widely reported demonstrations in 1894. There were claims that Marconi was able to signal for greater distances than anyone else when using the spark-gap and coherer combination, but these have been disputed (notably by Tesla). Marconi's late-1895 transmission of signals was for around a mile (1.6 km). This was small compared to Tesla's early-1895 transmissions of up to 50 miles. For more see "Nikola Tesla On His Work with Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power", Leland I. Anderson, Twenty First Century Books, 2002, pp. 26-27. In 1900 Alexander Stepanovich Popov stated to the Congress of Russian Electrical Engineers that: "[...] the emission and reception of signals by Marconi by means of electric oscillations [was] nothing new. In America, the famous engineer Nikola Tesla carried the same experiments in 1893." "The Guglielmo Marconi Case; Who is the True Inventor of Radio". The Fascist regime in Italy credited Marconi with the first improvised arrangement in the development of radio. Gianni Isola, "Italian radio: History and Historiography"; Special Issue: Italian Media Since World War II. Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, August, 1995 There was controversy whether his contribution was sufficient to deserve patent protection, or if his devices were too close to the original ones developed by Hertz, Popov, Branley, Tesla, and Lodge to be patentable. While Marconi did pioneering demonstrations for the time, his equipment was limited by being essentially untuned, which greatly restricted the number of spark-gap radio transmitters which could operate simultaneously in a geographical area without causing mutually disruptive interference. (Continuous-wave transmitters were naturally more selective and less prone to this deficiency). Marconi addressed this defect with a patent application for a much more sophisticated "four-circuit" design, which featured two tuned-circuits at both the transmitting and receiving antennas. This was issued as British patent number 7,777 on 26 April 1900. However, this patent came after significant earlier work had been done on electrical tuning by Nikola Tesla and Oliver Lodge. (As a defensive move, in 1911 the Marconi Company purchased the Lodge-Muirhead Syndicate, whose primary asset was Oliver Lodge's 1897 tuning patent. This followed a 1911 court case in which the Marconi company was ruled to have illegally used the techniques described under Lodge's tuning patent.) Thus, the "four-sevens" patent and its equivalents in other countries was the subject of numerous legal challenges, with rulings which varied by jurisdiction, from full validation of Marconi's tuning patent to complete nullification. In 1943, a lawsuit regarding Marconi's numerous other radio patents was resolved in the United States. The court decision was based on the prior work conducted by others, including Nikola Tesla, Oliver Lodge, and John Stone Stone, from which some of Marconi patents (such as ) stemmed. The U. S. Supreme Court stated that, The Tesla patent No. 645,576, applied for 2 September 1897 and allowed 20 March 1900, disclosed a four-circuit system, having two circuits each at transmitter and receiver, and recommended that all four circuits be tuned to the same frequency. [... He] recognized that his apparatus could, without change, be used for wireless communication, which is dependent upon the transmission of electrical energy. U.S. Supreme Court, "Marconi Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States". 320 U.S. 1. Nos. 369, 373. Argued 9-12 April 1943. Decided 21 June 1943. In making their decision, the court noted, Marconi's reputation as the man who first achieved successful radio transmission rests on his original patent, which became reissue No. 11,913, and which is not here [320 U.S. 1, 38] in question. That reputation, however well-deserved, does not entitle him to a patent for every later improvement which he claims in the radio field. Patent cases, like others, must be decided not by weighing the reputations of the litigants, but by careful study of the merits of their respective contentions and proofs." Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States. The court also stated that, <blockquote>It is well established that as between two inventors priority of invention will be awarded to the one who by satisfying proof can show that he first conceived of the invention."</blockquote> The case was resolved in the U.S. Supreme Court by overturning most of Marconi's patents. At the time, the United States Army was involved in a patent infringement lawsuit with Marconi's company regarding radio, leading observers to posit that the government nullified Marconi's other patents to render moot claims for compensation (as, it is speculated, the government's initial reversal to grant Marconi the patent right in order to nullify any claims Tesla had for compensation). In contrast to the United States system, Mr. Justice Parker of the British High Court of Justice upheld Marconi's "four-sevens" tuning patent. These proceedings made up only a part of a long series of legal struggles, as major corporations jostled for advantage in a new and important industry. Continuing work Over the years, the Marconi companies gained a reputation for being technically conservative, in particular by continuing to use inefficient spark-transmitter technology, which could only be used for radiotelegraph operations, long after it was apparent that the future of radio communication lay with continuous-wave transmissions, which were more efficient and could be used for audio transmissions. Somewhat belatedly, the company did begin significant work with continuous-wave equipment beginning in 1915, after the introduction of the oscillating vacuum tube (valve). In 1920, employing a vacuum tube transmitter, the Chelmsford Marconi factory was the location for the first entertainment radio broadcasts in the United Kingdom—one of these featured Dame Nellie Melba. In 1922 regular entertainment broadcasts commenced from the Marconi Research Centre at Writtle. Later years In 1914 Marconi was made a Senator in the Italian Senate and appointed Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in the UK. During World War I, Italy joined the Allied side of the conflict, and Marconi was placed in charge of the Italian military's radio service. He attained the rank of lieutenant in the Italian Army and of commander in the Italian Navy. In 1924, he was made a marquess by King Victor Emmanuel III. Marconi joined the Italian Fascist party in 1923. In 1930, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini appointed him President of the Royal Academy of Italy, which made Marconi a member of the Fascist Grand Council. Marconi died in Rome in 1937 at age 63 following a series of heart attacks, and Italy held a state funeral for him. As a tribute, all radio stations throughout the world observed two minutes of silence. His remains are housed in the Villa Griffone at Sasso Marconi, Emilia-Romagna, which assumed that name in his honour in 1938. Personal life On 16 March 1905, Marconi married Beatrice O'Brien (1882–1976), daughter of Edward Donough O'Brien, 14th Baron Inchiquin, Ireland. They had three daughters—Degna (1908–1998), Gioia (1916–1996) and a third who lived only a few weeks—and a son,Giulio (1910–1971). They divorced in 1924 and the marriage was annulled in 1927. On 15 June 1927, Marconi married Maria Cristina Bezzi-Scali (1900–1994); Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini was Marconi's best man at the wedding. George P. Oslin, The Story of Telecommunications. 1992. 507 pages. Page 294. Gerald Sussman, Communication, Technology, and Politics in the Information Age. 1997. Page 90. They had one daughter, Elettra (born 1930). Marconi had a brother, Alfonso, and a stepbrother, Luigi. In 1915 his friend Mrs. Mary Cummins Brown of New York perished in the sinking of the British luxury liner RMS Lusitania off the Irish coast, a fact he wrote about two days later in The New York Times Legacy The Bologna Airport (BLQ) is named after Guglielmo Marconi, as is the Marconiville section of the town of Copiague, the Australian football club the Marconi Stallions, the Nepean, Ontario Villa Marconi retirement home, the Upper East Side New York's La Scuola D'Italia, and Marconi Avenue, a street on The Hill, St. Louis. A Marconi memorial statue stands on Telegraph Hill in San Francisco. The band Jefferson Starship references him in their song We Built This City. The lyrics say: "Marconi plays the mamba, listen to the radio". The premier collection of Marconi artifacts was held by The General Electric Company, p.l.c. (GEC) of the United Kingdom which later renamed to Marconi plc and Marconi Corporation plc. In December 2004 the extensive Marconi Collection, held at the former Marconi Research Centre at Great Baddow, Chelmsford, Essex UK was gifted to the Nation by the Company via the University of Oxford. This consisted of the BAFTA award-winning MarconiCalling website, some 250+ physical artifacts and the massive ephemera collection of papers, books, patents and many other items. The artifacts are now held by The Museum of the History of Science and the ephemera Archives by the nearby Bodleian Library. The latest release, following three years work at the Bodleian, is the Online Catalogue to the Marconi Archives, released in November 2008. There is a road called Marconi Road in Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, named in honour of Marconi. It also happens that this area was the former home of many of Hong Kong's broadcasters, including Asia Television Limited and Television Broadcasts Limited. Honors and Awards The Radio Hall of Fame (Museum of Broadcast Communications, Chicago) inducted Marconi soon after the inception of its awards. He was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2009. New Jersey to Bon Jovi: You Give Us a Good Name Yahoo News, February 2, 2009 The Dutch radio academy bestows the Marconi Awards annually for outstanding radio programmes, presenters and stations; the National Association of Broadcasters (US) bestows the annual NAB Marconi Radio Awards also for outstanding radio programs and stations. Marconi was inducted into the National Broadcasters Hall of Fame in 1977. National Broadcasters Hall of Fame Accessed 2009-02-10 A commemorative British two pound coin was released in 2001 celebrating the 100th anniversary of Marconi's first wireless communication. Patents British Patents British patent No. 12,039, Date of Application 2 June 1896; Complete Specification Left, 2 March 1897; Accepted, 2 July 1897 (later claimed by Oliver Lodge to contain his own ideas which he failed to patent) US Patents "Transmitting electrical signals", (using Ruhmkorff coil and Morse code key) filed December 1896, patented July, 1897 "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus employed in wireless telegraphy". "Receiver for electrical oscillations". "Wireless signaling system". "Wireless telegraphy". Filed October 13, 1903; Issued 13, 1905. "Apparatus for wireless telegraphy" (later practical version of system) "Wireless telegraphy system". Filed November 19, 1901; Issued April 19, 1904. "Wireless signaling system". Filed September 10, 1903; Issued 24 May 1904. "Apparatus for wireless telegraphy" (Four tuned system; this innovation was predated by N. Tesla, O. Lodge, and J. S. Stone) "Wireless telegraphy". Filed October 13, 1903 "Wireless telegraphy". Filed October 13, 1903; Issued June 13, 1905. "Wireless telegraphy". Filed November 28, 1902; Issued April 14, 1908. "Wireless telegraphy". "Detecting electrical oscillations". Filed February 2, 1903; Issued April 14, 1908. "Wireless telegraphy". "Transmitting apparatus for wireless telegraphy". Filed April 10, 1908; Issued September 28, 1909. "Apparatus for wireless telegraphy". "Apparatus for wireless telegraphy". Filed April 10, 1908; Issued September 28, 1909. "Apparatus for wireless telegraphy". Filed March 31, 1909; Issued April 12, 1910. "Transmitting apparatus for wireless telegraphy". Filed July 15, 1910; Issued July 11, 1911. "Means for generating alternating electric currents". Filed January 27, 1914; Issued July 7, 1914. "Transmitter for wireless telegraphy". Filed July 20, 1908. "Transmitting apparatus for use in wireless telegraphy and telephony". Filed December 31, 1913; Issued 15 May 1917. "Wireless telegraph transmitter". "Electric accumulator". Filed March 9, 1918 "Transmitter for wireless telegraphy". Filed July 20, 1908; Issued August 3, 1915. "Thermionic valve". Filed October 14, 1926; Issued November 20, 1934. See also Invention of radio List of people on stamps of Ireland Jagdish Chandra Bose Notes Further reading <div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> Relatives and company publications Bussey, Gordon, Marconi's Atlantic Leap, Marconi Communications, 2000. ISBN 0-95389-670-6 Marconi, Degna, My Father, Marconi, James Lorimer & Co, 1982. ISBN 0-919511-14-7 - (Italian version): Marconi, mio padre, Di Renzo Editore, 2008, ISBN 8883232062 Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Year book of wireless telegraphy and telephony, London : Published for the Marconi Press Agency Ltd., by the St. Catherine Press / Wireless Press. LCCN 14017875 sn 86035439 Other Ahern, Steve (ed), Making Radio (2nd Edition) Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2006. Aitken, Hugh G. J., Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1976. ISBN 0-471-01816-3 Aitken, Hugh G. J., The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900-1932, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-691-08376-2. Anderson, Leland I., Priority in the Invention of Radio — Tesla vs. Marconi Baker, W. J., A History of the Marconi Company, 1970. Brodsky, Ira. "The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses" (Telescope Books, 2008) Clark, Paddy, "Marconi's Irish Connections Recalled," published in ";100 Years of Radio," IEE Conference Publication 411, 1995. Coe, Douglas and Kreigh Collins (ills), Marconi, pioneer of radio, New York, J. Messner, Inc., 1943. LCCN 43010048 Garratt, G. R. M., The early history of radio: from Faraday to Marconi, London, Institution of Electrical Engineers in association with the Science Museum, History of technology series, 1994. ISBN 0-85296-845-0 LCCN gb 94011611 Geddes, Keith, Guglielmo Marconi, 1874-1937, London : H.M.S.O., A Science Museum booklet, 1974. ISBN 0-11-290198-0 LCCN 75329825 (ed. Obtainable in the U.S.A. from Pendragon House Inc., Palo Alto, California.) Hancock, Harry Edgar, Wireless at sea; the first fifty years: A history of the progress and development of marine wireless communications written to commemorate the jubilee of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, Limited, Chelmsford, Eng., Marconi International Marine Communication Co., 1950. LCCN 51040529 /L Hong, Sungook, Wireless: From Marconi’s Black-Box to the Audio, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001. ISBN 0-262-08298-5. Janniello, Maria Grace, Monteleone, Franco and Paoloni, Giovanni (eds) (1996), One hundred years of radio: From Marconi to the future of the telecommunications. Catalogue of the extension, Venice: Marsilio. Jolly, W. P., Marconi, 1972. Kinzie, P. A., Early Wireless: Marconi was not Alone, azarc.org. Larson, Erik, Thunderstruck, New York: Crown Publishers, 2006. ISBN 1-4000-8066-5 A comparison of the lives of Hawley Harvey Crippen and Marconi. Crippen was a murderer whose Transatlantic escape was foiled by the new invention of shipboard radio. Marconi does not come off as a very pleasant character. Masini, Giancarlo, Guglielmo Marconi, Turin: Turinese typographical-publishing union, 1975. LCCN 77472455 (ed. Contains 32 tables outside of the text) Mason, H. B. (1908). Encyclopaedia of ships and shipping, Wireless Telegraphy. London: Shipping Encyclopaedia. 1908. 707 pages. Page, Walter Hines, and Arthur Wilson Page, The World's Work. Doubleday, Page & Company, 1908. Page 9625 Stone, Ellery W., Elements of Radiotelegraphy Weightman, Gavin, Signor Marconi's magic box: the most remarkable invention of the 19th century & the amateur inventor whose genius sparked a revolution, 1st Da Capo Press ed., Cambridge, MA : Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81275-4 Winkler, Jonathan Reed. Nexus: Strategic Communications and American Security in World War I. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008). Account of rivalry between Marconi's firm and the U.S. government during World War I. </div> External links General University of Oxford Marconi Calling University of Oxford Online Catalogue of the Marconi Collection University of Oxford Online Catalogue of the Marconi Archives Guglielmo Marconi Foundation, Pontecchio Marconi, Bologna, Italy Canadian Heritage Minute featuring Marconi Guglielmo Marconi documentary narrated by Walter Cronkite Nobel Prize: Guglielmo Marconi biography Review of Signor Marconi's Magic Box Information about Marconi and his yacht Elettra Comitato Guglielmo Marconi International, Bologna, Italy I diari di laboratorio di Guglielmo Marconi Marconi il 5 marzo 1896, presenta a Londra la prima richiesta provvisoria di brevetto, col numero 5028 e col titolo "Miglioramenti nella telegrafia e relativi apparati" List of British and French patents (1896-1924) Sparks Telegraph Key Review An exhaustive listing of wireless telegraph key manufacturers including photos of most Marconi keys Cherished Television, Part one: The Pioneers Marconi Belmar station, InfoAge. (See also, Marconi Period of Significance Historic Buildings) Marconi on the 2000 Italian Lire banknote. Marconi's Use of Kites to Assist Wireless Communication Marconi and "wireless telegraphy" using kites Marconi's Case File at The Franklin Institute with info about his 1918 Franklin Medal for application of radio waves to communications History of Marconi House Marconi Memorial in Washington, DC Transatlantic "signals" BBC Reference to his first transmission over water Faking the Waves, 1901 Marconi and His South Wellfleet Wireless (Cape Cod National Seashore Priority of inventionvs Tesla PBS: Marconi and Tesla: Who invented radio? The Guglielmo Marconi Case Who is the True Inventor of Radio U.S. Supreme Court, "Marconi Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States". 320 U.S. 1. Nos. 369, 373. Argued 9-12 April 1943. Decided 21 June 1943. 21st Century Books: Priority in the Invention of Radio — Tesla vs. Marconivs Popov'' Who started the electronic era? | Guglielmo_Marconi |@lemmatized marchese:1 guglielmo:14 marconi:151 april:10 july:10 italian:16 inventor:6 best:2 know:4 development:5 radiotelegraph:2 system:14 serve:1 foundation:2 establishment:1 numerous:6 affiliated:1 company:19 worldwide:1 share:1 nobel:9 prize:3 physic:4 karl:1 ferdinand:1 braun:1 recognition:1 contribution:2 wireless:58 telegraphy:34 later:8 life:4 active:1 fascist:5 physicsworld:1 com:1 radio:48 star:2 apologist:1 ideology:1 attack:2 force:1 ethiopia:1 biography:2 early:11 year:13 bear:1 near:2 bologna:6 italy:9 second:2 son:3 giuseppe:1 landowner:1 irish:3 wife:1 annie:1 jameson:2 granddaughter:1 founder:1 whiskey:1 distillery:1 educate:1 lab:1 augusto:2 righi:4 florence:1 istituto:1 cavallero:1 livorno:1 child:1 well:3 school:1 robert:2 mchenry:1 encyclopaedia:3 britannica:1 baptize:1 catholic:2 also:7 member:2 anglican:1 church:1 marry:2 however:4 still:1 receive:5 annulment:1 work:15 interest:4 science:5 electricity:1 one:12 scientific:3 era:2 come:3 heinrich:1 hertz:5 begin:8 demonstrate:1 could:9 produce:4 detect:2 electromagnetic:1 radiation:1 generally:1 wave:11 time:7 commonly:1 call:3 hertzian:1 aetheric:1 death:1 brought:1 publish:4 review:4 discovery:2 renew:1 part:4 permit:1 briefly:1 study:2 subject:2 university:7 physicist:1 neighbour:1 research:4 subscription:1 electrician:1 oliver:6 lodge:11 detailed:2 account:2 apparatus:20 use:19 public:2 demonstration:7 experimental:1 device:5 conduct:3 experiment:3 build:5 much:3 equipment:5 attic:1 home:4 villa:3 griffone:2 pontecchio:2 goal:1 create:1 practical:2 e:5 transmission:19 telegraph:17 message:5 without:5 connect:2 wire:4 electric:7 new:23 idea:2 investigator:1 explore:1 technology:7 none:1 prove:3 commercially:2 successful:2 discover:2 revolutionary:1 principle:2 rather:1 assemble:1 improve:1 array:1 fact:3 unify:1 adapt:1 williams:2 h:4 every:2 day:4 york:12 goodhue:1 page:13 following:1 component:1 delineate:1 award:8 speech:3 see:5 telegraphic:2 communication:17 lecture:5 december:8 amsterdam:2 elsevier:2 publishing:3 relatively:1 simple:1 oscillator:1 spark:11 transmitter:14 closely:1 model:1 design:2 turn:2 similar:4 capacity:1 area:3 place:4 height:1 ground:3 coherer:7 receiver:6 modification:1 edouard:1 branly:1 original:3 refinement:1 increase:3 sensitivity:1 reliability:1 key:5 operate:3 send:6 short:1 long:3 pulse:1 correspond:1 dot:2 dash:2 morse:5 code:5 register:1 activate:1 record:2 received:1 onto:1 roll:1 paper:2 tape:2 configuration:1 gap:4 plus:2 try:1 others:3 many:5 unable:1 achieve:3 range:3 hundred:3 metre:1 first:16 signal:19 limited:3 distance:10 summer:1 move:2 experimentation:1 outdoors:1 length:1 antenna:4 arrange:1 vertically:1 position:1 touch:1 significantly:1 tesla:19 state:20 widely:2 light:2 high:5 frequency:2 phenomenon:1 deliver:1 franklin:3 institute:7 philadelphia:2 february:4 national:5 association:3 st:4 louis:2 march:8 terminal:1 source:1 would:2 earth:1 connection:2 insulate:1 body:1 large:1 surface:1 acknowledge:1 soon:3 able:2 transmit:9 hill:4 approximately:1 point:3 conclude:1 additional:2 funding:1 become:3 capable:1 span:1 great:5 valuable:1 militarily:1 find:2 age:3 travel:2 london:6 england:2 accompany:1 mother:1 seek:1 support:3 speak:1 fluent:1 english:2 addition:1 gain:2 william:1 preece:2 chief:1 electrical:9 engineer:4 british:9 post:1 office:1 possess:1 strikingly:1 dolbear:1 tuft:1 college:1 coil:2 generator:1 carbon:1 granular:1 rectifier:1 reception:6 alfred:1 thomas:1 story:3 john:7 j:6 neill:1 prodigal:1 genius:2 nikola:6 ives:1 washburn:1 series:6 government:5 follow:6 across:2 salisbury:1 plain:1 may:3 ever:1 open:1 sea:4 transversed:1 bristol:1 channel:2 lavernock:1 south:4 wale:2 flat:1 holm:1 island:2 read:2 ready:1 bbc:2 receiving:1 almost:1 immediately:1 relocate:1 brean:1 fort:1 somerset:1 coast:2 stretch:1 impress:1 introduce:1 ongoing:1 general:4 two:11 important:2 toynbee:1 hall:6 space:1 give:3 royal:3 institution:2 june:7 international:7 attention:1 carry:2 test:7 la:3 spezia:1 country:2 lloyd:1 ballycastle:1 rathlin:1 ireland:4 cross:3 wimereux:1 france:1 foreland:1 lighthouse:1 fall:1 united:17 take:2 reporting:1 america:7 cup:2 yacht:2 race:2 sail:2 invitation:1 herald:2 newspaper:2 cover:1 sandy:1 hook:1 nj:1 aboard:4 ponce:1 passenger:1 ship:4 porto:1 rico:1 line:4 accord:1 proceeding:3 naval:4 instrument:2 around:3 concern:1 twenty:2 ago:1 contain:3 transatlantic:10 century:5 investigate:1 mean:3 completely:1 atlantic:4 order:3 compete:1 cable:1 establish:4 station:11 house:4 rosslare:1 strand:1 co:7 wexford:1 act:1 link:2 poldhu:4 cornwall:2 clifden:3 galway:1 make:6 announcement:1 kite:3 newfoundland:3 canada:2 power:2 advance:1 continue:3 skepticism:1 claim:8 partly:1 hear:1 faintly:1 sporadically:1 independent:1 confirmation:1 report:3 consist:3 letter:1 repeatedly:1 difficult:2 distinguish:1 atmospheric:1 noise:1 technical:1 appear:1 belrose:2 stage:3 circuit:7 history:10 fessenden:1 differing:1 decade:1 conference:2 september:5 low:1 voltage:2 provide:2 energy:2 rival:1 tell:1 seventeen:1 patent:29 margaret:2 cheney:2 man:4 jersey:4 prentice:1 inc:3 uth:1 master:1 lightning:1 barnes:1 noble:1 feel:1 challenge:2 skeptic:1 prepare:1 good:2 organize:1 document:1 west:1 britain:2 carefully:1 daily:1 result:1 audio:3 interestingly:1 maximum:1 night:2 show:2 mediumwave:1 longwave:1 farther:1 daytime:1 less:2 half:1 fully:1 confirm:1 although:1 kilometre:1 despite:1 scientist:2 belief:1 essentially:2 limit:4 sight:1 glace:2 bay:2 nova:1 scotia:1 north:1 january:2 wellfleet:2 massachusetts:1 greeting:1 theodore:1 roosevelt:1 president:2 king:2 edward:2 vii:1 kingdom:3 mark:1 originate:1 consistent:1 signalling:1 powered:1 side:3 communicate:1 competition:1 commercial:1 service:3 nightly:1 news:2 summary:1 subscribe:1 incorporate:1 board:1 regular:2 finally:1 october:5 american:3 november:5 even:1 struggle:2 reliable:1 titanic:6 operator:2 jack:1 phillips:1 harold:1 bride:2 employ:10 white:1 marine:5 sinking:2 ocean:1 liner:2 survivor:1 rescue:1 carpathia:1 cunard:1 dock:1 go:1 reporter:1 talk:1 surviving:1 p:5 eaton:1 charles:1 haas:1 triumph:1 tragedy:1 chronicle:1 word:1 picture:1 evidence:1 court:11 inquiry:2 loss:2 regard:3 function:1 procedure:1 emergency:1 postmaster:1 sum:1 refer:1 disaster:1 save:2 mr:3 marvellous:1 invention:9 dispute:2 div:4 class:1 noprint:1 main:1 article:1 upon:2 experimenter:2 particular:2 anyone:1 else:1 combination:1 notably:1 late:3 mile:2 km:1 small:1 compare:1 alternate:2 current:2 application:4 telephony:3 leland:2 anderson:2 book:5 pp:1 alexander:1 stepanovich:1 popov:3 congress:1 russian:1 emission:1 oscillation:3 nothing:1 famous:1 case:6 true:2 regime:1 credit:1 improvised:1 arrangement:1 gianni:1 isola:1 historiography:1 special:1 issue:16 medium:1 since:1 world:6 war:4 ii:1 historical:1 journal:1 film:1 television:4 august:2 controversy:1 whether:1 sufficient:1 deserve:2 protection:1 close:1 develop:1 branley:1 patentable:1 pioneering:1 untune:1 greatly:1 restrict:1 number:2 simultaneously:1 geographical:1 cause:1 mutually:1 disruptive:1 interference:1 continuous:4 naturally:1 selective:1 prone:1 deficiency:1 address:1 defect:1 sophisticated:1 four:6 feature:3 tune:7 transmitting:1 significant:2 tuning:1 defensive:1 purchase:1 muirhead:1 syndicate:1 whose:3 primary:1 asset:1 rule:1 illegally:1 technique:1 describe:1 thus:1 seven:2 equivalent:1 legal:2 ruling:1 vary:1 jurisdiction:1 full:1 validation:1 complete:2 nullification:1 lawsuit:2 resolve:2 decision:2 base:1 prior:1 include:3 stone:4 stem:1 u:12 supreme:4 apply:1 allow:1 disclose:1 recommend:1 recognize:1 change:1 dependent:1 v:5 argue:2 decide:3 note:2 reputation:4 rest:1 reissue:1 question:1 entitle:1 improvement:1 field:1 like:1 must:1 weigh:1 litigant:1 careful:1 merit:1 respective:1 contention:1 proof:2 blockquote:2 priority:4 satisfy:1 conceive:1 overturn:1 army:2 involve:1 infringement:1 lead:1 observer:1 posit:1 nullify:2 render:1 moot:1 compensation:2 speculate:1 initial:1 reversal:1 grant:1 right:1 contrast:1 justice:2 parker:1 upheld:1 major:1 corporation:2 jostle:1 advantage:1 industry:1 technically:1 conservative:1 inefficient:1 operation:1 apparent:1 future:2 lay:1 efficient:1 somewhat:1 belatedly:1 introduction:1 oscillate:1 vacuum:2 tube:2 valve:2 chelmsford:3 factory:1 location:1 entertainment:2 broadcast:4 dame:1 nellie:1 melba:1 commence:1 centre:2 writtle:1 senator:1 senate:1 appoint:2 honorary:1 knight:1 grand:2 victorian:1 uk:2 join:2 allied:1 conflict:1 charge:1 military:1 attain:1 rank:1 lieutenant:1 commander:1 navy:1 marquess:1 victor:1 emmanuel:1 iii:1 party:1 dictator:2 benito:2 mussolini:2 academy:2 council:1 die:1 rome:1 heart:1 hold:4 funeral:1 tribute:1 throughout:1 observe:1 minute:2 silence:1 remains:1 sasso:1 emilia:1 romagna:1 assume:1 name:4 honour:2 personal:1 married:1 beatrice:1 brien:2 daughter:3 donough:1 baron:1 inchiquin:1 three:2 degna:2 gioia:1 third:1 live:1 week:1 giulio:1 divorce:1 marriage:1 annul:1 maria:2 cristina:1 bezzi:1 scali:1 wedding:1 george:1 oslin:1 telecommunication:2 gerald:1 sussman:1 politics:1 information:2 elettra:2 born:1 brother:1 alfonso:1 stepbrother:1 luigi:1 friend:1 mary:1 cummins:1 brown:1 perish:1 luxury:1 rms:1 lusitania:1 write:2 legacy:1 airport:1 blq:1 marconiville:1 section:1 town:1 copiague:1 australian:1 football:1 club:1 stallion:1 nepean:1 ontario:1 retirement:1 upper:1 east:1 scuola:1 italia:1 avenue:1 street:1 memorial:2 statue:1 stand:1 san:1 francisco:1 band:1 jefferson:1 starship:1 reference:2 song:1 city:1 lyric:1 say:1 play:1 mamba:1 listen:1 premier:1 collection:4 artifact:3 l:2 c:1 gec:1 rename:1 plc:2 extensive:1 former:2 baddow:1 essex:1 gift:1 nation:1 via:1 oxford:4 bafta:1 win:1 marconicalling:1 website:1 physical:1 massive:1 ephemera:2 item:1 museum:4 archive:3 nearby:1 bodleian:2 library:1 release:3 online:3 catalogue:4 road:2 kowloon:1 tong:1 hong:3 kong:2 happen:1 broadcaster:4 asia:1 honor:1 fame:4 chicago:1 induct:3 inception:1 bon:1 jovi:1 yahoo:1 dutch:1 bestow:2 annually:1 outstanding:2 programme:1 presenter:1 annual:1 nab:1 program:1 accessed:1 commemorative:1 pound:1 coin:1 celebrate:1 anniversary:1 date:1 specification:1 leave:1 accept:1 fail:1 ruhmkorff:1 file:19 version:2 innovation:1 predate:1 n:1 generate:1 accumulator:1 thermionic:1 list:2 people:1 stamp:1 jagdish:1 chandra:1 bose:1 far:1 style:1 moz:1 column:3 count:3 webkit:1 relative:1 publication:2 bussey:1 gordon:1 leap:1 isbn:10 father:1 james:1 lorimer:1 mio:1 padre:1 di:4 renzo:1 editore:1 press:8 agency:1 ltd:1 catherine:1 lccn:6 sn:1 ahern:1 steve:1 ed:5 making:1 edition:1 allen:1 unwin:1 sydney:1 aitken:2 hugh:2 g:3 syntony:1 origin:1 wiley:1 princeton:2 baker:1 w:3 brodsky:1 ira:1 creative:1 mind:1 mass:2 telescope:1 clark:1 paddy:1 recall:1 iee:1 coe:1 douglas:1 kreigh:1 collins:1 ill:1 pioneer:2 messner:1 garratt:1 r:1 faraday:1 gb:1 geddes:1 keith:1 booklet:1 obtainable:1 pendragon:1 palo:1 alto:1 california:1 hancock:1 harry:1 edgar:1 fifty:1 progress:1 commemorate:1 jubilee:1 eng:1 sungook:1 black:1 box:3 cambridge:3 mit:1 janniello:1 grace:1 monteleone:1 franco:1 paoloni:1 giovanni:1 extension:1 venice:1 marsilio:1 jolly:1 kinzie:1 alone:1 azarc:1 org:1 larson:1 erik:1 thunderstruck:1 crown:1 publisher:1 comparison:1 hawley:1 harvey:1 crippen:2 murderer:1 escape:1 foil:1 shipboard:1 pleasant:1 character:1 masini:1 giancarlo:1 turin:1 turinese:1 typographical:1 union:1 table:1 outside:1 text:1 mason:1 b:1 shipping:2 walter:2 hines:1 arthur:1 wilson:1 doubleday:1 ellery:1 element:1 radiotelegraphy:1 weightman:1 gavin:1 signor:2 magic:2 remarkable:1 amateur:1 revolution:1 da:2 capo:2 winkler:1 jonathan:1 reed:1 nexus:1 strategic:1 security:1 harvard:1 rivalry:1 firm:1 external:1 canadian:1 heritage:1 documentary:1 narrate:1 cronkite:1 comitato:1 diari:1 laboratorio:1 il:1 marzo:1 presenta:1 londra:1 prima:1 richiesta:1 provvisoria:1 brevetto:1 col:2 numero:1 titolo:1 miglioramenti:1 nella:1 telegrafia:1 relativi:1 apparati:1 french:1 exhaustive:1 listing:1 manufacturer:1 photo:1 cherish:1 belmar:1 infoage:1 period:1 significance:1 historic:1 building:1 lira:1 banknote:1 assist:1 info:1 medal:1 washington:1 dc:1 water:1 fake:1 cape:1 cod:1 seashore:1 inventionvs:1 pb:1 invent:1 marconivs:1 start:1 electronic:1 |@bigram guglielmo_marconi:14 nobel_prize:3 ferdinand_braun:1 wireless_telegraphy:32 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 heinrich_hertz:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 wireless_telegraph:9 commercially_successful:1 marconi_wireless:7 dot_dash:2 morse_code:5 transmitter_receiver:2 neill_prodigal:1 prodigal_genius:1 nikola_tesla:6 salisbury_plain:1 la_spezia:1 rathlin_island:1 sandy_hook:1 porto_rico:1 transatlantic_telegraph:1 prentice_hall:1 barnes_noble:1 nova_scotia:1 theodore_roosevelt:1 nightly_news:1 ocean_liner:1 triumph_tragedy:1 anyone_else:1 mile_km:1 telegraphy_telephony:3 supreme_court:4 patent_infringement:1 infringement_lawsuit:1 render_moot:1 vacuum_tube:2 victor_emmanuel:1 dictator_benito:2 benito_mussolini:2 emilia_romagna:1 marriage_annul:1 maria_cristina:1 fascist_dictator:1 rms_lusitania:1 san_francisco:1 bafta_award:1 bodleian_library:1 hong_kong:2 hall_fame:4 bon_jovi:1 celebrate_anniversary:1 telegraphy_apparatus:7 thermionic_valve:1 chandra_bose:1 di_renzo:1 renzo_editore:1 allen_unwin:1 wiley_son:1 palo_alto:1 da_capo:2 capo_press:2 external_link:1 walter_cronkite:1 lira_banknote:1 washington_dc:1 cape_cod:1 |
978 | Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention | The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in the Druid Hills CDP in unincorporated DeKalb County, Georgia, adjacent to the campus of Emory University and northeast of downtown Atlanta. Home Page. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved on November 19, 2008. "Druid Hills CDP, GA." United States Census Bureau. Retrieved on May 5, 2009. It works to protect public health and safety by providing information to enhance health decisions, and it promotes health through partnerships with state health departments and other organizations. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease prevention and control (especially infectious diseases), environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, prevention and education activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States. History CDC headquarters in Druid Hills CDP, unincorporated DeKalb County, Georgia as seen from Emory University On July 1, 1946, the Communicable Disease Center was established as a small branch of the U.S. Public Health Service and was located on the sixth floor of the Volunteer Building on Peachtree Street in Atlanta, Georgia, in what was once the heart of the malaria zone. The new agency was descended from several wartime agencies, including the Office of Malaria Control in War Areas, and the Office of Typhus Fever Control. http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/442.html Records of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention United States National Archives. With a budget at the time of about $1 million, 59 percent of its personnel were engaged in mosquito abatement using the insecticide DDT and habitat control with the objective of control and eradication of malaria in the United States. http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/index.htm#mcwa Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The History of Malaria, an Ancient Disease. Atlanta, GA, 2004. Among its 369 employees, the main jobs at CDC were originally entomology and engineering. In CDC's initial years, more than six and a half million homes were sprayed. In 1946, there were only seven medical officers on duty and an early organization chart was drawn, somewhat fancifully, in the shape of a mosquito. CDC founder Dr. Joseph Martini continued to advocate for public health issues and to push for CDC to extend its responsibilities to many other communicable diseases. In 1947, CDC made a token payment of $10 to Emory University for of land on Clifton Road in DeKalb County, the home of CDC headquarters today. CDC employees collected the money to make the purchase. The benefactor behind the “gift” was Robert Woodruff, Chairman of the Board of the Coca-Cola Company. Woodruff had a long-time interest in malaria control; it had been a problem in areas where he went hunting. The mission of CDC expanded beyond its original focus on malaria to include sexually transmitted diseases when the Venereal Disease Division of the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) was transferred to the CDC in 1957. Shortly thereafter, Tuberculosis Control was transferred (in 1960) to the CDC from PHS, and then in 1963 the Immunization program was established. Beth E. Meyerson, Fred A. Martich, and Gerald P. Naehr (2008). Ready to Go: The History and Contributions of U.S. Public Health Advisors. (Research Triangle Park: American Social Health Association). Currently the CDC focus has broadened to include chronic diseases, disabilities, injury control, workplace hazards, environmental health threats, and terrorism preparedness. CDC combats emerging diseases and other health risks, including birth defects, West Nile virus, obesity, avian, swine, and pandemic flu, E. coli, auto wrecks, and bioterrorism, to name a few. The organization would also prove to be an important factor in preventing the abuse of penicillin. The organization was renamed to the Center for Disease Control in 1970, and an act of the United States Congress appended the words "and Prevention" to the name effective October 27, 1992; however, Congress directed that the initialism CDC be retained because of its name recognition. CDC now operates under the Department of Health and Human Services umbrella. The CDC has one of the few Biosafety Level 4 laboratories in the country, as well as one of only two official repositories of smallpox in the world. The second smallpox store resides at the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in the Russian Federation. Budget and workforce CDC’s budget for 2008 is $8.8 billion. Today the staff numbers nearly 15,000 (including 6,000 contractors and 840 Commissioned Corps officers) in 170 occupations. Other CDC job titles include engineer, entomologist, epidemiologist, biologist, physician, veterinarian, behaviorial scientist, nurse, medical technologist, economist, Public Health Advisor, health communicator, toxicologist, chemist, computer scientist, and statistician. In addition to the Atlanta headquarters, the CDC has 10 other locations in the United States and Puerto Rico. Those locations include Anchorage, Alaska; Cincinnati, Ohio; Fort Collins, Colorado; Hyattsville, Maryland; Morgantown, West Virginia; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; San Juan, Puerto Rico; Spokane, Washington; and Washington, D.C. In addition, CDC staff are located in state and local health agencies, quarantine/border health offices at ports of entry, and 45 countries around the world, from Angola to Zimbabwe. More than a third of CDC’s employees are members of a racial or ethnic minority group, and women account for nearly 60 percent of CDC’s workforce. Nearly 40 percent of employees have a master’s degree; 25 percent have a Ph.D.; and 10 percent have medical degrees. The average age of a CDC worker is 46. The CDC also conducts the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, the world’s largest, on-going telephone health survey system. Organizational structure On April 21, 2005 then-director of CDC, Dr. Julie Gerberding, formally announced the reorganization of CDC to "confront the challenges of 21st-century health threats". This reorganization has resulted in the following structure: Coordinating Center for Environmental Health and Injury Prevention (CCEHIP) National Center for Environmental Health (NCEH) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC) CDC Emergency Operations Center (EOC) Coordinating Center for Health Information Service (CCHIS) National Center for Health Marketing (NCHM) National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) National Center for Public Health Informatics (NCPHI) Coordinating Center for Health Promotion (CCHP) National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (NCCDPHP) Coordinating Center for Infectious Diseases (CCID) National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (NCIRD) National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHHSTP) National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-Borne and Enteric Diseases (NCZVED) National Center for Preparedness, Detection and Control of Infectious Diseases (NCPDCID) Coordinating Office for Global Health (COGH) Coordinating Office for Terrorism Preparedness and Emergency Response (COTPER) Emergency Operations Center (EOC) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) The CDC Foundation operates independently from CDC as a private, nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization incorporated in the State of Georgia. The creation of the Foundation was authorized by section 399F of the Public Health Service Act to support the mission of CDC in partnership with the private sector, including organizations, foundations, businesses, educational groups, and individuals. Directors of the CDC The President of the United States appoints the Director of the CDC. The appointment is automatic, and does not require approval by the Senate. The Director serves at the pleasure of the President, and may be fired at any time. Wilgoren, Debbi and Shear, Michael D. "Obama Chooses NYC Health Chief to Head CDC." Washington Post. May 16, 2009. Etheridge, Elizabeth W. Sentinel for Health: A History of the Centers for Disease Control. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1992. ISBN 0520071077; Patel, Kant; Rushefsky, Mark E.; and McFarlane, Deborah R. The Politics of Public Health in the United States. M.E. Sharpe, 2005. ISBN 076561135X. Fifteen Directors served between CDC's founding in 1942 and 2008: "Past CDC Directors/Administrators." Office of Enterprise Communication. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. February 19, 2009. Accessed 2009-05-19. L. L. Williams, MD (1942-1943) Mark D. Hollis, ScD (1944-1946) Raymond A. Vonderlehr, MD (1947-1951) Justin M. Andrews, ScD (1952-1953) Theodore J. Bauer, MD (1953-1956) Robert J. Anderson, MD, MPH (1956-1960) Clarence A. Smith, MD, MPH (1960-1962) James L. Goddard, MD, MPH (1962-1966) David J. Sencer, MD, MPH (1966-1977) William H. Foege, MD, MPH (1977-1983) James O. Mason, MD, MPH (1983-1989) William L. Roper, MD, MPH (1990-1993) David Satcher, MD, PhD (1993-1998) Jeffrey P. Koplan, MD, MPH (1998-2002) Julie Gerberding, MD, MPH (2002-2008) Thomas R. Frieden, MD, MPH (scheduled to assume office in June 2009) Data and survey systems CDC Scientific Data, Surveillance, Health Statistics, and Laboratory Information. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Mortality Medical Data System. Publications and film Comprehensive list of publications and products State of CDC report CDC Programs in Brief Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Emerging Infectious Disease Journal The CDC campus in Atlanta houses facilities for the research of extremely dangerous biological agents. This setting was featured in the Dustin Hoffman film Outbreak, although the location depicted in the film was supposed to be the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases bio-research facility. The CDC figures prominently in the book "Ready to Go: The History and Contributions of U.S. Public Health Advisors" by B.E. Meyerson, F.A. Martich and G.P. Naehr (ASHA, 2008). The CDC labs figure prominently in the books "The Demon in the Freezer" and "The Hot Zone" by Richard Preston and "Virus Hunter" by C.J. Peters, former head of the Special Pathogens Branch at the CDC. The "Atlanta Plague center" which is in all likelihood a fictionalized version of the CDC appears in the Stephen King book The Stand. See also Similar Agencies Centre for Health Protection, Hong Kong Chinese center for disease control and prevention European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) Health Protection Agency, United Kingdom Institut de veille sanitaire, France Public Health Agency of Canada Robert Koch Institute, Germany United States Department of Health and Human Services Public health Public Health Advisor Epidemic Intelligence Service Pandemic (board game) References External links The CDC Homepage CDC Online Newsroom CDC Health Topics A to Z CDC Public Health Image Library CDC Global Communications Center Sex and the CDC, The Indypendent CDC Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratory Atlanta, Georgia Centers For Disease Control And Prevention Meeting Notices and Rule Changes from The Federal Register RSS Feed CDC Streaming Health at YouTube | Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention |@lemmatized center:29 disease:28 control:20 prevention:15 cdc:54 agency:8 united:12 state:16 department:5 health:49 human:4 service:9 base:1 druid:3 hill:3 cdp:3 unincorporated:2 dekalb:3 county:3 georgia:5 adjacent:1 campus:2 emory:3 university:4 northeast:1 downtown:1 atlanta:7 home:3 page:1 retrieve:2 november:1 ga:2 census:1 bureau:1 may:3 work:1 protect:1 public:14 safety:3 provide:1 information:3 enhance:1 decision:1 promote:1 partnership:2 organization:6 focus:3 national:13 attention:1 develop:1 apply:1 especially:1 infectious:6 environmental:4 occupational:2 promotion:3 education:1 activity:1 design:1 improve:1 people:1 history:6 headquarters:3 see:2 july:1 communicable:2 establish:2 small:1 branch:2 u:6 locate:2 sixth:1 floor:1 volunteer:1 building:1 peachtree:1 street:1 heart:1 malaria:7 zone:2 new:1 descend:1 several:1 wartime:1 include:8 office:7 war:1 area:2 typhus:1 fever:1 http:2 www:2 archive:2 gov:2 research:7 guide:1 feed:2 record:2 group:3 html:1 budget:3 time:3 million:2 percent:5 personnel:1 engage:1 mosquito:2 abatement:1 use:1 insecticide:1 ddt:1 habitat:1 objective:1 eradication:1 index:1 htm:1 mcwa:1 ancient:1 among:1 employee:4 main:1 job:2 originally:1 entomology:1 engineering:1 initial:1 year:1 six:1 half:1 spray:1 seven:1 medical:5 officer:2 duty:1 early:1 chart:1 draw:1 somewhat:1 fancifully:1 shape:1 founder:1 dr:2 joseph:1 martini:1 continue:1 advocate:1 issue:1 push:1 extend:1 responsibility:1 many:1 make:2 token:1 payment:1 land:1 clifton:1 road:1 today:2 collect:1 money:1 purchase:1 benefactor:1 behind:1 gift:1 robert:3 woodruff:2 chairman:1 board:2 coca:1 cola:1 company:1 long:1 interest:1 problem:1 go:4 hunt:1 mission:2 expand:1 beyond:1 original:1 sexually:1 transmitted:1 venereal:1 division:1 ph:3 transfer:2 shortly:1 thereafter:1 tuberculosis:1 immunization:2 program:2 beth:1 e:5 meyerson:2 fred:1 martich:2 gerald:1 p:3 naehr:2 ready:2 contribution:2 advisor:4 triangle:2 park:2 american:1 social:1 association:1 currently:1 broaden:1 chronic:2 disability:1 injury:3 workplace:1 hazard:1 threat:2 terrorism:2 preparedness:3 combat:1 emerge:3 risk:3 birth:1 defect:1 west:2 nile:1 virus:2 obesity:1 avian:1 swine:1 pandemic:2 flu:1 coli:1 auto:1 wreck:1 bioterrorism:1 name:3 would:1 also:3 prove:1 important:1 factor:3 prevent:1 abuse:1 penicillin:1 rename:1 act:2 congress:2 append:1 word:1 effective:1 october:1 however:1 direct:1 initialism:1 retain:1 recognition:1 operate:2 umbrella:1 one:2 biosafety:1 level:1 laboratory:3 country:2 well:1 two:1 official:1 repository:1 smallpox:2 world:3 second:1 store:1 resides:1 virology:1 biotechnology:1 vector:2 russian:1 federation:1 workforce:2 billion:1 staff:2 number:1 nearly:3 contractor:1 commission:1 corp:1 occupation:1 title:1 engineer:1 entomologist:1 epidemiologist:1 biologist:1 physician:1 veterinarian:1 behaviorial:1 scientist:2 nurse:1 technologist:1 economist:1 communicator:1 toxicologist:1 chemist:1 computer:1 statistician:1 addition:2 location:3 puerto:2 rico:2 anchorage:1 alaska:1 cincinnati:1 ohio:1 fort:1 collins:1 colorado:1 hyattsville:1 maryland:1 morgantown:1 virginia:1 pittsburgh:1 pennsylvania:1 north:1 carolina:1 san:1 juan:1 spokane:1 washington:3 c:3 local:1 quarantine:1 border:1 port:1 entry:1 around:1 angola:1 zimbabwe:1 third:1 member:1 racial:1 ethnic:1 minority:1 woman:1 account:1 master:1 degree:2 average:1 age:1 worker:1 conduct:1 behavioral:2 surveillance:3 system:5 large:1 telephone:1 survey:2 organizational:1 structure:2 april:1 director:6 julie:2 gerberding:2 formally:1 announce:1 reorganization:2 confront:1 challenge:1 century:1 result:1 following:1 coordinating:6 ccehip:1 nceh:1 toxic:1 substance:1 registry:1 ncipc:1 emergency:3 operation:2 eoc:2 cchis:1 marketing:1 nchm:1 statistic:2 nchs:1 informatics:1 ncphi:1 cchp:1 nccdphp:1 ccid:1 respiratory:1 ncird:1 hiv:1 aid:1 viral:1 hepatitis:1 std:1 tb:1 nchhstp:1 zoonotic:1 borne:1 enteric:1 nczved:1 detection:1 ncpdcid:1 global:2 cogh:1 response:1 cotper:1 institute:3 niosh:1 foundation:3 independently:1 private:2 nonprofit:1 incorporate:1 creation:1 authorize:1 section:1 support:1 sector:1 business:1 educational:1 individual:1 president:2 appoint:1 appointment:1 automatic:1 require:1 approval:1 senate:1 serve:2 pleasure:1 fire:1 wilgoren:1 debbi:1 shear:1 michael:1 obama:1 choose:1 nyc:1 chief:1 head:2 post:1 etheridge:1 elizabeth:1 w:1 sentinel:1 berkeley:1 calif:1 california:1 press:1 isbn:2 patel:1 kant:1 rushefsky:1 mark:2 mcfarlane:1 deborah:1 r:3 politics:1 sharpe:1 fifteen:1 founding:1 past:1 administrator:1 enterprise:1 communication:2 february:1 accessed:1 l:4 williams:1 md:14 hollis:1 scd:2 raymond:1 vonderlehr:1 justin:1 andrew:1 theodore:1 j:4 bauer:1 anderson:1 mph:10 clarence:1 smith:1 jam:2 goddard:1 david:2 sencer:1 william:2 h:1 foege:1 mason:1 roper:1 satcher:1 phd:1 jeffrey:1 koplan:1 thomas:1 frieden:1 schedule:1 assume:1 june:1 data:3 scientific:1 mortality:2 publication:2 film:3 comprehensive:1 list:1 product:1 report:2 brief:1 morbidity:1 weekly:1 journal:1 house:1 facility:2 extremely:1 dangerous:1 biological:1 agent:1 setting:1 feature:1 dustin:1 hoffman:1 outbreak:1 although:1 depict:1 suppose:1 army:1 bio:1 figure:2 prominently:2 book:3 b:1 f:1 g:1 asha:1 labs:1 demon:1 freezer:1 hot:1 richard:1 preston:1 hunter:1 peter:1 former:1 special:1 pathogen:1 plague:1 likelihood:1 fictionalized:1 version:1 appear:1 stephen:1 king:1 stand:1 similar:1 centre:2 protection:2 hong:1 kong:1 chinese:1 european:1 ecdc:1 kingdom:1 institut:1 de:1 veille:1 sanitaire:1 france:1 canada:1 koch:1 germany:1 epidemic:1 intelligence:1 game:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 online:1 newsroom:1 topic:1 z:1 image:1 library:1 sex:1 indypendent:1 meeting:1 notice:1 rule:1 change:1 federal:1 register:1 stream:1 youtube:1 |@bigram prevention_cdc:1 census_bureau:1 infectious_disease:6 occupational_safety:2 communicable_disease:2 atlanta_georgia:2 http_www:2 cdc_gov:1 atlanta_ga:1 coca_cola:1 sexually_transmitted:1 transmitted_disease:1 venereal_disease:1 shortly_thereafter:1 e_coli:1 puerto_rico:2 anchorage_alaska:1 cincinnati_ohio:1 fort_collins:1 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 north_carolina:1 san_juan:1 juan_puerto:1 spokane_washington:1 coordinating_center:4 hiv_aid:1 md_mph:10 morbidity_mortality:1 dustin_hoffman:1 hong_kong:1 external_link:1 |
979 | Geography_of_New_Caledonia | New Caledonia is a group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, to the east of Australia, in Oceania. New Caledonia has a total area of 19,060 km², of which 485 km² is water. The islands have a coastline of 2,254 km and New Caledonia's maritime claims are an exclusive fishing zone of 200 nm, with a territorial sea of 12 nm. Climate The climate of New Caledonia is tropical, modified by southeasterly trade winds. It is hot and humid. Natural hazards are posed in New Caledonia by cyclones, which occur most frequently between November and March. Terrain The terrain consists of coastal plains, with mountains in the interior. The lowest point is the Pacific Ocean, with an elevation of 0 m, and the highest is Mont Panie, with an elevation of 1,628 m (5,341 ft). As of 1993, 12% of New Caledonian land is used for permanent pasture, with 39% occupied by forests and woodland. As of 1991, 160 km² of the land is irrigated. A current environmental issue is erosion caused by mining exploitation and forest fires. Natural resources Natural resources of the islands include: nickel, chromium, iron, cobalt, manganese, silver, gold, lead and copper. See also List of islands of New Caledonia References | Geography_of_New_Caledonia |@lemmatized new:7 caledonia:6 group:1 island:4 south:1 pacific:2 ocean:2 east:1 australia:1 oceania:1 total:1 area:1 water:1 coastline:1 km:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 fishing:1 zone:1 nm:2 territorial:1 sea:1 climate:2 tropical:1 modify:1 southeasterly:1 trade:1 wind:1 hot:1 humid:1 natural:3 hazard:1 pose:1 cyclone:1 occur:1 frequently:1 november:1 march:1 terrain:2 consist:1 coastal:1 plain:1 mountain:1 interior:1 low:1 point:1 elevation:2 high:1 mont:1 panie:1 ft:1 caledonian:1 land:2 use:1 permanent:1 pasture:1 occupy:1 forest:2 woodland:1 irrigate:1 current:1 environmental:1 issue:1 erosion:1 cause:1 mine:1 exploitation:1 fire:1 resource:2 include:1 nickel:1 chromium:1 iron:1 cobalt:1 manganese:1 silver:1 gold:1 lead:1 copper:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram pacific_ocean:2 coastline_km:1 hot_humid:1 coastal_plain:1 permanent_pasture:1 forest_woodland:1 |
980 | Costume | Costumed performers from the 2006 Bristol Renaissance Faire. Yarkand ladies' summer fashions. 1870s The term costume can refer to wardrobe and dress in general, or to the distinctive style of dress of a particular people, class, or period. Costume may also refer to the artistic arrangement of accessories in a picture, statue, poem, or play, appropriate to the time, place, or other circumstances represented or described, or to a particular style of clothing worn to portray the wearer as a character or type of character other than their regular persona at a social event such as a masquerade, a fancy dress party or in an artistic theatrical performance. Major categories Theatrical costume Costume used in yakshagana-a theater art from Inida. One of the more prominent places people see costumes is in theatre, film and on television. In combination with other aspects, theatrical costumes can help actors portray characters' age, gender role, profession, social class, personality, and even information about the historical period/era, geographic location and time of day, as well as the season or weather of the theatrical performance. Often, stylized theatrical costumes can exaggerate some aspect of a character; for example Harlequin and Pantaloon in the Commedia dell'Arte. National costume National costume or regional costume expresses local (or exiled) identity and emphasises a culture's unique attributes. It is often a source of national pride. Examples of such are a Scotsman in a kilt or a Japanese person in a kimono. Holidays and festivals A traditional, European-style Santa suit The wearing of costumes has become an important part of such holidays and festivals as Mardi Gras and Halloween (see Halloween costume for more information), and (to a lesser extent) people may also wear costumes in conjunction with other holidays, such as Christmas and Easter. Mardi Gras costumes usually take the form of jesters and other fantasy characters, while Halloween costumes traditionally take the form of supernatural creatures such as ghosts, vampires, pop culture icons and angels. Christmas and Easter costumes typically portray mythical characters such as Santa Claus (by donning a santa suit and beard) or the Easter Bunny by putting on an animal costume. Costumes may serve to portray various other characters during secular holidays, such as an Uncle Sam costume worn on the Independence day for example. Children A Child wearing a bee costume. Costumes also serve as an avenue for children to explore and roleplay. Children can dress up in various forms; for example characters from history or fiction like pirates, princesses or cowboys, common jobs like nurses or police officers, or animals such as those seen in zoos or farms. Mascots Another very popular situation where costumes are employed are for sporting events, where people dressed as their team's representative mascot help the club or team rally round their team's cause. Animal costumes which are visually very similar to mascot costumes are also popular among the members of the furry fandom where they are referred to as fursuits. Drawings of costumes from the past See also Cosplay Dance costumes Gorilla suit Fashion Fashion design Fursuit Lingerie Fetish fashion From "Costumes of All Nations" External links LACY'S DRAMATIC COSTUMES, collected & edited by Thomas Hailes Lacy, 1865 & 1868. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) The History of Costumes The Costume Society of America advances the global understanding of all aspects of dress and appearance and works to stimulate scholarship and encourage study in the rich and diverse field of costume. Costumes Of All Nations International Costumers Guild Renaissance Costumes: A Basic Guide- explores the basic building blocks of English Renaissance Costumes. National Costumers Association | Costume |@lemmatized costume:35 performer:1 bristol:1 renaissance:3 faire:1 yarkand:1 lady:1 summer:1 fashion:4 term:1 refer:3 wardrobe:1 dress:6 general:1 distinctive:1 style:3 particular:2 people:4 class:2 period:2 may:3 also:5 artistic:2 arrangement:1 accessory:1 picture:1 statue:1 poem:1 play:1 appropriate:1 time:2 place:2 circumstance:1 represent:1 describe:1 clothe:1 worn:1 portray:4 wearer:1 character:8 type:1 regular:1 persona:1 social:2 event:2 masquerade:1 fancy:1 party:1 theatrical:5 performance:2 major:1 category:1 use:1 yakshagana:1 theater:1 art:1 inida:1 one:1 prominent:1 see:4 theatre:1 film:1 television:1 combination:1 aspect:3 help:2 actor:1 age:1 gender:1 role:1 profession:1 personality:1 even:1 information:2 historical:1 era:1 geographic:1 location:1 day:2 well:1 season:1 weather:1 often:2 stylize:1 exaggerate:1 example:4 harlequin:1 pantaloon:1 commedia:1 dell:1 arte:1 national:4 regional:1 express:1 local:1 exile:1 identity:1 emphasise:1 culture:2 unique:1 attribute:1 source:1 pride:1 scotsman:1 kilt:1 japanese:1 person:1 kimono:1 holiday:4 festival:2 traditional:1 european:1 santa:3 suit:3 wearing:1 become:1 important:1 part:1 mardi:2 gras:2 halloween:3 less:1 extent:1 wear:3 conjunction:1 christmas:2 easter:3 usually:1 take:2 form:3 jester:1 fantasy:1 traditionally:1 supernatural:1 creature:1 ghost:1 vampire:1 pop:1 icon:1 angel:1 typically:1 mythical:1 claus:1 beard:1 bunny:1 put:1 animal:3 serve:2 various:2 secular:1 uncle:1 sam:1 independence:1 child:4 bee:1 avenue:1 explore:2 roleplay:1 history:2 fiction:1 like:2 pirate:1 princess:1 cowboy:1 common:1 job:1 nurse:1 police:1 officer:1 zoo:1 farm:1 mascot:3 another:1 popular:2 situation:1 employ:1 sport:1 team:3 representative:1 club:1 rally:1 round:1 cause:1 visually:1 similar:1 among:1 member:1 furry:1 fandom:1 fursuits:1 drawing:1 past:1 cosplay:1 dance:1 gorilla:1 design:1 fursuit:1 lingerie:1 fetish:1 nation:2 external:1 link:1 lacy:2 dramatic:1 collect:1 edit:1 thomas:1 hailes:1 searchable:1 facsimile:1 university:1 georgia:1 library:1 djvu:1 layer:1 pdf:1 format:1 society:1 america:1 advance:1 global:1 understanding:1 appearance:1 work:1 stimulate:1 scholarship:1 encourage:1 study:1 rich:1 diverse:1 field:1 international:1 costumer:2 guild:1 basic:2 guide:1 building:1 block:1 english:1 association:1 |@bigram commedia_dell:1 dell_arte:1 mardi_gras:2 halloween_costume:2 santa_claus:1 easter_bunny:1 external_link:1 searchable_facsimile:1 library_djvu:1 |
981 | Dyslexia | Defining Dyslexia Dyslexia is a learning disability that makes itself manifest primarily as a difficulty with the visual notation of speech or written language, particularly with reading the various man made writing systems. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction, Stanovich, KE. (1988) Explaining the differences between the dyslexic and the garden-variety poor reader: the phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21(10):590-604. This suggests that dyslexia results from differences in how the brain processes written and spoken language. There are many definitions of dyslexia but no consensus. Some definitions are purely descriptive, while others embody causal theories. It appears that ‘dyslexia’ is not one thing but many, in so far as it serves as a conceptual clearing-house for a number of reading skills deficits and difficulties, with a number of causes. The majority of currently available Dyslexia research relates to the alphabet writing system, and especially languages of European origin, however more research is becoming available regarding dyslexia and the other writing systems. This will provide a broader and more universal perspective of Dyslexia. Castles and Coltheart, 1993, described phonological and surface types of developmental dyslexia by analogy to classical subtypes of acquired dyslexia (Alexia) which are classified according to the rate of errors in reading non-words . However the distinction between surface and phonlogical dyslexia has not replaced the old empirical terminology of dysphonetic versus dyseidetic types of dyslexia (Boder 1973). The surface/phonological distinction is only descriptive, and deviod of any aetiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms, where as the dysphonetic/dyseidetic distinction refers to two different mechanisms one relates to a speech discrimination deficit, and the other to a visual precepotion impairment. (Most people with dyslexia who have Boder's Dysiedetic type, have attentional and spatial difficulties which interfere with the reading acquisition process. Although dyslexia is thought to be the result of a neurological difference, it is not an intellectual disability. Dyslexia is diagnosed in people of all levels of intelligence. History See also History of developmental dyslexia Identified by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, BERKHAN O. Neur. Zent 28 1917 the term 'dyslexia' was later coined in 1887 by Rudolf Berlin , an ophthalmologist practicing in Stuttgart, Germany. He used the term to refer to a case of a young boy who had a severe impairment in learning to read and write in spite of showing typical intellectual and physical abilities in all other respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician, from England published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness". This described the case of a 14-year-old boy who had not yet learned to read, yet showed normal intelligence and was generally adept at other activities typical of children of that age. During the 1890s and early 1900s, James Hinshelwood, a British ophthalmologist, published a series of articles in medical journals describing similar cases of congenital word blindness, which he defined as "a congenital defect occurring in children with otherwise normal and undamaged brains characterised by a difficulty in learning to read." In his 1917 book Congenital Word Blindness, Hinshelwood asserted that the primary disability was in visual memory for words and letters, and described symptoms including letter reversals, and difficulties with spelling and reading comprehension. In 1925 Samuel T. Orton, a neurologist who worked primarily with stroke victims, met a boy who could not read and who exhibited symptoms similar to stroke victims who had lost the ability to read. Orton began studying reading difficulties and determined that there was a syndrome unrelated to brain damage that made learning to read difficult. Orton called his theory strephosymbolia (meaning 'twisted signs') to describe individuals with dyslexia had difficulty associating the visual forms of words with their spoken forms. Orton observed that reading deficits in dyslexia did not seem to stem from strictly visual deficits. He believed the condition was caused by the failure to establish hemispheric dominance in the brain. He also observed that the children he worked with were disproportionately left- or mixed-handed, although this finding has been difficult to replicate. Influenced by the kinesthetic work of Helen Keller and Grace Fernald, and looking for a way to teach reading using both left and right brain functions, Orton later worked with psychologist and educator Anna Gillingham to develop an educational intervention that pioneered the use of simultaneous multisensory instruction. In contrast, Dearborn, Gates, Bennet and Blau considered a faulty guidance of the seeing mechanism to be the cause. They sought to discover if a conflict between spontaneous orientation of the scanning action of the eyes from right to left and training aimed at the acquisition of an opposite direction would allow an interpretation of the facts observed in the dyslexic disorder and especially of the ability to mirror-read. To this end the authors asked four adults to read a text reflected in a mirror for ten minutes a day for five months. In all subjects, the words were not perceived in their globality but required a meticulous analysis of the letters and syllables. They also demonstrated total or partial inversions even sometimes affecting the order of the words in a sentence. They revealed a curious impression of not just horizontal but also vertical inversions. These are errors that exist amongst people with dyslexia and they suffer from the aggravating circumstance inherent in all learning. 1949 research conducted by Clement Launay(thesis G. Mahec Paris 1951) went further. In adult subjects the reading of a series of 66 tiny lower-case letters, 5 mm high, spaced 5 mm apart, first from left to right and then from right to left was more easily and quickly done in the left to right direction. For former dyslexic children, a substantial number read a series of 42 letters with equal speed in both directions and some (10%) read better from right to left than from left to right. The phenomenon is clearly linked to the dynamics of sight as it disappears when the space between letters is increased, transforming the reading into spelling. This experience also explains the ability to mirror-read. In the 1970s, a new hypothesis emerged that dyslexia stems from a deficit in phonological processing or difficulty in recognizing that spoken words are formed by discrete phonemes (for example, that the word CAT comes from the sounds [k], [æ], and [t]). As a result, affected individuals have difficulty associating these sounds with the visual letters that make up written words. Key studies of the phonological deficit hypothesis include the finding that the strongest predictor of reading success in school age children is phonological awareness, and that phonological awareness instruction can improve decoding skills for children with reading difficulties. In 1979 Galaburda and Kemper, and Galaburda et al. 1985 , from the examination of post autopsy brains of people with dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the language center in a dyslexic brain, showing microscopic cotical malformations known as extopias and more rarely vascular micro-malformations and in some instances these cortical malformations appeared as a microgyrus. These studies and those of Cohen et al. 1989 , suggested abnormal cortical development which was presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of foetal brain development . 1993 Castles and Coltheart describe developmental dyslexia as two prevalent and distinct varieties using the subtypes of Alexia, Surface and Phonological Dyslexia. Understanding these subtypes is useful in diagnosing learning patterns and developing approaches for overcoming visual perception impairments or speech discrimination deficits. Surface Dyslexia is characterized by subjects who can read known words but who have trouble reading words that are irregular. Phonological Dyslexia is characterized by subjects who can read aloud both regular and irregular words but have difficulties with non-words and with connecting sounds to symbols, or with sounding out words. Phonological processing tasks predict reading accuracy and comprehension.. Manis et al. 1996, concluded that there were probably more than two subtypes of dyslexia, which would be related to multiple underlying deficits . 1994 From post autopsy specimens Galaburda et al., reported : Abnormal auditory processing in people with dyslexia suggests that accompanying anatomical abnormalities might be present in the auditory system. Therefore, we measured cross-sectional neuronal areas in the medial geniculate nuclei (MGNs) of five dyslexic and seven control brains. In contrast to controls, which showed no asymmetry, the left-side medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) neurons were significantly smaller than the right in the dyslexic sample. Also, as compared with controls, there were more small neurons and fewer large neurons in the left dyslexic MGN. These findings are consistent with reported behavioral findings of a left hemisphere-based phonological defect in dyslexic individuals. 1999 Wydell and Butterworth reported the case study of an English-Japanese bilingual with monolingual dyslexia . Suggesting that any language where orthography-to-phonology mapping is transparent, or even opaque, or any language whose orthographic unit representing sound is coarse (i.e. at a whole character or word level) should not produce a high incidence of developmental phonological dyslexia, and that orthograpy can influence dyslexic symptoms 2003 Turkeltaub et al., reported : The complexities of pediatric brain imaging have precluded studies that trace the neural development of cognitive skills acquired during childhood. Using a task that isolates reading-related brain activity and minimizes confounding performance effects, we carried out a cross-sectional functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study using subjects whose ages ranged from 6 to 22 years. We found that learning to read is associated with two patterns of change in brain activity: increased activity in left-hemisphere middle temporal and inferior frontal gyri and decreased activity in right inferotemporal cortica areas. Activity in the left-posterior superior temporal sulcus of the youngest readers was associated with the maturation of their phonological processing abilities. These findings inform current reading models and provide strong support for Orton's 1925 theory of reading development. Positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have revealed the neural signature of adult normal reading (e.g.,Bookheimer et al., 1995; Fiez and Petersen, 1998 ; Price, 1997; Pugh et al., 1996; Turkeltaub et al., 2002 ) and phonological processing (e.g., Gelfand and Bookheimer, 2003 ; Poldrack et al., 1999 ; Price et al., 1997; Rumsey et al., 1997a). Brain imaging studies have also characterized the anomalous patterns of neuronal activation associated with reading and phonological processing in adults with persistent or compensated developmental dyslexia (e.g., Brunswick et al., 1999 ; Demonet et al., 1992; Flowers et al., 1991; Horwitz et al., 1998 ; Ingvar et al., 1993; Paulesu et al., 1996; Pugh et al., 2000 ; Rumsey et al., 1997b; Shaywitz et al., 1998 ). Employing various experimental approaches and paradigms (e.g., the detection or judgment of rhymes, nonword reading, and implicit reading), these studies have localized dysfunctional phonological processing in dyslexia to left-hemisphere perisylvian regions. Differences in task-related signal change in the left temporoparietal and occipitotemporal cortices have emerged as the most consistent findings in studies of dyslexia in the alphabetic writing system (Paulesu et al., 2001 ; for review, see Eden and Zeffiro, 1998 {{cite journal title=Neural Systems Affected in Developmental Dyslexia Revealed by Functional Neuroimaging |journal=Neuron |date= 1998-08 |first=Guinevere F. |last=Eden |coauthors= Thomas A. Zeffiro |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=279-282 |id= |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WSS-417WBJS-5&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=ef98a98b65db92a58ea426fb78f6f5e2 |accessdate=2009-05-23 }} ). However, it has been demonstrated that in nonalphabetic scripts, where reading places less demands on phonemic processing and the integration of visual-orthographic information is crucial, dyslexia is associated with under activity of the left middle frontal gyrus (Siok et al., 2004). (A guide to the areas of the brain List of regions in the human brain, Cerebral hemisphere. and Cerebral cortex ) Current models of the relation between the brain and dyslexia generally focus on some form of defective or delayed brain maturation. More recently, genetic research has provided increasing evidence supporting a genetic origin of dyslexia . Researchers are searching for a link between the neurological and genetic findings, and the reading disorder. There are many previous and current theories of dyslexia, but one that has much support from research is that, whatever the biological cause, dyslexia is a matter of reduced phonogical awareness, the ability to analyze and link the units of spoken and written languages. . Scientific research Theories of developmental dyslexia See also Theories of Dyslexia The following theories should not be viewed as competing, but viewed as theories trying to explain the underlying causes of a similar set of symptoms from a variety of research perspectives and background. Evolutionary hypothesis This theory posits that reading is an unnatural act, and carried out by humans for an exceedingly brief period in our evolutionary history (Dalby, 1986). It has been less than a hundred years that most western societies promoted reading by the mass population and therefore the forces that shape our behavior have been weak. Many areas of the world still do not have access to reading for the majority of the population. There is no evidence that "pathology" underlies dyslexia but much evidence for cerebral variation or differences. It is these essential differences that are taxed with the artificial task of reading. Phonological Deficit Theory The phonological deficit theory postulates that people with dyslexia have a specific impairment in the representation, storage and/or retrieval of speech sounds. It explains the reading impairment of people with dyslexia on the basis that learning to read an alphabetic system requires learning the grapheme/phoneme correspondence, i.e. the correspondence between letters and constituent sounds of speech. If these sounds are poorly represented, stored or retrieved, the learning of grapheme/phoneme correspondences, the foundation of reading by phonic methods for alphabetic systems, will be affected accordingly. Children with phonological dyslexia seem to have a general deficiency in representing and processing speech stimuli. Rapid auditory processing theory The rapid auditory processing theory is an alternative to the phonological deficit theory, which specifies that the primary deficit lies in the perception of short or rapidly varying sounds. Support for this theory arises from evidence that people with dyslexia show poor performance on a number of auditory tasks, including frequency discrimination and temporal order judgment. Backward masking tasks, in particular, demonstrate a 100-fold (40 dB) difference in sensitivity between people with and without dyslexia. Abnormal neurophysiological responses to various auditory stimuli have also been demonstrated. The failure to correctly represent short sounds and fast transitions would cause further difficulties in particular when such acoustic events are the cues to phonemic contrasts, as in /ba/ versus /da/. There is also evidence that people with dyslexia may have poorer categorical perception of certain contrasts. Visual Theory The visual theory (Lovegrove et al., 1980 ; Livingstone et al. , 1991; John Stein and Walsh, 1997 ) reflects another long standing tradition in the study of dyslexia, that of considering it as a visual impairment giving rise to difficulties with the processing of letters and words on a page of text. This may take the form of unstable binocular fixations, poor vergence, or increased visual crowding. The visual theory does not exclude a phonological deficit, but emphasizes a visual contribution to reading problems, at least in some dyslexic individuals. At the biological level, the proposed etiology of the visual dysfunction is based on the division of the visual system into two distinct pathways that have different roles and properties: the magnocellular and parvocellular pathways. The theory postulates that the magnocellular pathway is selectively disrupted in certain dyslexic individuals, leading to deficiencies in visual processing, and, via the posterior parietal cortex, to abnormal binocular control and visuospatial attention. Evidence for magnocellular dysfunction comes from anatomical studies showing abnormalities of the magnocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus (Livingstone et al., 1991 ), psychophysical studies showing decreased sensitivity in the magnocellular range, i.e. low spatial frequencies and high temporal frequencies in people with dyslexia, and brain imaging studies. Cerebellar Theory Yet another view is represented by the automaticity/cerebellar theory of dyslexia. Here the biological claim is that the cerebellum of people with dyslexia is mildly dysfunctional and that a number of cognitive difficulties ensue. First, the cerebellum plays a role in motor control and therefore in speech articulation. It is postulated that retarded or dysfunctional articulation would lead to deficient phonological representations. Secondly, the cerebellum plays a role in the automatization of overlearned tasks, such as driving, typing and reading. A weak capacity to automatize would affect, among other things, the learning of grapheme-to-phoneme correspondences. Support for the cerebellar theory comes from evidence of poor performance of people with dyslexia in a large number of motor tasks, in dual tasks demonstrating impaired automatization of balance, and in time estimation, a non-motor cerebellar task. Brain imaging studies have also shown anatomical, metabolic and activation differences in the cerebellum of people with dyslexia. Magnocellular Theory There is a unifying theory that attempts to integrate all the findings mentioned above. A generalization of the visual theory, the magnocellular theory postulates that the magnocellular dysfunction is not restricted to the visual pathways but is generalized to all modalities (visual and auditory as well as tactile). Furthermore, as the cerebellum receives massive input from various magnocellular systems in the brain, it is also predicted to be affected by the general magnocellular defect (John Stein et al., 2001 ). Through a single biological cause, this theory therefore manages to account for all known manifestations of dyslexia: visual, auditory, tactile, motor and, consequently, phonological. Beyond the evidence pertaining to each of the theories described previously, evidence specifically relevant to the magnocellular theory includes magnocellular abnormalities in the medial as well as the lateral geniculate nucleus of the brains of people with dyslexia, poor performance of people with dyslexia in the tactile domain, and the co-occurrence of visual and auditory problems in certain people with dyslexia. Perceptual visual-noise exclusion hypothesis The concept of a perceptual noise exclusion (Visual-Noise) deficit is an emerging hypothesis, supported by research showing that subjects with dyslexia experience difficulty in performing visual tasks such as motion detection in the presence of perceptual distractions, but do not show the same impairment when the distracting factors are removed in an experimental setting. The researchers have analogized their findings concerning visual discrimination tasks to findings in other research related to auditory discrimination tasks. They assert that dyslexic symptoms arise because of an impaired ability to filter out both visual and auditory distractions, and to categorize information so as to distinguish the important sensory data from the irrelevant. Research Using Brain Scan Technologies See Also Dyslexia: Brain Scan Research Modern neuroimaging techniques such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) have produced clear evidence of structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. It has been found that people with dyslexia have a deficit in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and middle and ventral temporal cortex. Brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in our understanding of the neural basis of language over the past decade. A neural basis for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short term memory components have been proposed. Wernicke's and Broca's areas are being recast in terms of localized components of phonological input and output. Some classical regions, such as the arcuate fasciculus, are having their "classical" roles questioned, while other regions, such as the basal temporal language zone, are growing progressively in terms of their recognized importance. with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural) A University of Hong Kong study argues that dyslexia affects different structural parts of children's brains depending on the language which the children read. The study focused on comparing children that were raised reading English and children raised reading Chinese. Using fMRI technology researchers found that the children reading English used a different part of the brain than those reading Chinese. Researchers were surprised by this discovery and hope that the findings will help lead them to any neurobiological cause for dyslexia. A University of Maastricht (Netherlands) study revealed that adult dyslexic readers underactivate superior temporal cortex for the integration of letters and speech sounds. This reduced audiovisual integration is directly associated with a more fundamental deficit in auditory processing of speech sounds, which in turn predicts performance on phonological tasks. The data also provides a neurofunctional account of developmental dyslexia, in which phonological processing deficits are linked to reading failure through a deficit in neural integration of letters and speech sounds. Genetic Research See also Dyslexia: Genetic Research Molecular studies have linked several forms of dyslexia to genetic markers. Several candidate genes have been identified, including at the two regions first related to dyslexia: DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6 , and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15. The science of reading and developmental dyslexia has experienced spectacular advances during the last few years. The holistic phenomenon of reading is complex. Many lower-level psychological processes (e.g., phonemic awareness, phonological decoding, ability to process stimuli rapidly and automatize this process, memory, ability to recognize words) contribute to a single act of reading. Conceptualizing the complex process of reading through its partly overlapping but partly independent components--which contribute to, but do not fully explain, the holistic process of reading--provides an excellent model for understanding complex hierarchies of higher mental functions. Although no unified brain map of reading has been developed, some specific areas of the brain have been implicated in different reading-related cognitive processes by different laboratories and on different samples. The comorbidity of developmental dyslexia with both internalizing and externalizing behavioral disturbances, as well as with other learning disabilities, underscores the need for wide-ranging cognitive and behavioral approaches in the remediation programs offered to dyslexic children. A 2007 Review reported that no specific cognitive processes are known to be influenced by the proposed susceptibility genes. Some studies have already started to include neurophysiological (eg, event-related potential) and imaging (eg, functional MRI) procedures in their phenotype characterisation of patients. Such samples are an important prerequisite for the identification of those processes that are most proximal to the effects of particular genes and their associated biological pathways. A unifying theoretical framework of three working memory components provides a systems perspective for discussing past and new findings in a 12-year research program that point to heterogeneity in the genetic and brain basis and behavioral expression of dyslexia: (a) codes for word-form storage and processing, (b) time-sensitive phonological and orthographic loops for maintaining information in working memory or outputting it, and (c) executive functions for language (e.g., rapid automatic switching of attention). Results, which span the genetic to neurological to behavioral levels of analysis, point to possible impairment in any one or combination of these working memory components in individuals with dyslexia. A DNA variation on chromosome 15 may be linked with the phonological word-form in the first working-memory component. A DNA variation on chromosome 6 may be linked with slow rapid automatic switching, inattention ratings, and impaired goal-directed activity ratings in the third working-memory component. Brain and behavioral findings support (a) Triple Word Form Theory: phonological, orthographic, and morphological word-forms and their parts contribute to learning to read and spell words; and (b) Cross-Word Form Mapping: in the process of learning to read and spell words children compute the inter-relationships among the three word-forms and their parts. However, children with dyslexia may require more focus on the morphological word-form and its parts and their relationships with the other two word-forms and their parts than do normal readers. Also, children with dyslexia have unusual difficulties in sustaining phonological loop function in working memory over time; their impaired orthographic loop function may interfere with learning to write alphabet letters and spell, which may be as impaired as word decoding and reading. Impaired executive functions may interfere with the efficiency of working memory in processing oral and written language. Effect of language orthography Using both PET and fMRI, Paulescu et al. 2001, show that dyslexia in alphabet writing systems has a universal basis in the brain and can be characterized by the same neurocognitive deficit. Clearly, the manifestation in reading behavior is less severe in a shallow orthography. However, our results show that if more sensitive tests were available, the neurocognitive deficit would be detected. Although Italians with dyslexia read more accurately than French or English people with dyslexia, they showed the same degree of impairment on reading latencies and reading-related phonological tasks relative to their controls. They conclude that a phonological processing deficit is a universal problem in dyslexia and causes literacy problems in both shallow and deep orthographies. However, in languages with shallow orthography, such as Italian, the impact is less, and dyslexia has a more hidden existence. By contrast, deep orthographies like that of English and French may aggravate the literacy impairments of otherwise mild cases of dyslexia. A study comparing childrens reading acquisition rates between different orthography of European Language (alphabet writing systems), Seymour et al. 2003, found that children from a majority of European countries become accurate and fluent in foundation level reading before the end of the first school year. There are some exceptions, notably in French, Portuguese, Danish, and, particularly, in English. The effects appear not to be attributable to differences in age of starting or letter knowledge. It is argued that fundamental linguistic differences in syllabic complexity and orthographic depth are responsible. Syllabic complexity selectively affects decoding, whereas orthographic depth affects both word reading and nonword reading. The rate of development in English is more than twice as slow as in the shallow orthographies. It is hypothesized that the deeper orthographies induce the implementation of a dual (logographic + alphabetic) foundation which takes more than twice as long to establish as the single foundation required for the learning of a shallow orthography. Johannes C. Ziegler, Conrad Perry, Anna Ma-Wyatt, Diana Ladner, and Gerd Schulte-Körne, Developmental dyslexia in different languages: Language-specific or universal? