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1,100	Ceramic	A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic Tile and Stone Standards Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous, i.e., a glass. As most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non-crystalline glasses. The earliest ceramics were pottery objects made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials. Ceramics now includes domestic, industrial and building products and art objects. In the 20th century new ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering, for example, in semiconductors. The word "ceramic" comes from the Greek word κεραμικός (keramikos) meaning pottery, which is said to derive from the Indo-European word ker, meaning heat. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 2000 Indo-European Etymology Dictionary "Ceramic" may be used as an adjective describing a material, product or process; or as a singular noun, or, more commonly, as a plural noun, "ceramics". Oxford English Dictionary Types of ceramic products For convenience ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors, and these are shown below with some examples: Structural, including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles Refractories, such as kiln linings, gas fire radiants, steel and glass making crucibles Whitewares, including tableware, wall tiles, pottery products, and sanitary ware Technical, is also known as Engineering, Advanced, Special, and in Japan, Fine Ceramics. Such items include tiles used in the Space Shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets, bio-medical implants, jet engine turbine blades, and missile nose cones. Frequently the raw materials do not include clays. Introduction To Ceramics, American Ceramic Society Examples of whiteware ceramics Bone china Earthenware, which is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar. Porcelain, which are often made from kaolin Stoneware Classification of technical ceramics Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories: Oxides: Alumina, zirconia Non-oxides: Carbides, borides, nitrides, silicides Composites: Particulate reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-oxides. Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties. Other applications of ceramics Ceramics are used in the manufacture of knives. The blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and can be snapped by dropping it on a hard surface. Ceramics such as alumina and boron carbide have been used in ballistic armored vests to repel large-calibre rifle fire. Such plates are known commonly as small-arms protective inserts (SAPI). Similar material is used to protect cockpits of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material. Ceramic balls can be used to replace steel in ball bearings. Their higher hardness means that they are much less susceptible to wear and can offer more than triple lifetimes. They also deform less under load meaning they have less contact with the bearing retainer walls and can roll faster. In very high speed applications, heat from friction during rolling can cause problems for metal bearings; problems which are reduced by the use of ceramics. Ceramics are also more chemically resistant and can be used in wet environments where steel bearings would rust. The major drawback to using ceramics is a significantly higher cost. In many cases their electrically insulating properties may also be valuable in bearings. In the early 1980s, Toyota researched production of an adiabatic ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000°F (3300°C). Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency. Fuel efficiency of the engine is also higher at high temperature, as shown by Carnot's theorem. In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as waste heat in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts. Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult. Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure. Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is not feasible with current technology. Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for gas turbine engines. Currently, even blades made of advanced metal alloys used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures. Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel. Recently, there have been advances in ceramics which include bio-ceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral component of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants made from these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions. Because of this, they are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong, fully dense nano crystalline hydroxyapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic, but naturally occurring, bone mineral. Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorporation of protein collagens, synthetic bones. High-tech ceramic is used in watchmaking for producing watch cases. The material is valued by watchmakers for its light weight, scratch-resistance, durability and smooth touch. IWC is one of the brands that initiated the use of ceramic in watchmaking. The case of the IWC 2007 Top Gun edition of the Pilot's Watch Double chronograph is crafted in high-tech black ceramic. Ceramic in Watchmaking Types of ceramic materials A ceramic material is often understood as restricted to inorganic crystalline oxide material. It is solid and inert. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and tension. They withstand chemical erosion that occurs in an acidic or caustic environment. Ceramics generally can withstand very high temperatures such as temperatures that range from 1,000°C to 1,600°C (1,800°F to 3,000°F). Exceptions include inorganic materials that do not include oxygen such as silicon carbide or silicon nitride. A glass is often not understood as a ceramic because of its amorphous (non-crystalline) character. However, glass making involves several steps of the ceramic process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include clay minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide, more commonly known as alumina. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide and tungsten carbide. Both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are also used in the medicine, electrical and electronics industries. Crystalline ceramics Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing. Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories - either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by "forming" powders into the desired shape, and then sintering to form a solid body. Ceramic forming techniques include shaping by hand (sometimes including a rotation process called "throwing"), slip casting, tape casting (used for making very thin ceramic capacitors, etc.), injection moulding, dry pressing, and other variations. (See also Ceramic forming techniques. Details of these processes are described in the two books listed below.) A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches. Non-crystalline ceramics Non-crystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts. The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mold. If later heat-treatments cause this glass to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a glass-ceramic. References See also Ceramic materials Ceramic engineering Ceramic art External links http://arxiv.org/ftp/cond-mat/papers/0604/0604531.pdf Advanced Ceramics – The Evolution, Classification, Properties, Production, Firing, Finishing and Design of Advanced Ceramics How pottery is made How sanitaryware is made World renowned ceramics collections at Stoke-on-Trent Museum Click on Quick Links in the right-hand column to view examples. The Gardiner Museum - The only museum in Canada entirely devoted to ceramics. Introduction, Scientific Principles, Properties and Processing of Ceramics "Deruta Museum and History of Ceramics Art" CERAM Research Ltd (Formerly The British Ceramic Research Association)	Ceramic \|@lemmatized ceramic:74 inorganic:4 non:7 metallic:3 solid:3 prepare:1 action:1 heat:5 subsequent:1 cooling:3 tile:4 stone:1 standard:1 material:29 may:5 crystalline:13 partly:2 structure:1 amorphous:2 e:1 glass:9 common:1 definition:1 often:5 restrict:2 oppose:1 early:2 pottery:4 object:2 make:13 clay:4 either:3 mixed:1 include:13 domestic:1 industrial:1 building:1 product:5 art:3 century:1 new:1 develop:3 use:20 advanced:5 engineering:4 example:4 semiconductor:1 word:3 come:1 greek:1 κεραμικός:1 keramikos:1 meaning:2 say:1 derive:1 indo:2 european:2 ker:1 mean:2 american:2 heritage:1 dictionary:3 english:2 language:1 etymology:1 adjective:1 describe:2 process:4 singular:1 noun:2 commonly:3 plural:1 oxford:1 type:2 convenience:1 usually:1 divide:1 four:1 sector:1 show:2 structural:1 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1,101	Channels_of_the_Hawaiian_Islands	In an archipelago like the Hawaiian Islands the water between islands is typically called a channel or passage. Described here are the channels between the islands of Hawaii, arranged from southeast to northwest. Alenuihāhā Channel The Alenuihāhā separates the island of Hawaii and the island of Maui. The maximum depth of this channel is 6100 feet (1900 m). Alalākeiki Channel The Alalakeiki Channel separates the islands of Kahoʻolawe and Maui. Alalakeiki means "crying baby." Kealaikahiki Channel Ke ala i kahiki channel is the channel between Lānai and Kahoolawe. It literally means "the road to Tahiti"; if one takes a bearing off of Kealaikahiki Point on Kahoolawe while in the channel and heads directly straight, one arrives in Tahiti. In practice, however, Polynesian navigators probably did not quite ply a straight route to Tahiti. Auau Channel The Auau Channel is one of the most protected areas of ocean in the Hawaiian Islands, lying between Lānai and Maui. The channel is also protected by Molokai to the north, and Kahoolawe to the south. The depth of the channel reaches 108 feet (33 m). The middle of the channel off Maui was known as Lāhainā Roads in the days of whaling ships. Lahaina Roads had also been an alternate anchorage to the main U.S. Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor. In the planning for the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese had hoped that the Pacific Fleet still utilized Lahaina as an anchorage as ships sunk in the deep water there would have been unrecoverable. However, Lahaina was not utilized, and the bulk of the fleet remained moored in Pearl Harbor. Because the water there is relatively shallow, all ships sunk, except for and , were raised, repaired, and returned to active duty. Auau channel is a whale-watching center in the Hawaiian Islands. Humpback whales migrate approximately 3,500 miles (5600 km) from Alaskan waters each autumn and spend the northern hemisphere winter months in the protected waters of the channel. 'Au'au translates to "to take a bath" referring to its calm bath-like conditions. Pailolo Channel The Pailolo Channel separates the islands of Molokai and Maui. Although the channel is only about 8.4 miles at its shortest point, it is one of the windiest and roughest in the Hawaiian Islands. Pailolo translates to "crazy fisherman" referring to the typical sea surface conditions and who would attempt to navigate therein. Kalohi Channel The Kalohi Channel is the stretch of water separating Lānai and Molokai. Depth of water in this channel is about 260 feet (79 m). This is one of the less treacherous channels between islands in the archipelago, although strong winds and choppy sea conditions are frequent. Kalolohia beach on the Lānai coast is also known as "Shipwreck Beach" because of a wreck on the reef there. Kaiwi Channel The Kaiwi Channel (also known as the Molokai Channel) separates the islands of Oahu and Molokai. Maximum depth is 2300 feet (701 m). There are annual paddleboarding and outrigger canoe paddling contests which traverse this channel. Kaulakahi Channel Kaulakahi Channel == The Kaulakahi Channel separates the islands of Niihau and Kauaʻi. Ka'ie'iewaho Channel Kaiolelewaho Channel == The Kaiolelewaho Channel separates the islands of Kauai and Oahu. References	Channels_of_the_Hawaiian_Islands \|@lemmatized archipelago:2 like:2 hawaiian:4 islands:1 water:7 island:13 typically:1 call:1 channel:34 passage:1 describe:1 hawaii:2 arrange:1 southeast:1 northwest:1 alenuihāhā:2 separate:7 maui:5 maximum:2 depth:4 foot:4 alalākeiki:1 alalakeiki:2 kahoʻolawe:1 mean:2 cry:1 baby:1 kealaikahiki:2 ke:1 ala:1 kahiki:1 lānai:4 kahoolawe:3 literally:1 road:3 tahiti:3 one:5 take:2 bearing:1 point:2 head:1 directly:1 straight:2 arrive:1 practice:1 however:2 polynesian:1 navigator:1 probably:1 quite:1 ply:1 route:1 auau:3 protected:2 area:1 ocean:1 lie:1 also:4 protect:1 molokai:5 north:1 south:1 reach:1 middle:1 know:3 lāhainā:1 day:1 whale:3 ship:3 lahaina:3 alternate:1 anchorage:2 main:1 u:1 pacific:2 fleet:3 base:1 pearl:3 harbor:3 planning:1 attack:1 japanese:1 hop:1 still:1 utilized:2 sink:2 deep:1 would:2 unrecoverable:1 bulk:1 remain:1 moor:1 relatively:1 shallow:1 except:1 raise:1 repair:1 return:1 active:1 duty:1 watch:1 center:1 humpback:1 migrate:1 approximately:1 mile:2 km:1 alaskan:1 autumn:1 spend:1 northern:1 hemisphere:1 winter:1 month:1 au:2 translates:1 bath:2 refer:2 calm:1 condition:3 pailolo:3 although:2 short:1 windy:1 roughest:1 translate:1 crazy:1 fisherman:1 typical:1 sea:2 surface:1 attempt:1 navigate:1 therein:1 kalohi:2 stretch:1 less:1 treacherous:1 strong:1 wind:1 choppy:1 frequent:1 kalolohia:1 beach:2 coast:1 shipwreck:1 wreck:1 reef:1 kaiwi:2 oahu:2 annual:1 paddleboarding:1 outrigger:1 canoe:1 paddle:1 contest:1 traverse:1 kaulakahi:3 niihau:1 kauaʻi:1 ka:1 ie:1 iewaho:1 kaiolelewaho:2 kauai:1 reference:1 \|@bigram pearl_harbor:3 humpback_whale:1 mile_km:1 northern_hemisphere:1
1,102	Aberdeen,_South_Dakota	Aberdeen is a city and the county seat of Brown County, South Dakota, USA, about 125 mi (200 km) northeast of Pierre. Settled in 1880, it was incorporated in 1882. The city population was 24,658 at the 2000 census. The American News is the local newspaper. Aberdeen is the principal city of the Aberdeen Micropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Brown and Edmunds counties and has a population of 39,827. Geography and climate Aberdeen is located in northeastern South Dakota, in the James River valley, approximately west of the river. The James River enters northeastern South Dakota in Brown County, where it is dammed to form two reservoirs northeast of Aberdeen. The city is bisected by Moccasin Creek, a slow-moving waterway which flows south and then northeast to the James River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.0 square miles (33.7 km²), of which, 13.0 square miles (33.6 km²) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.2 km²) of it (0.54%) is water. Aberdeen has been assigned the ZIP code range 57401-57402. Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F 60 62 82 98 96 112 117 120 108 96 78 62 Norm High °F 21.4 28.5 40.2 57.4 70.2 78.7 84.7 83.5 73.0 59.2 38.8 25.7 Norm Low °F 0.6 8.8 21.2 33.4 45.6 54.8 59.7 57.4 46.5 34.4 19.7 6.3 Rec Low °F -35 -45 -32 -2 13 33 39 32 20 8 -27 -39 Precip (in) 0.48 0.48 1.34 1.83 2.69 3.49 2.92 2.42 1.81 1.63 0.75 0.38Source: USTravelWeather.com http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather-south-dakota/aberdeen-weather.asp History Settlement Before Aberdeen or Brown County was inhabited by European settlers, it was inhabited by the Sioux Indians from approximately 1700 to 1879. The first appearance of Caucasians was with the founding of fur trading posts during the 1820s; these trading posts remained operational until the mid 1830s. The first “settlers” of this region were the Arikara Indians, but they would later be joined by others. The first group of Caucasian settlers to reach the area that is now Brown County was a party of only four people, three horses, two mules, fifteen cattle, and two wagons. This group of settlers was later joined by another group the following spring, and eventually more and more settlers migrated towards this general area which is currently Columbia, South Dakota. This town was established on June 15, 1879. The majority of the settlers were Caucasian, with the next largest group being Native American, a trend that has continued to this day. Creation of the town Aberdeen, like many towns of the Midwest, was built around the newly developing railroad systems. Aberdeen was first officially plotted as a town site on January 3, 1881, by Charles Prior, the superintendent of the Minneapolis office of the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad, or the Milwaukee Road for short, which was presided over by Alexander Mitchell. Mitchell, Charles Prior’s boss, was born in Aberdeen, United Kingdom, after which the town of Aberdeen, South Dakota, was named. Aberdeen was officially founded on July 6, 1881, the date of the first arrival of a Milwaukee Railroad train. Aberdeen then operated under a city charter granted by the Territorial Legislature in March, 1883. As Aberdeen grew, many businesses and buildings were constructed along Aberdeen’s Main Street. However, this soon became a problem due to Aberdeen’s “unique” geography; Aberdeen is, after all, referred to as “The Town in the Frog Pond”. At first, this unique condition presented no problem to the newly constructed buildings because it had not rained very much; but eventually, citizens would see how inconvenient the problem would become. During dry periods, this Frog Pond caused no trouble and was unnoticeable; but when heavy rains fell, the Pond reappeared and flooded the basements of every building on Main Street, causing many business owners and home owners much turmoil. When this flooding happened, the city had only one little steam pump that had to be used to dry out the entire area that had been flooded, which would take days, if not weeks – and more often than not, it would have rained again in this time period and caused even more flooding, even in the basements that had already been emptied of the water. And then, even once the water was gone from the basements, the city still had to deal with the mud that was also a result of the heavy rains. It was because of this Frog Pond that the city decided in 1882 to build an artesian ditch, which was later upgraded and developed into an artesian well in 1884 to combat the heavy rains and keep the basements from flooding. Even though the artesian well was designed by the city engineers to prevent flooding and develop a water system, this was not how things happened; during the digging of the well, the water stream that was found underground was too powerful to contain due to the built up pressure, which caused the water to come blasting out with violent force and soon had the entire Main Street under, in some cases, four feet of water. The engineers realized the previous flaws of the artesian well plan and soon added a gate valve to the well to control the flow of water, giving Aberdeen its first working water supply. By 1886, Aberdeen had three different railroad companies with depots built in the newly developing town. With these three railroads intersecting here, Aberdeen soon became known as the “Hub City of the Dakotas”. When looking down on Aberdeen from above, the railroad tracks converging in Aberdeen resembled the spokes of a wheel converging at a hub, hence the name “Hub City of the Dakotas”. These three railroad companies are the reason why Aberdeen was able to grow and flourish as it did; however, only one of these railroads is still running through Aberdeen, the railroad today known as the Burlington Northern Santa Fe. According to the census of 1900, Aberdeen had a population of 4,087; by the census of 1910, it had reached 10,752, an increase of 163 percent. It was from these censuses that Aberdeen was predicted to reach a population of 50,000 by 1920. However, this was not the case; the population soon began to decline. The estimated population in July 2006 was 24,071, a 2.4% decrease since 2000. Aberdeen, South Dakota (SD) Detailed Profile - relocation, real estate, travel, jobs, hospitals, schools, crime, news, sex offenders Community groups blame this decline on the flight of young adults and an increasingly aging population. Absolutely! Aberdeen Aberdeen is the county seat of Brown County. The original county seat was, however, Columbia. During the days of the railroad construction, plans were laid to bring the railroad through Columbia, then the county seat. When word of this spread, land in and around Columbia soared in price due to speculation. When time came for the railroads to purchase land, the increase in land prices led them to change their decision and instead to route the rail lines through Aberdeen. However, once Aberdeen became a town in 1881, there was a long-running controversy concerning which town would be the county seat, which continued until 1890, when it was declared by the newly formed South Dakota state constitution in 1889 that a majority vote could move the county seat if the county seat in question had originally been established by less than a majority vote. The result of the vote declared that Aberdeen would be the county seat once and for all, so all of the records were once again transferred to Aberdeen’s courthouse; during the battle for county seat, the records had been moved from Columbia’s courthouse to Aberdeen’s courthouse (which was built from 1886 to 1887), and back again to Columbia’s in what seemed to be a never-ending cycle of the transferring of records. This was typically done in the form of nighttime raids from the two towns. May 2007 flood During a 48-hour period beginning on the morning of Friday, May 4, and ending on the morning of Sunday, May 6, Aberdeen received of precipitation. KELOLAND.com Blogs This rain flooded city streets, making many of them impassible for a short time, and caused water damage to many homes. Within 2 weeks of the storm, over 300 families had requested assistance from disaster response agencies. Hundreds seek help in SD after flood - Disaster News Network By May 25, 104 houses had been condemned due to the damage; of these, 47 were declared unlivable. AberdeenNews.com Brown County, which includes Aberdeen, was declared a disaster area. AberdeenNews.com Demographics At the 2000 census, there were 24,658 people, 10,553 households and 6,184 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,902.1 per square mile (734.4/km²). There were 11,259 housing units at an average density of 868.5/sq mi (335.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 94.61% White, 0.37% Black or African American, 3.17% Native American, 0.54% Asian, 0.13% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races, and 0.99% from two or more races. 0.79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 53.7% were of German, 15% Norwegian and 8.5% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000. There were 10,553 households of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.4% were non-families. 34.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.86. Age distribution was 21.8% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 89.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.3 males. The median household income was $33,276, and the median family income was $43,882. Males had a median income of $30,355 versus $20,092 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,923. About 7.6% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.6% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over. Education Public schools The Aberdeen School District 6-1 has five elementary schools. These are C.C. Lee, Lincoln, May Overby, O.M. Tiffany and Simmons. The two middle schools are Holgate, which serves the north side of Aberdeen, and Simmons, which serves the south side of the city. There is one high school, Central High School. The Hub Area Technical School is located in the district. Aberdeen also has an alternative middle and high school. The Aberdeen School District’s enrollment for the year 2006-2007 was approximately 3,650 students, and the average class size was in the low to mid twenties. Due to a projected increase in enrollment and the modernization of facilities, Simmons Middle school will be significantly remodeled with the demolition of the original 1929 building and the addition of a new classroom and cafeteria building. The public school in Aberdeen is AA under the SDHSAA. Parochial schools Aberdeen has several parochial schools, including the Catholic-affiliated Roncalli High School, Baptist-affiliated Aberdeen Christian School and the Trinity Lutheran School. Special programs The South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired is a state special school under the direction of the South Dakota Board of Regents. South Dakota School for the Blind and Visually Impaired<!<and Shalom Christian School>-- Bot generated title --> Higher Education Northern State University Northern State University is a public university that was founded in 1889 and today occupies a campus. 2,528 students, ranging from first year to graduate students, attended NSU for the 2006-2007 school year. The student to teacher ratio is 19:1. NSU was originally called the Institute of South Dakota before changing its name to Northern Normal and Industrial School in 1901. It changed its name again in 1939 when it became the Northern State Teachers College, and again in 1964, becoming Northern State College before finalizing at Northern State University in 1989. NSU offers thirty-eight majors and forty-two minors as well as other degrees, and also has nine graduate degree areas for students wishing to further their education after achieving their first degree. The mascot of NSU is the wolf. Presentation College Presentation College is a Catholic college on a campus. PC had approximately 800 students in the 2006 spring semester. PC offers 26 programs between the main Aberdeen campus and the other campuses located throughout the state. Most of the degrees offered are in the health-care field. The student to teacher ratio is 12:1. Presenation's mascot is the Saint, giving it the nickname the Presentation College Saints. Healthcare Aberdeen’s main healthcare provider is the Avera St. Luke’s Hospital. There are several nursing homes in the area, including Avera Mother Joseph Manor, Manor Care, Bethesda, Angelhaus and Gellhaus Carehaus. Arts and culture The Aberdeen area has several cultural organizations. The Aberdeen Area Arts Council publishes a small monthly newspaper, ARTiFACTS, with information on area events. The Aberdeen Community Theater was created in 1979 and performs at the Capitol Theater in downtown Aberdeen. The Capitol Theater was originally built in 1926 and donated to the Aberdeen Community Theater in 1991; since then more than $963,000 has been spent on renovating and preserving the historical aspect of the Capitol Theater. Today, the Aberdeen Community Theater performs five mainstage productions and three youth productions per year. The NSU Theater Department puts on plays during the school year. The ArtWorks Cooperative is a partnership of artists who work to market their artwork in a gallery setting. The ArtWorks Cooperative sells artists’ work and provides an environment that will benefit the artist in terms of artist-to-artist communication, and public interest. There are four galleries in Aberdeen: Presentation College’s Wein Gallery, Northern State University’s Lincoln Gallery, the Aberdeen Recreation & Cultural Center (ARCC) Gallery and the ArtWorks Cooperative Gallery located in the Lakewood Mall. Sports and recreation Family Aquatic Center Completed in the summer of 2007, this complex includes a zero entry pool, competition lap pool, lazy river, numerous water slides, play sand area, and a concession area. Tennis Aberdeen is presently home to 24 public tennis courts throughout the city - Melgaard Park (4), Northern State University (12), and Holgate Middle School (8). Golf Aberdeen has three golf courses. These are Lee Park Municipal Golf Course, Moccassin Creek Country Club and Rolling Hills Country Club. Lee Park and Moccassin Creek are both 18 hole courses. Rolling Hills is a combined nine hole course and housing development which opened in 2005. Skateboarding/rollerblading Aberdeen has a skate park located between East Melgaard Road and 17th Ave SE at Melgaard Park. The equipment installed includes a quarter pipe, penalty box with half pyramid, bank ramp, spine, kinked rail and a ground rail. Disc golf Aberdeen has two disc golf courses, Kuhnert Arboretum and the Richmond Lake Disc Golf Course. Richmond Lake Recreation Area The Richmond Lake Recreation Area is used by all types of outdoors enthusiasts. Three separate areas in this park cater to the needs of campers, swimmers, naturalists, boaters and anglers. Campers stay in the South Unit, while the Forest Drive Unit is a great place for wildlife viewing. The Boat Ramp Unit provides access to the more than lake. Camping/cabins Richmond Lake Recreation Area's small campground offers a quiet camping experience. The park also features a wheelchair accessible camping cabin. Trails The park's extensive trail system features over of trails, including both accessible and interpretive trails. Hikers, bikers and horseback riders can observe the abundance of prairie plants and wildlife of the area up-close. Boating The park has multiple private and public boat ramps as well as an accessible fishing dock. Richmond Lake has a population of walleye, northern pike, bass, perch, crappie, bluegill, catfish, and bullheads within its waters. An entrance fee is required to gain access to the water and park itself. Wylie Park Recreation Area Wylie Park Recreation Area features a water slide, go kart racing, sand volleyball courts, access to Wylie Lake, camping area, picnic areas, and is connected to Storybook Land. Wylie Lake is a small man-made lake, open in the summer months for swimming, lying on the beach, and paddleboating. Storybook Land castle Storybook Land Storybook Land is a park with attractions from several different children's storybooks. The park contains a castle, as well as a train that takes visitors through the park. There are two barns which contain petting zoos. Newly added is the Land of Oz, that features characters and attractions from L. Frank Baum's "Wizard of Oz". Baum was a resident of Aberdeen in the 1880s, but was run out of town by the residents due to his racism and social differences. Minor League Baseball Aberdeen has been home to three minor league baseball teams since 1920. The Aberdeen Boosters, a class D league team, played in 1920, the Aberdeen Grays, also a class D team, played from 1921 to 1923. The class C Aberdeen Pheasants from 1946 to 1971, and 1995 to 1997. The Pheasants were the affiliate of the former St. Louis Browns (current Baltimore Orioles). Aberdeen was a train stop to the majors for such notable players as Don Larsen (perfect game in the World Series), Lou Pinella (AL rookie of the year with Kansas City Royals in 1969), and Jim Palmer, Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher for the Baltimore Orioles. Religion There are many Christian churches in Aberdeen, but few houses of worship for other religions. There are several Roman Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran and Methodist churches in the area, as well as one synagogue. Local government Aberdeen is the center of government for Brown County. City government is overseen by a mayor/city manager and eight council members. The city council is composed of Mayor/City Manager Mike Levson and council members Todd Campbell, Nancy Aman, James Kraft, Jeff Mitchell, Tom Agnitsch, David Bunsness, Clint Rux and Lloyd Hodgin. Each council member serves a five year term. County government is overseen by five commissioners. Each county commissioner serves a five year term. The county commissioners include Duane Sutton, Tom Fischbach, Nancy Hansen, Burt Elliot, and Mike Wiese. Aberdeen is home to Brown County offices including clerk-magistrate, county auditor, landfill office, register of deeds, county treasurer, coroner, emergency management, highway superintendent, public welfare, state’s attorney, and a few others. The state senators from Brown County include Al Novstrup and Jim Hundstad, and the state representatives included H. Paul Dennert, Elaine Elliot, Dennis Feickert and David Novstrup. They are all in office until December 2010 In 2008, Gov Mike Rounds, named Aberdeen 2008 South Dakota Community of the Year Economy Major employers Avera Saint Luke’s Hospital: 1,379 employees Aberdeen Public School District: 650 3M: 402 Wyndham Worldwide: 400 Wells Fargo Auto Finance: 450 Hub City Inc.: 339 South Dakota Wheat Growers: 310 Northern State University: 298 Kessler’s, Inc.: 260 Midstates Printing/Quality Quick Print: 300 Transportation Air The Aberdeen Regional Airport is currently served by Delta Connection. It offers flights to Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport via the Saab 340 aircraft during most of the year, but is served by the Bombardier CRJ200 aircraft in October, due to the high amount of Common Pheasant hunters. Roads There are two major US highways that serve Aberdeen. One is US Highway 281 that runs north-south from the North Dakota border to the border with Nebraska. The second highway is US Highway 12 that runs east-west across northern South Dakota from the Minnesota border before curving northwest into the southwestern corner of North Dakota. US Highway 12 is the major thoroughfare in Aberdeen. US Highway 12 is signed in the city of Aberdeen as 6th Avenue South. US Highway 281 was recently realigned onto a new bypass that was constructed around the western area of the city. Another new bypass is in the work for US Highway 12, to bypass around Aberdeen to the south. Transit Taxi Aberdeen Taxi service provides general taxi service in Aberdeen. Aberdeen Shuttle provides shuttle service to and from the airport along with general taxi services. Bus Jefferson Lines is a bus service from Aberdeen that connects to Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Fargo, North Dakota, and Minneapolis, Minnesota. Car rental There are four car rental services in Aberdeen; Hertz, Avis, Payless & Toyota Rent-A-Car. Hertz and Avis Car rental are located in the terminal. Payless Car Rental is located in Aberdeen Flying Service. Toyota Rent-A-Car is located at Harr Motors across from the airport. Train The Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway conveys freight and grain through Aberdeen. Popular attractions Wylie Park Storybook Land theme park Brown County Fair Held annually in August Kuhnert Arboretum Dacotah Prairie Museum Thunder Road Notable residents and natives Bruce Baillie, experimental filmmaker and founding member of Canyon Cinema L. Frank Baum, famous for his book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz John Cacavas, Hollywood film score composer Tom Daschle, former U.S. Senator and Senate Majority Leader Justin Duchscherer, MLB pitcher for the Oakland Athletics Thomas Dunn, conductor who contributed to early music revival Terry Francona, current Boston Red Sox manager Matilda Joslyn Gage, suffragist, Native American activist, abolitionist, freethinker, and author Mary GrandPré, illustrator Joseph Hansen (writer), American mystery writer Josh Heupel, quarterback for the 2000 National Champion Oklahoma Sooners David C. Jones, USAF General and former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Roland Loomis, key figure in the Modern Primitive Movement Brigadier General LaVerne G. Saunders, WWII USAF General Julie Sommars, actress External links AberdeenSD.com - Community Information and Resources Aberdeen Public Schools Aberdeen Christian School Website Aberdeen Catholic School System (Roncalli Schools) Aberdeen government website allAberdeen.net - Aberdeen, South Dakota events A-List Magazine - Local magazine Aberdeen News - Local newspaper Aberdeen Area Arts Council Aberdeen Community Theater Artworks Cooperative SDSBVI Trinity Lutheran School Northern State University Presentation College Brown County Speedway References Aberdeen Catholic School System. anonymous. n.d. Aberdeen Catholic School System, Aberdeen, South Dakota. 27 November 2006 <http://www.aberdeenroncalli.org/> Aberdeen Christian School. anonymous. n.d. Aberdeen Christian School, Aberdeen, SD. 26 November 2006 <http://www.aberdeenchristianschool.com/> "About PC." Presentation College. n.d. 30 November 2006 <http://www.presentation.edu/aboutPC.htm> "Academics." Presentation College. n.d. 30 November 2006 <http://www.presentation.edu/Academics/index.htm> "Programs." Hub Area Technical School. n.d. 27 November 2006 <http://www.hubarea.com/Programs.htm> "RHS Activities & Athletics." Roncalli High School. n.d. 27 November 2006 <http://www.aberdeenroncalli.org/rhs/rhs.htm> "Roncalli at a glance: Brief History and outline of the Aberdeen Catholic School System. Aberdeen Catholic School System. n.d. 27 November 2006 <http://www.aberdeenroncalli.org/docs/acss_glance.pdf> "Saints Athletics." Presentation College. n.d. 30 November 2006 <http://www.presentation.edu/Saints/index.htm> "Schools." Aberdeen Public Schools. n.d. 28 November 2006 <http://www.aberdeen.k12.sd.us/schools.htm> "Area Art Events October Through December." ARTiFACTS: Aberdeen Area Arts Council. October 2006: 3 Art WORKS Cooperative. Aberdeen, South Dakota: Art WORKS Cooperative, 2006 "Clip & Save." ARTiFACTS: Aberdeen Area Arts Council. October 2006: 2 Empowering all STUDENTS to Succeed in a Changing World. Aberdeen, South Dakota: Aberdeen School District 6-1, 2006. Got a minute or two?. Aberdeen, South Dakota: Aberdeen Christian High School, 2006. Hub Area Technical School. anonymous. n.d. Hub Area Technical School, Aberdeen, South Dakota. 27 November 2006 <http://www.hubarea.com/> Lindner, JoEllen. "Admissions." Presentation College. n.d. 30 November 2006 <http://www.presentation.edu/Admissions/index.htm> Northern State University Theater. Aberdeen, South Dakota: Northern State University, 2006 Unlimited Opportunities Endless Possibilities, Presentation College. Aberdeen, South Dakota: Presentation College, 2006. Avera St. Lukes. "Avera St. Luke's: We're Caring for Life." Aberdeen, South Dakota. Avera St. Lukes. "Healthcare Directory and Wellness Guide." Aberdeen, South Dakota. American News. "Access Aberdeen." Aberdeen, South Dakota 2006. Keast, Bret. "Tomorrow Plan: Planting Seeds for a Better Tomorrow." Aberdeen, South Dakota, Future Land Use Plan 2005. Aberdeen Chamber of Commerce. Aberdeen, SD. n.d. Don Artz. The Town in the Frog Pond. 1991. Memories, Inc. Dacotah Prairie Museum. Aberdeen/Brown County, South Dakota Historical Highlights. n.d. 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1,103	Aimoin	Aimoin (c. 960-c. 1010), French chronicler, was born at Villefranche-de-Longchat about 960, and in early life entered the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and passed the greater part of his life. His chief work is a Historia Francorum, or Libri v de Gestis Francorum, which deals with the history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the middle of the twelfth century. It was much in vogue during the Middle Ages, but its historical value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz and published in the Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores, Band xxvi (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). He also wrote a Vita Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis, the last of a series of lives of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have been lost. This has been published by J. Mabillon in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (Paris, 1668-1701). Aimoin's third work was the composition of books ii and iii of the Miracula sancti Benedicti, the first book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the Acta sanctorum. Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from Aimoin, a monk of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, who wrote De miraculis sancti Germani, and a fragment De Normanorum gestis circa Parisiacam urbem et de divine in eos ultione tempore Caroli calvi. Both of these are published in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores, Tome ii (Paris, 1639-1649). References External links Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Latina with analytical indexs	Aimoin \|@lemmatized aimoin:4 c:2 french:1 chronicler:1 bear:1 villefranche:1 de:6 longchat:1 early:2 life:4 enter:1 monastery:1 fleury:3 become:1 monk:3 pass:1 great:1 part:1 chief:1 work:2 historia:1 francorum:3 libri:1 v:1 gestis:2 deal:1 history:1 frank:1 time:1 continue:1 writer:1 middle:2 twelfth:1 century:1 much:1 vogue:1 age:1 historical:1 value:1 regard:1 slight:1 edit:1 g:1 waitz:1 publish:3 monumenta:1 germaniae:1 historica:1 scriptores:2 band:1 xxvi:1 hanover:1 berlin:1 also:2 write:3 vita:1 abbonis:1 abbatis:1 floriacensis:1 last:1 series:1 abbot:1 except:1 abbo:1 lose:1 j:1 mabillon:1 acta:2 sanctorum:2 ordinis:1 sancti:3 benedicti:2 paris:2 third:1 composition:1 book:2 ii:2 iii:1 miracula:1 first:1 another:1 name:1 adrevald:1 appear:1 die:1 must:1 distinguish:1 saint:1 germain:1 pres:1 miraculis:1 germani:1 fragment:1 normanorum:1 circa:1 parisiacam:1 urbem:1 et:1 divine:1 eos:1 ultione:1 tempore:1 carolus:1 calvi:1 historiae:1 tome:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 opera:1 omnia:1 migne:1 patrologia:1 latina:1 analytical:1 index:1 \|@bigram monumenta_germaniae:1 germaniae_historica:1 sancti_benedicti:2 saint_germain:1 external_link:1 opera_omnia:1 omnia_migne:1 migne_patrologia:1 patrologia_latina:1