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology) 169 – 193 Diagnosis of Dyslexia Early recognition of dyslexic issues. Leppänen PH et al., investigated whether the infants born to families with a history of the development dyslexia are at an elevated risk for the disorder. They examined the differences between 6-month-old infants with and without high risk of familial dyslexia in brain electrical activation generated by changes in the temporal structure of speech sounds, a critical cueing feature in speech. The infants at risk differ from control infants in both their initial responsiveness to sounds per se and in their change-detection responses dependent on the stimulus context. This indicates that infants at risk due to a familial background of reading problems process auditory temporal cues of speech sounds differently from infants without such a risk even before they learn to speak. Formal diagnosis of dyslexia is made by a qualified professional, such as a neurologist or an educational psychologist. Evaluation generally includes testing of reading ability together with measures of underlying skills such as tests of rapid naming, to evaluate short term memory and sequencing skills, and nonword reading to evaluate phonological coding skills. Evaluation will usually also include an IQ test to establish a profile of learning strengths and weaknesses. However, the use of a "discrepancy" between full scale IQ and reading level as a factor in diagnosis has been discredited by recent research. It often includes interdisciplinary testing to exclude other possible causes for reading difficulties, such as a more generalized cognitive impairment or physical causes such as problems with vision or hearing. Recent advances in neuroimaging and genetics provide evidence that could potentially help identify children with dyslexia before they learn to read in the future. Variations and related conditions Dyslexia has many underlying causes that are believed to be a neurological conditions that influence the ability to read written language. The following conditions may be contributory or overlapping factors, or underlying cause of the dyslexic symptoms as they can lead to difficulty reading: Auditory processing disorder is a condition that affects the ability to process auditory information. Auditory Processing Disorder is a Listening Disability . It can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems including history of auditory reversals. Auditory processing disorder is recognized as one of the major causes of dyslexia. Some children can acquire auditory processing disorder as a result of experiencing otitis media with effusion (Glue Ear, Sticky Ear, Grommits) and other severe ear conditions. Scotopic sensitivity syndrome, also known as Irlen Syndrome, is a term used to describe sensitivity to certain wavelengths of light which interfere with visual processing. Developmental dyspraxia is a neurological condition characterized by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine- motor control, kinesthetic coordination, difficulty in the use of speech sounds, problems with short term memory and organization are typical of dyspraxics. See also attention deficit hyperactivity disorder dysphasia The following are related variations with possible shared underlying neurological causes. Dysgraphia is a disorder which expresses itself primarily during writing or typing, although in some cases it may also affect eye-hand coordination in such direction or sequence oriented processes as tying knots or carrying out a repetitive task. Dysgraphia is distinct from Dyspraxia in that the person may have the word to be written or the proper order of steps in mind clearly, but carries the sequence out in the wrong order. Dyscalculia is a neurological condition characterized by a problem with learning fundamentals and one or more of the basic numerical skills. Often people with this condition can understand very complex mathematical concepts and principles but have difficulty processing formulas and even basic addition and subtraction. Specific Language Impairment is a developmental language disorder that can affect both expressive and receptive language. SLI is defined as a "pure" language impairment, meaning that is not related to or caused by other developmental disorders, hearing loss or acquired brain injury. A study by the Universities of Maastricht and Utrecht examined speech perception and speech production in 3-year-old Dutch children at familial risk of developing dyslexia. Their performance in speech sound categorisation and their production of words was compared to that of age-matched children with specific language impairment (SLI) and typically developing controls. The results of the at-risk and SLI-group were highly similar. Analysis of the individual data revealed that both groups contained subgroups with good and poorly performing children. Their impaired expressive phonology seemed to be related to a deficit in speech perception. The findings indicate that both dyslexia and SLI can be explained by a multi-risk model which includes cognitive processes as well as genetic factors. Cluttering is a speech fluency disorder involving both the rate and rhythm of speech, and resulting in impaired speech intelligibility. Speech is erratic and dysrhythmic, consisting of rapid and jerky spurts that usually involve faulty phrasing. The personality of the clutterer bears striking resemblance to the personalities of those with learning disabilities. Cluttering as a Complex of Learning Disabilities Characteristics of Dyslexia Listening, Speech and Langauge Some shared symptoms of the speech/hearing deficits and dyslexia: Confusion with before/after, right/left, and so on Difficulty learning the alphabet Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in words (phonological awareness) Difficulty with hearing and manipulating sounds in words (phonemic awareness) Difficulty distinguishing different sounds in words (auditory discrimination) Difficulty in learning the sounds of letters Difficulty associating individual words with their correct meanings Difficulty with time keeping and concept of time Confusion with combinations of words Due to fear of speaking incorrectly, some children become withdrawn and shy or become bullies out of their inability to understand the social cues in their environment Difficulty in organization skills The identification of these factors results from the study of patterns across many clinical observations of dyslexic children. In the UK, Thomas Richard Miles was important in such work and his observations led him to develop the Bangor Dyslexia Diagnostic Test. Dyslexia is about having problems with the visual notation of Speech language, which in most languages of European origin are problems with alphabet writing systems which have a phonetic construction. Experience of speech acquisition delays, and speech and language problems can be due to problems processing and decoding auditory input prior to reproducing their own version of speech, and may be observed as stuttering, clutteringor hesitant speech Stephen Wilcox - Dyslexia & Vision This book is written in "plain language" to make it easier to read for student with dyslexia as well as "busy" teachers and . There are a range of neurological issues in Speech and Language Pathology which can later cause problems accessing the visual notation of speech, dyslexic problems. Examples of these issues can be problems speaking in full sentences, problems correctly articulating Rs and Ls as well as Ms and Ns, mixing up sounds in multi-syllabic words (ex: aminal for animal, bisghetti for spaghetti, hekalopter for helicopter, hangaberg for hamburger, ageen for magazine, etc.), problems of immature speech "wed and gween" instead of "red and green". Some of these speech realted problems can be caused by auditory processing disorder issues . Which can create a neurological auditory barrier to developing good phonological awareness skills, as a result some may develop alternative skills and which are based on recognising alphabetic words by their visual shape or Whole language. Reading and spelling Spelling errors — Because of difficulty learning letter-sound correspondences, individuals with dyslexia might tend to misspell words, or leave vowels out of words. Letter order - People with dyslexia may also reverse the order of two letters especially when the final, incorrect, word looks similar to the intended word (e.g., spelling "dose" instead of "does"). Letter addition/subtraction - People with dyslexia may perceive a word with letters added, subtracted, or repeated. This can lead to confusion between two words containing most of the same letters. Highly phoneticized spelling - People with dyslexia also commonly spell words inconsistently, but in a highly phonetic form such as writing "shud" for "should". Dyslexic individuals also typically have difficulty distinguishing among homophones such as "their" and "there". Vocabulary - Having a small written vocabulary, even if they have a large spoken vocabulary. Writing and motor skills Because of literacy problems, an individual with dyslexia may have difficulty with handwriting. This can involve slower writing speed than average, poor handwriting characterised by irregularly formed letters, or inability to write straight on a blank paper with no guideline. Some studies have also reported gross motor difficulties in dyslexia, including motor skills disorder. This difficulty is indicated by clumsiness and poor coordination. The relationship between motor skills and reading difficulties is poorly understood but could be linked to the role of the cerebellum and inner ear in the development of reading and motor abilities. Mathematical abilities Dyslexia and dyscalculia two learning disorders with different cognitive profiles. Dyslexia and dyscalculia have separable cognitive profiles, namely a phonological deficit in the case ofdyslexia and a deficient number module in the case of dyscalculia. Individuals with dyslexia can be gifted in mathematics while having poor reading skills. They might have difficulty with word processing problems. (i.e., descriptive mathematics, engineering, or physics problems that rely on written text rather than numbers or formulas). Adaptive attributes A study has found that entrepreneurs are five times more likely to be dyslexic than average citizens cass.city.ac.uk Entrepreneurs five times more likely to suffer from dyslexia . Evidence based on randomly selected populations of children indicate that dyslexia affects boys and girls equally; that dyslexia is diagnosed more frequently in boys appears to be the result of sampling bias in school-identified sample populations. Shaywitz, Sally E., M.D., and Bennett A. Shaywitz, M.D. (2001) The Neurobiology of Reading and Dyslexia. National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy Focus on Basics, Volume 5, Issue A - August 2001. In the United States, researchers estimate the prevalence of dyslexia to range from three to ten percent of school-aged children though some have put the figure as high as 17 percent. Learning Disabilities: Multidisciplinary Research Centers, NIH Guide, Volume 23, Number 37, October 21, 1994, Full Text HD-95-005 ("LDRC longitudinal, epidemiological studies show that RD (dyslexia) affect at least 10 million children, or approximately 1 child in 5.") Recent studies indicate that dyslexia is particularly prevalent among small business owners, with roughly 20 to 35 percent of U. S. and British entrepreneurs being affected. Cites a study by Julie Logan, professor of entrepreneurship at Cass Business School in London, among other literature. Management There is no cure for dyslexia, but dyslexic individuals can learn to read and write with appropriate educational support. There is wide research evidence indicating that specialized phonics instruction can help remediate the reading deficits. The fundamental aim is to make children aware of correspondences between graphemes and phonemes, and to relate these to reading and spelling. It has been found that training, that is also focused towards visual language and orthographic issues, yields longer-lasting gains than mere oral phonological training. The best appraoch is determined by the underlying neurological cause of the dyslexic symptom. Legal and educational support issues There are many National legal statutes with regard to special education provision There are individual national special education support structures In the English law case of Skipper v Calderdale Metropolitan Borough School (2006) EWCA Civ 238, the Court of Appeal applied Phelps v London Borough of Hillingdon (2001) 2 AC 619 as the landmark case on the failure to diagnose dyslexia, in accordance with duty of care in English law, and to hold that the appellant could pursue her claim against her school for humiliation, lost confidence, and lost self-esteem, and for loss of earnings following its failing to diagnose and treat her dyslexia despite the fact that, as Latham LJ. The ruling states in paragraph 29: "The extent to which her dyslexia could have been ameliorated or provided for will always remain uncertain, as will the extent to which that would have affected her performance in public examinations; the evidence that we have includes material to suggest that she, not surprisingly, reacted adversely to the break-up of her parents marriage when she was 15, in other words at a critical time in her education. Whether any improvement in her examination results would have led to her life taking a significantly different course will also be a matter for some speculation." Some charitable organizations like the Scottish Rite Foundation have undertaken the task of testing for dyslexia and making training classes and materials available, often without cost, for teachers and students. In England and Wales, the failure of schools to diagnose and provide remedial can help for dyslexia following the House of Lords decision in the case of Pamela Phelps has created an entitlement for students with dyslexia in Higher education to receive support funded via the Disabled Students Allowance. Support can take the form of IT equipment (software and hardware) as well as personal assistance, also known as non-medical helper support. Dyslexic students will also be entitled to special provision in examinations such as additional time to allow them to read and comprehend exam questions. The British Disability Discrimination Act 1995 also covers dyslexia. "In some cases, people have 'coping strategies' which cease to work in certain circumstances (for example, where someone who stutters or has dyslexia is placed under stress). If it is possible that a person's ability to manage the effects of the impairment will break down so that these effects will sometimes occur, this possibility must be taken into account when assessing the effects of the impairment." — Paragraph A8, Guidance to the Definitions of Disability. The Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching Dyslexic Pupils offers support to parents looking for a suitable educational establishment for their children, including advice on statementing and schools. http://www.crested.org.uk/ Controversy Some disagreement exists as to whether dyslexia does indeed exist as a condition, or whether it simply reflects individual differences among different readers. "The Dyslexia Myth" is a documentary that appeared as part of the Dispatches series produced by British broadcaster Channel 4. First aired in September 2005, it claims to expose myths and misconceptions that surround dyslexia. It argues that the common understanding of dyslexia is not only false but makes it more difficult to provide the reading help that hundreds of thousands of children desperately need. Drawing on years of intensive academic research on both sides of the Atlantic, it challenged the existence of dyslexia as a separate condition, and highlighted the many different forms of reading styles. The documentary only focused on the reading difficulties that people with dyslexia encounter. As discussed in previous headings, dyslexia is more than a mere reading disability, and commonly includes symptoms that extend beyond reading difficulties. However, these symptoms are not included in the DSM-IV list of symptoms by which "Reading Disorder" is diagnosed in the USA. Julian Elliot, a psychologist at Durham University in the United Kingdom, disputes the characterization of dyslexia as a medical condition, and believes it should be treated simply as a reading difficulty. According to Elliot, "[parents] don’t want their child to be considered lazy, thick or stupid. If they get called this medically diagnosed term, dyslexic, then it is a signal to all that it’s not to do with intelligence.” Elliot believes that children of all levels of intelligence may struggle with learning to read, and that all can be helped by educational strategies appropriate to their needs. He feels that resources are wasted on diagnosis and testing, and favors early intervention programs for all struggling readers. More recently Julian Elliot has also made reference to the 28 Definitions of Dyslexia which were documented in the Appendices of the National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy report on Developmental dyslexia in adults: a research review by Michael Rice with Greg Brooks May 2004. However, John Everatt of the University of Surrey, has suggested that dyslexic students can be distinguished from other children with low reading achievement by testing geared to assessing their strengths as well as weaknesses. Dyslexic children tend to score significantly better than other children, including non-impaired children, on tests of creativity, spatial memory, and spatial reasoning. Dyslexic children also perform better than other reading-impaired children on tests of vocabulary and listening comprehension. Everatt suggests that dyslexic children may be better served by educational intervention which includes strategies geared to their unique strengths in addition to skill remediation, and thus recommends more comprehensive evaluation and targeted interventions. Gerald Coles, an educational psychologist and formerly an associate professor of clinical psychiatry at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and the University of Rochester, in the United States, who has written extensively on literacy and learning disabilities, asserts that there are partisan agendas behind the educational policy-makers and that the scientific research that they use to support their arguments regarding the teaching of literacy are flawed. These include the idea that there are neurological explanations for learning disabilities. Gerald Coles argues that school failure must be viewed and treated in the context of both the learning environment and the child's individual abilities, behavior, family life, and social relationships. He then presents a new model of learning problems, in which family and school environments are the major determinants of academic success. In this "interactive" paradigm, the attitudes and methods of education are more important than inherent strengths or deficits of the individual child. Gerald Coles (1987). The Learning Mystique: A Critical Look at "Learning Disabilities". Accessed November 22, 2008. See also Management of Dyslexia :Category:Dyslexia researchers :Category:Dyslexia Irlen filters Net Educational Systems Child development Dysorthographia Whole language List of people diagnosed with dyslexia Dyslexia in fiction References External links Associations and Charities British Dyslexia Association British Dyslexics Dyslexia Action International Dyslexia Organization Valley of Chicago Learning Center The Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching Dyslexic Pupils Historical Samuel T Orton and June L Orton Personal Papers and Manuscripts at the Columbia University Health Science Library collection Research papers, articles and media Dyslexia Research Listings Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia A Blog of Personal Experiences of Living with Dyslexia Dyslexia - A common learning disability Auditory and Visual Dynamic Processing: Separate Influences in Reading? Diagnosing dyslexia in children - a guide for parents Auditory frequency discrimination in adult developmental dyslexics Can sensitivity to auditory frequency modulation predict children's phonological and reading skills? Children of the Code - A social-education Project about the "code and the challenge of learning to read it" Dynamic sensory sensitivity and children’s word decoding skills Dyslexia Unit Publications 1981-2003 (list of research papers which can be located at academic publishers or Google) Effect of intensive training on auditory processing and reading skills The Neural Basis of Reading articles 1995 - 2005 On the Relationship between Dynamic Visual and Auditory Processing and Literacy Skills; Results from a Large Primary-school Study Temporal Processing Deficits in Children with Dyslexia Haskins Laboratories reading research Professor Dorothy Bishop: Evaluating Alternative Solutions for Dyslexia | Dyslexia |@lemmatized define:3 dyslexia:148 learning:14 disability:16 make:10 manifest:1 primarily:3 difficulty:42 visual:36 notation:3 speech:33 write:24 language:32 particularly:3 read:61 various:4 man:1 system:15 separate:3 distinct:4 result:14 cause:20 non:6 neurological:12 deficiency:3 vision:3 hearing:4 poor:10 inadequate:1 reading:48 instruction:4 stanovich:1 ke:1 explain:6 difference:15 dyslexic:30 garden:1 variety:3 reader:6 phonological:39 core:1 variable:1 model:6 journal:6 learn:28 suggest:6 brain:36 process:20 speak:4 many:10 definition:4 consensus:1 purely:1 descriptive:3 others:1 embody:1 causal:1 theory:30 appear:5 one:6 thing:2 far:1 serve:2 conceptual:1 clearing:1 house:2 number:9 skill:19 deficit:29 majority:3 currently:1 available:4 research:25 relate:9 alphabet:6 especially:3 european:4 origin:3 however:9 become:4 regard:3 provide:10 broad:1 universal:4 perspective:3 castle:2 coltheart:2 describe:8 surface:5 type:5 developmental:18 analogy:1 classical:3 subtypes:4 acquire:4 alexia:2 classify:1 accord:2 rate:4 error:3 word:52 distinction:3 phonlogical:1 replace:1 old:4 empirical:1 terminology:1 dysphonetic:2 versus:2 dyseidetic:2 boder:2 deviod:1 aetiological:1 assumption:1 underlie:4 mechanism:3 refers:1 two:10 different:14 discrimination:8 precepotion:1 impairment:16 people:27 dysiedetic:1 attentional:1 spatial:4 interfere:4 acquisition:4 although:5 think:1 intellectual:2 diagnose:9 level:8 intelligence:4 history:5 see:8 also:32 identify:5 oswald:1 berkhan:2 neur:1 zent:1 term:9 later:3 coin:1 rudolf:1 berlin:1 ophthalmologist:2 practicing:1 stuttgart:1 germany:1 use:15 refer:1 case:13 young:2 boy:5 severe:3 spite:1 show:14 typical:3 physical:2 ability:16 respect:1 w:1 pringle:1 morgan:1 british:8 physician:1 england:2 publish:2 description:1 specific:8 disorder:17 report:7 medical:5 title:2 congenital:4 blindness:3 year:8 yet:3 normal:4 generally:3 adept:1 activity:8 child:50 age:6 early:3 james:1 hinshelwood:2 series:4 article:3 similar:5 defect:3 occur:3 otherwise:2 undamaged:1 characterise:2 book:2 assert:3 primary:3 memory:14 letter:21 symptom:11 include:20 reversal:2 spelling:2 comprehension:3 samuel:2 orton:8 neurologist:2 work:13 stroke:2 victim:2 meet:1 could:5 exhibit:1 lose:3 begin:1 study:32 determine:2 syndrome:3 unrelated:1 damage:1 difficult:3 call:2 strephosymbolia:1 mean:2 twisted:1 sign:1 individual:17 associate:9 form:18 spoken:4 observe:4 seem:3 stem:2 strictly:1 believe:4 condition:12 failure:6 establish:3 hemispheric:1 dominance:1 disproportionately:1 left:10 mixed:1 hand:2 finding:14 replicate:1 influence:5 kinesthetic:2 helen:1 keller:1 grace:1 fernald:1 look:4 way:1 teach:3 leave:9 right:10 function:6 psychologist:4 educator:1 anna:2 gillingham:1 develop:8 educational:10 intervention:4 pioneer:1 simultaneous:1 multisensory:1 contrast:5 dearborn:1 gate:1 bennet:1 blau:1 consider:3 faulty:2 guidance:2 seek:1 discover:1 conflict:1 spontaneous:1 orientation:1 scan:3 action:2 eye:2 train:1 aim:2 opposite:1 direction:4 would:8 allow:2 interpretation:1 fact:2 mirror:3 end:2 author:1 ask:1 four:1 adult:9 text:4 reflect:3 ten:2 minute:1 day:1 five:4 month:3 subject:6 perceive:2 globality:1 require:4 meticulous:1 analysis:3 syllable:2 demonstrate:5 total:1 partial:1 inversion:2 even:5 sometimes:2 affect:15 order:6 sentence:2 reveal:5 curious:1 impression:1 horizontal:1 vertical:1 exist:2 amongst:1 suffer:2 aggravate:2 circumstance:2 inherent:2 conduct:1 clement:1 launay:1 thesis:1 g:8 mahec:1 paris:1 go:1 tiny:1 low:4 mm:2 high:7 space:2 apart:1 first:7 easily:1 quickly:1 former:1 substantial:1 equal:1 speed:2 well:9 phenomenon:2 clearly:3 link:9 dynamic:4 sight:1 disappear:1 increase:4 transform:1 spell:9 experience:6 new:3 hypothesis:5 emerge:3 processing:27 recognize:4 discrete:1 phoneme:5 example:3 cat:1 come:3 sound:23 k:1 æ:1 affected:1 key:1 strong:2 predictor:1 success:2 school:15 awareness:7 improve:1 decode:3 galaburda:3 kemper:1 et:29 al:29 examination:4 post:2 autopsy:2 observed:2 anatomical:4 center:4 microscopic:1 cotical:1 malformation:3 know:5 extopias:1 rarely:1 vascular:1 micro:1 instance:1 cortical:2 microgyrus:1 cohen:1 abnormal:4 development:9 presume:1 sixth:1 foetal:1 prevalent:2 understand:4 useful:1 pattern:4 approach:3 overcome:1 perception:5 characterize:6 trouble:1 irregular:2 aloud:1 regular:1 connect:1 symbols:1 task:19 predict:3 accuracy:1 manis:1 conclude:2 probably:1 multiple:1 underlying:5 specimens:1 auditory:33 suggests:1 accompany:1 abnormality:3 might:3 present:2 therefore:4 measure:2 cross:3 sectional:2 neuronal:2 area:6 medial:3 geniculate:4 nucleus:4 mgns:1 seven:1 control:9 asymmetry:1 side:2 mgn:2 neuron:4 significantly:3 small:4 sample:5 compare:4 large:4 consistent:2 reported:1 behavioral:6 hemisphere:5 base:4 wydell:1 butterworth:1 english:9 japanese:1 bilingual:1 monolingual:1 orthography:10 phonology:2 mapping:2 transparent:1 opaque:1 whose:2 orthographic:8 unit:3 represent:5 coarse:1 e:13 whole:3 character:1 produce:4 incidence:1 orthograpy:1 turkeltaub:2 complexity:3 pediatric:1 imaging:5 preclude:1 trace:1 neural:8 cognitive:9 childhood:1 isolate:1 related:6 minimize:1 confound:1 performance:7 effect:8 carry:5 functional:6 magnetic:3 resonance:3 fmri:5 range:5 find:6 change:4 middle:3 temporal:10 inferior:3 frontal:3 gyrus:3 decreased:2 inferotemporal:1 cortica:1 posterior:2 superior:2 sulcus:1 maturation:2 inform:1 current:3 support:15 positron:2 emission:2 tomography:2 pet:4 signature:1 bookheimer:2 fiez:1 petersen:1 price:2 pugh:2 gelfand:1 poldrack:1 rumsey:2 image:3 anomalous:1 activation:4 persistent:1 compensate:1 brunswick:1 demonet:1 flower:1 horwitz:1 ingvar:1 paulesu:2 shaywitz:3 employ:1 experimental:3 paradigm:2 detection:3 judgment:2 rhyme:2 nonword:3 implicit:1 localize:1 dysfunctional:3 perisylvian:1 region:5 signal:2 temporoparietal:1 occipitotemporal:1 cortex:5 alphabetic:5 writing:2 review:3 eden:2 zeffiro:2 cite:2 neuroimaging:3 date:1 guinevere:1 f:1 last:2 coauthor:1 thomas:2 volume:3 issue:8 page:2 id:1 url:1 http:2 www:2 sciencedirect:1 com:1 science:3 articleurl:1 search:2 view:5 c:3 accessdate:1 nonalphabetic:1 script:1 place:2 less:4 demand:1 phonemic:4 integration:4 information:4 crucial:1 siok:1 guide:3 list:4 human:2 cerebral:3 relation:1 focus:5 defective:1 delay:2 recently:2 genetic:9 evidence:14 researcher:6 previous:2 much:2 whatever:1 biological:5 matter:2 reduced:2 phonogical:1 analyze:1 scientific:2 following:2 compete:1 try:1 set:1 background:2 evolutionary:2 posit:1 unnatural:1 act:3 exceedingly:1 brief:1 period:1 dalby:1 hundred:2 western:1 society:1 promote:1 mass:1 population:4 force:1 shape:2 behavior:3 weak:2 world:1 still:1 access:2 pathology:2 variation:5 essential:1 tax:1 artificial:1 postulate:4 representation:2 storage:2 retrieval:2 basis:6 grapheme:4 correspondence:6 constituent:1 poorly:3 store:1 retrieve:1 foundation:5 phonic:1 method:2 accordingly:1 general:2 stimulus:4 rapid:6 alternative:3 specify:1 lie:1 short:5 rapidly:2 varying:1 arise:2 frequency:5 backward:1 mask:1 particular:3 fold:1 db:1 sensitivity:6 without:4 neurophysiological:2 response:2 correctly:2 fast:1 transition:1 acoustic:1 event:2 cue:3 ba:1 da:1 may:20 categorical:1 certain:5 lovegrove:1 livingstone:2 john:3 stein:2 walsh:1 another:2 long:2 standing:1 tradition:1 give:1 rise:1 take:5 unstable:1 binocular:2 fixation:1 vergence:1 crowding:1 exclude:2 emphasize:1 contribution:1 problem:25 least:2 propose:3 etiology:1 dysfunction:3 division:1 pathway:5 role:5 property:1 magnocellular:12 parvocellular:1 selectively:2 disrupt:1 lead:8 via:2 parietal:2 visuospatial:1 attention:4 layer:1 lateral:2 psychophysical:1 cerebellar:4 automaticity:1 claim:3 cerebellum:6 mildly:1 ensue:1 play:2 motor:10 articulation:2 retard:1 deficient:2 secondly:1 automatization:2 overlearned:1 driving:1 capacity:1 automatize:2 among:6 dual:2 impaired:10 balance:2 time:9 estimation:1 metabolic:1 unifying:2 attempt:1 integrate:1 mention:1 generalization:1 restrict:1 generalize:1 modality:1 tactile:3 furthermore:1 receive:2 massive:1 input:3 single:3 manage:2 account:3 known:1 manifestation:3 consequently:1 beyond:2 pertain:1 previously:1 specifically:1 relevant:1 domain:1 co:1 occurrence:1 perceptual:3 noise:3 exclusion:2 concept:3 perform:3 motion:1 presence:1 distraction:2 distracting:1 factor:5 remove:1 setting:1 analogize:1 concern:1 filter:2 categorize:1 distinguish:3 important:4 sensory:2 data:3 irrelevant:1 technology:2 modern:1 technique:1 clear:1 structural:3 part:8 involve:5 lobule:1 ventral:1 breakthrough:1 understanding:2 past:2 decade:1 lexicon:1 verbal:1 component:7 wernicke:1 broca:1 recast:1 localized:1 output:2 arcuate:1 fasciculus:1 question:2 basal:1 zone:1 grow:1 progressively:1 importance:1 implication:1 rather:2 university:7 hong:1 kong:1 argue:4 depend:1 raise:2 chinese:2 surprise:1 discovery:1 hope:1 help:6 neurobiological:1 maastricht:2 netherlands:1 underactivate:1 audiovisual:1 directly:1 fundamental:4 turn:1 predicts:1 neurofunctional:1 molecular:1 several:2 marker:1 candidate:1 gene:3 chromosome:4 spectacular:1 advance:2 holistic:2 complex:5 psychological:1 decoding:3 contribute:3 conceptualize:1 partly:2 overlap:2 independent:1 fully:1 excellent:1 hierarchy:1 mental:1 unified:1 map:1 implicate:1 laboratory:1 comorbidity:1 internalize:1 externalize:1 disturbance:1 underscore:1 need:3 wide:2 remediation:2 program:3 offer:2 susceptibility:1 already:1 start:2 eg:2 potential:1 mri:1 procedure:1 phenotype:1 characterisation:1 patient:1 prerequisite:1 identification:2 proximal:1 associated:1 theoretical:1 framework:1 three:3 discuss:2 point:2 heterogeneity:1 expression:1 code:3 b:2 sensitive:2 loop:3 maintain:1 executive:2 automatic:3 switching:2 span:1 possible:4 combination:2 dna:2 slow:3 inattention:1 rating:2 goal:1 direct:1 third:1 triple:1 morphological:2 compute:1 inter:1 relationship:5 unusual:1 sustain:1 efficiency:1 oral:2 paulescu:1 neurocognitive:2 shallow:5 test:9 detect:1 italian:2 accurately:1 french:3 degree:1 latency:1 relative:1 literacy:8 deep:3 impact:1 hidden:1 existence:2 like:2 mild:1 childrens:1 seymour:1 country:1 accurate:1 fluent:1 exception:1 notably:1 portuguese:1 danish:1 attributable:1 knowledge:1 linguistic:1 syllabic:3 depth:2 responsible:1 whereas:1 twice:2 hypothesize:1 induce:1 implementation:1 logographic:1 johannes:1 ziegler:1 conrad:1 perry:1 wyatt:1 diana:1 ladner:1 gerd:1 schulte:1 körne:1 psychology:1 diagnosis:4 recognition:1 leppänen:1 ph:1 investigate:1 whether:4 infant:6 bear:2 family:3 elevated:1 risk:8 examine:2 familial:3 electrical:1 generate:2 structure:2 critical:3 cueing:1 feature:1 differ:1 initial:1 responsiveness:1 per:1 se:1 dependent:1 context:2 indicate:6 due:3 differently:1 formal:1 qualified:1 professional:1 evaluation:3 testing:2 together:1 naming:1 evaluate:2 sequence:3 coding:1 usually:2 iq:2 profile:3 strength:4 weakness:2 discrepancy:1 full:3 scale:1 discredit:1 recent:3 often:3 interdisciplinary:1 generalized:1 genetics:1 potentially:1 future:1 contributory:1 listening:3 sequencing:1 major:2 otitis:1 medium:2 effusion:1 glue:1 ear:4 sticky:1 grommits:1 scotopic:1 irlen:2 wavelength:1 light:1 dyspraxia:2 marked:1 routine:1 fine:1 coordination:3 organization:4 dyspraxics:1 hyperactivity:1 dysphasia:1 follow:3 share:2 dysgraphia:2 express:1 orient:1 tie:1 knot:1 repetitive:1 person:2 proper:1 step:1 mind:1 wrong:1 dyscalculia:4 basic:3 numerical:1 mathematical:2 principle:1 formula:2 addition:3 subtraction:2 expressive:2 receptive:1 sli:4 pure:1 hear:1 loss:2 injury:1 utrecht:1 production:2 dutch:1 categorisation:1 matched:1 typically:2 group:2 highly:3 contain:2 subgroup:1 good:5 multi:2 cluttering:1 fluency:1 rhythm:1 intelligibility:1 erratic:1 dysrhythmic:1 consist:1 jerky:1 spurt:1 phrasing:1 personality:2 clutterer:1 strike:1 resemblance:1 clutter:1 characteristic:1 langauge:1 confusion:3 name:1 count:1 manipulate:1 correct:1 meaning:1 keep:1 fear:1 incorrectly:1 withdrawn:1 shy:1 bully:1 inability:2 social:3 environment:3 across:1 clinical:2 observation:2 uk:3 richard:1 mile:1 bangor:1 diagnostic:1 phonetic:2 construction:1 prior:1 reproduce:1 version:1 stuttering:1 clutteringor:1 hesitant:1 stephen:1 wilcox:1 plain:1 easy:1 student:6 busy:1 teacher:2 articulate:1 r:1 l:2 n:1 mix:1 ex:1 aminal:1 animal:1 bisghetti:1 spaghetti:1 hekalopter:1 helicopter:1 hangaberg:1 hamburger:1 ageen:1 magazine:1 etc:1 immature:1 wed:1 gween:1 instead:2 red:1 green:1 realted:1 create:2 barrier:1 recognise:1 tend:2 misspell:1 vowel:1 reverse:1 final:1 incorrect:1 intend:1 dose:1 add:1 subtract:1 repeat:1 phoneticized:1 commonly:2 inconsistently:1 shud:1 distinguishing:1 homophone:1 vocabulary:4 handwrite:2 average:2 irregularly:1 straight:1 blank:1 paper:4 guideline:1 gross:1 clumsiness:1 understood:1 inner:1 separable:1 namely:1 ofdyslexia:1 module:1 gift:1 mathematics:2 engineering:1 physic:1 rely:1 adaptive:1 attribute:1 entrepreneur:3 likely:2 citizens:1 ca:2 city:1 ac:2 randomly:1 select:1 girl:1 equally:1 frequently:1 bias:1 sally:1 bennett:1 neurobiology:1 national:4 august:1 united:3 state:3 estimate:1 prevalence:1 percent:3 though:1 put:1 figure:1 multidisciplinary:1 nih:1 october:1 hd:1 ldrc:1 longitudinal:1 epidemiological:1 rd:1 million:1 approximately:1 business:2 owner:1 roughly:1 u:1 julie:1 logan:1 professor:3 entrepreneurship:1 london:2 literature:1 management:2 cure:1 appropriate:2 specialized:1 phonics:1 remediate:1 aware:1 training:4 focused:1 towards:1 yield:1 longer:1 lasting:1 gain:1 mere:2 best:1 appraoch:1 legal:2 statute:1 special:3 education:6 provision:2 law:2 skipper:1 v:2 calderdale:1 metropolitan:1 borough:2 ewca:1 civ:1 court:1 appeal:1 apply:1 phelps:2 hillingdon:1 landmark:1 accordance:1 duty:1 care:1 hold:1 appellant:1 pursue:1 humiliation:1 confidence:1 self:1 esteem:1 earnings:1 fail:1 treat:3 despite:1 latham:1 lj:1 rule:1 paragraph:2 extent:2 ameliorate:1 always:1 remain:1 uncertain:1 public:1 material:2 surprisingly:1 react:1 adversely:1 break:2 parent:4 marriage:1 improvement:1 life:2 course:1 speculation:1 charitable:1 scottish:1 rite:1 undertake:1 class:1 cost:1 wale:1 remedial:1 lord:1 decision:1 pamela:1 entitlement:1 fund:1 disabled:1 allowance:1 equipment:1 software:1 hardware:1 personal:3 assistance:1 helper:1 entitle:1 additional:1 comprehend:1 exam:1 cover:1 cop:1 strategy:3 cease:1 someone:1 stutter:1 stress:1 possibility:1 must:2 assess:2 council:2 registration:2 pupil:2 suitable:1 establishment:1 advice:1 statementing:1 crest:1 org:1 controversy:1 disagreement:1 exists:1 indeed:1 simply:2 myth:2 documentary:2 dispatch:1 broadcaster:1 channel:1 air:1 september:1 expose:1 misconception:1 surround:1 common:2 false:1 thousand:1 desperately:1 draw:1 intensive:2 academic:3 atlantic:1 challenge:2 highlight:1 style:1 encounter:1 heading:1 extend:1 dsm:1 iv:1 usa:1 julian:2 elliot:4 durham:1 kingdom:1 dispute:1 characterization:1 want:1 lazy:1 thick:1 stupid:1 get:1 medically:1 diagnosed:1 struggle:2 feel:1 resource:1 waste:1 favor:1 reference:2 document:1 appendix:1 centre:1 numeracy:1 michael:1 rice:1 greg:1 brook:1 everatt:2 surrey:1 achievement:1 gear:2 score:1 creativity:1 reasoning:1 unique:1 thus:1 recommend:1 comprehensive:1 targeted:1 gerald:3 cole:3 formerly:1 psychiatry:1 robert:1 wood:1 johnson:1 rochester:1 extensively:1 partisan:1 agenda:1 behind:1 policy:1 maker:1 argument:1 teaching:1 flaw:1 idea:1 explanation:1 determinant:1 interactive:1 attitude:1 mystique:1 accessed:1 november:1 category:2 net:1 dysorthographia:1 fiction:1 external:1 association:2 charity:1 dyslexics:2 international:1 valley:1 chicago:1 historical:1 june:1 manuscript:1 columbia:1 health:1 library:1 collection:1 listing:1 blog:1 living:1 modulation:1 project:1 publication:1 locate:1 publisher:1 google:1 haskins:1 laboratories:1 dorothy:1 bishop:1 evaluating:1 solution:1 |@bigram purely_descriptive:1 developmental_dyslexia:13 assumption_underlie:1 congenital_defect:1 helen_keller:1 aggravate_circumstance:1 phonological_processing:8 phonological_deficit:6 phonological_awareness:4 et_al:29 read_aloud:1 auditory_processing:11 cross_sectional:2 geniculate_nucleus:4 magnetic_resonance:3 resonance_imaging:3 imaging_fmri:3 positron_emission:2 emission_tomography:2 tomography_pet:2 http_www:2 www_sciencedirect:1 sciencedirect_com:1 cerebral_hemisphere:1 cerebral_cortex:1 storage_retrieval:1 grapheme_phoneme:4 visual_impairment:1 visual_auditory:5 input_output:1 hong_kong:1 cognitive_behavioral:1 shallow_orthography:4 per_se:1 educational_psychologist:2 strength_weakness:1 cognitive_impairment:1 otitis_medium:1 deficit_hyperactivity:1 hyperactivity_disorder:1 addition_subtraction:2 add_subtract:1 poorly_understood:1 randomly_select:1 self_esteem:1 disability_discrimination:1 hundred_thousand:1 desperately_need:1 dsm_iv:1 clinical_psychiatry:1 external_link:1 frequency_modulation:1 |
982 | Four_Weddings_and_a_Funeral | Four Weddings and a Funeral is a 1994 British romantic comedy film directed by Mike Newell. It was the first of several films by screenwriter Richard Curtis to feature Hugh Grant. The film was an unexpected success, becoming the highest-grossing British film in cinema history at the time, with worldwide box office in excess of $244 million, and receiving an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture. Business Data for Four Weddings and a Funeral Internet Movie Database, accessed February 15, 2007. http://www.cinema.com/people/005/985/richard-curtis/index.phtml Synopsis The film follows the adventures of a group of friends through the eyes of Charles, a debonair but faux pas-prone Englishman, played by Grant, who is smitten by Carrie, an attractive American played by Andie MacDowell, whom Charles repeatedly meets at weddings and at a funeral. The first wedding is that of Angus and Laura (Timothy Walker and Sara Crowe). Charles and his collection of single friends are concerned that they will never get married. At this wedding, Charles meets Carrie for the first time and spends the night with her, but he regards it as a one-night stand. Carrie teases him that now they have slept together, they will also have to get married, but it is clear that she too sees their liaison as a one off. The second wedding is that of Bernard and Lydia (David Haig and Sophie Thompson), a couple who got together at the previous wedding. This sequence features Rowan Atkinson in a small role as an inexperienced priest. The reception is not an enjoyable one for Charles. First, he encounters Carrie, who subsequently introduces Charles to her fiance, Sir Hamish Banks, a wealthy politician from Scotland. Next, Charles finds himself seated at a table with several ex-girlfriends, as well as bumping into Henrietta (known among Charles' friends as "Duckface"), with whom he had a difficult relationship in the past. As the evening wears on, Charles inadvertently finds himself in Bernard and Lydia's hotel suite and is forced to hide in a wardrobe after the newlyweds suddenly stumble into the room and engage in a sexual romp on the bed. Believing that Carrie has left the reception with Hamish, Charles later runs into her (without her fiance), shortly after another emotional encounter with Henrietta. Charles and Carrie end up spending the night together. During the interim period, Charles receives an invitation to Carrie's wedding in Scotland; and while shopping for a present in London accidentally bumps into her in a shop and ends up helping select her wedding dress. Carrie also astonishes him with a list of more than thirty sexual partners (he learns he is Number 32). He later confesses to her that he loves her, and if her wedding is unsuccessful, he would like to have a relationship with her, an offer she politely declines. The third wedding is that of Carrie and Hamish at a Scottish castle. Charles attends, depressed at the prospect of Carrie marrying Hamish. As the reception gets under way, Gareth instructs his friends to go forth and seek potential mates; Fiona's brother,Tom (James Fleet), stumbles through an attempt to connect with the minister's wife, while Charles' flatmate, Scarlett (Charlotte Coleman), strikes up a conversation with a tall, attractive American. As Charles watches Carrie and Hamish dance as husband and wife, he reveals his feelings about Carrie to his friend Fiona (Kristin Scott Thomas), who is crestfallen and confesses that she has always loved Charles since they first met years ago. Charles is surprised and empathetic, but does not requite her love. At the wedding Charles's friend Gareth (Simon Callow) dies suddenly of a heart attack: Gareth's partner, Matthew (John Hannah in one of his first screen roles), is called but does not reach him before he dies. The funeral is that of Gareth. At the funeral, Matthew recites the poem Funeral Blues ("Stop all the clocks...") by W. H. Auden, commemorating his relationship with Gareth BBC website, Q&A with a 'Four Weddings' actor, accessed May 18, 2008. Simon Callow makes explicit reference to the fact that his character was gay. John Hannah Unofficial Website , accessed May 18, 2008. Interview from: The Inspector's Call by Gareth McLean The Scotsman, April 17, 2000 "I hope I convinced people within the industry that I was more than just fortunate to get the part of Matthew. I did a mini-series after that, Faith, which was a success and Madagascar Skin, a low-budget film which I loved but unfortunately got stuck with this arthouse label. Then, people questioned my reason for playing another gay character [...] but I thought that was ridiculous" Referencing to the fact that the character of Matthew was gay. . After the funeral, Charles and Tom have a discussion about whether finding that one true love is just a futile effort, and speculate that perhaps Gareth and Matthew were the only real "married" couple within their group. The fourth wedding is that of Charles, who has decided to marry Henrietta out of desperation. However, prior to the ceremony, Carrie arrives and reveals to Charles that she and Hamish are no longer together. At the altar, when the vicar asks if anyone knows a reason why the couple should not marry, Charles's deaf brother David (David Bower) uses sign language to announce that Charles doesn't love Henrietta. Henrietta punches Charles and the wedding is abruptly halted. At the end, Carrie visits Charles, who is recovering from the debacle, to apologize for attending. Charles confesses that he has finally realized the person he would like to spend his life with is not the woman he was about to marry. He doesn't want to get married at all, but he does want Carrie to be his partner. The couple then vow that they will never, ever, marry. The end credits include a montage of photographs documenting the futures of other characters in the film. All are shown on their individual wedding days, except for Fiona, who is shown (satirically) with Prince Charles. The happily-unmarried Carrie and Charles are pictured with their baby boy. Soundtrack The original score was composed by British classical composer Richard Rodney Bennett. The movie also featured a soundtrack of popular songs, including a cover version of "Love Is All Around" performed by Wet Wet Wet that remained at number 1 in the British charts for fifteen weeks and was then the ninth (now twelfth) biggest selling single of all time in Britain. This song would later be adapted into "Christmas Is All Around" and sung by the character of Billy Mack in Richard Curtis' 2003 film Love Actually, in which Grant also stars. Locations Despite appearing to be set all over the UK, the film was entirely shot in London and the Home Counties. They include Hampstead, Betchworth in Surrey, Amersham in Buckinghamshire, St Bartholomew-the-Great (wedding #4) and West Thurrock in Essex. Even the scenes set in Scotland were filmed at stately homes in Bedfordshire (Luton Hoo) and Hampshire. Filming Locations for Four Weddings and a Funeral Principal cast Hugh Grant: Charles Andie MacDowell: Carrie James Fleet: Tom Simon Callow: Gareth John Hannah: Matthew Kristin Scott Thomas: Fiona David Bower: David Charlotte Coleman: Scarlett Rowan Atkinson: Father Gerald Anna Chancellor: Henrietta ("Duckface") David Haig: Bernard Sophie Thompson: Lydia Awards and recognition Award wins BAFTA Awards: BAFTA Award for Best Film BAFTA David Lean Award for Direction (Mike Newell) BAFTA Award for Best Actor (Hugh Grant) BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role (Kristin Scott Thomas) Australian Film Institute: Best Foreign Film British Comedy Awards: Best Comedy Film César Awards: César Award for Best Foreign Film Chicago Film Critics: Most Promising Actor (Hugh Grant) Evening Standard Awards: Best Actress (Kristin Scott Thomas) Best Screenplay (Richard Curtis) Golden Globe Awards: Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Hugh Grant) London Film Awards: British Director of the Year (Mike Newell) British Film of the Year British Producer of the Year (Duncan Kenworthy) British Screenwriter of the Year (Richard Curtis) Writers Guild of America (WGA): Best Screenplay - Original (Richard Curtis) Writers' Guild of Great Britain: Film - Screenplay (Richard Curtis) Award nominations Academy Award for Best Picture Academy Award for Best Screenplay - Original (Richard Curtis) BAFTA Award for Best Film Music (Richard Rodney Bennett) BAFTA Award for Best Screenplay - Original (Richard Curtis) BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor (Simon Callow) BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor (John Hannah) BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actress (Charlotte Coleman) Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (Mike Newell) Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (Andie MacDowell) Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay (Richard Curtis) Recognition The film was voted the 27th greatest comedy film of all time by readers of Total Film in 2000. In 2004, the same magazine named it the 34th greatest British film of all time. It is number 96 on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies". See also Notting Hill, also written by Curtis and starring Grant Love Actually, another film by Curtis starring Grant References External links | Four_Weddings_and_a_Funeral |@lemmatized four:4 wedding:17 funeral:8 british:10 romantic:1 comedy:7 film:25 direct:1 mike:4 newell:4 first:6 several:2 screenwriter:2 richard:12 curtis:12 feature:3 hugh:5 grant:9 unexpected:1 success:2 become:1 high:1 gross:1 cinema:2 history:1 time:5 worldwide:1 box:1 office:1 excess:1 million:1 receive:2 academy:3 award:27 nomination:2 best:21 picture:7 business:1 data:1 internet:1 movie:3 database:1 access:3 february:1 http:1 www:1 com:1 people:3 index:1 phtml:1 synopsis:1 follow:1 adventure:1 group:2 friend:6 eye:1 charles:29 debonair:1 faux:1 pa:1 prone:1 englishman:1 play:3 smite:1 carrie:17 attractive:2 american:2 andie:3 macdowell:3 repeatedly:1 meet:3 angus:1 laura:1 timothy:1 walker:1 sara:1 crowe:1 collection:1 single:2 concern:1 never:2 get:7 married:2 spend:3 night:3 regard:1 one:5 stand:1 tease:1 sleep:1 together:4 also:6 clear:1 see:2 liaison:1 second:1 bernard:3 lydia:3 david:7 haig:2 sophie:2 thompson:2 couple:4 previous:1 sequence:1 rowan:2 atkinson:2 small:1 role:3 inexperienced:1 priest:1 reception:3 enjoyable:1 encounter:2 subsequently:1 introduce:1 fiance:2 sir:1 hamish:6 bank:1 wealthy:1 politician:1 scotland:3 next:1 find:3 seat:1 table:1 ex:1 girlfriend:1 well:1 bump:2 henrietta:6 know:2 among:1 duckface:2 difficult:1 relationship:3 past:1 evening:1 wear:1 inadvertently:1 hotel:1 suite:1 force:1 hide:1 wardrobe:1 newlywed:1 suddenly:2 stumble:2 room:1 engage:1 sexual:2 romp:1 bed:1 believe:1 leave:1 later:3 run:1 without:1 shortly:1 another:3 emotional:1 end:4 interim:1 period:1 invitation:1 shop:2 present:1 london:3 accidentally:1 help:1 select:1 dress:1 astonish:1 list:1 thirty:1 partner:3 learn:1 number:3 confess:3 love:9 unsuccessful:1 would:3 like:2 offer:1 politely:1 decline:1 third:1 scottish:1 castle:1 attend:2 depress:1 prospect:1 marry:7 way:1 gareth:8 instruct:1 go:1 forth:1 seek:1 potential:1 mate:1 fiona:4 brother:2 tom:3 james:2 fleet:2 attempt:1 connect:1 minister:1 wife:2 flatmate:1 scarlett:2 charlotte:3 coleman:3 strike:1 conversation:1 tall:1 watch:1 dance:1 husband:1 reveal:1 feeling:1 kristin:4 scott:4 thomas:4 crestfallen:1 always:1 since:1 year:5 ago:1 surprised:1 empathetic:1 requite:1 simon:4 callow:4 die:2 heart:1 attack:1 matthew:6 john:4 hannah:4 screen:1 call:2 reach:1 recite:1 poem:1 blue:1 stop:1 clock:1 w:1 h:1 auden:1 commemorate:1 bbc:1 website:2 q:1 actor:6 may:2 make:1 explicit:1 reference:3 fact:2 character:5 gay:3 unofficial:1 interview:1 inspector:1 mclean:1 scotsman:1 april:1 hope:1 convince:1 within:2 industry:1 fortunate:1 part:1 mini:1 series:1 faith:1 madagascar:1 skin:1 low:1 budget:1 unfortunately:1 stick:1 arthouse:1 label:1 question:1 reason:2 think:1 ridiculous:1 discussion:1 whether:1 true:1 futile:1 effort:1 speculate:1 perhaps:1 real:1 fourth:1 decide:1 desperation:1 however:1 prior:1 ceremony:1 arrives:1 reveals:1 longer:1 altar:1 vicar:1 ask:1 anyone:1 deaf:1 bower:2 use:1 sign:1 language:1 announce:1 punch:1 abruptly:1 halt:1 visit:1 recover:1 debacle:1 apologize:1 finally:1 realize:1 person:1 life:1 woman:1 want:2 vow:1 ever:1 credit:1 include:3 montage:1 photograph:1 document:1 future:1 show:2 individual:1 day:1 except:1 satirically:1 prince:1 happily:1 unmarried:1 baby:1 boy:1 soundtrack:2 original:4 score:1 compose:1 classical:1 composer:1 rodney:2 bennett:2 popular:1 song:2 cover:1 version:1 around:2 perform:1 wet:3 remain:1 chart:1 fifteen:1 week:1 ninth:1 twelfth:1 big:1 sell:1 britain:2 adapt:1 christmas:1 sing:1 billy:1 mack:1 actually:2 star:3 location:2 despite:1 appear:1 set:2 uk:1 entirely:1 shoot:1 home:2 county:1 hampstead:1 betchworth:1 surrey:1 amersham:1 buckinghamshire:1 st:1 bartholomew:1 great:4 wed:1 west:1 thurrock:1 essex:1 even:2 scene:1 stately:1 bedfordshire:1 luton:1 hoo:1 hampshire:1 filming:1 principal:1 cast:1 father:1 gerald:1 anna:1 chancellor:1 recognition:2 win:1 bafta:10 lean:1 direction:1 actress:4 supporting:1 australian:1 institute:1 foreign:2 césar:2 chicago:1 critic:1 promising:1 standard:1 screenplay:6 golden:5 globe:5 motion:4 musical:3 director:2 producer:1 duncan:1 kenworthy:1 writers:1 guild:3 america:2 wga:1 writer:1 music:1 support:3 outstanding:1 directorial:1 achievement:1 vote:1 reader:1 total:1 magazine:1 name:1 bravo:1 funny:1 notting:1 hill:1 write:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram wedding_funeral:4 romantic_comedy:1 mike_newell:4 award_nomination:2 http_www:1 faux_pa:1 rowan_atkinson:2 ex_girlfriend:1 politely_decline:1 simon_callow:4 h_auden:1 bafta_award:9 actress_supporting:1 supporting_role:1 golden_globe:5 motion_picture:4 notting_hill:1 external_link:1 |
983 | Apollo_12 | Apollo 12 was the sixth manned mission in the Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon. The mission was commanded by Charles "Pete" Conrad, and launched in November 1969, four months after Apollo 11. The landing site for the mission was the Ocean of Storms. Key objectives for the mission were to demonstrate a precise landing, which had not been achieved on Apollo 11, and also to visit the Surveyor 3 probe, to bring back a part of it for analysis. Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. Charles Conrad, Jr (3) - commander Richard F. Gordon, Jr. (2) - command module pilot Alan L. Bean (1) - lunar module pilot Backup crew David R. Scott - commander Alfred M. Worden - command module pilot James B. Irwin - lunar module pilot (The backup crew would later fly on Apollo 15.) Support crew Gerald P. Carr Edward G. Gibson Paul J. Weitz Flight directors Gerry Griffin, Gold team Pete Frank, Orange team Cliff Charlesworth, Green team Milton Windler, Maroon team Mission parameters Landing Site: W Lunar sites LM — CSM docking Undocked: November 19, 1969 – 04:16:02 UTC Redocked: November 20, 1969 – 17:58:20 UTC EVAs EVA 1 start: November 19, 1969, 11:32:35 UTC Conrad — EVA 1 Stepped onto Moon: 11:44:22 UTC LM ingress: 15:27:17 UTC Bean — EVA 1 Stepped onto Moon: 12:13:50 UTC LM ingress: 15:14:18 UTC EVA 1 end: November 19, 15:28:38 UTC Duration: 3 hours, 56 minutes, 03 seconds EVA 2 start: November 20, 1969, 03:54:45 UTC Conrad — EVA 2 Stepped onto Moon: 03:59:00 UTC LM ingress: 07:42:00 UTC Bean — EVA 2 Stepped onto Moon: 04:06:00 UTC LM ingress: 07:30:00 UTC EVA 2 end: November 20, 07:44:00 UTC Duration: 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds Quotations Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me. Video footage of landing on YouTube — Pete Conrad (somewhat shorter in stature than Armstrong) as he stepped onto the lunar surface for the first time. Conrad had actually come up with the quote some time before the mission, to prove to reporter Oriana Fallaci that Neil Armstrong had not been told by NASA what to say as he stepped onto the Moon. He had bet Fallaci $500 that he would say the quote, but later claimed he was never able to collect the money. Mission highlights Alan Bean descends from the LM. (NASA)Alan Bean pictured by Pete Conrad (reflected in Bean's helmet) (NASA)Bean, Surveyor 3 and the LM Intrepid (NASA)Conrad jiggles the Surveyor III craft. (NASA)Photograph of the plaque attached to the Apollo 12 LM Apollo 12 launched on schedule, during a rainstorm. 36.5 seconds after lift-off from Kennedy Space Center, the vehicle triggered a lightning discharge through itself and down to the earth through the Saturn's ionized plume. Protective circuits on the fuel cells in the service module falsely detected overloads and took all three fuel cells offline, along with much of the CSM instrumentation. A second strike at 52 seconds after launch knocked out the "8-ball" attitude indicator. The telemetry stream at Mission Control was garbled nonsense. However, the Saturn V continued to fly correctly; the strikes had not affected the Saturn V's Instrument Unit. The loss of all three fuel cells put the CSM entirely on batteries. They were unable to maintain normal 28V DC bus voltages into the heavy 75 amp launch loads. One of the AC inverters dropped offline. These power supply problems lit nearly every warning light on the control panel and caused much of the instrumentation to malfunction. EECOM John Aaron remembered the telemetry failure pattern from an earlier test when a power supply malfunctioned in the CSM Signal Conditioning Equipment (SCE). The SCE converts raw signals from instrumentation to standard voltages for the spacecraft instrument displays and telemetry encoders. source NASA History Aaron made a call: "Try SCE to aux". This switched the SCE to a backup power supply. The switch was fairly obscure and neither the Flight Director, CAPCOM, nor Commander Conrad immediately recognized it. Lunar module pilot Alan Bean, flying in the right seat as the CSM systems engineer, remembered the SCE switch from a training incident a year earlier when the same failure had been simulated. Aaron's quick thinking and Bean's memory saved what could have been an aborted mission. Bean put the fuel cells back on line, and with telemetry restored, the launch continued successfully. Once in earth parking orbit, the crew carefully checked out their spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The lightning strikes had caused no serious permanent damage. After lunar module separation, the S-IVB was intended to fly into solar orbit. The S-IVB auxiliary propulsion system was fired and the remaining propellants vented to slow it down to fly past the moon's trailing edge (the Apollo spacecraft always approached the moon's leading edge). The moon's gravity would then slingshot the stage into solar orbit. However, a small error in the state vector in the Saturn's guidance system caused the S-IVB to fly past the moon at too high an altitude to achieve earth escape velocity. It remained in a semi-stable earth orbit after passing the Moon on November 18, 1969. It finally escaped earth orbit in 1971 but was briefly recaptured in Earth orbit 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer Bill Yeung who gave it the temporary designation J002E3 before it was determined to be an artificial object. The Apollo 12 mission landed on an area of the Ocean of Storms that had been visited earlier by several unmanned missions (Luna 5, Surveyor 3, and Ranger 7). The International Astronomical Union, recognizing this, christened this region Mare Cognitum (Known Sea). The landing site would thereafter be listed as Statio Cognitum on lunar maps (Conrad and Bean did not formally name their landing site, interestingly enough, though the intended touchdown point was nicknamed Pete's Parking Lot by Conrad). The second lunar landing was an exercise in precision targeting, using a Doppler Effect radar technique developed to allow the pinpoint landings needed for future Apollo missions. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/Apollo-11/12303189849225-2/ "Apollo 11: 1969 Year in Review, UPI.com" Most of the descent was automatic, with manual control assumed by Conrad during the final few hundred feet of descent. Unlike Apollo 11 where Neil Armstrong took partial control of the lander and directed it further down range when he noticed that the intended landing site was strewn with boulders, Apollo 12 succeeded, on November 19, in landing within walking distance (less than 200 meters) of its intended target - the Surveyor 3 probe, which had landed on the Moon in April 1967. Conrad actually landed Intrepid short of Pete's Parking Lot because the planned landing point looked rougher than anticipated during the final approach to touchdown. The planned landing point was a little under from Surveyor 3, a distance that was chosen to eliminate the possibility of lunar dust (being kicked up by Intrepid's descent engine during landing) from covering Surveyor 3. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/Apollo-11/12303189849225-2/ "Apollo 11: 1969 Year in Review, UPI.com" But the actual touchdown point — from Surveyor 3 — did cause a thin film of dust to coat the probe, giving it a light tan hue. To improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera that was used on Apollo 11). Unfortunately, when Bean carried the camera to the place near the lunar module where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the vidicon tube. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately. Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the Surveyor 3, to be taken back to Earth for analysis. It is claimed that the common bacterium Streptococcus mitis was found to have accidentally contaminated the spacecraft's camera prior to launch and survived dormant in this harsh environment for two and a half years. NASA Headlines However, this finding has since been disputed: see the article Reports of Streptococcus mitis on the moon. Astronauts Conrad and Bean also collected rocks and set up equipment that took measurements of the Moon's seismicity, solar wind flux and magnetic field, and relayed the measurements to Earth. (By accident Bean left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface.) Meanwhile Gordon, on board the Yankee Clipper in lunar orbit, took multispectral photographs of the surface. The lunar plaque attached to the descent stage of Intrepid is unique in that unlike the other lunar plaques, it (a) did not have a depiction of the Earth, and (b) it was textured differently (the other plaques had black lettering on polished stainless steel while the Apollo 12 plaque had the lettering in polished stainless steel while the background was brushed flat). Intrepid's ascent stage was dropped (per normal procedures) after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit. It impacted the Moon on November 20, 1969 at . The seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the vibrations for more than an hour. The crew stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs, for a total lunar surface stay of thirty-one and a half hours and a total time in lunar orbit of eighty-nine hours. Yankee Clipper returned to Earth on November 24, 1969, at 20:58 UTC (3:58pm EST, 10:58am HST), approximately 500 miles (800 km) east of American Samoa. During landing, a 16 mm camera dislodged from storage and struck Bean in the forehead, rendering him briefly unconscious. He suffered a mild concussion, and needed six stitches. The Yankee Clipper is displayed at the Virginia Air and Space Center, Hampton, Virginia. Its recovery ship, the USS Hornet, is now open to the public as a museum in Alameda, California. The Surveyor 3 camera retrieved by the Apollo 12 astronauts now resides in the Exploring the Planets gallery at the National Air and Space Museum. National Air and Space Museum Attempted stunts Alan Bean smuggled a camera-shutter self-timer device on to the mission with the intent of taking a photograph with himself, Pete Conrad and the Surveyor 3 probe in the frame. As the timer was not part of their standard equipment, such an image would have thrown post-mission photo analysts into confusion over how the photo was taken. However, the self-timer was misplaced during the EVA and the plan was never executed. Centerfold in lunar checklist The Apollo 12 backup crew managed to insert into the astronaut's lunar checklist (attached to the wrists of Conrad's and Bean's spacesuits) reduced sized pictures of Playboy centerfolds, surprising Conrad and Bean when they looked through the checklist flip-book during their first EVA. Boing Boing The Lunar Surface Journal website contains a PDF with the photocopies of their cuff checklists showing these photos. NASA The checklists also contain two pages of pre-prepared complex geological terminology at the back, to be used for the confusion of the ground crew. The artist Forrest (Frosty) Myers claims to have installed the art piece "Moon Museum" on "a leg of the Intrepid landing module with the help of an unnamed engineer at the Grumman Corporation after attempts to move the project forward through NASA's official channels were unsuccessful." Moon Museum In a more somber moment in an otherwise jovial mission, Bean brought Clifton Williams's pilot wings with him and left them in the lunar dust. Mission insignia The Apollo 12 mission patch shows the crew's Navy background. It features a clipper ship arriving at the moon. The ship trails fire and flies the flag of the United States. The mission name APOLLO XII and the crew names are on a wide gold border, with a small blue trim. Blue and gold are traditionally Navy colors. The patch has four stars on it — one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for Clifton Williams. Williams was killed on October 5, 1967, after a mechanical failure caused the controls of his T-38 trainer to stop responding. He trained with Conrad and Gordon as part of the back-up crew for what would be the Apollo 9 mission, and would have been assigned as Lunar Module pilot for Apollo 12. Spacecraft location Apollo 12 recovery by the USS Hornet. Apollo 12 command module Yankee Clipper on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton, Virginia. The Apollo 12 Command Module Yankee Clipper is on display at Virginia Air and Space Center, Hampton, Virginia. The Lunar Module Intrepid impacted the Moon November 20, 1969 at 22:17:17.7 UT (5:17 PM EST) . Depiction in Media Portions of the Apollo 12 mission are dramatized in the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode entitled "That's All There Is". Conrad, Gordon and Bean were portrayed by Paul McCrane, Tom Verica and Dave Foley, respectively. Conrad had been portrayed by a different actor, Peter Scolari, in the first two episodes. See also Extra-vehicular activity List of spacewalks Splashdown List of artificial objects on the Moon Google Moon J002E3, originally identified as an asteroid, but now suspected to be the S-IVB from Apollo 12 References Notes Bibliography Analysis of Apollo 12 Lightning Incident, (PDF) February 1970 Analysis of Surveyor 3 material and photographs returned by Apollo 12 (PDF) 1972 Apollo 12 Characteristics — SP-4012 NASA Historical Data Book Apollo 12 Mission Report (PDF) March 1970 Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. New York: Penguin Books. 1995. ISBN 978-0140241464. Examination of Surveyor 3 surface sampler scoop returned by Apollo 12 mission (PDF) 1971 Lattimer, Dick. All We Did was Fly to the Moon. Alachua, FL: Whispering Eagle Press, 1985. ISBN 0-9611228-0-3. External links Image of mission patch Map of surface activities for Apollo 12 Apollo 12 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica NASA NSSDC Master Catalog APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA) The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology Apollo Program Summary Report Apollo 12 Science Experiments | Apollo_12 |@lemmatized apollo:42 sixth:1 manned:1 mission:26 program:2 second:7 land:8 moon:25 command:5 charles:2 pete:7 conrad:22 launch:6 november:12 four:2 month:1 landing:11 site:6 ocean:2 storm:2 key:1 objective:1 demonstrate:1 precise:1 achieve:2 also:4 visit:2 surveyor:13 probe:4 bring:2 back:5 part:3 analysis:4 crew:11 number:3 parenthesis:1 indicate:1 spaceflight:1 individual:1 prior:2 include:1 jr:2 commander:3 richard:2 f:1 gordon:5 module:13 pilot:7 alan:5 l:1 bean:22 lunar:25 backup:4 david:1 r:1 scott:1 alfred:1 worden:1 james:1 b:2 irwin:1 would:7 later:3 fly:9 support:1 gerald:1 p:1 carr:1 edward:1 g:1 gibson:1 paul:2 j:1 weitz:1 flight:2 director:2 gerry:1 griffin:1 gold:3 team:4 frank:1 orange:1 cliff:1 charlesworth:1 green:1 milton:1 windler:1 maroon:1 parameter:1 w:2 lm:8 csm:5 dock:1 undocked:1 utc:15 redocked:1 evas:1 eva:10 start:2 step:6 onto:6 ingres:4 end:2 duration:2 hour:5 minute:2 quotation:1 whoopie:1 man:2 may:1 small:3 one:6 neil:3 long:1 video:1 footage:1 youtube:1 somewhat:1 short:2 stature:1 armstrong:3 surface:8 first:3 time:3 actually:2 come:1 quote:2 prove:1 reporter:1 oriana:1 fallaci:2 tell:1 nasa:12 say:2 bet:1 claim:3 never:2 able:1 collect:2 money:1 highlight:1 descends:1 picture:3 reflect:1 helmet:1 intrepid:7 jiggle:1 iii:1 craft:1 photograph:5 plaque:5 attach:3 schedule:1 rainstorm:1 lift:1 kennedy:1 space:6 center:4 vehicle:1 trigger:1 lightning:3 discharge:1 earth:11 saturn:4 ionize:1 plume:1 protective:1 circuit:1 fuel:4 cell:4 service:1 falsely:1 detect:1 overload:1 take:8 three:3 offline:2 along:1 much:2 instrumentation:3 strike:3 knock:1 ball:1 attitude:1 indicator:1 telemetry:4 stream:1 control:5 garble:1 nonsense:1 however:4 v:2 continue:2 correctly:1 affect:1 instrument:2 unit:1 loss:1 put:2 entirely:1 battery:1 unable:1 maintain:1 normal:2 dc:1 bus:1 voltages:1 heavy:1 amp:1 load:1 ac:1 inverter:1 drop:2 power:3 supply:3 problem:1 light:3 nearly:1 every:1 warning:1 panel:1 cause:5 malfunction:2 eecom:1 john:1 aaron:3 remember:2 failure:3 pattern:1 early:1 test:1 signal:2 conditioning:1 equipment:3 sce:5 convert:1 raw:1 standard:2 voltage:1 spacecraft:6 display:4 encoders:1 source:1 history:1 make:1 call:1 try:1 aux:1 switch:3 fairly:1 obscure:1 neither:1 capcom:1 immediately:2 recognize:2 right:1 seat:1 system:3 engineer:2 training:1 incident:2 year:5 earlier:2 simulate:1 quick:1 thinking:1 memory:1 save:1 could:1 aborted:1 line:1 restore:1 successfully:1 park:1 orbit:10 carefully:1 check:1 ignite:1 ivb:5 third:1 stage:4 trans:1 injection:1 serious:1 permanent:1 damage:1 separation:1 intend:2 solar:3 auxiliary:1 propulsion:1 fire:2 remain:2 propellant:1 vent:1 slow:1 past:2 trailing:1 edge:2 always:1 approach:2 lead:1 gravity:1 slingshot:1 error:1 state:2 vector:1 guidance:1 high:1 altitude:1 escape:2 velocity:1 semi:1 stable:1 pass:1 finally:1 briefly:2 recapture:1 discover:1 amateur:1 astronomer:1 bill:1 yeung:1 give:2 temporary:1 designation:1 determine:1 artificial:2 object:2 area:1 several:2 unmanned:1 luna:1 ranger:1 international:1 astronomical:1 union:1 christen:1 region:1 mare:1 cognitum:2 know:1 sea:1 thereafter:1 list:3 statio:1 map:2 formally:1 name:3 interestingly:1 enough:1 though:1 intended:2 touchdown:3 point:5 nickname:1 parking:2 lot:2 exercise:1 precision:1 targeting:1 use:3 doppler:1 effect:1 radar:1 technique:1 develop:1 allow:1 pinpoint:1 need:2 future:1 http:2 www:2 upi:4 com:4 audio:2 event:2 review:2 descent:4 automatic:1 manual:1 assume:1 final:2 hundred:1 foot:1 unlike:3 partial:1 lander:1 direct:1 far:1 range:1 notice:1 strew:1 boulder:1 succeed:1 within:1 walk:1 distance:2 less:1 meter:1 target:1 april:1 planned:2 look:2 rough:1 anticipate:1 little:1 choose:1 eliminate:1 possibility:1 dust:3 kick:1 engine:1 cover:1 actual:1 thin:1 film:2 coat:1 tan:1 hue:1 improve:1 quality:1 television:2 color:2 camera:7 carry:2 monochrome:1 unfortunately:1 place:1 near:1 set:2 inadvertently:1 directly:1 sun:1 destroy:1 vidicon:1 tube:1 coverage:1 thus:1 terminate:1 almost:1 remove:1 piece:2 common:1 bacterium:1 streptococcus:2 mitis:2 find:1 accidentally:1 contaminate:1 survive:1 dormant:1 harsh:1 environment:1 two:3 half:2 headline:1 finding:1 since:1 dispute:1 see:2 article:1 report:3 astronaut:6 rock:1 measurement:2 seismicity:1 wind:1 flux:1 magnetic:1 field:1 relay:1 accident:1 leave:3 roll:1 expose:1 meanwhile:1 board:1 yankee:5 clipper:6 multispectral:1 unique:1 depiction:2 textured:1 differently:1 black:1 lettering:2 polished:2 stainless:2 steel:2 background:2 brush:1 flat:1 ascent:1 per:1 procedure:1 rejoin:1 impact:2 seismometers:1 register:1 vibration:1 stay:2 extra:2 day:1 total:2 thirty:1 eighty:1 nine:1 return:3 est:2 hst:1 approximately:1 mile:1 km:1 east:1 american:1 samoa:1 mm:1 dislodge:1 storage:1 struck:1 forehead:1 render:1 unconscious:1 suffer:1 mild:1 concussion:1 six:1 stitch:1 virginia:6 air:5 hampton:3 recovery:2 ship:3 uss:2 hornet:2 open:1 public:1 museum:5 alameda:1 california:1 retrieve:1 reside:1 explore:1 planet:1 gallery:1 national:2 attempt:2 stunt:1 smuggle:1 shutter:1 self:2 timer:3 device:1 intent:1 frame:1 image:2 throw:1 post:1 photo:3 analyst:1 confusion:2 misplace:1 plan:1 execute:1 centerfold:2 checklist:5 manage:1 insert:1 wrist:1 spacesuit:1 reduce:1 sized:1 playboy:1 surprising:1 flip:1 book:3 boing:2 journal:1 website:1 contain:2 pdf:5 photocopy:1 cuff:1 show:2 page:1 pre:1 prepared:1 complex:1 geological:1 terminology:1 ground:1 artist:1 forrest:1 frosty:1 myers:1 instal:1 art:1 leg:1 help:1 unnamed:1 grumman:1 corporation:1 move:1 project:1 forward:1 official:1 channel:1 unsuccessful:1 somber:1 moment:1 otherwise:1 jovial:1 clifton:2 williams:3 wing:1 insignia:1 patch:3 navy:2 feature:1 arrive:1 trail:1 flag:1 united:1 xii:1 wide:1 border:1 blue:2 trim:1 traditionally:1 star:1 kill:1 october:1 mechanical:1 trainer:1 stop:1 responding:1 train:1 assign:1 location:1 ut:1 pm:1 medium:1 portion:1 dramatize:1 miniseries:1 episode:2 entitle:1 portray:2 mccrane:1 tom:1 verica:1 dave:1 foley:1 respectively:1 different:1 actor:1 peter:1 scolari:1 vehicular:1 activity:2 spacewalks:1 splashdown:1 google:1 originally:1 identify:1 asteroid:1 suspect:1 reference:2 note:1 bibliography:1 february:1 material:1 characteristic:1 sp:1 historical:1 data:1 march:1 chaikin:1 andrew:1 voyage:1 new:1 york:1 penguin:1 isbn:2 examination:1 sampler:1 scoop:1 lattimer:1 dick:1 alachua:1 fl:1 whispering:1 eagle:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 entry:1 encyclopedia:1 astronautica:1 nssdc:1 master:1 catalog:1 statistical:1 orloff:1 chronology:1 summary:1 science:1 experiment:1 |@bigram manned_mission:1 pete_conrad:4 module_pilot:6 lunar_module:7 backup_crew:3 alfred_worden:1 gerry_griffin:1 windler_maroon:1 lm_csm:1 dock_undocked:1 utc_lm:4 utc_eva:2 utc_duration:2 neil_armstrong:2 trailing_edge:1 amateur_astronomer:1 parking_lot:2 http_www:2 www_upi:2 upi_com:4 review_upi:2 magnetic_field:1 yankee_clipper:5 stainless_steel:2 ascent_stage:1 mile_km:1 hampton_virginia:3 uss_hornet:2 clipper_ship:1 dramatize_miniseries:1 extra_vehicular:1 vehicular_activity:1 list_spacewalks:1 spacewalks_splashdown:1 chaikin_andrew:1 lattimer_dick:1 external_link:1 encyclopedia_astronautica:1 nasa_nssdc:1 nssdc_master:1 w_orloff:1 orloff_nasa:1 |