1,104	George_Vancouver	Captain George Vancouver RN (June 22, 1757 – May 10, 1798) was an officer in the Royal Navy, best known for his exploration of the North-West Coast of North America, including the shores of the modern day Alaska, British Columbia, Washington and Oregon. He also explored the southwest coast of Australia. The cities of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and Vancouver, Washington, USA are named after him. Upon his return to Britain in 1779; Vancouver was commissioned as a lieutenant and posted aboard the sloop HMS Martin surveying coastlines along the way. Proceeding to North America, Vancouver followed the coasts of what is now Washington and Oregon northward. In April 1792 he encountered American Captain Robert Gray off the coast of modern Oregon just prior to Gray's sailing up the Columbia River. Vancouver entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between Vancouver Island and the Washington state mainland on April 29, 1792. His orders included a survey of every inlet and outlet on the west coast of the mainland, all the way north to Alaska. Most of this work was done from small boats powered by both oars and sail because maneuvering larger sail-powered vessels in uncharted waters was generally impractical and dangerous due to strong tidal currents. Vancouver was the first European to enter Burrard Inlet (beyond Stanley Park), the main harbour area of the present day City of Vancouver, Canada. This was on June 13, 1792. He named it after his friend Sir Harry Burrard. He surveyed Howe Sound and Jervis Inlet over the next nine days, befor command and Whidbey as sailing master. A new vessel was purchased for this expedition and named HMS Discovery after Cook's ship. However, the Nootka Crisis intervened, as Spain and Britain came close to war over ownership of Nootka Sound and, of greater importance, the right to settle the Northwest American Coast. Roberts and Vancouver joined Britain's more warlike vessels (Vancouver going, with Whidbey, to HMS Courageux). When the first Nootka Convention ended the crisis, Vancouver was given command of Discovery to take possession of Nootka Sound and survey the coast. Vancouver's 1791-1795 explorations A life sized statue covered in gold of George Vancouver on top of the British Columbia Parliament Buildings in Victoria See Also: Vancouver Expedition Departing England with two ships in April, 1791, Vancouver commanded an expedition charged with exploring the Pacific region. In its first year the expedition travelled to Cape Town, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, and China, collecting botanical samples and surveying coastlines along the way. Proceeding to North America, Vancouver followed the coasts of what is now Washington and Oregon northward. In April 1792 he encountered American Captain Robert Gray off the coast of modern Oregon just prior to Gray's sailing up the Columbia River. Vancouver entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca, between Vancouver Island and the Washington state mainland on April 29, 1792. His orders included a survey of every inlet and outlet on the west coast of the mainland, all the way north to Alaska. Most of this work was done from small boats powered by both oars and sail because maneuvering larger sail-powered vessels in uncharted waters was generally impractical and dangerous due to strong tidal currents. Vancouver was the first European to enter Burrard Inlet (beyond Stanley Park), the main harbour area of the present day City of Vancouver. This was on June 13, 1792. He named it after his friend Sir Harry Burrard. He surveyed Howe Sound and Jervis Inlet over the next nine days Little, Gary. George Vancouver 1757-2007: 250th Birth Anniversary, Survey of the Southwest Coast of BC, June 1792 , before returning to Point Grey (now the site of the University of British Columbia) on June 22, 1792 (Vancouver's 35th birthday). Here he unexpectedly met a Spanish expedition led by Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores and was mortified (his word) to learn they already had a crude chart of the Strait of Georgia based on the exploration voyage of José María Narváez, under command of Francisco de Eliza, the year before. For three weeks they cooperatively explored Georgia Strait and the Discovery Islands area before going their separate ways. After the summer surveying season ended in November, Vancouver went to Nootka on Vancouver Island, then the region's most important harbour, where he was to receive any British buildings or lands returned by the Spanish. The Spanish commander, Bodega y Quadra, was very cordial and he and Vancouver exchanged the maps they had made, but no agreement was reached; they decided to await further instructions. At this time, they decided to name the large island on which Nootka was now proven to be located as Quadra and Vancouver Island. Years later, as Spanish influence declined, the name was shortened to simply Vancouver Island. The Voyage of George Vancouver 1791-1795, Volume 1, ed: W. Kaye Lamb, Hakluyt Society, 1984, p.247 In October 1792, he sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton with several boats up the Columbia River. Broughton got as far as the Columbia River Gorge, sighting and naming Mount Hood. After a visit to Spanish California, Vancouver spent the winter in further exploration of the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii). The next year, he returned to British Columbia, and proceeded further north. He got to 56°N, but because the more northern parts had already been explored by Cook, he sailed south to California, hoping to find Bodega y Quadra and fulfill his mission, but the Spaniard was not there. He again spent the winter in the Sandwich Islands. In 1794, he first went to Cook Inlet, the northernmost point of his exploration, and from there followed the coast south to Baranov Island, which he had visited the year before. He then set sail for Great Britain by way of Cape Horn, returning in September 1795, thus completing a circumnavigation. Return to England and death In The Caneing in Conduit Street (1796), James Gillray caricatured Pitt's streetcorner assault on Vancouver. Vancouver faced difficulties when he returned home. The politically well-connected Naturalist Archibald Menzies complained that his servant had been pressed into service during a shipboard emergency; sailing master Joseph Whidbey had a competing claim for pay as expedition astronomer; and Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford, whom Vancouver had disciplined for numerous infractions and eventually sent home in disgrace, challenged him to a duel. Vancouver was attacked in the newspapers and assaulted on the street by Pitt; his career was effectively at an end. One of Britain's greatest navigators, Vancouver died in obscurity in 1798 at the age of 40 less than three years after completing his voyage. His modest grave lies in St. Peters churchyard, Petersham, Surrey, in southern England. Legacy Navigation Vancouver determined that the Northwest Passage did not exist at the latitudes that had long been suggested. His charts of the North American northwest coast were so extremely accurate that they served as the key reference for coastal navigation for generations. Robin Fisher, the academic Vice President of Mount Royal College in Calgary and author of two books on Vancouver, states: "He [ie: Vancouver] put the northwest coast on the map...He drew up a map of the north-west coast that was accurate to the nth degree, to the point it was still being used into the 20th century as a navigational aid. That's unusual for a map that early." Larry Pynn, 'Charting the Coast,' The Vancouver Sun, May 30, 2007, p.B3 Vancouver, however, failed to discover two of the largest and most important rivers on the Pacific coast, the Fraser River and the Columbia River. (He also missed the Skeena River near Prince Rupert in northern British Columbia.) Although Vancouver did eventually learn of the Columbia before he finished his survey—from Robert Gray (sea-captain), captain of the American merchant ship which was the first to sail into the river on May 11, 1792 (Gray had first spotted the river on an earlier voyage in 1788)--the Fraser never made it onto his charts. Stephen R. Bown, noted in Mercator's World magazine (November/December 1999) that: "How Vancouver could have missed these rivers while accurately charting hundreds of comparatively insignificant inlets, islands, and streams is hard to fathom. What is certain is that his failure to spot the Columbia had great implications for the future political development of the Pacific Northwest...." While it is difficult to comprehend how Vancouver missed the Fraser River, much of this river's delta was subject to flooding and summer freshet which prevented the captain from spotting any of its great channels as he sailed the entire shoreline from Point Roberts to Point Grey in 1792. Stephen Hume, The Birth of Modern British Columbia Part 7, The Vancouver Sun, November 17, 2007, p.D9 The Spanish, who preceded Vancouver in 1791, had also missed the Fraser River although they knew from its muddy plume that there was a major river located nearby. Hume, p.D9 Aboriginal relations Vancouver generally established a good rapport with both natives and European foreigners. Despite a long history of warfare between Britain and Spain, Vancouver maintained excellent relations with his Spanish counterparts and even feted a Spanish sea captain aboard the tall ship HMS Discovery during his 1792 trip to the Vancouver region. Pynn, May 30, 2007, p.B3 While Captain Vancouver played an undeniable role in the eventual series of upheavals in native life on the North American Pacific Coast since his explorations opened up the Northwest coast to European exploration and the long term negative impact on first nations peoples and their cultures, historical records show Vancouver himself enjoyed good relations with native leaders both in Hawaii - where native leaders ceded Hawaii to Vancouver in 1794 - as well as the Pacific Northwest. Larry Pynn, "Peaceful Encounters." May 29, 2007, p.B3 Vancouver's journals exhibit a high degree of sensitivity to natives: he once wrote of his exploration of a small island on the Alaskan coast on which an important burial site was marked by a sepulchre of "peculiar character" lined with boards and fragments of military instruments lying near a square box covered with mats. Vancouver states: This we naturally conjectured contained the remains of some person of consequence, and it much excited the curiosity of some of our party; but as further examination could not possibly have served any useful purpose, and might have given umbrage and pain to the friends of the deceased, should it be their custom to visit the repositories of their dead, I did not think it right that it should be disturbed. Pynn, May 29, 2007., p.B3 Vancouver also displayed contempt in his journals towards unscrupulous western traders who provided guns to natives by writing: I am extremely concerned to be compelled to state here, that many of the traders from the civilised world have not only pursued a line of conduct, diametrically opposite to the true principles of justice in their commercial dealings, but have fomented discords, and stirred up contentions, between the different tribes, in order to increase the demand for these destructive engines....They have been likewise eager to instruct the natives in the use of European arms of all descriptions; and have shewn by their own example, that they consider gain as the only object of pursuit; and whether this be acquired by fair and honourable means, or otherwise, so long as the advantage is secured, the manner how it is obtained seems to have been, with too many of them, but a very secondary consideration. Pynn, May 29, 2007, p.B3 Robin Fisher notes that Vancouver's "relationships with aboriginal groups were generally peaceful; indeed, his detailed survey would not have been possible if they had been hostile." While there were hostile incidents at the end of Vancouver's last season - the most serious of which involved a clash with Tlingits at Behm Canal in southeast Alaska in 1794 - these were the exceptions to Vancouver's exploration of the US and Canadian Northwest coast. Memorials 1988 stamp: Vancouver explores the coast Statue of George Vancouver in King's Lynn 2007 stamp: George Vancouver's 250th birthday Various locations have been named after George Vancouver, notably: Vancouver Island, Canada Hudson's Bay Company's 1825 Fort Vancouver Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Vancouver, Washington, USA Vancouver Peninsula, Australia Vancouver Bay in Jervis Inlet was named after him when Capt. G.H. Richards resurveyed the area in 1860. Statues of Vancouver are located in front of Vancouver City Hall, in King's Lynn and on top of the dome of the British Columbia Parliament Buildings. In his home town of King's Lynn the Vancouver Quarter Shopping Centre bears his name. April 26, 1978 - Canada Post issued a pair of 14-cent stamps to mark the 200th anniversary of Captain Cook's arrival at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island. George Vancouver was a crewman on this voyage. March 1980- A commemorative statue "Gate to the Northwest Passage" by Vancouver artist Alan Chung Hung was commissioned by Parks Canada and erected near the Vancouver Maritime Museum in Vanier Park at the opening to False Creek. March 17, 1988 - Canada Post issued a 37-cent stamp inscribed Vancouver Explores the Coast. It was one of a set of four stamps issued to honour Exploration of Canada - Recognizers. June 22, 2007 - Canada Post issued a $1.55 stamp to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Vancouver's birth. The stamp has an embossed image of Vancouver seen from behind as he gazes forward towards a mountainous coastline. This may be the first Canadian stamp not to show the subject's face. Mystery man:The Canada Post stamp honouring Captain George Vancouver has created a buzz with collectors, By Larry Pynn, Vancouver Sun, Published: Thursday, May 24, 2007 2007 first day cover: George Vancouver's 250th birthday 1980 Commemorative Statue to Capt. George Vancouver by Vancouver artist Alan Chung Hung 250th anniversary commemoration On Friday June 22, 2007, the City of Vancouver in Canada organized a celebration at the Vancouver Maritime Museum to remember the 250th anniversary of Vancouver's birth. Larry Pynn, 'Native elder embraces captain's legacy,' the Vancouver Sun, June 23, 2007, p.B9 The one-hour festivities included the presentation of a massive 63 by 114 centimetre carrot cake, the firing of a gun salute by the Royal Canadian Artillery's 15th Field Regiment and a performance by the Vancouver Firefighter's Band. Ibid., p.B9 Vancouver's mayor, Sam Sullivan, officially declared June 22 2007 to be "George Day". Ibid., p.B9 The Musqueam native elder Larry Grant who also attended the festivities acknowledged that some of his people might disapprove of his presence here but noted: "Many people don't feel aboriginal people should be celebrating this occasion...I believe it has helped the world and that's part of who we are. That's the legacy of our people. We're generous to a fault. The legacy is strong and a good one, in the sense that without the first nations working with the colonials, it [B.C.] wouldn't have been part of Canada to begin with and Britain would be the poorer for it." Ibid, p.B9 Origins of the family name There has been some debate about the origins of the Vancouver name. It is now commonly accepted that the name Vancouver derives from the word van Coevorden, meaning "from Coevorden", a city in the northeast of the Netherlands. This city is apparently named after the "Coeverden" family of the 13 - 15th Century. An alternative theoryclaims that Vancouver is a misspelling or anglicized version of van Couwen, a Dutch family name. "The story of a Norfolk Sailor" (pamphlet) by G.H. Anderson, Published in King's Lynn in 1923 (copy available at Vancouver Public Library) In the 16th century, a number of businessmen from the Coevorden area (and the Netherlands in general) did move to England. Some of them were known as van Coeverden. Others adopted the surname Oxford, as in oxen crossing, which is approximately the English translation of Coevorden.. However this is NOT the exact name of the noble family mentioned in the history books that claim Vancouver's noble lineage: that name was Coeverden not Coevorden. In the 1970s, Adrien Mansvelt, a former Consul General of the Netherlands based in Vancouver, published a collation of information in both historical and genealogical journals and in the Vancouver Sun newspaper. "The Vancouver - van Coeverden Controversy" by Adrien Mansvelt, "The British Columbia Genealogist" (published February 1975 Vol 4 No.1,2,3) "Vancouver: A lost branch of the van Coeverden Family" by Adrien Mansvelt, BC Historical News, VI (1973) 20-23 'Solving the Captain Vancouver mystery', and "The Original Vancouver in Old Holland" by Adrien Mansvelt, Vancouver Sun, Published September 1, 1973 Mansvelt's theory was later presented by the city during the Expo '86 World's Fair, as historical fact. Mr. Mansvelt's theories, however, are based on many assumptions and possibilities that may be flawed. Genealogy is the study or investigation of ancestry and family history, with undeniable proof of traceability through family lineage of birth, marriage and death records. Mr. Mansveld bases his research on no such proof and uses the words "assumed" "possible" and "may" time and again throughout his essay. (see Mansvelts essay) This problematic information was then used as rock solid proof for Mr. W. Kaye Lamb to write his book "A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean and Round the World, 1791-1795" W. Kaye Lamb, in summarizing Mansvelt's unsubstantiated 1973 research, suggests evidence of close family ties between the Vancouver family of Britain and the van Coeverden family of Holland as well as George Vancouver's own words from his diaries in referring to his Dutch ancestry: "As the name Vancouver suggests, the Vancouvers were of Dutch origin. Popular theory suggests that they were descended from the titled van Coeverden family, one of the oldest in the Netherlands. By the twelfth century, and for many years thereafter, their castle at Coevorden, in the Province of Drenthe, was an important fortress on the eastern frontier. George Vancouver was aware of this. In July 1794, he named the Lynn Canal 'after the place of my nativity' and Point Couverden (which he spelt incorrectly) 'after the seat of my ancestors.' Vancouver's great grandfather, Reint Wolter van Couverden, was probably the first of the line to establish an English connection. While serving as a squire at one of the German courts he met Johanna (Jane) Lilingston, an English girl who was one of the ladies in waiting. They were married in 1699. Their son, Lucas Hendrik van Couverden, married Vancouver's grandmother, Sarah...In his later years he <u>probably</u> anglicized his name and spent most of his time in England. By the eighteenth century, the estates of the van Couverdens were mostly in the Province of Overijssel, and some of the family were living in Vollenhove, on the Zuider Zee. The English and Dutch branches kept in touch, and in 1798 (the date of Vancouver's death) George Vancouver's brother Charles would marry a kinswoman, Louise Josephine van Couverden, of Vollenhove. Both were great-grandchildren of Reint Wolter van Couverden." The Voyage of George Vancouver 1791-1795, Volume 1, editor: W. Kaye Lamb, Hakluyt Society, 1984. p.3 George Vancouver also identified a body of land off the Alaskan coast as 'Couverden Island' during his exploration of the North American Pacific coast presumably to honour his family's Dutch hometown of Coevorden. History of Metropolitan Vancouver It is located at the western point of entry to Lynn Canal in southeastern Alaska. Couverden Island Others present on Vancouver's voyage Archibald Menzies, naturalist, assumed duties of expedition doctor William Broughten Zachary Mudge Peter Puget Joseph Baker Robert Barrie Spelman Swaine Edward Roberts Joseph Whidbey Honorable Thomas Pitt (nephew of the Prime Minister) Thomas Manby Towereroo See Muster Table of His Majesties Sloop The Discovery Works by George Vancouver Voyage Of Discovery To The North Pacific Ocean, And Round The World In The Years 1791-95, by George Vancouver ISBN 0-7812-5100-1. Original written by Vancouver and completed by his brother John and published in 1798. Edited in 1984 by W. Kaye Lamb and re-named "The Voyage of George Vancouver 1791 - 1795." W. Kaye Lamb's later analysis of Vancouver's exploration was published by the Hakluyt Society of London, England References Further reading Madness, Betrayal and the Lash: The Epic Voyage of Captain George Vancouver by Stephen R. Bown. Published by Douglas & McIntyre 2008. Vancouver A Life: 1757-1798 by George Godwin. Published by D. Appleton and Company, 1931. Adventures in Two Hemispheres Including Captain Vancouver's Voyage by James Stirrat Marshall and Carrie Marshall. Published by Telex Printing Service, 1955. The Life and Voyages of Captain George Vancouver by Bern Anderson. Published by University of Washington Press, 1966. Captain Vancouver: A Portrait of His Life by Alison Gifford. Published by St. James Press, 1986. Journal of the Voyages of the H.M.S. Discovery and Chatham by Thomas Manby. Published by Ye Galleon Press, 1988. Vancouver's Voyage: Charting the Northwest Coast, 1791-1795 by Robin Fisher and Gary Fiegehen. Published by Douglas & McIntyre, 1992. On Stormy Seas, The Triumphs and Torments of Captain George Vancouver by B. Guild Gillespie. Published by Horsdal & Schubart, 1992. Captain Vancouver: North-West Navigator by E.C. Coleman. Published by Tempus, 2007. Sailing with Vancouver: A Modern Sea Dog, Antique Charts and a Voyage Through Time by Sam McKinney. Published by Touchwood Editions, 2004. The Early Exploration of Inland Washington Waters: Journals and Logs from Six Expeditions, 1786-1792 edited by Richard W. Blumenthal. Published by McFarland & Company, 2004. A Discovery Journal: George Vancouver's First Survey Season - 1792 by John E. Roberts. Published by Trafford Publishing, 2005. With Vancouver in Inland Washington Waters: Journals of 12 Crewmen April-June 1792 edited by Richard W. Blumenthal. Published by McFarland & Company, 2007. External links Stephen R. Bown Historical Non-Fiction Author Burial and Marriage records of the Vancouver family - All Saints' Church, King's Lynn Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online George Vancouver (1757-1798), Explorer, illustrations in the National Portrait Gallery Discoverers Web The True Meaning of Vancouver - Etymology of his name Vancouver an Alternate Theory Web exhibit of two letters by George Vancouver and his commission to 4th Lieutenant Gary Little's interactive Google map showing the path Vancouver followed during his 11-day survey of the southwest coast of British Columbia Coevorden: What connection does Vancouver have with Coevorden, an industrial town of about 20,000 in the northeast Netherlands?, The History of Metropolitan Vancouver website, Retrieved on June 11, 2007	George_Vancouver \|@lemmatized captain:18 george:27 vancouver:137 rn:1 june:11 may:11 officer:1 royal:3 navy:1 best:1 know:3 exploration:13 north:14 west:5 coast:27 america:3 include:5 shore:1 modern:5 day:8 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1,105	Cultural_imperialism	Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting, distinguishing, separating, or artificially injecting the culture of one society into another. It is usually the case that the former belongs to a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter belongs to a smaller, less important one. Cultural imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude. The term is usually used in a pejorative sense, usually in conjunction with a call to reject foreign influence. Early history The Greek culture built homes, theatres and public baths in places that its adherents conquered (such as ancient Judea, where the Greek cultural imperialism sparked a popular revolt), with the effect that the populations became immersed in that culture. The spread of the koine Greek language was another large factor in this immersion. As European colonisation of the Americas gained pace, European nations including Spain, Portugal, France, England and the Netherlands all raced to claim territory in hopes of generating increased economic wealth for themselves. In these new colonies, the European conquerors imposed their language and culture. Similarly, policies of Russification were carried out in the Russian Empire throughout the 19th century. A possible instance of cultural imperialism is the Prayer Book rebellion of 1549, in which, some allege the English state sought to suppress non-English languages with the English language Book of Common Prayer Book of Common Prayer . In replacing Latin with English, and under the guise of suppressing Catholicism, English was effectively imposed as the language of the Church, with the intent of it becoming the language of the people. At the time people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English. In the lands conquered by Muslim armies, Arabic language and Arabic culture prevailed. From Morocco all the way to Indonesia, many local languages, religion, architecture, customs, even names were mixed with Arab Islamic traditions. Examples include the incorporation of Arabic calligraphy into the design of the Hagia Sofia mosque in Istanbul upon its conversion from a church. A significant amount of independence was kept for local traditions in many places that maintained daily interactions with non-Islamic lands; economically, politically, and culturally. An example is the continued existence of belly-dancing, which according to the stricter rulings of modesty and propriety in Islamic rulings is a fairly taboo practice, however, it is found all across the Middle East. Less cultural tolerance for existing traditions was practiced in lands that were kept more isolated from interactions with the non-Muslim world, such as Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia, where the strictest practices of Islamic law are shown. Cultural imperialism is also witnessed in Islamic lands gained through the incorporation of the Arabic language into the culture and educational systems. This dissemination of Arabic may be partly explained by the fact that according to Islamic tradition the Islamic holy book, the Qur'an, is written in Arabic that has never changed the slightest bit in content or language ever since the times of the Muhammad in the seventh century AD. Furthermore, Islamic tradition has also held that translations of the Qur'an from Arabic, a metaphorical, tri-literal-root, semitic language, into other languages may introduce changes in the nuanced meanings of the words. Thus, wherever Islam spread new adherents were encouraged to master classical Arabic for their Qur'anic studies. Theory and debate 'Cultural imperialism' can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question. The term cultural imperialism is understood differently in particular discourses. E.g. as "media imperialism" or as "discourse of nationality" (Tomlinson, 1991) TOMLINSON, John, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products or values. The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as consumerism). According to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as "banal imperialism." Some believe that the newly globalized economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology. This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called "soft power." The theory of electronic colonialism extends the issue to global cultural issues and the impact of major multi-media conglomerates, ranging from Time-Warner, Disney, News Corp, Sony, to Google and Microsoft with the focus on the hegemonic power of these mainly US-based communication giants. Cultural diversity One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of 'cultural imperialism,' voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity. Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise. Opponents of this idea deny the validity of the analogy to biodiversity, and/or the validity of the arguments for preserving biodiversity itself. Said and post-colonial studies Palestinian writer, philosopher, and literary theorist, Edward Said, who was one of the founders of the field of post-colonial study, wrote extensively on the subject of cultural imperialism. His work attempts to highlight the inaccuracies of many assumptions about cultures and societies, and is largely informed by Michel Foucault's concepts of discourse and power. The relatively new academic field of post-colonial theory has been the source for most of the in-depth work on the idea of discursive and other non-military mechanisms of imperialism, and its validity is disputed by those who deny that these forms are genuinely imperialistic. Rothkopf on dealing with cultural dominance David Rothkopf, managing director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs at Columbia University (who also served as a senior US Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administration), wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled In Praise of Cultural Imperialism? in the summer 1997 issue of Foreign Policy magazine. Rothkopf says that the US should embrace "cultural imperialism" as in its self interest. But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness to cultural change in order to avoid war and conflict between cultures as well as expanding accepted technological and legal standards to provide free traders with enough security to do business with more countries. Rothkopf's definition almost exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or reject foreign cultural influences. He also mentions, but only in passing, the use of the English language and consumption of news and popular music and film as cultural dominance that he supports. Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalization and the Internet are accelerating the process of cultural influence. Rothkopf, David, "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism," Foreign Affairs, Summer 1997, Volume 107, pp. 38-53; all descriptions of Rothkopf's points and his quotes are from this article Culture is used by the organizers of society — politicians, theologians, academics, and families — to impose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates. It is less often acknowledged as the means of justifying inhumanity and warfare. [...] cultural differences are often sanctified by their links to the mystical roots of culture, be they spiritual or historical. Consequently, a threat to one's culture becomes a threat to one's God or one's ancestors and, therefore, to one's core identity. This inflammatory formula has been used to justify many of humanity's worst acts. [O]ne need only look at the 20th century's genocides. In each one, leaders used culture to fuel the passions of their armies and other minions and to justify their actions among their people. Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in Armenia, Russia, the Nazi Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rwanda and East Timor as examples of culture (in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" or religion) being used to justify violence. He also acknowledges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of the Inquisition, "and during the expansion of virtually every empire." The most important way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict: Successful multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states, discern those aspects of culture that do not threaten union, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays, rituals, and music) and allow them to flourish. But they counteract or eradicate the more subversive elements of culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological beliefs). History shows that bridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a home to diverse peoples requires certain social structures, laws, and institutions that transcend culture. Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments in multiculturalism, such as in the European Union, India, South Africa, Canada and the United States, suggests that workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist. Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial to social well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis on cultural distinctions. The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promote conflict or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more personally observed cultural distinctions are celebrated and preserved. Cultural colonialism Cultural colonialism refers to internal domination by one group and its culture or ideology over others. An example comes from the domination over the former Soviet Union by Russian language and culture. Dominant cultures make themselves the official culture; Schools, the media, and public interaction reflect this. Under Soviet rule ethnic minorities had very limited self–rule in republics and regions controlled by Moscow. The oneness of socialist internationalism was to unite all the republics and their peoples. A common technique in cultural colonialism is to flood ethnic areas with members of the dominant ethnic group. Cultural colonialism can also refer to changing a societies core values to reflect the colonialist society. Examples Some real-world examples that may illustrate various forms of cultural imperialism are: The forced assimilation of the Ainu of Japan through the slaughter of the deer they depended on for sustenance and cultural survival Brett L. Walker \| Meiji Modernization, Scientific: Agriculture, and the Destruction of Japan's Hokkaido Wolf \| Environmental History, 9.2 \| The History Cooperative The beating of Native Hawaiian children for speaking the Hawaiian language in school during the early territorial period AnthroSource \| Anthropology & Education Quarterly - 30(1):68 - Abstract The importation of items such as infant formula into non-Westernized societies (see Nestlé boycott) The active suppression of pre-war Yugoslavian cultural practices and common language in Croatia. The ongoing threat to the Inuit hunting culture in Greenland by environmental groups such as Greenpeace, and of the traditional Thule culture in Greenland by encroachment of a cash-based economy. The forced use of French as the language of Occitania. The forced use of French and Spanish as languages of Catalonia and the Basque Country. The beating of Scottish,Irish and Welsh children for speaking Scottish Gaelic, Gaeilge and Welsh instead of English in schools in the early 20th century. See the Welsh Not. The widespread dissemination of American goods and media has led many to suggest that 'globalism' is simply a euphemism for American Cultural Imperialism, so much so that, contemporaneously, Cultural Imperialism and American Cultural Imperialism are usually regarded as interchangeable. Residential schools in Canada designed to assimilate First Nations, Métis and Inuit children into the predominate European cultures of Canada (anglophone, francophone). The near eradication of Native Americans by European settlers, leading to the forced assimilation of native peoples and the theft of their land. The cultural indoctrination of slaves brought to America by European settlers. The sanctions imposed against Bouganville by Australia after the people wholeheartedly rejected the Western model that was being forced upon them. It was made clear that rejecting the western cultural model is not an option. The forced resettlement and "reeducation" of the Chagosian people after they were deported and their home was turned into a US military base. The continuing attempts to culturally eradicate the Roma people, particularly in Eastern Europe, Italy, France and the UK. See also Cocacolonization Colonialism Cross-culturalism Cultural appropriation Cultural Cringe Cultural hegemony Culturalism Ethnocide Genocide Hegemony Islamic imperialism Linguistic imperialism Right to exist Scientific imperialism Transculturation References External links "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?", by David Rothkopf, Foreign Policy, Summer 1997. "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory" by Livingston A. White, Transnational Broadcasting Studies, Spring/Summer 2001. 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1,106	Crystal_Eastman	Crystal Catherine Eastman (June 25, 1881 - July 8, 1928) was a lawyer, antimilitarist, feminist, socialist, and journalist. She was born in Marlborough, Massachusetts and graduated from Vassar College in 1903, receiving an M.A. in sociology from Columbia University in 1904. She was second in the class of 1907 at New York University Law School. She was the sister of socialist American writer Max Forrester Eastman. Social efforts Social work pioneer and journal editor Paul Kellogg offered Eastman her first job, investigating labor conditions for The Pittsburgh Survey sponsored by the Russell Sage Foundation. Her report, Work Accidents and the Law (1910), became a classic and resulted in the first workers' compensation law, which she drafted while serving on a New York State commission. She continued to campaign for occupational safety and health while working as an investigating attorney for the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations during Woodrow Wilson's presidency. She was at one time called the "most dangerous woman in America," due to her free-love idealism and very fiery spirit. Emancipation During a brief marriage to Wallace J. Benedict which ended in divorce, Eastman lived in Milwaukee and managed the unsuccessful 1912 Wisconsin suffrage battle. When she returned east in 1913 she joined Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, and others in founding the militant Congressional Union, which became the National Woman's Party. After women won the vote, Eastman and three others wrote the Equal Rights Amendment introduced in 1923. One of the few socialists to endorse the ERA, she warned that protective legislation for women would mean only discrimination against women. Eastman claimed that one could assess the importance of the ERA by the intensity of the opposition to it, but she felt that it was still a struggle worth fighting. Peace efforts During World War I, Eastman was one of the founders of the Woman's Peace Party and was president of the New York branch. Renamed the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom in 1921, it remains the oldest extant women's peace organization. Eastman also became executive director of the American Union Against Militarism, which lobbied against America's entrance into the European war and more successfully against war with Mexico in 1916, sought to remove profiteering from arms manufacturing, and campaigned against conscription and imperial adventures. When the United States entered World War I, Eastman organized with Roger Baldwin the National Civil Liberties Bureau to protect conscientious objectors, or in her words: To maintain something over here that will be worth coming back to when the weary war is over. The NCLB grew into the American Civil Liberties Union, with Baldwin at the head and Eastman functioning as attorney in charge. Eastman is credited as a founding member of the ACLU, but her role as founder of the NCLB may be largely ignored by posterity due to her personal differences with Baldwin. Eastman had married British poet and antiwar activist Walter Fuller in 1916 with whom she had two children, and worked with him until the end of the war, when he returned to England to find work. Post-War After the war, Eastman organized the First Feminist Congress in 1919, she co-owned and edited a radical journal of politics, art, and literature, The Liberator, with her brother Max and she commuted between London, to be with her husband, and New York, where she was blacklisted and thus rendered unemployable during the Red Scare of 1919-1921. During the 1920s her only paid work was as a columnist for feminist journals, notably Equal Rights and Time and Tide. Eastman claimed that "life was a big battle for the complete feminist," but she was convinced that the complete feminist would someday achieve total victory. Eastman has been called one of the United States' most neglected leaders, because, although she wrote pioneering legislation and created long-lasting political organizations, she disappeared from history for fifty years. References Blanche Wiesen Cook, ed., Crystal Eastman on Women and Revolution (1978). External links Crystal Eastman Papers. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University	Crystal_Eastman \|@lemmatized crystal:3 catherine:1 eastman:17 june:1 july:1 lawyer:1 antimilitarist:1 feminist:5 socialist:3 journalist:1 bear:1 marlborough:1 massachusetts:1 graduate:1 vassar:1 college:1 receive:1 sociology:1 columbia:1 university:3 second:1 class:1 new:4 york:4 law:3 school:1 sister:1 american:3 writer:1 max:2 forrester:1 social:2 effort:2 work:6 pioneer:2 journal:3 editor:1 paul:2 kellogg:1 offer:1 first:3 job:1 investigate:1 labor:1 condition:1 pittsburgh:1 survey:1 sponsor:1 russell:1 sage:1 foundation:1 report:1 accident:1 become:3 classic:1 result:1 worker:1 compensation:1 draft:1 serve:1 state:3 commission:2 continue:1 campaign:2 occupational:1 safety:1 health:1 investigating:1 attorney:2 u:1 industrial:1 relation:1 woodrow:1 wilson:1 presidency:1 one:5 time:2 call:2 dangerous:1 woman:9 america:2 due:2 free:1 love:1 idealism:1 fiery:1 spirit:1 emancipation:1 brief:1 marriage:1 wallace:1 j:1 benedict:1 end:2 divorce:1 live:1 milwaukee:1 manage:1 unsuccessful:1 wisconsin:1 suffrage:1 battle:2 return:2 east:1 join:1 alice:1 lucy:1 burn:1 others:2 found:1 militant:1 congressional:1 union:3 national:2 party:2 win:1 vote:1 three:1 write:2 equal:2 right:2 amendment:1 introduce:1 endorse:1 era:2 warn:1 protective:1 legislation:2 would:2 mean:1 discrimination:1 claim:2 could:1 assess:1 importance:1 intensity:1 opposition:1 felt:1 still:1 struggle:1 worth:2 fight:1 peace:4 world:2 war:8 founder:2 president:1 branch:1 rename:1 international:1 league:1 freedom:1 remain:1 old:1 extant:1 organization:2 also:1 executive:1 director:1 militarism:1 lobby:1 entrance:1 european:1 successfully:1 mexico:1 seek:1 remove:1 profiteer:1 arm:1 manufacturing:1 conscription:1 imperial:1 adventure:1 united:2 enter:1 organize:2 roger:1 baldwin:3 civil:2 liberty:2 bureau:1 protect:1 conscientious:1 objector:1 word:1 maintain:1 something:1 come:1 back:1 weary:1 nclb:2 grow:1 head:1 functioning:1 charge:1 credit:1 founding:1 member:1 aclu:1 role:1 may:1 largely:1 ignore:1 posterity:1 personal:1 difference:1 marry:1 british:1 poet:1 antiwar:1 activist:1 walter:1 fuller:1 two:1 child:1 england:1 find:1 post:1 congress:1 co:1 edit:1 radical:1 politics:1 art:1 literature:1 liberator:1 brother:1 commute:1 london:1 husband:1 blacklist:1 thus:1 render:1 unemployable:1 red:1 scare:1 paid:1 columnist:1 notably:1 tide:1 life:1 big:1 complete:2 convince:1 someday:1 achieve:1 total:1 victory:1 neglected:1 leader:1 although:1 create:1 long:1 lasting:1 political:1 disappear:1 history:1 fifty:1 year:1 reference:1 blanche:1 wiesen:1 cook:1 ed:1 revolution:1 external:1 link:1 paper:1 schlesinger:1 library:1 radcliffe:1 institute:1 harvard:1 \|@bigram occupational_safety:1 woodrow_wilson:1 conscientious_objector:1 external_link:1
1,107	Kick	In martial arts, combat sports or violence, a kick is a strike using the foot, leg, or knee (also known as a knee strike). This attack is often used in hand-to-hand combat, especially in stand-up fighting. Kicks play a great part in many martial arts, such as Taekwondo, Kung fu, Wushu, Karate, Kickboxing, Muay Thai, Capoeira, Silat, Sanshou, Vovinam, Kalarippayattu, and Savate. Some arts do not utilize kicks at all, such as judo and boxing. Other arts limit the use of kicks to attacks on the legs and lower body, while some sport martial arts tournaments only allow kicking above the waist. Various types of kick are described below, but the names used to describe a kick may vary between arts Basic kicks Front kick In Japanese, mae geri; in Korean, ap chagi. The Front Kick is considered the simplest of all kicks, but it also has wide variety in ways of execution. Delivering front kick involves rising a knee of striking leg to the position in which desired point-of-impact, one's foot and pelvis are on the same line. Then, one should straighten striking leg quickly and make contact with a target area. Generally, one will want to retract one's foot quickly by bending knee again, to prevent opponent from possibly grappling one's striking leg. Depending of fighter's tactical needs, front kick may involve less or more overall body motion. Thrusting one's hip forward in a short, powerful rotating motion is common method of increasing both reach and power of the kick. The front kick is typically executed with upper body straight and balanced (compared to, e.g., side and hook kick, where leaning back for balance is somewhat natural). The actual strike is usually delivered by using ball of the foot (while pointing the foot toward the target area and keeping toes up to prevent injury), by heel or by entire foot when footwear is used. Using ball of a foot is preferred in Karate. This method demands more control of one's movement and sometimes tempering one's striking surfaces, but allows for narrow, penetrating strike. TKD practitioners utilise both heel and ball of the foot for striking. Various combat systems teach 'general' front kick using heel or whole foot when footwear is on. For example, martial art systems employed by military assume that a fighter wears heavy footwear and is generally less mobile than typically assumed in competition martial arts. Properly executing a fast 'snap' front kick while controlling one's foot direction may be difficult in said conditions. Less technically demanding kicks utilizing the soles of heavy footwear as a striking surface are easier to execute. Front kicks are typically aimed at targets below the chest: abdomen, thighs, knees or lower. Highly skilled martial artists are often capable of striking head-level targets with front kick, but rarely consider this practice viable. A well-developed front kick is excellent asset in both offence (e.g. as an opening attack that forces the opponent to dodge or deflect the kick, thus creating opportunity for punch) and defence (e.g. as a tool to keep the opponent from punch range, or to inflict heavy damage when the opponent is closing the distance while maintaining upper guard). Roundhouse kick In Japanese, ; in Korean, dollyo chagi (돌려 차기). Also called a round kick, snap kick, or turning kick. The attacker swings his/her leg sideways in a circular motion, kicking the opponent's side with the front of the leg, usually with the top of the foot (called the instep), ball of the foot, toe (if careful), or shin. Also performable is a 360 degree kick in which the attacker performs a full circle with his/her leg. The striking surface is generally either the instep, shin or ball of the foot. A simpler version of the kick is performed by starting as a straight kick, but turning the hips sideways so the kick is snapped sideways (called a point kick). It is called Martelo in capoeira. This is the most commonly used kick in kickboxing due to its power and ease of use. In most styles, the instep is used to strike, while in Shotokan karate when it was first introduced to the curricula in 1950, used the ball of the foot. In Kyokushinkai, this was changed to the instep and then, due possibly to encounters with Muay Thai practitioners, included use of the shin. Muay Thai has used the shin for its entire existence, seeing the use of the foot as being too open to being damaging to the small bones contained within, while the shin delivers much more power than the foot. Side kick In Japanese, yoko geri; in Korean, yop chagi (옆 차기). The Side Kick refers to a kick that is delivered sideways in relation to the body of the person kicking. There are two general ways in which a side kick can be delivered. The first involves chambering the kick by bending it and cocking it back (recoiling it, in other words) before you kick. The second involves shooting the leg forward as you would in a front kick and then pivoting and turning so that you actually deliver a side kick. In addition, there are two areas that are commonly used as impact points in sidekicks. The first is the heel of the foot and the other is the outer edge of the foot(this is sometimes called the side blade kick, "ashi-gatana" or "sokuto" in Japanese). The heel is more suited to hard targets such as the ribs, stomach, jaw, temple and chest. The side blade is more suited to the softer targets such as the knee and neck. Muay thai uses the side-kick in a smaller manner by using it as a damaging attack only when striking the knees of a high-kicking opponent when one wishes to destroy said opponent. Otherwise, it is mainly used in a pushing role. The reason this is stems from the fact that the most viable targets for a sidekick are the lower abdomen (Below the belt) and the face, which is a risky venture. Side kicks require less flexibility to reach head height than any other standing kick. However, they need much greater strength and precision to be used effectively in anything but a rough, pushing strike such as that employed by other push kicks. In capoeira the side kick is known as chapa or pisao. Reverse side kick In Korean ban dae yeop chagi (반대 옆 차기) or momdollyo yeop chagi. Uses more of a spin in its delivery than the back kick, allowing the hips to turn over more. The kick begins from a high chamber as opposed to the straight through motion of a back kick. Can use either the heel (dwi kkumchi 뒤꿈치) or footsword (balkal 발칼) as the attacking tool. Although not done entirely the same way, the capoeira kick Chapa Giratoria looks very similar to the reverse side kick. Back kick In Japanese, ushiro geri; in Korean, dwit chagi (뒤 차기). Also called a donkey kick, spin kick, mule kick, or turning back kick. This kick is directed backward keeping the kicking leg close to the standing leg and using the heel as a striking surface. Most often, this kick is delivered with a spinning motion in tournaments. It can be highly damaging due to its power and Benny Urquidez stated once in his book, "Training and Fighting Skills", his belief in it being the most powerful kick in karate. Advanced kicks Axe kick (hammer kick/stretch kick) In Japanese, kakato geri; in Korean, chikyo chagi or naeryo chagi (내려 차기). An axe kick is characterized by the straightened leg coming down on an opponent, like the blade of an axe. The starting phase involves the foot being moved upward, like a crescent kick. The arc motion is stopped,then the attacking foot is brought down to strike the target from above, in imitation of an axe. The arc can be performed in either an inward (counter-clockwise) or outward (clockwise) fashion. In some styles, this is known as a downward kick. Axe kicks must be practiced carefully because they can very easily be used to accidentally injure one's sparring partner. One of the most famous proponents of the axe kick was the late Andy Hug, the Swiss karateka that won the 1996 K-1 Grand Prix. He won countless fights with this kick, and it was in fact called the "Andy kick" in some circles. Butterfly Kick Butterfly kick The butterfly kick is done by doing a large circular motion with both feet in succession, making the combatant airborne. There are many variations of this kick. The kick may look like a slanted aerial cartwheel, and at the same time, the body spins horizontally in a circle. You would have to jump with one leg while kicking with the other, then move the kicking leg down and the jumping leg up into a kick, landing with the first kicking leg, all while spinning. It may also resemble a jumping spin roundhouse kick into a spinning hook kick, all in one jump and one spin. First practiced in Chinese martial arts, the butterfly kick, or "xuan zi," is widely viewed as ineffective for actual combat. Attempting to use this technique to actually attack an opponent could result in leg injuries. However, its original purpose was to evade an opponent's floor sweep and flip to the antagonist's exposed side. Calf kick This kick strikes with the backside of the calf. A variation which is known as the jumping calf kick is when the user jumps before performing the kick. Crescent kick In Japanese, mikazuki Geri; in Korean, bandal chagi (반달 차기). The crescent kick, also referred to as a 'swing' kick, has some similarities to a hook kick, and is sometimes practised as an off-target front snap kick. The leg is bent like the front kick, but the knee is pointed at a target to the left or right of the true target. The energy from the snap is then redirected, whipping the leg into an arc and hitting the target from the side. This is useful for getting inside defenses and striking the side of the head or for knocking down hands to follow up with a close attack. In many styles of Tai Chi Chuan, crescent kicks are taught as tripping techniques. When training for crescent kicks, it is common to keep the knee extended to increase the difficulty. This also increases the momentum of the foot and can generate more force, though it takes longer to build up the speed. The inward/inner/inside crescent hits with the instep. Its arch is clockwise for the left leg and counter-clockwise for the right leg. Force is generated by both legs' hip adduction. The inward variant has also been called a hangetsu geri (Crescent moon kick) in karate and is employed to "wipe" an opponents hand off of one's wrist. It can quickly be followed up by a low side-blade kick to the knee of the offender. The outward/outer/outside crescent hits with the 'blade', the outside edge of the leg. Its path is counter-clockwise for the left leg and clockwise for the right leg, and force is generated by both legs' hip abduction. This is similar to a rising side kick, only with the kicking leg's hip flexed so that the line of force travels parallel to the ground from front to side rather than straight up, beginning and ending at the side. Hook kick In Japanese, ura mawashi-geri; in Korean, huryeo chagi (후려 차기) or golcho chagi. Steven Ho executing a Jump Spin Hook Kick The hook kick strikes with the heel from the side (or flat of the foot in sparring). It is executed similar to a side kick. However, the kick is intentionally aimed slightly off target in the direction of the kicking foot's toes. At full extension, the knee is bent and the foot snapped to the side, impacting the target with the heel. Practitioners of jeet kune do frequently use the term heel hook kick or sweep kick. It is known as Gancho in capoeira. Spinning hook kicks can be seen used by Bruce Lee in all of its flashiness in Fists of Fury (The Chinese Connection in America). Lee also used the move in Enter the Dragon, where he used it several times to knock out opponents. Bill Wallace was also a great user of this kick, as seen in his fight with Bill Briggs, where he KO'd his opponent with the clocked 60mph kick. The Jump Spin Hook Kick was popularized in the mid-eighties by Steven Ho in open martial art competitions. The hook kick is mainly used to strike the jaw area of an opponent,but is also highly effective in the temple region. Twist kick In Korean, bituro chagi. In Okinawan karate, it is sometimes called a dragon kick. The twist kick begins as would a front kick. However, the practitioner, beginning as with a front kick, allows the heel to move towards the center of the body. The kick is then directed outward from a cross-leg chamber so that the final destination of the kick is a target to the side, rather than one that is directly ahead. Reverse roundhouse/heel kick Low, middle and high Reverse roundhouse kicks performed in succession In Japanese, ; in Korean, bandae dollyo chagi (반대 돌려 차기), dwit hu ryo chagi, nakkio mom dollyo chagi or parryo chagi. This kick is also known as a heel kick, reverse turning kick, reverse round kick or spin kick. This kick traditionally uses the heel to strike with. The kicking leg comes from around the kicker's back and remains straight, unlike a reverse hooking kick. See above for more on hook kicks. Variations exist for low, middle and high height. Spinning and leaping variations of the kick are also popular, and are often showcased in film and television media. A different kick that is similarly named also exists. It is literally a roundhouse kick performed by turning as if for a back straight kick and executing a roundhouse kick. It is known as a Reverse Roundhouse Kick because the kicker turns in the opposite, or "reverse", direction before the kick is executed. This kick strikes with the ball of the foot for power or the top of the foot for range. A version performed by WWE Diva Mickie James is called the Long Kiss Goodnight because it is preceded by a kiss, then performed. In Olympic format (sport) taekwondo, this technique is performed using the balls of the feet, and in a manner similar to a back thrust, rather than the circular technique adopted in other styles/Martial Arts. Flying kicks Flying back kick. Note: The running-up part of the flying kick sequence is cut off in this animation, so you only see the jumping component of the kick. A flying kick, in martial arts, is a general description of kicks that involve a running start, jump, then a kick in mid-air. Compared to a regular kick, the user is able to achieve greater momentum from the run at the start. Flying kicks are not to be mistaken for jumping kicks, which are similar maneuvers. A jumping kick is very similar to a flying kick, except that it lacks the running start and the user simply jumps and kicks from a stationary position. Flying kicks are often derived from the basic kicks. Some of the more commonly known flying kicks are the: flying side kick, flying back kick and the flying roundhouse kick, as well as the flying reverse roundhouse kick. Flying kicks are commonly practiced in Tae Kwon Do, Karate, Wushu, and Muay Thai for fitness, exhibitions, competition, as well as self defence. It is known as tobi geri in Japanese martial arts, and twimyo chagi in Taekwondo. Scissor kick Several kicks may be called a scissor kick, involving swinging out the legs to kick multiple targets or using the legs to take down an opponent. The popularized version of a scissor kick is, while lying down, or jumping, the kicker brings both legs to both sides of the opponent's legs or to their body and head, then brings both in as a take down (as the name states, leg motions are like that of a pair of scissors). The scissor kick in Taekwondo is called kawi chagi. In capoeira it is called tesoura (scissors). Scissor kicks and other variants are also commonly applied in Vovinam. Vertical kick (thrust kick/push kick) The vertical kick involves bringing the knee forward and across the chest, then swinging the hip while extending the kicking leg outward, striking with the outside ("sword") edge of the foot. It can deliver a considerable amount of power. This is called a yoko geri keage in karate. In Taekwondo, the vertical kick is called sewo chagi, and can be performed as either an inward (anuro) or outward (bakuro) kick. Multiple kick In Japanese karate, the term ren geri is used for several kicks performed in succession. Old karate did not promote the use of the legs for weapons as much as modern karate does, seeing them as being too open for countering. However, in modern competitions, the ability to use multiple kicks without setting the foot down has become a viable option, not only for effectiveness but also for stylish aesthetics. In Taekwon-Do, three types of multiple kick are distinguished: Double kick (i-jung chagi) - two kicks of the same type executed in succession by the same foot in the same direction. Consecutive kick (yonsok chagi) - two or more kicks executed in succession by the same foot but in different directions, or with different attacking tools. Combination kick (honhap chagi) - two or more kicks executed in succession by both feet. One such Multiple Kick commonly seen in Taekwondo, is a slightly complex Side Kick where a High Side Kick is followed by a Low Side Kick which is in turn followed by a more powerful Side Kick. This combination is done rapidly and is meant not for multiple targets but for a single one. The Multiple Kick usually targets the face, thigh, and chest, but in turn can be a multiple chest attack which is useful for knocking the breath out of an attacker. The Multiple Kick is usually done in the "second" style described in the Side Kick article which "involves shooting the leg forward as you would in a front kick and then pivoting and turning so that you actually deliver a side kick." That style "has far less power but is much faster and more deceptive", which is what the Multiple Kick was designed for. The Multiple Kick, unlike some Side Kicks or "side blade kicks", never uses the outer edge of the foot; it's intended solely for the heel to be used as the impact point. Depending on the strength and skill of the attacker and the attacked, the combination can be highly-effective or highly-ineffective when compared to more pragmatic attacks. In some encounters with highly trained and conditioned fighters, multiple side-kicks have seen disastrous results against the abs of their targets. Practicality of kicks The usefulness of kicks in self-defense and actual combat has been debated. Some, like Bruce Lee, have commented that the leg, thanks to its size and weight, is a more powerful weapon than the arm. Because the leg is longer than the arm, kicks tend to keep an opponent at a distance and to surprise him or her with their range. Many have reported successfully using kicks in real-life self-defense situations, and some modern combat systems such as Krav Maga, intended primarily for self-defense and combat, have incorporated kicks. A sensei execute the flying side kick to his partner On the other hand, the high kicks practiced in traditional martial arts or the flying/jumping kicks performed in synthesis styles are primarily performed for conditioning or aesthetic reasons. The proponents has viewed that some high front snap kicks are effective for striking the face or throat, particularly against charging opponents, and flying kicks can be effective to scare off attackers. Some contrasting views have stated that high kicks are completely ineffective as it would be much quicker and more probable to be able to strike the throat, nose or face with a palm strike for the face or a claw hand to strike at or choke the throat. It has been noted that high kicks(and other complicated kicks for that matter) can be almost impossible to perform in an actual confrontation due to the adrenal shock that one experiences in a stressful situation. This "adrenal dump" as it is called by some experts, causes the body to lose the ability of fine motor control, which is what many traditional high kicks require to perform. Additionally, high kicks nearly always expose the groin, inviting a swift kick to the area from an agile opponent. As a result, the utilizing of high kicks in defensive situations is considered risky at best for anyone but highly skilled martial artists. The general consensus is that for most defense and combat applications, simple kicks aimed at vulnerable targets below the chest may be highly efficient but should be executed with a degree of care. Thus, the fighter should not compromise his/hers balance while delivering a kick, and retract the leg properly to avoid grappling. The front kick could be aimed at the groin/pelvis area, knees and shins, inflicting respectable damage. The defensive side kick is a great move for stopping a blitzing opponent. The roundhouse kick performed at low level may be effective due to its power, since attacking leg muscles will often cripple opponent's mobility, however the technique still throws a fighter's balance off and leaves them vulnerable. It is often recommended to build and drill simple combinations that involve attacking different levels of opponents. A common example would be distracting an opponent's focus via a fake jab, following up with a powerful attack at the opponent's legs and punching. See also Dynamic stretching References	Kick \|@lemmatized martial:13 art:14 combat:8 sport:3 violence:1 kick:221 strike:25 use:39 foot:34 leg:42 knee:13 also:18 know:9 attack:14 often:7 hand:6 especially:1 stand:2 fight:4 play:1 great:5 part:2 many:5 taekwondo:6 kung:1 fu:1 wushu:2 karate:11 kickboxing:2 muay:5 thai:5 capoeira:6 silat:1 sanshou:1 vovinam:2 kalarippayattu:1 savate:1 utilize:2 judo:1 boxing:1 limit:1 low:8 body:8 tournament:2 allow:4 waist:1 various:2 type:3 describe:3 name:3 may:8 vary:1 basic:2 front:20 japanese:11 mae:1 geri:10 korean:10 ap:1 chagi:22 consider:3 simple:4 wide:1 variety:1 way:3 execution:1 deliver:9 involve:10 rise:2 position:2 desire:1 point:6 impact:4 one:20 pelvis:2 line:2 straighten:1 quickly:3 make:2 contact:1 target:20 area:6 generally:3 want:1 retract:2 bend:2 prevent:2 opponent:24 possibly:2 grapple:1 depending:1 fighter:5 tactical:1 need:2 less:5 overall:1 motion:8 thrust:3 hip:7 forward:4 short:1 powerful:5 rotate:1 common:3 method:2 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1,108	Nuclear_proliferation	World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color. Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of nuclear weapons, fissile material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information, to nations which are not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, also known as the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty or NPT. Proliferation has been opposed by many nations with and without nuclear weapons, the governments of which fear that more countries with nuclear weapons may increase the possibility of nuclear warfare (up to and including the so-called "countervalue" targeting of civilians with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of states. Four nations, none of which signed or ratified the NPT, have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. Critics of the NPT and Nuclear Weapon States cite this when they charge that the NPT-system is discriminatory. History of nuclear proliferation The earliest instance of proliferation date to World War II, when multiple countries—specifically the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and the USSR—each began sponsored research into the development of nuclear weapons. In September, 1949, the USSR tested its own nuclear bomb, eliminating the U.S. nuclear monopoly. Nash, Gary B., Julie Roy Jeffrey, John R. Howe, Peter J. Frederick, Allen F. Davis, Allan M. Winkler, Charlene Mires, and Carla Gardina Pestana. The American People, Concise Edition Creating a Nation and a Society, Combined Volume (6th Edition). New York: Longman, 2007. Early anti-proliferation efforts involved intense government secrecy, the wartime acquisition of known uranium stores (the Combined Development Trust), and at times even outright sabotage—such as the bombing of a heavy-water facility thought to be used for a German nuclear program. None of these efforts were explicitly public, owing to the fact that the weapons developments themselves were kept secret until the bombing of Hiroshima. Earnest international efforts to promote nuclear non-proliferation began soon after World War II, when the Truman Administration proposed the Baruch Plan The Baruch Plan \| Arms Control, Deterrence and Nuclear Proliferation \| Historical Documents \| atomicarchive.com of 1946, named after Bernard Baruch, America's first representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. The Baruch Plan, which drew heavily from the Acheson-Lilienthal Report of 1946, proposed the verifiable dismantlement and destruction of the U.S. nuclear arsenal (which, at that time, was the only nuclear arsenal in the world) after all governments had cooperated successfully to accomplish two things: (1) the establishment of an "international atomic development authority," which would actually own and control all military-applicable nuclear materials and activities, and (2) the creation of a system of automatic sanctions, which not even the U.N. Security Council could veto, and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or fissile material. Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide international support, it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. Still, it remained official American policy until 1953, when President Eisenhower made his "Atoms for Peace" proposal before the U.N. General Assembly. Eisenhower's proposal led eventually to the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957. Under the "Atoms for Peace" program thousands of scientists from around the world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country. Efforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see List of countries with nuclear weapons for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after the People's Republic of China detonated a nuclear weapon and became the fifth nation to have acquired nuclear weapons. In 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. In June 1968, the U.N. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373 (XXII), and in July 1968, the NPT opened for signature in Washington, DC, London and Moscow. The NPT entered into force in March 1970. Since the mid-1970s, the primary focus of nonproliferation efforts has been to maintain, and even increase, international control over the fissile material and specialized technologies necessary to build such devices because these are the most difficult and expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program. The main materials whose generation and distribution is controlled are highly enriched uranium and plutonium. Other than the acquisition of these special materials, the scientific and technical means for weapons construction to develop rudimentary, but working, nuclear explosive devices are considered to be within the reach of industrialized nations. Since its founding by the United Nations in 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has promoted two, sometimes contradictory, missions: on the one hand, the Agency seeks to promote and spread internationally the use of civilian nuclear energy; on the other hand, it seeks to prevent, or at least detect, the diversion of civilian nuclear energy to nuclear weapons, nuclear explosive devices or purposes unknown. The IAEA now operates a safeguards system as specified under Article III of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, which aims to ensure that civil stocks of uranium, plutonium, as well as facilities and technologies associated with these nuclear materials, are used only for peaceful purposes and do not contribute in any way to proliferation or nuclear weapons programs. Dual use technology Dual use technology refers to the possibility of military use of civilian nuclear power technology. The enriched uranium used in most nuclear reactors is not concentrated enough to build a bomb. Most nuclear reactors run on 4% enriched uranium; Little Boy used 80% enriched uranium; while lower enrichment levels could be used, the minimum bomb size would rapidly become unfeasibly large as the level was decreased. However, the same plants and technology used to enrich uranium for power generation can be used to make the highly enriched uranium needed to build a bomb. In addition, the plutonium produced in power reactors, if separated from spent fuel through chemical reprocessing (much less technically challenging than isotopic separation), can be used for a bomb. While the plutonium resulting from normal reactor fueling cycles is less than ideal for weapons use because of the concentration of Pu-240, a usable weapon can be produced from it. If the reactor is operated on very short fueling cycles, bomb-grade plutonium can be produced. However, such operation would be virtually impossible to camouflage in many reactor designs, as the frequent shutdowns for refueling would be obvious, for instance in satellite photographs. Fast breeder reactors require reprocessing, generate more plutonium than they consume (and more than non-breeders), and can produce better than weapons-grade plutonium. New technology for breeder reactors, like SSTAR, may lessen the risk of nuclear proliferation by providing sealed reactors with a limited self-contained fuel supply that could be remotely shut down in case of tampering. International cooperation Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty At present, 189 countries are States Parties to the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons, more commonly known as the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty or NPT. These include the five Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) recognized by the NPT: the People's Republic of China, France, Russian Federation, the UK, and the United States. Notable non-signatories to the NPT are Israel, Pakistan, and India (the latter two have since tested nuclear weapons, while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). North Korea was once a signatory but withdrew in January 2003. The legality of North Korea's withdrawal is debatable but as of 9 October 2006, North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device. International Atomic Energy Agency The IAEA was set up by unanimous resolution of the United Nations in 1957 to help nations develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Allied to this role is the administration of safeguards arrangements to provide assurance to the international community that individual countries are honoring their commitments under the treaty. The IAEA regularly inspects civil nuclear facilities to verify the accuracy of documentation supplied to it. The agency checks inventories, and samples and analyzes materials. Safeguards are designed to deter diversion of nuclear material by increasing the risk of early detection. They are complemented by controls on the export of sensitive technology from countries such as UK and United States through voluntary bodies such as the Nuclear Suppliers Group. The main concern of the IAEA is that uranium not be enriched beyond what is necessary for commercial civil plants, and that plutonium which is produced by nuclear reactors not be refined into a form that would be suitable for bomb production. Scope of safeguards Traditional safeguards are arrangements to account for and control the use of nuclear materials. This verification is a key element in the international system which ensures that uranium in particular is used only for peaceful purposes. Parties to the NPT agree to accept technical safeguard measures applied by the IAEA. These require that operators of nuclear facilities maintain and declare detailed accounting records of all movements and transactions involving nuclear material. Over 550 facilities and several hundred other locations are subject to regular inspection, and their records and the nuclear material being audited. Inspections by the IAEA are complemented by other measures such as surveillance cameras and instrumentation. The inspections act as an alert system providing a warning of the possible diversion of nuclear material from peaceful activities. The system relies on; Material Accountancy - tracking all inward and outward transfers and the flow of materials in any nuclear facility. This includes sampling and analysis of nuclear material, on-site inspections, and review and verification of operating records. Physical Security - restricting access to nuclear materials at the site. Containment and Surveillance - use of seals, automatic cameras and other instruments to detect unreported movement or tampering with nuclear materials, as well as spot checks on-site. All NPT non-weapons states must accept these full-scope safeguards. In the five weapons states plus the non-NPT states (India, Pakistan and Israel), facility-specific safeguards apply. IAEA inspectors regularly visit these facilities to verify completeness and accuracy of records. The terms of the NPT cannot be enforced by the IAEA itself, nor can nations be forced to sign the treaty. In reality, as shown in Iraq and North Korea, safeguards can be backed up by diplomatic, political and economic measures. While traditional safeguards easily verified the correctness of formal declarations by suspect states, in the 1990s attention turned to what might not have been declared. While accepting safeguards at declared facilities, Iraq had set up elaborate equipment elsewhere in an attempt to enrich uranium to weapons grade. North Korea attempted to use research reactors (not commercial electricity-generating reactors) and a reprocessing plant to produce some weapons-grade plutonium. The weakness of the NPT regime lay in the fact that no obvious diversion of material was involved. The uranium used as fuel probably came from indigenous sources, and the nuclear facilities were built by the countries themselves without being declared or placed under safeguards. Iraq, as an NPT party, was obliged to declare all facilities but did not do so. Nevertheless, the activities were detected and brought under control using international diplomacy. In Iraq, a military defeat assisted this process. In North Korea, the activities concerned took place before the conclusion of its NPT safeguards agreement. With North Korea, the promised provision of commercial power reactors appeared to resolve the situation for a time, but it later withdrew from the NPT and declared it had nuclear weapons. Additional Protocol In 1993 a program was initiated to strengthen and extend the classical safeguards system, and a model protocol was agreed by the IAEA Board of Governors 1997. The measures boosted the IAEA's ability to detect undeclared nuclear activities, including those with no connection to the civil fuel cycle. Innovations were of two kinds. Some could be implemented on the basis of IAEA's existing legal authority through safeguards agreements and inspections. Others required further legal authority to be conferred through an Additional Protocol. This must be agreed by each non-weapons state with IAEA, as a supplement to any existing comprehensive safeguards agreement. Weapons states have agreed to accept the principles of the model additional protocol. Key elements of the model Additional Protocol: The IAEA is to be given considerably more information on nuclear and nuclear-related activities, including R & D, production of uranium and thorium (regardless of whether it is traded), and nuclear-related imports and exports. IAEA inspectors will have greater rights of access. This will include any suspect location, it can be at short notice (e.g., two hours), and the IAEA can deploy environmental sampling and remote monitoring techniques to detect illicit activities. States must streamline administrative procedures so that IAEA inspectors get automatic visa renewal and can communicate more readily with IAEA headquarters. Further evolution of safeguards is towards evaluation of each state, taking account of its particular situation and the kind of nuclear materials it has. This will involve greater judgement on the part of IAEA and the development of effective methodologies which reassure NPT States. As of 9 October 2008, 127 countries have signed Additional protocols, and 88 have brought them into force http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/SV/Safeguards/sg_protocol.html . The IAEA is also applying the measures of the Additional Protocol in Taiwan, China. Additional Protocols to Nuclear Safeguards Agreements Among the leading countries that have not signed the Additional Protocol are Egypt, which says it will not sign until Israel accepts comprehensive IAEA safeguards, NTI Egypt Profile and Brazil, which opposes making the protocol a requirement for international cooperation on enrichment and reprocessing, When Nuclear Sheriffs Quarrel, The Economist, 30 October 2008. but has not ruled out signing. Remarks With Brazilian Foreign Minister Celso Amorim, 5 October 2004 Limitations of Safeguards The greatest risk from nuclear weapons proliferation comes from countries which have not joined the NPT and which have significant unsafeguarded nuclear activities; India, Pakistan, and Israel fall within this category. While safeguards apply to some of their activities, others remain beyond scrutiny. A further concern is that countries may develop various sensitive nuclear fuel cycle facilities and research reactors under full safeguards and then subsequently opt out of the NPT. Bilateral agreements, such as insisted upon by Australia and Canada for sale of uranium, address this by including fallback provisions, but many countries are outside the scope of these agreements. If a nuclear-capable country does leave the NPT, it is likely to be reported by the IAEA to the UN Security Council, just as if it were in breach of its safeguards agreement. Trade sanctions would then be likely. IAEA safeguards, together with bilateral safeguards applied under the NPT can, and do, ensure that uranium supplied by countries such as Australia and Canada does not contribute to nuclear weapons proliferation. In fact, the worldwide application of those safeguards and the substantial world trade in uranium for nuclear electricity make the proliferation of nuclear weapons much less likely. The Additional Protocol, once it is widely in force, will provide credible assurance that there are no undeclared nuclear materials or activities in the states concerned. This will be a major step forward in preventing nuclear proliferation. Other IAEA developments The Zangger Committee communicated its guidelines, essentially a set of export rules, to the IAEA in 1978. These were to ensure that transfers of nuclear material or equipment would not be diverted to unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activities, and formal government assurances to this effect were required from recipients. The Guidelines also recognised