984 | Artificial_intelligence | Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aims to create it. Major AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents," (who use the term "computational intelligence" as a synonym for artificial intelligence). Other textbooks that define AI this way include , and (who prefer the term "rational agent") and write "The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. This definition, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to . Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, Although there is some controversy on this point (see ), McCarthy states unequivocally "I came up with the term" in a c|net interview. (See Getting Machines to Think Like Us.) defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines." See John McCarthy, What is Artificial Intelligence? The field was founded on the claim that a central property of human beings, intelligence—the sapience of Homo sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. Dartmouth proposal: This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and limits of scientific hubris, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. This is a central idea of Pamela McCorduck's Machines That Think. She writes: "I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition." "Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized." "Our history is full of attempts—nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real—to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us—bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn't, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction." She traces the desire back to its Hellenistic roots and calls it the urge to "forge the Gods." Artificial intelligence has been the subject of breathtaking optimism, The optimism referred to includes the predictions of early AI researchers (see optimism in the history of AI) as well as the ideas of modern transhumanists such as Ray Kurzweil. has suffered stunning setbacks The "setbacks" referred to include the ALPAC report of 1966, the abandonment of perceptrons in 1970, the the Lighthill Report of 1973 and the collapse of the lisp machine market in 1987. and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science. AI applications widely used behind the scenes: AI research is highly technical and specialized, so much so that some critics decry the "fragmentation" of the field. Fractioning of AI into subfields: Subfields of AI are organized around particular problems, the application of particular tools and around longstanding theoretical differences of opinion. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still a long term goal of (some) research. General intelligence (strong AI) is discussed in popular introductions to AI: and Perspectives on AI AI in myth, fiction and speculation Thinking machines and artificial beings appear in Greek myths, such as Talos of Crete, the golden robots of Hephaestus and Pygmalion's Galatea. AI in Myth: Human likenesses believed to have intelligence were built in many ancient societies; some of the earliest being the sacred statues worshipped in Egypt and Greece, Sacred statues as artificial intelligence: (statue of Amun) These were the first machines to be believed to have true intelligence and consciousness. Hermes Trismegistus expressed the common belief that with these statues, craftsman had reproduced "the true nature of the gods", their sensus and spiritus. McCorduck makes the connection between sacred automatons and Mosaic law (developed around the same time), which expressly forbids the worship of robots and including the machines of Yan Shi, Hero of Alexandria, Al-Jazari or Wolfgang von Kempelen. It was widely believed that artificial beings had been created by Geber, Takwin: Judah Loew Golem: , and Paracelsus. Stories of these creatures and their fates discuss many of the same hopes, fears and ethical concerns that are presented by artificial intelligence. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, discusses Frankenstein and identifies the key ethical issues as scientific hubris and the suffering of the monster, i.e. robot rights. considers a key issue in the ethics of artificial intelligence: if a machine can be created that has intelligence, could it also feel? If it can feel, does it have the same rights as a human being? The idea also appears in modern science fiction: the film Artificial Intelligence: A.I. considers a machine in the form of a small boy which has been given the ability to feel human emotions, including, tragically, the capacity to suffer. This issue, now known as "robot rights", is currently being considered by, for example, California's Institute for the Future, Robot rights: Robots could demand legal rights although many critics believe that the discussion is premature. See the Times Online, Human rights for robots? We’re getting carried away Another issue explored by both science fiction writers and futurists is the impact of artificial intelligence on society. In fiction, AI has appeared as a servant (R2D2 in Star Wars), a law enforcer (K.I.T.T. "Knight Rider"), a comrade (Lt. Commander Data in Star Trek), a conqueror (The Matrix), a dictator (With Folded Hands), an exterminator (Terminator, Battlestar Galactica), an extension to human abilities (Ghost in the Shell) and the saviour of the human race (R. Daneel Olivaw in the Foundation Series). Academic sources have considered such consequences as: a decreased demand for human labor; the enhancement of human ability or experience; Singularity, transhumanism: and a need for redefinition of human identity and basic values. Joseph Weizenbaum's critique of AI: Weizenbaum (the AI researcher who developed the first chatterbot program, ELIZA) argued in 1976 that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life. Several futurists argue that artificial intelligence will transcend the limits of progress and fundamentally transform humanity. Ray Kurzweil has used Moore's law (which describes the relentless exponential improvement in digital technology with uncanny accuracy) to calculate that desktop computers will have the same processing power as human brains by the year 2029, and that by 2045 artificial intelligence will reach a point where it is able to improve itself at a rate that far exceeds anything conceivable in the past, a scenario that science fiction writer Vernor Vinge named the "technological singularity". Edward Fredkin argues that "artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution," Quoted in an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's Darwin Among the Machines (1863), and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998. Several futurists and science fiction writers have predicted that human beings and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, which has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger, is now associated with robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick and inventor Ray Kurzweil. Transhumanism has been illustrated in fiction as well, for example in the manga Ghost in the Shell and the science fiction series Dune. Pamela McCorduck writes that these scenarios are expressions of an ancient human desire to, as she calls it, "forge the gods." History of AI research In the middle of the 20th century, a handful of scientists began a new approach to building intelligent machines, based on recent discoveries in neurology, a new mathematical theory of information, an understanding of control and stability called cybernetics, and above all, by the invention of the digital computer, a machine based on the abstract essence of mathematical reasoning. AI's immediate precursors: Among the researchers who laid the foundations of the theory of computation, cybernetics, information theory and neural networks were Alan Turing, John Von Neumann, Norbert Weiner, Claude Shannon, Warren McCullough, Walter Pitts and Donald Hebb. The field of modern AI research was founded at a conference on the campus of Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956. Dartmouth conference: Those who attended would become the leaders of AI research for many decades, especially John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, who founded AI laboratories at MIT, CMU and Stanford. They and their students wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing: Russell and Norvig write "it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of smartish." computers were solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English. "Golden years" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956-1973): The programs described are Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU. By the middle 60s their research was heavily funded by the U.S. Department of Defense DARPA pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s: and they were optimistic about the future of the new field: 1965, H. A. Simon: "[M]achines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do" quoted in 1967, Marvin Minsky: "Within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved." quoted in These predictions, and many like them, would not come true. They had failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the problems they faced. See History of artificial intelligence — the problems. In 1974, in response to the criticism of England's Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from Congress to fund more productive projects, the U.S. and British governments cut off all undirected, exploratory research in AI. This was the first AI winter. First AI Winter: In the early 80s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems, Expert systems: , , a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 the market for AI had reached more than a billion dollars and governments around the world poured money back into the field. Boom of the 1980s: rise of expert systems, Fifth Generation Project, Alvey, MCC, SCI: However, just a few years later, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, more lasting AI winter began. Second AI Winter: In the 90s and early 21st century AI achieved its greatest successes, albeit somewhat behind the scenes. Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, data mining, medical diagnosis and many other areas throughout the technology industry. The success was due to several factors: the incredible power of computers today (see Moore's law), a greater emphasis on solving specific subproblems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems, and above all a new commitment by researchers to solid mathematical methods and rigorous scientific standards. Formal methods are now preferred ("Victory of the neats"): Philosophy of AI Artificial intelligence, by claiming to be able to recreate the capabilities of the human mind, is both a challenge and an inspiration for philosophy. Are there limits to how intelligent machines can be? Is there an essential difference between human intelligence and artificial intelligence? Can a machine have a mind and consciousness? A few of the most influential answers to these questions are given below. All of these positions below are mentioned in standard discussions of the subject, such as: Turing's "polite convention" If a machine acts as intelligently as a human being, then it is as intelligent as a human being. Alan Turing theorized that, ultimately, we can only judge the intelligence of machine based on its behavior. This theory forms the basis of the Turing test. Philosophical implications of the Turing test: , , , The Dartmouth proposal "Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it." This assertion was printed in the proposal for the Dartmouth Conference of 1956, and represents the position of most working AI researchers. Newell and Simon's physical symbol system hypothesis "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action." This statement claims that the essence of intelligence is symbol manipulation. The physical symbol systems hypothesis: Hubert Dreyfus argued that, on the contrary, human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation and on having a "feel" for the situation rather than explicit symbolic knowledge. Dreyfus criticized the necessary condition of the physical symbol system hypothesis, which he called the "psychological assumption": "The mind can be viewed as a device operating on bits of information according to formal rules". Dreyfus' Critique of AI: , , , and Gödel's incompleteness theorem A formal system (such as a computer program) can not prove all true statements. Roger Penrose is among those who claim that Gödel's theorem limits what machines can do. This is a paraphrase of the important implication of Gödel's theorems. The Mathematical Objection: Refuting Mathematical Objection: under “(2) The Mathematical Objection” , Making the Mathematical Objection: , . Background: , , , Searle's strong AI hypothesis "The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds." This version is from , and is also quoted in . Searle's original formulation was "The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states." . Strong AI is defined similarly by : "The assertion that machines could possibly act intelligently (or, perhaps better, act as if they were intelligent) is called the 'weak AI' hypothesis by philosophers, and the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking) is called the 'strong AI' hypothesis." Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which asks us to look inside the computer and try to find where the "mind" might be. Searle's Chinese Room argument: , The artificial brain argument The brain can be simulated. Hans Moravec, Ray Kurzweil and others have argued that it is technologically feasible to copy the brain directly into hardware and software, and that such a simulation will be essentially identical to the original. This argument combines the idea that a suitably powerful machine can simulate any process, with the materialist idea that the mind is the result of physical processes in the brain. Artificial brain: The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by Clark Glymour in the mid-70s and was touched on by Zenon Pylyshyn and John Searle in 1980. Daniel Dennett sees human consciousness as multiple functional thought patterns; see "Consciousness Explained." AI research In the 21st century, AI research has become highly specialized and technical. It is deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other. Subfields have grown up around particular institutions, the work of particular researchers, particular problems (listed below), long standing differences of opinion about how AI should be done (listed as "approaches" below) and the application of widely differing tools (see tools of AI, below). Problems of AI The problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers would like an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention. Deduction, reasoning, problem solving Early AI researchers developed algorithms that imitated the step-by-step reasoning that human beings use when they solve puzzles, play board games or make logical deductions. Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction: , , , By the late 80s and 90s, AI research had also developed highly successful methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics. Uncertain reasoning: , , , For difficult problems, most of these algorithms can require enormous computational resources — most experience a "combinatorial explosion": the amount of memory or computer time required becomes astronomical when the problem goes beyond a certain size. The search for more efficient problem solving algorithms is a high priority for AI research. Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion: Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model. Cognitive science has provided several famous examples: showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from "the body", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See Where Mathematics Comes From) AI has made some progress at imitating this kind of "sub-symbolic" problem solving: embodied approaches emphasize the importance of sensorimotor skills to higher reasoning; neural net research attempts to simulate the structures inside human and animal brains that gives rise to this skill. Knowledge representation Knowledge representation Knowledge representation: , , , , and knowledge engineering Knowledge engineering: , , are central to AI research. Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames and scripts): , , , situations, events, states and time; Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem): , , causes and effects; Causal calculus: knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics: , and many other, less well researched domains. A complete representation of "what exists" is an ontology Ontology: (borrowing a word from traditional philosophy), of which the most general are called upper ontologies. Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are: Default reasoning and the qualification problem Many of the things people know take the form of "working assumptions." For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture an animal that is fist sized, sings, and flies. None of these things are true about all birds. John McCarthy identified this problem in 1969 . While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge. as the qualification problem: for any commonsense rule that AI researchers care to represent, there tend to be a huge number of exceptions. Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires. AI research has explored a number of solutions to this problem. Default reasoning and default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction (Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places this under "uncertain reasoning"): , , , The breadth of commonsense knowledge The number of atomic facts that the average person knows is astronomical. Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering — they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time. Breadth of commonsense knowledge: , , , (Introduction) The subsymbolic form of some commonsense knowledge Much of what people know isn't represented as "facts" or "statements" that they could actually say out loud. For example, a chess master will avoid a particular chess position because it "feels too exposed" or an art critic can take one look at a statue and instantly realize that it is a fake. These are intuitions or tendencies that are represented in the brain non-consciously and sub-symbolically. Expert knowledge as embodied intuition: (Hubert Dreyfus is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically.) (Gladwell's Blink is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.) (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.) Knowledge like this informs, supports and provides a context for symbolic, conscious knowledge. As with the related problem of sub-symbolic reasoning, it is hoped that situated AI or computational intelligence will provide ways to represent this kind of knowledge. Planning Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. Planning: , , , , They need a way to visualize the future (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or "value") of the available choices. In some planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be. Classical planning: , , , However, if this is not true, it must periodically check if the world matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty. Planning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning: Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Emergent behavior such as this is used by evolutionary algorithms and swarm intelligence. Multi-agent planning and emergent behavior: Learning Machine learning Learning: , , , , has been central to AI research from the beginning. Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Unsupervised learning is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input. Supervised learning includes both classification (be able to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories) and regression (given a set of numerical input/output examples, discover a continuous function that would generate the outputs from the inputs). In reinforcement learning Reinforcement learning: the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. These can be analyzed in terms of decision theory, using concepts like utility. The mathematical analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory. Natural language processing Natural language processing Natural language processing: gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that the human beings speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining) and machine translation. Applications of natural language processing, including information retrieval (i.e. text mining) and machine translation: , Motion and manipulation ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs. The field of robotics Robotics: , , is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation Moving and configuration space: and navigation, with sub-problems of localization (knowing where you are), mapping (learning what is around you) and motion planning (figuring out how to get there). Robotic mapping (localization, etc): Perception Machine perception Machine perception: , is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, sonar and others more exotic) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision Computer vision: is the ability to analyze visual input. A few selected subproblems are speech recognition, Speech recognition: facial recognition and object recognition. Object recognition: Social intelligence Kismet, a robot with rudimentary social skills. Emotion and social skills play two roles for an intelligent agent: Emotion and affective computing: It must be able to predict the actions of others, by understanding their motives and emotional states. (This involves elements of game theory, decision theory, as well as the ability to model human emotions and the perceptual skills to detect emotions.) For good human-computer interaction, an intelligent machine also needs to display emotions — at the very least it must appear polite and sensitive to the humans it interacts with. At best, it should have normal emotions itself. Creativity TOPIO, a robot that can play ping-pong, developed by TOSY. A sub-field of AI addresses creativity both theoretically (from a philosophical and psychological perspective) and practically (via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative). General intelligence Most researchers hope that their work will eventually be incorporated into a machine with general intelligence (known as strong AI), combining all the skills above and exceeding human abilities at most or all of them. A few believe that anthropomorphic features like artificial consciousness or an artificial brain may be required for such a project. Gerald Edelman, Igor Aleksander and others have both argued that artificial consciousness is required for strong AI. CITATION IN PROGRESS Ray Kurzweil, Jeff Hawkins and others have argued that strong AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain. CITATION IN PROGRESS Many of the problems above are considered AI-complete: to solve one problem, you must solve them all. For example, even a straightforward, specific task like machine translation requires that the machine follow the author's argument (reason), know what it's talking about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the author's intention (social intelligence). Machine translation, therefore, is believed to be AI-complete: it may require strong AI to be done as well as humans can do it. AI complete: Open Problems From a computational neuroscience perspective the field of AI has a number of open problems in regards to: intelligence expansion speed of artificial intelligence systems number of sensors that a conscious system can integrate 100 Billion Neurons And Beyond Approaches to AI There is no established unifying theory or paradigm that guides AI research. Researchers disagree about many issues. A few of the most long standing questions that have remained unanswered are these: Can intelligence be reproduced using high-level symbols, similar to words and ideas? Or does it require "sub-symbolic" processing? characterizes newer approaches to AI as "sub-symbolic". Should artificial intelligence simulate natural intelligence, by studying human psychology or animal neurobiology? Or is human biology as irrelevant to AI research as bird biology is to aeronautical engineering? The analogy with aeronautical engineering is due to Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)? Or does artificial intelligence necessarily require solving many unrelated problems? Neats vs. scruffies: Cybernetics and brain simulation The human brain provides inspiration for artificial intelligence researchers, however there is no consensus on how closely it should be simulated. In the 1940s and 1950s, a number of researchers explored the connection between neurology, information theory, and cybernetics. Some of them built machines that used electronic networks to exhibit rudimentary intelligence, such as W. Grey Walter's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast. Many of these researchers gathered for meetings of the Teleological Society at Princeton University and the Ratio Club in England. By 1960, this approach was largely abandoned, although elements of it would be revived in the 1980s. Traditional symbolic AI When access to digital computers became possible in the middle 1950s, AI research began to explore the possibility that human intelligence could be reduced to symbol manipulation. The research was centered in three institutions: CMU, Stanford and MIT, and each one developed its own style of research. John Haugeland named these approaches to AI "good old fashioned AI" or "GOFAI". Cognitive simulationEconomist Herbert Simon and Alan Newell studied human problem solving skills and attempted to formalize them, and their work laid the foundations of the field of artificial intelligence, as well as cognitive science, operations research and management science. Their research team performed psychological experiments to demonstrate the similarities between human problem solving and the programs (such as their "General Problem Solver") they were developing. This tradition, centered at Carnegie Mellon University would eventually culminate in the development of the Soar architecture in the middle 80s. Cognitive simulation, Newell and Simon, AI at CMU (then called Carnegie Tech): Soar (history): Logical AI Unlike Newell and Simon, John McCarthy felt that machines did not need to simulate human thought, but should instead try to find the essence of abstract reasoning and problem solving, regardless of whether people used the same algorithms. McCarthy's opposition to "cognitive simulation": Science at Google Books McCarthy's presentation at AI@50 His laboratory at Stanford (SAIL) focused on using formal logic to solve a wide variety of problems, including knowledge representation, planning and learning. McCarthy and AI research at SAIL and SRI: Logic was also focus of the work at the University of Edinburgh and elsewhere in Europe which led to the development of the programming language Prolog and the science of logic programming. AI research at Edinburgh and in France, birth of Prolog: "Scruffy" symbolic AI Researchers at MIT (such as Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert) found that solving difficult problems in vision and natural language processing required ad-hoc solutions – they argued that there was no simple and general principle (like logic) that would capture all the aspects of intelligent behavior. Roger Schank described their "anti-logic" approaches as "scruffy" (as opposed to the "neat" paradigms at CMU and Stanford). AI at MIT under Marvin Minsky in the 1960s : Commonsense knowledge bases (such as Doug Lenat's Cyc) are an example of "scruffy" AI, since they must be built by hand, one complicated concept at a time. Cyc: , who calls it "a determinedly scruffy enterprise" Knowledge based AI When computers with large memories became available around 1970, researchers from all three traditions began to build knowledge into AI applications. Knowledge revolution: This "knowledge revolution" led to the development and deployment of expert systems (introduced by Edward Feigenbaum), the first truly successful form of AI software. The knowledge revolution was also driven by the realization that enormous amounts of knowledge would be required by many simple AI applications. Sub-symbolic AI During the 1960s, symbolic approaches had achieved great success at simulating high-level thinking in small demonstration programs. Approaches based on cybernetics or neural networks were abandoned or pushed into the background. The most dramatic case of sub-symbolic AI being pushed into the background was the devastating critique of perceptrons by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert in 1969. See History of AI, AI winter, or Frank Rosenblatt. By the 1980s, however, progress in symbolic AI seemed to stall and many believed that symbolic systems would never be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition. A number of researchers began to look into "sub-symbolic" approaches to specific AI problems. Bottom-up, embodied, situated, behavior-based or nouvelle AI Researchers from the related field of robotics, such as Rodney Brooks, rejected symbolic AI and focused on the basic engineering problems that would allow robots to move and survive. Embodied approaches to AI: Their work revived the non-symbolic viewpoint of the early cybernetics researchers of the 50s and reintroduced the use of control theory in AI. These approaches are also conceptually related to the embodied mind thesis. Computational IntelligenceInterest in neural networks and "connectionism" was revived by David Rumelhart and others in the middle 1980s. Revival of connectionism: These and other sub-symbolic approaches, such as fuzzy systems and evolutionary computation, are now studied collectively by the emerging discipline of computational intelligence. See IEEE Computational Intelligence Society Statistical AI In the 1990s, AI researchers developed sophisticated mathematical tools to solve specific subproblems. These tools are truly scientific, in the sense that their results are both measurable and verifiable, and they have been responsible for many of AI's recent successes. The shared mathematical language has also permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research). describe this movement as nothing less than a "revolution" and "the victory of the neats." Integrating the approaches Intelligent agent paradigm An intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximizes its chances of success. The simplest intelligent agents are programs that solve specific problems. The most complicated intelligent agents are rational, thinking human beings. The intelligent agent paradigm: , , The paradigm gives researchers license to study isolated problems and find solutions that are both verifiable and useful, without agreeing on one single approach. An agent that solves a specific problem can use any approach that works — some agents are symbolic and logical, some are sub-symbolic neural networks and others may use new approaches. The paradigm also gives researchers a common language to communicate with other fields—such as decision theory and economics—that also use concepts of abstract agents. The intelligent agent paradigm became widely accepted during the 1990s. "The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field" An agent architecture or cognitive architecture Researchers have designed systems to build intelligent systems out of interacting intelligent agents in a multi-agent system. Agent architectures, hybrid intelligent systems: A system with both symbolic and sub-symbolic components is a hybrid intelligent system, and the study of such systems is artificial intelligence systems integration. A hierarchical control system provides a bridge between sub-symbolic AI at its lowest, reactive levels and traditional symbolic AI at its highest levels, where relaxed time constraints permit planning and world modelling. Albus, J. S. 4-D/RCS reference model architecture for unmanned ground vehicles. In G Gerhart, R Gunderson, and C Shoemaker, editors, Proceedings of the SPIE AeroSense Session on Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology, volume 3693, pages 11—20 Rodney Brooks' subsumption architecture was an early proposal for such a hierarchical system. Tools of AI research In the course of 50 years of research, AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most difficult problems in computer science. A few of the most general of these methods are discussed below. Search and optimization Many problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions: Search algorithms: Reasoning can be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule. Forward chaining, backward chaining, Horn clauses, and logical deduction as search: Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis. State space search and planning: Robotics algorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects use local searches in configuration space. Many learning algorithms use search algorithms based on optimization. Simple exhaustive searches Uninformed searches (breadth first search, depth first search and general state space search): are rarely sufficient for most real world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes. The solution, for many problems, is to use "heuristics" or "rules of thumb" that eliminate choices that are unlikely to lead to the goal (called "pruning the search tree"). Heuristics supply the program with a "best guess" for what path the solution lies on. Heuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*): , , , A very different kind of search came to prominence in the 1990s, based on the mathematical theory of optimization. For many problems, it is possible to begin the search with some form of a guess and then refine the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. Other optimization algorithms are simulated annealing, beam search and random optimization. Optimization searches: Evolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses). Forms of evolutionary computation include swarm intelligence algorithms (such as ant colony or particle swarm optimization) Artificial life and society based learning: and evolutionary algorithms (such as genetic algorithms Genetic algorithms for learning: , . See also: and genetic programming ). Logic Logic Logic: , , , was introduced into AI research by John McCarthy in his 1958 Advice Taker proposal. In 1963, J. Alan Robinson discovered a simple, complete and entirely algorithmic method for logical deduction which can easily be performed by digital computers. Resolution and unification: , , , However, a naive implementation of the algorithm quickly leads to a combinatorial explosion or an infinite loop. In 1974, Robert Kowalski suggested representing logical expressions as Horn clauses (statements in the form of rules: "if p then q"), which reduced logical deduction to backward chaining or forward chaining. This greatly alleviated (but did not eliminate) the problem. History of logic programming: . Advice Taker: , Logic is used for knowledge representation and problem solving, but it can be applied to other problems as well. For example, the satplan algorithm uses logic for planning, Satplan: , , and inductive logic programming is a method for learning. Explanation based learning, relevance based learning, inductive logic programming, case based reasoning: , , , There are several different forms of logic used in AI research. Propositional or sentential logic Propositional logic: , is the logic of statements which can be true or false. First-order logic First-order logic and features such as equality: , , , , also allows the use of quantifiers and predicates, and can express facts about objects, their properties, and their relations with each other. Fuzzy logic, a version of first-order logic which allows the truth of a statement to be represented as a value between 0 and 1, rather than simply True (1) or False (0). Fuzzy systems can be used for uncertain reasoning and have been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems. Fuzzy logic: Default logics, non-monotonic logics and circumscription are forms of logic designed to help with default reasoning and the qualification problem. Several extensions of logic have been designed to handle specific domains of knowledge, such as: description logics; situation calculus, event calculus and fluent calculus (for representing events and time); causal calculus; belief calculus; and modal logics. Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning Many problems in AI (in reasoning, planning, learning, perception and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. Starting in the late 80s and early 90s, Judea Pearl and others championed the use of methods drawn from probability theory and economics to devise a number of powerful tools to solve these problems. Judea Pearl's contribution to AI: Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning: , , , , Bayesian networks Bayesian networks: , , , are a very general tool that can be used for a large number of problems: reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm), Bayesian inference algorithm: , , , learning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm), Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm: , , planning (using decision networks) Bayesian decision networks: and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks). Dynamic Bayesian network: Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time Stochastic temporal models: (e.g., hidden Markov models Hidden Markov model: or Kalman filters Kalman filter: ). A key concept from the science of economics is "utility": a measure of how valuable something is to an intelligent agent. Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis, decision theory and decision analysis: , information value theory. Information value theory: These tools include models such as Markov decision processes, Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks: dynamic decision networks, game theory and mechanism design Game theory and mechanism design: Classifiers and statistical learning methods The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers ("if shiny then diamond") and controllers ("if shiny then pick up"). Controllers do however also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of many AI systems. Classifiers Statistical learning methods and classifiers: , are functions that use pattern matching to determine a closest match. They can be tuned according to examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as observations or patterns. In supervised learning, each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class. A class can be seen as a decision that has to be made. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience. A classifier can be trained in various ways; there are many statistical and machine learning approaches. A wide range of classifiers are available, each with its strengths and weaknesses. Classifier performance depends greatly on the characteristics of the data to be classified. There is no single classifier that works best on all given problems; this is also referred to as the "no free lunch" theorem. Various empirical tests have been performed to compare classifier performance and to find the characteristics of data that determine classifier performance. Determining a suitable classifier for a given problem is however still more an art than science. The most widely used classifiers are the neural network, kernel methods such as the support vector machine, Kernel methods: k-nearest neighbor algorithm, K-nearest neighbor algorithm: Gaussian mixture model, Gaussian mixture model: naive Bayes classifier, Naive Bayes classifier: and decision tree. Decision tree: , , The performance of these classifiers have been compared over a wide range of classification tasks in order to find data characteristics that determine classifier performance. Neural networks A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain. The study of artificial neural networks Neural networks and connectionism: , , , began in the decade before the field AI research was founded. In the 1960s Frank Rosenblatt developed an important early version, the perceptron. Perceptrons: , Paul Werbos developed the backpropagation algorithm for multilayer perceptrons in 1974, Backpropagation: , , which led to a renaissance in neural network research and connectionism in general in the middle 1980s. The Hopfield net, a form of attractor network, was first described by John Hopfield in 1982. Common network architectures which have been developed include the feedforward neural network, the radial basis network, the Kohonen self-organizing map and various recurrent neural networks. Neural networks are applied to the problem of learning, using such techniques as Hebbian learning, competitive learning Competitive learning, Hebbian coincidence learning, Hopfield networks and attractor networks: and the relatively new architectures of Hierarchical Temporal Memory and Deep Belief Networks. Control theory Control theory, the grandchild of cybernetics, has many important applications, especially in robotics. Control theory: , Specialized languages AI researchers have developed several specialized languages for AI research: IPL was the first language developed for artificial intelligence. It includes features intended to support programs that could perform general problem solving, including lists, associations, schemas (frames), dynamic memory allocation, data types, recursion, associative retrieval, functions as arguments, generators (streams), and cooperative multitasking. Lisp Lisp: , is a practical mathematical notation for computer programs based on lambda calculus. Linked lists are one of Lisp languages' major data structures, and Lisp source code is itself made up of lists. As a result, Lisp programs can manipulate source code as a data structure, giving rise to the macro systems that allow programmers to create new syntax or even new domain-specific programming languages embedded in Lisp. There are many dialects of Lisp in use today. Prolog Prolog: , is a declarative language where programs are expressed in terms of relations, and execution occurs by running queries over these relations. Prolog is particularly useful for symbolic reasoning, database and language parsing applications. Prolog is widely used in AI today. STRIPS is a language for expressing automated planning problem instances. It expresses an initial state, the goal states, and a set of actions. For each action preconditions (what must be established before the action is performed) and postconditions (what is established after the action is performed) are specified. Planner is a hybrid between procedural and logical languages. It gives a procedural interpretation to logical sentences where implications are interpreted with pattern-directed inference. AI applications are also often written in standard languages like C++ and languages designed for mathematics, such as MATLAB and Lush. Evaluating artificial intelligence How can one determine if an agent is intelligent? In 1950, Alan Turing proposed a general procedure to test the intelligence of an agent now known as the Turing test. This procedure allows almost all the major problems of artificial intelligence to be tested. However, it is a very difficult challenge and at present all agents fail. Artificial intelligence can also be evaluated on specific problems such as small problems in chemistry, hand-writing recognition and game-playing. Such tests have been termed subject matter expert Turing tests. Smaller problems provide more achievable goals and there are an ever-increasing number of positive results. The broad classes of outcome for an AI test are: optimal: it is not possible to perform better strong super-human: performs better than all humans super-human: performs better than most humans sub-human: performs worse than most humans For example, performance at checkers (draughts) is optimal, performance at chess is super-human and nearing strong super-human, Computer Chess#Computers versus humans and performance at many everyday tasks performed by humans is sub-human. Competitions and prizes There are a number of competitions and prizes to promote research in artificial intelligence. The main areas promoted are: general machine intelligence, conversational behaviour, data-mining, driverless cars, robot soccer and games. Applications of artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence has successfully been used in a wide range of fields including medical diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery, video games and toys. Frequently, when a technique reaches mainstream use it is no longer considered artificial intelligence, sometimes described as the AI effect. It may also become integrated into artificial life. See also List of AI projects List of AI researchers List of emerging technologies List of basic artificial intelligence topics List of important AI publications Technological singularity Philosophy of mind Cognitive sciences Notes References Major AI textbooks See also A.I. Textbook survey History of AI Other sources . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading R. Sun & L. Bookman, (eds.), Computational Architectures: Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994. Margaret Boden, Mind As Machine, Oxford University Press, 2006 John Johnston, (2008) "The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI", MIT Press Michaela Ong, pioneer of Artificial Intelligence. "Origin of AI through cs191" External links AI Topics — A large directory of links and other resources maintained by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, the leading organization of academic AI researchers. What Is AI? — An introduction to artificial intelligence by AI founder John McCarthy. Where Do We Go From Here? — An overview of the history and prospects of AI from Wlodzislaw Duch. | Artificial_intelligence |@lemmatized artificial:50 intelligence:71 ai:137 machine:44 branch:2 computer:24 science:18 aim:1 create:6 major:5 textbook:5 define:3 field:18 study:7 design:7 intelligent:28 agent:32 use:47 term:10 computational:9 synonym:1 way:5 include:20 prefer:1 rational:2 write:6 whole:2 view:4 widely:9 accept:3 system:33 perceive:2 environment:3 take:4 action:13 maximize:3 chance:2 success:7 definition:2 goal:9 perception:9 due:3 also:22 knowledge:41 learning:21 additional:1 criterion:1 john:13 mccarthy:12 coin:1 although:3 controversy:1 point:3 see:20 state:9 unequivocally:1 come:6 c:3 net:3 interview:1 get:3 think:6 like:11 u:5 defines:1 engineering:7 make:14 found:4 claim:4 central:6 property:3 human:54 sapience:1 homo:1 sapiens:1 precisely:2 describe:10 simulate:12 dartmouth:5 proposal:5 raise:1 philosophical:3 issue:9 nature:2 mind:12 limit:4 scientific:6 hubris:2 address:2 myth:5 fiction:9 philosophy:5 since:2 antiquity:1 idea:9 pamela:2 mccorduck:3 apotheosis:1 venerable:1 cultural:1 tradition:3 one:11 form:17 another:2 pervade:1 western:1 intellectual:1 history:10 dream:1 urgent:1 need:6 realize:2 full:1 attempt:5 nutty:1 eerie:1 comical:1 earnest:1 legendary:1 real:2 reproduce:4 essential:3 bypass:1 ordinary:1 mean:3 back:3 forth:1 reality:1 imagination:1 supply:2 workshops:1 engage:1 long:4 time:11 odd:1 self:2 reproduction:1 trace:1 desire:2 hellenistic:1 root:2 call:12 urge:1 forge:2 god:3 subject:3 breathtaking:1 optimism:3 refer:3 prediction:5 early:11 researcher:27 well:8 modern:4 transhumanists:1 ray:5 kurzweil:5 suffer:2 stun:1 setback:1 setbacks:1 alpac:1 report:2 abandonment:1 perceptrons:4 lighthill:2 collapse:2 lisp:9 market:3 today:4 become:8 part:2 technology:5 industry:2 provide:7 heavy:1 lifting:1 many:30 difficult:6 problem:69 application:13 behind:2 scene:2 research:38 highly:3 technical:2 specialized:3 much:2 critic:4 decry:1 fragmentation:1 fractioning:1 subfields:4 organize:2 around:7 particular:7 tool:11 longstanding:1 theoretical:2 difference:3 opinion:2 trait:4 reasoning:19 planning:17 communication:1 ability:10 move:5 manipulate:2 object:8 list:12 base:17 topic:3 cover:1 general:16 strong:11 still:2 discuss:5 popular:2 introduction:4 perspective:3 speculation:1 thinking:2 appear:4 greek:1 talos:1 crete:1 golden:2 robot:14 hephaestus:1 pygmalion:1 galatea:1 liken:1 believe:7 build:8 ancient:2 society:5 sacred:3 statue:5 worship:2 egypt:1 greece:1 amun:1 first:15 true:9 consciousness:6 hermes:1 trismegistus:1 express:5 common:3 belief:4 craftsman:1 sensus:1 spiritus:1 connection:2 automaton:1 mosaic:1 law:5 develop:15 expressly:1 forbid:1 yan:1 shi:1 hero:1 alexandria:1 al:3 jazari:1 wolfgang:1 von:2 kempelen:1 geber:1 takwin:1 judah:1 loew:1 golem:1 paracelsus:1 story:1 creature:1 fate:1 hope:3 fear:1 ethical:2 concern:2 present:2 mary:1 shelley:1 frankenstein:2 identify:2 key:3 suffering:1 monster:1 e:6 right:8 considers:2 ethic:1 could:6 feel:5 film:1 small:4 boy:1 give:13 emotion:7 tragically:1 capacity:1 know:13 currently:1 consider:5 example:16 california:1 institute:1 future:4 demand:2 legal:1 discussion:2 premature:1 online:1 carry:1 away:1 explore:4 writer:3 futurist:3 impact:1 servant:1 star:2 war:1 enforcer:1 k:3 knight:1 rider:1 comrade:1 lt:1 commander:1 data:11 trek:1 conqueror:1 matrix:1 dictator:1 fold:1 hand:4 exterminator:1 terminator:1 battlestar:1 galactica:1 extension:2 ghost:2 shell:2 saviour:1 race:1 r:3 daneel:1 olivaw:1 foundation:3 series:2 academic:3 source:4 consequence:2 decreased:1 labor:1 enhancement:1 experience:3 singularity:3 transhumanism:3 redefinition:1 identity:1 basic:3 value:5 joseph:1 weizenbaum:2 critique:3 chatterbot:1 program:16 eliza:1 argue:11 misuse:1 potential:1 devalue:1 life:5 several:9 transcend:1 progress:5 fundamentally:1 transform:1 humanity:1 moore:2 relentless:1 exponential:1 improvement:1 digital:4 uncanny:1 accuracy:1 calculate:1 desktop:1 processing:6 power:2 brain:14 year:5 reach:4 able:11 improve:2 rate:1 far:1 exceed:2 anything:2 conceivable:1 past:1 scenario:3 vernor:1 vinge:1 name:3 technological:2 edward:2 fredkin:1 next:1 stage:1 evolution:1 quote:4 propose:2 samuel:1 butler:1 darwin:1 among:6 expand:1 upon:1 george:1 dyson:1 book:2 predict:2 merge:1 cyborg:1 capable:2 powerful:4 either:1 aldous:1 huxley:1 robert:2 ettinger:1 associate:1 designer:1 han:2 moravec:2 cyberneticist:1 kevin:1 warwick:1 inventor:1 illustrate:1 manga:1 dune:1 expression:2 middle:6 century:3 handful:1 scientist:1 begin:10 new:12 approach:19 recent:2 discovery:2 neurology:2 mathematical:13 theory:24 information:10 understanding:1 control:8 stability:1 cybernetics:8 invention:1 abstract:5 essence:3 immediate:1 precursor:1 lay:2 computation:4 neural:15 network:31 alan:6 turing:9 neumann:1 norbert:1 weiner:1 claude:1 shannon:1 warren:1 mccullough:1 walter:2 pitt:1 donald:1 hebb:1 conference:3 campus:1 college:1 summer:1 attend:1 would:12 leader:1 decade:2 especially:3 marvin:5 minsky:5 allen:1 newell:6 herbert:2 simon:7 laboratory:2 mit:5 cmu:4 stanford:4 student:2 people:8 simply:3 astonish:2 russell:1 norvig:1 whenever:1 kind:4 smartish:1 solve:21 word:3 algebra:1 prove:2 logical:12 theorem:5 speak:2 english:1 successful:3 symbolic:28 reason:8 daniel:2 bobrow:1 logic:35 theorist:1 terry:1 winograd:1 shrdlu:1 heavily:1 fund:2 department:1 defense:1 darpa:1 pour:2 money:2 undirected:2 pure:1 optimistic:1 h:1 achines:1 within:2 twenty:1 work:11 man:1 generation:3 substantially:1 fail:3 recognize:1 difficulty:1 face:1 response:2 criticism:1 england:2 sir:1 james:1 ongoing:1 pressure:1 congress:1 productive:1 project:5 british:1 government:2 cut:1 exploratory:1 winter:5 revive:4 commercial:1 expert:7 analytical:1 skill:11 billion:2 dollar:1 world:9 boom:1 rise:3 fifth:1 alvey:1 mcc:1 sci:1 however:8 later:1 fell:1 disrepute:1 second:2 lasting:1 achieve:4 great:3 albeit:1 somewhat:1 logistics:1 mining:4 medical:2 diagnosis:2 area:2 throughout:1 factor:1 incredible:1 emphasis:1 specific:11 subproblems:3 creation:1 tie:1 similar:2 commitment:1 solid:1 method:13 rigorous:1 standard:3 formal:4 preferred:1 victory:2 neats:3 recreate:1 capability:2 challenge:2 inspiration:2 influential:1 answer:1 question:2 position:3 mention:1 polite:2 convention:1 act:5 intelligently:3 theorize:1 ultimately:1 judge:1 behavior:6 basis:2 test:9 implication:3 every:1 aspect:3 learn:13 feature:4 assertion:4 print:1 represent:12 physical:5 symbol:8 hypothesis:6 necessary:3 sufficient:2 statement:6 manipulation:5 hubert:2 dreyfus:4 contrary:1 expertise:1 depend:3 unconscious:1 instinct:1 rather:4 conscious:4 situation:4 explicit:1 criticize:1 condition:2 psychological:3 assumption:4 device:1 operate:2 bit:1 accord:2 rule:5 gödel:3 incompleteness:1 roger:2 penrose:1 paraphrase:1 important:4 objection:4 refute:1 background:3 searle:5 appropriately:2 input:6 output:4 thereby:1 exactly:1 sense:3 version:3 original:2 formulation:1 programmed:1 really:1 literally:1 say:2 understand:3 cognitive:9 similarly:1 possibly:1 perhaps:1 weak:1 philosopher:2 actually:2 oppose:2 counter:1 chinese:2 room:2 argument:7 ask:1 look:3 inside:2 try:2 find:9 might:1 others:8 technologically:1 feasible:1 copy:1 directly:1 hardware:1 software:2 simulation:5 essentially:1 identical:1 combine:3 suitably:1 process:11 materialist:1 result:5 extreme:1 replacement:1 put:1 forward:3 clark:1 glymour:1 mid:1 touch:1 zenon:1 pylyshyn:1 dennett:1 multiple:1 functional:1 thought:2 pattern:7 explain:1 deeply:1 divide:2 often:2 communicate:2 grow:2 institution:2 stand:1 differ:1 break:1 number:16 sub:20 consist:1 display:2 receive:2 attention:1 deduction:7 algorithms:3 imitate:3 step:6 puzzle:2 play:3 board:1 game:8 solving:7 playing:2 late:2 deal:1 uncertain:8 incomplete:2 employ:1 concept:6 probability:2 economics:5 algorithm:25 require:17 enormous:3 resource:2 combinatorial:3 explosion:3 amount:3 memory:4 becomes:1 astronomical:3 go:2 beyond:2 certain:3 size:1 search:27 efficient:1 high:6 priority:1 intractability:1 efficiency:1 fast:1 intuitive:2 judgment:1 model:9 famous:1 show:2 poorly:1 completely:1 restate:1 allow:7 social:5 performance:10 dramatically:1 wason:1 selection:1 task:5 terrible:1 elementary:1 involve:2 bias:1 controversially:1 even:3 mathematics:4 body:1 sensorimotor:2 perceptual:2 embodied:3 emphasize:1 importance:1 structure:3 animal:3 representation:9 expect:1 extensive:1 thing:5 category:4 relation:5 semantic:1 description:2 inheritance:1 frame:2 script:1 event:5 calculus:11 fluent:2 cause:1 effect:2 causal:2 modal:2 less:2 researched:1 domain:4 complete:6 exist:2 ontology:3 borrow:1 traditional:3 upper:1 default:7 qualification:3 bird:3 conversation:1 typically:1 picture:1 fist:1 sized:1 sings:1 fly:1 none:1 primarily:1 apply:3 vast:2 underlie:1 commonsense:7 care:1 tend:1 huge:1 exception:1 almost:2 nothing:2 false:3 solution:6 non:5 monotonic:2 circumscription:2 close:2 abduction:2 poole:1 et:2 place:3 luger:1 breadth:3 atomic:1 fact:3 average:1 person:1 g:4 cyc:3 laborious:1 ontological:1 must:10 complicate:2 subsymbolic:1 loud:1 chess:4 master:1 avoid:2 exposed:1 art:2 instantly:1 fake:1 intuition:2 tendency:1 consciously:1 symbolically:2 useful:3 encode:1 gladwell:1 blink:1 hawkins:2 primary:1 focus:4 informs:1 support:3 context:1 related:2 hop:1 situated:1 plan:4 set:4 visualize:2 change:2 choice:4 utility:3 available:4 assume:1 may:6 classical:1 periodically:1 check:1 match:2 uncertainty:1 deterministic:1 conditional:1 execution:2 monitoring:1 replanning:1 continuous:2 multi:3 cooperation:1 competition:3 emergent:2 evolutionary:5 swarm:3 beginning:1 centrality:1 classic:1 paper:1 compute:1 machinery:1 unsupervised:1 stream:2 supervise:1 classification:3 determine:6 something:2 belongs:1 regression:1 numerical:1 discover:2 function:3 generate:2 reinforcement:2 reward:1 good:6 punish:1 bad:2 analyze:4 decision:16 analysis:4 natural:8 language:22 read:2 sufficiently:1 acquire:1 text:3 internet:1 straightforward:2 retrieval:3 translation:4 motion:2 asimo:1 sensor:3 obstacle:1 navigate:1 stair:1 robotics:7 closely:2 relate:2 handle:2 configuration:2 space:5 navigation:1 localization:2 mapping:2 figure:1 robotic:1 etc:1 camera:1 microphone:1 sonar:1 exotic:1 deduce:1 vision:3 visual:1 select:2 speech:2 recognition:7 facial:1 kismet:1 rudimentary:2 two:2 role:1 affective:1 computing:1 motif:1 emotional:1 element:2 detect:1 interaction:1 least:1 sensitive:1 interact:2 best:4 normal:1 creativity:2 topio:1 ping:1 pong:1 tosy:1 theoretically:1 practically:1 via:1 implementation:2 creative:1 eventually:2 incorporate:1 anthropomorphic:1 gerald:1 edelman:1 igor:1 aleksander:1 citation:2 jeff:1 operation:3 follow:1 author:2 talk:1 faithfully:1 intention:1 therefore:2 open:2 neuroscience:1 regard:1 expansion:1 speed:1 integrate:3 neuron:2 established:1 unify:1 paradigm:7 guide:1 disagree:1 standing:1 remain:1 unanswered:1 level:5 characterize:1 psychology:1 neurobiology:1 biology:2 irrelevant:1 aeronautical:2 analogy:1 simple:7 elegant:1 principle:2 optimization:9 necessarily:1 unrelated:1 vs:1 scruffies:1 consensus:1 electronic:1 exhibit:1 w:1 grey:1 turtle:1 hopkins:1 beast:1 gather:1 meeting:1 teleological:1 princeton:1 university:4 ratio:1 club:1 largely:1 abandon:2 access:1 possible:4 possibility:1 reduce:3 center:2 three:2 style:1 haugeland:1 old:1 fashion:1 gofai:1 simulationeconomist:1 formalize:1 management:1 team:1 perform:9 experiment:1 demonstrate:1 similarity:1 solver:1 carnegie:2 mellon:1 culminate:1 development:3 soar:2 architecture:9 tech:1 unlike:1 felt:1 instead:1 regardless:1 whether:1 opposition:1 google:1 presentation:1 sail:2 wide:4 variety:1 sri:1 edinburgh:2 elsewhere:1 europe:1 lead:7 programming:7 prolog:6 france:1 birth:1 scruffy:4 seymour:2 papert:2 ad:1 hoc:1 capture:1 schank:1 anti:1 neat:1 doug:1 lenat:1 determinedly:1 enterprise:1 large:4 revolution:4 deployment:1 introduce:2 feigenbaum:1 truly:2 drive:1 realization:1 demonstration:1 push:2 dramatic:1 case:2 devastating:1 frank:2 rosenblatt:2 seem:1 stall:1 never:2 cognition:1 bottom:1 embody:2 situate:1 nouvelle:1 rodney:2 brook:2 reject:1 survive:2 viewpoint:1 reintroduce:1 conceptually:1 thesis:1 intelligenceinterest:1 connectionism:4 david:1 rumelhart:1 revival:1 fuzzy:4 collectively:1 emerge:2 discipline:1 ieee:1 statistical:4 sophisticated:1 measurable:1 verifiable:2 responsible:1 shared:1 permit:2 collaboration:1 establish:3 movement:1 complicated:1 license:1 isolated:1 without:1 agree:1 single:2 hybrid:3 component:1 integration:1 hierarchical:3 bridge:1 low:1 reactive:1 relaxed:1 constraint:1 modelling:1 albus:1 j:2 rcs:1 reference:2 unmanned:2 ground:2 vehicle:2 gerhart:1 gunderson:1 shoemaker:1 editor:1 proceeding:1 spie:1 aerosense:1 session:1 volume:1 page:1 subsumption:1 course:1 proof:1 path:3 premise:1 conclusion:1 inference:4 chain:3 backward:2 horn:2 clause:2 tree:4 subgoals:1 target:1 end:1 limb:1 grasp:1 local:1 exhaustive:1 uninformed:1 depth:1 rarely:1 quickly:2 slow:1 completes:1 heuristic:3 thumb:1 eliminate:2 unlikely:1 prune:1 guess:6 lie:1 informed:1 greedy:1 different:2 prominence:1 refine:2 incrementally:1 refinement:1 blind:1 hill:1 climb:1 random:2 landscape:1 jump:1 keep:1 uphill:1 top:1 simulated:1 annealing:1 beam:1 population:1 organism:1 mutate:1 recombine:1 fit:1 ant:1 colony:1 particle:1 genetic:3 advice:2 taker:2 robinson:1 entirely:1 algorithmic:1 easily:1 resolution:1 unification:1 naive:3 infinite:1 loop:1 kowalski:1 suggest:1 p:1 q:1 chaining:1 greatly:2 alleviate:1 satplan:2 inductive:2 explanation:2 relevance:1 propositional:2 sentential:1 order:4 equality:1 quantifier:1 predicate:1 truth:1 industrial:1 consumer:1 product:1 help:2 probabilistic:2 starting:1 judea:2 pearl:2 champion:1 draw:1 devise:1 contribution:1 stochastic:2 bayesian:8 expectation:2 maximization:2 dynamic:5 filtering:1 smooth:1 occur:1 temporal:2 hidden:1 markov:4 hide:1 kalman:2 filter:2 measure:1 valuable:1 precise:1 mechanism:2 classifier:16 type:2 shiny:2 diamond:1 controller:2 pick:1 classify:3 infer:1 matching:1 tune:1 attractive:1 observation:4 supervised:1 belong:1 predefined:1 class:4 label:1 previous:1 train:1 various:3 range:3 strength:1 weakness:1 characteristic:3 free:1 lunch:1 empirical:1 compare:2 suitable:1 kernel:2 vector:1 near:2 neighbor:2 gaussian:2 mixture:2 bayes:2 interconnected:1 group:1 node:1 akin:1 perceptron:1 paul:1 werbos:1 backpropagation:2 multilayer:1 renaissance:1 hopfield:3 attractor:2 feedforward:1 radial:1 kohonen:1 map:1 recurrent:1 technique:2 hebbian:2 competitive:2 coincidence:1 relatively:1 deep:1 grandchild:1 specialize:1 ipl:1 intend:1 association:2 schema:1 frames:1 allocation:1 recursion:1 associative:1 generator:1 streams:1 cooperative:1 multitasking:1 practical:1 notation:1 lambda:1 link:3 code:2 macro:1 programmer:1 syntax:1 embed:1 dialect:1 declarative:1 occurs:1 run:1 query:1 particularly:1 database:1 parsing:1 strip:1 automate:1 instance:1 initial:1 precondition:1 postconditions:1 specify:1 planner:1 procedural:2 interpretation:1 sentence:1 interpret:1 direct:1 matlab:1 lush:1 evaluate:2 procedure:2 chemistry:1 writing:1 matter:1 achievable:1 ever:1 increase:1 positive:1 broad:1 outcome:1 optimal:2 super:4 performs:3 checker:1 draught:1 nearing:1 versus:1 everyday:1 prize:2 promote:2 main:1 conversational:1 behaviour:1 driverless:1 car:1 soccer:1 successfully:1 stock:1 trading:1 video:1 toy:1 frequently:1 mainstream:1 longer:1 sometimes:1 integrated:1 publication:1 note:1 survey:1 reading:1 sun:1 l:1 bookman:1 ed:1 kluwer:1 publisher:1 needham:1 margaret:1 boden:1 oxford:1 press:2 johnston:1 allure:1 machinic:1 michaela:1 ong:1 pioneer:1 origin:1 external:1 directory:1 maintain:1 advancement:1 organization:1 founder:1 overview:1 prospect:1 wlodzislaw:1 duch:1 |@bigram artificial_intelligence:39 homo_sapiens:1 ray_kurzweil:5 expressly_forbid:1 al_jazari:1 judah_loew:1 mary_shelley:1 shelley_frankenstein:1 science_fiction:5 star_trek:1 battlestar_galactica:1 ghost_shell:2 joseph_weizenbaum:1 vernor_vinge:1 technological_singularity:2 aldous_huxley:1 kevin_warwick:1 neural_network:13 alan_turing:4 von_neumann:1 claude_shannon:1 marvin_minsky:5 allen_newell:1 newell_simon:4 billion_dollar:1 hubert_dreyfus:2 gödel_incompleteness:1 incompleteness_theorem:1 roger_penrose:1 input_output:2 daniel_dennett:1 logical_deduction:4 problem_solving:6 fluent_calculus:2 modal_logic:2 assumption_underlie:1 commonsense_knowledge:6 et_al:2 maximize_utility:1 emergent_behavior:2 compute_machinery:1 unsupervised_learning:1 information_retrieval:2 closely_relate:1 affective_computing:1 ping_pong:1 computational_neuroscience:1 aeronautical_engineering:2 carnegie_mellon:1 seymour_papert:2 ad_hoc:1 optimization_optimization:1 propositional_logic:1 fuzzy_logic:2 bayesian_inference:2 pattern_matching:1 supervised_learning:1 strength_weakness:1 classifier_performance:4 artificial_neural:1 hopfield_network:1 cooperative_multitasking:1 lambda_calculus:1 kluwer_academic:1 external_link:1 association_advancement:1 |
985 | Claude_Louis_Berthollet | Claude Louis Berthollet. Claude Louis Berthollet (9 December 1748 – 6 November 1822) was a Savoyard-French chemist who became vice president of the French Senate in 1804. Biography Claude Louis Berthollet was born in Talloires, near Annecy, then part of the Duchy of Savoy, in 1749. Berthollet, along with Antoine Lavoisier and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds. He also carried out research into dyes and bleaches (introducing the use of chlorine as a bleach) and determined the composition of ammonia. Berthollet was one of the first chemists to recognize the characteristics of a reverse reaction, and hence, chemical equilibrium. Potassium chlorate (KClO3), a strong oxidizer, is known as Berthollet's Salt. Non-stoichiometric compounds are also named berthollides in his honor. Berthollet was one of several scientists who went with Napoleon to Egypt, and was a member of the physics and natural history section of the Institut d'Égypte. He died in Arcueil, France in 1822. References Further reading | Claude_Louis_Berthollet |@lemmatized claude:3 louis:3 berthollet:7 december:1 november:1 savoyard:1 french:2 chemist:2 become:1 vice:1 president:1 senate:1 biography:1 bear:1 talloires:1 near:1 annecy:1 part:1 duchy:1 savoy:1 along:1 antoine:1 lavoisier:1 others:1 devise:1 chemical:3 nomenclature:1 system:2 name:3 serve:1 basis:1 modern:1 compound:2 also:2 carry:1 research:1 dye:1 bleach:2 introduce:1 use:1 chlorine:1 determine:1 composition:1 ammonia:1 one:2 first:1 recognize:1 characteristic:1 reverse:1 reaction:1 hence:1 equilibrium:1 potassium:1 chlorate:1 strong:1 oxidizer:1 know:1 salt:1 non:1 stoichiometric:1 berthollides:1 honor:1 several:1 scientist:1 go:1 napoleon:1 egypt:1 member:1 physic:1 natural:1 history:1 section:1 institut:1 égypte:1 die:1 arcueil:1 france:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 |@bigram louis_berthollet:3 vice_president:1 antoine_lavoisier:1 potassium_chlorate:1 stoichiometric_compound:1 |
986 | Defendant | A defendant or defender (Δ in legal shorthand) is any party who is required to answer the complaint of a plaintiff or pursuer in a civil lawsuit before a court, or any party who has been formally charged or accused of violating a criminal statute. A defendant in a civil action usually makes his or her first court appearance voluntarily in response to a summons, whereas a defendant in a criminal case is often taken into custody by police and brought before a court, pursuant to an arrest warrant. The actions of a defendant, and its lawyer counsel, is known as the defense. A respondent is the parallel term used in a proceeding which is commenced by petition. A defendant is anyone tried under the court of law as the ones who have committed the crime. Historically, a defendant in a civil action could also be taken into custody pursuant to a writ of capias ad respondendum and forced to post bail before being released from custody. However, a modern day defendant in a civil action is usually able to avoid most (if not all) court appearances if he or she is represented by a lawyer whereas a defendant in a criminal case (particularly a felony or indictment) is usually obliged to post bail before being released from custody and must be present at every stage thereafter of the proceedings against him or her (they often may have their lawyer appear instead, especially for very minor cases, such as traffic offenses in jurisdictions which treat them as crimes). If found guilty, or if the defendant reaches a plea bargain or other settlement with the prosecution, the defendant receives a sentence from the presiding judge. This sentence, however, does not necessarily include the full punishment: social stigma of prosecution and collateral consequences of criminal charges may still affect the defendant. Historical restrictions on giving evidence In Britain up until the end of the 19th century, defendants were banned by law from giving evidence in their defense, since it was assumed they would be inclined to lie. Devlin, Patrick. Easing the passing: The trial of Doctor John Bodkin Adams, London, The Bodley Head, 1985. References See also Plaintiff (civil) Prosecution (criminal) | Defendant |@lemmatized defendant:12 defender:1 δ:1 legal:1 shorthand:1 party:2 require:1 answer:1 complaint:1 plaintiff:2 pursuer:1 civil:5 lawsuit:1 court:5 formally:1 charge:2 accuse:1 violate:1 criminal:5 statute:1 action:4 usually:3 make:1 first:1 appearance:2 voluntarily:1 response:1 summons:1 whereas:2 case:3 often:2 take:2 custody:4 police:1 bring:1 pursuant:2 arrest:1 warrant:1 lawyer:3 counsel:1 know:1 defense:2 respondent:1 parallel:1 term:1 use:1 proceeding:2 commence:1 petition:1 anyone:1 try:1 law:2 one:1 commit:1 crime:2 historically:1 could:1 also:2 writ:1 capias:1 ad:1 respondendum:1 force:1 post:2 bail:2 release:2 however:2 modern:1 day:1 able:1 avoid:1 represent:1 particularly:1 felony:1 indictment:1 oblige:1 must:1 present:1 every:1 stage:1 thereafter:1 may:2 appear:1 instead:1 especially:1 minor:1 traffic:1 offense:1 jurisdiction:1 treat:1 find:1 guilty:1 reach:1 plea:1 bargain:1 settlement:1 prosecution:3 receive:1 sentence:2 preside:1 judge:1 necessarily:1 include:1 full:1 punishment:1 social:1 stigma:1 collateral:1 consequence:1 still:1 affect:1 historical:1 restriction:1 give:2 evidence:2 britain:1 end:1 century:1 ban:1 since:1 assume:1 would:1 incline:1 lie:1 devlin:1 patrick:1 ease:1 passing:1 trial:1 doctor:1 john:1 bodkin:1 adam:1 london:1 bodley:1 head:1 reference:1 see:1 |@bigram arrest_warrant:1 plea_bargain:1 john_bodkin:1 bodkin_adam:1 |
987 | A.S._Roma | Associazione Sportiva Roma, () commonly referred to as simply Roma, is an Italian professional football club from Rome. Founded by a merger in 1927, Roma have participated at the top-tier of Italian football for all of their existence bar one season in the early 1950s (in 1951-52). For their 57th season in a row, Roma are competing in Serie A for 2008–09. Roma have won Serie A three times, first in 1941–42 then again in 1982–83 and 2000–01. As well as winning nine Coppa Italia trophies; on the European stage Roma won an Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1960–61, but have had come close to success finishing as runners-up in the European Cup in 1983–84 and the UEFA Cup in 1990–91. Home games are played at the Stadio Olimpico, a stadium they share with rivals S.S. Lazio. With a capacity of over 72,700 it is the second largest of its kind in Italy, with only the San Siro able to seat more. Roma are the Coppa Italia holders, having won the 2007-08 trophy. History Associazione Sportiva Roma was founded in the summer of 1927 by Italo Foschi, who initiated the merger of three older Italian Football Championship clubs from the city of Rome; Roman, Alba-Audace and Fortitudo. The purpose of the merger, wanted by the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, was to give the Eternal City a strong club to rival that of the more dominant Northern Italian clubs of the time. The only major Roman club to resist the merger was Lazio who were already a well established sporting society. The club played its earliest seasons at the Motovelodromo Appio stadium, before settling in the working-class streets of Testaccio, where it built an all-wooden ground Campo Testaccio; this was opened in November 1929. An early season in which Roma made a large mark was the 1930–31 championship, the club finished as runners-up behind Juventus. Captain Attilio Ferraris along with Guido Masetti, Fulvio Bernardini and Rodolfo Volk were highly important players during this period. First title victory and decline After a slump in league form and the departure of high key players, Roma eventually rebuilt their squad adding goalscorers such as the Argentine Enrique Guaita. Under the management of Luigi Barbesino, the Roman club came close to their first title in 1935–36; finishing just one point behind champions Bologna. Roma returned to form after being inconsistent for much of the late 1930s; Roma recorded an unexpected title triumph in the 1941–42 season by winning their first ever scudetto title. The eighteen goals scored by local player Amedeo Amadei were essential to the Alfréd Schaffer coached Roma side winning the title. At the time Italy was involved in World War II and Roma were playing at the Stadio del Partito Nazionale Fascista. In the years just after the war, Roma were unable to recapture their league stature from the early 1940s. Roma finished in the lower half of Serie A for five seasons in a row, before eventually succumbing to their only ever relegation to Serie B at the end of the 1950–51 season; around a decade after their championship victory. Under future national team manager Giuseppe Viani, promotion straight back up was achieved. After returning to Serie A, Roma managed to stabilise themselves as a top half club again with players such as Egisto Pandolfini, Dino Da Costa and Dane Helge Bronée. Their best finish of this period was under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver, when in 1954–55 they finished as runners-up, after Udinese who originally finished second were relegated for corruption. Although Roma were unable to break into the top four during the following decade, they did achieve some measure of cup success. Their first honour outside of Italy was recorded in 1960–61 when Roma won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup by beating Birmingham City 4–2 in the finals. A few years later Roma won their first Coppa Italia trophy in 1963–64, by beating Torino 1–0. Their second Coppa Italia trophy was won in 1968–69 when it was competed in a small league like system. Giacomo Losi set a Roma appearance record during 1969 with 450 appearances in all competitions, the record he set would last for 38 years. Time of mixed fortunes Roma were able to add another cup to their collection in 1972, with a 3–1 victory over Blackpool in the Anglo-Italian Cup. During much of the 1970s Roma's appearance in the top half of Serie A was sporadic. The best place the club were able to achieve during the decade was third in 1974–75. Notable players who turned out for the club during this period included midfielders Giancarlo De Sisti and Francesco Rocca. The dawning of a newly successful era in Roma's footballing history was brought in with another Coppa Italia victory, they beat Torino on penalties to win the 1979–80 cup. Roma would reach heights in the league which they had not touched since the '40s by narrowly and controversially finishing as runners-up to Juventus in 1980–81. Former Milan player Nils Liedholm was the manager at the time, with prominent players such as Bruno Conti, Agostino Di Bartolomei, Roberto Pruzzo and Falcão. The second scudetto did not elude Roma for much longer; in 1982–83 the Roman club won the title for the first time in 41 years, amidst joyous celebrations in the capital. The following season Roma finished as runners-up in Italy and collected a Coppa Italia title, they also finished as runners-up in the European Cup final of 1984. The European Cup final with Liverpool ended in a 1–1 draw with a goal from Pruzzo, but Roma eventually lost the penalty shoot-out. Roma's successful run in the 1980s would finish with a runners-up spot in 1985–86 and a Coppa Italia victory, beating out Sampdoria 3–2. After that a comparative decline began in the league, one of the few league highs from the following period was a third place in 1987–88. At the start of the 1990s the club was involved in an all-Italian UEFA Cup final, where they lost 2–1 to Internazionale in 1991; the same season the club won its seventh Coppa Italia trophy and ended runners-up to Sampdoria in the Supercoppa Italiana. Aside from finishing runners-up to Torino in a Coppa Italia final, the rest of the decade was largely sub-par in the history of Roma; especially in the league where the highest they could manage was fourth in 1997–98. In the new millennium Roma returned to form in the 2000s, starting the decade in great style by winning their third ever Serie A title in 2000–01; the scudetto was won on the last day of the season by beating Parma 3–1, edging out Juventus by two points. The club's captain, Francesco Totti was a large reason for the title victory and he would become one of the main heroes in the club's history, going on to break several club records. Other important players during this period included Aldair, Cafu, Gabriel Batistuta and Vincenzo Montella. The club attempted to defend the title in the following season but ended as runners-up to Juventus by just one point. This would be the start of Roma finishing as runners-up many times in both Serie A and Coppa Italia during the 2000s; they lost out 4–2 to Milan in the Coppa Italia final of 2003 and lost out to Milan again by finishing second in Serie A for the 2003–04 season. A Serie A scandal was revealed during 2006 and Roma were one of the teams not involved; after punishments were handed out Roma was re-classified as runners-up for 2005–06; the same season in which they finished second in the Coppa Italia losing to Inter. In the two following seasons Roma finished as Serie A runners-up, meaning that in the 2000s Roma have finished in the top two positions more than any other decade in their history. Meanwhile in the UEFA Champions League during both of these seasons they reached the quarter-finals before going out to Manchester United after being thrashed 3-8 on aggregate. Despite the sloppy start in UEFA Champions League 2008–09, Roma managed to reach the knockout stage ahead of Chelsea in their group, thus finishing for the first time in their history as winners of the group stage. However, the Giallorossi would lose to Arsenal F.C in the knockout stage on penalty kicks, ending their Champions League campaign. Presidential history Roma have had numerous presidents over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners of the club, others have been honorary presidents. Franco Sensi was the chairman until his death in 2008, with his daughter Rosella Sensi in place as honorary president. Here is a complete list of Roma presidents from 1927 until the present day. NameYearsItalo Foschi1927–1928Renato Sacerdoti1928–1934Vittorio Scialoja1934–1936Igino Bettini1936–1941Edgardo Bazzini1941–1943Pietro Baldassarre1943–1949Pier Carlo Restagno1949–1952Romolo Vaselli1952Pier Carlo RestagnoRenato Sacerdoti1952–1953Renato Sacerdoti1953–1958Anacleto Gianni1958–1962 NameYearsFrancesco Marini-Dettina1962–1965Franco Evangelisti1965–1968Francesco Ranucci1968–1969Alvaro Marchini1969–1971Gaetano Anzalone1971–1979Dino Viola1979–1991Flora Viola1991Giuseppe Ciarrapico1991–1993Ciro Di Martino1993Franco Sensi1993–2008Rosella Sensi2008– Managerial history Roma have had many managers and trainers running the team during their history, here is a chronological list of them from 1927 onwards. NameNationalityYearsWilliam Garbutt1927–1929Guido Baccani1929–1930Herbert Burgess1930–1932Lászlo Barr1932–1933Lajos Kovács1933–1934Luigi Barbesino1934–1938Guido Ara1938–1939Alfréd Schaffer1939–1942Géza Kertész1942–1943Guido Masetti1943–1945Giovanni Degni1945–1947Imre Senkey1947–1948Luigi Brunella1948–1949Fulvio Bernardini1949–1950Adolfo Baloncieri1950Pietro Serantoni1950Guido Masetti1950–1951Giuseppe Viani1951–1953Mario Varglien1953–1954Jesse Carver1954–1956György Sarosi1956Guido Masetti1956–1957Alec Stock1957–1958Gunnar Nordahl1958–1959György Sarosi1959–1960Alfredo Foni1960–1961Luis Carniglia1961–1963Naim Kryeziu1963Alfredo Foni1963–1964 NameNationalityYearsLuis Miró1964–1965Juan Carlos Lorenzo1965–1966Oronzo Pugliese1966–1968Helenio Herrera1968–1970Luciano Tessari1970Helenio Herrera1971–1972Tonino Trebiciani1972–1973Nils Liedholm1974–1977Gustavo Giagnoni1978–1979Ferruccio Valcareggi1979–1980Nils Liedholm1980–1984Sven-Göran Eriksson1984–1986Angelo Sormani1986–1988Nils Liedholm1988Luciano Spinosi1988–1989Gigi Radice1989–1990Ottavio Bianchi1990–1992Vujadin Boškov1992–1993Carlo Mazzone1993–1996Carlos Bianchi1996Nils Liedholm1996Ezio Sella1996Zdeněk Zeman1997–1999Fabio Capello1999–2004Cesare Prandelli2004Rudi Völler2004Luigi Del Neri2004–2005Bruno Conti2005Luciano Spalletti2005–present Players Current squad As of March 6, 2009 For all transfers events pertaining to Roma for the current season, please see: A.S. Roma 2008-09 Out on loan Non-playing staff Retired numbers 6 – Aldair, centre back, 1990–2003 Notable players Club statistics and records Francesco Totti holds Roma's official appearance record, having made 496 (as of March 2008) appearances in all competitions, over the course of 15 seasons from 1992 until the present day. He also holds the record for Serie A appearances with 388, as he passed Giacomo Losi on March 1, 2008, during a home match against Parma. Including all competitions, Francesco Totti is the all-time leading goalscorer for Roma, with 188 goals since joining the club, 151 of which were scored in Serie A (another Roma record). Roberto Pruzzo, who was the all-time topscorer since 1988 comes in second in all competitions with 136. In the 1930–31 season, Rodolfo Volk scored 29 goals in Serie A over the course of a single season, not only was he the league's topscorer that year, but he set a Roma record for most goals scored in a season, which still lasts today. The first ever official game participated in by Roma was in the Italian Football Championship of 1928–29, the predecessor of Serie A, against Livorno; Roma won 2–0. The biggest ever victory recorded by Roma was 9–0 against Cremonese during the Serie A season of 1929–30. The highest defeat Roma have ever suffered is 7–1, this has happened three times; first against Juventus during 1931–32, then against Torino in 1947–48 and most recently against Manchester United in 2006–07. Colours, badge and nicknames Roma's colours of maroon red with a golden yellow trim represents the traditional colours of the Eternal City, the official seal of the comuni features the same colours. The gold symbolizes God in Roman Catholicism, while the maroon represents imperial dignity. White shorts and black socks are usually worn with the maroon red shirt, however in particularly high key games the shorts and socks are the same colour as the home shirt. The kit itself was originally worn by Roman Football Club; one of the three clubs who merged to form the current incarnation in 1927. Because of the colours they wear, Roma are often nicknamed i giallorossi meaning the yellow-reds. Roma's away kit is traditionally white, with a third kit changing colour from time to time. Maybe because of modern sport marketing, the last few years have seen the golden trim and details substituted by light orange. Modern alternate kits have included all orange and orange-maroon versions. A popular nickname for the club is i lupi (the wolves), the animal has always featured on the club's badge in different forms throughout their history. Currently the emblem of the team is the one which was used when the club was first founded. It portrays the female wolf with the two infant brothers Romulus and Remus, illustrating the myth of the creation of Rome, superimposed on a bipartite golden yellow over maroon red shield. In the myth from which the club take their nickname and logo, the twins (sons of Mars and Rhea Silvia) are thrown into the River Tiber by their uncle Amulius, a she-wolf saved the twins and looked after them. Eventually the two twins took revenge on Amulius, before falling out themselves; Romulus killed Remus and as thus was made king of a new city named in his honour, Rome. Shirt sponsors and manufacturers PeriodKit manufacturerShirt sponsor 1970–1971LacosteNone1972–1976None1977–1979Adidas1979–1980Pouchain1980–1981Playground1981–1982Barilla (Pasta)1982–1983Patrick1983–1986Kappa1986–1991NR1991–1994Adidas1994–1995AsicsNuova Tirrena (Insurance)1995–1997INA Assitalia (Insurance)1997–2000Diadora2000–2002Kappa2002–2003Mazda (Automobile)2003–2005Diadora2005–2006Banca Italease (Banking Group)2006–2007None2007–KappaWIND (Telecommunication) Supporters and rivalries Roma are the fifth most supported football club in Italy behind Juventus, Internazionale, Milan and Napoli with around 6% of Italian football fans supporting the club (according to the Doxa Institute-L'Expresso’s research of April 2006). Historically the largest section of Roma supporters in the city of Rome have come from the inner-city and south parts, which is the working-class area of the city, especially Testaccio. The traditional ultras group of the club was Commando Ultrà Curva Sud commonly abbreviated as CUCS; this group was founded by the merger of many smallers groups and was considered one of the most historic in the history of European football. However, by the mid-1990s CUCS had been usurped by rival factions and ultimately broke up. Since that time, the Curva Sud of the Stadio Olimpico has been controlled by more right-wing groups; A.S. Roma Ultras, Boys, Giovinezza and others. The oldest group Fedayn is apolitical however and politics is not the raison d'être of Roma, just a part of their overall identity. The club anthem and motto is La Roma non si discute, si ama by local singer Antonello Venditti. The title roughly means "Roma is not to be questioned, it is to be loved" and is sung before each match, the song Grazie Roma, by the same singer, is played at the end of victorious home games. Recently, the main riff of The White Stripes song Seven Nation Army has also become widely popular at games. In Italian football Roma are a club with many rivalries; first and foremost is their rivalry with Lazio, the club who they share the Stadio Olimpico stadium with. The derby between the two is called the Derby della Capitale, it is amongst the most heated and emotional footballing rivalries in the world. The fixture has seen some occasional instances of violence in the past including the death of Lazio fan, Vincenzo Paparelli in 1979–80 as a result of an emergency flare fired from the Curva Sud, and the abandonment of a game in 2003, following unfounded rumours of a fatality which led to violence outside the stadium. With Napoli, Roma also compete in the Derby del Sole rivalry meaning the "Derby of the Sun"; the two cities are within close proximity to each other and the two clubs are the most successful in Central and Southern Italy. The fans also consider Juventus, Milan and Internazionale amongst their rivals. Conflict with English fans There have been a number of instances of conflict in recent years between some Roma supporters and fans of English clubs, pointing to an apparent dislike for English fans in some Giallorossi supporters. One reason forwarded for this is the 1984 defeat to Liverpool in the European Cup Final at the Stadio Olimpico, and the subsequent violence outside the stadium which saw a number of Liverpool fans stabbed. Since then, there have been further instances of some English supporters being attacked and stabbed in Rome, including incidents in 2001 when Liverpool visited Roma twice and subsequent clashes with Middlesbrough fans in 2006 and Manchester United fans in 2007. In March 2009, a coach carrying Arsenal supporters was attacked by a group of Roma "Ultras" just outside the Stadio Olimpico. The coach's windows were smashed and at least one person entered the vehicle, letting off a flare and "allegedly" stabbing a supporter in the knee. Arsenal had posted advice to their fans on how to avoid routes taken by Roma Ultras. Honours National titles Serie A: Champions (3): 1941–42; 1982–83; 2000–01 Runners-up (11) 1930–31; 1935–36; 1954–55; 1980–81; 1983–84; 1985–86; 2001–02; 2003–04; 2005–06; 2006–07; 2007–08 Coppa Italia: Winners (9): 1963–64; 1968–69; 1979–80; 1980–81; 1983–84; 1985–86; 1990–91; 2006–07; 2007–08 Runners-up (6): 1936–37; 1940–41; 1992–93; 2002–03; 2004–05; 2005–06 Supercoppa Italiana: Winners (2): 2001; 2007 Runners-up (3): 1991; 2006; 2008; Serie B: Winners (1): 1951–52 European titles European Cup / UEFA Champions League: Runners-up (1): 1983–84 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup: Winners (1): 1960–61 UEFA Cup: Runners-up (1): 1990–91 Anglo-Italian Cup: Winners (1): 1971–72 Anglo-Italian League Cup: Runners-up (1): 1969 Youth titles Campionato Nazionale Primavera: Winner (6): 1972–73; 1973–74; 1977–78; 1983–84; 1989–90; 2004–05 Coppa Italia Primavera: Winner (3): 1973–74; 1974–75; 1993–94 Torneo di Viareggio: Winner (3): 1981; 1983; 1991 Runners-up (7): 1950; 1957; 1978; 1985; 1989; 1992; 2007 Associazione Sportiva Roma as a company Since 1999, during Franco Sensi's period in charge, Associazione Sportiva Roma has been a joint stock company. Currently Roma's shares are distributed between; 67.1% to Compagnia Italpetroli SpA (the Sensi family holding), 2.7% to Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena SpA, 2.5% to Danilo Coppola and 27.7% to other shareholders. Along with Lazio and Juventus, i Lupi'' is one of only three Italian clubs quotated in Borsa Italiana (Italian stock exchange). According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in the season 2005–06, Roma was the twelfth highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €127 million. In April 2008, after months of speculation, George Soros was confirmed by Rosella Sensi, CEO of Italian Serie A association football club A.S. Roma, to be bidding for a takeover. The takeover bid was successively rejected by the Sensi family, who instead preferred to maintain the club's ownership. On August 17, 2008 club chairman and owner Franco Sensi died after a long illness; his place at the chairmanship of the club was successively taken by his daughter Rosella. References External links Official Site be-x-old:АС Рома | A.S._Roma |@lemmatized associazione:4 sportiva:4 rom:61 commonly:2 refer:1 simply:1 italian:14 professional:1 football:12 club:41 rome:6 found:4 merger:5 participate:2 top:5 tier:1 existence:1 bar:1 one:12 season:22 early:4 row:2 compete:3 serie:19 win:15 three:5 time:14 first:12 well:2 nine:1 coppa:14 italia:14 trophy:5 european:8 stage:4 inter:4 city:12 fair:3 cup:17 come:4 close:3 success:2 finishing:3 runner:20 uefa:6 home:4 game:6 play:5 stadio:6 olimpico:5 stadium:5 share:3 rival:4 lazio:5 capacity:1 second:7 large:4 kind:1 italy:6 san:1 siro:1 able:3 seat:1 holder:1 history:12 summer:1 italo:1 foschi:1 initiate:1 old:3 championship:4 roman:6 alba:1 audace:1 fortitudo:1 purpose:1 want:1 fascist:1 dictator:1 benito:1 mussolini:1 give:1 eternal:2 strong:1 dominant:1 northern:1 major:1 resist:1 already:1 establish:1 sport:2 society:1 motovelodromo:1 appio:1 settle:1 work:2 class:2 street:1 testaccio:3 build:1 wooden:1 ground:1 campo:1 open:1 november:1 make:3 mark:1 finish:15 behind:3 juventus:8 captain:2 attilio:1 ferraris:1 along:2 guido:1 masetti:1 fulvio:1 bernardini:1 rodolfo:2 volk:2 highly:1 important:2 player:10 period:6 title:14 victory:7 decline:2 slump:1 league:14 form:5 departure:1 high:6 key:2 eventually:4 rebuild:1 squad:2 add:2 goalscorers:1 argentine:1 enrique:1 guaita:1 management:2 luigi:1 barbesino:1 point:4 champion:6 bologna:1 return:3 inconsistent:1 much:3 late:1 record:11 unexpected:1 triumph:1 ever:6 scudetto:3 eighteen:1 goal:5 score:4 local:2 amedeo:1 amadei:1 essential:1 alfréd:1 schaffer:1 coach:3 roma:10 side:1 involve:3 world:3 war:2 ii:1 del:3 partito:1 nazionale:2 fascista:1 year:7 unable:2 recapture:1 stature:1 low:1 half:3 five:1 succumb:1 relegation:1 b:2 end:6 around:2 decade:6 future:1 national:2 team:4 manager:3 giuseppe:1 viani:1 promotion:1 straight:1 back:2 achieve:3 manage:3 stabilise:1 egisto:1 pandolfini:1 dino:1 da:1 costa:1 dane:1 helge:1 bronée:1 best:2 englishman:1 jesse:1 carver:1 udinese:1 originally:2 relegate:1 corruption:1 although:1 break:3 four:1 following:4 measure:1 honour:3 outside:4 beat:5 birmingham:1 final:8 later:1 torino:4 small:1 like:1 system:1 giacomo:2 losi:2 set:3 appearance:6 competition:4 would:6 last:4 mixed:1 fortune:1 another:3 collection:1 blackpool:1 anglo:3 sporadic:1 place:4 third:4 notable:2 turn:1 include:6 midfielders:1 giancarlo:1 de:1 sisti:1 francesco:4 rocca:1 dawning:1 newly:1 successful:3 era:1 footballing:2 bring:1 penalty:3 reach:3 height:1 touch:1 since:6 narrowly:1 controversially:1 former:1 milan:5 nil:1 liedholm:1 prominent:1 bruno:1 conti:1 agostino:1 di:4 bartolomei:1 roberto:2 pruzzo:3 falcão:1 elude:1 long:2 amidst:1 joyous:1 celebration:1 capital:1 collect:1 also:5 liverpool:4 draw:1 lose:6 shoot:1 run:2 spot:1 sampdoria:2 comparative:1 begin:1 start:4 internazionale:3 seventh:1 supercoppa:2 italiana:3 aside:1 rest:1 largely:1 sub:1 par:1 especially:2 could:1 fourth:1 new:2 millennium:1 great:1 style:1 day:3 parma:2 edge:1 two:8 totti:3 reason:2 become:2 main:2 hero:1 go:2 several:1 aldair:2 cafu:1 gabriel:1 batistuta:1 vincenzo:2 montella:1 attempt:1 defend:1 many:4 scandal:1 reveal:1 punishment:1 hand:1 classify:1 follow:2 mean:4 position:1 meanwhile:1 quarter:1 manchester:3 united:2 thrash:1 aggregate:1 despite:1 sloppy:1 knockout:2 ahead:1 chelsea:1 group:9 thus:2 winner:9 however:4 giallorossi:3 arsenal:3 f:1 c:1 kick:1 campaign:1 presidential:1 numerous:1 president:4 course:3 owner:2 others:2 honorary:2 franco:3 sensi:7 chairman:2 death:2 daughter:2 rosella:3 complete:1 list:2 present:3 nameyearsitalo:1 carlo:2 restagnorenato:1 nameyearsfrancesco:1 marini:1 managerial:1 trainer:1 chronological:1 onwards:1 namenationalityyearswilliam:1 namenationalityyearsluis:1 carlos:1 göran:1 current:3 march:4 transfer:1 event:1 pertain:1 please:1 see:3 loan:1 non:2 staff:1 retire:1 number:3 centre:1 statistic:1 hold:3 official:4 pass:1 match:2 leading:1 goalscorer:1 join:1 topscorer:2 single:1 still:1 today:1 predecessor:1 livorno:1 big:1 cremonese:1 defeat:2 suffer:1 happen:1 recently:2 unite:1 colour:7 badge:2 nicknames:1 maroon:5 red:4 golden:3 yellow:3 trim:2 represent:2 traditional:2 seal:1 comuni:1 feature:2 gold:1 symbolize:1 god:1 catholicism:1 imperial:1 dignity:1 white:3 short:2 black:1 sock:2 usually:1 wear:3 shirt:3 particularly:1 kit:4 merge:1 incarnation:1 often:1 nickname:3 away:1 traditionally:1 change:1 maybe:1 modern:2 marketing:1 detail:1 substitute:1 light:1 orange:3 alternate:1 version:1 popular:2 lupi:2 wolf:3 animal:1 always:1 different:1 throughout:1 currently:2 emblem:1 use:1 portray:1 female:1 infant:1 brother:1 romulus:2 remus:2 illustrate:1 myth:2 creation:1 superimpose:1 bipartite:1 shield:1 take:4 logo:1 twin:3 son:1 mar:1 rhea:1 silvia:1 throw:1 river:1 tiber:1 uncle:1 amulius:2 save:1 look:1 revenge:1 fall:1 kill:1 king:1 name:1 sponsor:2 manufacturer:1 periodkit:1 manufacturershirt:1 pasta:1 tirrena:1 insurance:2 assitalia:1 automobile:1 italease:1 bank:1 kappawind:1 telecommunication:1 supporter:7 rivalry:5 fifth:1 supported:1 napoli:2 fan:10 support:1 accord:2 doxa:1 institute:1 l:1 expresso:1 research:1 april:2 historically:1 section:1 inner:1 south:1 part:2 area:1 ultras:4 commando:1 ultrà:1 curva:3 sud:3 abbreviate:1 cucs:2 smallers:1 consider:2 historic:1 mid:1 usurp:1 faction:1 ultimately:1 control:1 right:1 wing:1 boy:1 giovinezza:1 fedayn:1 apolitical:1 politics:1 raison:1 être:1 overall:1 identity:1 anthem:1 motto:1 la:1 si:2 discute:1 ama:1 singer:2 antonello:1 venditti:1 roughly:1 question:1 love:1 sing:1 song:2 grazie:1 victorious:1 riff:1 stripe:1 seven:1 nation:1 army:1 widely:1 foremost:1 derby:4 call:1 della:1 capitale:1 amongst:2 heated:1 emotional:1 fixture:1 occasional:1 instance:3 violence:3 past:1 paparelli:1 result:1 emergency:1 flare:2 fire:1 abandonment:1 unfounded:1 rumour:1 fatality:1 lead:1 sole:1 sun:1 within:1 proximity:1 central:1 southern:1 conflict:2 english:4 recent:1 apparent:1 dislike:1 forward:1 subsequent:2 saw:1 stab:3 attack:2 incident:1 visit:1 twice:1 clash:1 middlesbrough:1 carry:1 window:1 smash:1 least:1 person:1 enter:1 vehicle:1 let:1 allegedly:1 knee:1 post:1 advice:1 avoid:1 route:1 youth:1 campionato:1 primavera:2 torneo:1 viareggio:1 company:2 charge:1 joint:1 stock:2 distribute:1 compagnia:1 italpetroli:1 spa:2 family:2 banca:1 monte:1 dei:1 paschi:1 siena:1 danilo:1 coppola:1 shareholder:1 quotated:1 borsa:1 exchange:1 money:1 publish:1 consultant:1 deloitte:1 twelfth:1 earn:1 estimated:1 revenue:1 million:1 month:1 speculation:1 george:1 soros:1 confirm:1 ceo:1 association:1 bid:2 takeover:2 successively:2 reject:1 instead:1 prefer:1 maintain:1 ownership:1 august:1 die:1 illness:1 chairmanship:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 x:1 ас:1 рома:1 |@bigram coppa_italia:14 italia_trophy:4 cup_uefa:2 uefa_cup:3 stadio_olimpico:5 san_siro:1 fascist_dictator:1 dictator_benito:1 benito_mussolini:1 relegation_serie:1 uefa_champion:3 leading_goalscorer:1 manchester_unite:1 roman_catholicism:1 romulus_remus:1 curva_sud:3 raison_être:1 derby_della:1 stock_exchange:1 george_soros:1 takeover_bid:1 external_link:1 |
988 | Stab-in-the-back_myth | The Stab-in-the-Back Legend (German: , literally "Dagger stab legend") refers to a social theory popular in Germany in the period after World War I and before World War II, which attributed Germany's losing the war not to military defeat on the battlefield, but to the public's failure to respond to its "patriotic calling" at the most crucial of times, and to intentional sabotaging of the war effort, particularly by Jews, Socialists and Bolsheviks. The legend echoes the epic poem Nibelungenlied in which the dragon-slaying hero Siegfried is stabbed in the back by Hagen von Tronje. Der Dolchstoß is cited as an important factor in Adolf Hitler's later rise to power, as the Nazi Party grew its original political base largely from embittered World War I veterans, and those who were sympathetic to the Dolchstoß interpretation of Germany's then-recent history. Motivation Views of the war, Spirit of 1914 The outbreak of World War I in 1914 appeared to erase many of the political divisions that had existed in German Imperial society previously; jubilant crowds of all social, political and religious groups gathered to hear the news of the War and a strong wave of euphoria known to historians as the Spirit of 1914 took hold in the midst of public celebration. National pride showed its potential as a force of cohesion and there was a belief in a new age; but there was general ignorance of the horrors of war which resulted in the expectation of a quick and relatively bloodless victory. Many were under the impression that the Triple Entente had ushered in the war, and as such saw the war as one in which Germany's cause was morally justified. Imperial Russia was seen to have expansionist, Pan-Slavic ambitions and France's dissatisfaction due to the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War was widely known. Later, many were shocked to learn that Great Britain had declared war on Germany; the Germans felt that Britain was using the Belgian neutrality issue to enter the war and neutralise a Germany that was threatening its own foreign imperial commercial interests. As the war dragged on, illusions of an easy victory were smashed, and Germans began to suffer tremendously from what would become a long and enormously costly war. With the initial euphoria gone, old divisions resurfaced. Nationalist loyalties came into question once again as initial enthusiasms subsided. Subsequently, suspicion of Catholics, Social Democrats and especially of Jews grew. There was a considerable amount of political tension prior to the War, aided by the growing presence of Social Democrats in the Reichstag. This was a great concern for aristocrats in power and the military; this contingent was particularly successful in denying Erich Ludendorff the funds for the German Army that he claimed were necessary. Judenzählung On November 1, 1916, the German Military High Command administered the Judenzählung (German for "Jewish Census"). It was designed to explore allegations of the lack of patriotism among German Jews, but the results of the census disproved the accusations and were not made public. "Deutsche Jüdische Soldaten” Bavarian National Exhibition "In October 1916, when almost three thousand Jews had already died on the battlefield and more than seven thousand had been decorated, War Minister Wild von Hohenborn saw fit to sanction the growing prejudices. He ordered a "Jew census" in the army to determine the actual number of Jews on the front lines as opposed to those serving in the rear. Ignoring protests in the Reichstag and the press, he proceeded with his head count. The results were not made public, ostensibly to "spare Jewish feelings." The truth was that the census disproved the accusations: 80 percent served on the front lines." (Elon, Amos (2002): The Pity of It All. Metropolitan Books. p.338. Jews, in fact, enlisted at a higher percentage than non-Jews, served in combat units at a higher percentage, and died at a higher percentage. The Judenzählung has since served as an example of how researchers must accept the results of their work even if the results do not support the researchers' hypothesis. A number of German Jews viewed the Great War as an opportunity to prove their commitment to the German homeland. Civil unrest and allegations of profiteering Those who were profiting from the war were also subject to criticism. Krupp, the steel manufacturer company, actively marketed and sold arms to potential combatants, playing one against the other — an extremely profitable practice. Individual interests took precedence in other sectors. As administrators intervened in the wartime economy by introducing price ceilings and other measures, producers often responded by switching goods, which created shortages. This led to great tensions between the cities and the countryside and, more importantly, exacerbated hardships and bred discord. By 1917, labour strikes had become common across Germany, and the industrial workers who took part in these events were also looked upon with scorn. By 1917, there were roughly five hundred strikes across Germany, resulting in over 2,000,000 total work days lost. Civil disorder grew as a result of increased poverty. While it is true that production slumped during the crucial years of 1917 and 1918, the nation had maximized its war effort. Despite its overwhelming individual power, Germany's industrial might and population were matched by the Entente as a whole. Russia's exit in late 1917 did little to change the overall picture, as the United States had already joined the War on April 6 of that same year. U.S. industrial capacity alone outweighed that of Germany. Allied propaganda In his memoirs, Erich Ludendorff consistently points out that the Hohenzollern leadership failed to acknowledge the power of Allied propaganda and conduct a successful campaign of its own. British and U.S. presses were particularly successful with their leaflet and tabloid campaign. With their help, the view that the German autocracy was an exporter of "Prussian militarism" and also guilty of crimes against humanity even resonated within German society. After Russia's February Revolution, all members of the Entente had nominally democratic governments. The claimed contrast between the "free world" that wanted peace versus the "barbaric" autocratic-led Germany that supposedly wanted war became a frequent theme. Although the Germans were frequently depicted as being responsible for the war, German peace proposals were consistently ignored. Ludendorff was convinced that the Entente wanted little other than a Carthaginian peace. This was not the message most Germans heard coming from the other side. Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points were particularly popular among the German people. Socialists and liberals, especially the Social Democrats that formed the majority of the parliamentary body, were already known as advocates of social change prior to 1914. When peace and full restoration were promised by the Allies, patriotic enthusiasm began to wane. Likewise, Germany's allies began to question the cause for the war, and found their questions answered in the Allied propaganda. When the Armistice finally came in 1918, Ludendorff's prophecy appeared accurate almost immediately; although the fighting had ended, the British maintained their blockade of the European continent for a full year, causing severe malnutrition and mass starvation throughout Germany. Upwards of 1,000,000 people died from British blockade after the peace was made. This coincided with the gutting of the German military leaving no hope for a physical response. The non-negotiable peace agreed to by Weimar politicians in the Treaty of Versailles was certainly not what the German peace-seeking populace had expected. The Treaty of Versailles As a result of the Treaty, Germany's territory was reduced by about 13%, the Rhineland was demilitarized and Allied troops occupied several areas. There were also enormous war reparations to be paid over a period of 70 years, although they ended in 1931. The most important aspect of the Treaty relating to the Dolchstoßlegende was the War Guilt Clause, which forced Germany to accept complete responsibility for the hostilities and the Treaty was enormously unpopular in Germany. The Dolchstoßlegende was the accepted antithesis of the War Guilt Clause, as the latter was in stark contrast to what the population found to be factual. Post-war reactions and reflections "12,000 Jewish soldiers died on the field of honor for the fatherland." A leaflet published in 1920 by German Jewish veterans in response to accusations of the lack of patriotism Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders began to speak critically about the peace and Weimar politicians, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion due to presumed extra-national loyalties. It was claimed that they had not supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies. These November Criminals, or those who seemed to benefit from the newly formed Weimar Republic, were seen to have "stabbed them in the back" on the home front, by either criticizing German nationalism, instigating unrest and strikes in the critical military industries or profiteering. In essence the accusation was that the accused committed treason against the "benevolent and righteous" common cause. These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still in French and Belgian territory, Berlin remained 450 miles from the nearest front, and the German armies retired from the field of battle in good order. The Allies had been amply resupplied by the United States, which also had fresh armies ready for combat, but Britain and France were too war-weary to contemplate an invasion of Germany with its unknown consequences. On the Western Front, no Allied army had penetrated the western German frontier, and on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia, concluded with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In the West, Germany had come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive. Contributing to the Dolchstoßlegende, its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers without an adequate supply of materiel. The strikes were seen to be instigated by treasonous elements, with the Jews taking most of the blame . This overlooked Germany's strategic position and ignored how the efforts of individuals were somewhat marginalized on the front, since the belligerents were engaged in a new kind of war. The industrialization of war had dehumanized the process, and made possible a new kind of defeat which the Germans suffered as a total war emerged. The weakness of Germany's strategic position was exacerbated by the rapid collapse of other central powers in late 1918, following Allied victories on the Eastern and Italian fronts. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice on September 29 1918 at Saloniki. On October 30 the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Mudros. On November 3 Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice. The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria-Hungary was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on November 3. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy. Nevertheless, the idea of domestic betrayal resonated among its audience, and its claims would provide some basis for public support for the emerging National Socialist Party, under an autocratic form of nationalism. Anti Jewish sentiment was intensified by the Bavarian Soviet Republic, a Communist government which ruled the city of Munich for two weeks before being crushed by the Freikorps militia. Many of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, allowing counter Jewish propagandists to connect Jews with Communism (and thus treason). Origins In the latter part of the War, Germany was practically a military dictatorship, with the Supreme High Command (German: OHL, "Oberste Heeresleitung") and General Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg as commander-in-chief advising the Kaiser. After the last German offensive on the Western Front failed in 1918, the war effort was doomed. In response, OHL arranged for a rapid change to a civilian government. General Ludendorff, Germany's Chief of Staff, said: I have asked His Excellency to now bring those circles to power which we have to thank for coming so far. We will therefore now bring those gentlemen into the ministries. They can now make the peace which has to be made. They can eat the broth which they have prepared for us! On November 11, 1918, the representatives of the newly formed Weimar Republic signed an armistice with the Allies which would end World War I. The subsequent Treaty of Versailles led to further territorial and financial losses. As the Kaiser had been forced to abdicate and the military relinquished executive power, it was the temporary "civilian government" that sued for peace - the signature on the document was of Matthias Erzberger, a civilian, who was later murdered for his alleged treason; this led to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. The official birth of the term "stab-in-the back" itself possibly can be dated to mid-1919, when Ludendorff was having lunch with British general Sir Neil Malcolm. Malcolm asked Ludendorff why it was that he thought Germany lost the war. Ludendorff replied with his list of excuses: the home front failed us, etc. Then Sir Neil Malcolm said that "it sounds like you were stabbed in the back, then?" The phrase was to Ludendorff's liking, and he let it be known among the general staff that this was the 'official' version, then disseminated throughout German society. This was picked up by right-wing political factions and used as a form of attack against the SPD-led early Weimar government, which had come to power in the German Revolution of November 1918. In November 1919, the newly elected Weimar National Assembly initiated a Untersuchungsausschuß für Schuldfragen to investigate the causes of the World War and Germany's defeat. On November 18th, von Hindenburg testified in front of this parliamentary commission, and cited a December 17, 1918 Neue Zürcher Zeitung article that summarized two earlier articles in the Daily Mail by British General Frederick Barton Maurice with the phrase that the German army had been 'dagger-stabbed from behind by the civilian populace' ("von der Zivilbevölkerung von hinten erdolcht."). (Maurice later disavowed having used the term himself.). It was particularly this testimony of Hindenburg that led to the wide spread of the Dolchstoßlegende in post-WWI Germany. Richard Steigmann-Gall says that the stab-in-the-back legend traces back to a sermon preached on February 3, 1918, by Protestant Court Chaplain Bruno Doehring, six months before the war had even ended. Richard Steigmann–Gall, The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) p. 16 German scholar Boris Barth, in contrast to Steigmann-Gall, implies that Doehring did not actually use the term, but spoke only of 'betrayal.' Boris Barth, Dolchstosslegenden und politische Disintegration: Das Trauma der deutschen Niederlage im Ersten Weltkrieg, 1914-1933 (Düsseldorf: Droste, 2003), 167 and 340f. Barth says Doehring was an army chaplain, not a court chaplain. The following references to Barth are on pages 148 (Müller-Meiningen), and 324 (NZZ article, with a discussion of the Ludendorff-Malcolm conversation). Barth traces the first documented use to a centrist political meeting in the Munich Löwenbräu-Keller on November 2, 1918, in which Ernst Müller-Meiningen, a member of the Progressive coalition in the Reichstag, used the term to exhort his listeners to keep fighting: As long as the front holds, we damned well have the duty to hold out in the homeland. We would have to be ashamed of ourselves in front of our children and grandchildren if we attacked the battle front from the rear and gave it a dagger-stab. (wenn wir der Front in den Rücken fielen und ihr den Dolchstoss versetzten.) Barth also shows that the term was primarily popularized by the patriotic German newspaper Deutsche Tageszeitung that repeatedly quoted the Neue Zürcher article after Hindenburg had referred to it in front of the parliamentary inquiry commission. Charges of a Jewish conspirational element in Germany's defeat drew heavily upon figures like Kurt Eisner, a Berlin-born German Jew who lived in Munich. He had written about the illegal nature of the war from 1916 onward, and he also had a large hand in the Munich revolution until he was assassinated in February 1919. The Weimar Republic under Friedrich Ebert violently suppressed workers' uprisings with the help of Gustav Noske and Reichswehr General Groener, and tolerated the paramilitary Freikorps forming all across Germany. In spite of such tolerance, the Republic's legitimacy was constantly attacked with claims such as the stab-in-the-back. Many of its representatives such as Matthias Erzberger and Walther Rathenau were assassinated, and the leaders were branded as "criminals" and Jews by the right-wing press dominated by Alfred Hugenberg. German historian Friedrich Meinecke already attempted to trace the roots of the term in a June 11, 1922, article in the Viennese newspaper Neue Freie Presse. In the 1924 national election, the Munich cultural journal Süddeutsche Monatshefte published a series of articles blaming the SPD and trade unions for Germany's defeat in World War I, which came out during the trial of Adolf Hitler and Ludendorff for high treason following the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. The editor of an SPD newspaper sued the journal for defamation, giving rise to what is known as the Munich Dolchstossprozess from October 19 to November 20, 1924. Many prominent figures testified in that trial, including members of the parliamentary committee investigating the reasons for the defeat, so some of its results were made public long before the publication of the committee report in 1928. The Dolchstoß was a central image in propaganda produced by the many right-wing and traditionally conservative political parties that sprang up in the early days of the Weimar Republic, including Hitler's NSDAP. For Hitler himself, this explanatory model for World War I was of crucial personal importance. He had learned of Germany's defeat while being treated for temporary blindness following a gas attack on the front. In Mein Kampf, he described a vision at this time which drove him to enter politics. Throughout his career, he railed against the "November criminals" of 1918, who had stabbed the German Army in the back. Even provisional President Friedrich Ebert contributed to the myth when he saluted returning veterans with the oration that "no enemy has vanquished you" (kein Feind hat euch überwunden!) and "they returned undefeated from the battlefield (sie sind vom Schlachtfeld unbesiegt zurückgekehrt)" on November 10, 1918. The latter quote was shortened to im Felde unbesiegt as a semi-official slogan of the Reichswehr. Ebert had meant these sayings as a tribute to the German soldier, but it only contributed to the prevailing feeling. Use in American context In June 2006, in an article published in Harper's Magazine, journalist Kevin Baker extended the use of the phrase and applied it to the right-wing in politics in the United States: Baker claims that the American right-wing has invoked the stab-in-the-back myth on numerous occasions, most recently in the War in Iraq, but also notably at the end of the Vietnam War as well, when a homefront betrayal by the anti-war movement and their sympathizers in the mass media was frequently blamed for the U.S. losing the will to win the war. See also Defeatism Interwar period Anti-Semitism Weimar Republic Adolf Hitler National socialism References Bibliography Joseph A. Fry, Debating Vietnam: Fulbright, Stennis, and Their Senate Hearings. Rowman & Littlefield: 2006 Pp. 74–75. Baker, Kevin "Stabbed in the Back! The past and future of a right-wing myth" Harper's Magazine, June 2006 Chickering, Rodger, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 2004 Feldman, Gerald D., Die Massenbewegungen der Arbeiterschaft in Deutschland am Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges 1917-1920 Politische Vierteljahrschrift: 1972 Fleming, Thomas J., The New Dealers' War: FDR and the War Within World War II New York, Basic Books: 2001 "OSS Psychological Profile of Hitler, Part Five" Schivelbusch,Wolfgang (trans. Jefferson Chase), The Culture of Defeat: On National Trauma, Mourning, and Recovery. New York, Picador: 2001 Spielvogel, Jackson J., Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History. New Jersey, Prentice Hall: 2001 Steninger, Rolf, The German Question: The Stalin Note of 1952 and the Problem of Reunification. New York, Columbia University: 1990. ISBN 0-231-07216-3 Notes External links Antisemitism in Germany Post World War 1. The Florida Holocaust Museum Die Judischen Gefallenen A Roll of Honor Commemorating the 12,000 German Jews Who Died for their Fatherland in World War I. Book review by Harold Marcuse, with 15 "stab-in-the-back" illustrations, 1918-1942 | Stab-in-the-back_myth |@lemmatized stab:13 back:12 legend:4 german:36 literally:1 dagger:3 refers:1 social:6 theory:2 popular:2 germany:35 period:3 world:12 war:55 ii:2 attribute:1 lose:4 military:8 defeat:8 battlefield:3 public:6 failure:2 respond:2 patriotic:3 call:1 crucial:3 time:2 intentional:1 sabotaging:1 effort:4 particularly:5 jew:15 socialist:4 bolshevik:1 echo:1 epic:1 poem:1 nibelungenlied:1 dragon:1 slaying:1 hero:1 siegfried:1 hagen:1 von:6 tronje:1 der:5 dolchstoß:3 cite:2 important:2 factor:1 adolf:3 hitler:7 later:4 rise:2 power:8 nazi:3 party:3 grow:5 original:1 political:7 base:1 largely:1 embittered:1 veteran:3 sympathetic:1 interpretation:1 recent:1 history:2 motivation:1 view:4 spirit:2 outbreak:1 appear:2 erase:1 many:7 division:2 exist:1 imperial:4 society:3 previously:1 jubilant:1 crowd:1 religious:1 group:1 gather:1 hear:2 news:1 strong:1 wave:1 euphoria:2 know:5 historian:2 take:4 hold:3 midst:1 celebration:1 national:8 pride:1 show:2 potential:2 force:3 cohesion:1 belief:1 new:8 age:1 general:7 ignorance:1 horror:1 result:9 expectation:1 quick:1 relatively:1 bloodless:1 victory:3 impression:1 triple:1 entente:4 usher:1 saw:2 one:2 cause:5 morally:1 justify:1 russia:4 see:4 expansionist:1 pan:1 slavic:1 ambition:1 france:2 dissatisfaction:1 due:2 outcome:1 franco:1 prussian:2 widely:1 shock:1 learn:2 great:5 britain:3 declare:1 felt:1 use:8 belgian:2 neutrality:1 issue:1 enter:2 neutralise:1 threaten:1 foreign:1 commercial:1 interest:2 drag:1 illusion:1 easy:1 smash:1 begin:4 suffer:2 tremendously:1 would:4 become:3 long:3 enormously:2 costly:1 initial:2 go:1 old:1 resurface:1 nationalist:2 loyalty:2 come:7 question:4 enthusiasm:2 subside:1 subsequently:1 suspicion:2 catholic:1 democrat:3 especially:2 considerable:1 amount:1 tension:2 prior:2 aid:1 presence:1 reichstag:3 concern:1 aristocrat:1 contingent:1 successful:3 deny:1 erich:2 ludendorff:11 fund:1 army:9 claim:5 necessary:1 judenzählung:3 november:13 high:6 command:2 administer:1 jewish:8 census:4 design:1 explore:1 allegation:2 lack:2 patriotism:2 among:4 disprove:2 accusation:4 make:7 deutsche:2 jüdische:1 soldaten:1 bavarian:3 exhibition:1 october:3 almost:2 three:1 thousand:2 already:5 die:7 seven:1 decorate:1 minister:1 wild:1 hohenborn:1 fit:1 sanction:1 prejudice:1 order:2 determine:1 actual:1 number:2 front:17 line:2 oppose:1 serve:4 rear:2 ignore:3 protest:1 press:5 proceed:1 head:1 count:1 ostensibly:1 spare:1 feeling:2 truth:1 percent:1 elon:1 amos:1 pity:1 metropolitan:1 book:3 p:2 fact:2 enlist:1 percentage:3 non:2 combat:2 unit:1 since:2 example:1 researcher:2 must:1 accept:3 work:2 even:4 support:3 hypothesis:1 opportunity:1 prove:1 commitment:1 homeland:2 civil:2 unrest:2 profiteer:2 profit:1 also:9 subject:1 criticism:1 krupp:1 steel:1 manufacturer:1 company:1 actively:1 market:1 sell:2 arm:2 combatant:1 play:2 extremely:1 profitable:1 practice:1 individual:3 precedence:1 sector:1 administrator:1 intervene:1 wartime:1 economy:1 introduce:1 price:1 ceiling:1 measure:1 producer:1 often:1 switch:1 good:2 create:1 shortage:1 lead:6 city:2 countryside:1 importantly:1 exacerbate:2 hardship:1 breed:1 discord:1 labour:1 strike:5 common:2 across:3 industrial:3 worker:2 part:3 event:1 look:1 upon:2 scorn:1 roughly:1 five:2 hundred:1 total:2 day:2 disorder:1 increased:1 poverty:1 true:1 production:1 slump:1 year:4 nation:1 maximize:1 despite:1 overwhelm:1 might:1 population:2 match:1 whole:1 exit:1 late:2 little:2 change:3 overall:1 picture:1 united:3 state:3 join:1 april:1 u:5 capacity:1 alone:1 outweigh:1 allied:6 propaganda:4 memoir:1 consistently:2 point:2 hohenzollern:1 leadership:1 fail:3 acknowledge:1 conduct:1 campaign:2 british:5 leaflet:2 tabloid:1 help:2 autocracy:1 exporter:1 militarism:1 guilty:1 crime:1 humanity:1 resonate:2 within:2 february:3 revolution:3 member:3 nominally:1 democratic:1 government:5 claimed:1 contrast:3 free:1 want:3 peace:10 versus:1 barbaric:1 autocratic:2 supposedly:1 frequent:1 theme:1 although:3 frequently:2 depict:1 responsible:1 proposal:1 convince:1 carthaginian:1 message:1 side:1 woodrow:1 wilson:1 fourteen:1 people:2 liberal:1 form:6 majority:1 parliamentary:4 body:1 advocate:1 full:2 restoration:1 promise:1 ally:5 wane:1 likewise:1 find:2 answer:1 armistice:6 finally:1 prophecy:1 accurate:1 immediately:1 fighting:2 end:5 maintain:1 blockade:2 european:1 continent:1 severe:1 malnutrition:1 mass:2 starvation:1 throughout:3 upwards:1 coincide:1 gutting:1 leave:2 hope:1 physical:1 response:3 negotiable:1 agree:1 weimar:9 politician:2 treaty:8 versailles:4 certainly:1 seek:1 populace:2 expect:1 territory:2 reduce:1 rhineland:1 demilitarize:1 troop:1 occupy:1 several:1 area:1 enormous:1 reparation:1 pay:1 aspect:1 relate:1 dolchstoßlegende:4 guilt:2 clause:2 complete:1 responsibility:1 hostility:1 unpopular:1 accepted:1 antithesis:1 latter:3 stark:1 factual:1 post:3 reaction:1 reflection:1 soldier:3 field:3 honor:2 fatherland:2 publish:3 conservative:2 ex:1 leader:3 speak:2 critically:1 communist:2 presume:1 extra:1 role:1 enemy:2 criminal:3 seem:1 benefit:1 newly:3 republic:8 home:2 either:1 criticizing:1 nationalism:2 instigate:2 critical:2 industry:2 essence:1 accuse:1 committed:1 treason:4 benevolent:1 righteous:1 give:3 credence:1 surrender:1 still:1 french:1 berlin:2 remain:1 mile:1 near:2 retire:1 battle:2 amply:1 resupplied:1 fresh:1 ready:1 weary:1 contemplate:1 invasion:1 unknown:1 consequence:1 western:3 penetrate:1 frontier:1 eastern:2 win:3 conclude:1 brest:1 litovsk:1 west:1 close:1 spring:2 offensive:3 contribute:3 blame:4 moment:1 without:1 adequate:1 supply:1 materiel:1 treasonous:1 element:2 overlook:1 strategic:2 position:2 somewhat:1 marginalize:1 belligerent:1 engage:1 kind:2 industrialization:1 dehumanize:1 process:1 possible:1 emerge:2 weakness:1 rapid:2 collapse:1 central:2 follow:4 italian:1 bulgaria:1 first:2 sign:4 september:1 saloniki:1 ottoman:1 empire:1 capitulate:1 mudros:1 austria:3 hungary:3 send:1 flag:1 truce:1 ask:3 term:7 arrange:2 telegraph:1 authority:1 paris:1 communicate:1 austrian:1 commander:2 villa:1 giusti:1 padua:1 separate:1 overthrow:1 habsburg:1 monarchy:1 nevertheless:1 idea:1 domestic:1 betrayal:3 audience:1 provide:1 basis:1 anti:3 sentiment:1 intensify:1 soviet:2 rule:1 munich:6 two:2 week:1 crush:1 freikorps:2 militia:1 allow:1 counter:1 propagandist:1 connect:1 communism:1 thus:1 origins:1 practically:1 dictatorship:1 supreme:1 ohl:2 oberste:1 heeresleitung:1 marshal:1 paul:1 hindenburg:4 chief:2 advise:1 kaiser:2 last:1 doom:1 civilian:4 staff:2 say:4 excellency:1 bring:2 circle:1 thank:1 far:2 therefore:1 gentleman:1 ministry:1 eat:1 broth:1 prepare:1 representative:2 subsequent:1 territorial:1 financial:1 loss:1 abdicate:1 relinquish:1 executive:1 temporary:2 sue:2 signature:1 document:2 matthias:2 erzberger:2 murder:1 alleged:1 signing:1 official:3 birth:1 possibly:1 date:1 mid:1 lunch:1 sir:2 neil:2 malcolm:4 think:1 reply:1 list:1 excuse:1 etc:1 sound:1 like:2 phrase:3 liking:1 let:1 version:1 disseminate:1 pick:1 right:6 wing:6 faction:1 attack:4 spd:3 early:3 elect:1 assembly:1 initiate:1 untersuchungsausschuß:1 für:1 schuldfragen:1 investigate:2 testify:2 commission:2 december:1 neue:3 zürcher:2 zeitung:1 article:7 summarize:1 daily:1 mail:1 frederick:1 barton:1 maurice:2 stabbed:1 behind:1 zivilbevölkerung:1 hinten:1 erdolcht:1 disavow:1 testimony:1 wide:1 spread:1 wwi:1 richard:2 steigmann:3 gall:3 trace:3 sermon:1 preach:1 protestant:1 court:2 chaplain:3 bruno:1 doehring:3 six:1 month:1 holy:1 reich:1 conception:1 christianity:1 cambridge:4 university:3 scholar:1 boris:2 barth:6 imply:1 actually:1 dolchstosslegenden:1 und:2 politische:2 disintegration:1 da:1 trauma:2 deutschen:1 niederlage:1 im:2 ersten:2 weltkrieg:1 düsseldorf:1 droste:1 following:1 reference:2 page:1 müller:2 meiningen:2 nzz:1 discussion:1 conversation:1 centrist:1 meeting:1 löwenbräu:1 keller:1 ernst:1 progressive:1 coalition:1 exhort:1 listener:1 keep:1 damn:1 well:2 duty:1 ashamed:1 child:1 grandchild:1 wenn:1 wir:1 den:2 rücken:1 fielen:1 ihr:1 dolchstoss:1 versetzten:1 primarily:1 popularize:1 newspaper:3 tageszeitung:1 repeatedly:1 quote:2 refer:1 inquiry:1 charge:1 conspirational:1 draw:1 heavily:1 figure:2 kurt:1 eisner:1 born:1 live:1 write:1 illegal:1 nature:1 onward:1 large:1 hand:1 assassinate:2 friedrich:3 ebert:3 violently:1 suppress:1 uprising:1 gustav:1 noske:1 reichswehr:2 groener:1 tolerate:1 paramilitary:1 spite:1 tolerance:1 legitimacy:1 constantly:1 walther:1 rathenau:1 brand:1 dominate:1 alfred:1 hugenberg:1 meinecke:1 attempt:1 root:1 june:3 viennese:1 freie:1 presse:1 election:1 cultural:1 journal:2 süddeutsche:1 monatshefte:1 series:1 trade:1 union:1 trial:2 beer:1 hall:2 putsch:1 editor:1 defamation:1 dolchstossprozess:1 prominent:1 include:2 committee:2 reason:1 publication:1 report:1 image:1 produce:1 traditionally:1 nsdap:1 explanatory:1 model:1 personal:1 importance:1 treat:1 blindness:1 gas:1 mein:1 kampf:1 describe:1 vision:1 drive:1 politics:2 career:1 rail:1 provisional:1 president:1 myth:3 salute:1 return:2 oration:1 vanquish:1 kein:1 feind:1 hat:1 euch:1 überwunden:1 undefeated:1 sie:1 sind:1 vom:1 schlachtfeld:1 unbesiegt:2 zurückgekehrt:1 shorten:1 felde:1 semi:1 slogan:1 mean:1 saying:1 tribute:1 prevail:1 american:2 context:1 harper:2 magazine:2 journalist:1 kevin:2 baker:3 extend:1 apply:1 invoke:1 numerous:1 occasion:1 recently:1 iraq:1 notably:1 vietnam:2 homefront:1 movement:1 sympathizer:1 medium:1 defeatism:1 interwar:1 semitism:1 socialism:1 bibliography:1 joseph:1 fry:1 debate:1 fulbright:1 stennis:1 senate:1 hearing:1 rowman:1 littlefield:1 pp:1 past:1 future:1 chickering:1 rodger:1 feldman:1 gerald:1 massenbewegungen:1 arbeiterschaft:1 deutschland:1 ende:1 de:1 weltkrieges:1 vierteljahrschrift:1 fleming:1 thomas:1 j:2 dealer:1 fdr:1 york:3 basic:1 os:1 psychological:1 profile:1 schivelbusch:1 wolfgang:1 trans:1 jefferson:1 chase:1 culture:1 mourning:1 recovery:1 picador:1 spielvogel:1 jackson:1 jersey:1 prentice:1 steninger:1 rolf:1 stalin:1 note:2 problem:1 reunification:1 columbia:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 antisemitism:1 florida:1 holocaust:1 museum:1 judischen:1 gefallenen:1 roll:1 commemorate:1 review:1 harold:1 marcuse:1 illustration:1 |@bigram adolf_hitler:3 triple_entente:1 franco_prussian:1 erich_ludendorff:2 woodrow_wilson:1 severe_malnutrition:1 non_negotiable:1 treaty_versailles:4 stark_contrast:1 weimar_republic:5 treaty_brest:1 brest_litovsk:1 ottoman_empire:1 austria_hungary:3 habsburg_monarchy:1 von_hindenburg:2 commander_chief:1 chief_staff:1 neue_zürcher:2 zürcher_zeitung:1 sermon_preach:1 der_deutschen:1 friedrich_ebert:2 violently_suppress:1 hall_putsch:1 mein_kampf:1 interwar_period:1 anti_semitism:1 rowman_littlefield:1 prentice_hall:1 external_link:1 |
989 | Herbert_Hoover | Herbert Hoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was the 31st President of the United States (1929–1933). Besides his political career, Hoover was a professional mining engineer and author. As the United States Secretary of Commerce in the 1920s under Presidents Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge, he promoted government intervention under the rubric "economic modernization". In the presidential election of 1928 Hoover easily won the Republican nomination despite having no previous elected office experience. To date, Hoover was the last cabinet secretary to be directly elected President of the United States. The nation was prosperous and optimistic at the time, leading to a landslide for Hoover over Democrat Al Smith. Hoover deeply believed in the Efficiency Movement (a major component of the Progressive Era), arguing that a technical solution existed for every social and economic problem. That position was challenged by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 that took place less than 8 months after Hoover's taking office, and the Great Depression that followed it which gained momentum in 1930. Hoover tried to combat the Depression with volunteer efforts and government action, none of which produced economic recovery during his term. The consensus among historians is that Hoover's defeat in the 1932 election was caused primarily by failure to end the downward spiral into deep Depression, compounded by popular opposition to prohibition. Other electoral liabilities were Hoover's lack of charisma in relating to voters, and his poor skills in working with politicians. As a result of these factors, Hoover is typically ranked very poorly among former U.S. presidents. Family background and early life Hoover was born on August 10, 1874 in the town of West Branch, Iowa. He was the first president to be born west of the Mississippi, and remains the only Iowan president. His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner, of German (Pfautz, Wehmeyer) and German-Swiss (Huber, Burkhart) descent. His mother, Hulda (Minthorn) Hoover, was of English and Irish (probably Scots-Irish) descent. Both were Quakers. His father died in 1880, and his mother in 1884, leaving Hoover an orphan at the age of 9. After a brief stay with one of his grandmother's home in Kingsley, Iowa, Herbert lived for the next 18 months with his uncle Allen Hoover in West Branch. In November 1885, he went to live in Newberg, Oregon with his uncle John Minthorn, whose own son had died the year before. For two and a half years, Herbert attended Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University), then subsequently worked as office boy in his uncle's real estate office in Salem. Though he did not attend high school, the young Hoover attended night school and learned bookkeeping, typing, and math. Herbert Hoover: Chronology, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum, Accessed November 30, 2006. Hoover entered Stanford University in 1891, the first year of the New California College. None of the first students were required to pay tuition. Hoover claimed to be the first student ever at Stanford, by virtue of having been the first person in the first class to sleep in the dormitory. Dave Revsine, One-sided numbers dominate Saturday's rivalry games, ESPN.com, November 30, 2006. While at the university, he was the student manager of both the baseball and football teams, and was a part of the inaugural Big Game versus rival California (Stanford won). Hoover graduated in 1895 with a degree in geology. Mining engineer Hoover went to Australia in 1897 as an employee of Bewick, Moreing & Co., a London-based mining company. He served as a geologist/mining engineer, leading a major program of expansion for the Sons of Gwalia gold mine at Gwalia, Western Australia. Hoover worked at gold mines in Big Bell, Cue, Leonora, Menzies and Coolgardie. Cue heritage trail Leonora Gwalia Historical Museum His former house in Gwalia is now a historical tourist attraction, and as of 2004, a bed and breakfast inn. Hoover is profiled as a mining pioneer in the Kalgoorlie Miners Hall of Fame, where his biography oddly fails to mention his subsequent role as U.S. President. Hoover married his Stanford sweetheart, Lou Henry, in 1899. They went to China, where Hoover worked for a private corporation as China's leading engineer. Hoover and his wife picked up Mandarin Chinese while he worked in China and used it during his tenure at the White House when they didn't want to be overheard. http://www.eng-i.com/articleherberthoover.htm The Boxer Rebellion trapped the Hoovers in Tianjin in June 1900. For almost a month the settlement was under heavy fire. The Hoovers had two sons, Herbert Clark (1903–1969) and Allan Henry (1907–1993). Hoover himself guided international troops through Tientsin during the battle, due to his extensive knowledge of the bad terrain. Hoover was made a partner in Bewick, Moreing & Co. in 1901, and assumed responsibility for various Australian operations. In August–September 1905, Hoover achieved a technological innovation. When visiting the mines at Broken Hill, New South Wales, he noticed considerable zinc in the Broken Hill lead-silver ore, which could not be recovered and was lost as tailings. Hoover devised a practical and profitable method to use the then-new froth flotation process to treat these tailings and recover the zinc. David Burner (1984) Herbert Hoover: a Public Life, New York: Atheneum, p.24-43 With William Baillieu and others, he founded the Zinc Corporation (later, following various mergers, a part of Rio Tinto Group). Hoover also became notable as a mine manager when, in Western Australia, he recruited Italian immigrants as underground mine workers. Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2005, "Hoover's Gold" He described Italians as "fully 20 per cent superior" to other miners. Hoover was determined to cut costs and undermine the growing strength of the Australian labor movement. To this end, he said, "the rivalry between [the Italians] and the other men [was] of no small benefit." In 1908, he became an independent mining consultant, traveling worldwide until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. His lectures at Columbia and Stanford universities were published as Principles of Mining in 1909, which became a standard textbook. Hoover and his wife also published their English translation of the 1556 mining classic De re metallica in 1912. This translation from the Latin of Renaissance author Georgius Agricola is still the most important scholarly version and provides its historical context. De Re Metallica, translated by Herbert and Lou Hoover It is still in print and published by Dover Publications. Humanitarian When World War I started in August 1914, he helped organize the return of 120,000 Americans from Europe: tourists, students, businessmen, and others. Hoover led five hundred volunteers to distribute food, clothing, steamship tickets, and cash. "I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life." Hoover liked to say that the difference between dictatorship and democracy was simple: dictators organize from the top down, democracies from the bottom up. An aged former President Hoover seated (left) with Secretary of Health Arthur Flemming at Ohio Wesleyan University. Belgium faced a food crisis in fall 1914 after being invaded by Germany. Hoover undertook an unprecedented relief effort with the Committee for Relief in Belgium (CRB). The official chairman was Emile Francqui, but Hoover was the real head of operations. The CRB became, in effect, an independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills, and railroads. Private donations and government grants supplied an $11-million-a-month budget. For the next two years, Hoover worked 14-hour days from London, administering the distribution of over two and half million tons of food to nine million war victims. In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea forty times to meet with German authorities and persuade them to allow food shipments. He was an international hero. The Belgian city of Leuven named a prominent square Hooverplein after him. After the United States entered the war in April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover head of the U.S. Food Administration. Hoover believed "food will win the war." He established set days to encourage people to avoid eating particular foods in order to save them for soldiers' rations: meatless Mondays, wheatless Wednesdays, and "when in doubt, eat potatoes." This program helped reduce consumption of foodstuffs needed overseas and avoided rationing at home. It was dubbed "Hooverizing" by government publicists, in spite of Hoover's continual orders that publicity should not mention him by name. After the war, as a member of the Supreme Economic Council and head of the American Relief Administration, Hoover organized shipments of food for millions of starving people in Central Europe. He used a newly formed Quaker organization, the American Friends Service Committee, to carry out much of the logistical work in Europe. Hoover provided food aid to the post-war German people. He also got relief to famine-stricken Bolshevik-controlled areas in Russia in 1921, despite the opposition of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans. When asked if he was not thus helping Bolshevism, Hoover retorted, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!" At war's end, the New York Times named Hoover one of the "Ten Most Important Living Americans". Hoover confronted a world of political possibilities when he returned home in 1919. Democratic Party leaders looked on him as a potential candidate for President. (President Wilson privately preferred Hoover as his successor.) "There could not be a finer one," asserted Franklin D. Roosevelt, then a rising star from New York. Hoover briefly considered becoming a Democrat. But he believed that 1920 would be a Republican year, and didn't want to join a losing team. Also, Hoover confessed that he could not run for a party whose only member in his boyhood home had been the town drunk. Hoover realized that he was in a unique position to collect information about the Great War and its aftermath. In 1919, he established the Hoover War Collection at Stanford University. He donated all the files of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, the U.S. Food Administration, and the American Relief Administration, and pledged $50,000 as an endowment. Scholars were sent to Europe to collect pamphlets, society publications, government documents, newspapers, posters, proclamations, and other ephemeral materials related to the war and the revolutions that followed it. The collection was later renamed the Hoover War Library and is now known as the Hoover Institution. Secretary of Commerce In this 1926 photo, William P. McCracken, assistant secretary of commerce for civil aviation, is shown with Secretary Hoover (center) and assistant secretary of commerce Walter Drake. Hoover rejected Democratic overtures in 1920. He had been a registered Republican before the war, though in 1912 he had supported Theodore Roosevelt's "Bull Moose" Progressive Party. Now he declared himself a Republican, and a candidate for the Presidency. He placed his name on the ballot in the California state primary, where he came close to beating popular Senator Hiram Johnson. But having lost in his home state, Hoover was only a dark horse contender at the convention. Even when it deadlocked for several ballots between Illinois Governor Frank Lowden and General Leonard Wood, few delegates seriously considered Hoover as a compromise choice. Although he had personal misgivings about the capability of the nominee, Warren G. Harding, Hoover publicly endorsed him, and made two speeches on Harding's behalf. After being elected, Harding rewarded Hoover for his support, offering to appoint him either Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Commerce. Hoover ultimately chose Commerce. Commerce had existed for just eight years, since the division of the earlier Department of Commerce and Labor. Commerce was considered a minor Cabinet post, with limited and somewhat vaguely defined responsibilities. But Hoover aimed to change that, envisioning the Commerce Department as the hub of the nation's growth and stability. He demanded from Harding, and received, authority to help coordinate economic affairs throughout the government. He created a great many sub-departments and committees, overseeing and regulating everything from manufacturing statistics, the census, and radio to air travel. In some instances, he "seized" control of responsibilities from other Cabinet departments when he deemed that they were not carrying out their responsibilities well enough. Hoover became one of the most visible men in the country, often overshadowing Presidents Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Washington wags were soon referring to Hoover as "the Secretary of Commerce... and Under-Secretary of Everything Else!" As secretary and later as President, Hoover revolutionized the relations between business and government. Rejecting the adversarial stance of Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson, he sought to make the Commerce Department a powerful service organization, empowered to forge cooperative voluntary partnerships between government and business. This philosophy is often called "associationalism." Many of Hoover's efforts as Commerce Secretary centered on the elimination of waste and the increase of efficiency in business and industry. This included reducing labor losses from trade disputes and seasonal fluctuations, reducing industrial losses from accident and injury, and reducing the amount of crude oil spilled during extraction and shipping. One major achievement was to promote progressive ideals in the areas of the standardization of products and designs. He energetically promoted international trade by opening offices overseas that gave advice and practical help to businessmen. Hoover was especially eager to promote Hollywood films overseas. Hart 1998 His "Own Your Own Home" campaign was a collaboration to promote ownership of single-family dwellings, with groups such as the Better Houses in America movement, the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, and the Home Modernizing Bureau. He worked with bankers and the savings and loan industry to promote the new long-term home mortgage, which dramatically stimulated home construction. Hutchison, Janet. "Building for Babbitt: the State and the Suburban Home Ideal" Journal of Policy History 1997 Hoover listening to the radio. It has been suggested that Herbert Hoover was the best Secretary of Commerce in United States history http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856478-2,00.html http://books.google.com/books?id=-pKj2JDXFOoC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=%22best+secretary+of+commerce%22&source=bl&ots=KXDB8w_LJW&sig=UruH5emMI5IqRDpq7y3zrtYEqgc&hl=en&ei=elPZSZPlO5vWlQeqt6XbDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4 . To date, Hoover was the last President to have held a full cabinet position. Radio conferences Hoover's radio conferences played a key role in the early organization, development and regulation of radio broadcasting. Hoover played a key role in major projects for navigation, irrigation of dry lands, electrical power, and flood control. As the new air transport industry developed, Hoover held a conference on aviation to promote codes and regulations. He became president of the American Child Health Organization, and he raised private funds to promote health education in schools and communities. Although he continued to consider Harding ill-suited to be President, the two men nevertheless became friends. Hoover accompanied Harding on his final trip out West in 1923. It was Hoover who called for a specialist to tend to the ailing Chief Executive, and it was also Hoover who contacted the White House to inform them of the President's death. The Commerce Secretary headed the group of dignitaries accompanying Harding's body back to the capital. By the end of Hoover's service as Secretary, he had raised the status of the Department of Commerce. This was reflected in its modern headquarters built during the Roosevelt Administration in the 1930s in the Federal Triangle in Washington D.C. Traffic conferences As Commerce secretary, Hoover also hosted two national conferences on street traffic, in 1924 and 1926 (a third convened in 1930, during Hoover's presidency). Collectively the meetings were called the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. Hoover's chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of traffic accidents, but the scope grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control. He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities. Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests. The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states, and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities. Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity between jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets. Peter D. Norton, Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City (MIT Press, 2008), 178-197 ISBN 0-262-14100-0. Mississippi flood The Great Mississippi River flood broke the banks and levees of the lower Mississippi River in early 1927, resulting in flooding of millions of acres and leaving thousands of people homeless. Although such a disaster did not fall under the duties of the Commerce Department, the governors of six states along the Mississippi specifically asked for Herbert Hoover in the emergency. President Calvin Coolidge sent Hoover to mobilize state and local authorities, militia, army engineers, Coast Guard, and the American Red Cross. With a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, Hoover set up health units to work in the flooded regions for a year. These workers stamped out malaria, pellagra, and typhoid fever from many areas. His work during the flood brought Herbert Hoover to the front page of newspapers almost everywhere, and he gained new accolades as a humanitarian. The great victory of his relief work, he stressed, was not that the government rushed in and provided all assistance. Rather, it was that much of the assistance available was provided instead by private citizens and organizations in response to Hoover's appeals. "I suppose I could have called in the Army to help," he said, "but why should I, when I only had to call upon Main Street." His reputation as a humanitarian from this endeavor was endangered by the inhumane treatment of African-Americans during the disaster. Knowing the potential ramifications on his presidential aspirations if such knowledge became public (and having no desire to help the afflicted African-Americans), Hoover struck a deal with Robert Moton, the prominent African-American successor to Booker T. Washington as president of the Tuskegee Institute. In exchange for keeping the suffering of African-Americans out of the public eye, Hoover promised unprecedented influence for African-Americans after he would be elected president. Moton agreed, and consistent with the accommodationist philosophy of Washington, worked actively to suppress information about mistreatment of blacks from being revealed to the media. Following election, Hoover broke his promises. This led to an African-American backlash in the 1932 election that shifted allegiance from the Republican party (the party of Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation) to the Democrats. Presidential election of 1928 Republican primaries When Calvin Coolidge declined to run for a second full term of office in 1927, Herbert Hoover became the leading Republican candidate for the 1928 election, despite the fact Coolidge was lukewarm on Hoover (Coolidge often derided his ambitious and popular Commerce Secretary as "Wonder Boy"). His only real challenger was Frank Lowden. Hoover received much favorable press coverage in the months leading up to the convention. Lowden's campaign manager complained the newspapers were full of "nothing but advertisements for Herbert Hoover and Fletcher's Castoria." Hoover’s reputation, experience, and popularity coalesced to give him the nomination on the first ballot, with Senator Charles Curtis named as his running mate. General election He campaigned on the basis of efficiency and prosperity against Democratic candidate Alfred E. Smith. Smith was the target of anti-Catholicism from some Protestant communities, much to Hoover's advantage. Both Hoover and Smith positioned themselves as pro-business, and each promised to improve conditions for farmers, reform immigration laws, and maintain America's isolationist foreign policy. Where they differed was on the Volstead Act. Smith was a "wet" who called for its repeal, whereas Hoover gave public support for Prohibition, calling it an experiment "noble in purpose." The Hoover-Curtis ticket also appeared on the California ballot as the Prohibition Party's candidates in the 1928 presidential election. What few voters knew, however, was Hoover was lukewarm in his support for Volstead in private, and for years after work at the Commerce Department would stop by the Belgian Embassy for a visit with friends. While there, as it was technically foreign soil, he was able to enjoy an alcoholic drink before heading for home. Hoover used to grumble that all Prohibition successfully did was to force him to dispose of his celebrated wine cellar. Prohibition provided a means for Hoover's supporters to attack the Democratic candidate Al Smith. This was because the major attacks on Smith relied upon his being a Catholic. Because the First Amendment guarantees freedom of religion these attacks were frowned upon politically. Being labeled as an "anti-Prohibitionist drunkard" was allowed politically. Hoover also relied on the support of the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the Anti-Saloon League to bolster prohibition. Historians agree Hoover's national reputation and the booming economy, combined with the deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and Prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory of 58% of the vote. Hoover managed to crack the so-called "Solid South," winning such traditionally Democratic states as Florida, North Carolina, Virginia, Texas and Tennessee from Smith. As advertising executive Bruce Barton put it, "Americans knew they may have more fun with Smith, but that they would make more money with Hoover." Herbert Hoover's wife, Lou Henry Hoover, came to the White House, unlike her predecessors as First Ladies. She had already carved out a reputation of her own, having graduated from Stanford as the only woman in her class with a degree in geology. Although she had never practiced her profession formally, she remained very much a new woman of the post-World War I era: intelligent, robust, and possessed of a sense of female possibilities. On poverty, Hoover promised: "We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land." Within months, the Stock Market Crash of 1929 occurred, and the nation's economy spiraled downward into what became known as the Great Depression. Presidency 1929-1933 Hoover held a press conference for reporters on his first day in office, promising a "new phase of press relations." He told the group to elect a committee of journalists, who could recommend improvements to the White House press conference. Hoover declined to use a spokesman, instead asking reporters to directly quote him and giving them handouts with his statements ahead of time. In his first 120 days in office, he held more regular and frequent press conferences than any other President, before or since. He changed his press policies after the 1929 stock market crash, screening reporters and greatly reducing his availability. Hoover invented his own sport to keep fit while in the White House, a combination of volleyball and tennis which he played every morning. Policies After his successful election in November 1928, Hoover entered office with a plan for reform of the nation's regulatory system. A dedicated Progressive and Reformer, Hoover saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by regulation and by encouraging volunteerism. Long before he entered politics he denounced laissez-faire thinking. As Commerce Secretary he had taken an active pro-regulation stance. As President, he helped push tariff and farm subsidy bills through Congress. Hoover expanded civil service coverage of Federal positions, canceled private oil leases on government lands, and by instructing the Justice Department and the Internal Revenue Service to go after gangsters for tax evasion, he enabled the prosecution of gangster Al Capone. He appointed a commission which set aside 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of national parks and 2.3 million acres (9,000 km²) of national forests; advocated tax reduction for low-income Americans (not enacted); closed certain tax loopholes for the wealthy; doubled the number of veteran's hospital facilities; negotiated a treaty on St. Lawrence Seaway (which failed in the U.S. Senate); wrote a Children's Charter that advocated protection of every child regardless of race or gender; built the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge; created an antitrust division in the Justice Department; required air mail carriers to adopt stricter safety measures and improve service; proposed federal loans for urban slum clearances (not enacted); organized the Federal Bureau of Prisons; reorganized the Bureau of Indian Affairs; instituted prison reform; proposed a federal Department of Education (not enacted); advocated fifty-dollar-per-month pensions for Americans over 65 (not enacted); chaired White House conferences on child health, protection, homebuilding and homeownership; began construction of the Boulder Dam (later renamed Hoover Dam); and signed the Norris-La Guardia Act that limited judicial intervention in labor disputes. Hoover's humanitarian and Quaker reputation, along with a vice-president of partial Native American descent, gave special meaning to his Indian policies. His Quaker upbringing influenced his views that Native Americans needed to achieve economic self-sufficiency. As President, he appointed Charles J. Rhoads as commissioner of Indian affairs. Hoover supported Rhoads' commitment to Indian assimilation and sought to minimize the federal role in Indian affairs. His goal was to have Indians acting as individuals (not as tribes) and to assume the responsibilities of citizenship granted with the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924. Britten, Thomas A. "Hoover and the Indians: the Case for Continuity in Federal Indian Policy, 1900-1933" Historian 1999 61(3): 518-538. ISSN 0018-2370 On November 19, 1928, Hoover embarked on a seven-week goodwill tour of several Latin American nations to explain his economic and trade policies to other nations in the Western hemisphere. While in Argentina, he escaped an assassination attempt by Argentine anarchists led by Severino Di Giovanni, who attempted to blow up the railroad car in which he was traveling. Pigna, Felipe, Los Mitos de la Historia Argentina, ed. Planeta (2006), Chap. IV, p. 114 The plotters had an itinerary of Hoover's rail journey, complete with dates and times of arrival, but the bomber was arrested before he could place the explosives on the rails. Hoover himself never mentioned the incident, and his complimentary remarks on Argentina were well-received in both the host country and in the press. Time Magazine, Hoover Progress, December 24, 1928 In foreign relations, Hoover began formulating what would later become Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy following the 1930 release of the Clark Memorandum, by withdrawing American troops from Nicaragua and Haiti; he also proposed an arms embargo on Latin America and a one-third reduction of the world's naval power, which was called the Hoover Plan. The Roosevelt Corollary ceased being part of U.S. foreign policy. In response to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, he and Secretary of State Henry Stimson outlined the Hoover-Stimson Doctrine that said the United States would not recognize territories gained by force. During his presidency, Hoover mediated between Chile and Peru to solve a conflict on the sovereignty of Arica and Tacna that in 1883 by the Treaty of Ancón had been awarded to Chile for ten years, to be followed by a plebiscite that had never happened. By the Tacna-Arica compromise at the Treaty of Lima in 1929, Chile kept Arica, and Peru regained Tacna. Great Depression Hoover's stance on the economy was based largely on volunteerism. From before his entry to the presidency, he was a proponent of the concept that public-private cooperation was the way to achieve high long-term growth. Hoover feared that too much intervention or coercion by the government would destroy individuality and self-reliance, which he considered to be important American values. Both his ideals and the economy were put to the test with the onset of The Great Depression. At the outset of the Depression, Hoover claims in his memoirs that he rejected Treasury Secretary Mellon's suggested "leave-it-alone" approach. Critics, such as liberal economist Paul Krugman, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Conscience_of_a_Liberal http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/29/opinion/29krugman.html on the other hand, accuse Hoover of sharing Mellon's laissez-faire viewpoint. It is often inaccurately stated that Herbert Hoover did nothing while the world economy eroded. President Hoover made attempts to stop "the downward spiral" of the Great Depression. Robert Reich Interview http://www.duncanentertainment.com/interview_reich.php His policies, however, had little or no effect. As the economy quickly deteriorated in the early years of the Great Depression, Hoover declined to pursue legislative relief, believing that it would make people dependent on the federal government. Instead, he organized a number of voluntary measures with businesses, encouraged state and local government responses, and accelerated federal building projects. Only toward the end of his term did he support a series of legislative solutions. In 1929, President Hoover authorized the Mexican Repatriation program. To combat rampant unemployment, the burden on municipal aid services, and remove people seen as usurpers of American jobs, the program was largely a forced migration of an estimated 500,000 Mexicans and Mexican Americans to Mexico. The program continued through 1937. Congress approved the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act in 1930. The legislation, which raised tariffs on thousands of imported items, was signed into law by President Hoover in June 1930. The intent of the Act was to encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers. However, economic depression now spread through much of the world, and other nations increased tariffs on American-made goods in retaliation, reducing international trade, and worsening the Depression. "Smoot-Hawley Tariff", U.S. Department of State. In 1931, Hoover issued the Hoover Moratorium, calling for a one-year halt in reparation payments by Germany to France and in the payment of Allied war debts to the United States. The plan was met with much opposition, especially from France, who saw significant losses to Germany during World War I. The Moratorium did little to ease economic declines. As the moratorium neared its expiration the following year, an attempt to find a permanent solution was made at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. A working compromise was never established, and by the start of World War II, reparations had stopped completely. "Hoover Moratorium", u-s-History.com. "Lausanne Conference", u-s-History.com. President Hoover, in 1931, urged the major banks in the country to form a consortium known as the National Credit Corporation (NCC). "Reconstruction Finance Corporation", EH.net Encyclopedia. The NCC was an example of Hoover's belief in volunteerism as a mechanism in aiding the economy. Hoover encouraged NCC member banks to provide loans to smaller banks to prevent them from collapsing. The banks within the NCC were often reluctant to provide loans, usually requiring banks to provide their largest assets as collateral. It quickly became apparent that the NCC would be incapable of fixing the problems it was designed to solve, and it was abandoned in favor of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. By 1932, the Great Depression had spread across the globe. In the U.S., unemployment had reached 24.9%, "What Caused the Great Depression of the 1930's", Shambhala.com. a drought persisted in the agricultural heartland, businesses and families defaulted on record numbers of loans, and more than 5,000 banks had failed. "Great Depression in the United States", Microsoft Encarta. Tens-of-thousands of Americans found themselves homeless and they began congregating in the numerous Hoovervilles (also known as shanty towns or tent cities) that had begun to appear across the country. The name 'Hooverville' was coined by their residents as a sign of their disappointment and frustration with the perceived lack of assistance from the federal government. In response, President Hoover and Congress approved the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, to spur new home construction, and reduce foreclosures. The plan seemed to work, as foreclosures dropped, but it was seen as too little, too late. Prior to the start of the Depression, Hoover's first Treasury Secretary, Andrew Mellon, had proposed, and saw enacted, numerous tax cuts, which cut the top income tax rate from 73% to 24%. When combined with the sharp decline in incomes during the early depression, the result was a serious deficit in the federal budget. Congress, desperate to increase federal revenue, enacted the Revenue Act of 1932. The Act increased taxes across the board, and the percentage increased with income, to near pre-1928 levels for top income earners. It also implemented a 13.75% tax on corporations. The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to rescue the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act which included funds for public works programs and the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) in 1932. The RFC's initial goal was to provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads and farmers. The RFC had minimal impact at the time, but was adopted by Franklin Delano Roosevelt and greatly expanded as part of his New Deal. Economy To pay for these and other government programs, Hoover agreed to one of the largest tax increases in American history. The Revenue Act of 1932 raised income tax on the highest incomes from 25% to 63%. The estate tax was doubled and corporate taxes were raised by almost 15%. Also, a "check tax" was included that placed a 2-cent tax (over 30 cents in today's dollars) on all bank checks. Economists William D. Lastrapes and George Selgin, in The Check Tax: Fiscal Folly and The Great Monetary Contraction Journal of Economic History, 57(4), December 1997, 859-78; [ conclude that the check tax was "an important contributing factor to that period's severe monetary contraction." Hoover also encouraged Congress to investigate the New York Stock Exchange, and this pressure resulted in various reforms. National debt expressed as a fraction of gross national product climbs from 20% to 40% under Hoover; levels off under FDR; soars during World War II. From Historical Statistics US (1976) For this reason, years later libertarians argued that Hoover's economics were statist. Franklin D. Roosevelt blasted the Republican incumbent for spending and taxing too much, increasing national debt, raising tariffs and blocking trade, as well as placing millions on the dole of the government. Roosevelt attacked Hoover for "reckless and extravagant" spending, of thinking "that we ought to center control of everything in Washington as rapidly as possible," and of leading "the greatest spending administration in peacetime in all of history." Roosevelt's running mate, John Nance Garner, accused the Republican of "leading the country down the path of socialism". These policies pale beside the more drastic steps taken later as part of the New Deal. Hoover's opponents charge that his policies came too little, and too late, and did not work. Even as he asked Congress for legislation, he reiterated his view that while people must not suffer from hunger and cold, caring for them must be primarily a local and voluntary responsibility. Even so, New Dealer Rexford Tugwell 1930s Engineering, Andrew J. Dunar on PBS later remarked that although no one would say so at the time, "practically the whole New Deal was extrapolated from programs that Hoover started." 