the need for physical protection measures in the transfer of sensitive facilities, technology and weapons-usable materials, and strengthened retransfer provisions. The group began with seven members the United States, the former USSR, the UK, France, Germany, Canada and Japan but now includes 35 countries. According to Kenneth D. Bergeron's Tritium on Ice: The Dangerous New Alliance of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Power, tritium is not classified as a 'special nuclear material' but rather as a 'by-product'. It is seen as an important litmus test on the seriousness of the United State's intention to nuclear disarm. This radioactive super-heavy hydrogen isotope is used to boost the efficiency of fissile materials in nuclear weapons. The United States resumed tritium production in 2003 for the first time in 15 years. This could indicate that there is a potential nuclear arm stockpile replacement since the isotope naturally decays. In May 1995, NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the production of any further fissile material for weapons. This aims to complement the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty of 1996 and to codify commitments made by the United States, the UK, France and Russia to cease production of weapons material, as well as putting a similar ban on China. This treaty will also put more pressure on Israel, India and Pakistan to agree to international verification. On 9 August 2005 Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons. The full text of the fatwa was released in an official statement at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna. As of February 2006 Iran formally announced that uranium enrichment within their borders has continued. Iran claims it is for peaceful purposes but the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States claim the purpose is for nuclear weapons research and construction. Unsanctioned nuclear activity Iraq Up to the late 1980s it was generally assumed that any undeclared nuclear activities would have to be based on the diversion of nuclear material from safeguards. States acknowledged the possibility of nuclear activities entirely separate from those covered by safeguards, but it was assumed they would be detected by national intelligence activities. There was no particular effort by IAEA to attempt to detect them. Iraq had been making efforts to secure a nuclear potential since the 1960s. In the late 1970s a specialised plant, Osiraq, was constructed near Baghdad. The plant was attacked during the Iran–Iraq War and was destroyed by Israeli bombers in June 1981. Not until the 1990 NPT Review Conference did some states raise the possibility of making more use of (for example) provisions for "special inspections" in existing NPT Safeguards Agreements. Special inspections can be undertaken at locations other than those where safeguards routinely apply, if there is reason to believe there may be undeclared material or activities. After inspections in Iraq following the UN Gulf War cease-fire resolution showed the extent of Iraq's clandestine nuclear weapons program, it became clear that the IAEA would have to broaden the scope of its activities. Iraq was an NPT Party, and had thus agreed to place all its nuclear material under IAEA safeguards. But the inspections revealed that it had been pursuing an extensive clandestine uranium enrichment programme, as well as a nuclear weapons design programme. The main thrust of Iraq's uranium enrichment program was the development of technology for electromagnetic isotope separation (EMIS) of indigenous uranium. This uses the same principles as a mass spectrometer (albeit on a much larger scale). Ions of uranium-238 and uranium-235 are separated because they describe arcs of different radii when they move through a magnetic field. This process was used in the Manhattan Project to make the highly enriched uranium used in the Hiroshima bomb, but was abandoned soon afterwards. The Iraqis did the basic research work at their nuclear research establishment at Tuwaitha, near Baghdad, and were building two full-scale facilities at Tarmiya and Ash Sharqat, north of Baghdad. However, when the war broke out, only a few separators had been installed at Tarmiya, and none at Ash Sharqat. The Iraqis were also very interested in centrifuge enrichment, and had been able to acquire some components including some carbon-fibre rotors, which they were at an early stage of testing. They were clearly in violation of their NPT and safeguards obligations, and the IAEA Board of Governors ruled to that effect. The UN Security Council then ordered the IAEA to remove, destroy or render harmless Iraq's nuclear weapons capability. This was done by mid 1998, but Iraq then ceased all cooperation with the UN, so the IAEA withdrew from this work. The revelations from Iraq provided the impetus for a very far-reaching reconsideration of what safeguards are intended to achieve. See also: Iraq and weapons of mass destruction North Korea The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) acceded to the NPT in 1985 as a condition for the supply of a nuclear power station by the USSR. However, it delayed concluding its NPT Safeguards Agreement with the IAEA, a process which should take only 18 months, until April 1992. During that period, it brought into operation a small gas-cooled, graphite-moderated, natural-uranium (metal) fuelled "Experimental Power Reactor" of about 25 MWt (5 MWe), based on the Magnox design. While this was a well-suited design to start a wholly indigenous nuclear reactor development, it also exhibited all the features of a small plutonium production reactor for weapons purposes. North Korea also made substantial progress in the construction of two larger reactors designed on the same principles, a prototype of about 200 MWt (50 MWe), and a full-scale version of about 800 MWt (200 MWe). They made only slow progress; construction halted on both in 1994 and has not resumed. Both reactors have degraded considerably since that time and would take significant efforts to refurbish. In addition it completed and commissioned a reprocessing plant that makes the Magnox spent nuclear fuel safe, recovering uranium and plutonium. That plutonium, if the fuel was only irradiated to a very low burn-up, would have been in a form very suitable for weapons. Although all these facilities at Yongbyon were to be under safeguards, there was always the risk that at some stage, the DPRK would withdraw from the NPT and use the plutonium for weapons. One of the first steps in applying NPT safeguards is for the IAEA to verify the initial stocks of uranium and plutonium to ensure that all the nuclear material in the country have been declared for safeguards purposes. While undertaking this work in 1992, IAEA inspectors found discrepancies which indicated that the reprocessing plant had been used more often than the DPRK had declared, which suggested that the DPRK could have weapons-grade plutonium which it had not declared to the IAEA. Information passed to the IAEA by a Member State (as required by the IAEA) supported that suggestion by indicating that the DPRK had two undeclared waste or other storage sites. In February 1993 the IAEA called on the DPRK to allow special inspections of the two sites so that the initial stocks of nuclear material could be verified. The DPRK refused, and on 12 March announced its intention to withdraw from the NPT (three months' notice is required). In April 1993 the IAEA Board concluded that the DPRK was in non-compliance with its safeguards obligations and reported the matter to the UN Security Council. In June 1993 the DPRK announced that it had "suspended" its withdrawal from the NPT, but subsequently claimed a "special status" with respect to its safeguards obligations. This was rejected by IAEA. Once the DPRK's non-compliance had been reported to the UN Security Council, the essential part of the IAEA's mission had been completed. Inspections in the DPRK continued, although inspectors were increasingly hampered in what they were permitted to do by the DPRK's claim of a "special status". However, some 8,000 corroding fuel rods associated with the experimental reactor have remained under close surveillance. Following bilateral negotiations between the United States and the DPRK, and the conclusion of the Agreed Framework in October 1994, the IAEA has been given additional responsibilities. The agreement requires a freeze on the operation and construction of the DPRK's plutonium production reactors and their related facilities, and the IAEA is responsible for monitoring the freeze until the facilities are eventually dismantled. The DPRK remains uncooperative with the IAEA verification work and has yet to comply with its safeguards agreement. While Iraq was defeated in a war, allowing the UN the opportunity to seek out and destroy its nuclear weapons programme as part of the cease-fire conditions, the DPRK was not defeated, nor was it vulnerable to other measures, such as trade sanctions. It can scarcely afford to import anything, and sanctions on vital commodities, such as oil, would either be ineffective, or risk provoking war. Ultimately, the DPRK was persuaded to stop what appeared to be its nuclear weapons programme in exchange, under the agreed framework, for about US$5 billion in energy-related assistance. This included two 1000 MWe light water nuclear power reactors based on an advanced U.S. System-80 design. In January 2003 the DPRK withdrew from the NPT. In response a series of discussions between the DPRK, the United States, and China, a series of six-party talks (the parties being the DPRK, the ROK, China, Japan, the United States and Russia) were held in Beijing; the first beginning in April 2004 concerning North Korea's weapons program. On 10 January 2005 North Korea declared that it was in the possession of nuclear weapons. At the end of 2005 the DPRK has halted all six-party talks concerning its nuclear programme for 13 months because the United States froze certain DPRK international financial assets such as those in a bank in Macau. On 9 October 2006 North Korea announced that it has performed its first-ever nuclear weapon test. On 18 December 2006, the six-party talks finally resumed. See also: North Korea and weapons of mass destruction and Six-party talks South Africa In 1991, South Africa acceded to the NPT, concluded a comprehensive safeguards agreement with the IAEA, and submitted a report on its nuclear material subject to safeguards. At the time, the state had a nuclear power programme producing nearly 10% of the country's electricity, whereas Iraq and North Korea only had research reactors. The IAEA's initial verification task was complicated by South Africa's announcement that between 1979 and 1989 it built and then dismantled a number of nuclear weapons. South Africa asked the IAEA to verify the conclusion of its weapons programme. In 1995 the IAEA declared that it was satisfied all materials were accounted for and the weapons programme had been terminated and dismantled. South Africa has signed the NPT, and now holds the distinction of being the only known state to have indigenously produced nuclear weapons, and then verifiably dismantled them. United States cooperation on nuclear weapons with the United Kingdom The United States has given the UK considerable assistance with nuclear weapon design and construction since the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement. In 1974 a CIA proliferation assessment noted that "In many cases [Britain's sensitive technology in nuclear and missile fields] is based on technology received from the United States and could not legitimately be passed on without U.S. permission." The U.S. President authorized the transfer of "nuclear weapon parts" to the UK between at least the years 1975 to 1996. The UK National Audit Office noted that most of the UK Trident warhead development and production expenditure was incurred in the United States, which would supply "certain warhead-related components". Some of the fissile materials for the UK Trident warhead were purchased from the United States. Declassified U.S. Department of Energy documents indicate the UK Trident warhead system was involved in non-nuclear design activities alongside the U.S. W76 nuclear warhead fitted in some U.S. Navy Trident missiles, leading the Federation of American Scientists to speculate that the UK warhead may share design information from the W76. Under the Mutual Defence Agreement 5.37 tonnes of UK-produced plutonium was sent to the United States in return for 6.7 kg of tritium and 7.5 tonnes of highly enriched uranium over the period 1960-1979. A further 0.47 tonne of plutonium was swapped between the UK and United States for reasons that remain classified. Some of the UK produced plutonium was used in 1962 by the United States for a nuclear weapon test of reactor-grade plutonium . The United States has supplied nuclear weapon delivery systems to support the UK nuclear forces since before the signing of the NPT. The renewal of this agreement is due to take place through the second decade of the 21st century. Non-signatory States India, Pakistan and Israel have been "threshold" countries in terms of the international non-proliferation regime. They possess or are quickly capable of assembling one or more nuclear weapons. They have remained outside the 1970 NPT. They are thus largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or materials, except for safety-related devices for a few safeguarded facilities. In May 1998 India and Pakistan each exploded several nuclear devices underground. This heightened concerns regarding an arms race between them, with Pakistan involving the People's Republic of China, an acknowledged nuclear weapons state. Both countries are opposed to the NPT as it stands, and India has consistently attacked the Treaty since its inception in 1970 labeling it as a lopsided treaty in favor of the nuclear powers. Relations between the two countries are tense and hostile, and the risks of nuclear conflict between them have long been considered quite high. Kashmir is a prime cause of bilateral tension, its sovereignty being in dispute since 1948. There is persistent low level military conflict due to Pakistan backing an insurgency there and the disputed status of Kashmir. Both engaged in a conventional arms race in the 1980s, including sophisticated technology and equipment capable of delivering nuclear weapons. In the 1990s the arms race quickened. In 1994 India reversed a four-year trend of reduced allocations for defence, and despite its much smaller economy, Pakistan was expected to push its own expenditures yet higher. Both have lost their patrons: India, the former USSR, and Pakistan, the United States. But it is the growth and modernization of China's nuclear arsenal and its assistance with Pakistan's nuclear power programme and, reportedly, with missile technology, which exacerbate Indian concerns. In particular, Pakistan is aided by China's People's Liberation Army, which operates somewhat autonomously within that country as an exporter of military material. India Nuclear power for civil use is well established in India. Its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the nuclear fuel cycle, necessary because of its outspoken rejection of the NPT. This self-sufficiency extends from uranium exploration and mining through fuel fabrication, heavy water production, reactor design and construction, to reprocessing and waste management. It has a small fast breeder reactor and is planning a much larger one. It is also developing technology to utilise its abundant resources of thorium as a nuclear fuel. India has 14 small nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, two larger ones under construction, and ten more planned. The 14 operating ones (2548 MWe total) comprise: two 150 MWe BWRs from the United States, which started up in 1969, now use locally-enriched uranium and are under safeguards, two small Canadian PHWRs (1972 & 1980), also under safeguards, and ten local PHWRs based on Canadian designs, two of 150 and eight 200 MWe. two new 540 MWe and two 700 MWe plants are tarapore (known as TAPP :Tarapore Atomic Power Project) The two under construction and two of the planned ones are 450 MWe versions of these 200 MWe domestic products. Construction has been seriously delayed by financial and technical problems. In 2001 a final agreement was signed with Russia for the country's first large nuclear power plant, comprising two VVER-1000 reactors, under a Russian-financed US$3 billion contract. The first unit is due to be commissioned in 2007. A further two Russian units are under consideration for the site. Nuclear power supplied 3.1% of India's electricity in 2000 and this is expected to reach 10% by 2005. Its industry is largely without IAEA safeguards, though a few plants (see above) are under facility-specific safeguards. As a result India's nuclear power programme proceeds largely without fuel or technological assistance from other countries. Its weapons material appears to come from a Canadian-designed 40MW "research" reactor which started up in 1960, well before the NPT, and a 100MW indigenous unit in operation since 1985. Both use local uranium, as India does not import any nuclear fuel. It is estimated that India may have built up enough weapons-grade plutonium for a hundred nuclear warheads. It is widely believed that the nuclear programs of India and Pakistan used CANDU reactors to produce fissionable materials for their weapons; however, this is not accurate. Both Canada (by supplying the 40 MW research reactor) and the United States (by supplying 21 tons of heavy water) supplied India with the technology necessary to create a nuclear weapons program, dubbed CIRUS (Canada-India Reactor, United States). Canada sold India the reactor on the condition that the reactor and any by-products would be "employed for peaceful purposes only.". Similarly, the United States sold India heavy water for use in the reactor "only... in connection with research into and the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes". India, in violation of these agreements, used the Canadian-supplied reactor and American-supplied heavy water to produce plutonium for their first nuclear explosion, Smiling Buddha. The Indian government controversially justified this, however, by claiming that Smiling Buddha was a "peaceful nuclear explosion." The country has at least three other research reactors including the tiny one which is exploring the use of thorium as a nuclear fuel, by breeding fissile U-233. In addition, an advanced heavy-water thorium cycle is under development. India exploded a nuclear device in 1974, the so-called Smiling Buddha test, which it has consistently claimed was for peaceful purposes. Others saw it as a response to China's nuclear weapons capability. It was then universally perceived, notwithstanding official denials, to possess, or to be able to quickly assemble, nuclear weapons. In 1997 it deployed its own medium-range missile and is now developing a long-range missile capable of reaching targets in China's industrial heartland. In 1995 the United States quietly intervened to head off a proposed nuclear test. However, in 1998 there were five more tests in Operation Shakti. These were unambiguously military, including one claimed to be of a sophisticated thermonuclear device, and their declared purpose was "to help in the design of nuclear weapons of different yields and different delivery systems". Indian security policies are driven by: its determination to be recognized as a dominant power in the region its increasing concern with China's expanding nuclear weapons and missile delivery programmes its concern with Pakistan's capability to deliver nuclear weapons deep into India It perceives nuclear weapons as a cost-effective political counter to China's nuclear and conventional weaponry, and the effects of its nuclear weapons policy in provoking Pakistan is, by some accounts, considered incidental. India has had an unhappy relationship with China. After an uneasy ceasefire ended the 1962 war, relations between the two nations were frozen until 1998. Since then a degree of high-level contact has been established and a few elementary confidence-building measures put in place. China still occupies some territory which it captured during the aforementioned war, claimed by India, and India still occupies some territory claimed by China. Its nuclear weapon and missile support for Pakistan is a major bone of contention. American President George W. Bush met with India Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to discuss India's involvement with nuclear weapons. The two countries agreed that the United States would give nuclear power assistance to India. Pakistan In 2003, Libya admitted that the nuclear weapons-related material including these centrifuges were acquired from Pakistan Pakistan is believed to have produced the material for its weapons from an indigenous enrichment program. In Pakistan, nuclear power supplies only 1.7% of the country's electricity. It has one small (125 MWe) Canadian PHWR nuclear power reactor from 1971 which is under international safeguards, and a 300 MWe PWR supplied by China under safeguards, which started up in May 2000. A third one, a Chinese PWR, is planned. Enriched fuel for the PWRs will be imported from China. It also has a 9 MW research reactor of 1965 vintage, and there are persistent reports of another "multipurpose" reactor, a 50 MW PHWR near Khushab, which is presumed to have potential for producing weapons plutonium. Pakistan's concentration is on weapons technology, particularly the production of highly enriched uranium suitable for nuclear weapons, utilising indigenous uranium. It has at least one small centrifuge enrichment plant. In 1990 the U.S. Administration cut off aid because it was unable to certify that Pakistan was not pursuing a policy of manufacturing nuclear weapons. This was relaxed late in 2001. In 1996 the United States froze export loans to China because it was allegedly supplying centrifuge enrichment technology to Pakistan. Indian opinion is in no doubt about Pakistan's nuclear weapons capability. Pakistan has made it clear since early 1996 that it had done the basic development work, and that if India staged a nuclear test, Pakistan would immediately start assembling its own nuclear explosive device. It is assumed to now have enough highly-enriched uranium for up to forty nuclear warheads. In April 1998 Pakistan test fired a long-range missile capable of reaching Madras in southern India, pushing home the point by naming it after a 12th century Muslim conqueror. This development removed India's main military advantage over Pakistan. Pakistan's security concerns derive from India's possession of a nuclear weapons capability. In May 1998 Pakistan announced that they had conducted six underground tests in the Chagai Hills, five on the 28th and one on the 30th of that month. Seismic events consistent with these claims were recorded. Pakistan-North Korea Nuclear Proliferation and Missile Cooperation Pakistan and North Korea's efforts to acquire nuclear weapons have had some similarities. Both countries first attempted the plutonium route to acquire such weapons and, when this was thwarted, turned towards uranium enrichment. Pakistan In the 1970s, Pakistan first focused on the plutonium route. They expected to obtain the fissile material from a reprocessing plant provided by France. This plan failed due to U.S. intervention. Pakistan, not wanting to give up, redoubled its efforts to obtain uranium enrichment technology. The main efforts towards this direction were done under Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan. Dr. Khan had earlier worked with Fysisch Dynamisch Onderzoekslaboratorium (FDO). FDO was a subsidiary of the Dutch firm VMF-Stork based in Amsterdam. From 1972 to 1975 Dr. Khan had access to classified data used to enrich ordinary uranium to weapons grade concentrations. FDO was working on the development of ultra high-speed centrifuges for URENCO. In 1974 while he was on secondment for 16 days as a translator to the URENCO plant in Almelo, he obtained photographs and documents of the plant. Dr. Khan returned to Pakistan in 1976 and initiated the Uranium enrichment program on the basis of the technology he had stolen from his previous employer. Dr. Khan relied on nuclear technology supplied by American, Canadian, Swiss, German, Dutch, British, Japanese and Russian companies. Dr. Khan said of the assistance he got from the Japanese, "Next month the Japanese would come here and all the work would be done under their supervision." After the British Government stopped the British subsidiary of the American Emerson Electric Co from shipping the nuclear technology to Pakistan, Dr. Khan describes his frustration with a supplier from Germany as "That man from the German team was unethical. When he did not get the order from us, he wrote a letter to a Labour Party member and questions were asked in [British] Parliament." His efforts made Dr. Khan into a national hero. In 1981, as a tribute, the president of Pakistan, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, renamed the enrichment plant the A. Q. Khan Research Laboratories. In 2003, IAEA unearthed a nuclear black market with close ties to Pakistan. It was widely believed to have direct involvement of the government of Pakistan. This claim could not be verified due to the refusal of the government of Pakistan to allow IAEA to interview the alleged head of the nuclear black market, who happened to be no other than Dr. Khan. Dr. Khan later confessed to his crimes on national television, bailing out the government by taking full responsibility. He confessed to nuclear proliferation from Pakistan to Iran and North Korea. He was immediately given presidential immunity. Exact nature of the involvement at the governmental level is still unclear, but the manner in which the government acted cast doubt on the sincerity of Pakistan. North Korea North Korea joined the NPT in 1985 and had subsequently signed a safeguards agreement with the IAEA. However it was believed that North Korea was diverting plutonium extracted from the fuel of its reactor at Yongbyon, for use in nuclear weapons. The subsequent confrontation with IAEA on the issue of inspections and suspected violations, resulted in North Korea threatening to withdraw from the NPT in 1993. This led to negotiations with the United States resulting in the Agreed Framework of 1994, which provided for IAEA safeguards being applied to its reactors and spent fuel rods. These spent fuel rods were sealed in canisters by the United States to prevent North Korea from extracting plutonium from them. North Korea had to therefore freeze its plutonium programme. During this period Pakistan-North Korea cooperation in missile technology transfer was being established. A high level Pakistani military delegation visited North Korea in August-September 1992, reportedly to discuss the supply Scud missile technology to Pakistan. In 1993, PM Benazir Bhutto traveled to China and North Korea. The visits are believed to be related to the subsequent acquisition of Ghauri (North Korean No-dong) missiles by Pakistan. During the period 1992-1994, A.Q. Khan was reported to have visited North Korea thirteen times. The missile cooperation program with North Korea was under Dr. A. Q. Khan's Kahuta Research Laboratories. At this time China was under U.S. pressure not to supply the M series of missiles to Pakistan. This forced the latter (possibly with Chinese connivance) to approach North Korea for missile transfers. Reports indicate that North Korea was willing to supply missile sub-systems including rocket motors, inertial guidance systems, control and testing equipment of Scud SSMs for US$ 50 million. It is not clear what North Korea got in return. Joseph S. Bermudez Jr. in Jane's Defence Weekly (27 November 2002) reports that Western analysts had begun to question what North Korea received in payment for the missiles; many suspected it was nuclear technology and components. Khan's KRL was in charge of both Pakistan's uranium enrichment program and also of the missile program with North Korea. It is therefore likely during this period that cooperation in nuclear technology between Pakistan and North Korea was initiated. Western intelligence agencies began to notice exchange of personnel, technology and components between KRL and entities of the North Korean 2nd Economic Committee (responsible for weapons production). A New York Times report on 18 October 2002 quoted U.S. intelligence officials having stated that Pakistan was a major supplier of critical equipment to North Korea. The report added that equipment such as gas centrifuges appeared to have been "part of a barter deal" in which North Korea supplied Pakistan with missiles. Separate reports indicate (Washington Times, 22 November 2002) that U.S. intelligence had as early as 1999 picked up signs that North Korea was continuing to develop nuclear arms. Other reports also indicate that North Korea had been working covertly to develop an enrichment capability for nuclear weapons for at least five years and had used technology obtained from Pakistan (Washington Times, 18 October 2002). Nuclear arms control in the region The public stance of the two states on non-proliferation differs markedly. Pakistan appears to have dominated a continuing propaganda debate. Pakistan has initiated a series of regional security proposals. It has repeatedly proposed a nuclear free zone in South Asia and has proclaimed its willingness to engage in nuclear disarmament and to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty if India would do so. It has endorsed a United States proposal for a regional five power conference to consider non-proliferation in South Asia. India has taken the view that solutions to regional security issues should be found at the international rather than the regional level, since its chief concern is with China. It therefore rejects Pakistan's proposals. Instead, the 'Gandhi Plan', put forward in 1988, proposed the revision of the Non-Proliferation Treaty, which it regards as inherently discriminatory in favor of the nuclear-weapon States, and a timetable for complete nuclear weapons disarmament. It endorsed early proposals for a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and for an international convention to ban the production of highly enriched uranium and plutonium for weapons purposes, known as the 'cut-off' convention. The United States for some years, especially under the Clinton administration, pursued a variety of initiatives to persuade India and Pakistan to abandon their nuclear weapons programs and to accept comprehensive international safeguards on all their nuclear activities. To this end, the Clinton administration proposed a conference of the five nuclear-weapon states, Japan, Germany, India and Pakistan. India refused this and similar previous proposals, and countered with demands that other potential weapons states, such as Iran and North Korea, should be invited, and that regional limitations would only be acceptable if they were accepted equally by China. The United States would not accept the participation of Iran and North Korea and these initiatives have lapsed. Another, more recent approach, centers on 'capping' the production of fissile material for weapons purposes, which would hopefully be followed by 'roll back'. To this end, India and the United States jointly sponsored a UN General Assembly resolution in 1993 calling for negotiations for a 'cut-off' convention. Should India and Pakistan join such a convention, they would have to agree to halt the production of fissile materials for weapons and to accept international verification on their relevant nuclear facilities (enrichment and reprocessing plants). It appears that India is now prepared to join negotiations regarding such a Cut-off Treaty, under the UN Conference on Disarmament. Bilateral confidence-building measures between India and Pakistan to reduce the prospects of confrontation have been limited. In 1990 each side ratified a treaty not to attack the other's nuclear installations, and at the end of 1991 they provided one another with a list showing the location of all their nuclear plants, even though the respective lists were regarded as not being wholly accurate. Early in 1994 India proposed a bilateral agreement for a 'no first use' of nuclear weapons and an extension of the 'no attack' treaty to cover civilian and industrial targets as well as nuclear installations. Having promoted the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty since 1954, India dropped its support in 1995 and in 1996 attempted to block the Treaty. Following the 1998 tests the question has been reopened and both Pakistan and India have indicated their intention to sign the CTBT. Indian ratification may be conditional upon the five weapons states agreeing to specific reductions in nuclear arsenals. The UN Conference on Disarmament has also called upon both countries "to accede without delay to the Non-Proliferation Treaty", presumably as non-weapons states. Israel Israel is also thought to possess an arsenal of potentially up to several hundred nuclear warheads and associated delivery systems, but this has never been openly confirmed or denied. An Israeli nuclear installation is located about ten kilometers to the south of Dimona, the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Its construction commenced in 1958, with French assistance. The official reason given by the Israeli and French governments was to build a nuclear reactor to power a "desalination plant", in order to "green the Negev". The purpose of the Dimona plant is widely assumed to be the manufacturing of nuclear weapons, and the majority of defense experts have concluded that it does in fact do that. However, the Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny this publicly, a policy it refers to as "ambiguity". Norway sold 20 tonnes of heavy water needed for the reactor to Israel in 1959 and 1960 in a secret deal. There were no "safeguards" required in this deal to prevent usage of the heavy water for non-peaceful purposes. The British newspaper Daily Express accused Israel of working on a bomb in 1960. When the United States intelligence community discovered the purpose of the Dimona plant in the early 1960s, it demanded that Israel agree to international inspections. Israel agreed, but on a condition that U.S., rather than IAEA, inspectors were used, and that Israel would receive advanced notice of all inspections. Some claim that because Israel knew the schedule of the inspectors' visits, it was able to hide the alleged purpose of the site from the inspectors by installing temporary false walls and other devices before each inspection. The inspectors eventually informed the U.S. government that their inspections were useless due to Israeli restrictions on what areas of the facility they could inspect. In 1969, the United States terminated the inspections. In 1986, Mordechai Vanunu, a former technician at the Dimona plant, revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program. Israeli agents arrested him from Italy, drugged him and transported him to Israel, and an Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of treason and espionage , and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment. He was freed on 21 April 2004, but was severely limited by the Israeli government. He was arrested again on 11 November 2004, though formal charges were not immediately filed. Comments on photographs taken by Mordechai Vanunu inside the Negev Nuclear Research Center have been made by prominent scientists. British nuclear weapons scientist Frank Barnaby, who questioned Vanunu over several days, estimated Israel had enough plutonium for about 150 weapons. Ted Taylor, a bomb designer employed by the United States of America has confirmed the several hundred warhead estimate based on Vanunu's photographs. See also: Israel and weapons of mass destruction Arguments in favor of proliferation There has been much debate in the academic study of International Security as to the advisability of proliferation. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. Pierre Marie Gallois of France, an adviser to Charles DeGaulle, argued in books like The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal, what the French called the force de frappe, was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability. Some very prominent neo-realist scholars, such as Kenneth Waltz, Emeritus Professor of Political Science at UC Berkeley and Adjunct Senior Research Scholar at Columbia University, and John Mearsheimer, R. Wendell Harrison Distinguished Service Professor of Political Science at the University of Chicago, continue to argue along the lines of Gallois (though these scholars rarely acknowledge their intellectual debt to Gallois and his contemporaries). Specifically, these scholars advocate some forms of nuclear proliferation, arguing that it will decrease the likelihood of war, especially in troubled regions of the world. Aside from the majority opinion which opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter. Those, like Mearsheimer, who favor selective proliferation, and those such as Waltz, who advocate a laissez-faire attitude to programs like North Korea's. Total proliferation In embryo, Waltz argues that the logic of mutually assured destruction (MAD) should work in all security environments, regardless of historical tensions or recent hostility. He sees the Cold War as the ultimate proof of MAD logic the only occasion when enmity between two Great Powers did not result in military conflict. This was, he argues, because nuclear weapons promote caution in decision-makers. Neither Washington nor Moscow would risk nuclear Armageddon to advance territorial or power goals, hence a peaceful stalemate ensued (Waltz and Sagan (2003), p. 24). Waltz believes there to be no reason why this effect would not occur in all circumstances. Selective proliferation John Mearsheimer would not support Waltz's optimism in the majority of potential instances; however, he has argued for nuclear proliferation as policy in certain places, such as post-Cold War Europe. In two famous articles, Professor Mearsheimer opines that Europe is bound to return to its pre-Cold War environment of regular conflagration and suspicion at some point in the future. He advocates arming both Germany and the Ukraine with nuclear weaponry in order to achieve a balance of power between these states in the east and France/Britain in the west. If this does not occur, he is certain that war will eventually break out on the European continent (Mearsheimer (1990), pp. 5–56 and (1993), pp. 50–66). Another separate argument against Waltz's open proliferation and in favor of Mearsheimer's selective distribution is the possibility of nuclear terrorism. Some countries included in the aforementioned laissez-faire distribution could predispose the transfer of nuclear materials or a bomb falling into the hands of groups not affiliated with any governments. Such countries would not have the political will or ability to safeguard attempts at devices being transferred to a third party. Not being deterred by self-annihilation, terrorism groups could push forth their own nuclear agendas or be used as shadow fronts to carry out the attack plans by mentioned unstable governments. Arguments against both positions There are numerous arguments presented against both selective and total proliferation, generally targeting the very neorealist assumptions (such as the primacy of military security in state agendas, the weakness of international institutions, and the long-run unimportance of economic integration and globalization to state strategy) its proponents tend to make. With respect to Mearsheimer's specific example of Europe, many economists and neoliberals argue that the economic integration of Europe through the development of the European Union has made war in most of the European continent so disastrous economically so as to serve as an effective deterrent. Constructivists take this one step further, frequently arguing that the development of EU political institutions has led or will lead to the development of a nascent European identity, which most states on the European continent wish to partake in to some degree or another, and which makes all states within or aspiring to be within the EU regard war between them as unthinkable. As for Waltz, the general opinion is that most states are not in a position to safely guard against nuclear use, that he under-estimates the long-standing antipathy in many regions, and that weak states will be unable to prevent - or will actively provide for - the disastrous possibility of nuclear terrorism. Waltz has dealt with all of these objections at some point in his work; though to many, he has not adequately responded (Betts (2000)). The Learning Channel documentary Doomsday: "On The Brink" illustrated 40 years of U.S. and Soviet nuclear weapons accidents. Even the 1995 Norwegian rocket incident demonstrated a potential scenario in which Russian democratization and military downsizing at the end of the Cold War did not eliminate the danger of accidental nuclear war through command and control errors. After asking: might a future Russian ruler or renegade Russian general be tempted to use nuclear weapons to make foreign policy? the documentary writers revealed a greater danger of Russian security over its nuclear stocks, but especially the ultimate danger of human nature to want the ultimate weapon of mass destruction to exercise political and military power. Future world leaders might not understand how close the Soviets, Russians, and Americans were to doomsday, how easy it all seemed because apocalypse was avoided for a mere 40 years between rivals, politicians not terrorists, who loved their children and did not want to die, against 30,000 years of human prehistory. History and military experts agree that proliferation can be slowed, but never stopped (technology cannot be uninvented). Doomsday: On The Brink, The Learning Channel, 1997 Proliferation begets proliferation Proliferation begets proliferation is a concept described by Scott Sagan in his article, Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons? This concept can be described as a strategic chain reaction. If one state produces a nuclear weapon it creates almost a domino effect within the region. States in the region will seek to acquire nuclear weapons to balance or eliminate the security threat. Sagan describes this reaction best in his article when he states, “Every time one state develops nuclear weapons to balance against its main rival, it also creates a nuclear threat to another region, which then has to initiate its own nuclear weapons program to maintain its national security” (Sagan, pg. 70). Going back through history we can see how this has taken place. When the United States demonstrated that it had nuclear power capabilities after the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Russians started to develop their program in preparation for the Cold War. With the Russian military buildup, France and Great Britain perceived this as a security threat and therefore they pursued nuclear weapons (Sagan, pg 71). See also List of states with nuclear weapons, including the figures Nuclear disarmament Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Nuclear fuel bank Nuclear weapon Nuclear warfare Nuclear power Nuclear terrorism Ten Threats identified by the UN Dual-use technology International Atomic Energy Agency Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Seabed Arms Control Treaty Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Fissile Material Cutoff Treaty Chemical weapon proliferation International Science and Technology Center Institute of Nuclear Materials Management References External links and references Official website of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): http://www.iaea.org/ Organizations Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists - A non-technical public policy and global security magazine that has reported on nuclear proliferation issues since 1945. Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center - Publications from Harvard faculty and fellows on nuclear proliferation. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Nonproliferation Website Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation Council for a Livable World Federation of American Scientists Monterey Institute of International Studies, Center for Nonproliferation Studies Nevada Desert Experience Nevada Desert Experience Nonproliferation Policy Education Center - A not-for-profit organization based in Washington, D.C., and founded in 1994 to promote a better understanding of strategic weapons proliferation issues among policymakers, scholars and the media. Nuclear Threat Initiative Proliferation Papers - Electronic papers published by the French Institute of International Relations (Ifri, Paris and Brussels). The Uranium Information Centre provided much of the original material in this article. Union of Concerned Scientists articles on nuclear weapons Western States Legal Foundation Articles, Books and Other Media "Going Nuclear: William Langewiesche on The Atomic Bazaar" 26 June 2007 interview at Propeller.com The Wrath of Khan from The Atlantic Monthly Preventing Catastrophic Nuclear Terrorism, a Council on Foreign Relations Special Report by Senior Fellow Charles Ferguson Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Assessing the Risks - U.S. Congress, Office of Techchnology Assessment (OTA-ISC-559, August 1993) "A Tale of Nuclear Proliferation: How Pakistani Built His Network" Annotated bibliography on nuclear proliferation from the Alsos Digital Library Opinion essay arguing for a totally "nuclear-free" world by Prof. Adil Najam in USA Today. 27,000 Holocausts - a Pinky Show online video interview with John Burroughs (Lawyers Committee on Nuclear Policy). Pierre Gallois, The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1961). S. Sagan and K. Waltz (2003), The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed, New York: W.W. Norton and Co. J.J. Mearsheimer (1990), ‘Back to the future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War’ in International Security, Vol. 15, pp. 5–56 J.J. Mearsheimer (1993), ‘Case for a Ukrainian deterrent’ in Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, pp. 50–66 R.K. Betts (2000), ‘Universal deterrence or conceptual collapse? Liberal pessimism or utopian realism’ in V. A. Utgoff (ed.), The Coming Crisis: Nuclear Proliferation, US Interests and World Order, Cambridge MA: MIT Press Nuclear Files.org Comprehensive information regarding nuclear proliferation, including case studies. Nuclear Files.org Nuclear Proliferation and the Potential Threat of Nuclear Terrorism Proliferation Control Regimes: Background and Status Congressional Research Service Report, 26 December 2006. George Perkovich, "Principles for Reforming the Nuclear Order", Proliferation Papers, Paris, Ifri, Fall 2008 Jamyang Norbu, The China (Proliferation) Syndrome, Phayul.com, 20 February 2009. -	Nuclear_proliferation \|@lemmatized world:11 map:1 nuclear:262 weapon:134 development:16 status:5 represent:2 color:1 proliferation:55 term:3 use:46 describe:6 spread:5 fissile:12 material:49 applicable:2 technology:32 information:7 nation:14 recognize:3 state:84 treaty:26 nonproliferation:8 also:19 know:5 npt:46 oppose:4 many:9 without:6 government:17 fear:1 country:31 may:11 increase:5 possibility:6 warfare:2 include:18 call:6 countervalue:1 targeting:1 civilian:5 de:2 stabilize:1 international:34 regional:6 relation:5 infringe:1 upon:4 national:6 sovereignty:2 four:3 none:3 sign:12 ratify:2 acquire:10 presume:2 india:47 pakistan:61 north:45 korea:43 israel:20 critic:1 cite:1 charge:4 system:14 discriminatory:2 history:3 early:12 instance:3 date:1 war:20 ii:2 multiple:1 specifically:2 united:46 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1,109	John_Chrysostom	This article refers to the Christian saint. For other uses of the name, see Chrysostomos. Saint John Chrysostom (c. 347–407, ), archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. He is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic sensibilities. After his death (or, according to some sources, during his life) he was given the Greek surname chrysostomos, meaning "golden mouthed", rendered in English as Chrysostom. Pope Vigilius, Constitution of Pope Vigilius, 553 The Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches honor him as a saint (feast days: November 13 and January 27) and count him among the Three Holy Hierarchs (feast day, January 30), together with Saints Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzus. He is recognized by the Roman Catholic Church as a saint and Doctor of the Church. Churches of the Western tradition, including the Roman Catholic Church, some Anglican provinces, and parts of the Lutheran Church, commemorate him on September 13. Some Lutheran and many Anglican provinces commemorate him on the traditional Eastern feast day of January 27. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria recognizes John Chrysostom as a saint (feast days: 16 Thout and 17 Hathor Coptic synaxarium ). Chrysostom is known in Christianity chiefly as a preacher, theologian and liturgist, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Among his sermons, eight directed against Judaizing Christians remain controversial for their impact on the development of Christian antisemitism. John Chrysostom, Discourses against Judaizing Christians, translated by Paul W. Harkins. The Fathers of the Church; v. 68 (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1979) Walter Laqueur, The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day, (Oxford University Press: 2006), p. 48. ISBN 0-19-530429-2. 48 Yohanan (Hans) Lewy, "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0), Ed. Cecil Roth (Keter Publishing House: 1997). ISBN 965-07-0665-8. . He is sometimes referred to as John of Antioch, though that name more properly refers to the bishop of Antioch named John. Biography Byzantine 11th century soapstone relief of John Chrysostom, Louvre. Early life and education John was born in Antioch in 349. The date of John's birth is disputed. For a discussion see Robert Carter, "The Chronology of St. John Chrysostom's Early Life", in Traditio 18:357–64 (1962) Jean Dumortier, "La valeur historique du dialogue de Palladius et la chronologie de saint Jean Chrysostome", in Mélanges de science religieuse, 8:51–56 (1951). Carter dates his birth to the year 349. See also Robert Louis Wilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and Reality in the Late Fourth Century, (Berkeley: University of California Press:1983), p.5. Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan "John Chrysostom", Encyclopedia Judaica or as a Christian, and his father was a high ranking military officer. The Encyclopedia Judaica describes Chrysostom's mother as a pagan. In Pauline Allen and Wendy Mayer, John Chrysostom, (Routledge:2000), p.5 ISBN 0-415-18252-2, she is described as a Christian. John's father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother. He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader (one of the minor orders of the Church). Wilken (p. 7) prefers 368 for the date of Chrysostom's baptism, the Encyclopedia Judaica prefers the later date of 373. As a result of his mother's influential connections in the city, John began his education under the pagan teacher Libanius. From Libanius John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric, as well as a love of the Greek language and literature. Wilken, p. 5. As he grew older, however, he became more deeply committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus (founder of the re-constituted School of Antioch). According to the Christian historian Sozomen, Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his successor "if the Christians had not taken him from us". He lived with extreme asceticism and became a hermit circa 375; he spent the next two years continually standing, scarcely sleeping, and committing the Bible to memory. As a consequence of these practices, his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged and poor health forced him to return to Antioch. Pauline Allen and Wendy Mayer, John Chrysostom, (Routledge:2000), p.6 ISBN 0-415-18252-2, Priesthood and service in Antioch He was ordained as a deacon in 381 by Saint Meletius of Antioch, and was ordained as a presbyter (that is, a priest) in 386 by Bishop Flavian I of Antioch. Over the course of twelve years, he gained popularity because of the eloquence of his public speaking, especially his insightful expositions of Bible passages and moral teaching. The most valuable of his works from this period are his Homilies on various books of the Bible. He emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor. He also spoke out against abuse of wealth and personal property: His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures (in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation) meant that the themes of his talks were practical, explaining the Bible's application to everyday life. Such straightforward preaching helped Chrysostom to garner popular support. He founded a series of hospitals in Constantinople to care for the poor.<ref>See Cajetan Baluffi, The Charity of the Church, trans. Denis Gargan (Dublin: M H Gill and Son, 1885), p. 39 and Alvin J. Schmidt, Under the Influence: How Christianity Transformed Civilization (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2001), p. 152; cited in Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, D.C.: Regenery, 2005), p.174.</ref> One incident that happened during his service in Antioch illustrates the influence of his sermons. When Chrysostom arrived in Antioch, the bishop of the city had to intervene with Emperor Theodosius I on behalf of citizens who had gone on a rampage mutilating statues of the Emperor and his family. During the weeks of Lent in 397, John preached twenty-one sermons in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways. These made a lasting impression on the general population of the city: many pagans converted to Christianity as a result of the sermons. As a result, Theodosius' vengeance was not as severe as it might have been. Robert Wilken, "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York:Garland Publishing, 1997). Archbishop of Constantinople A sculpture of John Chrysostom in Saint Patrick's Cathedral, New York City. In 398, John was requested, against his will, to take the position of Archbishop of Constantinople. He deplored the fact that Imperial court protocol would now assign to him access to privileges greater than the highest state officials. During his time as Archbishop he adamantly refused to host lavish social gatherings, which made him popular with the common people, but unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy. His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular with these groups. He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving — without any payout David H. Farmer, The Oxford Dictionary of the Saints, second ed. (New York:Oxford University Press, 1987) p.232. . In 401, Chrysostom led a mob to finally destroy the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus John Freely, The Western Shores of Turkey: Discovering the Aegean and Mediterranean Coasts 2004, p. 148 (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, although it had been destroyed and rebuilt several times by then). His time in Constantinople was more tumultuous than his time in Antioch. Theophilus, the Patriarch of Alexandria, wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John's appointment to Constantinople. Being an opponent of Origen's teachings, he accused John of being too partial to the teachings of that theologian. Theophilus had disciplined four Egyptian monks (known as "the tall brothers") over their support of Origen's teachings. They fled to and were welcomed by John. He made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia, the wife of the eastern Emperor Arcadius, who assumed (perhaps with justification) that his denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at herself. Robert Wilken, "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson (New York:Garland Publishing, 1997). Depending on one's outlook, John was either tactless or fearless when denouncing offences in high places. An alliance was soon formed against him by Eudoxia, Theophilus and others of his enemies. They held a synod in 403 (the Synod of the Oak) to charge John, in which his connection to Origen was used against him. It resulted in his deposition and banishment. He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately, as the people became "tumultuous" over his departure. There was also an earthquake the night of his arrest, which Eudoxia took for a sign of God's anger, prompting her to ask Arcadius for John's reinstatement. Peace was short-lived. A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected near his cathedral. John denounced the dedication ceremonies. He spoke against her in harsh terms: "Again Herodias raves; again she is troubled; she dances again; and again desires to receive John's head in a charger," Socrates Scholasticus, op cit "Chapter XVIII: Of Eudoxia's Silver Statue", p. 150. an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist. Once again he was banished, this time to the Caucasus in Armenia. "John Chrysostom" in The Oxford Dictionary of Church History, ed. Jerald C. Brauer (Philadelphia:Westminster Press, 1971). Pope Innocent I protested at this banishment, but to no avail. Innocent sent a delegation to intercede on behalf of John in 405. It was led by Gaudentius of Brescia; Gaudentius and his companions, two bishops, encountered many difficulties and never reached their goal of entering Constantinople. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: St. Gaudentius That same year, Chrysostom sent gangs of monks, armed with iron bars and clubs, to destroy all the idols they could find in Palestine. A year later, he appealed for funds to pay for the demolition of non-Christian temples. John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople. As a result of this, he was further exiled to Pitiunt (Abkhazia region of Georgia) where his tomb is the shrine for pilgrims. He never reached this destination, as he died during the journey. His last words are said to have been, "δόξα τῷ θεῷ πάντων ἕνεκεν" (Glory be to God for all things). Writings Homilies The Byzantine emperor Nicephorus III receives a book of sermons from John Chrysostom, the Archangel Michael stands on his left (11th cent. illuminated manuscript). Known as "the greatest preacher in the early church", John's sermons have been one of his greatest lasting legacies. "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. Chrysostom's extant homiletical works are vast, including many hundreds of exegetical sermons on both the New Testament (especially the works of Saint Paul) and the Old Testament (particularly on Genesis). Among his extant exegetical works are sixty-seven homilies on Genesis, fifty-nine on the Psalms, ninety on the Gospel of Matthew, eighty-eight on the Gospel of John, and fifty-five on the Acts of the Apostles. "John Chrysostom" in the Catholic Encyclopedia, online, retrieved March 20, 2007. The sermons were written down by the audience and subsequently circulated, revealing a style that tended to be direct and greatly personal, but was also formed by the rhetorical conventions of his time and place. Yohanan (Hans) Lewy, "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0), Ed. Cecil Roth (Keter Publishing House: 1997). ISBN 965-07-0665-8. In general, his homiletical theology displays much characteristic of the Antiochian school (i.e., somewhat more literal in interpreting Biblical events), but he also uses a good deal of the allegorical interpretation more associated with the Alexandrian school. John's social and religious world was formed by the continuing and pervasive presence of paganism in the life of the city. One of his regular topics was the paganism in the culture of Constantinople, and in his sermons he thunders against popular pagan amusements: the theatre, horseraces, and the revelry surrounding holidays. Wilken, p.30. In particular, he criticized Christians for taking part in such activities: "If you ask [Christians] who is Amos or Obadiah, how many apostles there were or prophets, they stand mute; but if you ask them about the horses or drivers, they answer with more solemnity than sophists or rhetors". John Chrysostom, quoted in Wilken, p.30 John's homilies on Paul's Epistles proceed linearly, methodically treating the texts verse by verse, often going into great detail. He shows a concern to be understood by laypeople, sometimes offering colorful analogies and practical examples. At other times, he offers extended comments clearly intended to address the theological subtleties of a heretical misreading, or to demonstrate the presence of a deeper theme. One of the recurring features of John's sermons is his emphasis on care for the needy. Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G. Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church, and State in the age of Arcadius and Chrysostom, (Oxford: Clarendon Rress, 1990) pp.175-176 Echoing themes found in the Gospel of Matthew, he calls upon the rich to lay aside materialism in favor of helping the poor, often employing all of his rhetorical skills to shame wealthy people to abandon conspicuous consumption: "It is not possible for one to be wealthy and just at the same time." "Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber-pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold?" John Chrysostom, quoted in Liebeschuetz, p.176 However, he did not extend this attitude towards slaves, arguing that "the slave should be resigned to his lot… in obeying his master he is obeying God". Treatises Outside of his sermons, a number of John's other treatises have had a lasting influence. One such work is John's early treatise Against Those Who Oppose the Monastic Life, written while he was a deacon (sometime before 386), which was directed to parents, pagan as well as Christian, whose sons were contemplating a monastic vocation. The book is a sharp attack on the values of Antiochene upper-class urban society written by someone who was a member of that class. Wilken, p.26. Chrysostom also writes that, already in his day, it was customary for Antiochenes to send their sons to be educated by monks. Thomas Woods, How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, (Washington, D.C.: Regenery, 2005), ISBN 0-89526-038-7, p.44 Other important treatises written by John include On the Priesthood (one of his earlier works), Instructions to Catechumens, and On the Incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature. On the Priesthood was well-known already during Chrysostom's lifetime, and is cited by Jerome in 392 in his De Viris Illustribus, chapter 129 In addition, he wrote a series of well-known letters to the deaconess Olympias. Sermons on Jews and Judaizing Christians During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch (386-387), Chrysostom denounced Jews and Judaizing Christians in a series of eight sermons delivered to Christians in his congregation who were taking part in Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances. See Wilken, p.xv, and also "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia Judaica It is disputed whether the main target were specifically Judaizers or Jews in general. His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner, utilizing the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the psogos (Greek: blame). One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs, and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom's flock. In his sermons, Chrysostom criticized those "Judaizing Christians", who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances, such as the shabbat, submitted to circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places. Wilken, p.xv. Chrysostom claimed that on the shabbats and Jewish festivals synagogues were full of Christians, especially women, who loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy, enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah, and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom. "John Chrysostom" in Encyclopedia Judaica. A more recent apologetic theory is that he instead tried to persuade Jewish Christians, who for centuries had kept connections with Jews and Judaism, to choose between Judaism and Christianity. Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity. How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries, (Princeton University Press:1997)p.66-67. In Greek the sermons are called Kata Ioudaiōn (Κατά Ιουδαίων), which is translated as Adversus Judaeos in Latin and Against the Jews in English. John Chrysostom, Discourses Against Judaizing Christians (vol. 68 of Fathers of the Church), trans. Paul W. Harkins (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1979) p.x The original Benedictine editor of the homilies, Bernard de Montfaucon, gives the following footnote to the title: "A discourse against the Jews; but it was delivered against those who were Judaizing and keeping the fasts with them [the Jews]." Chrysostom, Discourses Against Judaizing Christians, p.xxxi) Liturgy Beyond his preaching, the other lasting legacy of John is his influence on Christian liturgy. Two of his writings are particularly notable. He harmonized the liturgical life of the Church by revising the prayers and rubrics of the Divine Liturgy, or celebration of the Holy Eucharist. To this day, Eastern Orthodox and most Eastern Catholic Churches typically celebrate the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom. These same churches also read his Catechetical Homily (Hieratikon) at every Easter, the greatest feast of the church year. Legacy and influence The Chrysostom Monastery in Moscow (1882). During a time when city clergy were subject to criticism for their high lifestyle, John was determined to reform his clergy in Constantinople. These efforts were met with resistance and limited success. He was an excellent preacher. As a theologian, he has been and continues to be very important in Eastern Christianity, and is generally considered the most prominent doctor of the Greek Church, but has been less important to Western Christianity. His writings have survived to the present day more so than any of the other Greek Fathers. "St John Chrysostom" in the Catholic Encyclopedia, available online; retrieved March 20, 2007. He rejected the contemporary trend for allegory, instead speaking plainly and applying Bible passages and lessons to everyday life. His exile demonstrated the rivalry between Constantinople and Alexandria for recognition as the preeminent Eastern See, while in the west, the Pope's primacy remained unquestioned. Influence on the Catechism of the Catholic Church and clergy Chrysostom's influence on church teachings is interwoven throughout the current Catechism of the Catholic Church (revised 1992). The Catechism cites him in eighteen sections, particularly his reflections on the purpose of prayer and the meaning of the Lord's Prayer: Christian clerics, such as R.S. Storr, refer to him as "one of the most eloquent preachers who ever since apostolic times have brought to men the divine tidings of truth and love", and the 19th century John Henry Cardinal Newman described Chrysostom as a "bright, cheerful, gentle soul; a sensitive heart." John Henry Newman, "St. Chrysostom" in The Newman Reader (Rambler:1859) available online(see esp. chapter 2). Retrieved March 20, 2007 Antisemitism Chrysostom's Adversus Judaeos homilies have been circulated by many groups to foster anti-Semitism. Laqueur, p. 48. James Parkes called the writing on Jews "the most horrible and violent denunciations of Judaism to be found in the writings of a Christian theologian", James Parkes, Prelude to Dialogue (London: 1969) p. 153; cited in Wilken, p. xv. while British historian Paul Johnson claimed that Chrysostom's homilies "became the pattern for anti-Jewish tirades, making the fullest possible use (and misuse) of key passages in the gospels of Saints Matthew and John. Thus a specifically Christian anti-Semitism, presenting the Jews as murderers of Christ, was grafted on to the seething mass of pagan smears and rumours, and Jewish communities were now at risk in every Christian city." Johnson, Paul, A History of the Jews, (HarperPerennial: 1988), p. 165. During World War II, the Nazi Party in Germany abused his work in an attempt to legitimize the Holocaust in the eyes of German and Austrian Christians. His works were frequently quoted and reprinted as a witness for the prosecution. After World War II, the Christian churches denounced Nazi use of Chrysostom's works, explaining his words with reference to the historical context. According to Laqueur, it was argued that in the 4th century, the general discourse was brutal and aggressive and that at the time when the Christian church was fighting for survival and recognition, mercy and forgiveness were not in demand. According to Patristics scholars, opposition to any particular view during the late fourth century was conventionally expressed in a manner, utilizing the rhetorical form known as the psogos, whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner; thus, it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an "anti-Semite" is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record. Wilken, p. 124-126. Because it is also argued that Chrysostom's writings were in fact an invective against Judaizing Christians, Chrysostom was addressing a theological matter within the Christian Church rather than confronting the Judaism of his time. Robert Louis Wilken, John Chrysostom and the Jews: rhetoric and reality in the late fourth century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) Music and literature Chrysostom's liturgical legacy has inspired several musical compositions. Noteworthy among these are: Sergei Rachmaninoff's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, Op.31, composed in 1910, one of his two major unaccompanied choral works; Pyotr Tchaikovsky's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, Op.41; Ukrainian composer Kyrylo Stetsenko's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom; and Arvo Pärt's Litany, which sets seven sentence prayers of Chrysostom's Divine Liturgy for chorus and orchestra; and . James Joyce's novel Ulysses includes a character named Mulligan who brings 'Chrysostomos' into another character's mind because Mulligan's gold-stopped teeth and his gift of the gab earn him the title which St. John Chrysostom's preaching earned him, 'golden-mouthed': Blaimes (1996, 3). Chrysostomos also refers to Stephen, the independent and exiled genius: Relics John Chrysostom died in the city of Comana in the year 407 on his way to his place of exile. There his relics remained until 438 when, thirty years after his death, they were transferred to Constantinople during the reign of the Empress Eudoxia's son, the Emperor Theodosius II (408-450), under the guidance of John's disciple, St. Proclus, who by that time had become Archbishop of Constantinople (434-447). John's relics were looted from Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 and brought to Rome, but were returned to the Orthodox on November 27, 2004 by Pope John Paul II. His silver and jewel-encrusted skull is now kept in the Vatopedi Monastery on Mount Athos in northern Greece, and is credited by Christians with miraculous healings. His right hand is also preserved on Mount Athos, and numerous smaller relics are scattered throughout the world. Notes References <div class="references-small"> Allen, Pauline and Mayer, Wendy (2000). John Chrysostom. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18252-2 Attwater, Donald (1960). St. John Chrysostom: Pastor and Preacher. London: Catholic Book Club. Blamires, Harry (1996). The New Bloomsday Book: A Guide Through Ulysses. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-15-3858-. Brändle, R., V. Jegher-Bucher, and Johannes Chrysostomus (1995). Acht Reden gegen Juden (Bibliothek der griechischen Literatur 41), Stuttgart: Hiersemann. Brustein, William I. (2003). Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77308-3 Carter, Robert (1962). "The Chronology of St. John Chrysostom's Early Life." Traditio 18:357–64. Chrysostom, John (1979). Discourses Against Judaizing Christians, trans. Paul W. Harkins. The Fathers of the Church; v. 68. Washington: Catholic University of America Press. Dumortier, Jean (1951). "La valeur historique du dialogue de Palladius et la chronologie de saint Jean Chrysostome." Mélanges de science religieuse, 8, 51–56. Hartney, Aideen (2004). John Chrysostom and the Transformation of the City. London: Duckworth. ISBN 0520047575. Joyce, James (1961). Ulysses. New York: The Modern Library. Kelly, John Norman Davidson (1995). Golden Mouth: The Story of John Chrysostom-Ascetic, Preacher, Bishop. Ithica, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801431891. Laqueur, Walter (2006). The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times To The Present Day. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530429-2. Liebeschuetz, J.H.W.G. (1990) Barbarians and Bishops: Army, Church and State in the Age of Arcadius and Chrysostom. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198148860. Lewy, Yohanan [Hans] (1997). "John Chrysostom". Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8. Meeks, Wayne A., and Robert L. Wilken (1978). Jews and Christians in Antioch in the First Four Centuries of the Common Era (The Society of Biblical Literature, Number 13). Missoula: Scholars Press. ISBN 0-89130-229-8. Palladius, Bishop of Aspuna. Palladius on the Life And Times of St. John Chrysostom, transl. and edited by Robert T. Meyer. New York: Newman Press, 1985. ISBN 0809103583. Parks, James (1969). Prelude to Dialogue. London. Pradels, W. (2002). "Lesbos Cod. Gr. 27 : The Tale of a Discovery", Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 6, pp. 81-89. Pradels, W., R. Brändle, and M. Heimgartner (2001). "Das bisher vermisste Textstück in Johannes Chrysostomus, Adversus Judaeos, Oratio 2", Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 5, pp. 23-49. Pradels, W., R. Brändle, and M. Heimgartner (2002). "The sequence and dating of the series of John Chrysostom's eight discourses Adversus Judaeos", Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum 6, 90-116. Schaff, Philip, and Henry Wace (eds.) (1890). Socrates, Sozomenus: Church Histories (A Select Library of Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, second series, vol. II). New York: The Christian Literature Company. Stark, Rodney (1997). The Rise of Christianity. How the Obscure, Marginal Jesus Movement Became the Dominant Religious Force in the Western World in a Few Centuries. Princeton University Press. Stephens, W.R.W. (1883). Saint John Chrysostom, His Life and Times. London: John Murray. Stow, Kenneth (2006). Jewish Dogs, An Imagine and Its Interpreters: Continiuity in the Catholic-Jewish Encounter. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-5281-8. Wilken, Robert Louis (1983). John Chrysostom and the Jews: Rhetoric and Reality in the Late Fourth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Willey, John H. (1906). Chrysostom: The Orator. Cincinnati: Jennings and Graham. Woods, Thomas (2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Washington, D.C.: Regenery. ISBN 0-89526-038-7 </div> Collected works Widely used editions of Chrysostom's works are available in Greek, Latin, English, and French. The Greek edition is edited by Sir Henry Savile (eight volumes, Eton, 1613); the most complete Greek and Latin edition is edited by Bernard de Montfaucon (thirteen volumes, Paris, 1718-38) republished in 1834-40). There is an English translation in the first series of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (London and New York, 1889-90). A selection of his writings has been published more recently in the original with facing French translation in Sources Chrétiennes. External links The Saint John Chrysostom Webpage On St. John Chrysostom's Antioch Years by Pope Benedict XVI Symposium Commemorating the 1600th Anniversary of St. John's Repose St. John Chrysostom article from The Catholic Encyclopedia (Newadvent Website) Jewish Encyclopedia: CHRYSOSTOMUS, JOANNES Was St. John Chrysostom Anti-Semitic? St John Chrysostom and the Anglican Communion St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople Orthodox icon and synaxarion (November 13 feast day) Translation of the relics of St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople (January 27 feast day) Synaxis of the Ecumenical Teachers and Hierarchs: Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, and John Chrysostom (January 30 feast day) Works The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom Writings of Chrysostom in the Christian Classics Ethereal Library edition of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: On the Priesthood, Ascetic Treatises, Select Homilies and Letters, Homilies on the Statutes Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew ' Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans Homilies on First and Second Corinthians Homilies on the Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians, Timothy, Titus, and Philemon Homilies on the Gospel of St. John and the Epistle to the Hebrews The Hieratikon Easter 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1,110	ACE_inhibitor	Captopril, the first ACE inhibitor ACE inhibitors, or inhibitors of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme, are a group of pharmaceuticals that are used primarily in treatment of hypertension and congestive heart failure, in some cases as the drugs of first choice. Clinical use Indications for ACE inhibitors include: Prevention of cardiovascular disorders Congestive heart failure (CHF) Hypertension Left ventricular dysfunction Prevention of nephropathy in diabetes mellitus In several of these indications, ACE inhibitors are used first-line as several agents in the class have been clinically shown to be superior to other classes of drugs in the reduction of morbidity and mortality. ACE inhibitors are often combined with diuretics in the control of hypertension (usually a thiazide), when an ACE inhibitor alone proves insufficient; and in chronic heart failure (usually furosemide) for improved symptomatic control. Thus there exist, on the market, combination products combining an ACE inhibitor with a thiazide (usually hydrochlorothiazide) in a single tablet to allow easy administration by patients. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) This system is activated in response to hypotension, decreased sodium concentration in the distal tubule, decreased blood volume and renal sympathetic nerve stimulation. In such a situation, the kidneys release renin which cleaves the liver-derived angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then converted to angiotensin II via the ACE in the pulmonary circulation as well as in the endothelium of blood vessels in many parts of the body. Human Physiology, Silverthorn (Pearson Benjamin Cummings 2004) The system in general aims to increase blood pressure. Effects ACE inhibitors lower arteriolar resistance and increase venous capacity; increase cardiac output and cardiac index, stroke work and volume, lower renovascular resistance, and lead to increased natriuresis (excretion of sodium in the urine). Normally, angiotensin II will have the following effects: vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels), which may lead to increased blood pressure and hypertension Specifically, angiotensin II constricts the efferent arterioles of the kidney, leading to increased perfusion pressure in the glomeruli. Ventricular remodeling of the heart, which may lead to ventricular hypertrophy and CHF stimulate the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone, a hormone that acts on kidney tubules to retain sodium and chloride ions and excrete potassium. Sodium is a "water-holding" molecule, so water is also retained, which leads to increased blood volume, hence an increase in blood pressure. stimulate the posterior pituitary into releasing vasopressin (also known as anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)) which also acts on the kidneys to increase water retention. decrease renal protein kinase C With ACE inhibitor use, the effects of angiotensin II are prevented, leading to decreased blood pressure. Epidemiological and clinical studies have shown that ACE inhibitors reduce the progress of diabetic nephropathy independently from their blood pressure-lowering effect Hoogwerf BJ, Young JB.Cleve Clin J Med. 2000 Apr;67(4):287-93.The HOPE study - effect of Rampipril on cardiovascular risk in those with know atherosclerosis or diabetes http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10780101 . This action of ACE inhibitors is utilised in the prevention of diabetic renal failure. ACE inhibitors have been shown to be effective for indications other than hypertension even in patients with normal blood pressure. The use of a maximum dose of ACE inhibitors in such patients (including for prevention of diabetic nephropathy, congestive heart failure, prophylaxis of cardiovascular events) is justified because it improves clinical outcomes, independent of the blood pressure lowering effect of ACE inhibitors. Such therapy, of course, requires careful and gradual titration of the dose to prevent the effects of rapidly decreasing blood pressure (dizziness, fainting, etc). Adverse effects Common adverse drug reactions include: hypotension, cough, hyperkalemia, headache, dizziness, fatigue, nausea and renal impairment. Rossi S, editor. Australian Medicines Handbook 2006. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook; 2006. ISBN 0-9757919-2-3. A persistent dry cough is a relatively common adverse effect believed to be associated with the increases in bradykinin levels produced by ACE inhibitors, although the role of bradykinin in producing these symptoms remains disputed by some authors. Okumura H, Nishimura E, Kariya S, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) 阻害薬誘発性の咳嗽発現とACE遺伝子型,血漿中ブラジキニン,サブスタンスP及びACE阻害薬濃度との関連性 [No relation between angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor-induced cough and ACE gene polymorphism, plasma bradykinin, substance P and ACE inhibitor concentration in Japanese patients]. Yakugaku Zasshi 2001;121(3):253-7. Japanese. PMID 11265121 Patients who experience this cough are often switched to angiotensin II receptor antagonists. Rash and taste disturbances, infrequent with most ACE inhibitors, are more prevalent in captopril and is attributed to its sulfhydryl moiety. This has led to decreased use of captopril in clinical setting, although it is still used in scintigraphy of the kidney. Renal impairment is a significant adverse effect of all ACE inhibitors. The reason for this is still unknown. Some suggest that it is associated with their effect on angiotensin II-mediated homeostatic functions such as renal blood flow. Renal blood flow may be affected by angiotensin II because it vasoconstricts the efferent arterioles of the glomeruli of the kidney, thereby increasing glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Hence, by reducing angiotensin II levels, ACE inhibitors may reduce GFR, a marker of renal function. Specifically, ACE inhibitors can induce or exacerbate renal impairment in patients with renal artery stenosis. This is especially a problem if the patient is also concomitantly taking an NSAID and a diuretic - the so-called "triple whammy" effect - such patients are at very high risk of developing renal failure. Thomas MC. Diuretics, ACE inhibitors and NSAIDs - the triple whammy. Med J Aust 2000;172(4):184–185. PMID 10772593 ACE inhibitors may cause hyperkalemia. Suppression of angiotensin II leads to a decrease in aldosterone levels. Since aldosterone is responsible for increasing the excretion of potassium, ACE inhibitors ultimately cause retention of potassium. A severe allergic reaction can occur that rarely can affect the bowel wall and secondarily cause abdominal pain. This "anaphylactic" reaction is very rare as well. Some patients develop angioedema due to increased bradykinin levels. There appears to be a genetic predisposition towards this adverse effect in patients who degrade bradykinin more slowly than average. Molinaro G, Cugno M, Perez M, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-associated angioedema is characterized by a slower degradation of des-arginine(9)-bradykinin. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002;303:232-7. PMID 12235256. Examples ACE inhibitors can be divided into three groups based on their molecular structure: Sulfhydryl-containing agents Captopril (trade name Capoten), the first ACE inhibitor Zofenopril Dicarboxylate-containing agents This is the largest group, including: Enalapril (Vasotec/Renitec) Ramipril (Altace/Tritace/Ramace/Ramiwin) Quinapril (Accupril) Perindopril (Coversyl/Aceon) Lisinopril (Lisodur/Lopril/Novatec/Prinivil/Zestril) Benazepril (Lotensin) Phosphonate-containing agents Fosinopril (Monopril) is the only member of this group Naturally occurring Casokinins and lactokinins are breakdown products of casein and whey that occur naturally after ingestion of milk products, especially cultured milk. Their role in blood pressure control is uncertain. FitzGerald RJ, Murray BA, Walsh DJ. Hypotensive peptides from milk proteins. J Nutr 2004;134:980S-8S. PMID 15051858. The tripeptides Val-Pro-Pro and Ile-Pro-Pro produced by the probiotic Lactobacillus helveticus have been shown to have ACE-inhibiting and antihypertensive functions. Aihara K, Kajimoto O, Hirata H, Takahashi R, Nakamura Y. Effect of powdered fermented milk with Lactobacillus helveticus on subjects with high-normal blood pressure or mild hypertension. J Am Coll Nutr. 2005 Aug;24(4):257-65 PMID 16093403. Comparative information Comparatively, all ACE inhibitors have similar antihypertensive efficacy when equivalent doses are administered. The main point-of-difference lies with captopril, the first ACE inhibitor, which has a shorter duration of action and increased incidence of certain adverse effects. Certain agents in the ACE inhibitor class have been proven, in large clinical studies, to reduce mortality post-myocardial infarction, prevent development of heart failure, etc. The ACE inhibitor most prominently recognized for these qualities is ramipril (Altace). Because ramipril has been shown to reduce mortality rates even among patient groups not suffering from hypertension, there is widespread belief that ramipril's benefits may extend beyond those of the general abilities it holds in common with other members of the ACE inhibitor class. Contraindications and precautions The ACE inhibitors are contraindicated in patients with: Previous angioedema associated with ACE inhibitor therapy Renal artery stenosis (bilateral, or unilateral with a solitary functioning kidney) ACE inhibitors should be used with caution in patients with: Impaired renal function Aortic valve stenosis or cardiac outflow obstruction Hypovolemia or dehydration Hemodialysis with high flux polyacrylonitrile membranes ACE inhibitors are ADEC Pregnancy category D, and should be avoided in women who are likely to become pregnant. In the U.S., ACE inhibitors are required to be labelled with a "black box" warning concerning the risk of birth defects when taking during the second and third trimester. It has also been found that use of ACE inhibitors in the first trimester is also associated with a risk of major congenital malformations, particularly affecting the cardiovascular and central nervous systems. Cooper WO, Hernandez-Diaz S, Arbogast PG, Dudley JA, Dyer S, Gideon PS, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med 2006;354(23):2443-51. PMID 16760444 Potassium supplementation should be used with caution and under medical supervision owing to the hyperkalemic effect of ACE inhibitors. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists ACE inhibitors share many common characteristics with another class of cardiovascular drugs called angiotensin II receptor antagonists, which are often used when patients are intolerant of the adverse effects produced by ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors do not completely prevent the formation of angiotensin II, as there are other conversion pathways, and so angiotensin II receptor antagonists may be useful because they act to prevent the action of angiotensin II at the AT1 receptor. Use in combination While counterintuitive at first glance, the combination therapy of angiotensin II receptor antagonists with ACE inhibitors may be superior to either agent alone. This combination may increase levels of bradykinin while blocking the generation of angiotensin II and its activity at the AT1 receptor. This 'dual blockade' may be more effective than using an ACE inhibitor alone, because angiotensin II can be generated via non-ACE-dependent pathways. Preliminary studies suggest that this combination of pharmacologic agents may be advantageous in the treatment of essential hypertension, chronic heart failure, and nephropathy. Luno J, Praga M, de Vinuesa SG. The reno-protective effect of the dual blockade of the renin angiotensin system (RAS). Curr Pharm Des 2005;11(10):1291-300. PMID 15853685 van de Wal RM, van Veldhuisen DJ, van Gilst WH, Voors AA. Addition of an angiotensin receptor blocker to full-dose ACE-inhibition: controversial or common sense? Eur Heart J 2005;26(22):2361-7. PMID 16105846 However, more studies are needed to confirm these highly preliminary results. While statistically significant results have been obtained for its role in treating hypertension, clinical significance may be lacking. Finnegan PM, Gleason BL. Combination ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers for hypertension. Ann Pharmacother 2003;37(6):886-9. PMID 12773079 Patients with heart failure may benefit from the combination in terms of reducing morbidity and ventricular remodeling. Krum H, Carson P, Farsang C, et al. Effect of valsartan added to background ACE inhibitor therapy in patients with heart failure: results from Val-HeFT. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6(7):937-45. PMID 15556056 Solomon SD, Skali H, Anavekar NS, et al. Changes in ventricular size and function in patients treated with valsartan, captopril, or both after myocardial infarction. Circulation 2005;111(25):3411-9. PMID 15967846 The most compelling evidence has been found for the treatment of nephropathy: this combination therapy partially reversed the proteinuria and also exhibited a renoprotective effect in patients afflicted with diabetic nephropathy, and pediatric IgA nephropathy. Yang Y, Ohta K, Shimizu M, et al. Treatment with low-dose angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) plus angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) in pediatric patients with IgA nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 2005;64(1):35-40. PMID 16047643 History The first step in the development of (ACE) inhibitors was the discovery of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in plasma by Leonard T. Skeggs and his colleagues in 1956. The conversion of the inactive angiotensin I to the potent angiotensin II was thought to take place in the plasma. However, in 1967, Kevin K. F. Ng and John R. Vane showed that the plasma (ACE) was too slow to account for the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in vivo. Subsequent investigation showed that rapid conversion occurs during its passage through the pulmonary circulation. K.K.F.Ng and J.R.Vane: Conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Nature 1967, 216, 762-766 Bradykinin is rapidly inactivated in the circulating blood and it disappears completely in a single passage through the pulmonary circulation. Angiotensin I also disappears in the pulmonary circulation due to its conversion to angiotensin II. Furthermore, angiotensin II passes through the lungs without any loss. The inactivation of bradykinin and the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II in the lungs was thought to be caused by the same enzyme. K.K.F.Ng and J.R.Vane: Fate of angiotensin I in the circulation. Nature 1968, 218, 144-150. In 1970, Ng and Vane using bradykinin potentiating factor (BPF) provided by Sérgio Henrique Ferreira showed that the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II was inhibited during its passage through the pulmonary circulation. K.K.F.Ng and J.R.Vane: Some properties of angiotensin converting enzyme in the lung in vivo. Nature 1970, 225, 1142-1144. Bradykinin potentiating factor (BPF) is derived from the venom of the pit viper (Bothrops jararaca). It is a family of peptides and its potentiating action is linked to inhibition of bradykinin by ACE. Molecular analysis of BPF yielded a nonapeptide BPF teprotide (SQ 20,881) which showed the greatest (ACE) inhibition potency and hypotensive effect in vivo. Teprotide had limited clinical value, due to its peptide nature and lack of activity when given orally. In the early 1970s, knowledge of the structure-activity relationship required for inhibition of ACE was growing. David Cushman, Miguel Ondetti and colleagues used peptide analogues to study the structure of ACE, using carboxypeptidase A as a model. Their discoveries led to the development of captopril, the first orally-active ACE inhibitor in 1975. Captopril was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1981. The first non-sulfhydryl-containing (ACE) inhibitor enalapril was marketed two years later. Since then, at least twelve other ACE inhibitors have been marketed. 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1,111	Monotheism	In theology, monotheism (from Greek "only" and "god") is the belief that only one god exists. “Monotheism”, in Britannica, 15th ed. (1986), 8:266. The concept of "monotheism" tends to be dominated by the concept of God in the Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and the Platonic concept of God as put forward by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. The concept of monotheism has largely been defined in contrast with polytheistic and pantheistic religions, and monotheism tends to overlap with other Unitary concepts, such as monism. Whereas monotheism is a self-description of religions subsumed under this term, there is no equivalent self-description for polytheist religions: monotheism asserts itself by opposing polytheism, while polytheism does not use the same argumentative device, as it includes a concept of divine unity despite worshipping a plethora of gods. Assman, Jan, Monotheism and Polytheism, in Johnston, Sarah Iles, Ancient Religions, pp. 17, The Belknap Press of Harvard University (2007), ISBN 978-0-674-02548-6 Ostensibly monotheistic religions may still include concepts of a plurality of the divine, for example the Trinity, in which God is one being in three personal dimensions (the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit). Additionally, most Christians believe Jesus to have two natures (divine and human), each possessing the full attributes of that nature, without mixture or intermingling of those attributes, although this view is not shared by all Christians, notably the Oriental Orthodox (miaphysite) churches. Although Christian theology reserves worship for the Divine, the distinction between worshipping the divine nature of Jesus but not the human nature of Jesus can be difficult for non-Christians (and even Christian laity) to follow. Christians of the Catholic tradition venerate the Saints (among them Mary) as human beings who had remarkable qualities, have lived their faith in God to the extreme and continue to assist in the process of salvation for others. The Orthodox Church. Ware, Timothy. Penguin Books, 1997. ISBN 0-14-014656-3 The concept of Monotheism in Islam and Judaism however, is far more direct where God's oneness is unquestionable and there is no room for the plurality of God. Origin and development The word monotheism is derived from the Greek Monos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus meaning "single" and Theos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus meaning "God". The compound is current only in Modern Greek. There is a single attestation of in a Byzantine hymn (Canones Junii 20.6.43; A. Acconcia Longo and G. Schirò, Analecta hymnica graeca, vol. 11 e codicibus eruta Italiae inferioris. Rome: Istituto di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici. Università di Roma, 1978) The English term was first used by Henry More (1614–1687). The first monotheist in history seems to be the penultimate Hyksos King of Avaris, named Apophis, who took Sutheck (Set) to be his sole deity, and enforced this god on the population by means of banning worship of all other gods, and allowing the sacred animals of the Egyptians to be killed. Following the second intermediate period, Akhnaton replicated the monotheism of Apothis but with the Aten disk as the one-god of monotheism. The concept sees a gradual development out of notions of henotheism (worshiping a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities) and monolatrism (the recognition of the existence of many gods, but with the consistent worship of only one deity). In the Ancient Near East, each city had a local patron deity, such as Shamash at Larsa or Sin at . The first claims of global supremacy of a specific god date to the Late Bronze Age, with Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten (connected to Judaism by Sigmund Freud in his Moses and Monotheism), and, depending on dating issues, Zoroaster's Gathas to Ahura Mazda. Currents of monism or monotheism emerge in Vedic India in the same period, with e.g. the Nasadiya Sukta. Philosophical monotheism and the associated concept of absolute good and evil emerges in Classical Antiquity, notably with Plato (c.f. Euthyphro dilemma), elaborated into the idea of The One in Neoplatonism, later culminating in the doctrines of Christology in Early Christianity and finally (by the 7th century) in the radical tawhid in Islam. In Islamic theology, a person who spontaneously "discovers" monotheism is called a ḥanīf, the original ḥanīf being Abraham. Austrian anthropologist Wilhelm Schmidt in the 1910s postulated an Urmonotheismus, "original" or "primitive monotheism." Varieties Some argue that there are various forms of monotheism, including: Henotheism involves devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of other gods. Similarly, monolatrism is the worship of a single deity independent of the ontological claims regarding that deity. Deism posits the existence of a single impersonal god that does not intervene in the world. Monistic Theism is the type of monotheism found in Hinduism, encompassing pantheistic and panentheistic monism, and at the same time the concept of a personal god. Pantheism holds that the universe itself is God. The existence of a transcendent supreme extraneous to nature is denied. Panentheism, is a form of monistic monotheism which holds that God is all of existence, containing, but not identical to, the Universe. The 'one God' is omnipotent and all-pervading, the universe is part of God, and God is both immanent and transcendent. Substance monotheism, found in some indigenous African religions, holds that the many gods are different forms of a single underlying substance. Trinitarian montheism, exclusive to Biblical Christianity, is the belief in one God with three destinct parts; God the Father, God the Son & God the Holy Spirit. On the surface, monotheism is in contrast with polytheism, which is the worship of several deities. Polytheism is however reconcilable with Inclusive monotheism, which claims that all deities are just different names or forms of a single god. This approach is common in Hinduism, e.g. in Smartism. Exclusive monotheism, on the other hand, actively opposes polytheism. Monotheism is often contrasted with theistic dualism (ditheism). However, in dualistic theologies as that of Gnosticism, the two deities are not of equal rank, and the role of the Gnostic demiurge is closer to that of Satan in Christian theology than that of a diarch on equal terms with God (who is represented in pantheistic fashion, as Pleroma). Early history In ancient Egypt Ancient Middle-Eastern religions may have worshipped a single God within a pantheon and the abolition of all others, as in the case of the Aten cult in the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten. Iconoclasm during this pharaoh's rule is considered a chief origin for the subsequent destruction by some groups of idols, holding that no other god before the preferred deity (dually and subtly acknowledging the existence of the other gods, but only as foes to be destroyed for their drawing of attention away from the primary deity). Other issues such as Divine Right of Kings may possibly also stem from pharaonic laws on the ruler being the demigod or representative of the Creator on Earth. The massive tombs in the Egyptian pyramids which aligned with astronomical observations, perhaps exemplify this relationship between the pharaoh and the heavens. Zoroastrianism Though holding a dualistic or even polytheistic worldview/cosmology, Zoroastrianism is considered by some to be one of the earliest monotheistic religions. Additionally, the Zoroastrian faith includes characteristics different from those found in purely monotheistic worldviews, including worship of subordinate nature-spirits and the use of fire-reverance. In Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda is a transcendental and universal god, the one uncreated creator (standard appellation) and to whom all worship is ultimately directed. However, Zoroaster also perceives Mazda to be wholly good, and that his creation is wholly good. In conflict with creation is anti-creation, evident in the created world as decay and disorder. Since anti-creation is purely destructive it cannot have been created (otherwise it would self-destruct) and hence must - like the Creator himself - be uncreated. In the Gathas, Zoroaster does not acknowledge any divinity other than Ahura Mazda. However, the hymns of Indo-Iranian religious tradition (of which the Gathas are a part) are always addressed to a specific divinity and those closely associated with him, and in this sense the Gathas are not (necessarily) a denial of the other divinities, but the exaltation of a specific one. Although not mentioned by name (in the Gathas, Ahura Mazda is itself an epithet, not yet a proper name), Zoroaster implicitly acknowledges the existence of other Ahuras "Lords", as in "thou who art the mightiest Ahura and the Wise (Mazda) One" (Yasna 33.11). In addition to these lords that are "worthy of worship" (yazata), Zoroaster also refers to the daevas as the 'wrong' gods, or 'false' gods, or gods 'that should not be worshipped' and whose followers are to be brought onto the path of righteousness. In later Zoroastrian tradition, the daevas are demons, but this is not yet evident in the prophet's own poetry. Zoroastrianism thus can be considered monotheistic insofar as all worship is ultimately directed to Ahura Mazda. However, unlike Zurvanite Zoroastrianism, neither revealed nor present-day Zoroastrianism is monist. At no time did Zoroastrianism preclude the existence or worship of other divinities, which are today considered to be aspects or evidence of creation and hence of the Creator. The invocation of divinities besides Ahura Mazda is however common practice in Zoroastrian tradition, and is not necessarily either a sign of henotheism (the one extreme interpretation) or the worship of pure abstractions (the other extreme): In the past it was common for an individual, household or clan to adopt a patron divinity and although several attempts have been made to define ancient Zoroastrianism on the evidence of such adoptions - for instance, in inscriptions or in theophoric names - these are inherently unsuitable for that purpose. Abrahamic religions The major source of monotheism in the modern Western World is the narrative of the Hebrew Bible, the source of Judaism, which was created from the 13th century BCE to the 4th century BCE. Judaism may have received influences from various non-biblical religions present in Egypt and Syria. This can be seen by the Torah's reference to Egyptian culture in Genesis and the story of Moses, as well as the mention of Hittite and Hurrian cultures of Syria in the Genesis story of Abraham. Although, orthodox Jews would dispute this based on the Jewish fundamental that the Torah was received from God on Mount Sinai in 1313 BCE (Hebrew year 2448). References to other cultures are inclued to understand the specific references of the topic discussed or to give context to the narrative. In traditional Jewish thought, which provided the basis of the Christian and Islamic religions, monotheism was regarded as its most basic belief. Judaism and Islam have traditionally attempted to interpret scripture as exclusively monotheistic whilst Christianity adopts Trinitarianism, a more complex form of monotheism, as a result of considering the Holy Spirit to be God, and attributing divinity to Jesus, a Judean Jew, in the first century AD, defining him as the Son of God. Thus, "Father, Son and Holy Spirit". Monotheism in the Hebrew Bible Some scholars interpert the Hebrew Bible to state that God reveals himself as the only existing god, while some modern interpretations maintain that the Hebrew Bible takes a position not of monotheism, but of monolatrism or henotheism. God reveals himself not as the only god, but rather as the god whom Abraham knows. (Gen 15:7) In such a respect, the God of Israel is not God alone, but the God who was worshipped by Abraham's clan. In this context, the God of Israel was at a time a type of tribal deity, that although was worshipped alone, did not explicitly exclude the existence of other gods, who were not relevant to them. R.G.Vincent, "Monotheism (in the Bible)" in New Catholic Encyclopedia, (1967), 9:1066. There are interpretations of the biblical text which hold that in the early Mosaic era, the possibility of other gods is left an open question, although by this stage Israel claims that their god is greater (Ex 18:11). Traditional views differ on this point. This same subtle shift is shown in 2 Chr 2:5, and could indicate that Israel understood that the god they recognized was God alone, and other gods were therefore false. This would be Monotheism in the proper sense of the word. By the time of the prophet Isaiah, Monotheism is solidly and explicitly accepted. "Thus says the , the King of Israel and his Redeemer, the of hosts: "I am the first and I am the last; besides me there is no god." (Is 44:6) Thus, the development of the people of Israel to a true Monotheism, appears to be a gradual process, with the exception of Gen 1:1 - which thus casts substantial doubt on the legitimacy of that hypothesis. It is into this context that Christianity emerges, and thus Christianity was from the outset Monotheistic. (John 1:1) A strictly literal interpretation of Deuteronomy 4:39 excludes the possibility of henotheism. The verse states: "Know this day, and take it to heart, that the is God in heaven above and on earth below; there is none else." If one were to view that Deuteronomy is a late addition to the Five Books of Moses, this would reflect the later adoption of monotheism. However, if Deuteronomy is taken to be part of the original text, as it generally is among those who use it as scripture, this would indicate that the monotheistic concept existed from the time the Torah was composed. In the west, the Hebrew Bible has been the primary source describing how and when Monotheism was introduced into the Middle East and the west. As believed by followers of some of the Abrahamic religions, it teaches that when Abraham discovered God (Genesis 12:1-9; http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=12 13:14-18; http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=13 15 http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=15 18; http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=18 and 22 http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=1&CHAPTER=22 ), he thus became the world's first monotheist. According to these, until then, in ancient history all cultures believed in a variety of multiple deities as in idolatry, forces and creatures of nature as in animism, or in celestial bodies as in astrology, but did not know the one and only true god. However, the Hebrew Bible teaches that, at Creation, Adam and Eve knew God (and so did their descendants) but that over the ages, God and his name were forgotten. This is how one of the most important Jewish sages, Maimonides describes the process in his work the Mishneh Torah: Jewish view Judaism is one of the oldest known monotheistic faiths. The best-known Jewish statements of monotheism occur in the Shema prayer, the Ten Commandments and Maimonides' 13 Principles of faith, Second Principle: There has historically been disagreement between the Hasidic Jews and the Mitnagdim Jews on various Jewish philosophical issues surrounding certain concepts of monotheism. A similar situation of differing views is seen in modern times among Dor Daim, students of the Rambam, segments of Lithuanian Jewry, and portions of the Modern Orthodox world toward Jewish communities that are more thoroughly influenced by Lurianic Kabbalistic teachings such as Hasidism and large segments of the Sepharadi and Mizrahi communities. This dispute is likely rooted in the differences between what are popularly referred to as the "philosophically inclined" sources and the "kabbalistic sources;" the "philosophic sources" include such Rabbis as Saadia Gaon, Rabenu Bahya ibn Paquda, Abraham ibn Ezra, and Maimonides. The "kabbalistic sources" include Rabbis such as Nahmanides, Bahya ben Asher, Rabbi Yitzhak Saggi Nehor, and Azriel. The Vilna Gaon is usually granted great respect in modern times by those who side with both views; by the more kabbalistic segments of Judaism he is regarded as a great kabbalist; those who take the other side of the issue regard him as a strict advocate of the people of Israel's historical monotheism. The Shema Judaism's earliest history, beliefs, laws, and practices are preserved and taught in the Torah (the Hebrew Bible) which provides a clear textual source for the rise and development of what is named Judaism's Ethical Monotheism which means that: (1) There is one God from whom emanates one morality for all humanity. (2) God's primary demand of people is that they act decently toward one another...The God of ethical monotheism is the God first revealed to the world in the Hebrew Bible. Through it, we can establish God's four primary characteristics: God is supernatural. God is personal. God is good. God is holy....in the study of Hebrew history: Israel's monotheism was an ethical monotheism. Dennis Prager When Moses returned with the Ten Commandments, the second of those stated that "you shall have no other gods before me" (Exodus 20:3), right after the first, which affirmed the existence of God. Furthermore, Israelites recite the Shema Yisrael ("Hear O' Israel") which partly says, "Hear, O' Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one." Monotheism was and is the central tenet of the Israelite and the Jewish religion. +The ShemaHebrew שמע ישראל יי אלהנו יי אחדCommon transliteration Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai EchadEnglish Hear, O Israel! The is our God! The is One! The literal word meanings are roughly as follows: Shema — 'listen' or 'hear.' The word also implies comprehension. Yisrael — 'Israel', in the sense of the people or congregation of Israel Adonai — often translated as 'Lord', it is used in place of the Tetragrammaton Eloheinu — 'our God', a plural noun (said to imply majesty rather than plural number) with a pronominal suffix ('our') Echad — 'one' In this case, Elohim is used in the plural as a form of respect and not polytheism. Gen.1:26 And Elohim said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. Elohim is morphologically plural in form in Hebrew, but generally takes singular agreement when it refers to the God of Israel (so the verb meaning "said" in this verse is vayyomer ויאמר with singular inflection, and not vayyomru ויאמרו with plural inflection), and yet in this case the "our" and "us" seems to create a presumption of plurality, though it may just be God talking to angels and not another god. Judaism, however, insists that the " is One," as in the Shema, and at least two interpretations exist to explain the Torah's use of the plural form. The first is that the plural form "Elohim" is analogous to the royal plural as used in English. The second is that, in order to set an example for human kings, Elohim consulted with his court (the angels, just created) before making a major decision (creating man). Christian view Christians believe in one God. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a mystery, in the original, technical meaning; something that must be revealed by special revelation rather than deduced through general revelation. Among Early Christians there was considerable debate over the nature of Godhead, with some factions arguing for the deity of Jesus and others calling for a unitarian conception of God. These issues of Christology were to form one of the main subjects of contention at the First Council of Nicea. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (in present-day Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first ecumenical Ecumenical, from Koine Greek oikoumenikos, literally meaning worldwide but generally assumed to be limited to the Roman Empire as in Augustus' claim to be ruler of the oikoumene/world; the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' Life of Constantine 3.6 around 338 "" (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius' Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369, and the Letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople conference of bishops of the Christian Church, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent 'general (ecumenical) councils of Bishops' (Synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy— the intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom. The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements in the Church of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father or merely of similar substance. St. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term Arian controversy comes, took the second. The council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250-318 attendees, all but 2 voted against Arius). Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Evangelical) follow this decision, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the Cappadocian Fathers. They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three "Persons" God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, the three of this unity are described as being "of the same substance" (). The true nature of an infinite God, however, is beyond definition, and "the word 'person' is but an imperfect expression of the idea and is not Biblical. In common parlance it denotes a separate rational and moral individual, possessed of self-consciousness, and conscious of his identity amid all changes. Experience teaches that where you have a person, you also have a distinct individual essence. Every person is a distinct and separate individual, in whom human nature is individualized. But in God there are no three individuals alongside of, and separate from, one another, but only personal self distinctions within the Divine essence, which is not only generically, but also numerically, one." Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology, page 87 Some commentaters contend that the trinity originated in the Pagan Celtic tradition, in which many gods and goddesses were tripartite, and that its incorporation into Christianity is a corruption of the original doctrines, similar to the adoption of many Pagan gods and goddesses such as Brigid as Christian Saints. Other critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is actually a form of Tritheism or Polytheism. This concept dates from the teachings of the Alexandrian Church, which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in the Bible than his "Father," had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore "distinct" God. This controversy led to the convention of the Nicean council in 325 CE. For Jews and Muslims, the idea of God as a trinity is heretical - it is considered akin to polytheism. Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very Nicene Creed (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God". Some groups that are self-identified as Christians eschew orthodox theology; such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, followers of Mormonism, Oneness Pentecostals, the Unitarians, Christadelphians, Church of God General Conference (Abrahamic Faith), Socinian and some of the Radical Reformers (Anabaptists), do not teach the doctrine of the Trinity at all. The Rastafarians, like many Christians, hold that God is both a unity and a trinity, in their case God being Haile Selassie. Islamic view The holy book of Islam, the Qur'an, asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique and indivisible being who is independent of the creation. Vincent J. Cornell, Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol 5, pp.3561-3562 The indivisibility of God implies the indivisibility of God's (called Allah in Arabic) sovereignty which in turn leads to the conception of universe as a just and coherent moral universe rather than an existential and moral chaos (as in polytheism). Similarly the Qur'an rejects the binary modes of thinking such as the idea of duality of God by arguing that both good and evil generate from God's creative act and that the evil forces have no power to create anything. God in Islam is a universal god rather than a local, tribal or parochial one; an absolute who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil. Asma Barlas, Believing Women in Islam, p.96 Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession. D. Gimaret, Tawhid, Encyclopedia of Islam To attribute divinity to a created entity is the only unpardonable sin mentioned in the Qur'an. Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid (Oneness of God). Ramadan (2005), p.230 Bahá'í view The Oneness of God is one of the core teachings of the Bahá'í Faith. Bahá'ís believe that there is one supernatural being, God, who has created all existence. God is described as "a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal, omniscient, omnipresent and almighty." Bahá'ís believe that although people have different concepts of God and his nature, and call him by different names, everyone is speaking of the same entity. God is taught to be a personal god in that God is conscious of his creation and has a mind, will and purpose. At the same time the Bahá'í teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully understand him or to create a complete and accurate image of him. Bahá'u'lláh teaches that human knowledge of God is limited to those attributes and qualities which are understandable to us, and thus direct knowledge about the essence of God is not possible. Bahá'ís believe, thus, that through daily prayer, meditation, and study of revealed text they can grow closer to God. The obligatory prayers in the Bahá'í Faith involve explicit monotheistic testimony. Chinese view Shang Dynasty bronze script character for tian (天), which translates to Heaven and sky. The orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC) until the modern period centered on the worship of Shangdi (literally "Above Sovereign", generally translated as "God") or Heaven as an omnipotent force. Homer H. Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959 This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. From the writings of Confucius in the Analects, we find that Confucius himself believed that Heaven cannot be deceived, Heaven guides people's lives and maintains a personal relationship with them, and that Heaven gives tasks for people to fulfill in order to teach them of virtues and morality. Homer H. Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959 However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with Shangdi. Still, variants such as Mohism approached high monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi, akin to angels in Western civilization. In Mozi's Will of Heaven (天志), he writes: Worship of Shangdi and Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi, usually by slaughtering a completely healthy bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used by early Christians in China. Indian religions Hinduism In Hinduism, views are broad and range from monism, pantheism to panentheism – alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars – to monotheism (also see Hindu denominations). Advaitas, rather than entirely in keeping with essential monotheism, claims to possess the religious truth of monism. There exist many different Hindu sects devoted to different avatars, it is understood that each is really either Vishnu or Shiva. Furthermore, the Brahma Samhita states that Vishnu is like milk and Shiva is yogurt. Śrī Brahma-saḿhitā 5.45 Several other personal forms of God are elaborated in the Puranas as divine descents, aspects, incarnations, or manifestations of Brahman, the transcendent and immanent reality. All Upanishads teach that there is a supreme Absolute Reality, Brahman – the Infinite One, including all that is manifest and unmanifest. Into deep darkness fall those who follow the immanent. Into deeper darkness fall those who follow the transcendent. He who knows the transcendent and the immanent, with the immanent overcomes death, and with the transcendent reaches immortality. (Shukla Yajur Veda, Isha Upanishad 12-14) The four major sects of modern Hinduism - Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism, all believe in one god but differ in their conceptions. Smartas, who follow the Advaita philosophy of absolute monism, venerate various personal forms of God as merely multiple manifestations of the same divinity, Brahman. Absolute monists see one unity in all there is, with all conceptions and names of personal deities as no more than different aspects of the Supreme Being, like a single beam of light separated into colors by a prism. Some of the Smarta aspects of God include Devi, Vishnu, Ganesha, and Shiva. It is the Smarta view that dominates the view of Hinduism in the West. Smartas are followers of Advaita who can select an "Ishta-devata" (the chosen personal deity) to be worshiped. In contrast with Smarta/Advaita, this is not the case with other predomninant sects such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, which follow an established singular concept of God, as panentheistic monistic monotheism. Vaishnavism is one of the earliest implicit manifestations of monotheism in the traditions of Vedas. Svayam Bhagavan is a Sanskrit term for the original deity of the Supreme God worshiped across many traditions of the Vaishnavism, the monotheistic absolute deity. This term is often applied to Krishna in some branches of Vaishnavism. All Hindu scriptures (Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita) ultimately stress the oneness of the Absolute Reality and describe God as the Eternal Truth that is unborn, immortal, omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent. Many scholars interpret verses as either pantheistic monism (like in Advaita) or panentheistic monism (all other schools of thought). Pramana or epistemological dialectics are put forth by various philosophical schools of Hinduism with their views on monism and God's omnipresence. The Rig Veda, the very first book, discusses monotheistic thought. So does Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda. "The One Truth, sages know by many names" (Rig Veda 1.164.46) Rig Veda: A Metrically Restored Text with an Introduction and Notes, HOS, 1994 "When at first the unborn sprung into being, He won His own dominion beyond which nothing higher has been in existence" (Atharva Veda 10.7.31) Atharva Veda: Spiritual & Philosophical Hymns "There is none to compare with Him. There is no parallel to Him, whose glory, verily, is great." (Yajur Veda 32.3) Shukla Yajur Veda: The transcendental "That" The number of auspicious qualities of God are countless, with the following six qualities being the most important:Jñāna (Omniscience), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneouslyAishvarya (Sovereignty, derived from the word Ishvara), which consists in unchallenged rule over allShakti (Energy), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possibleBala (Strength), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigueVīrya (Vigor), which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creationsTejas (Splendor), which expresses His self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by His spiritual effulgence The Nyaya school of Hinduism has made several arguments regarding a monotheistic view. The Naiyanikas have given an argument that such a god can only be one. In the Nyaya Kusumanjali, this is discussed against the proposition of the Mimamsa school that let us assume there were many demigods (devas) and sages (rishis) in the beginning, who wrote the Vedas and created the world. Nyaya says that: [If they assume such] omniscient beings, those endowed with the various superhuman faculties of assuming infinitesimal size, and so on, and capable of creating everything, then we reply that the law of parsimony bids us assume only one such, namely Him, the adorable Lord. There can be no confidence in a non-eternal and non-omniscient being, and hence it follows that according to the system which rejects God, the tradition of the Veda is simultaneously overthrown; there is no other way open. In other words, Nyaya says that the polytheist would have to give elaborate proofs for the existence and origin of his several celestial spirits, none of which would be logical, and that it is more logical to assume one eternal, omniscient god. Sikhism Sikhism is a strict monotheistic faith (with some panentheistic features) that arose in northern India during the 16th and 17th centuries. Sikhs believe in one, timeless, omnipresent, supreme creator. The opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, known as the Mool Mantra signifies this: Transliteration: Ik ōaṅkār(or ikoo) sat nām karatā purakh nirabha'u niravair akāl mūrat ajūnī saibhaṁ gur prasād. By Guru's Grace ~ The word "ੴ" is pronounced "Ik ōaṅkār" and is comprised to two parts. The first part is simply: "੧" - This is simply the digit "1" in Gurmukhi signifying the singularity of the creator. Together the word means: "There is only one creator god" It is often said that the 1430 pages of the Sri Guru Granth Sahib are all expansions on the Mool Mantra. Although the Sikhs have many names for God, they all refer to the same supreme being. The Sikh holy scriptures refer to the One God who pervades the whole of space and is the creator of all beings in the universe. The following quotation from the Guru Granth Sahib highlights this point: Sikhs believe that God has many names, but they call God VāhiGurū. The word Guru means teacher in Sanskrit. Sikhs believe that members of other religions such as Islam, Hinduism and Christianity all worship the same god, and the names Allah, Hari, Raam, Paarbrahm and Krsna are frequently mentioned in the Sikh holy scriptures. The Sikh god is known as the Akal Purakh (which means "the true immortal") or Waheguru, the primal being. Notes Further reading Dever, William G.; (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites?, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI. Silberman, Neil A.; and colleagues, Simon and Schuster; (2001) The Bible Unearthed New York. Whitelam, Keith; (1997). The Invention of Ancient Israel, Routledge, New York. Hans Köchler, The Concept of Monotheism in Islam and Christianity''. Vienna: Braumüller, 1982. ISBN 3-7003-0339-4 (Google Print) See also Abrahamic religion Atheism Deconstruction-and-religion Demiurg Bitheism Henotheism Hindu views on monotheism Kashmir Shaivism Monistic theism Pantheism The People of Monotheism Polytheism Post-monotheism Psychology of religion Religion Spiritism Unitheism External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Christian Monotheism (biblical unitarians)	Monotheism \|@lemmatized theology:7 monotheism:56 greek:6 god:139 belief:6 one:42 exist:5 britannica:1 ed:1 concept:18 tend:1 dominate:2 abrahamic:5 religion:23 judaism:11 christianity:11 islam:10 platonic:1 put:2 forward:1 pseudo:1 dionysius:1 areopagite:1 largely:1 define:5 contrast:4 polytheistic:2 pantheistic:4 tends:1 overlap:1 unitary:1 monism:9 whereas:1 self:7 description:2 subsume:1 term:7 equivalent:1 polytheist:2 assert:3 oppose:2 polytheism:11 use:10 argumentative:1 device:1 include:11 divine:8 unity:5 despite:1 worship:24 plethora:1 assman:1 jan:1 johnston:1 sarah:1 iles:1 ancient:10 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demiurg:1 bitheism:1 kashmir:1 post:1 psychology:1 spiritism:1 unitheism:1 external:1 link:1 stanford:1 \|@bigram abrahamic_religion:4 pseudo_dionysius:1 dionysius_areopagite:1 monotheism_polytheism:2 johnston_sarah:1 sarah_iles:1 belknap_press:1 monotheistic_religion:2 holy_spirit:5 oriental_orthodox:1 ware_timothy:1 george_liddell:2 liddell_robert:2 lexicon_perseus:2 istituto_di:1 università_di:1 sigmund_freud:1 moses_monotheism:1 ahura_mazda:6 monistic_theism:3 pharaoh_akhenaten:1 self_destruct:1 indo_iranian:1 hebrew_bible:8 mount_sinai:1 bible_ort:5 ort_org:5 action_displaypage:5 displaypage_book:5 adam_eve:1 mishneh_torah:1 ten_commandment:2 dor_daim:1 kabbalistic_teaching:1 saadia_gaon:1 ben_asher:1 vilna_gaon:1 ethical_monotheism:3 dennis_prager:1 shema_yisrael:2 council_nicea:1 council_nicaea:1 koine_greek:1 ecumenical_council:2 pope_damasus:1 nicene_creed:2 alexandria_athanasius:1 arian_controversy:1 eastern_orthodox:1 cappadocian_father:1 jehovah_witness:1 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1,112	First_Epistle_of_Peter	The First Epistle of Peter is a book of the New Testament. It has traditionally been held to have been written by Saint Peter the apostle during his time as bishop of Rome. The letter is addressed to various churches in Asia Minor suffering religious persecution. Some scholars believe the author was not Peter, but an unknown author writing after Peter's death. Estimates for the date of composition range from 60 to 112 AD. Authorship and date The author identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an apostle of Jesus", and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers: Irenaeus (140-203), Tertullian (150-222), Clement of Alexandria (155-215) and Origen of Alexandria (185-253). If Polycarp, who was martyred in 156, and Papias alluded to this letter, then it must have been written before the mid-2nd century. However, the Muratorian Canon of c. 170 did not contain this, and a number of other General epistles, suggesting they were not yet being read in the Western churches. Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter, the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter’s authorship until the advent of biblical criticism in the 18th century. Assuming the letter is authentic and written by Peter who was martyred c. 64, the date of this epistle is probably between 60-64. One theory is that 1 Peter was written by a secretary, or amanuensis, Silvanus, who is mentioned towards the end of the epistle: "By Silvanus, our faithful brother, as I account him, I have written unto you briefly" (5:12). In the following verse the author includes greetings from "she that is in Babylon, elect together with you," taken for the church "in Babylon", which may be an early use of this Christian title for Rome, familiar from the Book of Revelation. "There is no evidence that Rome was called Babylon by the Christians until the Book of Revelation was published, i.e. circa 90-96 AD," say the editors of The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, who conclude, however, that Babylon on the Euphrates was intended. Critical view Most critical scholars are skeptical that the apostle Simon Peter, the fisherman on the Sea of Galilee, actually wrote the epistle, because of the urbane cultured style of the Greek and the lack of any personal detail suggesting contact with the historical Jesus of Nazareth. The letter contains about thirty-five references to the Hebrew Bible, all of which, however, come from the Septuagint translation, an unlikely source for historical Peter the apostle, but appropriate for a Hellenized audience; thus the use of the Septuagint helps define the audience. The Septuagint was a Greek translation that had been created at Alexandria for the use of those Jews who could not easily read the Hebrew and Aramaic of the Tanakh. A historical Jew in Galilee would not have heard Scripture in this form, it is argued. If the epistle is taken to be pseudepigraphal, the majority scholarly view, according to Raymond E. Brown Raymond E. Brown, An Introduction to the New Testament, p. 722 is that it should be dated to 70-90, an opinion shared by scholars such as Eric Eve (Oxford Bible Commentary, p. 1263) and John H. Elliott (The Anchor Bible Dictionary, art. "First Epistle of Peter"), Quotations from these scholars are given in Early Christian Writings. and by Bart D. Ehrman Ehrman, Bart D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Stephen L. Harris, on the other hand, holds that most scholars argue for an even later date, such as during the persecution of Domitian (c 95) or of Trajan (c 112). Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. The author's use of Peter's name demonstrates the authority associated with Peter. "Pseudonymity does not lessen the importance of this writing as a witness to Peter, If anything, it enhances its importance since it implies that some 20 or 30 years after his death Peter's name could still be thought to carry weight and be invoked to instruct Christan churches, especially in the area of Asia Minor (...) addressed is not Petrine Territory."Anchor Bible Dictionary (David Noel Freedman, ed) vol 5, ("O-Sh"), pp. 262. Audience This epistle is addressed “to the strangers dispersed through Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, elect,” (five provinces of Asia Minor) though it otherwise appears to be addressed to Gentiles rather than to the Jews of the Diaspora. Some of these areas were evangelized by Paul of Tarsus according to Acts 16:6-7, 18:23. The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1–2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a holy life (2:11–3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and holiness (3:14–4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap. 5). The Epistle is attentive to keeping with the teachings of Paul, and is likewise in conformity with the teachings expressed in the canonical Gospels. The letter blends moral exhortation with catechesis, and especially relates fidelity even during suffering with the life of Jesus. The "Harrowing of Hell" The Epistle contains the remarkable assertion: "For unto this end was the gospel preached even to the dead, that they might be judged indeed according to men in the flesh, but live according to God in the spirit" (4:6). This passage has few parallels in the New Testament (cf. Eph 4:9-10, 1 Peter 3:18-19, John 5:25), though it has been argued that the various assertions that Christ was “raised from the dead” presuppose that he journey to the abode of the dead before his Resurrection (e.g. the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 632). This teaching became included in the Apostles’ Creed, reading: “He (Jesus) descended into Hell.” The earliest citations of the Creed, however, (for example that of Tertullian) do not include this line (or several others), and the Apostles' Creed was not well known in the East. From the doctrine of the Harrowing of Hell emerged various medieval legends. See also Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter Notes External links Online translations of the First Epistle of Peter: NET Bible 1 Peter Bible Text, Study notes, Greek, with audio link Early Christian writings: 1 Peter Online Bible at GospelHall.org Related articles: The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: 1 Peter Easton's Bible Dictionary 1897: First Epistle of Peter Ernst R. Wendland, “Stand Fast in the True Grace of God! A Study of 1 Peter"	First_Epistle_of_Peter \|@lemmatized first:5 epistle:15 peter:25 book:3 new:5 testament:4 traditionally:1 hold:2 write:7 saint:1 apostle:6 time:1 bishop:1 rome:3 letter:5 address:4 various:3 church:6 asia:4 minor:3 suffer:2 religious:1 persecution:3 scholar:5 believe:1 author:6 unknown:1 writing:5 death:2 estimate:1 date:5 composition:1 range:1 ad:2 authorship:3 identify:1 opening:1 verse:2 jesus:4 view:3 st:1 attest:1 number:2 father:1 irenaeus:1 tertullian:2 clement:1 alexandria:3 origen:1 polycarp:1 martyr:2 papias:1 allude:1 must:1 mid:1 century:2 however:4 muratorian:1 canon:1 c:4 contain:3 general:1 suggest:2 yet:1 read:2 western:1 unlike:1 second:1 debate:2 antiquity:1 little:1 advent:1 biblical:1 criticism:1 assume:1 authentic:1 probably:1 one:1 theory:1 secretary:1 amanuensis:1 silvanus:2 mention:1 towards:1 end:2 faithful:1 brother:1 account:1 unto:2 briefly:1 following:1 include:3 greeting:1 babylon:4 elect:2 together:1 take:2 may:1 early:5 use:4 christian:5 title:1 familiar:1 revelation:2 evidence:1 call:1 publish:1 e:4 circa:1 say:1 editor:1 international:2 standard:2 bible:11 encyclopedia:2 conclude:1 euphrates:1 intend:1 critical:2 skeptical:1 simon:1 fisherman:1 sea:1 galilee:2 actually:1 urbane:1 culture:1 style:1 greek:3 lack:1 personal:1 detail:1 contact:1 historical:4 nazareth:1 thirty:1 five:2 reference:1 hebrew:2 come:1 septuagint:3 translation:3 unlikely:1 source:1 appropriate:1 hellenized:1 audience:3 thus:1 help:1 define:1 create:1 jew:3 could:2 easily:1 aramaic:1 tanakh:1 would:1 hear:1 scripture:1 form:1 argue:3 pseudepigraphal:1 majority:1 scholarly:1 accord:4 raymond:2 brown:2 introduction:2 p:2 opinion:1 share:1 eric:1 eve:1 oxford:2 commentary:1 john:2 h:1 elliott:1 anchor:2 dictionary:3 art:1 quotation:1 give:1 bart:2 ehrman:2 ed:2 york:1 university:1 press:1 stephen:2 l:2 harris:2 hand:1 even:3 later:1 domitian:1 trajan:1 understand:1 palo:1 alto:1 mayfield:1 name:2 demonstrate:1 authority:1 associate:1 pseudonymity:1 lessen:1 importance:2 witness:1 anything:1 enhance:1 since:1 imply:1 year:1 still:1 think:1 carry:1 weight:1 invoke:1 instruct:1 christan:1 especially:2 area:2 petrine:1 territory:1 david:1 noel:1 freedman:1 vol:1 sh:1 pp:1 stranger:1 disperse:1 pontus:1 galatia:1 cappadocia:1 bithynia:1 province:1 though:2 otherwise:1 appear:1 gentile:1 rather:1 diaspora:1 evangelize:1 paul:2 tarsus:1 act:1 counsel:2 steadfastness:1 perseverance:1 practical:1 duty:1 holy:1 life:2 adduce:1 example:2 christ:2 motif:1 patience:1 holiness:1 concludes:1 pastor:1 people:1 chap:1 attentive:1 keep:1 teaching:3 likewise:1 conformity:1 express:1 canonical:1 gospel:2 blend:1 moral:1 exhortation:1 catechesis:1 relate:1 fidelity:1 harrowing:2 hell:3 remarkable:1 assertion:2 preach:1 dead:3 might:1 judge:1 indeed:1 men:1 flesh:1 live:1 god:2 spirit:1 passage:1 parallel:1 cf:1 eph:1 raise:1 presuppose:1 journey:1 abode:1 resurrection:1 g:1 catechism:1 catholic:1 become:1 creed:3 reading:1 descend:1 citation:1 line:1 several:1 others:1 well:1 know:1 east:1 doctrine:1 emerge:1 medieval:1 legend:1 see:1 also:1 textual:1 variant:1 note:2 external:1 link:2 online:2 net:1 text:1 study:2 audio:1 gospelhall:1 org:1 related:1 article:1 easton:1 ernst:1 r:1 wendland:1 stand:1 fast:1 true:1 grace:1 \|@bigram irenaeus_tertullian:1 tertullian_clement:1 clement_alexandria:1 alexandria_origen:1 origen_alexandria:1 jesus_nazareth:1 hebrew_bible:1 bart_ehrman:1 ehrman_bart:1 harris_stephen:1 bible_palo:1 palo_alto:1 alto_mayfield:1 paul_tarsus:1 canonical_gospel:1 harrowing_hell:2 catechism_catholic:1 apostle_creed:2 textual_variant:1 external_link:1 bible_gospelhall:1 gospelhall_org:1 easton_bible:1
1,113	Point_of_view_shot	A point of view shot (also known as POV shot or a subjective camera) is a short film scene that shows what a character (the subject) is looking at (represented through the camera). It is usually established by being positioned between a shot of a character looking at something, and a shot showing the character's reaction (see shot reverse shot). The technique of POV is one of the foundations of film editing. A POV shot need not be the strict point-of-view of an actual single character in a film. Sometimes the point-of-view shot is taken over the shoulder of the character (third person), who remains visible on the screen. Sometimes a POV shot is "shared" ("dual" or "triple"), i.e. it represents the joint POV of two (or more) characters. There is also the "nobody POV", where a shot is taken from the POV of a non-existent character. This often occurs when an actual POV shot is implied, but the character is removed. Sometimes the character is never present at all, despite a clear POV shot, such as the famous "God-POV" of birds descending from the sky in Alfred Hitchcock's film, The Birds. Another example of a POV shot is in the movie Doom, which contains a fairly long POV shot which resembles a head-up display in a first-person shooter video game, with the viewer watching through a character who is venturing through hallways shooting and killing aliens. A POV shot need not be established by strictly visual means. The manipulation of diegetic sounds can be used to emphasize a particular character's POV. It makes little sense to say that a shot is "inherently" POV; it is the editing of the POV shot within a sequence of shots that determines POV. Nor can the establishment of a POV shot be isolated from other elements of filmmaking — mise en scene, acting, camera placement, editing, and special effects can all contribute to the establishment of POV. With some POV shots when an animal is the chosen character, the shot will look distorted or black and white. Leading actor POV Subjective viewpoint is what it is called when the leading actor is the subject of the POV. The audience sees events through the leading actor's eyes, as if they were experiencing the events themselves. Some films are partially or totally shot using this technique. In fact, there is an entire genre of pornography dedicated to videos seen through POV. One of the first films to use this technique was Rouben Mamoulian's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Everything is seen through Jekyll's eyes, as he leaves his house to go to the medical lecture. Then, as he begins to speak, Jekyll is seen for the first time. When Jekyll first transforms himself into Hyde, Mamoulian once again uses the subjective camera to record his agonized reaction to the drug that he drinks. Film, directed by Alan Schneider written by Samuel Beckett and starring Buster Keaton also uses POV extensively, switching between the main character's point of view and the view of the camera as a way to illustrate Berkeley's quote "to be is to be perceived and to perceive". Interestingly, Film is also said to refer to the story of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In the film noir Dark Passage, the protagonist has plastic surgery, and when his bandages are removed, he is revealed to be Humphrey Bogart. But until that moment, everything is seen through his eyes and the viewer has no idea what he looks like. In another film noir, Lady in the Lake, directed by and starring Robert Montgomery as Raymond Chandler's detective Philip Marlowe, the entire film is shot from a subjective viewpoint, and Montgomery's face is seen only when he looks in a mirror. The film was not a critical or popular success.	Point_of_view_shot \|@lemmatized point:4 view:5 shot:22 also:4 know:1 pov:24 subjective:4 camera:5 short:1 film:12 scene:2 show:2 character:13 subject:2 look:5 represent:2 usually:1 establish:2 position:1 something:1 reaction:2 see:7 reverse:1 technique:3 one:2 foundation:1 edit:2 need:2 strict:1 actual:2 single:1 sometimes:3 take:2 shoulder:1 third:1 person:2 remain:1 visible:1 screen:1 share:1 dual:1 triple:1 e:1 joint:1 two:1 nobody:1 non:1 existent:1 often:1 occur:1 imply:1 remove:2 never:1 present:1 despite:1 clear:1 famous:1 god:1 bird:2 descend:1 sky:1 alfred:1 hitchcock:1 another:2 example:1 movie:1 doom:1 contain:1 fairly:1 long:1 resemble:1 head:1 display:1 first:4 shooter:1 video:2 game:1 viewer:2 watch:1 venture:1 hallway:1 shoot:2 kill:1 alien:1 strictly:1 visual:1 mean:1 manipulation:1 diegetic:1 sound:1 use:5 emphasize:1 particular:1 make:1 little:1 sense:1 say:2 inherently:1 editing:1 within:1 sequence:1 determine:1 establishment:2 isolate:1 element:1 filmmaking:1 mise:1 en:1 act:1 placement:1 special:1 effect:1 contribute:1 animal:1 chosen:1 distorted:1 black:1 white:1 lead:3 actor:3 viewpoint:2 call:1 audience:1 event:2 eye:3 experience:1 partially:1 totally:1 fact:1 entire:2 genre:1 pornography:1 dedicate:1 rouben:1 mamoulian:2 dr:2 jekyll:5 mr:2 hyde:3 everything:2 leave:1 house:1 go:1 medical:1 lecture:1 begin:1 speak:1 time:1 transform:1 record:1 agonized:1 drug:1 drink:1 direct:2 alan:1 schneider:1 write:1 samuel:1 beckett:1 star:2 buster:1 keaton:1 extensively:1 switch:1 main:1 way:1 illustrate:1 berkeley:1 quote:1 perceive:2 interestingly:1 refer:1 story:1 noir:2 dark:1 passage:1 protagonist:1 plastic:1 surgery:1 bandage:1 reveal:1 humphrey:1 bogart:1 moment:1 idea:1 like:1 lady:1 lake:1 robert:1 montgomery:2 raymond:1 chandler:1 detective:1 philip:1 marlowe:1 face:1 mirror:1 critical:1 popular:1 success:1 \|@bigram pov_shot:12 non_existent:1 alfred_hitchcock:1 person_shooter:1 mise_en:1 dr_jekyll:2 jekyll_mr:2 mr_hyde:2 samuel_beckett:1 buster_keaton:1 humphrey_bogart:1 raymond_chandler:1 philip_marlowe:1
1,114	Herstory	Herstory is a neologism coined in the late 1960s as part of a feminist critique of conventional historiography. In feminist discourse the term refers to history (re-stated as "his story") written from a feminist perspective, emphasizing the role of women, or told from a woman's point of view. (The word history, coming from the Ancient Greek ἱστορία, or historía, meaning "a learning or knowing by inquiry", through the Latin historia, is etymologically unrelated to the possessive pronoun his.) However, herstory has been the springboard for widening what are deemed to be valid historical texts, including diaries and journals by women, offering chronicles of their lives which heretofore had been neglected by scholars as irrelevant. In addition, the herstory movement has spawned women-centered presses, such as Virago Press in 1973, which publishes fiction and non-fiction by noted women authors like Janet Frame and Sarah Dunant, and HerStory Books, which published historical fiction from a woman's point of view by authors like Sorcha MacMurrough and Jac Carey. Usage The Oxford English Dictionary credits Robin Morgan with coining the term in her 1970 book, Sisterhood is Powerful. Concerning the feminist organization WITCH, Morgan writes: The fluidity and wit of the witches is evident in the ever-changing acronym: the basic, original title was Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy from Hell [...] and the latest heard at this writing is Women Inspired to Commit Herstory. "Herstory", Oxford English Dictionary Online (Oxford University Press, 2006). In 1976, Casey Miller and Kate Swift wrote in Words & Women, When women in the movement use herstory, their purpose is to emphasize that women's lives, deeds, and participation in human affairs have been neglected or undervalued in standard histories. During the 1970s and 1980s, second-wave feminists saw the study of history as a male-dominated intellectual enterprise and presented "herstory" as a means of compensation. Devoney Looser, British Women Writers and the Writing of History (Johns Hopkins University Press: 2000). ISBN 0-8018-6448-8. The term, intended to be both serious and comic, Angus Calder and Lizbeth Goodman, "Gender and Poetry", in Literature and Gender, ed. by Lizbeth Goodman (Routledge: 1996). ISBN 0-415-13573-7. became a rallying cry used on T-shirts and buttons as well as in academia. In feminist literature and academic discourse, the term has been used occasionally as an "economical way" to describe feminist efforts against a male-centered canon. Robert J. Belton, Words of Art (2002). Criticism Christina Hoff Sommers has been a critic of the concept of herstory, and presented her argument against the movement in her 1994 book, Who Stole Feminism?. Hoff Sommers defined herstory as an attempt to infuse education with ideology, at the expense of knowledge. The "gender feminists", as she termed them, were the band of feminists responsible for the movement, which she felt amounted to negationism. She regarded most attempts to make historical studies more female-inclusive as being artificial in nature, and an impediment to progress. Professor and author Devoney Looser has criticized the concept of herstory for overlooking the contributions that some women made as historians before the twentieth century. The Global Language Monitor, a nonprofit group that analyzes and tracks trends in language, named herstory the third most "politically incorrect" word of 2006—rivaled only by "macaca" and "Global Warming Denier." Global Language Monitor web page (2006) . Books Recent books published on the topic include: Herstory: Women Who Changed the World ISBN 0-670-85434-4 Daughters Of Eve: A Herstory Book ISBN 1-4140-4356-2 HerStory ISBN 9781604025514 See also Feminism Womyn Gender-neutral pronoun History of feminism Misogyny Non-sexist language Radical feminism Sexism Ad feminam References	Herstory \|@lemmatized herstory:15 neologism:1 coin:2 late:2 part:1 feminist:9 critique:1 conventional:1 historiography:1 discourse:2 term:5 refers:1 history:6 state:1 story:1 write:2 perspective:1 emphasize:2 role:1 woman:14 tell:1 point:2 view:2 word:4 come:1 ancient:1 greek:1 ἱστορία:1 historía:1 mean:2 learning:1 knowing:1 inquiry:1 latin:1 historia:1 etymologically:1 unrelated:1 possessive:1 pronoun:2 however:1 springboard:1 widen:1 deem:1 valid:1 historical:3 text:1 include:2 diary:1 journal:1 offer:1 chronicle:1 life:2 heretofore:1 neglect:2 scholar:1 irrelevant:1 addition:1 movement:4 spawn:1 centered:1 press:4 virago:1 publish:3 fiction:3 non:2 noted:1 author:3 like:2 janet:1 frame:1 sarah:1 dunant:1 book:6 sorcha:1 macmurrough:1 jac:1 carey:1 usage:1 oxford:3 english:2 dictionary:2 credit:1 robin:1 morgan:2 sisterhood:1 powerful:1 concern:1 organization:1 witch:2 writes:1 fluidity:1 wit:1 evident:1 ever:1 change:2 acronym:1 basic:1 original:1 title:1 international:1 terrorist:1 conspiracy:1 hell:1 heard:1 writing:2 inspire:1 commit:1 online:1 university:2 casey:1 miller:1 kate:1 swift:1 use:3 purpose:1 deed:1 participation:1 human:1 affair:1 undervalue:1 standard:1 second:1 wave:1 saw:1 study:2 male:2 dominate:1 intellectual:1 enterprise:1 present:2 compensation:1 devoney:2 looser:2 british:1 writer:1 john:1 hopkins:1 isbn:5 intend:1 serious:1 comic:1 angus:1 calder:1 lizbeth:2 goodman:2 gender:4 poetry:1 literature:2 ed:1 routledge:1 become:1 rallying:1 cry:1 shirt:1 button:1 well:1 academia:1 academic:1 occasionally:1 economical:1 way:1 describe:1 effort:1 center:1 canon:1 robert:1 j:1 belton:1 art:1 criticism:1 christina:1 hoff:2 sommers:2 critic:1 concept:2 argument:1 steal:1 feminism:4 define:1 attempt:2 infuse:1 education:1 ideology:1 expense:1 knowledge:1 band:1 responsible:1 felt:1 amount:1 negationism:1 regard:1 make:2 female:1 inclusive:1 artificial:1 nature:1 impediment:1 progress:1 professor:1 criticize:1 overlook:1 contribution:1 historian:1 twentieth:1 century:1 global:3 language:4 monitor:2 nonprofit:1 group:1 analyze:1 track:1 trend:1 name:1 third:1 politically:1 incorrect:1 rival:1 macaca:1 warm:1 denier:1 web:1 page:1 recent:1 topic:1 world:1 daughter:1 eve:1 see:1 also:1 womyn:1 neutral:1 misogyny:1 sexist:1 radical:1 sexism:1 ad:1 feminam:1 reference:1 \|@bigram possessive_pronoun:1 rallying_cry:1 christina_hoff:1 hoff_sommers:2 twentieth_century:1 politically_incorrect:1
1,115	Communications_in_the_Marshall_Islands	Publications Newspapers - Marshall Islands Journal: Weekly national newspaper: tabloid The Marshall Islands Journal is a dual language, once a week publication. It is the newspaper of record for the Marshall Islands. Telephone Telephones - main lines in use: 3,000 (1994) Telephones - mobile cellular: 280 (1994) Telephone system: telex services domestic: Majuro Atoll and Ebeye and Kwajalein islands have regular, seven-digit, direct-dial telephones; other islands interconnected by shortwave radio, telephone (used mostly for government purposes) international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); US Government satellite communications system on Kwajalein Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998) Stations included are: V7AB (State-run, by Marshall Islands Broadcasting Company, national coverage) Micronesia Heatwave (commercial) V7AA - Religious AFN Kwajalein (military) Radios: NA Television Television broadcast stations: 3 (of which two are US military stations) (1997) (stations are: MBC-TV, CPN (AFN) - Central Pacific Network (Channel 1) - CPN (AFN) - Central Pacific Network (Channel 2)) Televisions: NA Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA Country code (Top level domain): MH Not active since 1996-1997 when the ISP "MH" was founded, no websites are currently registered in domain Authority The majority of communication is under the responsibility of Marshall Islands National Telecommunications Authority. See also : Marshall Islands	Communications_in_the_Marshall_Islands \|@lemmatized publication:2 newspaper:3 marshall:6 islands:3 journal:2 weekly:1 national:3 tabloid:1 dual:1 language:1 week:1 record:1 telephone:6 main:1 line:1 use:2 mobile:1 cellular:1 system:2 telex:1 service:2 domestic:1 majuro:1 atoll:1 ebeye:1 kwajalein:3 island:5 regular:1 seven:1 digit:1 direct:1 dial:1 interconnect:1 shortwave:2 radio:4 mostly:1 government:2 purpose:1 international:1 satellite:2 earth:1 station:6 intelsat:1 pacific:3 ocean:1 u:2 communication:2 broadcast:3 fm:1 include:1 state:1 run:1 company:1 coverage:1 micronesia:1 heatwave:1 commercial:1 religious:1 afn:3 military:2 na:3 television:3 two:1 mbc:1 tv:1 cpn:2 central:2 network:2 channel:2 internet:2 provider:1 isps:1 country:1 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:2 mh:2 active:1 since:1 isp:1 found:1 website:1 currently:1 register:1 authority:2 majority:1 responsibility:1 telecommunication:1 see:1 also:1 \|@bigram marshall_islands:3 mobile_cellular:1 shortwave_radio:1 station_intelsat:1 pacific_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 provider_isps:1
1,116	Transport_in_Croatia	Transport in Croatia relies on several main modes, including transport by road, rail, water and air. Road transport incorporates a comprehensive network of state, county and local routes augmented by highways and expressways for long-distance travelling. Water transport can be divided into sea, based on the ports of Rijeka, Ploče, Split and Zadar, and river transport, based on Sava, Danube and, to a lesser extent, Drava. Croatia has 68 airports, five of which are international. The country also has several airlines, of which the most notable is Croatia Airlines. Rail transport is fairly developed, with dual track and electrification not very common, although high-speed tilting trains are used on some routes. However, bus still tends to be more common than rail as a mode of inter-city transport. Airports There are international airports in Zagreb, Zadar, Split, Dubrovnik and Rijeka (on the island of Krk). Recently, Osijek Airport in Slavonia has been renovated for regional traffic. It is also being considered to revitalize the Pula Airport (Istria) as a destination for low cost airlines. Currently, the following low cost airlines are flying to Croatia: SkyEurope, EasyJet, Flyglobespan, Germanwings, TUIfly, Ryanair, Thomson and Wizz Air. Major established companies that fly to Croatia include the domestic Croatia Airlines (now a regional member of the Star Alliance), Lufthansa and British Airways. There only seasonal intercontinental flights from and to Croatia. Statistics: Overall: 68 airports (2004 estimate) Airports with paved runways (2004 est.): total: 23 10,000 ft (3,047 m) or more: 2 8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m): 6 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 2 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 4 under 3,000 ft (914 m): 9 Airports with unpaved runways (2004 est.): total: 45 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 1 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 7 under 3,000 ft (914 m): 37 Heliports: 3 (2008) Airports: Zagreb Airport Split Airport Rijeka Airport Osijek Airport Zadar Airport Dubrovnik Airport Pula Airport Bol Airport Rail transport There are several major railway routes in the country: from Zagreb to Vinkovci (and on to Belgrade, Serbia) from Zagreb to Osijek via Koprivnica from Zagreb to Rijeka from Zagreb to Split There are also other routes to Slovenia, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia. The railways need to be modernized because since the disintegration of Yugoslavia there have been hardly any investment in railway infrastructure. Many important routes are not electrified and are only single track traffic around 'bends'. Some improvements have been made in the last ten years. A result of this has been an increase in the maximum speed on the Zagreb-Novska-Vinkovci line. In places the line's speed limit has been raised from to , and plans have been made to raise this further to on certain sections. The Hungary-Beli Manastir-Osijek-Đakovo-Slavonski Šamac railway line (international corridor Vc) is also being modernised, the aim is to allow speeds of up to 160 km/h along the entire length. Electrification is planned for a later date. The official rail speed record in Croatia is . This is just below the official 200 km/h high speed rail definition. This speed is never reached in regular service. Croatia does have a locomotive class capable of this speed. And during the Yugoslav era there were plans for 'high speed' rail. The increasingly elderly high-speed rolling stock has had its speed limited to 120 km/h for safety reasons. Recently Croatian Railways introduced a series of modern tilting trains produced by the German branch of Bombardier Transportation. They usually deployed on the mountainous route between the two largest Croatian cities, Zagreb and Split. Although they can sometimes be found on InterCity routes in the continental part of the country. The trains on the Zagreb-Split route offer passengers a more comfortable and quicker journey. The previous service used to take 9 hours, whereas the tilting trains take no more than 5.5 hours. There are plans to expand the tilting train service since they turned out to be very profitable on longer routes. Croatian Railways aims to revitalize rail traffic through further improvements. Thus, establishing rail as serious competitor to the car, particularly during the busy the summer months. Croatian Railways's plan to expand their high-speed railway service is progressing. Construction of an entirely new line from Karlovac to Rijeka, and reconstruction of the line from the Hungarian border to Karlovac should have originally begun in the Fall of 2007. The line is going to be entirely electrified and in order to speed up the journey even more shall be long from end to end, shorter than the existing line. The journey from Zagreb to Rijeka will be cut to one hour compared to 4 hours with the existing track. The line is intended to carry the increasing amount of goods that enter Europe, at the Croatian port of Rijeka and are then transported to desinations across central and eastern Europe. The plans have originally foreseen 2008-2010 as the date for completion. Due to the world economic crisis, building start date is prolonged to an yet undefined date. Paneuropean coriddor 10, is going to be upgraded to higher speed sometime in the future. Possibly by building a new high capacity connection line from Sisak via Kutina to Lipovljani. The line should allow for speeds of up to 250 km/h. Statistics: Railway length (as of 2006): total: standard gauge, 1.435 m: ( electrified) Rail links with adjacent countries: Slovenia Hungary Serbia Bosnia and Herzegovina Road transport A gas station in Zagreb From the time of Napoleon and building Lujzijana, the road transport in Croatia has significantly improved, topping most European countries. Croatian highways are widely regarded as being one of the most modern and safest in Europe. This is also due to the fact that the largest part of the Croatian highway system has been recently constructed, and construction is still rapidly continuing. A major reason for the current highway construction mania is that in the last 20 years of Yugoslav Communist rule, during which Croatia formed part of the former Yugoslavia, no major projects had been realized. When Croatia declared independence in 1991, the only true highways in the country were Zagreb-Karlovac (A1) and Zagreb-Slavonski Brod (A3), the latter being part of the highway "Bratstvo i jedinstvo". This highway was later extended, and today it connects Zagreb to Croatian borders with both Serbia (near Lipovac) and Slovenia (near Bregana). The dream to connect the two largest Croatian cities Zagreb and Split with a highway went back to the times of the Croatian Spring. However, the construction of this project has always been blocked by the ruling Communist Party. Recently, after so many years of waiting, this long awaited dream has been realized, and now the Zagreb-Split highway is a reality. There is also a highway to Rijeka. Also, the Zagreb-Krapina-Macelj highway (to Slovenian Border) was finished in 2007. As of 2007, the construction of eleven different highways is planned of which two: A3 (Bregana-Zagreb-Slavonski Brod-Serbian border) and A2 (Zagreb-Krapina-Macelj) are completed, one (A4: Zagreb-Varaždin-Hungarian border) only lacks a connection to state borders, three A6 (Zagreb-Rijeka) B8 and B9 (Istrian Y) are completed but have to be upgraded from semi-highway status, one, the A1. The long awaited "Dalmatina" between Zagreb and Split is planned to extend until Dubrovnik, three are in initial stages of development, and construction of one A11 has yet to start. The initial setup was made under the first HDZ government which contracted Bechtel Corporation; this was later replaced by the effort of the SDP-led government effort led by Radimir Čačić; and then continued by the HDZ government under Ivo Sanader. While the pace of development accelerates, so do environmental concerns, and concerns relating to the use and abuse of eminent domain by institutions involved in them. Especially criticized was the A11 Zagreb-Sisak, suspected of being politically motivated and inefficiently built. At the contrary, Zagreb-Split trait construction enjoyed a constant support from Croatian public and its on-schedule completion was marked with enormous joy and pride all through the country. Tourism is of major importance for the Croatian economy, and most tourists come to vacation in Croatia in their own cars. Without adequate roads, the traffic would get rather jammed during the summer months. For this reason, and as a means for stimulating urgently needed economic growth, highways have become indispensable for the sustainable development of this country. Croatia already has a considerable highway density for a country that still has to cope with the consequences of Communism and the recent war. As of 2006, Croatia has of roads. Out of these, there are of paved and of unpaved roadways Road rules The traffic signs adhere to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals. The general speed limits are: in inhabited areas 50 km/h outside of inhabited areas 80 km/h on expressways 110 km/h on marked highways 130 km/h In 2004, a controversial new traffic law was introduced, which provides for drastic safety measures for drunken or dangerous driving: it reduced the blood alcohol limit to 0‰ of alcohol in blood. In 2008 this law was reversed to 0.05‰ of alcohol in blood. Some of the more technical safety measures include that all new Croatian tunnels have modern safety equipment and there are several control centers, which