1932 campaign Hoover addresses a large crowd in his 1932 campaign. Although Hoover had come to detest the presidency, he agreed to run again in 1932, both as a matter of pride, but also because he feared that no other likely Republican candidate would deal with the depression without resorting to dangerously radical measures. Hoover was nominated by the Republicans for a second term. He had originally planned to make only one or two major speeches, and to leave the rest of the campaigning to proxies, but when polls showed the entire Republican ticket facing a resounding defeat at the polls, Hoover agreed to an expanded schedule of public addresses. In his nine major radio addresses Hoover primarily defended his administration and his philosophy. The apologetic approach did not allow Hoover to refute Franklin Roosevelt's charge that he was personally responsible for the depression. Carcasson, Martin. "Herbert Hoover and the Presidential Campaign of 1932: the Failure of Apologia" Presidential Studies Quarterly 1998 28(2): 349-365. In his campaigns around the country, Hoover was faced with perhaps the most hostile crowds any sitting president had ever faced. In addition to having his train and motorcades pelted with eggs and rotten fruit, he was often heckled while speaking, and on several occasions, the Secret Service halted attempts to kill Hoover by disgruntled citizens, including capturing one man nearing Hoover carrying sticks of dynamite, and another actually already having removed several spikes from the rails in front of the President's train. He lost the election by a huge margin, winning only six out of 48 states. Hoover suffered a large defeat at the election, obtaining 39.7% of the popular vote to Roosevelt's 57.4%. Hoover's popular vote was reduced by 26% from his result in the 1928 election. In the electoral college he carried only Pennsylvania, Delaware, and a handful of Northeast states and lost 59 - 472. The Democrats also extended their control over the U.S. House and gained control of the U.S. Senate. After the defeat, Hoover's attempts to reach out to Roosevelt to help calm investors and begin to resolve the economic problems facing the country were rebuffed; since Roosevelt was not inaugurated until March 1933, this "guaranteed that Roosevelt took the oath of office amid such an atmosphere of crisis that Hoover had become the most hated man in America." Bonus Army Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, D.C., during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of a bonus that had been promised by the Adjusted Service Certificate Law in 1924 for payment in 1945. Although offered money by Congress to return home, some members of the "Bonus army" remained. Washington police attempted to remove the demonstrators from their camp, but they were outnumbered and thereby unsuccessful. Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured. Hoover sent U.S. Army forces led by General Douglas MacArthur and helped by lower ranking officers Dwight D. Eisenhower and George S. Patton to stop a march. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. In the ensuing clash, hundreds of civilians were injured. Hoover had actually sent orders that the Army was to not move on the encampment, but MacArthur chose to ignore the command. Hoover was incensed, but refused to reprimand MacArthur. The entire incident was another devastating negative for Hoover in the 1932 election. That led New York governor and Democratic presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt to declare of Hoover: "There is nothing inside the man but jelly!" Administration and cabinet Hoover's official White House portrait painted by John Christen Johansen. OFFICENAMETERMPresidentHerbert Hoover1929–1933Vice PresidentCharles Curtis1929–1933Secretary of StateHenry L. Stimson1929–1933Secretary of the TreasuryAndrew Mellon1929–1932 Ogden L. Mills1932–1933Secretary of WarJames W. Good1929 Patrick J. Hurley1929–1933Attorney GeneralWilliam D. Mitchell1929–1933Postmaster GeneralWalter F. Brown1929–1933Secretary of the NavyCharles F. Adams1929–1933Secretary of the InteriorRay L. Wilbur1929–1933Secretary of AgricultureArthur M. Hyde1929–1933Secretary of CommerceRobert P. Lamont1929–1932 Roy D. Chapin1932–1933Secretary of LaborJames J. Davis1929–1930 William N. Doak1930–1933 Supreme Court appointments Hoover appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Eisler, a Justice for All, pages 39-40, ISBN 0-671-76787-9 Charles Evans Hughes (Chief Justice) – 1930 Owen Josephus Roberts – 1930 Benjamin Nathan Cardozo – 1932 Hoover broke party lines to appoint the Democrat Cardozo. He explained that he "was one of the ancient believers that the Supreme Court should have a strong minority of the opposition's party and that all appointments should be made from experienced jurists. When the vacancy came... [Hoover] canvassed all the possible Democratic jurists and immediately concluded that Justice Cardozo was the right man and appointed him." Eisler, a Justice for All, page 40, ISBN 0-671-76787-9 Post-presidency Hoover departed from Washington in March 1933 with some bitterness, disappointed both that he had been repudiated by the voters and unappreciated for his best efforts. The Hoovers went first to New York City, where they stayed for a while in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. Later that same spring, the Hoovers returned to California to live at their home in Palo Alto. Hoover's book, Fishing For Fun — And To Wash Your Soul Herbert Hoover liked to get behind the wheel of his car, accompanied only by his wife, or a friend (former Presidents did not get Secret Service protection until the 1960s), and drive for hundreds or thousands of miles on wandering journeys, visiting Western mining camps or small towns where he often went unrecognized, or heading up to the mountains, or deep into the woods, to go fishing in relative solitude. A year before his death, his own fishing days behind him, he published Fishing For Fun — And To Wash Your Soul, the last of his more than sixteen books. Although many of his friends and supporters called upon Hoover to speak out against Franklin Delano Roosevelt's (FDR) "New Deal" and to assume his place as the voice of the "loyal opposition", he refused to do so for many years after leaving the White House, and he largely kept himself out of the public spotlight until late in 1934. However, that did not stop rumors from springing up about him, often fanned by Democratic politicians who found the former President to be a convenient scapegoat. One rumor had it that he had attempted to flee the country in a yacht with $5 million in gold, another that the Federal Bureau of Investigation had arrested him and placed him in protective custody "for his own safety." The relationship between Hoover and Roosevelt was one of the most severely strained in Presidential history. While Hoover had little good to say about his successor, there was little he could do. FDR, however, supposedly could and did engage in various petty official acts aimed at his predecessor, ranging from dropping him from the White House birthday greetings message list to having Hoover's name struck from the Hoover Dam along the Colorado River border, which would officially be known only as Boulder Dam for many years to come. In 1936, Hoover entertained hopes of receiving the Republican presidential nomination once again, and thus facing Roosevelt in a rematch. However, although he retained strong support among some delegates, there was never much hope of his being selected. He publicly endorsed the nominee, Kansas Governor Alf Landon, although privately he worried that Landon was too willing to accept the New Deal policies. But Hoover might as well have been the nominee, since the Democrats virtually ignored Landon, and they ran against the former President himself, constantly attacking him in speeches and warning that a Landon victory would put Hoover back in the White House as the secret power "behind the throne". Roosevelt won 46 of the 48 states, burying Landon in the Electoral College, and the Republican Party in Congress in another landslide. Although Hoover's reputation was at its low point, circumstances would now begin to develop that would help rehabilitate his name and restore him to a position of prominence in the life of the nation. Roosevelt overreached on his Supreme Court packing plan, and a further financial recession in 1937 and 1938 tarnished his image of invincibility. By 1940, Hoover was again being spoken of as the possible nominee of the party. Although he trailed in the polls behind Thomas Dewey, Arthur Vandenberg, and his own former protege, Robert A. Taft, he still had considerable first-ballot delegate strength, and it was believed that if the convention deadlocked between the leading candidates, the party might turn to him as its compromise. However, the convention nominated the utility company president Wendell Willkie, who had supported Roosevelt in 1932 but turned against him after the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority forced him to sell his company. Hoover dutifully supported Willkie, although he despaired that the nominee endorsed a platform that, to Hoover, was little more than the New Deal in all but name. Following 1940, Hoover never again considered holding public office, even when the opportunity to return seemingly presented itself. The road to war and World War II With the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939, Hoover joined with the majority of Americans to declare for neutrality from the conflict. Like many, he initially believed that the Allies would be able to contain Hitler's Germany. When the Nazis overran France and then had Britain held in a stalemate, many Americans saw Britain as on the verge of collapse. Nonetheless, Hoover declared that it would be folly for the United States to declare war on Germany and to rush to save the United Kingdom. Rather, he held, it was far wiser for this nation to devote itself to building up its own defenses, and to wash its hands of the mess in Europe. He called for a "Fortress America" concept, in which the United States, protected on the East and on the West by vast oceans patrolled by its Navy and its Air Corps (the USAAF), could adequately repel any attack on the Americas. Hoover publicly opposed Roosevelt's peacetime draft of men, the Lend-Lease Program, and the "shoot on sight" command that FDR gave the U.S. Navy should it cross paths with any German U-boats in the shipping lanes between the United States and the U.K., viewing them all as threats to America's official neutrality. During a radio broadcast on June 29, 1941, one week after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, Hoover disparaged any "tacit alliance" between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. by saying: "If we go further and join the war and we win, then we have won for Stalin the grip of communism on Russia . . . Again I say, if we join the war and Stalin wins, we have aided him to impose more communism on Europe and the world. At least we could not with such a bedfellow say to our sons that by making the supreme sacrifice, they are restoring freedom to the world. War alongside Stalin to impose freedom is more than a travesty. It is a tragedy." Robinson, Edgar Eugene, "Hoover, Herbert Clark", Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 11 (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1973), pp. 676-7. Robinson was Margaret Byrne Professor Emeritus of American History, Stanford University. With the entry of the United States into the war on December 7, 1941, with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, Hoover swept aside all feelings of neutrality, and he called for total victory. He offered himself to the government in any capacity necessary, but the Roosevelt Administration did not call upon him to serve. Post-World War II President John F. Kennedy with former President Hoover. Based on Hoover's previous experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 President Harry S. Truman selected Hoover to tour Germany in order to ascertain the food status of the occupied nation. Hoover toured what was to become West Germany in Field Marshal Hermann Göring's old train coach and produced a number of reports sharply critical of U.S. occupation policy. The economy of Germany had "sunk to the lowest level in a hundred years." Michael R. Beschloss, The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945 (2002) pg.277 He stated in one report: "There is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state'. It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it." The Marshall Plan at 60: The General’s Successful War On Poverty . As the Cold War approached and deepened, Hoover expressed reservations about some of the activities of the American Friends Service Committee, which he previously had strongly supported. On Hoover’s initiative, a school meals program in the American and British occupation zones of Germany was begun on April 14, 1947. The program served 3.5 million children aged six through 18. A total of 40,000 tons of American food was provided during the Hooverspeisung (Hoover meals). In 1947, President Harry S. Truman appointed Hoover to a commission, which elected him chairman, to reorganize the executive departments. This became known as the Hoover Commission. He was appointed chairman of a similar commission by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953. Both found numerous inefficiencies and ways to reduce waste, but Hoover was disappointed that the government did not enact most of the recommendations that the commissions had made. In 1949, the New York State Governor Thomas E. Dewey offered Hoover a seat in the U.S. Senate, to fulfill an unexpired term, but Hoover declined it. Following WW II, Hoover became friends with President Harry S. Truman. Hoover joked that they were for many years the sole members of the "trade union" of former Presidents (since Calvin Coolidge and Roosevelt were dead already). Throughout the Cold War, Hoover, always an opponent of Marxism, became even more outspokenly anti-Communist. Despite his advancing years, he continued to work nearly full-time both on his writing (among his literary works is The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson, a bestseller, and the first time one former President had ever written a biography about another), as well as overseeing the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, which housed not only his own professional papers, but also those of a number of other former high ranking governmental and military servants. He also threw himself into fund-raising for the Boys Clubs (now the Boys & Girls Clubs of America), which became his pet charity. In 1960, he appeared at his final Republican National Convention. Since the 1948 convention, he had been feted as the guest of "farewell" ceremonies (the unspoken assumption being that the aging former President might not survive until the next convention). Joking to the delegates, he said, "Apparently, my last three good-byes didn't take." Although he lived to see the 1964 convention, ill health prevented him from attending. The Presidential nominee Barry Goldwater acknowledged Hoover's absence in his acceptance speech. Hoover died at the age of 90 in New York City at 11:35 a.m. on October 20, 1964, 31 years and seven months after leaving office. He had outlived by 20 years his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, who had died in 1944, and he was the last living member of both the Harding and Coolidge administrations. By the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image. His birthplace in Iowa, as well as a home he lived in as a child in Oregon, became National Landmarks during his lifetime. His Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he had donated to the government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah National Park. As of 2008, he had the longest retirement of any President. Hoover and his wife are buried at the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum in West Branch, Iowa. Hoover was honored with a state funeral, the last of three in a span of 12 months, coming as it did just after the deaths of President John F. Kennedy and General Douglas MacArthur. Heritage and memorials The Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum is the Presidential library of Herbert Hoover, the 31st President of the United States. Located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site, the library is one of twelve presidential libraries run by the National Archives and Records Administration. The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in 1919 in Palo Alto, California, is now the official residence of the president of Stanford University, and a National Historic Landmark. Hoover's rustic rural presidential retreat, Rapidan Camp (also known as Camp Hoover) in the Shenandoah National Park, Virginia, has recently been restored and opened to the public. The Hoover Dam was also firmly named in his honor, eventually. On December 10, 2008, Hoover's great-granddaughter Margaret Hoover and Senate of Puerto Rico President Kenneth McClintock unveiled a life-sized bronze statue of the 31st President of the United States at Puerto Rico's Territorial Capitol. The statue is one of seven honoring Presidents who have visited the United States territory during their term of office. One line in the All in the Family theme song — an ironic exercise in pre-New Deal nostalgia — says "Mister, we could use a man like Herbert Hoover again." Media Collection of video clips of the president See also United States presidential election, 1928 United States presidential election, 1932 Hoover-Minthorn House Hoover Institution Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum Hooverball - sport created by Hoover's physician, played nearly every morning of his presidency on the White House lawn Herbert Hoover National Historic Site Rapidan Camp - Hoover's presidential retreat and fishing camp in Virginia Hooverville Historical rankings of United States Presidents Notes Further reading Primary sources Myers, William Starr and Walter H. Newton, eds. The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative. 1936. Hawley, Ellis, ed. Herbert Hoover: Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President, 4 vols. (1974–1977) Hoover, Herbert Clark and Lou Henry Hoover, trans., De Re Metallica, by Agricola, G., The Mining magazine, London, 1912 De Re Metallica online version Hoover, Herbert C. The Challenge to Liberty, 1934 Hoover, Herbert C. Addresses Upon The American Road, 1933-1938, 1938 Hoover, Herbert C. Addresses Upon The American Road, 1940-41, (1941) Hoover, Herbert C. The Problems of Lasting Peace, with Hugh Gibson, 1942 Hoover, Herbert C. Addresses Upon The American Road, 1945-48, (1949) Hoover, Herbert C. Memoirs. New York, 1951–52. 3 vol; v. 1. Years of adventure, 1874–1920; v. 2. The Cabinet and the Presidency, 1920–1933; v. 3. The Great Depression, 1929–1941. Dwight M. Miller and Timothy Walch, eds; Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Documentary History. Greenwood Press. 1998. Secondary sources Biographies Best, Gary Dean. The Politics of American Individualism: Herbert Hoover in Transition, 1918-1921 (1975) Bornet, Vaughn Davis, An Uncommon President. In: Herbert Hoover Reassessed. (1981), pp. 71–88. Burner, David. Herbert Hoover: A Public Life. (1979). one-volume scholarly biography. Gelfand, Lawrence E. ed., Herbert Hoover: The Great War and Its Aftermath, 1914-1923 (1979). Hatfield, Mark. ed. Herbert Hoover Reassessed (2002). Hawley, Ellis. Herbert Hoover as Secretary of Commerce: Studies in New Era Thought and Practice (1981). A major reinterpretation. Hawley, Ellis. Herbert Hoover and the Historians (1989). Hoff-Wilson, Joan. Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive. (1975). short biography Lloyd, Craig. Aggressive Introvert: A Study of Herbert Hoover and Public Relations Management, 1912-1932 (1973). Nash, George H. The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Engineer 1874-1914 (1983), the definitive scholarly biography. Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914-1917 (1988), vol. 2. The Life of Herbert Hoover: Master of Emergencies, 1917-1918 (1996), vol. 3 Nash, Lee, ed. Understanding Herbert Hoover: Ten Perspectives (1987). Smith, Gene. The Shattered Dream: Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression (1970). Smith, Richard Norton. An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover, (1987) full-length scholarly biography. Walch, Timothy. ed. Uncommon Americans: The Lives and Legacies of Herbert and Lou Henri Hoover Praeger, 2003. Wert, Hal Elliott. Hoover, The Fishing President: Portrait of the Private Man and his Life Outdoors (2005). ISBN 0-8117-0099-2. Scholarly studies Long annotated bibliography via University of Virginia. Barber, William J. From New Era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921-1933. (1985). Barry, John M. Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (1998), Hoover played a major role. Britten, Thomas A. "Hoover and the Indians: the Case for Continuity in Federal Indian Policy, 1900-1933" Historian 1999 61(3): 518-538. ISSN 0018-2370 Calder, James D. The Origins and Development of Federal Crime Control Policy: Herbert Hoover's Initiatives Praeger, 1993. Carcasson, Martin. "Herbert Hoover and the Presidential Campaign of 1932: the Failure of Apologia" Presidential Studies Quarterly 1998 28(2): 349-365. Clements, Kendrick A. Hoover, Conservation, and Consumerism: Engineering the Good Life. U. Press of Kansas, 2000. DeConde, Alexander. Herbert Hoover's Latin American Policy. (1951). Dodge, Mark M., ed. Herbert Hoover and the Historians. (1989). Doenecke, Justus D. "Anti-Interventionism of Herbert Hoover" Journal of Libertarian Studies, Summer 1987, 8(2), pp. 311–340. online version Fausold, Martin L. The Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover. (1985) standard scholarly overview. Fausold Martin L. and George Mazuzan, eds. The Hoover Presidency: A Reappraisal (1974). Ferrell, Robert H. American Diplomacy in the Great Depression: Hoover-Stimson Foreign Policy, 1929-1933. (1957). Goodman, Mark and Gring, Mark. "The Ideological Fight over Creation of the Federal Radio Commission in 1927" Journalism History 2000 26(3): 117-124. Hamilton, David E. From New Day to New Deal: American Farm Policy from Hoover to Roosevelt, 1928-1933. (1991). Hart, David M. "Herbert Hoover's Last Laugh: the Enduring Significance of the 'Associative State' in the United States." Journal of Policy History 1998 10(4): 419-444. Hawley, Ellis. "Herbert Hoover, the Commerce Secretariat, and the Vision of an 'Associative State,' 1921-1928." Journal of American History 61 (1974): 116-140. Houck, Davis W. "Rhetoric as Currency: Herbert Hoover and the 1929 Stock Market Crash" Rhetoric & Public Affairs 2000 3(2): 155-181. ISSN 1094-8392 Hutchison, Janet. "Building for Babbitt: the State and the Suburban Home Ideal" Journal of Policy History 1997 9(2): 184-210 Lichtman, Allan J. Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928 (1979). Lisio, Donald J. The President and Protest: Hoover, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot, 2d ed. (1994). Lisio, Donald J. Hoover, Blacks, and Lily-whites: A Study of Southern Strategies (1985) Malin, James C. The United States after the World War. 1930. extensive coverage of Hoover's Commerce Dept. policies Olson, James S. Herbert Hoover and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 1931-1933 (1977). Robinson, Edgar Eugene and Vaughn Davis Bornet. Herbert Hoover: President of the United States. (1976). Romasco, Albert U. The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression (1965). Schwarz, Jordan A. The Interregnum of Despair: Hoover, Congress, and the Depression. (1970). Hostile to Hoover. Stoff, Michael B. "Herbert Hoover: 1929-1933." The American Presidency: The Authoritative Reference. New York, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company (2004), 332-343. Sobel, Robert Herbert Hoover and the Onset of the Great Depression 1929-1930 (1975). Tracey, Kathleen. Herbert Hoover—A Bibliography. His Writings and Addresses (1977). Wilbur, Ray Lyman, and Arthur Mastick Hyde. The Hoover Policies. (1937). In depth description of his administration by two cabinet members. Wueschner, Silvano A. Charting Twentieth-Century Monetary Policy: Herbert Hoover and Benjamin Strong, 1917-1927. Greenwood, 1999. External links Recipe for Victory: Food and Cooking in Wartime Memoirs, Years of Adventure 1874-1920 Memoirs, The Cabinet and the Presidency 1920-1933 Memoirs, The Great Depression 1929-1941 In 1929, President Herbert Hoover dedicated the completion of the Ohio River canalization. Hoover Presidential Library Association Mining Hall of Fame Inductee Bio Inaugural Address Audio clips of Hoover's speeches White House Biography Medical and Health history of Herbert Hoover Herbert Hoover Links Page Herbert Hoover's 1946 - 1947 factfinding mission to Germany. (Report No.1), (Report No.3) Hoover and Truman The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969, CHAPTER XXV, Former President Herbert C. Hoover, State Funeral, October 20-25 1964 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark Collection of Editorial Cartoons including 300 featuring Herbert Hoover | Herbert_Hoover |@lemmatized herbert:73 hoover:308 august:5 october:3 president:60 united:23 state:45 besides:1 political:2 career:2 professional:2 mining:10 engineer:6 author:2 secretary:24 commerce:25 warren:2 harding:10 calvin:5 coolidge:8 promote:10 government:21 intervention:3 rubric:1 economic:12 modernization:1 presidential:24 election:16 easily:1 win:9 republican:16 nomination:3 despite:4 previous:2 elect:6 office:13 experience:3 date:3 last:9 cabinet:8 directly:2 nation:11 prosperous:1 optimistic:1 time:13 lead:13 landslide:3 democrat:6 al:3 smith:11 deeply:1 believe:7 efficiency:3 movement:3 major:10 component:1 progressive:5 era:4 argue:2 technical:1 solution:3 exist:2 every:4 social:1 problem:4 position:7 challenge:2 wall:1 street:5 crash:4 take:7 place:7 less:1 month:9 great:24 depression:25 follow:8 gain:4 momentum:1 tried:1 combat:2 volunteer:2 effort:4 action:1 none:2 produce:2 recovery:1 term:8 consensus:1 among:5 historian:6 defeat:4 cause:2 primarily:3 failure:3 end:6 downward:3 spiral:3 deep:3 compound:1 popular:5 opposition:5 prohibition:7 electoral:3 liability:1 lack:2 charisma:1 relate:2 voter:3 poor:1 skill:1 work:18 politician:2 result:6 factor:2 typically:1 ranked:1 poorly:1 former:13 u:23 family:5 background:1 early:7 life:12 bear:2 town:4 west:8 branch:4 iowa:5 first:15 mississippi:6 remain:3 iowan:1 father:2 jesse:1 blacksmith:1 farm:3 implement:2 store:1 owner:1 german:5 pfautz:1 wehmeyer:1 swiss:1 huber:1 burkhart:1 descent:3 mother:2 hulda:1 minthorn:3 english:2 irish:2 probably:1 scot:1 quaker:4 die:4 leave:9 orphan:1 age:5 brief:1 stay:2 one:22 grandmother:1 home:17 kingsley:1 live:5 next:4 uncle:3 allen:1 november:5 go:8 newberg:1 oregon:2 john:6 whose:2 son:4 year:23 two:10 half:2 attend:4 friend:8 pacific:1 academy:1 george:5 fox:1 university:10 subsequently:1 boy:4 real:3 estate:2 salem:1 though:2 high:4 school:4 young:1 night:1 learn:1 bookkeeping:1 typing:1 math:1 chronology:1 library:9 museum:5 access:1 enter:4 stanford:10 new:34 california:6 college:3 student:4 require:3 pay:2 tuition:1 claim:2 ever:4 virtue:1 person:1 class:2 sleep:1 dormitory:1 dave:1 revsine:1 side:1 number:6 dominate:1 saturday:1 rivalry:2 game:2 espn:1 com:9 manager:3 baseball:1 football:1 team:2 part:5 inaugural:2 big:2 versus:1 rival:1 graduate:2 degree:2 geology:2 australia:3 employee:1 bewick:2 moreing:2 co:2 london:3 base:3 company:4 serve:3 geologist:1 program:11 expansion:1 gwalia:4 gold:4 mine:6 western:4 bell:1 cue:2 leonora:2 menzies:1 coolgardie:1 heritage:2 trail:2 historical:5 house:19 tourist:2 attraction:1 bed:1 breakfast:1 inn:1 profile:1 pioneer:1 kalgoorlie:1 miner:2 hall:2 fame:2 biography:8 oddly:1 fail:3 mention:3 subsequent:1 role:5 marry:1 sweetheart:1 lou:7 henry:8 china:3 private:8 corporation:9 wife:6 pick:1 mandarin:1 chinese:1 use:6 tenure:1 white:13 want:2 overheard:1 http:6 www:4 eng:1 articleherberthoover:1 htm:1 boxer:1 rebellion:1 trap:1 tianjin:1 june:4 almost:3 settlement:1 heavy:1 fire:2 clark:4 allan:2 guide:1 international:4 troop:2 tientsin:1 battle:1 due:1 extensive:2 knowledge:2 bad:1 terrain:1 make:13 partner:1 assume:3 responsibility:6 various:4 australian:3 operation:2 september:1 achieve:3 technological:1 innovation:1 visit:4 broken:2 hill:2 south:2 wale:1 notice:1 considerable:2 zinc:3 silver:1 ore:1 could:11 recover:2 lose:4 tailing:2 devise:1 practical:2 profitable:1 method:1 froth:1 flotation:1 process:1 treat:1 david:4 burner:2 public:15 york:11 atheneum:1 p:4 william:6 baillieu:1 others:2 found:1 later:9 merger:1 rio:1 tinto:1 group:5 also:20 become:20 notable:1 recruit:1 italian:3 immigrant:1 underground:1 worker:2 broadcasting:2 describe:1 fully:1 per:2 cent:3 superior:1 determine:1 cut:3 cost:2 undermine:1 grow:3 strength:2 labor:4 say:11 men:4 small:4 benefit:1 independent:2 consultant:1 travel:3 worldwide:1 outbreak:2 world:17 war:34 lecture:1 columbia:1 publish:4 principle:1 standard:3 textbook:1 translation:2 classic:1 de:5 metallica:4 latin:4 renaissance:1 georgius:1 agricola:2 still:3 important:4 scholarly:6 version:3 provide:10 context:1 translate:1 print:1 dover:1 publication:2 humanitarian:5 start:4 help:11 organize:6 return:5 american:45 europe:7 businessmen:2 five:1 hundred:4 distribute:1 food:13 clothing:1 steamship:1 ticket:3 cash:1 realize:2 moment:1 forever:1 slippery:1 road:6 like:4 difference:1 dictatorship:1 democracy:2 simple:1 dictator:1 top:3 bottom:1 aged:1 seat:2 health:7 arthur:3 flemming:1 ohio:2 wesleyan:1 belgium:3 face:6 crisis:2 fall:2 invade:1 germany:13 undertake:1 unprecedented:2 relief:10 committee:5 crb:2 official:5 chairman:3 emile:1 francqui:1 head:6 effect:2 republic:1 flag:1 navy:3 factory:1 mill:1 railroad:3 donation:1 grant:3 supply:1 million:11 budget:2 hour:1 day:6 administer:1 distribution:1 ton:2 nine:2 victim:1 form:3 shuttle:1 diplomacy:2 cross:3 north:2 sea:1 forty:1 meet:2 authority:4 persuade:1 allow:3 shipment:2 hero:1 belgian:2 city:7 leuven:1 name:10 prominent:2 square:1 hooverplein:1 april:2 woodrow:2 wilson:5 appoint:9 administration:14 establish:3 set:3 encourage:6 people:9 avoid:2 eat:2 particular:1 order:5 save:2 soldier:1 ration:1 meatless:1 monday:1 wheatless:1 wednesday:1 doubt:1 potato:1 reduce:10 consumption:1 foodstuff:1 need:2 overseas:3 rationing:1 dub:1 hooverizing:1 publicist:1 spite:1 continual:1 publicity:1 member:7 supreme:6 council:1 starve:2 central:1 newly:1 organization:5 service:12 carry:4 much:10 logistical:1 aid:4 post:5 get:3 famine:1 stricken:1 bolshevik:1 control:8 area:3 russia:2 senator:3 cabot:1 lodge:1 ask:4 thus:2 bolshevism:1 retort:1 twenty:1 whatever:1 politics:4 shall:1 feed:1 ten:3 living:2 confront:1 possibility:2 democratic:9 party:12 leader:1 look:1 potential:2 candidate:9 privately:2 prefer:1 successor:3 finer:1 assert:1 franklin:7 roosevelt:28 rise:2 star:1 briefly:1 consider:6 would:17 join:4 losing:1 confess:1 run:7 boyhood:1 drunk:1 unique:1 collect:2 information:2 aftermath:2 collection:4 donate:2 file:1 commission:7 pledge:1 endowment:1 scholar:1 send:3 pamphlet:1 society:1 document:1 newspaper:3 poster:1 proclamation:2 ephemeral:1 material:1 revolution:2 rename:2 know:10 institution:4 photo:1 mccracken:1 assistant:2 civil:3 aviation:2 show:2 center:3 walter:2 drake:1 reject:3 overture:1 registered:1 support:11 theodore:1 bull:1 moose:1 declare:5 presidency:14 ballot:5 primary:3 come:7 close:2 beat:1 hiram:1 johnson:1 dark:1 horse:1 contender:1 convention:8 even:5 deadlocked:2 several:4 illinois:1 governor:5 frank:2 lowden:3 general:5 leonard:1 wood:2 delegate:4 seriously:1 compromise:4 choice:1 although:14 personal:1 misgiving:1 capability:1 nominee:6 g:2 publicly:3 endorse:3 speech:6 behalf:1 reward:1 offer:4 either:1 interior:1 ultimately:1 chose:1 eight:1 since:6 division:2 department:13 minor:1 limited:1 somewhat:1 vaguely:1 defined:1 aim:2 change:3 envision:1 hub:1 growth:2 stability:1 demand:1 receive:4 coordinate:1 affair:5 throughout:2 create:3 many:11 sub:1 oversee:2 regulate:1 everything:3 manufacture:1 statistic:2 census:1 radio:8 air:4 instance:1 seized:1 deem:1 well:6 enough:1 visible:1 country:8 often:8 overshadow:1 washington:8 wag:1 soon:2 refer:1 else:1 revolutionize:1 relation:4 business:6 adversarial:1 stance:3 taft:2 seek:2 powerful:1 empower:1 forge:1 cooperative:1 voluntary:3 partnership:1 philosophy:3 call:15 associationalism:1 elimination:1 waste:2 increase:8 industry:3 include:5 loss:3 trade:7 dispute:2 seasonal:1 fluctuation:1 industrial:1 accident:2 injury:1 amount:1 crude:1 oil:2 spill:1 extraction:1 shipping:2 achievement:1 ideal:4 standardization:1 product:3 design:2 energetically:1 open:2 give:6 advice:1 especially:2 eager:1 hollywood:1 film:1 hart:2 campaign:8 collaboration:1 ownership:1 single:1 dwelling:1 good:7 america:10 architect:1 bureau:5 modernizing:1 banker:1 saving:1 loan:7 long:5 mortgage:1 dramatically:1 stimulate:1 construction:4 hutchison:2 janet:2 building:3 babbitt:2 suburban:2 journal:6 policy:25 history:16 listen:1 suggest:2 best:4 magazine:3 article:1 html:2 book:4 google:1 id:1 pg:2 lpg:1 dq:1 source:3 bl:1 ots:1 sig:1 hl:1 en:2 ei:1 sa:1 x:1 oi:1 ct:1 resnum:1 hold:7 full:5 conference:14 play:5 key:2 development:2 regulation:4 project:2 navigation:1 irrigation:1 dry:1 land:3 electrical:1 power:3 flood:5 transport:1 develop:2 code:2 child:6 raise:8 fund:3 education:2 community:2 continue:3 ill:2 suit:1 nevertheless:1 accompany:3 final:4 trip:1 specialist:1 tend:2 ail:1 chief:3 executive:3 contact:1 inform:1 death:4 dignitary:1 body:1 back:2 capital:1 status:2 reflect:2 modern:1 headquarters:1 build:4 federal:18 triangle:1 c:12 traffic:6 host:2 national:18 third:2 convene:1 collectively:1 meeting:1 highway:1 safety:3 objective:1 address:9 casualty:1 toll:1 scope:1 embrace:1 motor:2 vehicle:3 rule:1 urban:2 invited:1 interest:2 negotiate:2 agreement:1 present:2 adoption:3 locality:1 automotive:1 association:2 issue:2 model:2 uniform:1 municipal:2 ordinance:1 widely:1 influential:1 uniformity:1 jurisdiction:1 automobile:1 priority:1 peter:1 norton:2 fight:3 dawn:1 mit:1 press:10 isbn:4 river:4 break:3 bank:9 levee:1 low:5 flooding:1 acre:3 thousand:5 homeless:2 disaster:2 duty:1 six:3 along:3 specifically:1 emergency:3 mobilize:1 local:3 militia:1 army:6 coast:1 guard:1 red:1 rockefeller:1 foundation:1 unit:1 flooded:1 region:1 stamp:1 malaria:1 pellagra:1 typhoid:1 fever:1 bring:1 front:2 page:4 everywhere:1 accolade:1 victory:5 stress:1 rush:2 assistance:3 rather:2 available:1 instead:3 citizen:2 response:4 appeal:1 suppose:1 upon:8 main:1 reputation:6 endeavor:1 endanger:1 inhumane:1 treatment:1 african:6 ramification:1 aspiration:1 desire:1 afflicted:1 strike:2 deal:11 robert:5 moton:2 booker:1 tuskegee:1 institute:2 exchange:2 keep:4 suffering:1 americans:1 eye:1 promise:6 influence:2 agree:5 consistent:1 accommodationist:1 actively:1 suppress:1 mistreatment:1 black:2 reveal:1 medium:2 backlash:1 shift:1 allegiance:1 lincoln:1 emancipation:1 decline:6 second:2 leading:1 fact:1 lukewarm:2 deride:1 ambitious:1 wonder:1 challenger:1 favorable:1 coverage:3 complain:1 nothing:3 advertisement:1 fletcher:1 castoria:1 popularity:1 coalesce:1 charles:3 curtis:2 mate:2 basis:1 prosperity:1 alfred:1 e:4 target:1 anti:5 catholicism:1 protestant:1 advantage:1 pro:2 improve:3 condition:2 farmer:3 reform:4 immigration:1 law:3 maintain:1 isolationist:1 foreign:5 differ:1 volstead:2 act:12 wet:1 repeal:1 whereas:1 experiment:1 noble:1 purpose:1 appear:3 however:7 stop:5 embassy:1 technically:1 soil:1 able:2 enjoy:1 alcoholic:1 drink:1 grumble:1 successfully:1 force:5 dispose:1 celebrated:1 wine:1 cellar:1 mean:1 supporter:2 attack:7 rely:2 catholic:1 amendment:1 guarantee:3 freedom:3 religion:2 frown:1 politically:2 label:1 prohibitionist:1 drunkard:1 woman:3 christian:1 temperance:1 union:3 wctu:1 saloon:1 league:1 bolster:1 booming:1 economy:10 combine:2 split:1 vote:3 manage:1 crack:1 solid:1 traditionally:1 florida:1 carolina:1 virginia:5 texas:1 tennessee:2 advertising:1 bruce:1 barton:1 put:3 may:1 fun:3 money:2 unlike:1 predecessor:2 lady:1 already:3 carve:1 never:6 practice:2 profession:1 formally:1 intelligent:1 robust:1 possess:1 sense:1 female:1 poverty:4 today:2 nearer:1 triumph:2 within:3 stock:4 market:3 occur:1 reporter:3 phase:1 tell:1 journalist:1 recommend:1 improvement:1 spokesman:1 quote:1 handout:1 statement:2 ahead:1 regular:1 frequent:1 screen:1 greatly:2 availability:1 invent:1 sport:2 fit:1 combination:1 volleyball:1 tennis:1 morning:2 successful:2 plan:7 regulatory:1 system:1 dedicated:1 reformer:1 saw:4 volunteerism:3 denounce:1 laissez:2 faire:2 thinking:1 active:1 push:1 tariff:6 subsidy:1 bill:1 congress:9 expand:3 cancel:1 lease:2 instruct:1 justice:7 internal:1 revenue:5 gangster:2 tax:16 evasion:1 enable:1 prosecution:1 capone:1 aside:2 park:3 forest:1 advocate:3 reduction:2 income:7 enact:7 certain:1 loophole:1 wealthy:1 double:2 veteran:2 hospital:1 facility:1 treaty:3 st:1 lawrence:2 seaway:1 senate:4 write:2 charter:1 protection:3 regardless:1 race:1 gender:1 san:1 francisco:1 oakland:1 bay:1 bridge:1 antitrust:1 mail:1 carrier:1 adopt:2 stricter:1 measure:3 propose:4 slum:1 clearance:1 prison:2 reorganize:2 indian:11 fifty:1 dollar:2 pension:1 chair:1 homebuilding:1 homeownership:1 begin:7 boulder:2 dam:5 sign:3 norris:1 la:2 guardia:1 limit:1 judicial:1 vice:1 partial:1 native:2 special:1 meaning:1 upbringing:1 view:3 self:2 sufficiency:1 j:8 rhoads:2 commissioner:1 commitment:1 assimilation:1 minimize:1 goal:2 individual:1 tribe:1 citizenship:2 britten:2 thomas:4 case:2 continuity:2 issn:3 embark:1 seven:3 week:2 goodwill:1 tour:3 explain:2 hemisphere:1 argentina:3 escape:1 assassination:1 attempt:10 argentine:1 anarchist:1 severino:1 di:1 giovanni:1 blow:1 car:2 pigna:1 felipe:1 los:1 mitos:1 historia:1 ed:10 planeta:1 chap:1 iv:1 plotter:1 itinerary:1 rail:3 journey:2 complete:1 arrival:1 bomber:1 arrest:2 explosive:1 incident:2 complimentary:1 remark:2 progress:1 december:4 formulate:1 neighbor:1 release:1 memorandum:1 withdraw:1 nicaragua:1 haiti:1 arm:1 embargo:1 naval:1 corollary:1 cease:1 japanese:2 invasion:2 manchuria:1 stimson:3 outline:1 doctrine:1 recognize:1 territory:2 mediate:1 chile:3 peru:2 solve:2 conflict:2 sovereignty:1 arica:3 tacna:3 ancón:1 award:1 plebiscite:1 happen:1 lima:1 regain:1 largely:3 entry:2 proponent:1 concept:2 cooperation:1 way:2 fear:2 coercion:1 destroy:1 individuality:1 reliance:1 value:1 test:1 onset:2 outset:1 memoir:5 treasury:2 mellon:3 alone:1 approach:3 critic:1 liberal:1 economist:3 paul:1 krugman:1 wikipedia:1 org:1 wiki:1 nytimes:1 opinion:1 hand:2 accuse:2 share:1 viewpoint:1 inaccurately:1 erode:1 reich:1 interview:1 duncanentertainment:1 php:1 little:7 quickly:2 deteriorate:1 pursue:1 legislative:2 dependent:1 accelerate:1 toward:1 series:1 authorize:1 mexican:3 repatriation:1 rampant:1 unemployment:2 burden:1 remove:3 see:4 usurper:1 job:1 forced:1 migration:1 estimated:1 mexico:1 approve:2 smoot:2 hawley:6 legislation:2 import:2 item:1 intent:1 purchase:1 protect:2 spread:2 retaliation:1 worsen:1 moratorium:4 halt:2 reparation:2 payment:4 france:3 allied:1 debt:3 significant:1 ease:1 near:3 expiration:1 following:2 find:4 permanent:1 lausanne:2 working:1 ii:5 completely:1 urge:1 consortium:1 credit:1 ncc:5 reconstruction:4 finance:4 eh:1 net:1 encyclopedia:1 example:1 belief:1 mechanism:1 prevent:2 collapse:2 reluctant:1 usually:1 large:4 asset:1 collateral:1 apparent:1 incapable:1 fix:1 abandon:1 favor:1 across:3 globe:1 reach:2 shambhala:1 drought:1 persist:1 agricultural:1 heartland:1 default:1 record:2 microsoft:1 encarta:1 tens:1 congregate:1 numerous:3 hoovervilles:1 shanty:1 tent:1 hooverville:2 coin:1 resident:1 disappointment:1 frustration:1 perceived:1 spur:1 foreclosure:2 seem:1 drop:2 late:3 prior:1 andrew:2 rate:1 sharp:1 serious:1 deficit:1 desperate:1 board:1 percentage:1 pre:2 level:3 earner:1 rescue:1 passage:1 creation:3 rfc:3 initial:1 secured:1 financial:2 minimal:1 impact:1 delano:2 corporate:1 check:4 lastrapes:1 selgin:1 fiscal:1 folly:2 monetary:3 contraction:2 conclude:2 contributing:1 period:1 severe:1 investigate:1 pressure:1 express:2 fraction:1 gross:1 climb:1 fdr:4 soar:1 reason:1 libertarians:1 economics:1 statist:1 blast:1 incumbent:1 spending:3 block:1 dole:1 reckless:1 extravagant:1 think:1 ought:1 rapidly:1 possible:3 peacetime:2 nance:1 garner:1 path:2 socialism:1 pale:1 beside:1 drastic:1 step:1 opponent:2 charge:2 reiterate:1 must:2 suffer:2 hunger:1 cold:3 care:1 dealer:1 rexford:1 tugwell:1 engineering:2 dunar:1 pb:1 practically:1 whole:1 extrapolate:1 crowd:2 detest:1 matter:1 pride:1 likely:1 without:1 resort:1 dangerously:1 radical:1 nominate:2 originally:1 rest:1 campaigning:1 proxy:1 poll:3 entire:2 resounding:1 schedule:1 defend:1 apologetic:1 refute:1 personally:1 responsible:1 carcasson:2 martin:4 apologia:2 study:7 quarterly:2 around:1 perhaps:1 hostile:2 sit:1 addition:1 train:3 motorcade:1 pelt:1 egg:1 rotten:1 fruit:1 heckle:1 speaking:1 occasion:1 secret:3 kill:2 disgruntled:1 capture:1 man:7 stick:1 dynamite:1 another:5 actually:2 spike:1 huge:1 margin:1 obtain:1 pennsylvania:1 delaware:1 handful:1 northeast:1 extend:1 calm:1 investor:1 resolve:1 rebuff:1 inaugurate:1 march:3 oath:1 amid:1 atmosphere:1 hated:1 bonus:4 demonstrate:1 camp:9 immediate:1 adjusted:1 certificate:1 police:2 demonstrator:1 outnumber:1 thereby:1 unsuccessful:1 shot:1 futile:1 attain:1 protester:1 officer:2 injure:2 sent:1 douglas:2 macarthur:6 ranking:3 dwight:3 eisenhower:2 patton:1 communist:2 choose:2 clear:1 military:3 ensue:1 clash:1 civilian:1 move:2 encampment:1 ignore:1 command:2 incense:1 refuse:2 reprimand:1 devastate:1 negative:1 inside:1 jelly:1 portrait:2 paint:1 christen:1 johansen:1 officenametermpresidentherbert:1 presidentcharles:1 statehenry:1 l:5 treasuryandrew:1 ogden:1 warjames:1 w:3 patrick:1 generalwilliam:1 generalwalter:1 f:4 navycharles:1 interiorray:1 agriculturearthur:1 commercerobert:1 roy:1 laborjames:1 n:1 court:4 appointment:2 eisler:2 evans:1 hughes:1 owen:1 josephus:1 roberts:1 benjamin:2 nathan:1 cardozo:3 line:2 ancient:1 believer:1 strong:3 minority:1 experienced:1 jurist:2 vacancy:1 canvass:1 immediately:1 right:1 depart:1 bitterness:1 disappoint:2 repudiate:1 unappreciated:1 waldorf:1 astoria:1 hotel:1 spring:2 palo:2 alto:2 fish:2 wash:3 soul:2 behind:4 wheel:1 drive:1 mile:1 wander:1 unrecognized:1 mountain:1 fishing:5 relative:1 solitude:1 sixteen:1 speak:2 voice:1 loyal:1 spotlight:1 rumor:2 fan:1 convenient:1 scapegoat:1 flee:1 yacht:1 investigation:1 protective:1 custody:1 relationship:1 severely:1 strain:1 supposedly:1 engage:1 petty:1 range:1 birthday:1 greeting:1 message:2 list:1 colorado:1 border:1 officially:1 entertain:1 hope:2 rematch:1 retain:1 select:2 kansas:1 alf:1 landon:5 worry:1 willing:1 accept:1 might:3 virtually:1 ignored:1 constantly:1 warn:1 throne:1 bury:2 point:1 circumstance:1 rehabilitate:2 restore:3 prominence:1 overreach:1 packing:1 recession:1 tarnish:1 image:2 invincibility:1 dewey:2 vandenberg:1 protege:1 turn:2 utility:1 wendell:1 willkie:2 valley:1 sell:1 dutifully:1 despair:2 platform:1 opportunity:1 seemingly:1 majority:1 neutrality:3 initially:1 ally:1 contain:2 hitler:2 nazis:1 overran:1 britain:2 stalemate:1 verge:1 nonetheless:1 kingdom:1 far:3 wise:1 devote:1 defense:1 mess:1 fortress:1 east:1 vast:1 ocean:1 patrol:1 corp:1 usaaf:1 adequately:1 repel:1 oppose:1 draft:1 lend:1 shoot:1 sight:1 boat:1 lane:1 k:1 threat:1 broadcast:1 nazi:1 soviet:1 disparage:1 tacit:1 alliance:1 r:2 stalin:3 grip:1 communism:2 impose:2 least:1 bedfellow:1 sacrifice:1 alongside:1 travesty:1 tragedy:1 robinson:3 edgar:2 eugene:2 encyclopaedia:2 britannica:2 vol:4 chicago:1 inc:1 pp:3 margaret:2 byrne:1 professor:1 emeritus:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 hawaii:1 sweep:1 feeling:1 total:2 capacity:1 necessary:1 kennedy:2 harry:3 truman:5 ascertain:1 occupied:1 field:1 marshal:1 hermann:1 göring:1 old:2 coach:1 report:4 sharply:1 critical:1 occupation:2 sunk:1 michael:2 beschloss:1 conqueror:1 destruction:1 illusion:1 annexation:1 pastoral:1 cannot:1 unless:1 exterminate:1 marshall:1 deepen:1 reservation:1 activity:1 previously:1 strongly:1 initiative:2 meal:2 british:1 zone:1 hooverspeisung:1 similar:1 inefficiency:1 recommendation:1 fulfill:1 unexpired:1 ww:1 joke:1 sole:1 dead:1 always:1 marxism:1 outspokenly:1 advance:1 nearly:2 writing:2 literary:1 ordeal:1 bestseller:1 paper:1 governmental:1 servant:1 throw:1 club:2 girl:1 pet:1 charity:1 fete:1 guest:1 farewell:1 ceremony:1 unspoken:1 assumption:1 survive:1 joking:1 apparently:1 three:2 bye:1 barry:2 goldwater:1 acknowledge:1 absence:1 acceptance:1 outlive:1 birthplace:1 landmark:3 lifetime:1 rapidan:3 historic:4 shenandoah:2 retirement:1 honor:3 funeral:3 span:1 memorial:1 locate:1 site:2 twelve:1 archive:1 residence:1 rustic:1 rural:1 retreat:2 recently:1 firmly:1 eventually:1 granddaughter:1 puerto:2 rico:2 kenneth:1 mcclintock:1 unveil:1 size:1 bronze:1 statue:2 territorial:1 capitol:1 theme:1 song:1 ironic:1 exercise:1 nostalgia:1 mister:1 video:1 clip:2 hooverball:1 physician:1 lawn:1 note:1 read:1 myers:1 starr:1 h:3 newton:1 documented:1 narrative:1 elli:4 vols:1 trans:1 online:2 liberty:1 peace:1 hugh:1 gibson:1 v:3 adventure:2 miller:1 timothy:2 walch:2 eds:1 documentary:1 greenwood:2 secondary:1 gary:1 dean:1 individualism:1 transition:1 bornet:2 vaughn:2 davis:3 uncommon:3 reassess:2 volume:1 gelfand:1 hatfield:1 mark:4 thought:1 reinterpretation:1 hoff:1 joan:1 forgotten:1 short:1 lloyd:1 craig:1 aggressive:1 introvert:1 management:1 nash:2 definitive:1 master:1 lee:1 understand:1 perspective:1 gene:1 shattered:1 dream:1 richard:1 length:1 legacy:1 henri:1 praeger:2 wert:1 hal:1 elliott:1 outdoors:1 annotate:1 bibliography:2 via:1 barber:1 tide:1 calder:1 jam:1 origin:1 crime:1 clements:1 kendrick:1 conservation:1 consumerism:1 kansa:1 deconde:1 alexander:1 dodge:1 doenecke:1 justus:1 interventionism:1 libertarian:1 summer:1 fausold:2 overview:1 mazuzan:1 reappraisal:1 ferrell:1 goodman:1 gring:1 ideological:1 journalism:1 hamilton:1 laugh:1 endure:1 significance:1 associative:2 secretariat:1 vision:1 houck:1 rhetoric:2 currency:1 lichtman:1 prejudice:1 lisio:2 donald:2 protest:1 riot:1 lily:1 southern:1 strategy:1 malin:1 james:2 dept:1 olson:1 romasco:1 albert:1 abundance:1 schwarz:1 jordan:1 interregnum:1 stoff:1 b:2 authoritative:1 reference:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 sobel:1 tracey:1 kathleen:1 wilbur:1 ray:1 lyman:1 mastick:1 hyde:1 depth:1 description:1 wueschner:1 silvano:1 chart:1 twentieth:1 century:1 external:1 link:2 recipe:1 cooking:1 wartime:1 dedicate:1 completion:1 canalization:1 inductee:1 bio:1 audio:1 medical:1 factfinding:1 mission:1 salute:1 chapter:1 xxv:1 mossman:1 stark:1 editorial:1 cartoon:1 featuring:1 |@bigram herbert_hoover:58 warren_harding:1 calvin_coolidge:5 presidential_election:6 downward_spiral:2 real_estate:1 pay_tuition:1 tourist_attraction:1 bed_breakfast:1 hall_fame:2 http_www:4 boxer_rebellion:1 technological_innovation:1 froth_flotation:1 rio_tinto:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 per_cent:1 georgius_agricola:1 dover_publication:1 woodrow_wilson:2 henry_cabot:1 cabot_lodge:1 franklin_roosevelt:5 theodore_roosevelt:1 everything_else:1 seasonal_fluctuation:1 crude_oil:1 oil_spill:1 saving_loan:1 id_pg:1 pg_lpg:1 lpg_dq:1 bl_ots:1 ots_sig:1 sig_hl:1 hl_en:1 en_ei:1 ei_sa:1 x_oi:1 oi_ct:1 typhoid_fever:1 booker_washington:1 tuskegee_institute:1 lincoln_emancipation:1 emancipation_proclamation:1 volstead_act:1 alcoholic_drink:1 wine_cellar:1 frown_upon:1 booming_economy:1 landslide_victory:1 north_carolina:1 spiral_downward:1 laissez_faire:2 tax_evasion:1 lawrence_seaway:1 san_francisco:1 la_guardia:1 vice_president:1 self_sufficiency:1 arm_embargo:1 roosevelt_corollary:1 invasion_manchuria:1 arica_tacna:1 paul_krugman:1 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 www_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 reparation_payment:1 eh_net:1 microsoft_encarta:1 shanty_town:1 andrew_mellon:1 income_tax:2 income_earner:1 rfc_rfc:1 franklin_delano:2 delano_roosevelt:2 contributing_factor:1 stock_exchange:1 stick_dynamite:1 douglas_macarthur:2 dwight_eisenhower:2 presidential_candidate:1 supreme_court:4 evans_hughes:1 waldorf_astoria:1 astoria_hotel:1 palo_alto:2 hundred_thousand:1 bureau_investigation:1 protective_custody:1 wendell_willkie:1 verge_collapse:1 lend_lease:1 shipping_lane:1 soviet_union:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:2 professor_emeritus:1 pearl_harbor:1 harry_truman:3 hermann_göring:1 unexpired_term:1 ww_ii:1 presidential_nominee:1 barry_goldwater:1 historic_landmark:2 granddaughter_margaret:1 puerto_rico:2 bronze_statue:1 video_clip:1 annotate_bibliography:1 houghton_mifflin:1 twentieth_century:1 external_link:1 fame_inductee:1 inaugural_address:1 editorial_cartoon:1 |
990 | Flipper_(cricket) | The flipper is the name of a particular bowling delivery used in cricket, generally by a leg spin bowler. In essence it is a back spin ball. Squeezed out of the front of the hand with the thumb and first and second fingers, it keeps deceptively low after pitching and can accordingly be very difficult to play. The flipper is comparable to a riseball in slow-pitch softball. By putting backspin on the ball the Magnus effect results in air travelling over the top of the ball quickly and cleanly whilst air travelling under the ball is turbulent. The lift produced means that the ball drops slower and travels further than a normal delivery. The slower descent also results in the ball bouncing lower. The flipper is bowled on the opposite side to a slider, much in the same way that the top-spinner is bowled. On release, the bowler 'pinches' or clicks the thumb and forefinger, causing the ball to come out underneath the hand. There must sufficient tension in the wrist and fingers to impart a good helping of backspin or underspin. In doing so the flipper will float on towards the batsman and land on a fuller length than he anticipated, often leaving him caught on the back foot when he wrongly assumes it to be a pullable or a cuttable ball. The back spin or underspin will cause the ball to hurry on at great pace with very little bounce, though this may be harder to achieve on softer wickets. A series of normal leg spinners or topspinners, with their dropping looping flight, will have the batsman used to the ball pitching on a shorter length. The batsman may wrongly assume that the flipper will drop and loop like a normal overspinning delivery, resulting in the ball pitching under the bat and going on to either hit the stumps or result in leg before wicket. Much of the effectiveness of the flipper is attributable to the "pop"—that is, the extra pace and change in trajectory that is imparted to the ball when it is squeezed out of the bowler's hand. Occasionally, the term 'flipper' has been used to describe other types of deliveries. The Australian leg spinner Bob Holland employed a back spinning ball that he simply pushed backwards with the heel of his palm. Sometimes this form of front-hand flipper is called a "zooter". It is easier to bowl but not as effective as the amount of backspin is much less. Bowlers of the flipper It was reputedly invented by the Australian leg-spinner Clarrie Grimmett. Grimmett became so enamoured with the delivery that at times he bowled it almost as frequently as his stock leg break. The great Don Bradman once remarked to Grimmett that he must have forgotten how to bowl a leg break, as he bowled so many flippers. Ironically, Bradman was bowled shortly thereafter at a memorial match by Grimmett, who produced a perfectly pitched stock ball that turned just enough to remove Bradman's off bail. "There y'are Don, I told you I could bowl a leg break" was Grimmett's alleged response. The flipper was the signature delivery of the Australian leg-spinner Shane Warne in his earlier years, until injury and later shoulder surgery restricted his ability to bowl flippers accurately. Like the googly, it may become more difficult to bowl as a bowler ages due to the flexibility and suppleness it demands from the bowler's wrist. It is difficult to disguise the flipper entirely when bowling, as the hand action is distinctly different from a leg break. When Clarie Grimmett first began bowling the delivery, batsmen would listen for the telltale clicking sound of his fingers; to compensate, Grimmett would often click the fingers of his non-bowling hand when not bowling the flipper to confuse the batsman. Sachin Tendulkar is known to be a good reader of flippers out of the hand of the bowler. He was seldom troubled by Warne's flipper. Anil Kumble is arguably the leading exponent of the flipper in recent times. Sify Sports: Kumble - one who loves to prove critics wrong http://sify.com/sports/cricket/fullstory.php?id=14589452 BBC Sport: Kumble's haul of fame http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sport/cricket/275282.stm Brad Hogg has also used the flipper with great success in One day cricket. Cricinfo: Brad Hogg http://content-www.cricinfo.com/australia/content/player/5681.html See also Cricket terminology Leg spin Googly Topspinner References External links Flipper pictured and well described | Flipper_(cricket) |@lemmatized flipper:19 name:1 particular:1 bowling:3 delivery:7 use:4 cricket:5 generally:1 leg:11 spin:4 bowler:7 essence:1 back:4 ball:14 squeeze:2 front:2 hand:7 thumb:2 first:2 second:1 finger:4 keep:1 deceptively:1 low:2 pitch:4 accordingly:1 difficult:3 play:1 comparable:1 riseball:1 slow:3 softball:1 put:1 backspin:3 magnus:1 effect:1 result:4 air:2 travelling:1 top:2 quickly:1 cleanly:1 whilst:1 travel:2 turbulent:1 lift:1 produce:2 mean:1 drop:3 far:1 normal:3 descent:1 also:3 bounce:2 bowl:12 opposite:1 side:1 slider:1 much:3 way:1 spinner:5 release:1 pinch:1 click:3 forefinger:1 cause:2 come:1 underneath:1 must:2 sufficient:1 tension:1 wrist:2 impart:2 good:2 help:1 underspin:2 float:1 towards:1 batsman:5 land:1 fuller:1 length:2 anticipate:1 often:2 leave:1 catch:1 foot:1 wrongly:2 assume:2 pullable:1 cuttable:1 hurry:1 great:3 pace:2 little:1 though:1 may:3 hard:1 achieve:1 soft:1 wicket:2 series:1 topspinners:1 loop:2 flight:1 pitching:1 short:1 like:2 overspinning:1 bat:1 go:1 either:1 hit:1 stump:1 effectiveness:1 attributable:1 pop:1 extra:1 change:1 trajectory:1 occasionally:1 term:1 describe:2 type:1 australian:3 bob:1 holland:1 employ:1 spinning:1 simply:1 push:1 backwards:1 heel:1 palm:1 sometimes:1 form:1 call:1 zooter:1 easy:1 effective:1 amount:1 less:1 reputedly:1 invent:1 clarrie:1 grimmett:7 become:2 enamour:1 time:2 almost:1 frequently:1 stock:2 break:4 bradman:3 remark:1 forget:1 many:1 ironically:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 memorial:1 match:1 perfectly:1 turn:1 enough:1 remove:1 bail:1 tell:1 could:1 allege:1 response:1 signature:1 shane:1 warne:2 early:1 year:1 injury:1 later:1 shoulder:1 surgery:1 restrict:1 ability:1 accurately:1 googly:2 age:1 due:1 flexibility:1 suppleness:1 demand:1 disguise:1 entirely:1 action:1 distinctly:1 different:1 clarie:1 begin:1 would:2 listen:1 telltale:1 sound:1 compensate:1 non:1 confuse:1 sachin:1 tendulkar:1 know:1 reader:1 seldom:1 troubled:1 anil:1 kumble:3 arguably:1 lead:1 exponent:1 recent:1 sify:2 sport:4 one:2 love:1 prove:1 critic:1 wrong:1 http:3 com:2 fullstory:1 php:1 id:1 bbc:2 haul:1 fame:1 news:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 stm:1 brad:2 hogg:2 success:1 day:1 cricinfo:2 content:2 www:1 australia:1 player:1 html:1 see:1 terminology:1 topspinner:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 picture:1 well:1 |@bigram spin_bowler:1 spinner_bowl:1 leg_spinner:4 shortly_thereafter:1 shane_warne:1 sachin_tendulkar:1 php_id:1 uk_hi:1 external_link:1 |
991 | Herman_of_Alaska | Saint Herman of Alaska (born 1756 or 1760 in Serpukhov, Russia – died December 13 or November 15, 1837 on Spruce Island, Alaska) was one of the first Eastern Orthodox missionaries to the New World, and is considered by Orthodox Christians to be the patron saint of the Americas. Biography Saint Herman was born in the town of Serpukhov in the Moscow Diocese around 1756. Herman is his name in monasticism; his birth name is unknown. At 16, he entered the Russian Orthodox monastic life at the Trinity-St. Sergius Hermitage near St. Petersburg. There, while still a novice, he developed a severe throat infection or abscess. After fervent prayer before an icon of the Theotokos, he collapsed into a deep sleep. During this sleep, he saw a vision in which he was greeted by the Virgin Mary and healed. Upon waking the next day, there was no trace of the past infirmity. Approximately five years later he transferred from Trinity - St. Sergius Hermitage to Valaam Monastery. Eventually he was tonsured a monk, though he was never ordained to the priesthood. While at Valaam, he was under the spiritual guidance of Abbot Nazarius who had played a significant role in the revitalization of spiritual life in Russia. During this time, the head of the Golikov-Shelikov Company, Gregory Shelikov, visited Valaam and made a request for several monks to begin a mission into the Alaskan territory. Herman was selected, along with seven other monks. Herman and the other monks arrived on Kodiak Island on September 24, 1794, aboard a ship named The Three Hierarchs. The monks converted the native Aleuts, and as time progressed they found themselves protecting the natives from exploitation and abuse. Because of this moral stance the monks themselves were abused, arrested and physically threatened. In time, enduring hardship, inclement weather, illness and more, Herman stood as the only remainder from the original band of missionaries, the others either being martyred for their faith, dying of natural causes or returning to Russia. Herman felt it his duty to protect the Aleuts from exploitation. He defended them against the often cruel treatment of those who controlled the colony. His concern for their needs have been documented, expressed in letters sent to the former administrator of the colony, Simeon Ivanovich Yanovsky. Herman also would intercede before the governors on behalf of the oppressed. He helped those in need in whatever way he found possible. Between the years of 1808 and 1818, Herman lived on Spruce Island. Spruce Island is almost completely covered by forest and is separated by a strait about a mile and a quarter wide from Kodiak Island. Selecting this island for the location of his hermitage he called the land there "New Valaam" after the monastery from which he had left to come to America. He dug a cave in the ground and lived out his first full summer there. It was in this cave that he was later buried. To endure the harsh winters he constructed a cell in which he lived for more than forty years. A small chapel was built as well, along with a school and guest house. The local people would visit him often. Food was produced from an experimental garden he planted for himself and the orphans of the land. He devoted his life to prayer and to performing those services he could do as a simple monk who had not been ordained to the priesthood. His love for the people of Alaska was sincere and he found happiness in being around the children. An epidemic plagued Alaskans when an American ship made land at Kodiak. Herman remained with the ill and dying, offering them constant comfort and ceaseless prayer. It is said that his love was so genuine that he could see into the hearts of his spiritual children and help them. The natives regarded him as their intercessor before God. When there was a tidal wave on the Island, Herman took an icon of the Theotokos, placed it on the beach and assured the people that the water would not rise beyond the place where the icon was, and it did not. When there was a great fire on the island, it is said that he dug a trench and stayed the flames. Prior to his death he foretold that there would be no priest to bury him and that he would be forgotten for 30 years. He died on November 15, 1837, but was not buried until December 13 because a priest could not come to serve the funeral, and was forgotten until the first investigation of his life in 1867 by Bishop Peter of Alaska. This investigation was followed by publications of his life in 1894, 1900, and 1952. In 1952 an Akathist Hymn (devotional song, prayer or chant) was composed in his honor. Sainthood On March 11, 1969, the Great Synod of Bishops of the Orthodox Church in America (OCA) solemnly proclaimed the Act of the Universal Church Canonization of the Staretz Herman to Sainthood in the Orthodox Church in America: "Taking into consideration the long and undisputed witness of the grace of God, appearing through the servant of God, the Staretz Herman of Alaska." Saint Herman was the first saint from America to be canonized by the Orthodox Church. The glorification of Father Herman was performed on August 9, 1970, at Holy Resurrection Cathedral Holy Resurrection Cathedral (Orthodox Wiki) in Kodiak, Alaska by the OCA with parallel services at the Synodal Cathedral of Our Lady, Joy of all who Sorrow in San Francisco by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). His relics were traslated from his grave underneath the church of Saints Sergius and Herman on Spruce Island to the Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Kodiak. There are several feast days throughout the year on which Saint Herman of Alaska is commemorated. Since there are two different calendars currently in use among various Orthodox churches, two dates are listed: the first date is the date on the traditional Julian Calendar, the second date, after the slash, is the same day on the modern Gregorian Calendar: July 27/August 9—Glorification: This is the anniversary of the joint-glorification (canonization) of Herman of Alaska as a saint in 1970. November 15/28—Repose: This is the anniversary of the actual death of Saint Herman. December 13/25—Repose: Due to an error in record keeping, this was originally thought to be the day of Saint Herman's death, and because of the long-established tradition of celebrating his memory on this day, it has remained a feast day. It is more likely that this is the day he was buried. For those Orthodox Christians who follow the Julian Calendar, this day falls on December 25 of the Gregorian Calendar, and thus provides a spiritual alternative to what some believe to be the increasingly secularized celebration of Christmas. Second Sunday after Pentecost:, as one of the saints commemorated on the Synaxis of the Saints of North America—this is a moveable feast of the ecclesiastical year, and the date of its observance will change from year to year. The major portion of his relics are preserved at Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Kodiak, Alaska, while his burial site at the Sts. Sergius and Herman Church, Spruce Island, Alaska is an important pilgrimage site, where the devout will often take soil from his grave and water from the spring named in his honour. A portion of his relics are enshrined at the St. Ignatius Chapel at the Antiochan Village in Pennsylvania, Antiochian Village (Orthodox Wiki) the headquarters of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, where he is regarded as one of their patron saints. In 1963, with the blessing of St. John Maximovitch, Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, a community of Orthodox booksellers and publishers called the St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood was formed to publish Orthodox missionary information in English. One of the founders was Father Seraphim Rose. The Brotherhood did much to advance the cause of St. Herman's glorification as a saint. Saint Herman's Orthodox Theological Seminary in Kodiak, Alaska is named in his honor, as are numerous parish churches throughout the world. On Tuesday, August 4, 1970, the 91st Congress of the United States, acknowledging the Glorification of St Herman of Alaska with a speech in the Senate, and his biography was formally entered into the Congressional Record, Vol. 116, No. 133. In 1993, Patriarch Alexis II visited Kodiak to venerate the relics of Saint Herman. He left as a gift an ornate lampada (oil lamp) which burns constantly over the reliquary. Pilgrims from all over the world are anointed with holy oil from this lampada. Some stories say Father Herman got killed by natives. See also Russian Colonization of the Americas Hermit References External links Diocese of Alaska Hagiography Photos From The Glorification Of St. Herman Life of Monk Herman of Valaam, American Missionary (Russian, 1894) Life of Monk Herman of Valaam, American Missionary (English translation of above, 1997) Address of the Great Council of Bishops of the Orthodox Church in America 11-13 March 1969, Concerning The Canonization of the Spiritual Father Herman of Alaska Akathist to St. Herman of Alaska Relics of Saint Herman of Alaska and other photos at Flickr Icon of Saint Herman of Alaska with Scenes from his Life | Herman_of_Alaska |@lemmatized saint:18 herman:34 alaska:18 born:1 serpukhov:2 russia:4 die:3 december:4 november:3 spruce:5 island:10 one:4 first:5 eastern:1 orthodox:16 missionary:5 new:2 world:3 consider:1 christian:3 patron:2 america:8 biography:2 bear:1 town:1 moscow:1 diocese:2 around:2 name:5 monasticism:1 birth:1 unknown:1 enter:2 russian:4 monastic:1 life:8 trinity:2 st:10 sergius:4 hermitage:3 near:1 petersburg:1 still:1 novice:1 develop:1 severe:1 throat:1 infection:1 abscess:1 fervent:1 prayer:4 icon:4 theotokos:2 collapse:1 deep:1 sleep:2 saw:1 vision:1 greet:1 virgin:1 mary:1 heal:1 upon:1 wake:1 next:1 day:8 trace:1 past:1 infirmity:1 approximately:1 five:1 year:8 later:2 transfer:1 valaam:6 monastery:2 eventually:1 tonsure:1 monk:9 though:1 never:1 ordain:2 priesthood:2 spiritual:5 guidance:1 abbot:1 nazarius:1 play:1 significant:1 role:1 revitalization:1 time:3 head:1 golikov:1 shelikov:2 company:1 gregory:1 visit:3 make:2 request:1 several:2 begin:1 mission:1 alaskan:2 territory:1 select:2 along:2 seven:1 arrive:1 kodiak:8 september:1 aboard:1 ship:2 three:1 hierarch:1 convert:1 native:4 aleut:2 progress:1 find:3 protect:2 exploitation:2 abuse:2 moral:1 stance:1 arrest:1 physically:1 threaten:1 endure:2 hardship:1 inclement:1 weather:1 illness:1 stand:1 remainder:1 original:1 band:1 others:1 either:1 martyr:1 faith:1 natural:1 cause:2 return:1 felt:1 duty:1 defend:1 often:3 cruel:1 treatment:1 control:1 colony:2 concern:2 need:2 document:1 express:1 letter:1 send:1 former:1 administrator:1 simeon:1 ivanovich:1 yanovsky:1 also:2 would:5 intercede:1 governor:1 behalf:1 oppressed:1 help:2 whatever:1 way:1 possible:1 live:3 almost:1 completely:1 cover:1 forest:1 separate:1 strait:1 mile:1 quarter:1 wide:1 location:1 call:2 land:3 leave:2 come:2 dig:2 cave:2 ground:1 full:1 summer:1 bury:4 harsh:1 winter:1 construct:1 cell:1 forty:1 small:1 chapel:2 build:1 well:1 school:1 guest:1 house:1 local:1 people:3 food:1 produce:1 experimental:1 garden:1 plant:1 orphan:1 devote:1 perform:2 service:2 could:3 simple:1 love:2 sincere:1 happiness:1 child:2 epidemic:1 plagued:1 american:3 remain:2 ill:1 dying:1 offer:1 constant:1 comfort:1 ceaseless:1 say:3 genuine:1 see:2 heart:1 regard:2 intercessor:1 god:3 tidal:1 wave:1 take:3 place:2 beach:1 assure:1 water:2 rise:2 beyond:1 great:3 fire:1 trench:1 stay:1 flame:1 prior:1 death:3 foretell:1 priest:2 forget:2 serve:1 funeral:1 investigation:2 bishop:3 peter:1 follow:2 publication:1 akathist:2 hymn:1 devotional:1 song:1 chant:1 compose:1 honor:2 sainthood:2 march:2 synod:1 church:10 oca:2 solemnly:1 proclaim:1 act:1 universal:1 canonization:3 staretz:2 consideration:1 long:2 undisputed:1 witness:1 grace:1 appear:1 servant:1 canonize:1 glorification:6 father:4 august:3 holy:5 resurrection:4 cathedral:5 wiki:2 parallel:1 synodal:1 lady:1 joy:1 sorrow:1 san:2 francisco:2 outside:1 rocor:1 relic:5 traslated:1 grave:2 underneath:1 feast:3 throughout:2 commemorate:2 since:1 two:2 different:1 calendar:5 currently:1 use:1 among:1 various:1 date:5 list:1 traditional:1 julian:2 second:2 slash:1 modern:1 gregorian:2 july:1 anniversary:2 joint:1 repose:2 actual:1 due:1 error:1 record:2 keep:1 originally:1 think:1 establish:1 tradition:1 celebrate:1 memory:1 likely:1 fall:1 thus:1 provide:1 alternative:1 believe:1 increasingly:1 secularized:1 celebration:1 christmas:1 sunday:1 pentecost:1 synaxis:1 north:2 moveable:1 ecclesiastical:1 observance:1 change:1 major:1 portion:2 preserve:1 burial:1 site:2 sts:1 important:1 pilgrimage:1 devout:1 soil:1 spring:1 honour:1 enshrine:1 ignatius:1 antiochan:1 village:2 pennsylvania:1 antiochian:2 headquarters:1 archdiocese:1 blessing:1 john:1 maximovitch:1 archbishop:1 shanghai:1 community:1 bookseller:1 publisher:1 brotherhood:2 form:1 publish:1 information:1 english:2 founder:1 seraph:1 much:1 advance:1 theological:1 seminary:1 numerous:1 parish:1 tuesday:1 congress:1 united:1 state:1 acknowledge:1 speech:1 senate:1 formally:1 congressional:1 vol:1 patriarch:1 alexis:1 ii:1 venerate:1 gift:1 ornate:1 lampada:2 oil:2 lamp:1 burn:1 constantly:1 reliquary:1 pilgrim:1 anoint:1 story:1 get:1 kill:1 colonization:1 americas:1 hermit:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 hagiography:1 photo:2 translation:1 address:1 council:1 flickr:1 scene:1 |@bigram herman_alaska:10 eastern_orthodox:1 patron_saint:2 st_petersburg:1 virgin_mary:1 ordain_priesthood:2 inclement_weather:1 kodiak_alaska:3 san_francisco:2 julian_calendar:2 gregorian_calendar:2 moveable_feast:1 antiochian_orthodox:1 theological_seminary:1 colonization_americas:1 external_link:1 |
992 | O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou? | O Brother, Where Art Thou? is a 2000 adventure film directed by Joel and Ethan Coen and starring George Clooney, John Turturro, Tim Blake Nelson, John Goodman, Holly Hunter, and Charles Durning. Set in 1937 Mississippi during the Great Depression, the film's imaginative story is loosely based on Homer’s Odyssey. The film displays a sly reference to another type of mythmaking: filmmaking, specifically the 1941 satire Sullivan's Travels by Preston Sturges, in which the title character sets out to make a grim, socially conscious film to be called O Brother, Where Art Thou? After the privileged director experiences hardships of his own, he decides that comedic films are of more value than self-important dramas. Similarly, the Coen brothers' movie also has the tone and imagery of Depression-era realism interlaced with a comedic element. The American roots soundtrack won a Grammy for Album of the Year in 2001. Plot Ulysses Everett McGill, known as Everett (George Clooney), Pete Hogwallop (John Turturro), and Delmar O’Donnell (Tim Blake Nelson) escape from a chain gang and set out to retrieve the $1.2 million in treasure that Everett claims to have stolen from an armored car and buried before his incarceration. They have only four days to find it before the valley in which it is hidden will be flooded to create Arkabutla Lake as part of a new hydroelectric project. Early on in their escape, they try to jump onto a moving train with some hobos, but fall off due to Pete's inability to get on. They then encounter a blind man traveling on a manual railroad car. They hitch a ride, and he foretells their futures, similar to the oracle of Homer's Odyssey. The group sets out for the treasure. They walk to Pete's cousin's house, who removes their chains. He turns them into the authorities because he needs the money to support his family. They escape from the burning barn where they were sleeping, and continue on their journey. When they pass a congregation on the banks of a river, Pete and Delmar are enticed by the idea of baptism. As the journey continues, they travel briefly with a young guitarist named Tommy Johnson (a character with similarities to blues guitarist Tommy Johnson, played by real-life blues musician Chris Thomas King). When asked why he was at a crossroad in the middle of nowhere, he reveals that he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for the ability to play the guitar. Tommy describes the devil as being "White, white as you folks... with empty eyes and a big hollow voice. He loves to travel around with a mean old hound." This description happens to match the policeman who is pursuing the trio. The sirens seduce Everett, Pete, and Delmar. The four of them record "Man of Constant Sorrow" at a radio broadcast station, calling themselves the Soggy Bottom Boys. While they initially record the song for some easy money, it later becomes famous around the state. The trio parts ways with Tommy after their car is discovered by police, and they continue their adventures on their own. Among the many encounters they have, the most notable are a car trip and bank robbery with one George Nelson who when robbing a bank, is angered by an old woman who calls him Baby Face Nelson, a run-in with three sirens who seduce the group and hypnotize them to sleep (using a technique similar to those in the Odyssey) before apparently turning Pete into a toad, as a reference to the witch Circe who turned Odysseus's men into animals, and a mugging by a cyclopean Bible salesman named Big Dan Teague. Everett and Delmar arrive in Everett’s home town only to find that Everett's wife, Penny (Holly Hunter), is engaged to Vernon T. Waldrip, campaign manager for gubernatorial candidate Homer Stokes. She refuses to take Everett back and is so ashamed of him that she has been telling their daughters he was hit by a train and killed. While watching a movie in a cinema, Everett and Delmar discover that Pete is still alive, the sirens having turned him in to collect the bounty on his head. After Everett and Delmar rescue him from jail, he tells them that he gave up the location of the treasure. Everett reveals that there was never any treasure; he only mentioned it to persuade the other men (to whom he was chained) to escape so he could reconcile with his estranged wife. Pete is outraged at this news, primarily because he had only had two weeks left on his original sentence, which has now been extended 50 years in light of his escape. A bruised Everett, Pete, and Delmar watch a Ku Klux Klan assembly.The main characters come across a lynch mob. As Everett scuffles with the furious Pete, the group stumbles upon the Ku Klux Klan, who have caught Tommy and are about to hang him. The three disguise themselves and attempt a rescue. Big Dan, one of the Klansmen, reveals their identities, and chaos ensues, in which the Grand Wizard of the gathering reveals himself as Stokes. The trio flee the scene with Tommy cutting the supports of a large burning cross, which falls on a group of Klansmen, including Big Dan. Everett convinces Pete, Delmar, and Tommy to help him win his wife back. They sneak into a Stokes campaign dinner that she is attending, disguised as musicians. Everett tries to convince his wife that he is "bona fide," but she brushes him off. The group begins an impromptu musical performance, during which the crowd recognizes them as the Soggy Bottom Boys and goes wild. Stokes, on the other hand, recognizes them as the group who disgraced his mob and shouts for the music to stop, angering the crowd. After he reveals his white supremacist views, the crowd runs him out of town on a rail. Pappy O’Daniel, the sitting state governor, seizes the opportunity and endorses the Soggy Bottom Boys, granting all of them a full pardon while the entire event is being recorded and played on the radio. Penny accepts Everett back, but she demands that he find her original ring if they are to be married. This series of events is similar to the return of Odysseus to Ithaca and his task of winning his wife Penelope from her suitors. As they leave the dinner, they run into a mob taking jubilant George Nelson to the jail to be electrocuted. Delmar comments, "Looks like George is right back on top again." The group sets out to retrieve the ring, which is at a cabin in the valley that Everett originally claimed to have hidden the treasure in. When they arrive, the police order their arrest and hanging. Everett protests that they had been pardoned on the radio, but the leader of the police force tells them that it is of no consequence, since the law is only a human institution, plus they have no radio. The guys begin to despair while Everett improvises a prayer to be saved. Suddenly, the valley is flooded and they are saved from hanging. Tommy finds the ring in a desk that he is floating on in the new lake, and they return to town. However, when Everett presents the ring to Penny, she tells him it is the wrong one and demands that he get her ring back. As Everett protests the futility of trying to find it at the bottom of the lake, the blind prophet the trio met earlier rolls by on his railway handcar, ending the film. Cast George Clooney as Ulysses Everett McGill. A dashing, fast-talking Dapper Dan type, Everett was imprisoned for practicing law without a license. He escapes from prison so that he can find his burried loot in a lake bed. Ulysses is the Latin language form of the name of Odysseus, the hero of Homer's Odyssey. Tim Blake Nelson as Delmar O'Donnell. Delmar is good-natured but simple-minded. He was imprisoned for robbing a Piggly Wiggly supermarket in Yazoo City; he claims at first that he is innocent, but later admits to the crime. Delmar says that he will spend his share of Everett's nonexistent $1.2-million buying back his family farm, believing that "you ain't no kind of man if you ain't got land." John Turturro as Pete. A crude, brutish criminal, Pete reveals little about his past. He believes in being true to your kin, even when his cousin Wash (Washington B. Hogwallop) betrays the group. He dreams of moving out west and opening a fine restaurant, where he will be the maître d'. He agreed to go along with the breakout, even though it is revealed that he only had two weeks left on his sentence. John Goodman as Daniel "Big Dan" Teague. Big Dan is one of the main enemies of the trio in the film. Masquerading as a Bible salesman, he cons Everett, then robs him. Later, he reveals the true identity of the trio when they are in disguise at a Ku Klux Klan rally. Big Dan has one eye, just as Polyphemus the Cyclops does in The Odyssey. It has been suggested that the character is based on the itinerant Bible salesman who exploits a naive woman in the short story Good Country People by Flannery O'Connor. Holly Hunter as Penny McGill, née Wharvey. A demanding woman, Penny Wharvey is fed up with Everett's previous behavior and divorces him while he is in prison, telling their children that he was hit by a train. She is engaged to Vernon T. Waldrip until Everett wins her back. Her name is believed to be taken from Odysseus' wife, Penelope. Charles Durning as Governor Menelaus "Pass the biscuits, Pappy" O'Daniel. Pappy is the incumbent Governor of Mississippi. He is frequently seen berating his son and his campaign managers, who are depicted as simpletons. Pappy O'Daniel's first name, Menelaus, is the name of a Greek hero, who fought alongside Odysseus in the Trojan War. His character is loosely based on former Governor of Texas W. Lee O'Daniel. Chris Thomas King as Tommy Johnson. Tommy Johnson is a very skilled blues musician. He is the accompanying guitarist in the band that Everett unwittingly forms, the Soggy Bottom Boys. He claims that he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for his skill on guitar. He seems to be loosely based on actual blues guitarist Tommy Johnson (see below). Daniel von Bargen as Sheriff Cooley. The sheriff pursues the trio for the duration of the film. He eventually captures them after they have been pardoned by the governor himself on the radio; he proposes to hang them regardless of this. He fits Tommy Johnson's description of the devil in that his sunglasses look like "big empty eyes" and he travels with a bloodhound. Most of the times he appears in the film there are flames nearby, usually reflected in his glasses. He further indicates his otherworldliness when, advised that it would be illegal to hang the pardoned fugitives, he sneeringly opines that "the law is a human institution." Wayne Duvall as Homer Stokes. Homer Stokes is the reform candidate in the upcoming election for the position of Governor of Mississippi. His travels the countryside with a midget mascot, who depicts the "little man," and with a broom, with which he promises to "sweep this state clean." He is secretly a Grand Wizard in the Ku Klux Klan. Ray McKinnon as Vernon T. Waldrip. Waldrip is Penny Wharvey's "bona fide" suitor. He is a weaselly campaign manager, working for Homer Stokes in his campaign against Pappy O'Daniel. It has been suggested that the character's name is a subtle nod to novelist Howard Waldrop, whose novella A Dozen Tough Jobs is one of the inspirations behind the film. The character's name can also be taken as an allusion to William Faulkner's If I Forget Thee, Jerusalem, which includes a character named Vernon Waldrip. The character, the situation, and the performance almost directly parallel a similar situation in John Ford's The Searchers. Michael Badalucco as George Nelson. A serial bankrobber who dislikes being called "Baby Face." His character, possibly based on Lester Joseph Gillis (better known as Baby Face Nelson), is depicted as being manic-depressive. Stephen Root as Mr. Lund the Radio Station Man. He is the blind radio station manager who pays musicians to "sing into a can" and originally records the Soggy Bottom Boys' hit, "Man of Constant Sorrow." Lee Weaver as the Blind Seer. An important character in the film, the Blind Seer accurately predicts the outcome of the trio's adventure as well as several other happenings. In the Odyssey, a similar role in the story is played by the shade of Tiresias. Ed Gale as the Little Man. Homer Stokes's mascot. Critical reception O Brother, Where Art Thou? was critically successful, with much praise going to its more modern adaption of The Odyssey, and the film received a 78% on Rotten Tomatoes. Southern politics Governor Menelaus "Pappy" O'Daniel, with a bust of Homer behind him.A major theme of the film is the connection between old-time music and political campaigning in the southern U.S. It makes reference to the traditions, institutions, and campaign practices of bossism and political reform that defined Southern politics in the first half of the twentieth century. The Ku Klux Klan, at the time a political force of white populism, is depicted burning crosses and engaging in ceremonial dance. The character of Menelaus "Pappy" O'Daniel, the Governor of Mississippi and host of the radio show "The Flour Hour," is similar in name and demeanor to W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel, one-time Governor of Texas and later U.S. Senator from the state of Texas. W. Lee O'Daniel was in the flour business, and used a backing band called the Light Crust Doughboys on his radio show. In one campaign, W. Lee O'Daniel carried a broom, an oft-used campaign device in the reform era, promising to sweep away patronage and corruption. His theme song had the hook "Please pass the biscuits, Pappy," emphasizing his connection with flour. While the film borrows from real-life politics, there are obvious differences between the characters in the film and historical political figures. The O'Daniel of the movie used "You Are My Sunshine" as his theme song (which was originally recorded by real-life Governor of Louisiana James Houston "Jimmie" Davis ) and Homer Stokes, as the challenger to the incumbent O'Daniel, portrays himself as the "reform candidate," using a broom as a prop. Music Much of the music used in the film is folk music from the period in which the film is set, including that of Virginia folk/bluegrass singer Ralph Stanley. The music selection is drawn from spiritual music of this region (including that of the Primitive Baptist Church) and other popular religious music, most notably the Fairfield Four, an a cappella quartet with a career extending back to 1921 who appear in the soundtrack and as gravediggers towards the film's end. There is a notable use of dirges and other macabre songs, a theme that often recurs in Appalachian music ("Oh Death," "Lonesome Valley," "Angel Band") in contrast to bright or corrective songs ("Keep On the Sunnyside," "You Are My Sunshine") in other parts of the movie. The lead-guitarist character (Tommy) of the Soggy Bottom Boys is an intended reference to Delta Blues artist Tommy Johnson, who claimed that he sold his soul to the devil in return for being able to play the guitar. T-Bone Burnett has explained that the character was not meant to represent Robert Johnson. http://www.youknow-forkids.com/coenbrothersfaq.pdf rather, the character, portrayed by blues/rap artist Chris Thomas King, is probably moreover a reference to Tommy Johnson, who was actually claimed to have sold his soul to the devil. Soggy Bottom Boys The "Soggy Bottom Boys" singing Man of Constant Sorrow. Jordan Rivers and the Soggy Bottom Boys are the fictitious Depression-era "old-timey music" quartet and accompaniment from the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou? The name Soggy Bottom Boys is possibly a reference to the famous Foggy Mountain Boys, a West Virginia bluegrass band of the 1940s with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, but also a humorous name given the two backup singers who were wet from being baptized earlier in the film. The Soggy Bottom Boys’ hit single is Dick Burnett's "Man of Constant Sorrow," a song that had already enjoyed much success in real life. After the film's release, the fictional band became so popular that the actual talents behind the music (who were dubbed into the movie) Ralph Stanley, John Hartford, Alison Krauss, Emmylou Harris, Gillian Welch, Dan Tyminski, Chris Sharp, and others, performed music from O Brother, Where Art Thou? in a Down from the Mountain concert tour and film. However, "I'll Fly Away" in the original soundtrack is performed not by Krauss and Welch (as it is on the CD release and was on the concert tour) but by the inimitable Kossoy Sisters with Erik Darling (of The Weavers, Tarriers and Rooftop Singers) accompanying on long-neck 5-string banjo. The voices behind the Soggy Bottom Boys are well-known bluegrass musicians: Union Station's Dan Tyminski (lead on "Man of Constant Sorrow"), Nashville songwriter Harley Allen, and the Nashville Bluegrass Band's Pat Enright. The three won a CMA Award for Single of the Year and a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals, both for the song "Man of Constant Sorrow." Tim Blake Nelson, playing Delmar O'Donnell in the movie (one of the Soggy Bottom Boys), sang the lead vocal himself for the song "In the Jailhouse Now." "Man of Constant Sorrow" has five variations: two are used in the movie, one in the music video, and two in the soundtrack. Two of the variations feature the verses being sung back-to-back, and the other three variations feature additional music between each verse. Despite its subsequent success, "Man of Constant Sorrow" received little significant radio airplay and only charted at #35 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks charts in 2002. Similarities between the film and The Odyssey The opening credits explicity state the story of the film is based on The Odyssey by Homer. The similarities between O Brother, Where Art Thou? and Homer's Odyssey are numerous, ranging from the obvious to the obscure. While the Coens did not originally intend to base the film on Homer's epic, Joel Coen has been quoted as saying: While the overall plot is only vaguely similar to that of the Odyssey, there are certain "episodes" that closely mirror the film's classical influence. References The only direct reference is the line of text shown at the beginning of the film, "O Muse! Sing in me, and through me tell the story...", which is one translation of the first line of the Odyssey. In addition to this, there are a few characters in the film that share names with similar characters in the Odyssey: Ulysses, the Latin form of the Greek name Odysseus, is the first name of the film's protagonist, Ulysses Everett McGill. Menelaus "Pappy" O'Daniel, who pardons the Soggy Bottom Boys at the end of the film, shares his first name with the King of Sparta, who fought alongside Odysseus at Troy. Pappy O'Daniel's challenger in the election is Homer Stokes, who shares his first name with the author of the classical text. Odysseus' wife was named Penelope. Penny, a shortened version of Penelope, is the name of Everett’s wife. Pete makes a reference to Papillon. However at the time the film is set, Henri Charrière "Papillon" would have still been undergoing his sentence and his autobiography was not written until 1969. The film's subtitles state that Pete quotes Papillon however a script for the film on the internet quotes him as saying "Pab-you-lum!". References to Homer When we see Pappy O'Daniel discussing the upcoming campaign in the restaurant, over his shoulder we can see a bust of Homer. Many other characters are related without literal translation. The Sirens (washing women) that seduce the heroes are the Sirens that attempt to seduce Odysseus and his crew. Vernon symbolizes the suitors waiting to marry Penelope. The Blind Seer (railroad hobo) is Tiresias, the blind ghost prophet. Daniel "Big Dan" Teague (John Goodman), with his one good eye, is an allusion to Polyphemus the Cyclops. The Lotus Eaters are represented by the congregation walking trancelike to be baptized. Plot parallels Parallels with the journey of Odysseus During the movie, Everett denied the power of God although both Delmar and Pete felt saved by God after they were baptized in the river. At the end, Everett prays to God and apologizes for his denial and asks Him to save the three heroes from the hanging they are about to fall victims to. A sudden flood comes and saves them. During The Odyssey, Odysseus doesn't want to give the gods credit for helping him win battles in the war. This pride causes his journey home to be immensely prolonged. At the end, Odysseus sees the error of his ways and thanks the gods for what they have done for them. The old man on the railroad handcar is most likely an allusion to Tiresias, who prophesied the trials and tribulations of Odysseus' journey home when Odysseus visited him in the underworld. The underworld here is represented by the chain gang, which our heroes escape. The merciless sheriff is analogous to the god Poseidon, who torments Odysseus and prolongs his journey home. A link between Satan and Poseidon may be being made when Everett mentions that Satan carries "a giant hay fork" (a trident); both figures are often depicted with just such an instrument. In the penultimate scene of the film, the sheriff's dog and his hired men are killed in a surprise flood (though we do not know if the sheriff himself is dead, as no body appears), while Everett and his friends save themselves; Poseidon, god of the waters, destroyed all who had manned a ship sent to aid Odysseus, turning them into a rock in retaliation for the blinding of his son Polyphemus, and also plagued Odysseus himself constantly with floods. The sheriff may also reference the god Hades, who, as ruler of the underworld, is sometimes compared to Satan; the sheriff's hound echoes Cerberus, the three-headed watchdog of the underworld. The travelers' siege in the Hogwallop barn parallels Odysseus' dangerous course between Scylla and Charybdis, when Everett helplessly cries "Damn! We're in a tight spot!" several times. This also could have paralleled Odysseus' peril in Polyphemus' cave. There is a trancelike progression of worshipers seeking to be baptized. Their glassy-eyed placidity draws a parallel with the Lotus-Eaters of the Odyssey. At one point, George Nelson shoots at a herd of cattle. Odysseus' fellow travelers slaughter the cows of the sun god Helios; Odysseus warns his men against killing the sacred oxen; Delmar says, "Oh, George, Not the livestock!" Because of this, in The Odyssey, Odysseus' ship is struck by a thunderbolt, killing all but him. In the film, George is sent to be executed in the electric chair. During the parade to the execution, someone leading a cow behind the mob yells, "Cow killer!" Continuing their journey, Pete tells them to pull over at a river because he sees beautiful, singing women. These women can be compared to the Sirens in The Odyssey that attract men, only to kill them in the end. After their encounter with the "Sirens," Everett and Delmar wake up to find Pete missing; Delmar is convinced Pete has been transformed into a frog. This is similar to Odysseus' encounter with Circe the witch-goddess, who turns half of his crew into swine. In the restaurant, Everett and Delmar encounter the one eyed bible salesman who then attacks them in a field to steal their money and car. This can be seen as a parallel to when Odysseus and his crew discover the cyclops Polyphemus which devours many of the crew Everett has to enter the dinner party in disguise to avoid detection. This parallels when Odysseus had to enter his own palace disguised as a beggar. Odysseus did not reveal himself before his wife's suitors until having strung his own bow and shot through twelve axes, a feat that only he could perform; similarly, the Soggy Bottom Boys' anonymous recording of "A Man of Constant Sorrow" becomes a smash hit, a fact that they remain unaware of until they perform the song again at the dinner party. Parallels with the underworld The scene in the theater, when Pete tries to warn Everett and Delmar, parallels Odysseus' descent into the underworld, Hades. Delmar, believing that Pete had died, mistakes him (and thus also the other people in the theater) for a ghost. In this scene, Pete parallels Tiresias in the underworld. Following Everett's beating by Waldrip, Everett warns Delmar of the treachery of women. This is much like how Agamemnon, who had been betrayed by his wife and killed by her new husband, warns Odysseus not to trust women. Miscellaneous parallels The dialogue in a scene between Everett and his daughters also gives a nod to its ancient influence. Using Latin terms, one of the girls says that Waldrip is bona fide, and Everett responds that he is the pater familiae. The girls also use the word "suitor" at least twice. In the scene where the trio and George Nelson are sitting around the fire after the robbery at Itta Bena, there are Greek columns in the background. (The columns could possibly be meant to be Windsor Ruins, located outside of Port Gibson, MS.) Everett also comes back to stop the marriage and fight Vernon, much as Odysseus comes back to kill the suitors. Everett, however, is badly beaten by Vernon, perhaps creating a parallel with Telemachus' inability to discharge his mother's suitors. When Everett, Pete, Delmar, and Tommy encounter the sheriff at the cabin, the sheriff remarks, "End of the road, boys. It's had its twists and turns." The opening line of The Odyssey is "Sing to me of the man, Muse, the man of twists and turns." In the KKK scene, Everett, Pete and Delmar disguise themselves as members of the clan. In The Odyssey, the blind cyclops lets his sheep out to graze, trying to make sure that no one was attempting to escape by feeling the sheep's backs, but Odysseus tied his men and himself to the undersides of the sheep and so they got out. Everett calls himself "The Old Campaigner" on various occasions, an epithet for Odysseus. Everett has a daughter that he has never seen in person, much the same as Odysseus and Telemachus Other allusions The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 Preston Sturges film Sullivan's Travels, in which the protagonist (a director) wants to direct a film about the Great Depression called O Brother, Where Art Thou? that will be a "commentary on modern conditions, stark realism, the problems that confront the average man." Lacking any experience in this area, the director sets out on a journey to experience the human suffering of the average man but is sabotaged by his anxious studio. The film has some similarity in tone to Sturges' film, including scenes with prison gangs and a black church choir. The sheriff who pursues Everett, Pete, and Delmar wears a particular style of sunglasses (glacier glasses) even at night, similar to the sheriff seen in Cool Hand Luke. The scene in which Everett, Pete, and Delmar infiltrate a Ku Klux Klan rally to save Tommy is strongly reminiscent of the scene in The Wizard of Oz in which the Tin Woodman, the Cowardly Lion, and the Scarecrow arrive at the Wicked Witch of the West's castle and infiltrate the Winkie Army in order to enter the castle and save Dorothy. The KKK members march in the same formation as the Winkies and chant the same "oh-we-oh" battle chant, while Everett, Pete, and Delmar infiltrate the group in the same manner as the Wizard of Oz scene, namely by luring three members out of the formation, knocking them out and donning their uniforms. Pappy O'Daniel's speech in which he pardons the trio also contains allusions to the Wizard's farewell speech to Oz. The film also draws on and alludes to the Southern Gothic literary tradition of writers such as William Faulkner, Flannery O'Connor, and Eudora Welty. Look of the film The use of color correction in the film gives it a distinctive sepia tone. One of the notable features of the film is its use of digital color correction to give the film a sepia-tinted look. Filmed near locations in Canton, MS; Florence, SC; and Wardville, LA. This was the fifth film collaboration between the Coen Brothers and Roger Deakins, and it was slated to be shot in Mississippi at a time of year when the foliage, grass, trees, and bushes would be a lush green. It was filmed near locations in Canton, MS; Florence, SC; and Wardville, LA. After shooting tests, including film bipack and bleach bypass techniques, Deakins suggested digital mastering be used. The cinematographer subsequently spent eight weeks fine-tuning the look, mainly desaturating the greens and timing the digital files. This made it the first feature film to be entirely color corrected by digital means, narrowly beating Nick Park's Chicken Run. Deakins was recognized with both Oscar and ASC Outstanding Achievement Award nominations for his work on the film. See also The Odyssey Homer Pat O'Daniel and His Hillbilly Boys W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel References External links Coenesque: The Films of the Coen Brothers You Know, For Kids! O Brother, Where Art Thou? page O Brother, Where Art Thou? at Video.com Summary of The Odyssey, book by book, at mythweb.com Summary of The Odyssey at bookrags.com Official website for the soundtrack | O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou? |@lemmatized brother:12 art:9 thou:9 adventure:3 film:51 direct:3 joel:2 ethan:1 coen:5 star:1 george:11 clooney:3 john:8 turturro:3 tim:4 blake:4 nelson:11 goodman:3 holly:3 hunter:3 charles:2 durning:2 set:8 mississippi:5 great:2 depression:4 imaginative:1 story:5 loosely:3 base:7 homer:17 odyssey:22 display:1 sly:1 reference:13 another:1 type:2 mythmaking:1 filmmaking:1 specifically:1 satire:1 sullivan:2 travel:7 preston:2 sturges:3 title:2 character:19 make:6 grim:1 socially:1 conscious:1 call:7 privileged:1 director:3 experience:3 hardship:1 decide:1 comedic:2 value:1 self:1 important:2 drama:1 similarly:2 movie:9 also:13 tone:3 imagery:1 era:3 realism:2 interlace:1 element:1 american:1 root:2 soundtrack:5 win:6 grammy:2 album:1 year:4 plot:3 ulysses:5 everett:52 mcgill:4 know:5 pete:27 hogwallop:3 delmar:26 donnell:3 escape:8 chain:4 gang:3 retrieve:2 million:2 treasure:5 claim:6 steal:2 armored:1 car:5 bury:1 incarceration:1 four:3 day:1 find:7 valley:4 hide:2 flood:5 create:2 arkabutla:1 lake:4 part:3 new:3 hydroelectric:1 project:1 early:2 try:5 jump:1 onto:1 move:2 train:3 hobo:2 fall:3 due:1 inability:2 get:4 encounter:6 blind:8 man:20 manual:1 railroad:3 hitch:1 ride:1 foretell:1 future:1 similar:10 oracle:1 group:9 walk:2 cousin:2 house:1 remove:1 turn:8 authority:1 need:1 money:3 support:2 family:2 burning:2 barn:2 sleep:2 continue:4 journey:8 pass:3 congregation:2 bank:3 river:4 entice:1 idea:1 baptism:1 briefly:1 young:1 guitarist:5 name:19 tommy:17 johnson:9 similarity:4 blue:6 play:6 real:4 life:4 musician:5 chris:4 thomas:3 king:4 ask:2 crossroad:1 middle:1 nowhere:1 reveal:6 sell:4 soul:4 devil:6 exchange:2 ability:1 guitar:3 describe:1 white:4 folks:1 empty:2 eye:4 big:9 hollow:1 voice:2 love:1 around:3 mean:4 old:6 hound:2 description:2 happen:1 match:1 policeman:1 pursue:3 trio:10 siren:6 seduce:4 record:5 constant:9 sorrow:9 radio:10 broadcast:1 station:4 soggy:15 bottom:16 boy:15 initially:1 song:9 easy:1 later:4 become:3 famous:2 state:6 way:2 discover:3 police:3 among:1 many:3 notable:3 trip:1 robbery:2 one:17 rob:3 anger:2 woman:8 baby:3 face:3 run:4 three:7 hypnotize:1 use:13 technique:2 apparently:1 toad:1 witch:3 circe:2 odysseus:32 men:6 animal:1 mugging:1 cyclopean:1 bible:4 salesman:4 dan:10 teague:3 arrive:3 home:4 town:3 wife:10 penny:7 engage:3 vernon:7 waldrip:7 campaign:9 manager:4 gubernatorial:1 candidate:3 stokes:10 refuse:1 take:4 back:13 ashamed:1 tell:7 daughter:3 hit:5 kill:7 watch:2 cinema:1 still:2 alive:1 collect:1 bounty:1 head:2 rescue:2 jail:2 give:6 location:3 reveals:3 never:2 mention:2 persuade:1 could:4 reconcile:1 estranged:1 outrage:1 news:1 primarily:1 two:6 week:3 leave:3 original:3 sentence:3 extend:2 light:2 bruised:1 ku:6 klux:6 klan:6 assembly:1 main:2 come:4 across:1 lynch:1 mob:4 scuffle:1 furious:1 stumble:1 upon:1 catch:1 hang:4 disguise:6 attempt:3 klansman:2 identity:2 chaos:1 ensues:1 grand:2 wizard:5 gathering:1 flee:1 scene:11 cut:1 large:1 cross:2 include:6 convinces:1 help:2 sneak:1 dinner:4 attend:1 convince:2 bona:3 fide:3 brush:1 begin:2 impromptu:1 musical:1 performance:2 crowd:3 recognize:3 go:3 wild:1 hand:2 disgrace:1 shout:1 music:14 stop:2 supremacist:1 view:1 rail:1 pappy:14 daniel:21 sit:2 governor:10 seize:1 opportunity:1 endorse:1 grant:1 full:1 pardon:5 entire:1 event:2 accepts:1 demand:3 ring:5 marry:2 series:1 return:3 ithaca:1 task:1 penelope:5 suitor:7 jubilant:1 electrocute:1 comment:1 look:5 like:3 right:1 top:1 cabin:2 originally:4 order:2 arrest:1 hanging:2 protest:2 leader:1 force:2 consequence:1 since:1 law:3 human:3 institution:3 plus:1 guys:1 despair:1 improvise:1 prayer:1 save:8 suddenly:1 desk:1 float:1 however:5 present:1 wrong:1 futility:1 prophet:2 meet:1 roll:1 railway:1 handcar:2 end:7 cast:1 dashing:1 fast:1 talk:1 dapper:1 imprison:2 practice:2 without:2 license:1 prison:3 burried:1 loot:1 bed:1 latin:3 language:1 form:3 hero:5 good:4 natured:1 simple:1 mind:1 piggly:1 wiggly:1 supermarket:1 yazoo:1 city:1 first:8 innocent:1 admits:1 crime:1 say:5 spend:2 share:4 nonexistent:1 buying:1 farm:1 believe:4 kind:1 land:1 crude:1 brutish:1 criminal:1 little:4 past:1 true:2 kin:1 even:3 wash:2 washington:1 b:1 betray:2 dream:1 west:3 open:1 fine:2 restaurant:3 maître:1 agree:1 along:1 breakout:1 though:2 enemy:1 masquerade:1 con:1 rally:2 polyphemus:5 cyclops:4 suggest:3 itinerant:1 exploit:1 naive:1 short:1 country:3 people:2 flannery:2 connor:2 née:1 wharvey:3 feed:1 previous:1 behavior:1 divorce:1 child:1 menelaus:5 biscuit:2 incumbent:2 frequently:1 see:10 berate:1 son:2 depict:5 simpleton:1 greek:3 fight:3 alongside:2 trojan:1 war:2 former:1 texas:3 w:5 lee:6 skilled:1 accompany:2 band:6 unwittingly:1 skill:1 seem:1 actual:2 von:1 bargen:1 sheriff:11 cooley:1 duration:1 eventually:1 capture:1 propose:1 regardless:1 fit:1 sunglass:2 bloodhound:1 time:8 appear:3 flame:1 nearby:1 usually:1 reflect:1 glass:2 far:1 indicate:1 otherworldliness:1 advise:1 would:3 illegal:1 pardoned:1 fugitive:1 sneeringly:1 opine:1 wayne:1 duvall:1 reform:4 upcoming:2 election:2 position:1 countryside:1 midget:1 mascot:2 broom:3 promise:2 sweep:2 clean:1 secretly:1 ray:1 mckinnon:1 weaselly:1 work:2 subtle:1 nod:2 novelist:1 howard:1 waldrop:1 whose:1 novella:1 dozen:1 tough:1 job:1 inspiration:1 behind:5 allusion:5 william:2 faulkner:2 forget:1 thee:1 jerusalem:1 situation:2 almost:1 directly:1 parallel:13 ford:1 searcher:1 michael:1 badalucco:1 serial:1 bankrobber:1 dislike:1 possibly:3 lester:2 joseph:1 gillis:1 manic:1 depressive:1 stephen:1 mr:1 lund:1 pay:1 sing:6 weaver:2 seer:3 accurately:1 predict:1 outcome:1 well:2 several:2 happening:1 role:1 shade:1 tiresias:4 ed:1 gale:1 critical:1 reception:1 critically:1 successful:1 much:6 praise:1 modern:2 adaption:1 receive:2 rotten:1 tomato:1 southern:4 politics:3 bust:2 major:1 theme:4 connection:2 political:4 campaigning:1 u:3 tradition:2 bossism:1 define:1 half:2 twentieth:1 century:1 populism:1 burn:1 ceremonial:1 dance:1 host:1 show:3 flour:3 hour:1 demeanor:1 senator:1 business:1 backing:1 crust:1 doughboy:1 carry:2 oft:1 device:1 away:2 patronage:1 corruption:1 hook:1 please:1 emphasize:1 borrow:1 obvious:2 difference:1 historical:1 figure:2 sunshine:2 louisiana:1 james:1 houston:1 jimmie:1 davis:1 challenger:2 portray:2 prop:1 folk:2 period:1 virginia:2 bluegrass:4 singer:3 ralph:2 stanley:2 selection:1 draw:3 spiritual:1 region:1 primitive:1 baptist:1 church:2 popular:2 religious:1 notably:1 fairfield:1 cappella:1 quartet:2 career:1 gravedigger:1 towards:1 dirge:1 macabre:1 often:2 recur:1 appalachian:1 oh:4 death:1 lonesome:1 angel:1 contrast:1 bright:1 corrective:1 keep:1 sunnyside:1 lead:4 intended:1 delta:1 artist:2 able:1 bone:1 burnett:2 explain:1 represent:3 robert:1 http:1 www:1 youknow:1 forkids:1 com:4 coenbrothersfaq:1 pdf:1 rather:1 rap:1 probably:1 moreover:1 actually:1 boys:3 jordan:1 fictitious:1 timey:1 accompaniment:1 foggy:1 mountain:2 flatt:1 earl:1 scruggs:1 humorous:1 backup:1 wet:1 baptize:4 earlier:1 single:3 dick:1 already:1 enjoy:1 success:2 release:2 fictional:1 talent:1 dub:1 hartford:1 alison:1 krauss:2 emmylou:1 harris:1 gillian:1 welch:2 tyminski:2 sharp:1 others:1 perform:4 concert:2 tour:2 fly:1 cd:1 inimitable:1 kossoy:1 sister:1 erik:1 darling:1 tarriers:1 rooftop:1 long:1 neck:1 string:2 banjo:1 union:1 nashville:2 songwriter:1 harley:1 allen:1 pat:2 enright:1 cma:1 award:3 best:1 collaboration:2 vocal:2 jailhouse:1 five:1 variation:3 video:2 feature:4 verse:2 additional:1 despite:1 subsequent:1 significant:1 airplay:1 chart:2 billboard:1 hot:1 track:1 opening:2 credit:2 explicity:1 numerous:1 range:1 obscure:1 coens:1 intend:1 epic:1 quote:3 overall:1 vaguely:1 certain:1 episode:1 closely:1 mirror:1 classical:2 influence:2 line:3 text:2 beginning:1 muse:2 translation:2 addition:1 protagonist:2 sparta:1 troy:1 author:1 shortened:1 version:1 papillon:3 henri:1 charrière:1 undergo:1 autobiography:1 write:1 subtitle:1 script:1 internet:1 pab:1 lum:1 discuss:1 shoulder:1 relate:1 literal:1 crew:4 symbolize:1 wait:1 ghost:2 lotus:2 eater:2 trancelike:2 deny:1 power:1 god:9 although:1 felt:1 prays:1 apologize:1 denial:1 victim:1 sudden:1 want:2 battle:2 pride:1 cause:1 immensely:1 prolong:2 error:1 thanks:1 likely:1 prophesy:1 trial:1 tribulation:1 visit:1 underworld:7 merciless:1 analogous:1 poseidon:3 torment:1 link:2 satan:3 may:2 giant:1 hay:1 fork:1 trident:1 instrument:1 penultimate:1 dog:1 hire:1 surprise:1 dead:1 body:1 friend:1 water:1 destroy:1 ship:2 send:2 aid:1 rock:1 retaliation:1 blinding:1 plague:1 constantly:1 hades:2 ruler:1 sometimes:1 compare:2 echo:1 cerberus:1 watchdog:1 traveler:2 siege:1 dangerous:1 course:1 scylla:1 charybdis:1 helplessly:1 cry:1 damn:1 tight:1 spot:1 peril:1 cave:1 progression:1 worshiper:1 seek:1 glassy:1 eyed:2 placidity:1 point:1 shoot:3 herd:1 cattle:1 fellow:1 slaughter:1 cow:3 sun:1 helios:1 warn:3 sacred:1 ox:1 livestock:1 strike:1 thunderbolt:1 execute:1 electric:1 chair:1 parade:1 execution:1 someone:1 yell:1 killer:1 pull:1 beautiful:1 singing:1 attract:1 sirens:1 wake:1 miss:1 transform:1 frog:1 goddess:1 swine:1 attack:1 field:1 devour:1 enter:3 party:2 avoid:1 detection:1 palace:1 beggar:1 bow:1 shot:1 twelve:1 ax:1 feat:1 anonymous:1 recording:1 smash:1 fact:1 remain:1 unaware:1 theater:2 descent:1 die:1 mistake:1 thus:1 follow:1 beating:1 warns:1 treachery:1 agamemnon:1 husband:1 trust:1 miscellaneous:1 dialogue:1 ancient:1 term:1 girl:2 responds:1 pater:1 familiae:1 word:1 least:1 twice:1 fire:1 itta:1 bena:1 column:2 background:1 windsor:1 ruin:1 locate:1 outside:1 port:1 gibson:1 marriage:1 badly:1 beat:2 perhaps:1 telemachus:2 discharge:1 mother:1 remark:1 road:1 twist:2 kkk:2 member:3 clan:1 let:1 sheep:3 graze:1 sure:1 feel:1 tie:1 underside:1 campaigner:1 various:1 occasion:1 epithet:1 person:1 commentary:1 condition:1 stark:1 problem:1 confront:1 average:2 lack:1 area:1 suffering:1 sabotage:1 anxious:1 studio:1 black:1 choir:1 wear:1 particular:1 style:1 glacier:1 night:1 cool:1 luke:1 infiltrate:3 strongly:1 reminiscent:1 oz:3 tin:1 woodman:1 cowardly:1 lion:1 scarecrow:1 wicked:1 castle:2 winkie:1 army:1 dorothy:1 march:1 formation:2 winkies:1 chant:2 manner:1 namely:1 lure:1 knock:1 uniform:1 speech:2 contain:1 farewell:1 alludes:1 gothic:1 literary:1 writer:1 eudora:1 welty:1 color:3 correction:2 distinctive:1 sepia:2 digital:4 tinted:1 near:2 canton:2 florence:2 sc:2 wardville:2 la:2 fifth:1 roger:1 deakins:3 slat:1 foliage:1 grass:1 tree:1 bush:1 lush:1 green:2 test:1 bipack:1 bleach:1 bypass:1 mastering:1 cinematographer:1 subsequently:1 eight:1 tune:1 mainly:1 desaturating:1 file:1 entirely:1 correct:1 narrowly:1 nick:1 park:1 chicken:1 oscar:1 asc:1 outstanding:1 achievement:1 nomination:1 hillbilly:1 external:1 coenesque:1 kid:1 page:1 summary:2 book:2 mythweb:1 bookrags:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram joel_ethan:1 ethan_coen:1 george_clooney:3 john_turturro:3 tim_blake:4 holly_hunter:3 homer_odyssey:4 socially_conscious:1 coen_brother:3 ulysses_everett:3 everett_mcgill:3 pete_delmar:9 everett_pete:7 soggy_bottom:15 everett_delmar:6 homer_stokes:7 ku_klux:6 klux_klan:6 bona_fide:3 white_supremacist:1 pappy_daniel:12 good_natured:1 william_faulkner:2 manic_depressive:1 rotten_tomato:1 twentieth_century:1 bone_burnett:1 http_www:1 earl_scruggs:1 emmylou_harris:1 grammy_award:1 radio_airplay:1 billboard_hot:1 joel_coen:1 henri_charrière:1 literal_translation:1 lotus_eater:2 odyssey_odysseus:2 trial_tribulation:1 scylla_charybdis:1 herd_cattle:1 cyclops_polyphemus:1 wizard_oz:2 wicked_witch:1 eudora_welty:1 roger_deakins:1 award_nomination:1 external_link:1 bookrags_com:1 |
993 | Merge_sort | Merge sort is an O(n log n) comparison-based sorting algorithm. In most implementations it is stable, meaning that it preserves the input order of equal elements in the sorted output. It is an example of the divide and conquer algorithmic paradigm. It was invented by John von Neumann in 1945. Algorithm Conceptually, a merge sort works as follows: If the list is of length 0 or 1, then it is already sorted. Otherwise: Divide the unsorted list into two sublists of about half the size. Sort each sublist recursively by re-applying merge sort. Merge the two sublists back into one sorted list. Merge sort incorporates two main ideas to improve its runtime: A small list will take fewer steps to sort than a large list. Fewer steps are required to construct a sorted list from two sorted lists than two unsorted lists. For example, you only have to traverse each list once if they're already sorted (see the merge function below for an example implementation). Example: Using merge sort to sort a list of integers contained in an array: Suppose we have an array A with n indices ranging from to . We apply merge sort to and where c is the integer part of . When the two halves are returned they will have been sorted. They can now be merged together to form a sorted array. In a simple pseudocode form, the algorithm could look something like this: function merge_sort(m) var list left, right, result if length(m) ≤ 1 return m // This calculation is for 1-based arrays. For 0-based, use length(m)/2 - 1. var middle = length(m) / 2 for each x in m up to middle add x to left for each x in m after middle add x to right left = merge_sort(left) right = merge_sort(right) if left.last_item > right.first_item result = merge(left, right) else result = append(left, right) return result There are several variants for the merge() function, the simplest variant could look like this: function merge(left,right) var list result while length(left) > 0 and length(right) > 0 if first(left) ≤ first(right) append first(left) to result left = rest(left) else append first(right) to result right = rest(right) end while while length(left) > 0 append left to result while length(right) > 0 append right to result return result Analysis A recursive merge sort algorithm used to sort an array of 7 integer values. These are the steps a human would take to emulate merge sort (top-down). In sorting n objects, merge sort has an average and worst-case performance of O(n log n). If the running time of merge sort for a list of length n is T(n), then the recurrence T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n follows from the definition of the algorithm (apply the algorithm to two lists of half the size of the original list, and add the n steps taken to merge the resulting two lists). The closed form follows from the master theorem. In the worst case, merge sort does approximately (n ⌈lg n⌉ - 2⌈lg n⌉ + 1) comparisons, which is between (n lg n - n + 1) and (n lg n + n + O(lg n)). The worst case number given here does not agree with that given in Knuth's Art of Computer Programming, Vol 3. The discrepancy is due to Knuth analyzing a variant implementation of merge sort that is slightly sub-optimal For large n and a randomly ordered input list, merge sort's expected (average) number of comparisons approaches α·n fewer than the worst case where In the worst case, merge sort does about 39% fewer comparisons than quicksort does in the average case; merge sort always makes fewer comparisons than quicksort, except in extremely rare cases, when they tie, where merge sort's worst case is found simultaneously with quicksort's best case. In terms of moves, merge sort's worst case complexity is O(n log n)—the same complexity as quicksort's best case, and merge sort's best case takes about half as many iterations as the worst case. Recursive implementations of merge sort make 2n − 1 method calls in the worst case, compared to quicksort's n, thus has roughly twice as much recursive overhead as quicksort. However, iterative, non-recursive, implementations of merge sort, avoiding method call overhead, are not difficult to code. Merge sort's most common implementation does not sort in place; therefore, the memory size of the input must be allocated for the sorted output to be stored in (see below for versions that need only n/2 extra space). Merge sort as described here also has an often overlooked, but practically important, best-case property. If the input is already sorted, its complexity falls to O(n). Specifically, n-1 comparisons and zero moves are performed, which is the same as for simply running through the input, checking if it is pre-sorted. Sorting in-place is possible (e.g., using lists rather than arrays) but is very complicated, and will offer little performance gains in practice, even if the algorithm runs in O(n log n) time. Jyrki Katajainen. Practical In-Place Mergesort. Nordic Journal of Computing. 1996. In these cases, algorithms like heapsort usually offer comparable speed, and are far less complex. Additionally, unlike the standard merge sort, in-place merge sort is not a stable sort. Merge sort is more efficient than quicksort for some types of lists if the data to be sorted can only be efficiently accessed sequentially, and is thus popular in languages such as Lisp, where sequentially accessed data structures are very common. Unlike some (efficient) implementations of quicksort, merge sort is a stable sort as long as the merge operation is implemented properly. As can be seen from the procedure merge sort, there are some demerits. One complaint we might raise is its use of 2n locations; the additional n locations were needed because one couldn't reasonably merge two sorted sets in place. But despite the use of this space the algorithm must still work hard: The contents of m is first copied into left and right and later into the list result on each invocation of merge_sort (variable names according to the pseudocode above). An alternative to this copying is to associate a new field of information with each key (the elements in m are called keys). This field will be used to link the keys and any associated information together in a sorted list (a key and its related information is called a record). Then the merging of the sorted lists proceeds by changing the link values; no records need to be moved at all. A field which contains only a link will generally be smaller than an entire record so less space will also be used. Another alternative for reducing the space overhead to n/2 is to maintain left and right as a combined structure, copy only the left part of m into temporary space, and to direct the merge routine to place the merged output into m. With this version it is better to allocate the temporary space outside the merge routine, so that only one allocation is needed. The excessive copying mentioned in the previous paragraph is also mitigated, since the last pair of lines before the return result statement (function merge in the pseudocode above) become superfluous. Merge sorting tape drives Merge sort is so inherently sequential that it's practical to run it using slow tape drives as input and output devices. It requires very little memory, and the memory required does not change with the number of data elements. For the same reason it is also useful for sorting data on disk that is too large to fit entirely into primary memory. On tape drives that can run both backwards and forwards, merge passes can be run in both directions, avoiding rewind time. If you have four tape drives, it works as follows: Divide the data to be sorted in half and put half on each of two tapes Merge individual pairs of records from the two tapes; write two-record chunks alternately to each of the two output tapes Merge the two-record chunks from the two output tapes into four-record chunks; write these alternately to the original two input tapes Merge the four-record chunks into eight-record chunks; write these alternately to the original two output tapes Repeat until you have one chunk containing all the data, sorted --- that is, for log n passes, where n is the number of records. For almost-sorted data on tape, a bottom-up "natural merge sort" variant of this algorithm is popular. The bottom-up "natural merge sort" merges whatever "chunks" of in-order records are already in the data. In the worst case (reversed data), "natural merge sort" performs the same as the above -- it merges individual records into 2-record chunks, then 2-record chunks into 4-record chunks, etc. In the best case (already mostly-sorted data), "natural merge sort" merges large already-sorted chunks into even larger chunks, hopefully finishing in fewer than log n passes. In a simple pseudocode form, the "natural merge sort" algorithm could look something like this: # Original data is on the input tape; the other tapes are blank function merge_sort(input_tape, output_tape, scratch_tape_C, scratch_tape_D) while any records remain on the input_tape while any records remain on the input_tape merge( input_tape, output_tape, scratch_tape_C) merge( input_tape, output_tape, scratch_tape_D) while any records remain on C or D merge( scratch_tape_C, scratch_tape_D, output_tape) merge( scratch_tape_C, scratch_tape_D, input_tape) # take the next sorted chunk from the input tapes, and merge into the single given output_tape. # tapes are scanned linearly. # tape[next] gives the record currently under the read head of that tape. # tape[current] gives the record previously under the read head of that tape. # (Generally both tape[current] and tape[previous] are buffered in RAM ...) function merge(left[], right[], output_tape[]) do if left[current] ≤ right[current] append left[current] to output_tape read next record from left tape else append right[current] to output_tape read next record from right tape while left[current] < left[next] and right[current] < right[next] if left[current] < left[next] append current_left_record to output_tape if right[current] < right[next] append current_right_record to output_tape return Either form of merge sort can be generalized to any number of tapes. Optimizing merge sort On modern computers, locality of reference can be of paramount importance in software optimization, because multi-level memory hierarchies are used. Cache-aware versions of the merge sort algorithm, whose operations have been specifically chosen to minimize the movement of pages in and out of a machine's memory cache, have been proposed. For example, the tiled merge sort algorithm stops partitioning subarrays when subarrays of size S are reached, where S is the number of data items fitting into a single page in memory. Each of these subarrays is sorted with an in-place sorting algorithm, to discourage memory swaps, and normal merge sort is then completed in the standard recursive fashion. This algorithm has demonstrated better performance on machines that benefit from cache optimization. A. LaMarca and R. E. Ladner, ``The influence of caches on the performance of sorting," Proc. 8th Ann. ACM-SIAM Symp. on Discrete Algorithms (SODA97), 1997, 370-379. M. A. Kronrod suggested in 1969 an alternative version of merge sort that used constant additional space . This algorithm was refined by Katajainen, Pasanen and Teuhola . Comparison with other sort algorithms Although heapsort has the same time bounds as merge sort, it requires only Θ(1) auxiliary space instead of merge sort's Θ(n''), and is often faster in practical implementations. Quicksort, however, is considered by many to be the fastest general-purpose sort algorithm. On the plus side, merge sort is a stable sort, parallelizes better, and is more efficient at handling slow-to-access sequential media. Merge sort is often the best choice for sorting a linked list: in this situation it is relatively easy to implement a merge sort in such a way that it requires only Θ(1) extra space, and the slow random-access performance of a linked list makes some other algorithms (such as quicksort) perform poorly, and others (such as heapsort) completely impossible. As of Perl 5.8, merge sort is its default sorting algorithm (it was quicksort in previous versions of Perl). In Java, the Arrays.sort() methods use merge sort or a tuned quicksort depending on the datatypes and for implementation efficiency switch to insertion sort when fewer than seven array elements are being sorted. https://openjdk.dev.java.net/source/browse/openjdk/jdk/trunk/jdk/src/share/classes/java/util/Arrays.java?view=markup Utility in online sorting Merge sort's merge operation is useful in online sorting, where the list to be sorted is received a piece at a time, instead of all at the beginning. In this application, we sort each new piece that is received using any sorting algorithm, and then merge it into our sorted list so far using the merge operation. However, this approach can be expensive in time and space if the received pieces are small compared to the sorted list — a better approach in this case is to store the list in a self-balancing binary search tree and add elements to it as they are received. References Citations and notes General External links Animated Sorting Algorithms: Merge Sort – graphical demonstration and discussion of array-based merge sort Analyze Merge Sort in an online Javascript IDE Merge sort applet with level order recursive calls to help improve algorithm analysis Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Merge sort Implementation of merge sort in various languages on Rosetta Code Literate implementations of merge sort in various languages on LiteratePrograms Implementation for C++ A colored graphical Java applet which allows experimentation with initial state and shows statistics Simon Tatham's explanation and code for a merge sort MergeSort tutorial and Java code for beginners | Merge_sort |@lemmatized merge:84 sort:94 n:38 log:6 comparison:7 base:4 algorithm:24 implementation:12 stable:4 mean:1 preserve:1 input:9 order:4 equal:1 element:5 sorted:12 output:7 example:5 divide:3 conquer:1 algorithmic:1 paradigm:1 invent:1 john:1 von:1 neumann:1 conceptually:1 work:3 follow:4 list:28 length:9 already:6 otherwise:1 unsorted:2 two:17 sublists:2 half:6 size:4 sublist:1 recursively:1 apply:3 back:1 one:5 incorporates:1 main:1 idea:1 improve:2 runtime:1 small:3 take:5 step:4 large:5 require:5 construct:1 traverse:1 see:3 function:7 use:14 integer:3 contain:3 array:10 suppose:1 index:1 range:1 c:3 part:2 return:6 together:2 form:5 simple:3 pseudocode:4 could:3 look:3 something:2 like:4 var:3 leave:21 right:25 result:13 calculation:1 middle:3 x:4 add:4 left:5 else:3 append:9 several:1 variant:4 first:5 rest:2 end:1 analysis:2 recursive:6 value:2 human:1 would:1 emulate:1 top:1 object:1 average:3 bad:10 case:19 performance:5 running:1 time:6 recurrence:1 definition:1 original:4 closed:1 master:1 theorem:1 approximately:1 lg:5 number:6 give:5 agree:1 knuth:2 art:1 computer:2 programming:1 vol:1 discrepancy:1 due:1 analyze:2 slightly:1 sub:1 optimal:1 randomly:1 expect:1 approach:3 α:1 quicksort:12 always:1 make:3 except:1 extremely:1 rare:1 tie:1 find:1 simultaneously:1 best:6 term:1 move:3 complexity:3 many:2 iteration:1 method:3 call:5 compare:2 thus:2 roughly:1 twice:1 much:1 overhead:3 however:3 iterative:1 non:1 avoid:2 difficult:1 code:4 common:2 place:7 therefore:1 memory:8 must:2 allocate:2 store:2 version:5 need:4 extra:2 space:10 described:1 also:4 often:3 overlooked:1 practically:1 important:1 property:1 fall:1 specifically:2 zero:1 perform:3 simply:1 run:5 check:1 pre:1 possible:1 e:2 g:1 rather:1 complicate:1 offer:2 little:2 gain:1 practice:1 even:2 jyrki:1 katajainen:2 practical:3 mergesort:2 nordic:1 journal:1 compute:1 algorithms:1 heapsort:3 usually:1 comparable:1 speed:1 far:2 less:2 complex:1 additionally:1 unlike:2 standard:2 efficient:3 type:1 data:13 efficiently:1 access:4 sequentially:2 popular:2 language:3 lisp:1 structure:3 long:1 operation:4 implement:2 properly:1 procedure:1 demerit:1 complaint:1 might:1 raise:1 location:2 additional:2 reasonably:1 set:1 despite:1 still:1 hard:1 content:1 copy:2 later:1 invocation:1 variable:1 name:1 accord:1 alternative:3 copying:2 associate:1 new:2 field:3 information:3 key:4 link:5 associated:1 related:1 record:22 merging:1 proceeds:1 change:2 generally:2 entire:1 another:1 reduce:1 maintain:1 combined:1 temporary:2 direct:1 routine:2 well:1 outside:1 allocation:1 excessive:1 mention:1 previous:3 paragraph:1 mitigate:1 since:1 last:1 pair:2 line:1 statement:1 become:1 superfluous:1 tape:24 drive:4 inherently:1 sequential:2 slow:3 device:1 reason:1 useful:2 disk:1 fit:2 entirely:1 primary:1 backwards:1 forward:1 pass:3 direction:1 rewind:1 four:3 put:1 individual:2 write:3 chunk:13 alternately:3 eight:1 repeat:1 almost:1 bottom:2 natural:5 whatever:1 reverse:1 etc:1 mostly:1 merges:1 hopefully:1 finish:1 blank:1 remain:3 next:8 single:2 scan:1 linearly:1 currently:1 read:4 head:2 current:10 previously:1 buffer:1 ram:1 either:1 generalize:1 optimize:1 modern:1 locality:1 reference:2 paramount:1 importance:1 software:1 optimization:2 multi:1 level:2 hierarchy:1 cache:4 aware:1 whose:1 choose:1 minimize:1 movement:1 page:2 machine:2 propose:1 tiled:1 stop:1 partition:1 subarrays:3 reach:1 item:1 discourage:1 swap:1 normal:1 complete:1 fashion:1 demonstrate:1 good:3 benefit:1 lamarca:1 r:1 ladner:1 influence:1 proc:1 ann:1 acm:1 siam:1 symp:1 discrete:1 kronrod:1 suggest:1 constant:1 refine:1 pasanen:1 teuhola:1 although:1 bound:1 θ:3 auxiliary:1 instead:2 faster:1 consider:1 fast:1 general:2 purpose:1 plus:1 side:1 parallelize:1 handle:1 medium:1 choice:1 situation:1 relatively:1 easy:1 way:1 random:1 linked:1 poorly:1 others:1 completely:1 impossible:1 perl:2 default:1 java:6 tuned:1 depend:1 datatypes:1 efficiency:1 switch:1 insertion:1 seven:1 http:1 openjdk:2 dev:1 net:1 source:1 browse:1 jdk:2 trunk:1 src:1 share:1 class:1 util:1 view:1 markup:1 utility:1 online:3 sorting:1 receive:3 piece:3 beginning:1 application:1 expensive:1 received:1 self:1 balancing:1 binary:1 search:1 tree:1 citation:1 note:1 external:1 animate:1 graphical:2 demonstration:1 discussion:1 javascript:1 ide:1 applet:2 help:1 dictionary:1 various:2 rosetta:1 literate:1 literateprograms:1 colored:1 allow:1 experimentation:1 initial:1 state:1 show:1 statistic:1 simon:1 tatham:1 explanation:1 tutorial:1 beginner:1 |@bigram merge_sort:56 von_neumann:1 unsorted_list:2 sorted_array:1 input_output:1 paramount_importance:1 linked_list:1 algorithm_quicksort:2 insertion_sort:1 java_util:1 external_link:1 java_applet:1 |
994 | Harmonic_oscillator | An undamped spring-mass system is a simple harmonic oscillator. In classical mechanics, a harmonic oscillator is a system which, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring force proportional to the displacement according to Hooke's law: where is a positive constant. If is the only force acting on the system, the system is called a simple harmonic oscillator, and it undergoes simple harmonic motion: sinusoidal oscillations about the equilibrium point, with a constant amplitude and a constant frequency (which does not depend on the amplitude). If a frictional force (damping) proportional to the velocity is also present, the harmonic oscillator is described as a damped oscillator. Depending on the friction coefficient, the system can: Oscillate with a frequency smaller than in the non-damped case, and an amplitude decreasing with time (underdamped oscillator). Decay exponentially to the equilibrium position, without oscillations (overdamped oscillator). If an external time dependent force is present, the harmonic oscillator is described as a driven oscillator. Mechanical examples include pendula (with small angles of displacement), masses connected to springs, and acoustical systems. Other analogous systems include electrical harmonic oscillators such as RLC circuits (see Equivalent systems below). The harmonic oscillator model is very important in physics, because any mass subject to a force in stable equilibrium acts as a harmonic oscillator for small vibrations. Harmonic oscillators occur widely in nature and are exploited in many manmade devices, such as clocks and radio circuits. They are the source of virtually all sinusoidal vibrations and waves. Simple harmonic oscillator Simple harmonic motion. A simple harmonic oscillator is an oscillator that is neither driven nor damped. Its motion is periodic— repeating itself in a sinusoidal fashion with constant amplitude, A. Simple harmonic motion SHM can serve as a mathematical model of a variety of motions, such as a pendulum with small amplitudes and a mass on a spring. It also provides the basis of the characterization of more complicated motions through the techniques of Fourier analysis. In addition to its amplitude, the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator is characterized by its period T, the time for a single oscillation, its frequency f, the reciprocal of the period f = 1/T (i.e. the number of cycles per unit time), and its phase φ, which determines the starting point on the sine wave. The period and frequency are constants determined by the overall system, while the amplitude and phase are determined by the initial conditions (position and velocity) of that system. Overall then, the equation describing simple harmonic motion is . Alternatively a cosine can be used in place of the sine with the phase shifted by π/2. The general differential force equation for an object of mass m experiencing SHM is: , where k is the 'spring constant' which relates the displacement of the object to the force applied to the object. The general solutions of this equation is given above with the frequency of the oscillations given by: . The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator oscillate with the same frequency as the position but with shifted phases. The velocity is maximum for zero displacement, while the acceleration is in the opposite direction as the displacement. The potential energy of SHM is: . Damped harmonic oscillator In real oscillators friction, or damping, slows the motion of the system. In many vibrating systems the frictional force Ff can be modeled as being proportional to the velocity v of the object: Ff = −cv, where where c is the viscous damping coefficient, given in units of newton-seconds per meter. Similar damped oscillator behavior occurs for a diverse range of disciplines that include control engineering, mechanical engineering and electrical engineering. The physical quantity that is oscillating varies greatly, and could be the swaying of a tall building in the wind, the speed of an electric motor, or the current through a RLC circuit. Generally, damped harmonic oscillators satisfy: , where ω0 is the undamped angular frequency of the oscillator and ς is a system dependent constant called the damping ratio. (For a mass on a spring having a spring constant k and a damping coefficient c, ω0 = and ς = c/2mω0.) Dependence of the system behavior on the value of the damping ratio . The value of the damping ratio ς critically determines the behavior of the damped system. In particular a damped harmonic oscillator can be: Overdamped (ς > 1): The system returns (exponentially decays) to equilibrium without oscillating. Larger values of the damping ratio ς return to equilibrium slower. Critically damped (ς = 1): The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible without oscillating. This is often desired for the damping of systems such as doors. Underdamped (ς < 1): The system oscillates (with a slightly different frequency then the undamped case) with the amplitude gradually decreasing to zero. The frequency of the underdamped harmonic oscillator is given by Step-response of a damped harmonic oscillator; curves are plotted for three values of μ=ω1 =ω0√(1- ζ2) . Time is in units of the decay time τ = 1/(ζ ω0). Driven harmonic oscillators Driven harmonic oscillators are damped oscillators driven by an externally applied force F (t), for example, a step function, an impulse function or a continuous sinusoidal force. In general, driven harmonic oscillators satisfy the nonhomogeneous second order linear differential equation: This equation can be solved exactly for any driving force using the solutions z(t) to the unforced equation, which satsify: and which can be expressed as a damped sinusoidal oscillation: in the case where ζ ≤ 1. The amplitude A and phase φ determine the behavior needed to match the initial conditions. Step input In the case of a unit step input with x(t = 0) = 0: the solution is: with phase φ given by: This behavior is found in (for example) feedback amplifiers, where the amplifier design is adjusted to obtain the fastest step response possible without undue overshoot or undershoot and with an adequate settling time. The settling time is the time necessary to insure the signal is within a fixed departure from final value, typically within 10%. The term overshoot refers to the extent the maximum response exceeds final value, and undershoot refers to the extent the response falls below final value for times following the maximum response. Sinusoidal driving force In the case of a sinusoidal driving force: where F0 is the driving amplitude and ω is the driving frequency for a sinusoidal driving mechanism. This type of system appears in AC driven RLC circuits (resistor-inductor-capacitor) and driven spring systems having internal mechanical resistance or external air resistance. The general solution is a sum of a transient solution that depends on initial conditions, and a steady state that is independent of initial conditions and depends only on the driving amplitude F0,driving frequency, ω, undamped angular frequency ω0, and the damping ration ζ. The steady-state solution is is proportional to the driving force with an induced phase change of φ: where is the absolute value of the impedance or linear response function and is the phase of the oscillation relative to the driving force. For a particular driving frequency called the resonance frequency ωr = ω0, the amplitude (for a given ) is maximum. For underdamped systems the value of the amplitude can become quite large near the resonance frequency. The transient solutions are the same as the unforced (F0 = 0) damped harmonic oscillator and represent the systems response to other events that occurred previously. The transient solutions typically die out rapidly enough that they can be ignored. Parametric oscillators A parametric oscillator is a harmonic oscillator whose parameters oscillate in time. For example, a well known parametric oscillator is a child on a swing where periodically changing the child's center of gravity causes the swing to oscillate. The varying of the parameters drives the system. Examples of parameters that may be varied are its resonance frequency and damping . Parametric oscillators are used in many applications. The classical varactor parametric oscillator will oscillate when the diode's capacitance is varied periodically. The circuit that varies the diode's capacitance is called the "pump" or "driver". In microwave electronics, waveguide/YAG based parametric oscillators operate in the same fashion. The designer varies a parameter periodically in order to induce oscillations. Parametric oscillators have been developed as low-noise amplifiers, especially in the radio and microwave frequency range. Thermal noise is minimal, since a reactance (not a resistance) is varied. Another common use is frequency conversion, e.g., conversion from audio to radio frequencies. For example, the Optical parametric oscillator converts an input laser wave into two output waves of lower frequency (). Parametric resonance occurs in a mechanical system when a system is parametrically excited and oscillates at one of its resonant frequencies. Parametric excitation differs from forcing since the action appears as a time varying modification on a system parameter. This effect is different from regular resonance because it exhibits the instability phenomenon. Universal oscillator equation The equation is known as the universal oscillator equation since all second order linear oscillatory systems can be reduced to this form. This is done through nondimensionalization. If the forcing function is f(t) = cos(ωt) = cos(ωtcτ) = cos(ωτ), where ω = ωtc, the equation becomes The solution to this differential equation contains two parts, the "transient" and the "steady state". Transient solution The solution based on solving the ordinary differential equation is for arbitrary constants c1 and c2 is The transient solution is independent of the forcing function. If the system is critically damped, the response is independent of the damping. Steady-state solution Apply the "complex variables method" by solving the auxiliary equation below and then finding the real part of its solution: Supposing the solution is of the form Its derivatives from zero to 2nd order are Substituting these quantities into the differential equation gives Dividing by the exponential term on the left results in Equating the real and imaginary parts results in two independent equations Amplitude part Bode plot of the frequency response of an ideal harmonic oscillator. Squaring both equations and adding them together gives By convention the positive root is taken since amplitude is usually considered a positive quantity. Therefore, Compare this result with the theory section on resonance, as well as the "magnitude part" of the RLC circuit. This amplitude function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the frequency response of second-order systems. Phase part To solve for φ, divide both equations to get This phase function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the frequency response of second-order systems. Full solution Combining the amplitude and phase portions results in the steady-state solution The solution of original universal oscillator equation is a superposition (sum) of the transient and steady-state solutions For a more complete description of how to solve the above equation, see linear ODEs with constant coefficients. Equivalent systems Harmonic oscillators occurring in a number of areas of engineering are equivalent in the sense that their mathematical models are identical (see universal oscillator equation above). Below is a table showing analogous quantities in four harmonic oscillator systems in mechanics and electronics. If analogous parameters on the same line in the table are given numerically equal values, the behavior of the oscillators will be the same. Translational MechanicalTorsional MechanicalSeries RLC CircuitParallel RLC CircuitPosition Angle Charge Voltage Velocity Angular velocity Current Mass Moment of inertia Inductance Capacitance Spring constant Torsion constant Elastance Susceptance Friction Rotational friction Resistance Conductance Drive force Drive torque Undamped resonant frequency :Differential equation: Applications The problem of the simple harmonic oscillator occurs frequently in physics because a mass at equilibrium under the influence of any conservative force, in the limit of small motions, will behave as a simple harmonic oscillator. A conservative force is one that has a potential energy function. The potential energy function of a harmonic oscillator is: Given an arbitrary potential energy function , one can do a Taylor expansion in terms of around an energy minimum () to model the behavior of small perturbations from equilibrium. Because is a minimum, the first derivative evaluated at must be zero, so the linear term drops out: The constant term V(x0) is arbitrary and thus may be dropped, and a coordinate transformation allows the form of the simple harmonic oscillator to be retrieved: Thus, given an arbitrary potential energy function with a non-vanishing second derivative, one can use the solution to the simple harmonic oscillator to provide an approximate solution for small perturbations around the equilibrium point. Examples Simple pendulum A simple pendulum exhibits simple harmonic motion under the conditions of no damping and small amplitude. Assuming no damping and small amplitudes, the differential equation governing a simple pendulum is The solution to this equation is given by: where is the largest angle attained by the pendulum. The period, the time for one complete oscillation , is given by divided by whatever is multiplying the time in the argument of the cosine ( here). Pendulum swinging over turntable Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the one-dimensional projection of two-dimensional circular motion. Consider a long pendulum swinging over the turntable of a record player. On the edge of the turntable there is an object. If the object is viewed from the same level as the turntable, a projection of the motion of the object seems to be moving backwards and forwards on a straight line. It is possible to change the frequency of rotation of the turntable in order to have a perfect synchronization with the motion of the pendulum. The angular speed of the turntable is the pulsation of the pendulum. In general, the pulsation-also known as angular frequency, of a straight-line simple harmonic motion is the angular speed of the corresponding circular motion. Therefore, a motion with period T and frequency f=1/T has pulsation In general, pulsation and angular speed are not synonymous. For instance the pulsation of a pendulum is not the angular speed of the pendulum itself, but it is the angular speed of the corresponding circular motion. Spring-mass system Spring-mass system in equilibrium (A), compressed (B) and stretched (C) states. When a spring is stretched or compressed by a mass, the spring develops a restoring force. Hooke's law gives the relationship of the force exerted by the spring when the spring is compressed or stretched a certain length: where F is the force, k is the spring constant, and x is the displacement of the mass with respect to the equilibrium position. This relationship shows that the distance of the spring is always opposite to the force of the spring. By using either force balance or an energy method, it can be readily shown that the motion of this system is given by the following differential equation: ...the latter evidently being Newton's second law of motion. If the initial displacement is A, and there is no initial velocity, the solution of this equation is given by: Given an ideal massless spring, is the mass on the end of the spring. If the spring itself has mass, its effective mass must be included in . Energy variation in the spring-damper system In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy, potential energy and kinetic energy. When a spring is stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which then is transferred into kinetic energy. The potential energy within a spring is determined by the equation When the spring is stretched or compressed, kinetic energy of the mass gets converted into potential energy of the spring. By conservation of energy, assuming the datum is defined at the equilibrium position, when the spring reaches its maximum potential energy, the kinetic energy of the mass is zero. When the spring is released, the spring will try to reach back to equilibrium, and all its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy of the mass. In-line notes and references Further reading See also Q factor Normal mode Quantum harmonic oscillator Anharmonic oscillator Parametric oscillator Critical speed Radial harmonic oscillator effective mass (spring-mass system) External links Harmonic Oscillator from The Chaos Hypertextbook Simple Harmonic oscillator on PlanetPhysics | Harmonic_oscillator |@lemmatized undamped:5 spring:29 mass:20 system:39 simple:21 harmonic:42 oscillator:59 classical:2 mechanic:2 displace:1 equilibrium:14 position:6 experience:2 restore:2 force:24 proportional:4 displacement:7 accord:1 hooke:2 law:3 positive:3 constant:14 act:2 call:4 undergo:1 motion:21 sinusoidal:8 oscillation:8 point:3 amplitude:19 frequency:28 depend:4 frictional:2 damp:13 velocity:8 also:4 present:2 describe:3 damped:7 friction:4 coefficient:4 oscillate:10 small:9 non:2 case:6 decrease:2 time:14 underdamped:4 decay:3 exponentially:2 without:4 overdamped:2 external:3 dependent:2 driven:4 mechanical:4 example:7 include:4 pendula:1 angle:3 connect:1 acoustical:1 analogous:3 electrical:2 rlc:6 circuit:6 see:4 equivalent:3 model:5 important:3 physic:2 subject:1 stable:1 vibration:2 occur:6 widely:1 nature:1 exploit:1 many:3 manmade:1 device:1 clock:1 radio:3 source:1 virtually:1 wave:4 neither:1 periodic:1 repeat:1 fashion:2 shm:3 serve:1 mathematical:2 variety:1 pendulum:11 provide:2 basis:1 characterization:1 complicated:1 technique:1 fourier:1 analysis:3 addition:1 characterize:1 period:5 single:1 f:6 reciprocal:1 e:2 number:2 cycle:1 per:2 unit:4 phase:11 φ:5 determine:6 start:1 sine:2 overall:2 initial:6 condition:5 equation:26 alternatively:1 cosine:2 use:6 place:1 shift:1 π:1 general:6 differential:8 object:7 k:3 relate:1 apply:3 solution:23 give:17 acceleration:2 shifted:1 maximum:5 zero:5 opposite:2 direction:1 potential:11 energy:22 real:3 slow:2 vibrate:1 ff:2 v:2 cv:1 c:4 viscous:1 damping:8 newton:2 second:7 meter:1 similar:1 behavior:7 diverse:1 range:2 discipline:1 control:1 engineering:4 physical:1 quantity:4 varies:1 greatly:1 could:1 swaying:1 tall:1 building:1 wind:1 speed:7 electric:1 motor:1 current:2 generally:1 satisfy:2 angular:9 ς:7 ratio:4 dependence:1 value:10 critically:3 particular:2 return:3 large:3 quickly:1 possible:3 often:1 desire:1 door:1 slightly:1 different:2 gradually:1 step:5 response:11 curve:1 plot:2 three:1 μ:1 τ:1 ζ:3 drive:13 externally:1 function:11 impulse:1 continuous:1 nonhomogeneous:1 order:7 linear:5 solve:5 exactly:1 driving:5 z:1 unforced:2 satsify:1 express:1 need:1 match:1 input:3 x:2 find:2 feedback:1 amplifier:3 design:1 adjust:1 obtain:1 fast:1 undue:1 overshoot:2 undershoot:2 adequate:1 settling:2 necessary:1 insure:1 signal:1 within:3 fixed:1 departure:1 final:3 typically:2 term:6 refers:2 extent:2 exceed:1 fall:1 follow:1 ω:3 mechanism:1 type:2 appear:2 ac:1 resistor:1 inductor:1 capacitor:1 internal:1 resistance:4 air:1 sum:2 transient:7 steady:6 state:7 independent:4 ration:1 induced:1 change:3 absolute:1 impedance:1 relative:1 resonance:6 ωr:1 become:2 quite:1 near:1 represent:1 event:1 previously:1 die:1 rapidly:1 enough:1 ignore:1 parametric:11 whose:1 parameter:6 well:2 know:3 child:2 swing:3 periodically:3 center:1 gravity:1 cause:1 varying:1 may:2 vary:6 application:2 varactor:1 diode:2 capacitance:3 pump:1 driver:1 microwave:2 electronics:2 waveguide:1 yag:1 base:2 operate:1 designer:1 induce:1 develop:2 low:2 noise:2 especially:1 thermal:1 minimal:1 since:4 reactance:1 another:1 common:1 conversion:2 g:1 audio:1 optical:1 convert:3 laser:1 two:5 output:1 parametrically:1 excited:1 one:6 resonant:2 excitation:1 differs:1 action:1 modification:1 effect:1 regular:1 exhibit:2 instability:1 phenomenon:1 universal:4 oscillatory:1 reduce:1 form:3 nondimensionalization:1 forcing:2 co:3 ωt:1 ωtcτ:1 ωτ:1 ωtc:1 contain:1 part:6 ordinary:1 arbitrary:4 complex:1 variable:1 method:2 auxiliary:1 suppose:1 derivative:3 substitute:1 divide:3 exponential:1 left:1 result:4 equate:1 imaginary:1 bode:1 ideal:2 square:1 add:1 together:1 convention:1 root:1 take:1 usually:1 consider:3 therefore:2 compare:1 theory:1 section:1 magnitude:1 particularly:2 understanding:2 get:2 full:1 combine:1 portion:1 original:1 superposition:1 complete:2 description:1 ode:1 area:1 sense:1 identical:1 table:2 showing:1 four:1 line:4 numerically:1 equal:1 translational:1 mechanicaltorsional:1 mechanicalseries:1 circuitparallel:1 circuitposition:1 charge:1 voltage:1 moment:1 inertia:1 inductance:1 torsion:1 elastance:1 susceptance:1 rotational:1 conductance:1 torque:1 problem:1 frequently:1 influence:1 conservative:2 limit:1 behave:1 taylor:1 expansion:1 around:2 minimum:2 perturbation:2 first:1 evaluate:1 must:2 drop:2 thus:2 coordinate:1 transformation:1 allow:1 retrieve:1 vanish:1 approximate:1 assume:2 govern:1 attain:1 whatever:1 multiply:1 argument:1 turntable:6 dimensional:2 projection:2 circular:3 long:1 swinging:1 record:1 player:1 edge:1 view:1 level:1 seem:1 move:1 backwards:1 forward:1 straight:2 rotation:1 perfect:1 synchronization:1 pulsation:5 corresponding:2 synonymous:1 instance:1 compress:5 b:1 stretch:5 relationship:2 exert:1 certain:1 length:1 respect:1 show:2 distance:1 always:1 either:1 balance:1 readily:1 following:1 latter:1 evidently:1 massless:1 end:1 effective:2 variation:1 damper:1 kinetic:5 store:1 elastic:1 transfer:1 conservation:1 datum:1 define:1 reach:2 release:1 try:1 back:1 note:1 reference:1 far:1 read:1 q:1 factor:1 normal:1 mode:1 quantum:1 anharmonic:1 critical:1 radial:1 link:1 chaos:1 hypertextbook:1 planetphysics:1 |@bigram harmonic_oscillator:35 rlc_circuit:4 sine_wave:1 varies_greatly:1 differential_equation:7 feedback_amplifier:1 parametric_oscillator:9 fashion_designer:1 resonant_frequency:2 ordinary_differential:1 angular_velocity:1 moment_inertia:1 pendulum_swing:1 circular_motion:3 kinetic_energy:5 external_link:1 |
995 | General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures | The General Conference on Weights and Measures is the English name of the Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM, never GCWM). It is one of the three organizations established to maintain the International System of Units () under the terms of the Convention du Mètre (Metre Convention) of 1875. It meets in Sèvres (in the southwestern suburbs of Paris) every four to six years. The CGPM represents 52 member states and 26 further associate members. CGPM Member States CGPM Meetings 1st (1889)kilogram defined as mass of the international prototype kilogram (IPK) made of platinum-iridium and kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures), Sèvres, France. International prototype metre sanctioned.2nd (1897)No resolutions were passed by the 2nd CGPM.3rd (1901)litre redefined as volume of 1 kg of water. Clarified that kilograms are units of mass, "standard weight" defined, standard acceleration of gravity defined endorsing use of grams force and making them well-defined.4th (1907)carat = 200 mg adopted.5th (1913)International Temperature Scale proposed.6th (1921)Metre Convention revised.7th (1927)Consultative Committee for Electricity (CCE) created.8th (1933)Need for absolute electrical unit identified.9th (1948)ampere, bar, coulomb, farad, henry, joule, newton, ohm, volt, watt, weber defined. Chose degree Celsius from among the three names then in use. l (lowercase L) adopted as symbol for litre. Both the comma and dot on a line are accepted as decimal marker symbols. Symbols for the stere and second changed . The universal return to the Long Scale numbering system was proposed but not adopted.10th (1954)kelvin, standard atmosphere defined. International System of Units (metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela) began.11th (1960)metre redefined in terms of wavelengths of light. Units: hertz, lumen, lux, tesla adopted. New metric system given the official symbol SI for Système International d'Unités, the "modernized metric system". Prefixes pico-, nano-, micro-, mega-, giga- and tera- confirmed.12th (1964)original definition of litre = 1 dm³ restored. atto- and femto- prefixes.13th (1967)second redefined as duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K. Degree Kelvin renamed kelvin. Candela redefined.14th (1971)new SI base unit mole defined. pascal, siemens approved.15th (1975)peta- and exa- prefixes. gray and becquerel radiological units.16th (1979)candela, sievert defined. Both l and L provisionally allowed as symbols for litre.17th (1983)metre redefined in terms of the speed of light, but keeps same length.18th (1987)conventional values adopted for Josephson constant, KJ, and von Klitzing constant, RK, preparing the way for alternative definitions of the ampere and kilogram.19th (1991)new prefixes yocto-, zepto-, zetta- and yotta-.20th (1995)SI supplementary units (radian and steradian) become derived units.21st (1999)new SI derived unit, the katal = mole per second, for the expression of catalytic activity.22nd (2003)a comma or a dot on a line are reaffirmed as decimal marker symbols, and not as grouping symbols in order to facilitate reading; "numbers may be divided in groups of three in order to facilitate reading; neither dots nor commas are ever inserted in the spaces between groups". .23rd (2007)clarification about the kelvin and thoughts about possible revision of certain base units See also International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) International Committee for Weights and Measures Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) References | General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures |@lemmatized general:1 conference:1 weight:5 measure:4 english:1 name:2 conférence:1 générale:1 de:2 poids:2 et:2 mesures:2 cgpm:5 never:1 gcwm:1 one:1 three:3 organization:1 establish:1 maintain:1 international:10 system:5 unit:11 term:3 convention:3 du:1 mètre:1 metre:6 meet:1 sèvres:2 southwestern:1 suburb:1 paris:1 every:1 four:1 six:1 year:1 represent:1 member:3 state:3 associate:1 meeting:1 kilogram:5 define:8 mass:2 prototype:2 ipk:1 make:2 platinum:1 iridium:1 kept:1 bureau:3 france:1 sanction:1 resolution:1 pass:1 litre:4 redefine:5 volume:1 kg:1 water:1 clarify:1 standard:4 acceleration:1 gravity:1 endorse:1 use:2 gram:1 force:1 well:1 carat:1 mg:1 adopt:5 temperature:2 scale:2 propose:2 revise:1 consultative:1 committee:2 electricity:1 cce:1 create:1 need:1 absolute:1 electrical:1 identify:1 ampere:3 bar:1 coulomb:1 farad:1 henry:1 joule:1 newton:1 ohm:1 volt:1 watt:1 weber:1 chose:1 degree:2 celsius:1 among:1 l:4 lowercase:1 symbol:7 comma:3 dot:3 line:2 accept:1 decimal:2 marker:2 stere:1 second:4 change:1 universal:1 return:1 long:1 numbering:1 kelvin:5 atmosphere:1 candela:3 begin:1 wavelength:1 light:2 hertz:1 lumen:1 lux:1 tesla:1 new:4 metric:2 give:1 official:1 si:4 système:1 unités:1 modernize:1 prefix:4 pico:1 nano:1 micro:1 mega:1 giga:1 tera:1 confirm:1 original:1 definition:2 restore:1 atto:1 femto:1 duration:1 period:1 radiation:1 correspond:1 transition:1 two:1 hyperfine:1 level:1 ground:1 caesium:1 atom:1 k:1 rename:1 base:2 mole:2 pascal:1 siemens:1 approve:1 peta:1 exa:1 gray:1 becquerel:1 radiological:1 sievert:1 provisionally:1 allow:1 speed:1 keep:1 length:1 conventional:1 value:1 josephson:1 constant:2 kj:1 von:1 klitzing:1 rk:1 prepare:1 way:1 alternative:1 yocto:1 zepto:1 zetta:1 yotta:1 supplementary:1 radian:1 steradian:1 become:1 derived:1 derive:1 katal:1 per:1 expression:1 catalytic:1 activity:1 reaffirm:1 group:3 order:2 facilitate:2 reading:2 number:1 may:1 divide:1 neither:1 ever:1 insert:1 space:1 clarification:1 thought:1 possible:1 revision:1 certain:1 see:1 also:1 bipm:1 institute:2 reference:2 material:1 measurement:1 irmm:1 national:1 technology:1 nist:1 |@bigram conférence_générale:1 de_poids:2 poids_et:2 et_mesures:2 du_mètre:1 prototype_kilogram:1 platinum_iridium:1 consultative_committee:1 degree_celsius:1 système_international:1 international_unités:1 hyperfine_level:1 |
996 | Comic_fantasy | Comic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy that is primarily humorous in intent and tone. Usually set in imaginary worlds, comic fantasy often includes puns on and parodies of other works of fantasy. It is sometimes known as Low fantasy in contrast to High fantasy, which is primarily serious in intent and tone. The term "Low Fantasy" is used to represent other types of fantasy, however, so while comic fantasies may also correctly be classified as low fantasy, many examples of low fantasy are not comic in nature. History The subgenre rose in the latter half of the twentieth century. T.H. White's works exemplify it, Lin Carter, ed. Kingdoms of Sorcery, p 121–2. Doubleday and Company Garden City, NY, 1976. L. Sprague de Camp and Fletcher Pratt's Complete Enchanter stories are early exemplars. The overwhelming bulk of de Camp's fantasy was comic. Carter. Kingdoms of Sorcery. In more modern times, Piers Anthony's Xanth books, Robert Asprin's MythAdventures of Skeeve and Aahz books, Terry Pratchett's Discworld, and Tom Holt's books provide good examples. Not surprisingly there are also comic-strips/graphic novels in the humorous fantasy genre, including Chuck Whelon's Pewfell series and the webcomics 8-Bit Theater and The Order of the Stick. The subgenre has also been represented in television and film, such as in the comic fantasy television serial I Dream of Jeannie and the 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Examples on radio are the BBC's Hordes of the Things, ElvenQuest and the original Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. References | Comic_fantasy |@lemmatized comic:7 fantasy:14 subgenre:3 primarily:2 humorous:2 intent:2 tone:2 usually:1 set:1 imaginary:1 world:1 often:1 include:2 pun:1 parody:1 work:2 sometimes:1 know:1 low:4 contrast:1 high:1 serious:1 term:1 use:1 represent:2 type:1 however:1 may:1 also:3 correctly:1 classify:1 many:1 example:3 nature:1 history:1 rise:1 latter:1 half:1 twentieth:1 century:1 h:1 white:1 exemplify:1 lin:1 carter:2 ed:1 kingdom:2 sorcery:2 p:1 doubleday:1 company:1 garden:1 city:1 ny:1 l:1 sprague:1 de:2 camp:2 fletcher:1 pratt:1 complete:1 enchanter:1 story:1 early:1 exemplar:1 overwhelming:1 bulk:1 modern:1 time:1 pier:1 anthony:1 xanth:1 book:3 robert:1 asprin:1 mythadventures:1 skeeve:1 aahz:1 terry:1 pratchett:1 discworld:1 tom:1 holt:1 provide:1 good:1 surprisingly:1 strip:1 graphic:1 novel:1 genre:1 chuck:1 whelon:1 pewfell:1 series:1 webcomics:1 bit:1 theater:1 order:1 stick:1 television:2 film:2 serial:1 dream:1 jeannie:1 monty:1 python:1 holy:1 grail:1 radio:1 bbc:1 horde:1 thing:1 elvenquest:1 original:1 hitchhiker:1 guide:1 galaxy:1 reference:1 |@bigram subgenre_fantasy:1 humorous_intent:1 twentieth_century:1 lin_carter:1 l_sprague:1 terry_pratchett:1 pratchett_discworld:1 comic_strip:1 monty_python:1 holy_grail:1 hitchhiker_guide:1 |
997 | Hasidic_Judaism | Hasidic leaders in Jerusalem Hasidic Judaism (also transliterated as Chasidic etc., from the Hebrew: , Hasidut, meaning "piety", from the Hebrew root word chesed meaning "loving kindness") is a type of Orthodox or Haredi Jewish religious movement. Some refer to Hasidic Judaism as Hasidism, and the adjective Chasidic / Hasidic (or in Yiddish Khasidish) applies. The movement originated in Eastern Europe (what is now Ukraine) in the 18th century, and soon spread from Poland and Russia, to Hungary and Romania. As compared with other Jewish movements, Hasidic Judaism tends to focus on the role of the Rebbe (or Rabbi) as a spiritual conduit of God. Hasidic followers join worship groups associated with dynasties of Hasidic spiritual leaders. Each dynasty follows its own principles; thus Hasidic Judaism is not one movement, but a collection of separate individual groups with some commonality. There are some 9 major Hasidic groups, approximately 30 smaller Hasidic groups, and several hundred minor or extinct Hasidic groups. Though there is no one version of Hasidism, individual Hasidic groups often share with each other fundamental philosophy, worship styles, dress, songs, etc. Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer (1698–1760), also known as the Ba'al Shem Tov Meaning "Master of the Good Name," sometimes abbreviated as Besht. , is seen as the founding figure of Hasidic Judaism. It originated in an age of persecution of the Jewish people, when European Jews had turned inward to Talmud study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too "academic" and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or joy. The Ba'al Shem Tov set out to improve the situation. Hasidism met with opposition from the misnagdim—literally meaning "the opponents." In its initial stages, the most notable opponent was the Vilna Gaon, leader of the Lithuanian Jews, who generally adopted this hostile approach. History Prelude In Poland, where the bulk of Eastern European Jewry had established itself since the 13th century, two branches of Rabbinic Judaism had emerged: those who opposed the study of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) and those who supported it. This schism became particularly acute after the Messianic movement of Sabbatai Zevi in the 17th century. Leanings to mystical doctrines and sectarianism showed themselves prominently among the Jews of the south-eastern provinces of Poland, while in the Lithuanian provinces, anti-kabbalist orthodox leaders held sway. In part, this division in modes of thought reflected social differences between the northern (Lithuanian) Jews and the southern Jews of Ukraine. In Lithuania the Jewish masses mainly lived in densely-populated towns where anti-kabbalistic rabbinical academic culture (in the yeshivos) flourished, while in Ukraine the Jews tended to live scattered in villages far removed from intellectual centers where the influence of the kabbalists prevailed. Pessimism in the south became more intense after the Cossacks' Uprising (1648–1654) under Chmielnicki and the turbulent times in Poland (1648–1660), which ruined the Jewry of Ukraine, but did not much affect that of Lithuania. The general population of Ukraine itself declined and economic chaos reigned, especially due to these events and the subsequent Turkish Invasion which left this region depopulated and barren. After the Polish magnates regained control of southern Ukraine in the last decade of the 17th century, an economic renaissance ensued. The magnates began a massive rebuilding and repopulation effort while being generally welcoming and benevolent towards the Jews. A type of frontier environment pursued where new people and new ideas were encouraged. The state of the Jews of what would later become southern Russia created a favorable field for mystical movements and religious sectarianism, which spread in the area from the middle of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. Besides these influences, deeply-seated causes produced among many Jews a discontent with Rabbinism and a gravitation toward mysticism. Rabbinism, which in Poland had become transformed into a system of religious formalism, no longer provided a satisfactory religious experience to many Jews. Although traditional Judaism had adopted some features of Kabbalah, it adapted them to fit its own system: it added to its own ritualism the asceticism of the "practical cabalists" just across the border in the Ottoman Empire, who saw the essence of earthly existence only in fasting, in penance, and in spiritual sadness. Such a combination of religious practices, suitable for individuals and hermits, did not suit the bulk of the Jews. Mystical individuals arose, outside the Rabbinic establishment, called Nistarim or Baal Shem ("Masters of the Name" of God, used for practical kabbalistic intervention and miracles), who sought to offer the downtrodden masses spiritual and physical encouragement, and practical healing. The image of these charismatic figures, often wandering among the people, became shaped by the Kabbalistic legend of the Lamed Vav Tzadikim (36 hidden righteous people who substain the world). From these circles of spiritual inspiration, the early Hasidic movement arose, led by Israel ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov, in 18th Century Podolia (now Ukraine). He attracted to his cause the preceding followers of the ways of the Nistorim, who saw in his teachings a new direction in reviving and consoling the masses. At the time in Jewish Eastern Europe were also public preachers ("Maggidim"), who would visit the shuls (synagogues) of the shtetls (towns and villages). During their Sabbath sermons, they would sometimes seek to encourage Jewish observance with ethical promises and warnings of Heaven and Hell. In their addresses, they also supported the communal Rabbi in helping to teach those who could not learn the spiritual and practical life of Jewish learning, and offered personal examples of Jewish conduct. The Baal Shem Tov opposed their use of ethical admonishments of punishment, which lacked love and inner spiritual values. Under the Hasidic movement, ideas of reward and punishment were avoided, and were replaced by the spiritual life of dveikus (cleaving) to God in all daily conduct. The Baal Shem Tov, and Hasidism, also opposed the earlier mystical and ethical ascetic paths of fasting and self-mortification, seeking to serve God by infusing physical activities with new spiritual inspiration. Israel ben Eliezer The founder of Hasidism, Israel ben Eliezer (1698-1760), became known as the "Master of the Good Name" (the "Baal Shem Tov", abbreviated as the "Besht"). Following on from the earlier communal tradition of Baal Shem, his fame as a healer spread not only among the Jews, but also among the non-Jewish peasants and the Polish nobles. The hagiography of oral stories about his life, that were posthumously compiled in writing by his disciples, describe his spiritual powers and knowledge, miracle working, and ability to predict the future. In turn, these notions were passed on to his saintly students and successors, and shaped the Hasidic doctrine of the Tzaddik or Rebbe (righteous leader who channels Divine substainance to his followers). The particular Hasidic emphasis and interpretation of this earlier Jewish and Kabbalistic concept, became one of the ideas that singled it out from non-Hasidic Judaism. The Hasidic concept of a Rebbe also combines their role as a teacher of Judaism and as a charismatic spiritual example. To their followers they teach Hasidic mysticism and interpretations of Biblical and Rabbinic Judaism. The traditional accounts of his biography, describe the beginnings of his life as a public teacher and leader of the Jewish people from his 36th birthday. His role and unique talent as a teacher and communicator of mystical revival began a new era in Jewish mysticism. To the common people, the Besht appeared wholly admirable. Characterized by an extraordinary sincerity and simplicity, he sought to meet the spiritual needs of the masses. He taught them that true Divine service consisted not only of religious scholarship, but also of a sincere love of God combined with warm faith and belief in the efficacy of prayer; that the ordinary person filled with a sincere belief in God, and whose prayers come from the heart, is more acceptable to God than someone versed in and fully observant of Jewish law who lacks inspiration in his divine service. This democratization of Judaism attracted to the teachings of the Besht not only the common people, but also the scholars whom the rabbinical scholasticism and ascetic Kabbalah failed to satisfy. About 1740 the Besht established himself in the Ukrainian town of Mezhebuzh. He gathered about him numerous disciples and followers, whom he initiated into the secrets of his teachings not by systematic exposition, but by means of sayings and parables that contained both easily graspable insights, for the laymen, and profound Kabbalistic depth, for the great scholars. These sayings spread by oral transmission; later the founder's disciples set them in writing, developing the thoughts of their master into a system. The Besht himself wrote nothing. The seminal teachings of the Baal Shem Tov captured new ideas and interpretations of Judaism, and were articulated and developed by his students and successors. These ideas offered the unlearned a folk spiritual revival, while also giving the scholarly elite a new depth and approach to mysticism. Hasidism gave a ready response to the burning desire of the common people, in the simple, stimulating, and comforting faith it awakened in them. The scholars attracted to Hasidism, also sought to learn selfless humility and simple sincerity from the common folk. In contrast to other sectarian teaching, early Hasidism aimed not at dogmatic or ritual reform, but at a deeper psychological one. It aimed to change not the belief, but the believer. By means of psychological suggestion, it created a new type of religious man, a type that placed emotion above reason and rites, and religious exaltation above knowledge. Traditional devotion to Jewish study and scholarship was not replaced, but was spiritualised as a means to cleave to God. The unlearned common folk were given spiritual enlivement, as their sincerity also made them close to God. The great activity of Jewish study could, in contrast, offer the scholar spiritual peril, if it contributed to their sense of ego, and therefore a barrier with God's presence. The spread of Hasidism Israel ben Eliezer's disciples attracted many followers, who themselves established numerous Hasidic courts across Europe. After the Besht's death, followers continued his cause, under the leadership of the Maggid, Rabbi Dov Ber of Mezritch. From his court students went forth; they in turn attracted many Jews to Hasidism, and many of them came to study in Mezritch (Mezhirichi) with Dov Ber personally. By the 1830s the majority of Jews in Ukraine, Galicia, and central Poland were Hasidic, as were substantial minorities in Belarus, Hungary and Romania. Hasidic Judaism began coming to Western Europe and then to the United States during the large waves of Jewish emigration in the 1880s. Rabbis Chaim Elazar Spira of Munkacs and Meir Shapiro of Lublin in Marienbad (Now Mariánské Lázně, Czech Republic), 1923 After the passing of Rabbi Dov Ber, his inner circle of followers, known as the "Chevraya Kadisha," the Holy Fellowship, agreed to divide up the whole of Europe into different territories, and have each one charged with disseminating Hasidic teachings in his designated area. Hasidism branched out into two main divisions: (1) in Ukraine and in Galicia (Central Europe) and (2) in Litta (Greater Lithuania from the time when it encompassed Belarus). Three disciples of Dov Ber of Mezritch (Elimelech of Lizhensk, Levi Yitzchak of Berdychev, and Menachem Nachum of Chernobyl), besides the grandson of the Besht, Boruch of Tulchin (later R' Boruch of Mezhbizh), directed the first of these divisions. Elimelech of Lizhensk fully developed the belief in Tzaddikism as a fundamental doctrine of Hasidism. In his book No'am Elimelekh he conveys the idea of the Tzadik ("righteous one") as the mediator between God and the common people, and suggests that through him God sends to the faithful earthly blessings in the three traditional categories: health and life, a livelihood, and children, on the condition, however, that the Hasidim support the Tzaddik by pecuniary contributions ("pidyonos"), in order to enable the holy man to become completely absorbed in the contemplation of God. Lithuanian Hasidim followed Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, who founded Habad Hasidism, and Rabbi Aharon of Karlin. The intellectual Habad method of Schneur Zalman, developed the mind, in contrast to general Hasidism, as the fundamental route to Hasidic spirituality. This articulation can therefore fully incorporate the other dimensions of Judaism, such as Jewish Philosophy and Rabbinic Judaism. The Maggid directed Schneur Zalman to spread Hasidism in Belarus, as his intellectual articulation could appeal to the Rabbinic opposition in Vilna. Consequently, it posed more of a threat to the Mitnagdim, and Schneur Zalman was arrested and imprisoned in Saint Petersburg by the Tzarist government on false charges, instigated by some of the Jewish opposition. Habad tradition sees the reason for the imprisonment as caused from Heavenly opposition to his new, broader, intellectual dissemination of Hasidic thought, and his exoneration as vindication from Heaven to begin the full dissemination of Hasidus. Subsequent influential and famous Hasidic thinkers and leaders include Nachman of Breslov, in Ukraine, Menachem Mendel of Kotzk in Poland, and Yisroel Friedman of Ruzhyn in Russia. Nachman of Breslov is seen as the most imaginatively creative Hasidic thinker, while Menachem Mendel of Kotzk overturned the tradditional view of the Tzaddik, in pursuit of truthful introspection and integrity. The spiritual meaning of Tzaddikic grandeur reached its fullest form in the regal magesty of the court of Yisroel Friedman. In the 19th Century flourishing of Hasidism, leadership succession usually became dynastic, rather than inherited by the greatest or most charismatic student. Each Hasidic court established itself in the scattered shtetls across Eastern Europe, and adopted their names, often in Yiddish form, for their approach to Hasidic thought and life. Where the Hasidic approach of a group was profound or influential, the spiritual vitality of their leadership remained charismatic or great, such as in the Polish dynasty of Ger (derived from Menachem Mendel of Kotzk), or the Belarusian dynasty of Lubavitch (the intellectual branch of Hasidism founded by Schneur Zalman of Liadi). In these examples, often their leaders combined Hasidic spirituality with traditional Rabbinic greatness of scholarship in Talmud. This synthesis helped dissolve much of the early opposition to Hasidism by the Rabbinic civilization of Lithuanian Jewish Orthodoxy. Opposition Early on, a serious schism evolved between the hasidic and non-hasidic Jews. Those European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement dubbed themselves misnagdim (literally, "opponents"). Critics of Hasidic Judaism: decried the apparently novel hasidic emphasis on different aspects of Jewish law; found problematic the overwhelming exuberance of hasidic worship; distrusted as non-traditional the hasidic ascriptions of infallibility and miracle-working of their leaders; expressed concern that hasidism might become a deviant messianic sect (which in fact had occurred among the followers of both Shabbatai Zvi and Jacob Frank). Followers of the Lubavitcher Rebbe, Menachem Mendel Schneerson, have also been accused of this in contemporary times. The Vilna Gaon, the head of the Misnagdim and the most famous opponent of Hasidism Some other important differences between hasidim and misnagdim included: Hasidism believed in miracle workers; they believed that the Ba'al Shem Tov and some of his disciples literally performed miracles. Stories of their miracles became a part of Hasidic literature. The Misnagdim held such views as heretical, based on classical rabbinic works such as Saadia Gaon's Emunoth ve-Deoth. (Ultimately, their descendants were to regularly tell similar stories about respected Misnagdic leaders.) The hasidic way of dress was seen as a way to outwardly appear pious; this was opposed as improper. Hasidic philosophy (chasidus) holds as a core belief that God permeates all physical objects in nature, including all living beings. According to the sixth Lubavitcher rebbe, Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn, Baal Shem Tov used to say, that God is all and all is God. In opposition many Jewish religious rationalists misunderstood this seemingly pantheistic doctrine as a violation against the Maimonidean principle of faith that God is not physical, and thus considered it heretical. In fact, Hasidic philosophy, especially the Chabad school, views all physical and psychological phenomena as relative and illusionary; God, the absolute reality in itself, is beyond all physical or even spiritual concepts and boundaries. Hasidism teaches that there are sparks of goodness in all things, which can be redeemed to perfect the world. Many held such a view to be false and dangerous. On a more prosaic level, other misnagdim regarded hasidim as pursuing a less scholarly approach to Judaism, and opposed the movement for this reason. At one point hasidic Jews were put in cherem (a Jewish form of communal excommunication); after years of bitter acrimony, a rapprochement occurred between hasidic Jews and their opponents within Orthodox Judaism. The reconciliation took place in response to the perceived even greater threat of the Haskala, or Jewish Enlightenment. Despite this, the distinctions between the various sects of Hasidim and other Orthodox Jews remain. In the Soviet Union The Bolshevik revolution and the rise of Communism saw the disintegration of the chasidic centers such as Lubavitch, Breslov, Chernobyl and Ruzhin. Many chasidim, primarily those following the Chabad school, but also the Tshernobler Rebbe and the Ribnitzer Rebbe, remained in the Soviet Union (primarily in Russia), intent on preserving Judaism as a religion in the face of increasing Soviet opposition. With yeshivos and instruction in Hebrew outlawed, synagogues seized by the government and transformed into secular community centers, and Jewish circumcision forbidden to all members of the Communist Party, most chasidim took part in the general Jewish religious underground movement. Many became so-called "wandering clerics", traveling from village to village and functioning as chazzanim, shochtim, mohels, and rabbis wherever such services were needed. These figures were often imprisoned and sometimes executed. Current position The Holocaust brought final destruction to all chasidic centers of Eastern Europe. Most survivors moved eventually to Israel or to America, and established new centers of Hasidic Judaism modeled after their original communities. Some of the larger and more well-known chasidic sects that still exist include Belz, Bobov, Breslov, Ger, Lubavitch (Chabad), Munkacs, Puppa, Sanz (Klausenburg), Satmar, Skver, Spinka and Vizhnitz. The largest groups in Israel today are Ger, Chabad, Belz, Satmar, Breslov, Vizhnitz, Seret-Vizhnitz, Nadvorna, and Toldos Aharon. In the United States the largest are Satmar, Bobov, and Lubavitch all centered in Brooklyn, New York (Reb Aharon's Satmar camp is centered in Kiryas Joel, while Reb Zalman is Williamsburg) and Skver (New Square) in Rockland County, New York. Large chasidic communities also exist in the Outremont borough of Montreal; Pikesville and Northwest Baltimore, Maryland; Lakewood, NJ, Toronto; London; Antwerp; Melbourne; the Fairfax neighborhood of Los Angeles; Sherman Park neighborhood of Milwaukee, and St. Louis Park, a Minneapolis suburb. There are probably close to half a million Hasidic Jews worldwide. The two main Hasidic communities in the United States are located in New York City and Los Angeles. In New York City the neighborhoods include Borough Park, Williamsburg, and Crown Heights in the borough of Brooklyn, and Monsey, Monroe, and New Square which are farther upstate. In Los Angeles the neighborhoods include Hancock Park, La Brea-Beverly, the Fairfax District, Valley Village and the Pico-Robertson area. There is also a sizable and growing Hasidic community in Lakewood, New Jersey, which was once a center of mainly Litvish and Yeshiva Orthodox Jews. Outside of the United States the largest Hasidic community is in Israel, located mainly in Jerusalem and its adjacent areas, such as Ramat Beit Shemesh and also the religious city of Bnei Brak. The vast majority of Hasidic Jews live either in the United States or Israel but there exist large communities in Canada (Montreal), Britain (mostly in Stamford Hill) and Belgium (Antwerp) also. Hasidic Jews are known for having large families and as a result are experiencing tremendous growth. A 2009 University of Florida article stated that the growth of Hasidic Judaism may cause Jewish politics in the U.S. to shift towards the Political Right. "As Hasidic population grows, Jewish politics may shift right." University of Florida. November 27, 2006. Retrieved on May 2, 2009. Hasidic thought Beginning in 12th and 13th Century Provence and Spain, Kabbalah (the main Jewish mysticism) began to be taught to small circles of advanced students. This metaphysical theology and exegesis, offered an esoteric, imaginative, spiritual alternative to mainstream Rabbinic Judaism and Jewish philosophy. It's greatest expression was in the Scriptural commentary, the Zohar. Medieval Kabbalah taught new doctrines of the ten sefirot (emanations that reveal and mediate the unknowable Divine essence), the identification of the last sefirah with the earlier Rabbinic notion of the shechina (Divine presence) as a feminine aspect of God, and the shefa (substaining flow of Divine creation through the Heavenly realms until this world) that is dependent on each person's righteousness. In 16th century Safed, a special community of great Jewish thinkers developed, that brought new synthesis to Kabbalah. Above all, Isaac Luria taught new and radical doctrines of the primordial process of creation, that became accepted as the complete stucture of traditional Jewish metaphysics. These ideas described an initial tzimtzum (constriction of the Divine Infinity that allowed creation to take place) and its cosmic purposes, a subsequent catastrophy called "Shevirat Hakelim" (the "Breaking of the Vessels") that resulted in the present unredeemed world, and the messianic process of Tikkun (metaphysical rectification) of this, that each individual helps complete in their spiritual life. While these notions were esoteric, they also deeply supported mainstream Rabbinic Judaism, as the shefa and the tikkun were automatically fulfilled by all Jews through normative Jewish observance, whether they were aware of their deeper significance or not. As a result, and especially in reaction to the sufferings and exiles of Jewish history, the Kabbalah became the mainstream traditional Jewish theology, and inspired a hold on wider Jewish cultural imagination. While its terminology entered the daily liturgy, its subtle and advanced concepts, that could be misunderstood by spiritual novices, kept its committed study to a scholarly elite. The mainstream acceptance of Kabbalah, can be seen by the mass following that the false messiah Shabbetai Zvi gained. His mystical heresy and apostasy, awakened a Rabbinic restriction on Jewish mystical activity for the wider population. The Baal Shem Tov and his successors, inhereted this Rabbinic suspicion of their teachings, as they sought to awaken a popular, mystical revival for the simple Jewish folk, as well as offering scholarly mysticism a new soulful direction. The new teachings of Hasidism left aside the abstact, subtle, advanced focus of Kabbalah on the Divine manifestations and Heavenly realms. Kabbalah describes the full, esoteric, complicated structures of the interaction of God and Creation. Among it traditional names is the "Chochma Nistorah" (hidden wisdom) of the Torah. Kabbalistic terminology is necessary to describe the traditional Jewish processes of metaphysics. It is used extensively in the more involved Hasidic writings, but the aim of this is different than in Kabbalah. The new teachings of Hasidism look to the simple, inner Divine soul, that it sees as permeating all and also transcending all. Hasidic thought bases itself on earlier Kabbalistic theology, but relates its ideas to the psychology and experience of man, so that Jewish mysticism can awaken a personal experience and perception of the Divine. Gershom Scholem, who established the 20th century academic study of Jewish mysticism, describes Hasidism as the "internalisation of Kabbalah". The Baal Shem Tov and his successors saw Divine immanence in all Creation, that gave a full expression to panentheistic traces in earlier Kabbalah (Panentheism teaches that "All is within God". This is different from Pantheism, which is heretical in Judaism, as it denies a personal God, and Divine transcendence outside Creation. Panentheism sees Creation as Divinity, but only the immanent revelation of a transcendent, infinite God). This encounter with God could be found by all Jews, as Hasidism elevated sincerity and soulful devekus (cleaving to God), as the most direct path to spirituality. Traditionally, Jewish study, especially of Talmud, gives the main route to Jewish spirituality. Hasidism did not seek to replace the essential endeavour of study, but rather to infuse and connect it with devekus. Common folk, to whom study may have been inaccessible, found spirituality and joy in Hasidic mysticism, while great scholars of Talmud and Kabbalah, were also attracted to its new depth and interpretation. The Baal Shem Tov spread Hasidism by means of simple, soulful teachings, parables and stories. These offered Jewish mysticism to the unlearned, while the close circle of saintly followers around him understood their deeper, profound significance. The Baal Shem Tov was a man of the people, while his successor Dov Ber of Mezeritch devoted himself to creating the third generation of great Hasidic leaders. As the theological and sociological architect of the Hasidic movement, Dov Ber elucidated the underlying profound meanings of Hasidic thought, and its theological contributions to Judaism. He appointed his students in the "Hevra Kaddisha" (Holy Society) to become the future leaders of Hasidism in the different regions of Eastern Europe. Alternative interpretations of Hasidic thought arose, centred in schools of Hasidic dynasties. Hasidism stressed the new doctrine of the Rebbe or Tzaddik (saintly leader), through whom Divine influence is channelled. In some Hasidic paths the Tzaddik elevates his followers through charismatic conduct, while other groups emphasise his role primarily as teacher. Many creative thinkers of Hasidic mysticism established the variety of Hasidic approaches. Because the Tzaddik offers to his followers a microcosm of the Messianic redemption, mainstream Hasidism toned down the Messianic elements to Jewish mysticism, that had endangered Shabbetai Zvi. Nonetheless, infusing Hasidism from the time of the Baal Shem Tov onwards, is a Messianic self understanding, that has come to the fore on some occasions, especially in the recent history of Chabad. Through it emotional and intellectual aspects, Hasidism offered Jewish life a new spiritual revival. Within Jewish study, Hasidic philosophy gave earlier Jewish thought new interpretations, that can synthesise and spiritualise the other dimensions of Judaism. In its intellectual articulations, Hasidic philosophy can bridge Jewish mysticism with mainstream Jewish philosophy. It enabled the mystical dimensions of Judaism, to be articulated in a form that was accessible for the first time to the whole Jewish community. Hasidic spirituality and thought has also had appeal and influence, outside the Hasidic movement, and outside of Orthodox Judaism. In the 20th Century, the academic interest in Jewish mysticism, and Neo-Hasidism have offered spiritual contributions to many Jewish denominations. With the encounter of Judaism with Modernity, different philosophical and denominational views emerged on the meanings of Judaism and Jewish identity. It has been said that the three figures of the Baal Shem Tov (Hasidic spirituality), the Vilna Gaon (Lithuanian Jewish Orthodox scholarship), and Moses Mendelssohn (founding influence on the Haskalah movement), have together shaped the diverse Jewish articulations today. Characteristic ideas The teachings of Hasidism are founded on two theoretical conceptions: (1) religious Panentheism, or the omnipresence of God, and (2) the idea of Devekus, communion between God and man. "Man," says the Besht (Baal Shem Tov), "must always bear in mind that God is omnipresent and is always with him; that God is the most subtle matter everywhere diffused... Let man realize that when he is looking at material things he is in reality gazing at the image of the Deity which is present in all things. With this in mind man will always serve God even in small matters." Deveikus (communion) refers to the belief that an unbroken relationship takes place between the world of God and the world of humanity. According to it, not only does the Deity influences the acts of man, but also that man exerts an influence on the will of the Deity. Every act and word of man produces a corresponding effect in the upper spheres. From this conception is derived the chief practical principle of Hasidism, cleaving to God for the purpose of uniting with the source of life and of influencing it. This communion is achieved through the concentration of thoughts on God, and consulting Him in all the affairs of life. The tzaddik (righteous person) is in constant communion with God, even in their worldly affairs, since they also feel His presence in daily life. A special form of communion with God is prayer. In order to render this union complete the prayer must be full of fervor, ecstatic, and the soul of the person who prays, must during their devotions detach itself from its material dwelling. For the attainment of ecstasy, recourse can be had to mechanical means, to enthusiastic bodily motions, to shouting and singing. According to the Besht, the path to God is in sicerity and fervour, rather than cold intellectual reasoning. Learning of Jewish texts and halakhic lore are important ways to approach God, but ultimately are useful as a means of producing an exalted religious elevation and communion. It is often more helpful to read books of moral and spiritual inspiration, than to engage in over analytical approaches in study of the Talmud and Rabbinical literature. In the performance of rites the mood of the believer is of more importance than the externals, so therefore formalism and superfluous ceremonial details are an impediment. In later Hasidic articulations, a synthesis was made with the value of traditional, Lithuanian study and analysis. Many Hasidic Masters gained admiration from the non-Hasidic world, for being great scholars of Talmudic and Rabbinic works. The intellectual school of Habad, founded by Schneur Zalman of Liadi, can be seen as a separate offshoot of general Hasidism. Mainstream Hasidism gives special emphasis to emotions, so that study of the "revealed" or "inner" dimensions of Judaism can inspire greater faith and emotional fervour, as well as knowledge of Rabbinic thought. In Habad, Schneur Zalman emphasised the mind as the route to internalysing the emotions of the heart more fully. The systematic analysis of Hasidic philosophy in Habad can integrate and synthesise "revealed" Jewish thought with the mystical. Aims of Hasidic thought Hasidic philosophy teaches a method of contemplating on God, as well as the inner significance of the Mitzvot (commandments and rituals of Torah law). Hasidic philosophy has four main goals: 1. Revival: At the time when Rabbi Yisrael Ba'al Shem Tov founded Hasidism, the Jews were physically crushed by massacres (in particular, those of the Cossack leader Chmelnitzki in 1648-1649) and poverty, and spiritually crushed by the disappointment engendered by the false messiahs. This unfortunate combination caused religious observance to seriously wane. This was especially true in Eastern Europe, where Hasidism began. Hasidism came to revive the Jews physically and spiritually. It focused on helping Jews establish themselves financially, and then lifting their moral and religious observance through its teachings. 2. Piety: A Hasid, in classic Torah literature, refers to one of piety beyond the letter of the law. Hasidism demands and aims at cultivating this extra degree of piety. This is similar to the Christian principle of "Going the extra mile". 3. Refinement: Hasidism teaches that one should not merely strive to improve one's character by learning new habits and manners. Rather a person should completely change the quality, depth and maturity of one's nature. This change is accomplished by internalizing and integrating the perspective of Hasidic philosophy. 4. Demystification: In Hasidism, it is believed that the esoteric teachings of Kabbalah can be made understandable to everyone. This understanding is meant to help refine a person, as well as adding depth and vigor to one's ritual observation. Hasidic practice and culture Liturgy and prayer The Zidichover Rebbe praying The Tosher Rebbe concentrating on prayer Most Hasidim pray according to one of the variations of the nusach (prayer book tradition) known as Nusach Sefard, a blend of Ashkenazi and Sephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of Rabbi Isaac Luria (also known as the Arizal). However, many Hasidic dynasties have their own specific adaptation of Nusach Sefard; some, such as the versions of the Belzer, Bobover and Dushinsky Hasidim, are closer to nusach Ashkenaz, while others, such as the Munkacz version, are closer to nusach Sefarad of the Arizal. Chabad-Lubavitch has a distinctive variant known as Nusach Ari. The Baal Shem introduced two innovations to the Friday services: the recitation of Psalm 107 before Mincha (the afternoon service), as a prelude to the Sabbath, one gives praise for the release of the soul from its weekday activities, and Psalm 23 just before the end of Maariv (evening service). In regard to dialect, in common with most Ashkenazi Haredim, Hasidim pray in Ashkenazi Hebrew, though most sects use a nusach Sefard davening order. This dialect has nothing to do with Hasidism in its origins, nor was it chosen deliberately. It just happens to be the Yiddish dialect of the places from which most chasidim originally came. Thus, there are significant differences between the dialects used by chasidim originating in different places, such as Poland, Belarus, Hungary, and Ukraine. Hasidic prayer has a distinctive accompaniment of wordless melodies called nigunim that represent the overall mood of the prayer; in recent years this innovation has become increasingly popular in non-Hasidic communities as well. Hasidic prayer also has a reputation for taking a very long time (although some groups do pray quickly). Some hasidim will spend seven seconds of concentration on every single word of the prayer of Amidah. Hasidim have a reputation for having a lot of kavana, mental concentration, during prayer. Overall, chasidim regard prayer as one of the most paramount activities during the day. In fact, one of the most controversial innovations of hasidic practice as practiced in several courts involves the near-abolition of the traditional specified times of day by which prayers must be conducted (zemanim), particularly shacharis (the morning prayer service); the preparations for prayer take precedence and may extend into the allotted time. The Kotsker Rebbe allegedly originated this practice, which is prevalent to this day in Chabad-Lubavitch. It is controversial in many other chasidic courts, who place more emphasis on praying earlier and not eating before praying, according to the interpretation of Halacha (Jewish law) which is followed by the vast majority of other Hasidic and non-Hasidic Orthodox Jews. Daily Immersion Many male Orthodox Jews customarily immerse in a mikvah (ritual pool of water) before major Jewish holidays (and particularly before Yom Kippur), in order to achieve spiritual cleanliness. Chasidim have extended this to a daily practice preceding morning prayers. Although daily immersion in a mikvah is no longer mandated by halacha, Hasidism places great emphasis on this practice, because the Arizal taught that each time one immerses in a mikvah he adds holiness to his soul. The Talmud records an enactment by Ezra that after a seminal emission one must immerse in a mikvah before studying Torah or praying; although this enactment was later repealed, Hasidim and some other Jews still follow it, at least for prayer. Dress Hasidim have a reputation for their distinctive attire. Within the Hasidic world, one can distinguish different groups by subtle differences in dress. Many details of their dress are shared by non-Hasidic Haredim. Much of Hasidic dress was historically the clothing of all Eastern-European Jews, but Hasidim have preserved more of these styles to the present day. Furthermore, Hasidim have attributed religious origins to specific Hasidic items of clothing. Contrary to popular belief, Hasidic dress has little or nothing to do with the way Polish nobles once dressed. The Emancipation movement probably started this myth in the late 19th century in an attempt to induce younger Jews to abandon the outfit. Interestingly, secular Yiddish writers of old, living in Eastern Europe (Sholom Aleichem, for example) appear to have no knowledge of the "Polish origin" of the dress. Likewise, numerous Slavic sources from the 15th century onwards refer to the "Jewish kaftan". The Tsarist edict of the mid 19th century banning Jewish clothing mentions the "Jewish kaftan" and the "Jewish hat" and as a result of this edict Hasidim modified their dress in the Russian Empire and generally hid their sidelocks. Modern Chabad Lubavitch wear the Prince Albert frock coat substitutes for the bekishe reflecting this change, as does the Ger substitution of the spodik for the shtreimel. Hasidic dress did change over the last hundred years and become more European in response to the Emancipation Movement. Modern Hasidim tend to wear Hasidic dress as worn just prior to World War II. Numerous pictures of Hasidim in the mid 19th century show a far more Levantine outfit (ie a kaftan lacking lapels or buttons) that differs little from the classical oriental outfit consisting of the kaftan, white undershirt, sash, knee-breeches (halbe-hoyzn), white socks and slippers. This outfit allegedly had a Babylonian origin before its later adoption by Jews, Persians and lastly the Turks, who brought it to Europe. The Polish nobility adopted its 16th century outfit from the Turks, hence (allegedly) the vague similarity between the Hasidic outfit and Polish nobles' clothing. (Similarly, Hasidic dress has a vague connection with Shia Muslim clerical dress, the Shia clergy adopted this dress from the Persians.) One Hasidic belief (taught by the Klausenberger rebbe) holds that Jews originally invented this dress-code and that the Babylonians adopted it from Jews during the Jewish exile in Babylon of the 6th century BCE. This belief is not widely held or even well known among Hasidim. |Hasidic rebbes and Hasidim in traditional dress. Note the shtreimels, black bekishes, and the gartels. The rebbes are distinguished by the velvet lining on their bekishes. Some claim that the Sabbath dress of Hasidim resembles the description of the High Priest's dress in the Bible but there does not seem to be a serious similarity. Many Hasidim also believe that Hasidic dress supports fundamental Judaic concepts, for instance white socks tucked in short pants so one's trouser-bottoms never touch the floor or ground (which in former times was likely to be a source of waste, which is problematic during prayer); and slippers (shtibblat) without buckles or laces so one never need touch one's shoes, which would ritually defile one's hands, requiring ritual purification through washing with a special vessel. Hasidic men most commonly wear dark (black or navy) jackets and trousers and white shirts. They will usually also wear black shoes. On weekdays they wear a long, black, cloth jacket called a rekel and on Jewish Holy Days the bekishe zaydene kapote (Yiddish, lit. satin caftan), a similarly long, black jacket but of satin fabric traditionally silk. The preference for black comes from a decree made by community rabbis in the 18th century stipulating that black outer garments be worn on the Sabbath and Jewish Holy Days out of the home, as opposed to the shiny, colorful kaftans that were worn prior to that time. The rabbis thought that brightly colored clothes might arouse resentment amongst non-Jews, which could lead to violence. Indoors the colorful tish bekishe indoors is still worn. On the Sabbath the Hasidic Grand Rabbis (rebbes) traditionally wore a white bekishe rather than a black one. This practice has fallen into disuse except for a minority of rebbes, such as Toldos Aharon and Lelov, and by Hungarian rebbes such as Tosh and Satmar. Many rebbes wear a black silk bekishe that is trimmed with velvet (known as strokes or samet) and in those of Hungarian lineage a gold designed or other coloured, tish bekishe or khalat (especially during the tish or during the prayers that come right before or after the tish). Some Hasidim wear a satin overcoat, known amongst Hungarian and Galitsyaner Hasidim as a rezhvolke, over the regular bekishe. A rebbe's rezhvolke might be trimmed with velvet. Some rebbes wear a fur-lined rezhvolke known as a tilep ( fur coat). The fur is referred to as pelts, and again avoids the use of wool to keep warm. Dombrover Rebbe of Monsey with the Nadvorna Rebbe. Note the pelts (fur coat) worn by the rebbes. Most Hasidim do not wear neckties (with the exception of some Russian Hasidim, such as those stemming from Ruzhin, Karlin, and Lubavitch). These are some of the religious aspects claimed by Hasidim of their dress code. The connections are quite tenuous and the real reasons for the Hasidic dress code are historical and sociological and not theological. Bekishe or rekelech serve as a sign of modesty and cover almost the entire body. The Bekishe is made of silk because of the Biblical prohibition of shaatnez. The fur lined shtreimel alludes to the law of shaatnez and began as a way of keeping warm without wearing wool. Shoes worn on the Sabbath typically are plain black slip-ons so as not to have to make a knot which is prohibited on that day. A gartel divides the Hasid's lower parts from his upper parts, and are mentioned in the Talmud and Shulhan Arukh as a way to "prepare to meet your God". For Kabbalah reasons Hasidim button their clothes right over left. Headgear Rabbi Moshe Leib Rabinovich, Munkacser Rebbe, wearing a kolpik Hasidim customarily wear black hats during the weekdays as do nearly all Haredim today. A variety of hats are worn depending on the sect. Hasidim wear a variety of fur headdresses on the Sabbath: Shtreimel is worn by most Hasidim today, including those from Galicia and Hungary such as Satmar, Munkacs, Bobov, Breslov and Belz, and some non-Galician Polish Hasidim, such as Biala, as well as some non-Hasidic Haredim in Jerusalem. Spodik is the name given by others to the shtreimel worn by Polish Hasidim such as Ger, Amshinov, Ozharov, Aleksander and it is more narrow, and taller then the shtreimel, and are generally black. The choibl or soyvl was worn in Poland prior to the Holocaust, and has fallen into disuse. kolpik () is a traditional Slavic headdress, worn by unmarried sons and grandsons of many Rebbes on the Sabbath. The kolpik is worn by some Rebbes on special occasions other than the Sabbath and major Biblical Holidays, such as Hanukah, Tu B'Shvat, and Rosh Chodesh. The kashket or dashikl was a peaked cap worn during the week, prior to the Holocaust. It was worn in Poland, Belarus and Ukraine, and was worn by poorer Hasidim on Shabbat. Its use began as a result of the Tsarist decrees banning other traditional Jewish headdress. In these geographic areas, generally only rabbis wore black hats. Today, some Hasidic children, under the age of 13, wear a kashket on the Sabbath. Amongst Belz, the kashket has been reintroduced for boys under the age of 15 to wear on weekdays. The black fedora, and less so the trilby, is worn by Lubavitch Hasidim. This hat is of the style of the 1940s and 50s. They are the same as the hats worn by many non-Hasidic Haredim, as well as by some more "modern" Hasidim who are followers of a particular Rebbe without being part of a Hasidic community. Habad Hasidim often pinch their hats to form a triangle on the top, following the style of the Chabad - Lubavitcher Rebbe. They wear their fedoras even on the Sabbath and Holidays. However, some Lubavitch Hasidim in Jerusalem wear a shtreimel on the Sabbath, if that was their family's custom for generations in Jerusalem. Various forms of felt open-crown (a type of hat with a rounded top) are worn by many Hasidim. Affiliation can sometimes be identified by whether there is a pinch in the middle of the top or not, as well as the type of brim. This is called a shtofener hat in Yiddish. Ger and Slonimer Hasidim wear a round hat, while Stolin and Emunas Yisrael wear a pinched hat. Many Satmar laymen wear a type of open crown hat that resembles a bowler hat with rounded edges on the brim. Samet (velvet) or biber (beaver) hats are worn by Galician and Hungarian Hasidim during the week and by unmarried men on Shabbat as well. They are usually only worn in the winter. Some unmarried men wear a samet hat on the Sabbath and a felt hat during the week. There are many types of Samet hats, most notably the "high" ("hoicher") and "flat" ("platsher") varieties. The "flat" type is worn by Satmar Hasidim, and some others as well. Some Rabbis wear a "round" samet hat in a similar style to the shtofener hats, however made from the Samet material. They are called beaver hats even though today they are made from rabbit. A small fur hat called a kutchma () is worn by many Hasidic laymen during weekdays in the winter. Today this hat is sometimes made from cheaper materials, such as polyester. This hat is referred to as a shlyapka (шляпка), by Russian Jews. Other distinct clothing Gerrer Hasidim wear hoyznzokn — long black socks that they tuck their pants into. Some Hasidim from Eastern Galicia wear black socks with their breeches on the Sabbath, as opposed to white ones, particularly Belzer Hasidim. Many Hungarian Hasidic and non-Hasidic laymen wear a suit jacket that lies somewhere between a rekel and a regular three-quarter double breasted suit called a "drei-fertl" (Yiddish for "three-quarter"). It is distinct from a regular three-quarter suit inasmuch as the right side covers the left, like a rekel. Many Skverer hasidim wear knee-high leather boots (shtifl) with their breeches on the Sabbath. This manner of concealing the stockings was introduced as a compromise prior to a family wedding when one side had the tradition of wearing white stockings and the other did not. The Skverer Rebbe and his family wear such boots every day, and so do some rabbinical families affiliated with other Hasidic groups. The Dorohoi Rebbe in his traditional rabbinical Sabbath garb Hair Following a Biblical commandment not to shave the sides of one's face, male members of most Hasidic groups wear long, uncut sideburns called payot (Ashkenazi Hebrew peyos, Yiddish peyes). Many Hasidim shave off the rest of their hair. Not every Hasidic group requires long peyos, and not all Jewish men with peyos are Hasidic, but all groups discourage the shaving of one's beard. Hasidic boys receive their first haircuts ceremonially at the age of three years (though Skverrer Hasidim do this at their second birthday). Until then, Hasidic boys have long hair. Many non-Hasidic (and even some non-Orthodox) Jews have adopted this custom. Tzitzis The white threads dangling at the waists of Hasidim and other Orthodox Jewish males are tzitzit. The requirement to wear fringes comes from the Book of Numbers: "Speak to the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes on the borders of their garments throughout their generations" (Numbers 15:38). In order to fulfill this commandment, Orthodox males wear a tallit katan, a square white garment with the fringes at the corners. By tradition, a Hasidic boy will receive his first fringed garment on his third birthday, the same day as his first haircut. Most Orthodox Jews wear the tallit katan under their shirts, where it is unnoticeable except for the strings that many leave hanging out; many Hasidim, as well as some other Haredim, wear the tallis katan over their shirt. Women Hasidic women wear clothing of less distinctive appearance than that of their male counterparts, but which answers to the principles of tzeniut (modest dress in the sense of Jewish law). As with all Haredi women, the standard is long, conservative skirts, and sleeves past the elbow. Otherwise, female Hasidic fashion remains on the conservative side of secular women's fashion. Most Hasidic women do not wear red clothing. In common with all Haredim, Hasidic men will not touch or even shake hands with anyone of the opposite sex other than their wife, mother, sister, or daughter; the converse applies for women. In keeping with Jewish law married Hasidic women cover their hair. In many Hasidic groups the women wear sheitels (wigs) for this purpose. In some of these groups the women might also wear a tichel (scarf) or hat on top of the sheitel either on a regular basis or when attending services or other religious events. Other groups consider sheitels too natural looking, so they simply put their hair into kerchiefs (called tichels—a tichel often covers a shpitzel). In some groups, such as Satmar, married women shave their heads and wear head kerchiefs. All allow uncovered hair before marriage. Families Hasidic men and women, as customary in Haredi Judaism, usually meet through matchmakers in a process called a shidduch, but marriages involve the mutual consent of the couple and of the parents. Expectations exist that a bride and groom should be about the same age. Marriage age ranges from 17-25, with 18-21 considered the norm. No custom encourages an older man marrying a young woman. An old myth asserts that Hasidic couples have sexual intercourse through a sheet with holes in it. This is not true. Many scholars have posited that this myth originated in the speculation of outsiders upon seeing the poncho-like tallit katan drying on a clothes line. Since the tallit katan resembles a small square sheet with a hole in it (for the wearer's head to go through) and Hasidim were known for extreme modesty, a new myth was born. However, while this story is a myth, many pious Hasidic couples follow strict regulations regarding what types of sexual relations are allowed and how (which positions, etc). Hasidic thought stresses the holiness of sex. Hasidic Jews typically produce large families; the average chasidic family in the United States has 7.9 children. This custom is followed out of a desire to fulfill the Biblical mandate to "be fruitful and multiply." Languages A Hasidic celebration in Borough Park, Brooklyn, New York Most Hasidim speak the language of their countries of residence, but use Yiddish amongst themselves as a way of remaining distinct and preserving tradition. Thus children are still learning Yiddish today, and the language, despite predictions to the contrary, is not dead. Yiddish newspapers are still published, and Yiddish fiction is being written, primarily aimed at women. Films in Yiddish are being produced within the Hasidic community, and released immediately as DVDs (as opposed to the Yiddish movies of the past, which were produced by non-religious Jews). Some Hasidic groups actively oppose the everyday use of Hebrew, which is considered a holy tongue. To use it for anything other than prayer is profane. Hence Yiddish is the vernacular and common tongue for Hasidim around the world. Footnotes See also Hasidic philosophy List of Hasidic dynasties Hasidim and Mitnagdim Neo Hasidism Books Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov (1961), Liebermann, Toronto, Canada Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, The Great Maggid (1974; 1990), Kehot, Brooklyn NY, ISBN 0-8266-0414-5 Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, The Arrest and Liberation of Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi (1964; 1992), Kehot, Brooklyn NY ISBN 0-8266-0418-8 Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, Mystical Concepts in Chassidism (1979; 1988), Kehot, Brooklyn NY ISBN 0-8266-0412-9 Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, The Mystical Tradition (1990; 1995), Kehot, Brooklyn NY ISBN 0-8266-0528-1 Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, Deep Calling Unto Deep (1990; 1995), Kehot, Brooklyn NY ISBN 0-8266-0528-2 Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, Chassidic Dimensions (1990; 1995), Kehot, Brooklyn NY ISBN 0-8266-0528-3 Schochet, Jacob Immanuel, Tzava'at Harivash: The Testament of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov (1998), Kehot, Brooklyn NY ISBN 0-8266-0399-8 The Great Mission: The life and story of Rabbi Yisrael Baal Shem Tov. Compiled by Rabbi Eli Friedman, translated by Rabbi Elchonon Lesches. Kehot Publication Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8266-0681-4. Holy Days: The World of a Hasidic Family. Lis Harris. Simon & Schuster New York, 1985, ISBN 0-684-81366-1. Unchosen: The Hidden Lives of Hasidic Rebels. Hella Winston. Beacon Press Boston, 2005, ISBN 0-8070-3626-9. Souls on Fire: Portraits and Legends of Hasidic Masters. Elie Wiesel. Simon & Schuster New York, 1972, ISBN 0-6714-4171-X. Hasidic People: A Place in the New World. Jerome R. Mintz. Harvard University Press, 1992. External links Maps of the spread of Hasidism: Map of the area of activity of the Baal Shem Tov, and the directions of the Maggid's students' dissemination Map of the spread of Hasidism from 1730 and 1760-75, and its encroachment on the Lithuanian centre of Rabbinic opposition Encyclopedia and library articles: Hasidim, Hasidism, jewishencyclopedia.com Hasidism, jewishvirtuallibrary.org Hasidic and Jewish spirituality websites: Baal Shem Tov Foundation, baalshemtov.com Chassidic Stories Archive Chassidism, from chabad.org Breslov spirituality from Rabbi Nachman, breslov.com What is Chassidism?, shamash.org Hasidic Judaism Reading List, shamash.org FAQ on Hasidism Hasidic thought, revealtheessence.com New articulation of Kabbalah and Hasidic thought, with secular disciplines interpreted, Gal Einai Institute Other media and forums: Huge Gerrer Hasidic wedding in Israel A Tisch with the Skulener Rebbe at a Los Angeles Cheder Rebbe performing a Mitzvah Tantz, a ritual dance Hasidim celebrating the holiday of Purim (Windows Media Audio/Video file) The Gerrer Rebbe and Rabbi Shteinman speak at Congregation Bais Yehuda in Los Angeles Hasidic population growth Online Community of Chassidic Jews "database for finding Chassidic Jews" Williamsburg "Photographs of Hassidim in Williamsburg, Brooklyn via Flickr" | Hasidic_Judaism |@lemmatized hasidic:143 leader:14 jerusalem:5 judaism:33 also:30 transliterate:1 chasidic:8 etc:3 hebrew:6 hasidut:1 mean:11 piety:4 root:1 word:3 chesed:1 love:3 kindness:1 type:10 orthodox:13 haredi:10 jewish:74 religious:19 movement:16 refer:4 hasidism:52 adjective:1 yiddish:15 khasidish:1 applies:2 originate:5 eastern:11 europe:12 ukraine:12 century:18 soon:1 spread:9 poland:10 russia:4 hungary:4 romania:2 compare:1 tend:3 focus:3 role:4 rebbe:23 rabbi:22 spiritual:25 conduit:1 god:39 follower:14 join:1 worship:3 group:20 associate:1 dynasty:7 follow:11 principle:5 thus:4 one:29 collection:1 separate:2 individual:5 commonality:1 major:3 approximately:1 small:5 several:2 hundred:2 minor:1 extinct:1 though:4 version:3 often:8 share:2 fundamental:4 philosophy:13 style:5 dress:23 song:1 israel:13 ben:5 eliezer:5 know:13 ba:4 al:4 shem:25 tov:22 master:6 good:2 name:6 sometimes:5 abbreviate:2 besht:10 see:10 founding:1 figure:4 age:6 persecution:1 people:11 european:5 jew:44 turn:3 inward:1 talmud:7 study:15 many:34 felt:3 expression:3 life:14 become:18 academic:4 longer:3 emphasis:6 spirituality:10 joy:2 set:2 improve:2 situation:1 meet:4 opposition:9 misnagdim:6 literally:3 opponent:5 initial:2 stage:1 notable:1 vilna:4 gaon:4 lithuanian:8 generally:5 adopt:7 hostile:1 approach:8 history:3 prelude:2 bulk:2 jewry:2 establish:8 since:3 two:5 branch:3 rabbinic:16 emerge:2 oppose:9 kabbalah:17 mysticism:15 support:4 schism:2 particularly:4 acute:1 messianic:6 sabbatai:1 zevi:1 leaning:1 mystical:12 doctrine:7 sectarianism:2 show:2 prominently:1 among:8 south:2 province:2 anti:2 kabbalist:2 hold:7 sway:1 part:6 division:3 mode:1 thought:14 reflect:2 social:1 difference:4 northern:1 southern:3 lithuania:3 mass:5 mainly:3 live:4 densely:1 populated:1 town:3 kabbalistic:7 rabbinical:5 culture:2 yeshivos:2 flourish:1 scatter:1 village:5 far:2 remove:1 intellectual:9 center:8 influence:8 prevail:1 pessimism:1 intense:1 cossack:2 uprising:1 chmielnicki:1 turbulent:1 time:13 ruin:1 much:3 affect:1 general:4 population:4 decline:1 economic:2 chaos:1 reign:1 especially:7 due:1 event:2 subsequent:3 turkish:1 invasion:1 leave:4 region:2 depopulate:1 barren:1 polish:9 magnate:2 regain:1 control:1 last:3 decade:1 renaissance:1 ensue:1 begin:9 massive:1 rebuilding:1 repopulation:1 effort:1 welcome:1 benevolent:1 towards:2 frontier:1 environment:1 pursue:2 new:34 idea:10 encourage:3 state:8 would:4 later:4 create:3 favorable:1 field:1 area:6 middle:3 besides:2 deeply:2 seated:1 cause:6 produce:6 discontent:1 rabbinism:2 gravitation:1 toward:1 transform:2 system:3 formalism:2 provide:1 satisfactory:1 experience:4 although:4 traditional:16 feature:1 adapt:1 fit:1 add:3 ritualism:1 asceticism:1 practical:5 cabalist:1 across:3 border:2 ottoman:1 empire:2 saw:4 essence:2 earthly:2 existence:1 fasting:2 penance:1 sadness:1 combination:2 practice:8 suitable:1 hermit:1 suit:4 arose:3 outside:5 establishment:1 call:13 nistarim:1 baal:21 use:11 intervention:1 miracle:6 seek:7 offer:10 downtrodden:1 physical:6 encouragement:1 healing:1 image:2 charismatic:5 wander:2 shape:3 legend:2 lamed:1 vav:1 tzadikim:1 hidden:3 righteous:4 substain:1 world:12 circle:4 inspiration:4 early:10 lead:2 podolia:1 attract:6 precede:2 way:8 nistorim:1 teaching:13 direction:3 revive:2 console:1 public:2 preacher:1 maggidim:1 visit:1 shuls:1 synagogue:2 shtetls:2 sabbath:16 sermon:1 observance:4 ethical:3 promise:1 warning:1 heaven:2 hell:1 address:1 communal:3 help:5 teach:12 could:6 learn:4 learning:2 personal:3 example:4 conduct:4 admonishment:1 punishment:2 lack:2 inner:5 value:2 reward:1 avoid:1 replace:3 dveikus:1 cleave:4 daily:6 ascetic:2 path:4 self:2 mortification:1 serve:3 infuse:3 activity:6 founder:2 tradition:7 fame:1 healer:1 non:16 peasant:1 noble:3 hagiography:1 oral:2 story:7 posthumously:1 compile:2 writing:3 disciple:6 describe:6 power:1 knowledge:4 working:2 ability:1 predict:1 future:2 notion:3 pass:1 saintly:3 student:7 successor:5 tzaddik:7 channel:2 divine:13 substainance:1 particular:3 interpretation:7 concept:6 single:2 combine:3 teacher:4 biblical:5 account:1 biography:1 beginning:1 birthday:3 unique:1 talent:1 communicator:1 revival:5 era:1 common:10 appear:3 wholly:1 admirable:1 characterize:1 extraordinary:1 sincerity:4 simplicity:1 need:3 true:3 service:8 consist:1 scholarship:4 sincere:2 warm:3 faith:4 belief:9 efficacy:1 prayer:21 ordinary:1 person:6 fill:1 whose:1 come:9 heart:2 acceptable:1 someone:1 verse:1 fully:4 observant:1 law:8 democratization:1 scholar:7 scholasticism:1 fail:1 satisfy:1 ukrainian:1 mezhebuzh:1 gather:1 numerous:4 initiate:1 secret:1 systematic:2 exposition:1 saying:2 parable:2 contain:1 easily:1 graspable:1 insight:1 layman:4 profound:4 depth:5 great:15 transmission:1 develop:5 write:2 nothing:3 seminal:2 capture:1 articulate:2 unlearned:3 folk:5 give:9 scholarly:4 elite:2 ready:1 response:3 burn:1 desire:2 simple:5 stimulating:1 comfort:1 awaken:4 selfless:1 humility:1 contrast:3 sectarian:1 aim:6 dogmatic:1 ritual:6 reform:1 deep:4 psychological:3 change:5 believer:2 suggestion:1 man:12 place:9 emotion:3 reason:5 rite:2 exaltation:1 devotion:2 spiritualise:2 enlivement:1 make:10 close:3 peril:1 contribute:1 sense:2 ego:1 therefore:3 barrier:1 presence:3 court:6 death:1 continue:1 leadership:3 maggid:4 dov:6 ber:6 mezritch:3 go:3 forth:1 mezhirichi:1 personally:1 majority:3 galicia:4 central:2 substantial:1 minority:2 belarus:5 western:1 united:6 large:9 wave:1 emigration:1 rabbis:3 chaim:1 elazar:1 spira:1 munkacs:3 meir:1 shapiro:1 lublin:1 marienbad:1 mariánské:1 lázně:1 czech:1 republic:1 passing:1 chevraya:1 kadisha:1 holy:7 fellowship:1 agree:1 divide:2 whole:2 different:8 territory:1 charge:2 disseminate:1 designated:1 main:5 litta:1 encompass:1 three:7 elimelech:2 lizhensk:2 levi:1 yitzchak:1 berdychev:1 menachem:5 nachum:1 chernobyl:2 grandson:2 boruch:2 tulchin:1 r:2 mezhbizh:1 direct:3 first:5 tzaddikism:1 book:5 elimelekh:1 convey:1 tzadik:1 mediator:1 suggest:1 send:1 faithful:1 blessing:1 category:1 health:1 livelihood:1 child:5 condition:1 however:5 hasid:52 pecuniary:1 contribution:3 pidyonos:1 order:5 enable:2 completely:2 absorb:1 contemplation:1 shneur:1 zalman:9 liadi:4 found:6 habad:7 aharon:4 karlin:2 method:2 schneur:7 mind:4 route:3 articulation:6 incorporate:1 dimension:5 appeal:2 consequently:1 pose:1 threat:2 mitnagdim:2 arrest:2 imprison:2 saint:1 petersburg:1 tzarist:1 government:2 false:4 instigate:1 imprisonment:1 heavenly:3 broad:1 dissemination:3 exoneration:1 vindication:1 full:5 hasidus:1 influential:2 famous:2 thinker:4 include:7 nachman:3 breslov:8 mendel:4 kotzk:3 yisroel:2 friedman:3 ruzhyn:1 imaginatively:1 creative:2 overturn:1 tradditional:1 view:5 pursuit:1 truthful:1 introspection:1 integrity:1 meaning:3 tzaddikic:1 grandeur:1 reach:1 form:7 regal:1 magesty:1 flourishing:1 succession:1 usually:4 dynastic:1 rather:5 inherit:1 scattered:1 vitality:1 remain:5 ger:6 derive:2 belarusian:1 lubavitch:10 greatness:1 synthesis:3 dissolve:1 civilization:1 orthodoxy:1 serious:2 evolve:1 reject:1 dub:1 critic:1 decry:1 apparently:1 novel:1 aspect:4 find:4 problematic:2 overwhelming:1 exuberance:1 distrust:1 ascription:1 infallibility:1 express:1 concern:1 might:4 deviant:1 sect:5 fact:3 occur:2 shabbatai:1 zvi:3 jacob:9 frank:1 lubavitcher:3 schneerson:1 accuse:1 contemporary:1 head:4 important:2 believe:4 worker:1 perform:2 literature:3 heretical:3 base:3 classical:2 work:2 saadia:1 emunoth:1 deoth:1 ultimately:2 descendant:1 regularly:1 tell:1 similar:3 respect:1 misnagdic:1 outwardly:1 pious:2 improper:1 chasidus:1 core:1 permeate:2 object:1 nature:2 living:1 accord:5 sixth:1 yosef:1 yitzchok:1 schneersohn:1 say:3 rationalist:1 misunderstand:2 seemingly:1 pantheistic:1 violation:1 maimonidean:1 consider:4 chabad:10 school:4 phenomenon:1 relative:1 illusionary:1 absolute:1 reality:2 beyond:2 even:10 boundary:1 spark:1 goodness:1 thing:3 redeem:1 perfect:1 dangerous:1 prosaic:1 level:1 regard:4 less:3 point:1 put:2 cherem:1 excommunication:1 year:4 bitter:1 acrimony:1 rapprochement:1 within:5 reconciliation:1 take:6 perceive:1 haskala:1 enlightenment:1 despite:2 distinction:1 various:2 soviet:3 union:3 bolshevik:1 revolution:1 rise:1 communism:1 disintegration:1 ruzhin:2 chasid:5 primarily:4 tshernobler:1 ribnitzer:1 intent:1 preserve:2 religion:1 face:2 increase:1 instruction:1 outlaw:1 seize:1 secular:4 community:14 circumcision:1 forbidden:1 member:2 communist:1 party:1 underground:1 cleric:1 travel:1 function:1 chazzanim:1 shochtim:1 mohels:1 wherever:1 execute:1 current:1 position:2 holocaust:3 bring:3 final:1 destruction:1 survivor:1 move:1 eventually:1 america:1 model:1 original:1 well:13 still:5 exist:4 belz:4 bobov:3 puppa:1 sanz:1 klausenburg:1 satmar:9 skver:2 spinka:1 vizhnitz:3 today:8 seret:1 nadvorna:2 toldos:2 brooklyn:11 york:7 reb:2 camp:1 kiryas:1 joel:1 williamsburg:4 square:4 rockland:1 county:1 outremont:1 borough:4 montreal:2 pikesville:1 northwest:1 baltimore:1 maryland:1 lakewood:2 nj:1 toronto:2 london:1 antwerp:2 melbourne:1 fairfax:2 neighborhood:4 los:5 angeles:5 sherman:1 park:5 milwaukee:1 st:1 louis:1 minneapolis:1 suburb:1 probably:2 half:1 million:1 worldwide:1 locate:2 city:3 crown:3 height:1 monsey:2 monroe:1 farther:1 upstate:1 hancock:1 la:1 brea:1 beverly:1 district:1 valley:1 pico:1 robertson:1 sizable:1 grow:1 jersey:1 litvish:1 yeshiva:1 adjacent:1 ramat:1 beit:1 shemesh:1 bnei:1 brak:1 vast:2 either:2 canada:2 britain:1 mostly:1 stamford:1 hill:1 belgium:1 family:9 result:5 tremendous:1 growth:3 university:3 florida:2 article:2 may:5 politics:2 u:1 shift:2 political:1 right:5 grows:1 november:1 retrieve:1 think:4 provence:1 spain:1 advanced:3 metaphysical:2 theology:3 exegesis:1 esoteric:4 imaginative:1 alternative:2 mainstream:7 scriptural:1 commentary:1 zohar:1 medieval:1 ten:1 sefirot:1 emanation:1 reveal:3 mediate:1 unknowable:1 identification:1 sefirah:1 shechina:1 feminine:1 shefa:2 substaining:1 flow:1 creation:7 realm:2 dependent:1 righteousness:1 safed:1 special:5 isaac:2 luria:2 radical:1 primordial:1 process:4 accept:1 complete:3 stucture:1 metaphysics:2 tzimtzum:1 constriction:1 infinity:1 allow:3 cosmic:1 purpose:3 catastrophy:1 shevirat:1 hakelim:1 breaking:1 vessel:2 present:3 unredeemed:1 tikkun:2 rectification:1 supported:1 automatically:1 fulfil:1 normative:1 whether:2 aware:1 significance:3 reaction:1 suffering:1 exile:2 inspire:2 wide:1 cultural:1 imagination:1 terminology:2 enter:1 liturgy:3 subtle:4 novice:1 keep:4 committed:1 acceptance:1 messiah:2 shabbetai:2 gain:2 heresy:1 apostasy:1 restriction:1 wider:1 inhereted:1 suspicion:1 popular:3 soulful:3 aside:1 abstact:1 manifestation:1 complicated:1 structure:1 interaction:1 chochma:1 nistorah:1 wisdom:1 torah:4 necessary:1 extensively:1 involved:1 look:3 soul:5 transcend:1 earlier:2 relate:1 psychology:1 perception:1 gershom:1 scholem:1 internalisation:1 immanence:1 panentheistic:1 trace:1 panentheism:3 pantheism:1 deny:1 transcendence:1 divinity:1 immanent:1 revelation:1 transcendent:1 infinite:1 encounter:2 elevate:2 devekus:3 traditionally:3 essential:1 endeavour:1 connect:1 inaccessible:1 around:2 understand:1 deeper:1 mezeritch:1 devote:1 third:2 generation:3 theological:3 sociological:2 architect:1 elucidate:1 underlie:1 appoint:1 hevra:1 kaddisha:1 society:2 centre:2 stress:2 emphasise:2 variety:4 microcosm:1 redemption:1 tone:1 element:1 endanger:1 nonetheless:1 onwards:2 understanding:2 fore:1 occasion:2 recent:2 emotional:2 synthesise:2 bridge:1 accessible:1 interest:1 neo:2 denomination:1 modernity:1 philosophical:1 denominational:1 identity:1 moses:1 mendelssohn:1 haskalah:1 together:1 diverse:1 characteristic:1 theoretical:1 conception:2 omnipresence:1 communion:6 must:5 always:3 bear:2 omnipresent:1 matter:2 everywhere:1 diffuse:1 let:1 realize:1 material:4 gazing:1 deity:3 deveikus:1 refers:2 unbroken:1 relationship:1 humanity:1 act:2 exert:1 every:4 corresponding:1 effect:1 upper:2 sphere:1 chief:1 unite:1 source:3 achieve:2 concentration:3 consult:1 affair:2 constant:1 worldly:1 feel:1 render:1 fervor:1 ecstatic:1 pray:6 detach:1 dwelling:1 attainment:1 ecstasy:1 recourse:1 mechanical:1 enthusiastic:1 bodily:1 motion:1 shout:1 sing:1 sicerity:1 fervour:2 cold:1 reasoning:1 text:1 halakhic:1 lore:1 useful:1 exalt:1 elevation:1 helpful:1 read:2 moral:2 engage:1 analytical:1 performance:1 mood:2 importance:1 external:2 superfluous:1 ceremonial:1 detail:2 impediment:1 late:3 analysis:2 admiration:1 talmudic:1 offshoot:1 internalysing:1 integrate:2 contemplate:1 mitzvot:1 commandment:3 four:1 goal:1 yisrael:3 physically:2 crush:2 massacre:1 chmelnitzki:1 poverty:1 spiritually:2 disappointment:1 engender:1 unfortunate:1 seriously:1 wane:1 financially:1 lift:1 classic:1 letter:1 demand:1 cultivate:1 extra:2 degree:1 christian:1 mile:1 refinement:1 merely:1 strive:1 character:1 habit:1 manner:2 quality:1 maturity:1 accomplish:1 internalize:1 perspective:1 demystification:1 understandable:1 everyone:1 refine:1 vigor:1 observation:1 zidichover:1 tosher:1 concentrate:1 hasidim:5 variation:1 nusach:7 sefard:3 blend:1 ashkenazi:4 sephardi:1 innovation:4 arizal:3 specific:2 adaptation:1 belzer:2 bobover:1 dushinsky:1 closer:2 ashkenaz:1 others:3 munkacz:1 sefarad:1 distinctive:4 variant:1 ari:1 introduce:2 friday:1 recitation:1 psalm:2 mincha:1 afternoon:1 praise:1 release:2 weekday:5 end:1 maariv:1 dialect:4 davening:1 origin:4 choose:1 deliberately:1 happen:1 originally:2 significant:1 accompaniment:1 wordless:1 melody:1 nigunim:1 represent:1 overall:2 increasingly:1 reputation:3 long:8 quickly:1 spend:1 seven:1 second:2 amidah:1 lot:1 kavana:1 mental:1 chasidim:1 paramount:1 day:10 controversial:2 involve:2 near:1 abolition:1 specified:1 zemanim:1 shacharis:1 morning:2 preparation:1 precedence:1 extend:2 allotted:1 kotsker:1 allegedly:3 prevalent:1 eat:1 praying:2 halacha:2 immersion:2 male:5 customarily:2 immerse:3 mikvah:4 pool:1 water:1 holiday:4 yom:1 kippur:1 cleanliness:1 mandate:2 holiness:2 record:1 enactment:2 ezra:1 emission:1 repeal:1 least:1 attire:1 distinguish:2 historically:1 clothing:7 furthermore:1 attribute:1 item:1 contrary:2 little:2 emancipation:2 start:1 myth:5 attempt:1 induce:1 young:2 abandon:1 outfit:6 interestingly:1 writer:1 old:3 sholom:1 aleichem:1 likewise:1 slavic:2 kaftan:5 tsarist:2 edict:2 mid:2 ban:2 mention:2 hat:24 modify:1 russian:3 hide:1 sidelocks:1 modern:3 wear:57 prince:1 albert:1 frock:1 coat:3 substitute:1 bekishe:9 substitution:1 spodik:2 shtreimel:6 worn:4 prior:5 war:1 ii:1 picture:1 levantine:1 ie:1 lacking:1 lapel:1 button:2 differ:1 oriental:1 consisting:1 white:9 undershirt:1 sash:1 knee:2 breech:3 halbe:1 hoyzn:1 sock:4 slipper:2 babylonian:2 adoption:1 persian:2 lastly:1 turk:2 nobility:1 hence:2 vague:2 similarity:2 similarly:2 connection:2 shia:2 muslim:1 clerical:1 clergy:1 klausenberger:1 invent:1 code:3 babylon:1 bce:1 widely:1 rebbes:10 note:2 shtreimels:1 black:16 bekishes:2 gartels:1 velvet:4 line:3 claim:2 resemble:3 description:1 high:3 priest:1 bible:1 seem:1 judaic:1 instance:1 tuck:2 short:1 pant:2 trouser:2 bottom:1 never:2 touch:3 floor:1 ground:1 former:1 likely:1 waste:1 shtibblat:1 without:3 buckle:1 lace:1 shoe:3 ritually:1 defile:1 hand:2 require:2 purification:1 wash:1 men:6 commonly:1 dark:1 navy:1 jacket:4 shirt:3 cloth:1 rekel:3 zaydene:1 kapote:1 lit:1 satin:3 caftan:1 fabric:1 silk:3 preference:1 decree:2 stipulate:1 outer:1 garment:4 home:1 shiny:1 colorful:2 brightly:1 color:1 clothes:3 arouse:1 resentment:1 amongst:4 violence:1 indoors:2 tish:4 grand:1 fall:2 disuse:2 except:2 lelov:1 hungarian:5 tosh:1 trim:2 stroke:1 samet:6 lineage:1 gold:1 design:1 colour:1 khalat:1 overcoat:1 galitsyaner:1 rezhvolke:3 regular:4 fur:7 lined:1 tilep:1 pelt:2 avoids:1 wool:2 dombrover:1 necktie:1 exception:1 stem:1 quite:1 tenuous:1 real:1 historical:1 rekelech:1 sign:1 modesty:2 cover:4 almost:1 entire:1 body:1 prohibition:1 shaatnez:2 alludes:1 typically:2 plain:1 slip:1 ons:1 knot:1 prohibit:1 gartel:1 low:1 shulhan:1 arukh:1 prepare:1 headgear:1 moshe:1 leib:1 rabinovich:1 munkacser:1 kolpik:3 nearly:1 depend:1 headdress:3 galician:2 biala:1 amshinov:1 ozharov:1 aleksander:1 narrow:1 taller:1 choibl:1 soyvl:1 unmarried:3 son:1 hanukah:1 tu:1 b:1 shvat:1 rosh:1 chodesh:1 kashket:3 dashikl:1 peaked:1 cap:1 week:3 poor:1 shabbat:2 geographic:1 wore:1 reintroduce:1 boy:4 fedora:2 trilby:1 pinch:2 triangle:1 top:4 custom:4 open:2 rounded:2 affiliation:1 identify:1 brim:2 shtofener:2 slonimer:1 round:2 stolin:1 emunas:1 pinched:1 bowler:1 edge:1 biber:1 beaver:2 winter:2 notably:1 hoicher:1 flat:2 platsher:1 rabbit:1 kutchma:1 cheap:1 polyester:1 shlyapka:1 шляпка:1 distinct:3 gerrer:3 hoyznzokn:1 lie:1 somewhere:1 quarter:3 double:1 breast:1 drei:1 fertl:1 inasmuch:1 side:4 left:1 like:2 skverer:2 leather:1 boot:2 shtifl:1 conceal:1 stocking:2 compromise:1 wedding:2 affiliate:1 dorohoi:1 garb:1 hair:6 shave:3 uncut:1 sideburn:1 payot:1 peyos:3 peyes:1 rest:1 discourage:1 shaving:1 beard:1 receive:2 haircut:2 ceremonially:1 skverrer:1 tzitzis:1 thread:1 dangle:1 waist:1 tzitzit:1 requirement:1 fringe:4 number:2 speak:3 bid:1 throughout:1 fulfill:2 tallit:4 katan:5 corner:1 unnoticeable:1 string:1 hang:1 tallis:1 woman:13 appearance:1 counterpart:1 answer:1 tzeniut:1 modest:1 standard:1 conservative:2 skirt:1 sleeve:1 past:2 elbow:1 otherwise:1 female:1 fashion:2 red:1 shake:1 anyone:1 opposite:1 sex:2 wife:1 mother:1 sister:1 daughter:1 converse:1 marry:2 sheitels:2 wig:1 tichel:2 scarf:1 sheitel:1 basis:1 attend:1 natural:1 simply:1 kerchief:2 tichels:1 shpitzel:1 married:1 uncovered:1 marriage:3 customary:1 matchmaker:1 shidduch:1 mutual:1 consent:1 couple:3 parent:1 expectation:1 bride:1 groom:1 range:1 norm:1 assert:1 sexual:2 intercourse:1 sheet:2 hole:2 posit:1 speculation:1 outsider:1 upon:1 poncho:1 dry:1 wearer:1 extreme:1 strict:1 regulation:1 relation:1 average:1 fruitful:1 multiply:1 languages:1 celebration:1 language:2 country:1 residence:1 preserving:1 prediction:1 dead:1 newspaper:1 publish:1 fiction:1 film:1 immediately:1 dvd:1 movie:1 actively:1 everyday:1 tongue:2 anything:1 profane:1 vernacular:1 footnote:1 list:2 schochet:8 immanuel:8 liebermann:1 kehot:8 ny:7 isbn:11 liberation:1 chassidism:3 unto:1 chassidic:4 tzava:1 harivash:1 testament:1 mission:1 eli:1 translate:1 elchonon:1 lesches:1 publication:1 lis:1 harris:1 simon:2 schuster:2 unchosen:1 rebel:1 hella:1 winston:1 beacon:1 press:2 boston:1 fire:1 portrait:1 elie:1 wiesel:1 x:1 jerome:1 mintz:1 harvard:1 link:1 map:3 encroachment:1 encyclopedia:1 library:1 jewishencyclopedia:1 com:4 jewishvirtuallibrary:1 org:4 website:1 foundation:1 baalshemtov:1 archive:1 shamash:2 faq:1 revealtheessence:1 discipline:1 interpret:1 gal:1 einai:1 institute:1 medium:2 forum:1 huge:1 tisch:1 skulener:1 cheder:1 mitzvah:1 tantz:1 dance:1 celebrate:1 purim:1 windows:1 audio:1 video:1 file:1 shteinman:1 congregation:1 bai:1 yehuda:1 online:1 database:1 photograph:1 hassid:1 via:1 flickr:1 |@bigram hasidic_judaism:11 ben_eliezer:5 shem_tov:22 vilna_gaon:3 rabbinic_judaism:5 densely_populated:1 ottoman_empire:1 baal_shem:21 heaven_hell:1 reward_punishment:1 self_mortification:1 dov_ber:6 czech_republic:1 shneur_zalman:1 zalman_liadi:4 schneur_zalman:7 saint_petersburg:1 nachman_breslov:3 menachem_mendel:4 lubavitcher_rebbe:3 mendel_schneerson:1 saadia_gaon:1 soviet_union:2 baltimore_maryland:1 los_angeles:5 vast_majority:2 ten_sefirot:1 heavenly_realm:2 isaac_luria:2 gershom_scholem:1 mitzvot_commandment:1 ashkenazi_sephardi:1 chabad_lubavitch:3 yom_kippur:1 hasidic_dress:7 outer_garment:1 brightly_color:1 fall_disuse:2 rabbi_moshe:1 rosh_chodesh:1 belarus_ukraine:1 bowler_hat:1 haredi_judaism:1 mutual_consent:1 bride_groom:1 sexual_intercourse:1 fruitful_multiply:1 schochet_jacob:8 jacob_immanuel:8 kehot_brooklyn:7 brooklyn_ny:7 isbn_schochet:6 simon_schuster:2 elie_wiesel:1 external_link:1 jewishencyclopedia_com:1 jewishvirtuallibrary_org:1 chabad_org:1 |
998 | Jules_Verne | Jules Gabriel Verne (February 8, 1828 – March 24, 1905) was a French author who helped pioneer the science-fiction genre. He is best known for his novels A Journey to the Center of the Earth (written in 1864), From the Earth to the Moon (1865), Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869–1870), Around the World in Eighty Days (1873) and The Mysterious Island (1875). Verne wrote about space, air, and underwater travel before navigable aircraft and practical submarines were invented, and before any means of space travel had been devised. Consequently he is often referred to as the "Father of science fiction", along with H. G. Wells. Adam Roberts (2000), Science Fiction, London: Routledge, p. 48, ISBN 0-415-19204-8. Others who are popularly called the "Father of science fiction" include Hugo Gernsback and Edgar Allan Poe. Verne is the second most translated author of all time, only behind Agatha Christie, with 4162 translations, according to Index Translationum. Some of his works have been made into films. Biography Early years Verne was born to Pierre Verne and his wife, Sophie-Henriette Allotte de la Fuÿe (died 1887), in the bustling harbor city of Nantes in Western France. The oldest of five children, he spent his early years at home with his parents. The family spent summers in a country house just outside the city, on the banks of the Loire River. Verne and his brother Paul, of whom Verne was very fond, would often rent a boat for a franc a day. Jules Verne (1995), Monna Lisa; suivi de Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse, Paris: L'Herne, p. 101. ISBN 2-85197-328-2. The sight of the many ships navigating the river sparked Verne's imagination, as he describes in the autobiographical short story "Souvenirs d'Enfance et de Jeunesse". When Verne was nine, he and Paul were sent to boarding school at the Saint Donatien College (Petit séminaire de Saint-Donatien). As a child, he developed a great interest in travel and exploration, a passion he showed as a writer of adventure stories and science fiction. At twelve, he snuck onto a ship that was bound for India,The Coralie, only to be caught and severely whipped by his father. He famously stated: "I shall from now on only travel only in my imagination." Verne sitting on a bench. At the boarding school, Verne studied Latin, which he used in his short story "Le Mariage de Monsieur Anselme des Tilleuls" in the mid-1850s. One of his teachers may have been the French inventor Brutus de Villeroi, professor of drawing and mathematics at Saint Donatien in 1842, and who later became famous for creating the U.S. Navy's first submarine, the U.S.S. Alligator. De Villeroi may have inspired Verne's conceptual design for the Nautilus in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea, although no direct exchanges between the two men have been recorded. At Nantes in 1835, when De Villeroi and a companion submerged for two hours in a ten foot submarine, Verne was seven years old. For years afterward De Villeroi carried on submarine experiments in Nantes. Lincoln and the Tools of War by Robert V. Bruce - University of Illinois Press ISBN 978-0252060908 p 176 Literary debut After completing his studies at the lycée, Verne went to Paris to study law. About 1848, in conjunction with Michel Carré, he began writing librettos for operettas (he was co-librettist of Colin-Millard, a one act opera comique by Aristide Hignard). For some years his attentions were divided between the theatre and work, but some travelers' stories which he wrote for the Musée des Familles revealed to him his talent for writing fiction. When Verne's father discovered that his son was writing rather than studying law, he promptly withdrew his financial support. Verne was forced to support himself as a stockbroker, which he hated despite being somewhat successful at it. During this period, he met Alexandre Dumas, père and Victor Hugo, who offered him writing advice. Dumas would become a close friend of Verne. Peggy Teeters (1993), Jules Verne: The Man Who Invented Tomorrow, New York: Walker, p. 24. ISBN 0802781896. Verne also met Honorine de Viane Morel, a widow with two daughters. They were married on January 10, 1857. With her encouragement, he continued to write and actively looked for a publisher. On August 3, 1861, their son, Michel Jean Verne, was born. A classic enfant terrible, Michel was sent to Mettray Penal Colony in 1876 and later married an actress (in spite of Verne's objections), had two children by his 16-year-old mistress, and buried himself in debts. The relationship between father and son did improve as Michel grew older. Verne's situation improved when he met Pierre-Jules Hetzel, one of the most important French publishers of the 19th century, who also published Victor Hugo, Georges Sand, and Erckmann-Chatrian, among others. They formed an excellent writer-publisher team until Hetzel's death. Hetzel helped improve Verne's writings, which until then had been repeatedly rejected by other publishers. Hetzel read a draft of Verne's story about the balloon exploration of Africa, which had been rejected by other publishers for being "too scientific". With Hetzel's help, Verne rewrote the story, which was published in 1863 in book form as Cinq semaines en ballon (Five Weeks in a Balloon). Acting on Hetzel's advice, Verne added comical accents to his novels, changed sad endings into happy ones, and toned down various political messages. A typical Hetzel front cover for a Jules Verne book. The edition is Les Aventures du Capitaine Hatteras au Pôle Nord, type "Aux deux éléphants". From that point to years after Verne's death, Hetzel published two or more volumes a year. The most successful of these include: Voyage au centre de la terre (Journey to the Center of the Earth, 1864); De la terre à la lune (From the Earth to the Moon, 1865); Vingt mille lieues sous les mers (Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, 1869); and Le tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours (Around the World in Eighty Days), which first appeared in Le Temps in 1872. The series is collectively known as "Les voyages extraordinaires" ("extraordinary voyages"). Verne could now live on his writings. But most of his wealth came from the stage adaptations of Le tour du monde en quatre-vingts jours (1874) and Michel Strogoff (1876), a relatively conventional adventure tale set in Tsarist Russia, which he adapted for the stage with Adolphe d'Ennery. In 1867 Verne bought a small ship, the Saint-Michel, which he successively replaced with the Saint-Michel II and the Saint-Michel III as his financial situation improved. On board the Saint-Michel III, he sailed around Europe. In 1870, he was appointed "Chevalier" (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur. After his first novel, most of his stories were first serialised in the Magazine d'Éducation et de Récréation, a Hetzel biweekly publication, before being published in the form of books. Jules' brother Paul contributed to a non-fiction story "Fortieth Ascent of Mont Blanc" ("Quarantième ascension du Mont-Blanc") to the collection of short stories, Doctor Ox (1874). According to the Unesco Index Translationum, Jules Verne regularly places among the top five most translated authors in the world. Last years On March 9, 1886, as Verne approached his own home, his twenty-five-year-old nephew Gaston, who suffered from paranoia, shot twice at him with a gun. One bullet missed, but the second entered Verne's left leg, giving him a permanent limp. Gaston spent the rest of his life in an asylum. Verne in 1892 After the deaths of Hetzel and his beloved mother in 1887, Verne began writing darker works. This may have been due partly to changes in his personality, but an important factor was that Hetzel's son, who took over his father's business, was not as rigorous in his edits and corrections as Hetzel Sr. had been. In 1888, Verne entered politics and was elected town councilor of Amiens, where he championed several improvements and served for fifteen years. Though elected from the left he stood with the right on Dreyfus Affair and was anti-Dreyfusard. Walter A. McDougall (2001), "Journey to the Center of Jules Verne... and Us", Watch on the West 2, n. 4. William Butcher (2007), "A Chronology of Jules Verne", in Jules Verne, Lighthouse at the End of the World, Lincoln (NE): University of Nebraska Press, p. XXXVII, ISBN 0803246765. In 1905, ill with diabetes, Verne died at his home, 44 Boulevard Longueville (now Boulevard Jules-Verne). His son Michel oversaw publication of his last novels Invasion of the Sea and The Lighthouse at the End of the World. The "Voyages extraordinaires" series continued for several years afterwards in the same rhythm of two volumes a year. It was later discovered that Michel Verne had made extensive changes in these stories, and the original versions were published at the end of the 20th century. In 1863, Verne wrote Paris in the 20th Century, a novel about a young man who lives in a world of glass skyscrapers, high-speed trains, gas-powered automobiles, calculators, and a worldwide communications network, yet cannot find happiness and comes to a tragic end. Hetzel thought the novel's pessimism would damage Verne's then booming career, and suggested he wait 20 years to publish it. Verne put the manuscript in a safe, where it was discovered by his great-grandson in 1989. It was published in 1994. Death Jules Verne died on March 24, 1905 and was buried in the Madeleine Cemetery in Amiens. There are recently (2008) initiated efforts to have him reburied in the Panthéon, alongside France's other literary giants. Reputation in English-speaking countries The tomb of Jules Verne in Amiens (Somme); sculpture by Albert Roze (1861-1953). While Verne is considered in France as an author of quality books for young people, with a good command of his subjects, including technology and politics, his reputation in English-speaking countries suffered for a long time as a result of poor translation. Some English publishers felt 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea portrayed the British Empire in a bad light, and the first English translator, Reverend Lewis Page Mercier, working under a pseudonym, removed many offending passages. Mrs. Agnes Kinloch Kingston (writing in the name of her husband (W.H.G. Kingston) deleted parts of Mysterious Island such as those describing the political actions of Captain Nemo in his incarnation as an Indian nobleman freedom fighter. Such negative depictions were not, however, invariable in Verne's works; for example, Facing the Flag features, in the character of Lieutenant Devon, a heroic, self-sacrificing Royal Navy officer worthy of any created by British authors. In 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea itself, Captain Nemo, there of unidentified nationality, is balanced by Ned Land, a Canadian. Some of Verne's most famous heroes were British (e.g. Phileas Fogg in Around the World in Eighty Days). Mercier and subsequent British translators also had trouble with the that Verne used, sometimes dropping significant figures, at other times changing the unit to an Imperial measure without changing the corresponding value. Thus Verne's calculations, which in general were remarkably exact, were converted into mathematical gibberish. Also, artistic passages and sometimes whole chapters were cut to fit the work into a constrained space for publication. For these reasons, Verne's work initially acquired a reputation in English-speaking countries of not being fit for adult readers. This in turn prevented it from being taken seriously enough to merit new translations, and those of Mercier and others were reprinted decade after decade. Only from 1965 on have some of his novels received more accurate translations, but even today Verne's work has not been fully rehabilitated in the English-speaking world. Verne's works may also reflect the bitterness France felt in the wake of its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) and the consequent loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The Begum's Millions (Les Cinq cents millions de la Begum) of 1879 gives a highly stereotypical depiction of Germans as monstrously cruel militarists. By contrast, almost all the protagonists in his pre-1871 works, such as the sympathetic first-person narrator in Journey to the Centre of the Earth, are German. Hetzel's influence Hetzel substantially influenced the writings of Verne, who was so happy to finally find a willing publisher that he agreed to almost all changes that Hetzel suggested. Hetzel rejected at least one novel (Paris in the 20th Century), and asked Verne to make significant changes in his other drafts. One of the most important changes Hetzel imposed on Verne was the adoption of a more optimistic tone. Verne was in fact not an enthusiast of technological and human progress, as can be seen in the works he created both before he met Hetzel and after the publisher's death. Hetzel's insistence on a more optimistic text proved correct. For example, The Mysterious Island originally ended with the survivors returning to mainland forever nostalgic about the island. Hetzel decided that the heroes should live happily, so in the revised draft, they use their fortunes to build a replica of the island. Many translations are like this. Also, in order not to offend France's then-ally, Russia, the famous Captain Nemo was changed from a Polish refugee avenging the partitions of Poland and the death of his family, killed in the reprisals following the January Uprising, to an Indian prince fighting the British Empire after the Sikh War. Predictions A mural in Tampa, Florida commemorating Verne's From the Earth to the Moon. Jules Verne's novels have been noted for being startlingly accurate anticipations of modern times. Paris in the 20th Century is an often cited example of this as it arguably describes air conditioning, automobiles, the Internet, television, and other modern conveniences very similar to their real world counterparts. Another example is From the Earth to the Moon, which is uncannily similar to the real Apollo Program, as three astronauts are launched from the Florida peninsula and recovered through a splash landing. In the book, the spacecraft is launched from "Tampa Town"; Tampa, Florida is approximately 130 miles from NASA's actual launching site at Cape Canaveral. Norman Wolcott (2005), A Jules Verne Centennial: 1905-2005, Washington (DC): Smithsonian Institution Libraries. In other works, Verne predicted the inventions of helicopters, submarines, projectors, jukeboxes, and other later devices. He also predicted the existence of underwater hydrothermal vents that were not discovered until years after he wrote about them. Scholars' jokes Verne, who had a large archive and always kept up with scientific and technological progress, sometimes seemed to joke with the readers, using so-called "scholars' jokes" (that is, a joke that only a scientist may recognise). For instance, in Dick Sand, A Captain at Fifteen, a Manticora beetle helps Cousin Bénédict to escape from imprisonment when Bénédict, unguarded, follows the beetle out of the garden. Since the beetle escapes from Cousin Bénédict by flying away, when in fact the genus is flightless, it is possible that this is one such joke. Another example appears in Mysterious Island, where the main character's dog is attacked by a wild dugong, even though the dugong, like its North American cousin, the manatee, is a herbivorous mammal. Also in Mysterious Island, because of its fauna and flora, the sailor Bonadventure Pencroff asks Cyrus Smith whether the latter believes that islands (like the one they are on) are made specially to be ideal ones for castaways. From the Earth to the Moon (the material used for the cannon — in this case it was probably poetic license, since the description of the making of the gun became far more dramatic), or The Begum's Millions, where the methods used for making steel in "Steel City", described as the most modern steel factory in the world, were rather dated, but, again, much more spectacular to describe. (See Neff, 1978) Bibliography Jules Verne in front of creatures from his novels and stories. Verne wrote numerous works, most famous of which are the 54 novels part of the Voyages Extraordinaires. He also wrote short stories, essays, plays, and poems. Note: only the dates of the first English translation and the most common translation title are given. Voyages Extraordinaires (1863) Cinq Semaines en ballon; English translation: Five Weeks in a Balloon (1869) (1866) Voyages et aventures du capitaine Hatteras; English translation: The Adventures of Captain Hatteras (1874-75) (1864) Voyage au centre de la Terre; English translation: Journey to the Center of the Earth (1871) (1865) De la terre à la lune; English translation: From the Earth to the Moon (1867) (1867-68) Les Enfants du capitaine Grant; English translation: In Search of the Castaways (1873) (1869-70) Vingt mille lieues sous les mers; English translation: Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1872) (1870) Autour de la lune; English translation: Around the Moon (1873) (1871) Une ville flottante; English translation: A Floating City (1874) (1872) Aventures de trois Russes et de trois Anglais; English translation: The Adventures of Three Englishmen and Three Russians in South Africa (1872) (1873) Le Pays des fourrures; English translation: The Fur Country (1873) (1873) Le Tour du Monde en quatre-vingts jours; English translation: Around the World in Eighty Days (1873) (1874-75) L'Île mysterieuse; English translation: The Mysterious Island (1874) (1875) Le Chancellor; English translation: The Survivors of the Chancellor (1875) (1876) Michel Strogoff; English translation: Michael Strogoff (1876) (1877) Hector Servadac; English translation: Off on a Comet (1877) (1877) Les Indes noires; English translation: The Child of the Cavern (1877) (1878) Un capitaine de quinze ans; English translation: Dick Sand, A Captain at Fifteen (1878) (1879) Les Cinq Cents Millions de la Bégum; English translation: The Begum's Millions (1879) (1879) Les Tribulations d'un chinois en Chine; English translation: Tribulations of a Chinaman in China (1879) (1880) La Maison à vapeur; English translation: The Steam House (1880) (1881) La Jangada; English translation: Eight Hundred Leagues on the Amazon (1881) (1882) L'Ecole des Robinsons; English translation: Godfrey Morgan (1883) (1882) Le Rayon vert; English translation: The Green Ray (1883) (1883) Kéraban-le-têtu; English translation: Kéraban the Inflexible (1883-84) (1884) L'Étoile du sud; English translation: The Vanished Diamond (1885) (1884) L'Archipel en feu; English translation: The Archipelago on Fire (1885) (1885) Mathias Sandorf; English translation: Mathias Sandorf (1885) (1886) Un billet de loterie; English translation: The Lottery Ticket (1886) (1886) Robur-le-Conquérant; English translation: Robur the Conqueror (1887) (1887) Nord contre Sud; English translation: North Against South (1887) (1887) Le Chemin de France; English translation: The Flight to France (1888) (1888) Deux Ans de vacances; English translation: Two Years' Vacation (1889) (1889) Famille-sans-nom; English translation: Family Without a Name (1889) (1889) Sans dessus dessous; English translation: The Purchase of the North Pole (1890) (1890) César Cascabel; English translation: César Cascabel (1890) (1891) Mistress Branican; English translation: Mistress Branican (1891) (1892) Le Château des Carpathes; English translation: Carpathian Castle (1893) (1892) Claudius Bombarnac; English translation: Claudius Bombarnac (1894) (1893) P’tit-Bonhomme; English translation: Foundling Mick (1895) (1894) Mirifiques Aventures de Maître Antifer; English translation: Captain Antifer (1895) (1895) L'Île à hélice; English translation: Propeller Island (1896) (1896) Face au drapeau; English translation: Facing the Flag (1897) (1896) Clovis Dardentor; English translation: Clovis Dardentor (1897) (1897) Le Sphinx des glaces; English translation: An Antarctic Mystery (1898) (1898) Le Superbe Orénoque; English translation: The Mighty Orinoco (2002) (1899) Le Testament d'un excentrique; English translation: The Will of an Eccentric (1900) (1900) Seconde Patrie; English translation: The Castaways of the Flag (1923) (1901) Le Village aérien; English translation: The Village in the Treetops (1964) (1901) Les Histoires de Jean-Marie Cabidoulin; English translation: The Sea Serpent (1967) (1902) Les Frères Kip; English translation: The Kip Brothers (2007) (1903) Bourses de voyage; English translation: Traveling Scholarships (n/a) (1904) Un drame en Livonie; English translation: A Drama in Livonia (1967) (1904) Maître du monde; English translation: Master of the World (1911) (1905) L'Invasion de la mer; English translation: Invasion of the Sea (2001) Apocryphal and posthumous novels (1885) L'Épave du Cynthia; English translation: The Waif of the Cynthia (1885), with André Laurie (pseudonym of Paschal Grousset), but actually the work of Grousset alone Volker Dehs, Jean-Michel Margot and Zvi Har’El, "The Complete Jules Verne Bibliography, X: Apocrypha". Retrieved on 2008-11-10. (1905) Le Phare du bout du monde; English translation: The Lighthouse at the End of the World (1923), modified by Michel Verne (1906) Le Volcan d'or; English translation: The Golden Volcano: The Claim on Forty Mile Creek and Flood and Flame (2 vols., 1962), modified by Michel Verne (1907) L'Agence Thompson and Cº; English translation: The Thompson Travel Agency: Package Holiday and End of the Journey (2 vols., 1965), written by Michel Verne (1908) La Chasse au météore; English translation: The Chase of the Golden Meteor (1909), modified by Michel Verne (1908) Le Pilote du Danube; English translation: The Danube Pilot (1967), modified by Michel Verne (1909) Les Naufragés du Jonathan; English translation: The Survivors of the 'Jonathan': The Masterless Man and The Unwilling Dictator (2 vols., 1962), modified by Michel Verne (1910) Le Secret de Wilhelm Storitz; English translation: The Secret of William Storitz (1963), modified by Michel Verne (1919) L'Étonnante Aventure de la mission Barsac; English translation: The Barsac Mission: Into the Niger Bend and The City of the Sahara (2 vols., 1960), written by Michel Verne (1989) Voyage en Angleterre et en Ecosse; English translation: Backwards to Britain (1992), written in 1859 (1994) Paris au XXe siècle; English translation: Paris in the Twentieth Century (1996), written in 1863 Short story collections (1874) Le Docteur Ox; English translation: Doctor Ox (1874) (1910) Hier et Demain; English translation: Yesterday and Tomorrow (1965) Short stories (1851) "Un drame au Mexique"; English translation: "A Drama in Mexico" (1876) (1851) "Un drame dans les airs"; English translation: "A Drama in the Air" (1852) (1852) "Martin Paz"; English translation: "Martin Paz" (1875) (1854) "Maître Zacharius"; English translation: "Master Zacharius" (1874) (1855) "Un hivernage dans les glaces"; English translation: "A Winter Amid the Ice" (1874) (1864) "Le Comte de Chanteleine"; English translation: "The Count of Chanteleine" (n/a) (1865) "Les Forceurs de blocus"; English translation: "The Blockade Runners" (1874) (1872) "Une fantaisie du docteur Ox"; English translation: "Dr. Ox's Experiment" (1874) (1875) "Une ville idéale"; English translation: "An Ideal City" (1965) (1879) "Les Révoltés de la Bounty"; English translation: "The Mutineers of the Bounty" (1879) (1881) "Dix Heures en chasse"; English translation: "Ten Hours Hunting" (1965) (1884) "Frritt-Flacc"; English translation: "Frritt-Flacc" (1892) (1887) "Gil Braltar"; English translation: "Gil Braltar" (1958) (1891) "La Journée d'un journaliste américain en 2889"; English translation: "In the Year 2889" (1889) (1891) "Aventures de la famille Raton"; English translation: "Adventures of the Rat Family" (1993) (1893) "Monsieur Ré-Dièze et Mademoiselle Mi-Bémol"; English translation: "Mr. Ray Sharp and Miss Me Flat" (1965) Apocryphal short stories (1888) "Un Express de l'avenir"; English translation: "An Express of the Future" (1895), written by Michel Verne (1910) "La Destinée de Jean Morénas"; English translation: "The Fate of Jean Morenas" (1965), written by Michel Verne (1910) "L'Éternel Adam"; English translation: "The Eternal Adam" (1957), written by Michel Verne Non-fiction works (1857) Salon de 1857; no English translation (1866) Géographie illustrée de la France et de ses colonies; English translation: Illlustrated Geography of France and its Colonies (n/a), with Théophile Lavallée Histoire des grands voyages et des grands voyageurs; English translation: Celebrated Travels and Travellers (1878) Découverte de la terre; English translation: The Exploration of the World (1879) (1879) Les Grand navigateurs du XVIIIème siècle; English translation: The Great Navigators of the Eighteenth Century (1879) (1880) Les Voyageurs du XIXème siècle; English translation: The Great Explorers of the Nineteenth Century (1881) Imitations by other writers The Wizard of the Sea by Roy Rockwood is a clear copy of Verne's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, apart from the first chapter(s). One or two other of Rockwood's titles also seem to (lesser) resemble some of Verne's, eg compare Five Thousand Miles Underground to Journey to the Centre of the Earth. In 1999 German writer Dieter Lammerding has written a drama named Phantastische Reise zu Kapitän Nemo, merging two novels into one piece. See also About Verne: Jules Verne Museum in Nantes, France Other science-fiction pioneers: Paschal Grousset, another French science-fiction author Emilio Salgari, Opéra-bouffean Italian science-fiction and adventure writer Osip Senkovsky, Polish-Russian journalist and entertainer Oshikawa Shunro, a Japanese science-fiction pioneer Inspired by Verne: The Secret Adventures of Jules Verne TV series Jules Verne ATV, an ATV named after Verne Steampunk, a style that took inspiration from Verne. Vernian Process, a music project inspired in name and theme. Films based on works of Jules Verne Jules Verne's works have inspired filmmakers almost from the birth of cinema. Georges Méliès, one of the earliest pioneers of French cinema, who had a taste for the fantastic, adapted some of Verne's works prior to 1910. Most of Verne's most famous novels, and some of his lesser known ones, received French, American, German, and Soviet adaptations in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, but probably the best known film adaptations of Verne's works came from American studios in the mid-1950s to early 1960s. These included Disney's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), a production of Around the World in Eighty Days that won the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1956, a production of From the Earth to the Moon in 1958, Journey to the Center of the Earth in 1959, Mysterious Island in 1961, and In Search of the Castaways in 1962. These were large-scale productions featuring top American, British, and international stars. While American studios' interest in Verne waned after this period, productions in other countries and smaller scale American productions have continued pretty much without interruption since the invention of film, up to this day. A recent example is the 2008 remake of Journey to the Center of the Earth (which was in 3D). In 2008, three British film-makers announced their upcoming film adaptation of "Clovis Dardentor", one of Verne's lesser known works. The majority of the many film and television productions of Verne's works have concentrated on his most famous novels, but there have also been film adaptations of many of his lesser known works, such as The Lighthouse at the End of the World, The Carpathian Castle, and The Vanished Diamond, filmed as "The Southern Star." Michael Strogoff has been a particularly popular property for adaptation by non-Americans, having been filmed at least a dozen times for cinema and television, starting in 1910. Many famous actors have appeared in Verne films, including James Mason, Kirk Douglas, Maurice Chevalier, Peter Lorre, David Niven, Shirley MacLaine, Joseph Cotton, Lionel Barrymore, Orson Welles, Yul Brenner, Jackie Chan, Brendan Fraser, and even the Three Stooges. The 1956 American version of Around the World in 80 Days is sometimes credited with inventing the concept of cameo appearances by big stars, and had (often very brief) appearances by a dizzying array of famous performers, including Frank Sinatra, John Gielgud, Noel Coward, Charles Boyer, Fernandel, Trevor Howard, Cesar Romero, George Raft, Buster Keaton, Marlene Dietrich, Ronald Colman, and many others. References Further reading William Butcher, Arthur C. Clarke (Introduction) (2006). Jules Verne: The Definitive Biography. ISBN 1-56025-854-3 Peter Costello, Jules Verne: Inventor of Science Fiction. ISBN 0-684-15824-8 Herbert R. Lottman (1997). Jules Verne: An Exploratory Biography. ISBN 0-312-14636-1 Jean Jules-Verne (1976). Jules Verne, A Biography. ISBN 0-8008-4439-4 Philippe Melot et Jean-Marie Embs (2005).Le Guide Jules Verne.Les Editions de l'Amateur,Paris. ISBN 2-85917-417-6 Ondřej Neff, Podivuhodný svět Julese Vernea (The Extraordinary World of Jules Verne), Prague, (1978) Gallagher, E. J. (1980). Jules Verne: A primary and secondary bibliography. Boston: MA, G. K. Hall & Co. Evans, A. B. (1988). Jules Verne rediscovered: Didacticism and the scientific novel. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Martin, A. (1990). The mask of the prophet: The extraordinary fictions of Jules Verne. New York: Oxford University Press. Lynch, L. (1992). Jules Verne. New York: Twayne Publishers. External links Les Voyages Extraordinaires — list of Verne works Compiled by Dennis Kytasaari. Jules Verne's works: text, concordances and frequency list Zvi Har'El's Jules Verne Collection, including the Jules Verne Virtual Library, online sources of 51 of Jules Verne's novels translated into eight languages. The Jules Verne Collecting Resource Page, complete online sources, posters, cards, autographs, first edition covers, etc.. Jules Verne: The Definitive Biography A Chronology of Jules Verne Biography of Jules Verne Jules Verne: A Reappraisal, by William Butcher "Jules Verne: Father of Science Fiction?", John Derbyshire, The New Atlantis, Number 12, Spring 2006, pp. 81–90. A review of four new Jules Verne translations from the "Early Classics of Science Fiction" series by Wesleyan University Press. Jules Verne: An Exploratory Biography, by Herbert R. Lottman — a review A Jules Verne Centennial: 1905–2005 Nantes Tourist Office official website (English) List of audio books at LibriVox by Jules Verne The Count of Chanteleine Wiki Translation Project (French → English) Jules Verne, his work in audio version be-x-old:Жуль Вэрн | Jules_Verne |@lemmatized jules:48 gabriel:1 verne:124 february:1 march:3 french:7 author:6 help:4 pioneer:4 science:12 fiction:16 genre:1 best:3 know:5 novel:16 journey:9 center:6 earth:14 write:22 moon:8 twenty:5 thousand:5 league:9 sea:12 around:8 world:18 eighty:5 day:8 mysterious:7 island:11 space:3 air:4 underwater:2 travel:7 navigable:1 aircraft:1 practical:1 submarine:5 invent:3 mean:1 devise:1 consequently:1 often:4 refer:1 father:7 along:1 h:2 g:4 well:1 adam:3 robert:2 london:1 routledge:1 p:6 isbn:10 others:4 popularly:1 call:2 include:7 hugo:3 gernsback:1 edgar:1 allan:1 poe:1 second:2 translated:2 time:5 behind:1 agatha:1 christie:1 translation:101 accord:2 index:2 translationum:2 work:25 make:5 film:11 biography:7 early:5 year:17 bear:2 pierre:2 wife:1 sophie:1 henriette:1 allotte:1 de:46 la:21 fuÿe:1 died:1 bustling:1 harbor:1 city:6 nantes:5 western:1 france:10 old:6 five:6 child:4 spend:3 home:3 parent:1 family:4 summer:1 country:6 house:2 outside:1 bank:1 loire:1 river:2 brother:3 paul:3 fond:1 would:3 rent:1 boat:1 franc:1 monna:1 lisa:1 suivi:1 souvenir:1 enfance:2 et:11 jeunesse:2 paris:8 l:14 herne:1 sight:1 many:7 ship:3 navigate:1 spark:1 imagination:2 describe:5 autobiographical:1 short:7 story:15 souvenirs:1 nine:1 send:2 board:3 school:2 saint:7 donatien:3 college:1 petit:1 séminaire:1 develop:1 great:4 interest:2 exploration:3 passion:1 show:1 writer:5 adventure:7 twelve:1 sneak:1 onto:1 bind:1 india:1 coralie:1 catch:1 severely:1 whip:1 famously:1 state:1 shall:1 sit:1 bench:1 study:4 latin:1 use:6 le:28 mariage:1 monsieur:2 anselme:1 tilleuls:1 mid:2 one:15 teacher:1 may:5 inventor:2 brutus:1 villeroi:4 professor:1 draw:1 mathematics:1 later:3 become:3 famous:8 create:3 u:3 navy:2 first:9 alligator:1 inspire:4 conceptual:1 design:1 nautilus:1 although:1 direct:1 exchange:1 two:9 men:1 record:1 companion:1 submerge:1 hour:2 ten:2 foot:1 seven:1 afterward:1 carry:1 experiment:2 lincoln:2 tool:1 war:3 v:1 bruce:1 university:4 illinois:1 press:5 literary:2 debut:1 complete:3 lycée:1 go:1 law:2 conjunction:1 michel:24 carré:1 begin:2 libretto:1 operetta:1 co:2 librettist:1 colin:1 millard:1 act:2 opera:1 comique:1 aristide:1 hignard:1 attention:1 divide:1 theatre:1 traveler:1 musée:1 des:4 familles:1 reveal:1 talent:1 discover:4 son:5 rather:2 promptly:1 withdraw:1 financial:2 support:2 force:1 stockbroker:1 hat:1 despite:1 somewhat:1 successful:2 period:2 meet:4 alexandre:1 duma:2 père:1 victor:2 offer:1 advice:2 close:1 friend:1 peggy:1 teeter:1 man:3 tomorrow:2 new:6 york:3 walker:1 also:12 honorine:1 viane:1 morel:1 widow:1 daughter:1 marry:2 january:2 encouragement:1 continue:3 actively:1 look:1 publisher:9 august:1 jean:7 classic:2 enfant:1 terrible:1 mettray:1 penal:1 colony:3 actress:1 spite:1 objection:1 mistress:3 bury:2 debt:1 relationship:1 improve:4 grow:1 situation:2 hetzel:21 important:3 century:8 publish:7 george:3 sand:3 erckmann:1 chatrian:1 among:2 form:3 excellent:1 team:1 death:6 writing:3 repeatedly:1 reject:3 read:2 draft:3 balloon:3 africa:2 scientific:3 rewrite:1 book:6 cinq:4 semaines:2 en:12 ballon:2 week:2 add:1 comical:1 accent:1 change:9 sad:1 ending:1 happy:2 tone:2 various:1 political:2 message:1 typical:1 front:2 cover:2 edition:3 les:15 aventures:5 du:17 capitaine:4 hatteras:3 au:7 pôle:1 nord:2 type:1 aux:1 deux:2 éléphants:1 point:1 volume:2 voyage:12 centre:4 terre:5 à:4 lune:3 vingt:2 mille:2 lieues:2 sous:2 mers:2 tour:3 monde:5 quatre:3 vingts:3 jours:3 appear:3 temp:1 series:4 collectively:1 extraordinaires:5 extraordinary:3 could:1 live:3 wealth:1 come:3 stage:2 adaptation:6 strogoff:4 relatively:1 conventional:1 tale:1 set:1 tsarist:1 russia:2 adapt:2 adolphe:1 ennery:1 buy:1 small:2 successively:1 replace:1 ii:1 iii:2 sail:1 europe:1 appoint:1 chevalier:2 knight:1 légion:1 honneur:1 serialise:1 magazine:1 éducation:1 récréation:1 biweekly:1 publication:3 contribute:1 non:3 fortieth:1 ascent:1 mont:2 blanc:2 quarantième:1 ascension:1 collection:3 doctor:2 ox:5 unesco:1 regularly:1 place:1 top:2 last:2 approach:1 nephew:1 gaston:2 suffer:2 paranoia:1 shot:1 twice:1 gun:2 bullet:1 miss:2 enter:2 leave:1 leg:1 give:3 permanent:1 limp:1 rest:1 life:1 asylum:1 beloved:1 mother:1 darker:1 due:1 partly:1 personality:1 factor:1 take:3 business:1 rigorous:1 edits:1 correction:1 sr:1 politics:2 elect:2 town:2 councilor:1 amiens:3 champion:1 several:2 improvement:1 serve:1 fifteen:3 though:2 left:1 stand:1 right:1 dreyfus:1 affair:1 anti:1 dreyfusard:1 walter:1 mcdougall:1 watch:1 west:1 n:4 william:4 butcher:3 chronology:2 lighthouse:4 end:8 ne:1 nebraska:1 xxxvii:1 ill:1 diabetes:1 die:2 boulevard:2 longueville:1 oversee:1 novels:1 invasion:3 afterwards:1 rhythm:1 extensive:1 original:1 version:3 young:2 glass:1 skyscraper:1 high:1 speed:1 train:1 gas:1 powered:1 automobile:2 calculator:1 worldwide:1 communication:1 network:1 yet:1 cannot:1 find:2 happiness:1 tragic:1 think:1 pessimism:1 damage:1 boom:1 career:1 suggest:2 wait:1 put:1 manuscript:1 safe:1 grandson:1 madeleine:1 cemetery:1 recently:1 initiate:1 effort:1 reburied:1 panthéon:1 alongside:1 giant:1 reputation:3 english:101 speaking:3 tomb:1 somme:1 sculpture:1 albert:1 roze:1 consider:1 quality:1 people:1 good:1 command:1 subject:1 technology:1 long:1 result:1 poor:1 felt:2 portray:1 british:7 empire:2 bad:1 light:1 translator:2 reverend:1 lewis:1 page:2 mercier:3 pseudonym:2 remove:1 offend:2 passage:2 mr:2 agnes:1 kinloch:1 kingston:2 name:5 husband:1 w:1 delete:1 part:2 action:1 captain:7 nemo:4 incarnation:1 indian:2 nobleman:1 freedom:1 fighter:1 negative:1 depiction:2 however:1 invariable:1 example:6 face:3 flag:3 feature:2 character:2 lieutenant:1 devon:1 heroic:1 self:1 sacrifice:1 royal:1 officer:1 worthy:1 unidentified:1 nationality:1 balance:1 ned:1 land:1 canadian:1 hero:2 e:2 phileas:1 fogg:1 subsequent:1 trouble:1 sometimes:4 drop:1 significant:2 figure:1 unit:1 imperial:1 measure:1 without:3 corresponding:1 value:1 thus:1 calculation:1 general:1 remarkably:1 exact:1 convert:1 mathematical:1 gibberish:1 artistic:1 whole:1 chapter:2 cut:1 fit:2 constrained:1 reason:1 initially:1 acquire:1 speak:1 adult:1 reader:2 turn:1 prevent:1 seriously:1 enough:1 merit:1 reprint:1 decade:2 receive:2 accurate:2 even:3 today:1 fully:1 rehabilitate:1 reflect:1 bitterness:1 wake:1 defeat:1 franco:1 prussian:1 consequent:1 loss:1 alsace:1 lorraine:1 begum:4 million:5 cent:2 highly:1 stereotypical:1 german:4 monstrously:1 cruel:1 militarist:1 contrast:1 almost:3 protagonist:1 pre:1 sympathetic:1 person:1 narrator:1 influence:2 substantially:1 finally:1 willing:1 agree:1 least:2 ask:2 impose:1 adoption:1 optimistic:2 fact:2 enthusiast:1 technological:2 human:1 progress:2 see:3 insistence:1 text:2 prove:1 correct:1 originally:1 survivor:3 return:1 mainland:1 forever:1 nostalgic:1 decide:1 happily:1 revise:1 fortune:1 build:1 replica:1 like:3 order:1 ally:1 polish:2 refugee:1 avenge:1 partition:1 poland:1 kill:1 reprisal:1 follow:2 uprising:1 prince:1 fight:1 sikh:1 prediction:1 mural:1 tampa:3 florida:3 commemorate:1 note:2 startlingly:1 anticipation:1 modern:3 cited:1 arguably:1 conditioning:1 internet:1 television:3 convenience:1 similar:2 real:2 counterpart:1 another:3 uncannily:1 apollo:1 program:1 three:5 astronaut:1 launch:2 peninsula:1 recover:1 splash:1 landing:1 spacecraft:1 approximately:1 mile:3 nasa:1 actual:1 launching:1 site:1 cape:1 canaveral:1 norman:1 wolcott:1 centennial:2 washington:1 dc:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 library:2 predict:2 invention:2 helicopter:1 projector:1 jukebox:1 late:1 device:1 existence:1 hydrothermal:1 vent:1 scholar:2 joke:5 large:2 archive:1 always:1 keep:1 seem:2 scientist:1 recognise:1 instance:1 dick:2 manticora:1 beetle:3 cousin:3 bénédict:3 escape:2 imprisonment:1 unguarded:1 garden:1 since:3 fly:1 away:1 genus:1 flightless:1 possible:1 main:1 dog:1 attack:1 wild:1 dugong:2 north:3 american:8 manatee:1 herbivorous:1 mammal:1 fauna:1 flora:1 sailor:1 bonadventure:1 pencroff:1 cyrus:1 smith:1 whether:1 latter:1 believe:1 specially:1 ideal:2 castaway:4 material:1 cannon:1 case:1 probably:2 poetic:1 license:1 description:1 making:1 far:2 dramatic:1 method:1 steel:3 factory:1 date:2 much:2 spectacular:1 neff:2 bibliography:3 creature:1 numerous:1 essay:1 play:1 poem:1 common:1 title:2 enfants:1 grant:1 search:2 autour:1 une:3 ville:2 flottante:1 float:1 trois:2 rus:1 anglais:1 englishman:1 russian:2 south:2 pay:1 fourrures:1 fur:1 île:2 mysterieuse:1 chancellor:2 michael:2 hector:1 servadac:1 comet:1 indes:1 noires:1 cavern:1 un:10 quinze:1 bégum:1 tribulation:2 chinois:1 chine:1 chinaman:1 china:1 maison:1 vapeur:1 steam:1 jangada:1 eight:2 hundred:1 amazon:1 ecole:1 robinson:1 godfrey:1 morgan:1 rayon:1 vert:1 green:1 ray:2 kéraban:2 têtu:1 inflexible:1 étoile:1 sud:2 vanished:2 diamond:2 archipel:1 feu:1 archipelago:1 fire:1 mathias:2 sandorf:2 billet:1 loterie:1 lottery:1 ticket:1 robur:2 conquérant:1 conqueror:1 contre:1 chemin:1 flight:1 ans:1 vacances:1 vacation:1 famille:2 sans:2 nom:1 dessus:1 dessous:1 purchase:1 pole:1 césar:2 cascabel:2 branican:2 château:1 carpathes:1 carpathian:2 castle:2 claudius:2 bombarnac:2 tit:1 bonhomme:1 foundling:1 mick:1 mirifiques:1 maître:3 antifer:2 hélice:1 propeller:1 drapeau:1 clovis:3 dardentor:3 sphinx:1 glaces:2 antarctic:1 mystery:1 superbe:1 orénoque:1 mighty:1 orinoco:1 testament:1 excentrique:1 eccentric:1 seconde:1 patrie:1 village:2 aérien:1 treetop:1 histoires:1 marie:2 cabidoulin:1 serpent:1 frères:1 kip:2 bourses:1 scholarship:1 drame:3 livonie:1 drama:4 livonia:1 master:2 mer:1 apocryphal:2 posthumous:1 épave:1 cynthia:2 waif:1 andré:1 laurie:1 paschal:2 grousset:3 actually:1 alone:1 volker:1 dehs:1 margot:1 zvi:2 har:2 el:2 x:2 apocrypha:1 retrieve:1 phare:1 bout:1 modify:6 volcan:1 golden:2 volcano:1 claim:1 forty:1 creek:1 flood:1 flame:1 vols:4 agence:1 thompson:2 cº:1 agency:1 package:1 holiday:1 chasse:2 météore:1 chase:1 meteor:1 pilote:1 danube:2 pilot:1 naufragés:1 jonathan:2 masterless:1 unwilling:1 dictator:1 secret:3 wilhelm:1 storitz:2 étonnante:1 aventure:1 mission:2 barsac:2 niger:1 bend:1 sahara:1 angleterre:1 ecosse:1 backwards:1 britain:1 xxe:1 siècle:3 twentieth:1 docteur:2 hier:1 demain:1 yesterday:1 mexique:1 mexico:1 dans:2 martin:3 paz:2 zacharius:2 hivernage:1 winter:1 amid:1 ice:1 comte:1 chanteleine:3 count:2 forceurs:1 blocus:1 blockade:1 runner:1 fantaisie:1 dr:1 idéale:1 révoltés:1 bounty:2 mutineer:1 dix:1 heures:1 hunt:1 frritt:2 flacc:2 gil:2 braltar:2 journée:1 journaliste:1 américain:1 raton:1 rat:1 ré:1 dièze:1 mademoiselle:1 mi:1 bémol:1 sharp:1 flat:1 express:2 avenir:1 future:1 destinée:1 morénas:1 fate:1 morenas:1 éternel:1 eternal:1 salon:1 géographie:1 illustrée:1 illlustrated:1 geography:1 théophile:1 lavallée:1 histoire:1 grand:3 voyageurs:2 celebrate:1 traveller:1 découverte:1 navigateurs:1 xviiième:1 navigator:1 eighteenth:1 xixème:1 explorer:1 nineteenth:1 imitation:1 wizard:1 roy:1 rockwood:2 clear:1 copy:1 apart:1 less:2 resemble:1 eg:1 compare:1 underground:1 dieter:1 lammerding:1 phantastische:1 reise:1 zu:1 kapitän:1 merge:1 piece:1 museum:1 emilio:1 salgari:1 opéra:1 bouffean:1 italian:1 osip:1 senkovsky:1 journalist:1 entertainer:1 oshikawa:1 shunro:1 japanese:1 tv:1 atv:2 steampunk:1 style:1 inspiration:1 vernian:1 process:1 music:1 project:2 theme:1 base:1 filmmaker:1 birth:1 cinema:3 méliès:1 taste:1 fantastic:1 prior:1 lesser:2 soviet:1 known:1 studio:2 disney:1 production:6 win:1 academy:1 award:1 picture:1 scale:2 international:1 star:3 wan:1 pretty:1 interruption:1 recent:1 remake:1 maker:1 announce:1 upcoming:1 majority:1 concentrate:1 southern:1 particularly:1 popular:1 property:1 dozen:1 start:1 actor:1 james:1 mason:1 kirk:1 douglas:1 maurice:1 peter:2 lorre:1 david:1 niven:1 shirley:1 maclaine:1 joseph:1 cotton:1 lionel:1 barrymore:1 orson:1 welles:1 yul:1 brenner:1 jackie:1 chan:1 brendan:1 fraser:1 stooge:1 credit:1 concept:1 cameo:1 appearance:2 big:1 brief:1 dizzying:1 array:1 performer:1 frank:1 sinatra:1 john:2 gielgud:1 noel:1 coward:1 charles:1 boyer:1 fernandel:1 trevor:1 howard:1 cesar:1 romero:1 raft:1 buster:1 keaton:1 marlene:1 dietrich:1 ronald:1 colman:1 reference:1 arthur:1 c:1 clarke:1 introduction:1 definitive:2 costello:1 herbert:2 r:2 lottman:2 exploratory:2 philippe:1 melot:1 embs:1 guide:1 amateur:1 ondřej:1 podivuhodný:1 svět:1 julese:1 vernea:1 prague:1 gallagher:1 j:1 primary:1 secondary:1 boston:1 k:1 hall:1 evans:1 b:1 rediscover:1 didacticism:1 westport:1 ct:1 greenwood:1 mask:1 prophet:1 oxford:1 lynch:1 twayne:1 external:1 link:1 list:3 compile:1 dennis:1 kytasaari:1 concordance:1 frequency:1 virtual:1 online:2 source:2 translate:1 language:1 collect:1 resource:1 poster:1 card:1 autograph:1 etc:1 reappraisal:1 derbyshire:1 atlantis:1 number:1 spring:1 pp:1 review:2 four:1 wesleyan:1 tourist:1 office:1 official:1 website:1 audio:2 librivox:1 wiki:1 жуль:1 вэрн:1 |@bigram science_fiction:12 hugo_gernsback:1 edgar_allan:1 allan_poe:1 agatha_christie:1 index_translationum:2 jules_verne:45 sneak_onto:1 alexandre_duma:1 duma_père:1 victor_hugo:2 enfant_terrible:1 penal_colony:1 la_lune:3 sous_le:2 du_monde:5 quatre_vingts:3 le_temp:1 voyage_extraordinaires:5 tsarist_russia:1 légion_honneur:1 mont_blanc:2 du_mont:1 dreyfus_affair:1 verne_jules:5 michel_verne:12 franco_prussian:1 alsace_lorraine:1 cinq_cent:2 tampa_florida:2 air_conditioning:1 cape_canaveral:1 washington_dc:1 smithsonian_institution:1 hydrothermal_vent:1 fauna_flora:1 les_enfants:1 la_maison:1 du_sud:1 le_chemin:1 la_mer:1 jean_michel:1 xxe_siècle:1 twentieth_century:1 dans_les:2 blockade_runner:1 du_docteur:1 l_avenir:1 histoire_des:1 nineteenth_century:1 george_méliès:1 kirk_douglas:1 maurice_chevalier:1 peter_lorre:1 shirley_maclaine:1 lionel_barrymore:1 orson_welles:1 jackie_chan:1 brendan_fraser:1 cameo_appearance:1 frank_sinatra:1 john_gielgud:1 noel_coward:1 buster_keaton:1 marlene_dietrich:1 westport_ct:1 ct_greenwood:1 twayne_publisher:1 external_link:1 text_concordance:1 concordance_frequency:1 |
999 | Léon_Theremin | Léon Theremin (born Lev Sergeyevich Termen, ) ( – November 3 1993) was a Russian inventor. He is most famous for his invention of the theremin, one of the first electronic musical instruments. He is also the inventor of interlace, a technique of improving the picture quality of a video signal, widely used in video and television technology. Personal life Theremin was born in Saint Petersburg in 1896 into a family of French ancestry. He had a sister named Helena. He started to be interested in electricity at the age of 7, and by 13 he was experimenting with high frequency circuits. In the seventh class of his high school before an audience of students and parents he demonstrated various optical effects using electricity. By the age of 17 he was in his last year of high school and at home he had his own laboratory for experimenting with high frequency circuits, optics and magnetic fields. His cousin, Kyrill Fjodorowitsch Nesturch, then a young physicist and a singer named Wagz invited him to attend the defense of the dissertation of professor Abram Fjodorowitsch Ioffe. Physics lecturer Wladimir Konstantinowitsch Lebedinskij had explained to Leon the then interesting dispute over Ioffe's work on the electron. On 1913 May 9 Leon and his cousin attended Ioffe's dissertation defense. Ioffe's subject was on the elementary photoelectric effect, the magnetic field of cathode rays and related investigations. In 1970 Leon wrote that Ioffe talked of electrons, the photoelectric effect and magnetic fields as parts of an objective reality that surrounds us everyday, unlike others that talked more of somewhat abstract formula and symbols. Leon wrote that he found this explanation revelatory and that it fit a scientific - not abstract - view of the world, different scales of magnitude, and matter. From then on Leon endeavoured to study the Microcosm, in the same way he had studied the Macrocosm with his hand-built telescope. Later, Kyrill introduced Leon to Ioffe as a young experimenter and physicist, and future student of the university. Leon recalled that while still in his last year of school, he had built a million-volt Tesla coil and noticed a strong glow associated with his attempts to ionise the air. He then wished to further investigate the effects using university resources. A chance meeting with Abram Fjodorowitsch Ioffe led to a recommendation to see Karl Karlowitsch Baumgart, who was in charge of the physics laboratory equipment. Karl then reserved a room and equipment for Leon's experiments. Fjodorowitsch suggested Leon also look at methods of creating gas fluorescence under different conditions and of examining the resulting light's spectra. However, during these investigations Leon was called up for World War I military service. World War 1 and Russian Civil War Despite Leon being only in his second academic year, the deanery of the Physics and Astronomical faculty recommended he go to the military technical institute at Petrograd which usually only accepted students in their fourth year. Leon recalled Fjodorowitsch reassured him that the war would not last long and that military experience would be useful for scientific applications. Beginning his military service in 1916, Leon progressed through the higher electronic officer school and attained the military radio-engineer diploma. Over three and a half years he claimed to have built a radio station in Saratov to connect the Volga area with Moscow, became deputy leader of the Moscow radio laboratory, and finished as the leader of the radio transmitter at Tsarskoye Selo (then named Detskoye Selo). During the Russian civil war, in October 1919 White Army commander Nikolai Nikolajewitsch Judenitsch advanced on Petrograd from the side of Detskoye Selo, apparantly intending to capture the radio station to announce a victory over the Bolsheviks. Leon and others evacuated the station, sending equipment east on wagons. Leon then detonated all the 120 metre antennae before traveling to Petrograd to set up an international listening station. There he also trained radio specialists but reported difficulties obtaining food and working with foreign experts who he described as narrow-minded pessimists. Leon recalled that on an evening when his hopes of overcoming these obstructing experts reached a low ebb, Abram Fjodorowitsch Ioffe telephoned him. Abram asked Leon to come to his newly founded Physics and Technology division in Petrograd, and the next day he invited him to start work at developing measuring methods for high frequency electrical oscillations. Under Ioffe The day after Ioffe's invitation Leon started at the institute. He worked in diverse fields: applying the Laue effect to the new field of X-ray analysis of crystals; using hypnosis to improve measurement-reading accuracy; working with Ivan Pavlov's laboratory; and using gas-filled lamps as measuring devices. He built a high frequency oscillator to measure the dielectric constant of gases with high precision; Ioffe then urged him to look for other applications using this method, and shortly made the first motion detector for use as a "radio watchman". Theremin recalled he made the dielectric device first followed by the radio alarm while Glinsky (page 23) writes Leon made the alarm first and then the dielectric device Glinsky 41, "patent ... radio watchman and the Termenvox ... By December 8, 1924, Len had two German Empire patent applications pending" While adapting the dielectric device by adding circuitry to generate an audio tone, Leon noticed the pitch changed when his hand moved around. Glinsky 24 In October 1920 Glinsky 26; but Theremin in 1983 recalled it was September he first demonstrated this to Ioffe who called in other professors and students to hear. Leon recalled trying to find the notes for tunes he remembered from when he played the cello, such as the Swan by Saint-Saëns. By November 1920 Leon had given his first public concert with the instrument, now modified with a horizontal volume antenna replacing the earlier foot-operated volume control. Glinsky 26 He named it the "etherphone";, to be known as the "thereminvox" in Germany Glinsky 53 and later as the "theremin" in the United States. On 1924 May 24 Lev married 20 year old Katia Pavlovna Constantinova, and they lived together in Lev's parents' Marat street apartment. Glinsky 36 In 1925 he went to Germany to sell both the radio watchman and Termenvox patents to the German firm Goldberg and Sons. According to Glinsky this was the Soviet's "decoy for capitalists" to obtain both Western profits from sales and technical knowledge. Glinsky 43-44 During this time Lev was also working on a wireless television with 16 scan lines in 1925, improving to 32 scan lines and then 64 using interlacing in 1926 and he demonstrated moving, if blurry, images on June 7,1927. United States After being sent on a lengthy tour of Europe starting 1927 - including London, Paris and towns in Germany Leon Theremin - a short memoir Lev Termen, 1983-01-12 Glinsky 340 - during which he demonstrated his invention to full audiences, Theremin found his way to the United States, arriving December 30, 1927 with his first wife Katia. Mattis 1989 He performed the theremin with the New York Philharmonic in 1928. He patented his invention in the United States in 1928 Glinsky 346 and subsequently granted commercial production rights to RCA. Léon Theremin set up a laboratory in New York in the 1930s, where he developed the theremin and experimented with other electronic musical instruments and other inventions. These included the Rhythmicon, commissioned by the American composer and theorist Henry Cowell. In 1930, ten thereminists performed on stage at Carnegie Hall. Two years later, Theremin conducted the first-ever electronic orchestra, featuring the theremin and other electronic instruments including a "fingerboard" theremin which resembled a cello in use. Theremin's mentors during this time were some of society's foremost scientists, composers, and musical theorists, including composer Joseph Schillinger and physicist (and amateur violinist) Albert Einstein. At this time, Theremin worked closely with fellow Russian émigré and theremin virtuoso Clara Rockmore. Theremin was interested in a role for the theremin in dance music. He developed performance locations that could automatically react to dancers' movements with varied patterns of sound and light. After the Soviet consulate had apparently demanded he divorce Katia and while working with the American Negro Ballet, the inventor fell in love with and married the young prima ballerina Lavinia Williams. His marriage to the African-American dancer caused shock and disapproval in his social circles, but the ostracized couple remained together. Return to the Soviet Union Theremin abruptly returned to the Soviet Union in 1938. At the time, the reasons for his return were unclear; some claimed that he was simply homesick, while others believed that he had been kidnapped by Soviet officials. Beryl Campbell, one of Theremin's dancers, said his wife Lavinia "called to say that he had been kidnapped from his studio" and that "some Russians had come in" and that she felt that he was going to be spirited out of the country. Theremin: An Electronic Odyssey, written, directed and produced by Steven M. Martin. Orion/MGM, 1994: 26mins Beryl Campbell reports Lavinia's call; 50mins Lydia Kavina reports Stalin's award Many years later, it was revealed that Theremin had returned to his native land due to tax and financial difficulties in the United States Glinsky . However Theremin told Bulat Galeyev that he decided to leave himself because he was anxious about the approaching war. Bulat Galeyev LMJ6 Shortly after he returned he was imprisoned at Butyrka and later sent to work in the Kolyma gold mines. Although rumors of his execution were widely circulated and published, Theremin was, in fact, put to work in a sharashka, together with Andrei Tupolev, Sergei Korolev, and other well-known scientists and engineers. The Soviet Union rehabilitated him in 1956. Espionage "The Thing" During his work at the sharashka, where he was put in charge of other workers, Theremin created the Buran eavesdropping system. A precursor to the modern laser microphone, it worked by using a low power infrared beam from a distance to detect the sound vibrations in the glass windows. Glinsky 261 Lavrentiy Beria, head of the KGB used the Buran device to spy on the U.S., British, and French embassies in Moscow. According to Galeyev, Beria also spied on Stalin; Theremin kept some of the tapes in his flat. In 1947, Theremin was awarded the Stalin prize for inventing this advance in Soviet espionage technology. Theremin invented another ingenious listening device called The Thing. Disguised in a replica of Great Seal of the United States carved in wood, in 1945 Soviet school children presented the concealed bug to U.S. Ambassador as a "gesture of friendship" to the USSR's World War II ally. It hung in the ambassador’s residential office in Moscow, and intercepted confidential conversations there during the first seven years of the Cold War, until it was accidentally discovered in 1952. George F. Kennan, Memoirs, 1950-1963, Volume II (Little, Brown & Co., 1972), pp. 155, 156. Later life After his "release" from the sharashka in 1947, Theremin volunteered to remain working with the KGB until 1966. By 1947 Theremin had remarried, to Maria, and they had two children: Lena and Natalia. After working for the KGB, Theremin worked at the Moscow Conservatory of Music Glinsky 341, "where Lev Sergeyevich had constructed musical instruments" for 10 years where he taught and built Theremins, electronic cellos and some Terpsitones. There he was discovered by a visiting New York Times correspondent, but when an article by Christopher Walker appeared, according to Lydia, the Vice President of the conservatory said "The people don't need electronic music. Electricity is for killing traitors in the electric chair", fired Theremin Glinsky 341, "his rough dismissal in 1967" , closed his laboratory and had his instruments destroyed. In the 1970s, Léon Theremin began training his nine-year-old niece Lydia Kavina on the theremin. Kavina was to be Theremin's last protégé. Today, Kavina is considered one of the most advanced and famous thereminists in the world. After 51 years in the Soviet Union Léon Theremin started travelling, first visiting France in June 1989 and then the United States in 1991, each time accompanied by his daughter Natalia. Theremin was brought to New York by filmmaker Steven M. Martin where he was reunited with Clara Rockmore. He also made a demonstration concert at the Royal Conservatory of The Hague in early 1993 before dying in Moscow in 1993 at the age of 97 . Documentary film Léon Theremin is the subject of the feature length documentary film, THEREMIN - An Electronic Odyssey, written, directed, and produced by Steven M. Martin. The film won the Filmmakers Trophy at the Sundance Film Festival in 1994, a Golden Gate Award at The San Francisco Film Festival, was nominated for both an International Emmy and a British Academy Award, and has been presented both at the National Gallery in Washington and by invitation from the Russian Ministry of Culture at Dom Kino in Saint Petersburg, and is released in America through MGM. The film features thereminist Clara Rockmore as well as electronic instrument pioneer Robert Moog, Nicolas Slonimsky, The Beach Boys founder Brian Wilson, and Theremin himself. THEREMIN - An Electronic Odyssey is widely regarded as being responsible for sparking a resurgence of interest in both Theremin and his work. After the film's release Robert Moog, a long time champion of Theremin's work who also appeared in the film, resumed manufacturing theremin instruments. Thousands are now sold annually around the world. Some of Theremin's inventions Theremin - the classic Theremin (1920) Burglar alarm, or "Signalling Apparatus" which used the Theremin effect (1920s) Electromechanical television - Nipkow disk with mirrors instead of slots (ca. 1925) Terpsitone - platform that converts dance movements into tones (1932) Theremin cello - an electric Cello with no strings and no bow, using a plastic fingerboard, a handle for volume and two knobs for sound shaping (ca. 1930) Theremincello Peter Pringle Theremin keyboard - a piano-like device (ca. 1930) Rhythmicon - world's first drum machine (1931) The Buran eavesdropping device (1947 or earlier) The Great Seal bug, also known as "The Thing" - one of the first passive covert listening devices; first used by the USSR for spying (1945 or earlier) See also Raymond Scott Robert Moog Bruce Haack Brian Wilson Spharophon, a Theremin-like instrument made by Jörg Mager around 1921 Maurice Martenot, inventor of the Ondes Martenot, a keyboard-based instrument using the heterodyning method Footnotes Notes References linked from LMJ6 copied here External links Portals and general information Andrey Smirnov: Performances and Installations. (selected demonstrations of Theremin sensors and laser bugging.) Retrieved 2009-02-25 Theremin Centre, Moscow, holds Lev Sergeivitch Termen archives (Russian only) Further information Lev Sergeivitch Termen: The Inventor of The Great Seal Bug, aka The Thing Lev Sergeivitch Termen: The Inventor of the theremin. (4 page history dated February 06, 2001) An Introduction to Leon Theremin. (five paragraph introduction) A Theremin Bibliography (List of publications and films about the man and the instrument) Theremin International Resource Directory compiled by Matthias Sauer for Leonardo/ISAST An encounter with Léon Theremin. (1991 video of Leon in Moscow with Paul) Inventor of the Week Archive - LEON THEREMIN (1896-1993) (one page brief biography) Lev Sergeyevich Termen (1896-1993) (in French, 4 paragraph summary in context of early electronic music) History of the theremin from Moog Music (one page) from The History Channel (Moog talks about Leon's work on television, bugging) ARTMargins by Natascha Drubek-Meyer, "Between “Bad Things” and Good Vibrations: Leon Theremin and his T-Vox" - long article with citations Lew Termen, German Website by IMA :: Institute of Media Archeology, Austria (in German translated from Russian: Leon's own writings in "Erinnerungen an A.F. Joffe" on 1970 January 5) Leon Theremin's mentor Joseph Schillinger Audio and Video Andrey Smirnov :: downloads (film from 1954, 2007; demonstrations of inventions at the Moscow State Conservatory) playing "Ne brani menya rodnaya" by Aleksandr Dubuque in the 1950s (needs Flash) | Léon_Theremin |@lemmatized léon:6 theremin:64 born:1 lev:10 sergeyevich:3 termen:7 november:2 russian:8 inventor:7 famous:2 invention:6 one:6 first:13 electronic:12 musical:4 instrument:11 also:9 interlace:2 technique:1 improve:3 picture:1 quality:1 video:4 signal:2 widely:3 use:15 television:4 technology:3 personal:1 life:2 bear:1 saint:3 petersburg:2 family:1 french:3 ancestry:1 sister:1 name:4 helena:1 start:5 interested:2 electricity:3 age:3 experiment:4 high:8 frequency:4 circuit:2 seventh:1 class:1 school:5 audience:2 student:4 parent:2 demonstrate:4 various:1 optical:1 effect:6 last:4 year:12 home:1 laboratory:6 optic:1 magnetic:3 field:5 cousin:2 kyrill:2 fjodorowitsch:6 nesturch:1 young:3 physicist:3 singer:1 wagz:1 invite:2 attend:2 defense:2 dissertation:2 professor:2 abram:4 ioffe:12 physic:4 lecturer:1 wladimir:1 konstantinowitsch:1 lebedinskij:1 explain:1 leon:30 interest:2 dispute:1 work:18 electron:2 may:2 subject:2 elementary:1 photoelectric:2 cathode:1 ray:2 related:1 investigation:2 write:5 talk:3 part:1 objective:1 reality:1 surround:1 u:3 everyday:1 unlike:1 others:3 somewhat:1 abstract:2 formula:1 symbol:1 find:3 explanation:1 revelatory:1 fit:1 scientific:2 view:1 world:7 different:2 scale:1 magnitude:1 matter:1 endeavour:1 study:2 microcosm:1 way:2 macrocosm:1 hand:2 build:4 telescope:1 later:5 introduce:1 experimenter:1 future:1 university:2 recall:6 still:1 million:1 volt:1 tesla:1 coil:1 notice:2 strong:1 glow:1 associate:1 attempt:1 ionise:1 air:1 wish:1 investigate:1 resource:2 chance:1 meeting:1 lead:1 recommendation:1 see:2 karl:2 karlowitsch:1 baumgart:1 charge:2 equipment:3 reserve:1 room:1 suggest:1 look:2 method:4 create:2 gas:3 fluorescence:1 condition:1 examine:1 result:1 light:2 spectrum:1 however:2 call:5 war:8 military:5 service:2 civil:2 despite:1 second:1 academic:1 deanery:1 astronomical:1 faculty:1 recommend:1 go:3 technical:2 institute:3 petrograd:4 usually:1 accepted:1 fourth:1 reassure:1 would:2 long:3 experience:1 useful:1 application:3 begin:2 progress:1 officer:1 attain:1 radio:10 engineer:2 diploma:1 three:1 half:1 claim:2 station:4 saratov:1 connect:1 volga:1 area:1 moscow:9 become:1 deputy:1 leader:2 finish:1 transmitter:1 tsarskoye:1 selo:3 detskoye:2 october:2 white:1 army:1 commander:1 nikolai:1 nikolajewitsch:1 judenitsch:1 advance:2 side:1 apparantly:1 intend:1 capture:1 announce:1 victory:1 bolshevik:1 evacuate:1 send:3 east:1 wagon:1 detonate:1 metre:1 antenna:2 travel:2 set:2 international:3 listening:3 train:2 specialist:1 report:3 difficulty:2 obtain:2 food:1 foreign:1 expert:2 describe:1 narrow:1 minded:1 pessimist:1 evening:1 hope:1 overcome:1 obstruct:1 reach:1 low:2 ebb:1 telephone:1 ask:1 come:2 newly:1 found:1 division:1 next:1 day:2 develop:3 measure:3 electrical:1 oscillation:1 invitation:2 diverse:1 apply:1 laue:1 new:5 x:1 analysis:1 crystal:1 hypnosis:1 measurement:1 reading:1 accuracy:1 ivan:1 pavlov:1 fill:1 lamp:1 device:9 oscillator:1 dielectric:4 constant:1 precision:1 urge:1 shortly:2 make:5 motion:1 detector:1 watchman:3 follow:1 alarm:3 glinsky:15 page:4 patent:4 termenvox:2 december:2 len:1 two:4 german:4 empire:1 pending:1 adapt:1 add:1 circuitry:1 generate:1 audio:2 tone:2 pitch:1 change:1 move:2 around:3 september:1 hear:1 try:1 note:2 tune:1 remember:1 play:2 cello:5 swan:1 saëns:1 give:1 public:1 concert:2 modify:1 horizontal:1 volume:4 replace:1 early:5 foot:1 operated:1 control:1 etherphone:1 know:3 thereminvox:1 germany:3 united:7 state:8 marry:2 old:2 katia:3 pavlovna:1 constantinova:1 live:1 together:3 marat:1 street:1 apartment:1 sell:2 firm:1 goldberg:1 son:1 accord:3 soviet:9 decoy:1 capitalist:1 western:1 profit:1 sale:1 knowledge:1 time:7 wireless:1 scan:2 line:2 blurry:1 image:1 june:2 lengthy:1 tour:1 europe:1 include:4 london:1 paris:1 town:1 short:1 memoir:2 full:1 arrive:1 wife:2 mattis:1 perform:2 york:4 philharmonic:1 subsequently:1 grant:1 commercial:1 production:1 right:1 rca:1 rhythmicon:2 commission:1 american:3 composer:3 theorist:2 henry:1 cowell:1 ten:1 thereminists:2 stage:1 carnegie:1 hall:1 conduct:1 ever:1 orchestra:1 feature:3 fingerboard:2 resemble:1 mentor:2 society:1 foremost:1 scientist:2 joseph:2 schillinger:2 amateur:1 violinist:1 albert:1 einstein:1 closely:1 fellow:1 émigré:1 virtuoso:1 clara:3 rockmore:3 role:1 dance:2 music:5 performance:2 location:1 could:1 automatically:1 react:1 dancer:3 movement:2 varied:1 pattern:1 sound:3 consulate:1 apparently:1 demand:1 divorce:1 negro:1 ballet:1 fell:1 love:1 prima:1 ballerina:1 lavinia:3 williams:1 marriage:1 african:1 cause:1 shock:1 disapproval:1 social:1 circle:1 ostracized:1 couple:1 remain:2 return:5 union:4 abruptly:1 reason:1 unclear:1 simply:1 homesick:1 believe:1 kidnap:2 official:1 beryl:2 campbell:2 say:3 studio:1 felt:1 spirit:1 country:1 odyssey:3 direct:2 produce:2 steven:3 martin:3 orion:1 mgm:2 lydia:3 kavina:4 stalin:3 award:4 many:1 reveal:1 native:1 land:1 due:1 tax:1 financial:1 tell:1 bulat:2 galeyev:3 decide:1 leave:1 anxious:1 approaching:1 imprison:1 butyrka:1 kolyma:1 gold:1 mine:1 although:1 rumor:1 execution:1 circulate:1 publish:1 fact:1 put:2 sharashka:3 andrei:1 tupolev:1 sergei:1 korolev:1 well:2 rehabilitate:1 espionage:2 thing:5 worker:1 buran:3 eavesdropping:2 system:1 precursor:1 modern:1 laser:2 microphone:1 power:1 infrared:1 beam:1 distance:1 detect:1 vibration:2 glass:1 windows:1 lavrentiy:1 beria:2 head:1 kgb:3 spy:3 british:2 embassy:1 keep:1 tape:1 flat:1 prize:1 invent:2 another:1 ingenious:1 disguise:1 replica:1 great:3 seal:3 carve:1 wood:1 child:2 present:2 concealed:1 bug:4 ambassador:2 gesture:1 friendship:1 ussr:2 ii:2 ally:1 hang:1 residential:1 office:1 intercept:1 confidential:1 conversation:1 seven:1 cold:1 accidentally:1 discover:2 george:1 f:2 kennan:1 little:1 brown:1 co:1 pp:1 late:1 release:3 volunteer:1 remarry:1 maria:1 lena:1 natalia:2 conservatory:4 construct:1 teach:1 built:1 terpsitones:1 visit:2 correspondent:1 article:2 christopher:1 walker:1 appear:2 vice:1 president:1 people:1 need:2 kill:1 traitor:1 electric:2 chair:1 fire:1 rough:1 dismissal:1 close:1 destroy:1 nine:1 niece:1 protégé:1 today:1 consider:1 advanced:1 france:1 accompany:1 daughter:1 bring:1 filmmaker:2 reunite:1 demonstration:3 royal:1 hague:1 die:1 documentary:2 film:10 length:1 win:1 trophy:1 sundance:1 festival:2 golden:1 gate:1 san:1 francisco:1 nominate:1 emmy:1 academy:1 national:1 gallery:1 washington:1 ministry:1 culture:1 dom:1 kino:1 america:1 thereminist:1 pioneer:1 robert:3 moog:5 nicolas:1 slonimsky:1 beach:1 boys:1 founder:1 brian:2 wilson:2 regard:1 responsible:1 spark:1 resurgence:1 champion:1 resume:1 manufacturing:1 thousand:1 annually:1 classic:1 burglar:1 apparatus:1 electromechanical:1 nipkow:1 disk:1 mirror:1 instead:1 slot:1 ca:3 terpsitone:1 platform:1 convert:1 string:1 bow:1 plastic:1 handle:1 knob:1 shaping:1 theremincello:1 peter:1 pringle:1 keyboard:2 piano:1 like:2 drum:1 machine:1 passive:1 covert:1 raymond:1 scott:1 bruce:1 haack:1 spharophon:1 jörg:1 mager:1 maurice:1 martenot:2 ondes:1 base:1 heterodyning:1 footnote:1 reference:1 link:2 copy:1 external:1 portal:1 general:1 information:2 andrey:2 smirnov:2 installation:1 selected:1 sensor:1 bugging:1 retrieve:1 centre:1 hold:1 sergeivitch:3 archive:2 aka:1 history:3 date:1 february:1 introduction:2 five:1 paragraph:2 bibliography:1 list:1 publication:1 man:1 directory:1 compile:1 matthias:1 sauer:1 leonardo:1 isast:1 encounter:1 paul:1 week:1 brief:1 biography:1 summary:1 context:1 channel:1 artmargins:1 natascha:1 drubek:1 meyer:1 bad:1 good:1 vox:1 citation:1 lew:1 website:1 ima:1 medium:1 archeology:1 austria:1 translate:1 writing:1 erinnerungen:1 joffe:1 january:1 downloads:1 ne:1 brani:1 menya:1 rodnaya:1 aleksandr:1 dubuque:1 flash:1 |@bigram léon_theremin:6 saint_petersburg:2 magnetic_field:3 photoelectric_effect:2 cathode_ray:1 tesla_coil:1 ivan_pavlov:1 saint_saëns:1 leon_theremin:5 henry_cowell:1 albert_einstein:1 soviet_union:4 lydia_kavina:2 lavrentiy_beria:1 vice_president:1 san_francisco:1 robert_moog:3 beach_boys:1 ondes_martenot:1 external_link:1 |
Subsets and Splits