monitor highway traffic. Highways and expressways In Croatia, the term autocesta (usually translated as highway) describes a divided road with two lanes in each direction and a shoulder on the right side reserved for vehicle breakdowns. The road signs for autocesta are green with white inscriptions similar to the Swiss Autobahn. The term brza cesta or expressway refers to a road with two lanes in each direction, without a shoulder for emergencies. Polu-autocesta or semi-highway refers to a two-lane, undivided road running on one roadway of a highway while the other is in construction. The designations of highways and some expressways are A and the highway's number. E numbers are designations of European routes. The list of highways as follows: A1, Zagreb - Split - Dubrovnik - Montenegrin border (Debeli Brijeg), 553 km total, 456 km finished traffic is currently narrowed to a single two-way lane in the Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels. E71 and E65: Section Zagreb-Karlovac In Karlovac, E71 turns to Bihać and Knin, a road that is not a highway. E65 turns to Rijeka on an old road that is not a highway (and is instead replaced by highway A6). A2, Zagreb - Krapina - Macelj (E59) A3, Slovenian border (Bregana border crossing) - Zagreb - Lipovac (and onto the border with Serbia) (E70) Toll charged only on the Slovenian border and east of Ivanja Reka (Zagreb bypass) A4, Hungarian border (border crossing at Goričan/Letenye) - Varaždin/Čakovec - Zagreb (E71) Toll charged only north of Sveta Helena (end of Zagreb bypass) A5, Hungarian border (border crossing at Beli Manastir) - Osijek - Đakovo - Sredanci interchange (A3) - Bosnia and Herzegovina border (Svilaj) An eastern expressway connector to A3 through Vukovar is planned A6, Zagreb - Bosiljevo - Rijeka: Section Zagreb-Bosiljevo reclassified as A1, but still operated by the company "Autocesta Zagreb-Rijeka d.d." A7, Slovenian border/Border crossing at Rupa - Rijeka (11 km): Opened on June 30, 2005 (E61) Currently operates through the Rijeka bypass (Matulji-Orehovica-Sveti Kuzam), but will later be re-routed along the new, outer bypass (Jurdani-Marčelji-Kikovica-Kraljevica) A10, Bosnia and Herzegovina border - Mali Prolog - A1 interchange - Karamatići - Ploče Part of the Corridor Vc A11, Zagreb bypass (Jakuševec interchange) - Velika Gorica (this section is the western bypass of Velika Gorica) - Lekenik - Sisak/Petrinja Sisak highway terminus was planned bearing the future Josipdol-Sisak-Popovača regional bypass expressway in mind Possible continuation toward Bihać and Velika Kladuša has been discussed Unnamed, second highway bypass of Zagreb (southern section: Zaprešić-Bestovje-Kupinečki Kraljevec-Buševec-Ivanić Grad-Sveta Helena, northern section: Mirkovec-Zlatar Bistrica-Komin) A partial list of expressways can be found at Highways in Croatia. Notes: Toll A toll is charged on most highways, the only notable exception being the Zagreb bypass. Payment in kuna, all major credit cards and euros are accepted at all toll gates. There are two toll collection systems in Croatia: the open and the closed system. Open system is used on some bridges and tunnels and short stretches of tolled highway. In this system, there is only one toll plaza and drivers immediately pay the toll upon arriving. In the closed system, every driver passes through two toll plazas. As the driver enters the system, they are given a receipt on the first toll plaza. This receipt states the point of entry. The receipt is presented upon leaving the highway through the second toll plaza. It is needed to calculate the toll. If the driver loses the receipt, they are charged with the maximum possible toll. If the receipt is more than 24 hours old, the driver must present the toll attendant with a reasonable explanation. Steps are taken to reduce evasion of toll by adding enclosed separate service areas in each direction and prohibiting U-turns. Additionally, every vehicle is being monitored by video cameras at the toll gates. Shunpiking is a widely accepted practice for commuters driving what would otherwise be a short stretch of tolled highway. Because of the price of monthly and yearly SMART cards, many commuters from outer exurbs use state routes. There are also reduced rates for transport companies, which should prevent heavy traffic along regional roads. Hrvatske ceste (Croatian road authority) imposes additional fees for trucking companies that frequently use a route http://www.hrvatske-ceste.hr . You can find a toll fee calculator for the whole network under: http://www.hellotourist.net/info.php Non-cash toll payment Not counting cash and credit cards, there are several ways to pay toll on Croatian highways: Hrvatske autoceste d.o.o SMART card, a nonrefundable and unexpiring prepaid toll card showed to the toll attendant. As of August 2007, a SMART card costs 20 kn. Additional toll may be prepaid at owner's will. The SMART card enacts a 10% discount on toll when used. It is not recommended to use the SMART card for paying less than 200 kn in toll. 200 kn equals to a round-trip in relation Zagreb - Zadar. SMART card must be purchased pre-paying at least 100 kn of toll. Additional money can be added to the toll account at any time. The SMART card has recently been refitted to allow use by flashing the card in front of a magnetic card reader. seasonal SMART card offers a significantly higher discount rate of 23.5% usable during specified five months. Unused amount upon expiry of these five months will be used with the standard, 10% discount. As of August 2007, a class I vehicle seasonal SMART card costs 1200 kn. The full amount is submitted to the toll account. http://www.hac.hr/docs/Prezentacija_popust_161205_en.ppt ENC (Elektronička naplata cestarine) is an electronic toll collection system. As of August 2007, the transponder costs 122 kn and a 10% discount on tolls is available. The user must pre-pay at least 90 kn of toll at purchase. Additional money can be added to the toll account at any time. ENC is usually recommended only for at least 10 longer journeys across Croatia. In the tourist season, ENC can drastically shorten wait times on large toll plazas with dedicated ENC lanes (especially toll plaza Lučko in Zagreb). http://www.hac.hr/index.php?task=ces&stask=14 Hrvatske autoceste d.o.o ENC has been criticized for incompatibility among highway concessioners and often malfunctions. Highway A1 The 380 km long highway A1 Zagreb - Split was the showpiece project of all previous Croatian governments. The A1 connects the continental part of Croatia with Mediterranean Dalmatia. It is complete with two lanes in both directions in its full length. The most important edifice on the A1 is the Sveti Rok Tunnel (5.687 m), which goes through the famous Velebit mountain range barrier. The most modern, and at the same time the longest Croatian tunnel, is also along the A1: the Mala Kapela Tunnel (length 5,780 m), which passes through the Mala Kapela mountain range. The highway winds itself as a panoramic road through the Croatian hills, goes along the Dalmatian coast and passes the world-famous Krka National Park. The construction of this highway will continue rapidly in direction to the important Ploče sea port (and further on to Dubrovnik). Other highways All heavily traveled routes towards Slovenia are highway connections. Since June 2005 the Istrian Y extends from the Slovenian border at Umag in direction to Rovinj and from the Rupa border crossing to Rijeka. The connection Zagreb–Krapina/Macelj border crossing, south of Maribor, was completed in May 2007. The eastern and western "wing" of the so-called "Istrian Y" (expressway connection in Istria) has been opened for traffic since June 2005. The last remaining part in the direction of Pula in the south will be constructed in 2007. The transformation of these sections into a full-profile highway will be considered when certain traffic limits are reached. The last remaining part of the highway connection A6 between Rijeka and Zagreb was constructed in spring 2004. An extension of the two-way traffic sections is planned for 2008. Within the following years, a second highway bypass around Rijeka and the highway connection Rijeka–Senj/Žuta Lokva to the existing A1 will be built. A highway connection of Zagreb to the important industrial city of Sisak should be constructed by 2008. Almost all parts of Croatia are easily reached using highways. Highway A3 extends from Županja (eastern Slavonia) to Serbia. Construction works along the European north-south corridor Vc (European route E73) between the Hungarian border at Beli Manastir, Osijek and the Bosnian border in direction to Sarajevo and further on to the sea port of Ploče has already begun. (The connection from Zagreb to the Hungarian border at Varaždin and Čakovec has already been established.) Significant tunnel and bridge construction projects in Southern Dalmatia are already being planned, such as the Biokovo tunnel near Makarska, which will connect the panoramic seashore road with the future A1, and a long Pelješac bridge, connecting the Pelješac peninsula to the Croatian mainland. During 2006 and 2007, numerous service areas and petrol stations are gradually being constructed along all Croatian highways. All Croatian highways are equipped with enclosed service areas with gas stations and parking. Many areas have restaurants and children's playgrounds. Construction In construction: Highway Section Length Notes A1 Mala Kapela and Sveti Rok tunnels about 5 km each Second tubes of these tunnels are currently in construction and expected to be completed by 2009. At that time, both tunnels will have four lanes like the rest of the highway. Ravča - Ploče 60 km completion scheduled in 2009 A5 Osijek - Đakovo 32.5 km to be completed in early 2009 Sredanci - Bosnia and Herzegovina border (Svilaj) 3.6 km A11 Jakuševec - Velika Gorica south 9.5 km This part was supposed to be comepleted in late 2007, but the mayor of Velika Gorica postponed the construction due to political reasons. The section will be completed in 2009. In planning stages: Highway Section Length Notes A1 Ploče - Dubrovnik 59 km A5 Hungarian border (Beli Manastir) - Osijek 29.5 km A7 Rijeka - Žuta Lokva 92 km B8 Kanfanar - Rijeka 76.8 km B8 and B9 highways are currently semi-highways. Upgrading to a four-lane highway will take approximately three years. The construction will start when all necessary permits are obtained. Upon completion of the second roadway, the highways will be named B8 and B9. Most overpasses and viaducts, except the viaduct over the river Mirna, are already built to accommodate four lanes of traffic. B9 Slovenian border (Umag) - Kanfanar - Pula 64.2 km A10 Bosnia and Herzegovina border (Mali Prolog) - Ploče 9 km This highway's only interchange is the Ploče 1 interchange of A1 highway. The highway south of this interchange will be built in 2008. The construction deadline of the northern section is unknown. It will probably be built upon completion of Corridor Vc in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A11 Velika Gorica south - Mošćenica 38 km The section Velika Gorica south - Lekenik will be completed in December 2008. Major roads Major roads that aren't part of the highway system are državne ceste (state routes). They are marked with the letter D and the road's number. The most traveled state routes in Croatia are: D1, connects Zagreb and Split via Lika - passes through Karlovac, Slunj, Plitvice, Korenica, Knin, Sinj. D2, connects Varaždin and Osijek via Podravina - passes through Koprivnica, Virovitica, Slatina, Našice. D8, connects Rijeka and Dubrovnik, widely known as Jadranska magistrala and part of E65 - runs along the coastline and connects many cities on the coast, including Crikvenica, Senj, Zadar, Šibenik, Trogir, Split, Omiš, Makarska and Ploče. Since the construction of A1 highway beyond Gorski kotar started, D1 and D8 are much less used. These routes are monitored by Croatian roadside assistance because they connect important locations. Like all state routes outside major cities, they are only two-lane arterials and do not support heavy traffic. All state routes are routinely maintained by Croatian road authorities. The road sign for a state route has a blue background and the route's designation in white. State routes have one, two or three-digit numbers. Minor roads Secondary routes are known as county roads. They are marked with signs with yellow background and road number. These roads' designations are rarely used, but usually marked on regional maps if these roads are shown. Formally, their designation is the letter Ž and the number. County roads have four-digit numbers. The least known are the so-called local roads. Their designations are never marked on maps or by roadside signs and as such are virtually unknown to public. Their designations consist of the letter L and a five-digit number. Bus traffic In contrast to the fairly underdeveloped rail traffic, buses represent the most-accepted, cheapest and widely-used means of public transport. National bus traffic is very well developed and it is very easy to reach even the remotest parts of Croatia by bus. Almost all buses on national routes are air-conditioned and offer pleasant traveling comfort. The Croatian parliament has passed a law that no bus should be older then 12 years - however, this decision is currently frozen because of the high cost for bus operators. In practice, bus fares are collected on the bus while traveling, which is sometimes even cheaper than when paying at the ticket office (there is an additional fee for stored luggage) and sometimes a "ticket office fee". From Croatia, there are many international bus routes to the neighboring countries (Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia etc.), as well as to Austria, Germany, Slovenia, Switzerland and to other European countries. International buses correspond to European standards. Zagreb has the largest and most modern bus terminal in Croatia. It is located near the downtown in Trnje district on the Marin Držić Avenue. It sports specially designed waiting areas above the bus stopping and parking area. The Zagreb bus terminal is close to the central train station, Glavni kolodvor and it is easy to reach by tram lines and by car. Water transport Sea transport Croatia has several large seaports. The largest seaport with the deepest channel to a port in the Adriatic is Rijeka on the northern Croatian coast, followed by Ploče in southern Dalmatia. The port of Ploče is of strategic importance for the industries of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The largest Croatian passenger port is Split in Dalmatia, also called gateway to the islands, followed by Zadar. There are 66 inhabited islands along the Croatian coast which means there is a large number of local ferry connections. Ports and harbors: major transport seaports: Omišalj, Ploče, Rijeka, Šibenik other seaports: Dubrovnik, Dugi Rat, Pula, Split, Zadar inland waterway ports: Vukovar (on Danube), Sisak (on Sava), Slavonski Brod (Sava river), Zupanja (Sava river), Osijek (Drava river) Merchant marine (as of 2005): total: 73 ships ( or over) totaling / ships by type: bulk carrier 25 cargo 12 chemical tanker 2 passenger/cargo 25 petroleum tanker 4 refrigerated cargo 1 roll on/roll off 4 foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: 1 Denmark 1 registered in other countries: 31 River transport Croatia is also on the important Danube waterway, which connects Eastern and Central Europe. The major Danube port is Vukovar. Perennially navigable rivers: Danube (section from Batina to Ilok which is in Croatia) Sava - from Rugvica until it exits Croatia near Gunja. The most upstream port is in Sisak. Total waterway length (as of 2004): 785 km Pipelines As of 2004: gas: 1,340 km oil: 583 km See also Croatian car number plates Transport in Zagreb References External links Croatian Motorways, current developments, toll rates Croatia - Traveling tips for tourists Croatian Railways - Hrvatske Željeznice (HŽ) Croatia ferries timetable and map Truck transport Croatia Croatian transport portal Croatian transport portal - for foreigners Bilingual presentation (hrv. & eng.) about road, rail and air traffic	Transport_in_Croatia \|@lemmatized transport:21 croatia:32 relies:1 several:6 main:1 mode:2 include:4 road:31 rail:12 water:3 air:4 incorporate:1 comprehensive:1 network:2 state:10 county:3 local:3 route:25 augment:1 highway:63 expressway:9 long:9 distance:1 travelling:1 divide:1 sea:4 base:2 port:11 rijeka:23 ploče:12 split:16 zadar:7 river:7 sava:5 danube:5 less:3 extent:1 drava:2 airport:16 five:4 international:5 country:12 also:12 airline:5 notable:2 fairly:2 develop:2 dual:1 track:3 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1,117	Fabius_Maximus	Roman Dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus — Cunctator Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Cunctator (ca. 280 BC–203 BC), was a Roman politician and general, born in Rome around 280 BC and died in Rome in 203 BC. He was Roman Consul five times (233 BC, 228 BC, 215 BC, 214 BC and 209 BC) and was twice Dictator in 221 and again in 217 BC. He reached the office of Roman Censor in 230 BC. His cognomen Cunctator (akin to the English noun cunctation) means "delayer" in Latin, and refers to his tactics in deploying the troops during the Second Punic War. His cognomen Verrucosus means "warty", a reference to the wart above his upper lip. Beginnings Descended from an ancient patrician gens Fabii, he was the son of Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges, a grandson of another Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and a great-grandson of Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus, all famous Consuls. According to Fabius' biographer Plutarch, Fabius possessed a mild temper and slowness in speaking. As a child, he had difficulties in learning, which was perceived by other children to be a sign of inferiority. However, according to Plutarch, these traits proceeded from stability, greatness of mind, and lionlikeness of temper. According to accounts, by the time he reached adulthood, his virtues exerted themselves, and his slowness was revealed to be a symptom of his energy, passion, prudence, and firmness. During his first Consulship, he was awarded a triumph for his victory over the Ligurians, a tribe of Gauls, whom he had defeated and then driven into the Alps. He probably participated in the First Punic War, although no details of his role are known. After the end of the war he rapidly advanced his political career. He served twice as Roman Consul and Roman Censor, and in 218 BC he took part in the embassy to Carthage. It was Fabius Buteo, his kinsman who formally declared war in the Carthaginian senate after the capture of Saguntum by Hannibal (Liv. Ab Urbe Cond. xxi. xviii). Dictator When the Consul Gaius Flaminius was killed during the disastrous Roman defeat at the Battle of Lake Trasimene, panic swept Rome. With Consular armies destroyed in two major battles, and Hannibal approaching Rome's gates, the Romans feared the imminent destruction of their city. The Roman Senate decided to appoint a Roman Dictator, and chose Fabius for the role, which was in part due to his advanced age and experience. As Dictator, he first appointed Marcus Minucius as his Master of the Horse, and then quickly sought to calm the Roman people by asserting himself as a strong Dictator at the moment of what was perceived to be the worst crisis in Roman history. He asked of the senate to allow him to ride on horseback, which Dictators were never allowed to do. He then caused himself to be accompanied by the full complement of twenty-four lictors, and ordered the surviving Consul, Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, to dismiss his lictors (in essence, surrendering his office), and to present himself before Fabius as a private citizen. Plutarch tells us that Fabius believed that the disaster at Lake Trasimene was due, in part, to the fact that the Gods had become neglected. Before that battle, a series of omens had been witnessed, including a series of lightning bolts, which Fabius had believed were warnings from the Gods. He had warned Flaminius of this, but Flaminius had ignored the warnings. And so Fabius, as Dictator, sought next to please the Gods. He ordered a massive sacrifice of the whole product of the next harvest season throughout Italy, in particular that of cows, goats, swine, and sheep. In addition, he ordered that musical festivities be celebrated, and then told his fellow citizens to each spend a precise sum of 333 sestertia and 333 denarii. Plutarch isn't sure exactly how Fabius came up with this number, although he believes it was to honor of the perfection of the number three, as it is the first of the odd numbers, and one of the first of the prime numbers. It is not known if Fabius truly believed that these actions had won the Gods over to the Roman side, although the actions probably did (as intended) convince the average Roman that the Gods had finally been won over. Fabius was well aware of the military superiority of the Carthaginians, and so when Hannibal invaded Italy, Fabius refused to meet him in a pitched battle. Instead he kept his troops close to Hannibal, hoping to exhaust him in a long war of attrition. Fabius was able to harass the Carthaginian foraging parties, limiting Hannibal's ability to wreak destruction while conserving his own military force. The delaying tactics involved a pincer of not directly engaging Hannibal while also exercising a "scorched earth" practice to prevent Hannibal's forces from obtaining grain and other resources. The Romans were unimpressed with this defensive strategy and at first gave Fabius his epithet as an insult. The strategy was in part ruined because of a lack of unity in the command of the Roman army, since Fabius' Master of the Horse, Minucius, was a political enemy of Fabius. At one point, Fabius was called by the priests to assist with certain sacrifices, and as such, Fabius left the command of the army in the hands of Minucius during his absence. Fabius had told Minucius not to attack Hannibal in his absence, but Minucius disobeyed Fabius and attacked anyway. The attack, though of no strategic value, resulted in the retreat of several enemy units, and so the Roman people, desperate for good news, believed Minucius to be a hero. Upon hearing of this, Fabius became enraged, and as Dictator, he could have ordered Minucius' execution for his disobedience. One of the Plebeian Tribunes (chief representatives of the people) for the year, Metilius, was a partisan of Minucius, and as such he sought to use his power to help Minucius. The Tribunes were the only magistrates who were independent of the Dictator, and so with his protection, Minucius was relatively safe. Plutarch states that Metilius "boldly applied himself to the people in the behalf of Minucius", and had Minucius granted powers equivalent to those of Fabius. By this, Plutarch probably means that as Plebeian Tribune, Metilius had the Plebeian Council, the popular assembly which only Tribunes could preside over, grant Minucius quasi-dictatorial powers. Hannibal counting the rings of the Roman knights killed during the Battle of Cannae, statue by Sébastien Slodtz, 1704, Louvre Fabius did not attempt to fight the promotion of the overly-ambitious Minucius, but rather decided to wait until Minucius' rashness caused him to run headlong into some disaster. He realized what would happen when a man so favored by the people served them worse than did the man who had been so ill-treated by them. Fabius, we are told, reminded Minucius that it was Hannibal, and not himself, who was the enemy. Minucius proposed that they share the joint control of the army, with command rotating between the two every other day. Fabius rejected this, and instead let Minucius command half of the army, while he himself commanded the other half. Minucius openly claimed that Fabius was cowardly because he failed to confront the Carthaginian forces. Near the present-day town of Larino in the Molise (then called Larinum), Hannibal had taken up position in a town called Gerione. In the valley between Larino and Gerione, Minucius decided to make a broad frontal attack on Hannibal's troops. Several thousand men were involved on either side. It appeared that the Roman troops were winning but Hannibal had set a trap. Soon the Roman troops were being slaughtered. Upon seeing the ambush of Minucius' army, Fabius cried "O Hercules! how much sooner than I expected, though later than he seemed to desire, hath Minucius destroyed himself!" Upon ordering his army to join the battle and rescue their fellow Romans, Fabius exclaimed "We must make haste to rescue Minucius, who is a valiant man, and a lover of his country." Fabius rushed to his co-commander's assistance and Hannibal's forces immediately retreated. After the battle there was some feeling that there would be conflict between Minucius and Fabius; however, the younger soldier marched his men to Fabius' encampment and he is reported to have said, "My father gave me life. Today you saved my life. You are my second father. I recognize your superior abilities as a commander." It was only after Fabius had saved him from an attack by Hannibal that Minucius placed himself under Fabius' command. When Fabius' term as Dictator ended, Consular government was restored, and Gnaeus Servilius Geminus and Marcus Atilius Regulus assumed the Consulship for the remainder of the year. After his dictatorship Shortly after Fabius had laid down his Dictatorship, Gaius Terentius Varro, was elected Consul. He rallied the people, through the Roman assemblies, and won their support for his plan to abandon Fabius' strategy, and engage Hannibal directly. The rashness of Varro did not surprise Fabius, but when Fabius learned of the size of the army (eighty-eight thousand soldiers) that Varro had raised, he became quite concerned. Unlike the losses that had been suffered at the hands of Mincuius, a major loss by Varro had the potential to kill so many soldiers that Rome might have had no further resources with which to continue the war. Fabius had warned the other Consul for the year, Aemilius Paullus, to make sure that Varro remained unable to directly engage Hannibal. According to Plutarch, Paullus replied to Fabius that he feared the votes in Rome more than Hannibal's army. When word reached Rome of the disastrous Roman defeat under Varro and Paullus at the Battle of Cannae, the Senate and the People of Rome turned to Fabius for guidance. They had believed his strategy to be so flawed before, but now, they thought him to be as wise as the Gods. He walked the streets of Rome, assured as to eventual Roman victory, in an attempt to comfort his fellow Romans. Without his support, the senate might have remained too scared to even meet. He placed guards at the gates of the city to stop the frightened Romans from fleeing, and regulated mourning activities. He set times and places for this mourning, and ordered that each family perform such observances within their own private walls, and that the mourning should be complete within a month, at which point the entire city would be purified (probably via a lustrum). Honors and death Cunctator became an honorific title, and his delaying tactic was followed for the rest of the war. Fabius' own military success was small, aside from the reconquest of Tarentum in 209 BC. For this victory, Plutarch tells us, he was awarded a second triumph that was even more splendid than was the first. When M. Livius Macatus, the governor of Tarentum, claimed the merit of recovering the town, Fabius rejoined, "Certainly, had you not lost it, I would have never retaken it." (Plut. Fab. 23) After serving as Dictator he served as Consul twice more in 215 BC, 214 BC, and for a fifth time in 209 BC. He was also Chief Augur (at a very young age) and Pontifex Maximus—a combination not repeated until Julius Caesar. In the senate he opposed the young and ambitious Scipio Africanus, who wanted to carry the war to Africa. Fabius died in 203, before he could see the eventual Roman victory in Africa won by Scipio Africanus. Legacy Later, he became a legendary figure and the model of a tough, courageous Roman, and was bestowed the honorific title, "The Shield of Rome" (similar to Marcus Claudius Marcellus being named the "Sword of Rome"). According to Ennius, unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem – "one man, by delaying, restored the state to us." Vergil, in the Aeneid, has Aeneas' father Anchises mention Fabius Maximus while in Hades as the greatest of the many great Fabii, quoting the same line. While Hannibal is mentioned in the company of history's greatest generals, military professionals have bestowed Fabius' name on an entire strategic doctrine known as "Fabian strategy," and George Washington has been called "the American Fabius." See also Fabius Second Punic War Fabian Society, a British socialist society founded at the end of the 19th century and still active today. Their name derives from the tactics of Quintus Fabius Maximus. References Primary sources Fabius, by Plutarch Secondary material Encyclopaedia Britannica, Fabius Maximus Cunctator Plutarch Makers of Rome translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert 1965, Penguin Books, London, England. Livy The War with Hannibal translated by Aubrey de Selincourt 1974, Penguin Books, London, England.	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1,118	Mathematical_model	Note: The term model has a different meaning in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic. An artifact which is used to illustrate a mathematical idea is also called a mathematical model and this usage is the reverse of the sense explained below. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. Mathematical models are used not only in the natural sciences and engineering disciplines (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology, and engineering) but also in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science); physicists, engineers, computer scientists, and economists use mathematical models most extensively. Eykhoff (1974) defined a mathematical model as 'a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) which presents knowledge of that system in usable form'. Eykhoff, Pieter System Identification: Parameter and State Estimation, Wiley & Sons, (1974). ISBN 0471249807 Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. Examples of mathematical models Population Growth. A simple (though approximate) model of population growth is the Malthusian growth model. A slightly more realistic and largely used population growth model is the logistic function, and its extensions. Model of a particle in a potential-field. In this model we consider a particle as being a point of mass m which describes a trajectory which is modeled by a function x : R → R3 given its coordinates in space as a function of time. The potential field is given by a function V:R3 → R and the trajectory is a solution of the differential equation Note this model assumes the particle is a point mass, which is certainly known to be false in many cases we use this model, for example, as a model of planetary motion. Model of rational behavior for a consumer. In this model we assume a consumer faces a choice of n commodities labeled 1,2,...,n each with a market price p1, p2,..., pn. The consumer is assumed to have a cardinal utility function U (cardinal in the sense that it assigns numerical values to utilities), depending on the amounts of commodities x1, x2,..., xn consumed. The model further assumes that the consumer has a budget M which she uses to purchase a vector x1, x2,..., xn in such a way as to maximize U(x1, x2,..., xn). The problem of rational behavior in this model then becomes an optimization problem, that is: subject to: This model has been used in general equilibrium theory, particularly to show existence and Pareto optimality of economic equilibria. However, the fact that this particular formulation assigns numerical values to levels of satisfaction is the source of criticism (and even ridicule). However, it is not an essential ingredient of the theory and again this is an idealization. Neighbour-sensing model explains the mushroom formation from the initially chaotic fungal network. Modeling contains selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in real world. Background Often when engineers analyze a system to be controlled or optimized, they use a mathematical model. In analysis, engineers can build a descriptive model of the system as a hypothesis of how the system could work, or try to estimate how an unforeseeable event could affect the system. Similarly, in control of a system, engineers can try out different control approaches in simulations. A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set of equations that establish relationships between the variables. The values of the variables can be practically anything; real or integer numbers, boolean values or strings, for example. The variables represent some properties of the system, for example, measured system outputs often in the form of signals, timing data, counters, and event occurrence (yes/no). The actual model is the set of functions that describe the relations between the different variables. Building blocks There are six basic groups of variables: decision variables, input variables, state variables, exogenous variables, random variables, and output variables. Since there can be many variables of each type, the variables are generally represented by vectors. Decision variables are sometimes known as independent variables. Exogenous variables are sometimes known as parameters or constants. The variables are not independent of each other as the state variables are dependent on the decision, input, random, and exogenous variables. Furthermore, the output variables are dependent on the state of the system (represented by the state variables). Objectives and constraints of the system and its users can be represented as functions of the output variables or state variables. The objective functions will depend on the perspective of the model's user. Depending on the context, an objective function is also known as an index of performance, as it is some measure of interest to the user. Although there is no limit to the number of objective functions and constraints a model can have, using or optimizing the model becomes more involved (computationally). Classifying mathematical models Many mathematical models can be classified in some of the following ways: Linear vs. nonlinear: Mathematical models are usually composed by variables, which are abstractions of quantities of interest in the described systems, and operators that act on these variables, which can be algebraic operators, functions, differential operators, etc. If all the operators in a mathematical model present linearity, the resulting mathematical model is defined as linear. A model is considered to be nonlinear otherwise.The question of linearity and nonlinearity is dependent on context, and linear models may have nonlinear expressions in them. For example, in a statistical linear model, it is assumed that a relationship is linear in the parameters, but it may be nonlinear in the predictor variables. Similarly, a differential equation is said to be linear if it can be written with linear differential operators, but it can still have nonlinear expressions in it. In a mathematical programming model, if the objective functions and constraints are represented entirely by linear equations, then the model is regarded as a linear model. If one or more of the objective functions or constraints are represented with a nonlinear equation, then the model is known as a nonlinear model.Nonlinearity, even in fairly simple systems, is often associated with phenomena such as chaos and irreversibility. Although there are exceptions, nonlinear systems and models tend to be more difficult to study than linear ones. A common approach to nonlinear problems is linearization, but this can be problematic if one is trying to study aspects such as irreversibility, which are strongly tied to nonlinearity. Deterministic vs. probabilistic (stochastic): A deterministic model is one in which every set of variable states is uniquely determined by parameters in the model and by sets of previous states of these variables. Therefore, deterministic models perform the same way for a given set of initial conditions. Conversely, in a stochastic model, randomness is present, and variable states are not described by unique values, but rather by probability distributions. Static vs. dynamic: A static model does not account for the element of time, while a dynamic model does. Dynamic models typically are represented with difference equations or differential equations. Lumped vs. distributed parameters: If the model is homogeneous (consistent state throughout the entire system) the parameters are distributed. If the model is heterogeneous (varying state within the system), then the parameters are lumped. Distributed parameters are typically represented with partial differential equations. A priori information Mathematical modeling problems are often classified into black box or white box models, according to how much a priori information is available of the system. A black-box model is a system of which there is no a priori information available. A white-box model (also called glass box or clear box) is a system where all necessary information is available. Practically all systems are somewhere between the black-box and white-box models, so this concept only works as an intuitive guide for approach. Usually it is preferable to use as much a priori information as possible to make the model more accurate. Therefore the white-box models are usually considered easier, because if you have used the information correctly, then the model will behave correctly. Often the a priori information comes in forms of knowing the type of functions relating different variables. For example, if we make a model of how a medicine works in a human system, we know that usually the amount of medicine in the blood is an exponentially decaying function. But we are still left with several unknown parameters; how rapidly does the medicine amount decay, and what is the initial amount of medicine in blood? This example is therefore not a completely white-box model. These parameters have to be estimated through some means before one can use the model. In black-box models one tries to estimate both the functional form of relations between variables and the numerical parameters in those functions. Using a priori information we could end up, for example, with a set of functions that probably could describe the system adequately. If there is no a priori information we would try to use functions as general as possible to cover all different models. An often used approach for black-box models are neural networks which usually do not make assumptions about incoming data. The problem with using a large set of functions to describe a system is that estimating the parameters becomes increasingly difficult when the amount of parameters (and different types of functions) increases. Subjective information Sometimes it is useful to incorporate subjective information into a mathematical model. This can be done based on intuition, experience, or expert opinion, or based on convenience of mathematical form. Bayesian statistics provides a theoretical framework for incorporating such subjectivity into a rigorous analysis: one specifies a prior probability distribution (which can be subjective) and then updates this distribution based on empirical data. An example of when such approach would be necessary is a situation in which an experimenter bends a coin slightly and tosses it once, recording whether it comes up heads, and is then given the task of predicting the probability that the next flip comes up heads. After bending the coin, the true probability that the coin will come up heads is unknown, so the experimenter would need to make an arbitrary decision (perhaps by looking at the shape of the coin) about what prior distribution to use. Incorporation of the subjective information is necessary in this case to get an accurate prediction of the probability, since otherwise one would guess 1 or 0 as the probability of the next flip being heads, which would be almost certainly wrong. MacKay, D.J. Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, Cambridge, (2003-2004). ISBN 0521642981 Complexity In general, model complexity involves a trade-off between simplicity and accuracy of the model. Occam's Razor is a principle particularly relevant to modeling; the essential idea being that among models with roughly equal predictive power, the simplest one is the most desirable. While added complexity usually improves the fit of a model, it can make the model difficult to understand and work with, and can also pose computational problems, including Numerical instability. Thomas Kuhn argues that as science progresses, explanations tend to become more complex before a Paradigm shift offers radical simplification. For example, when modeling the flight of an aircraft, we could embed each mechanical part of the aircraft into our model and would thus acquire an almost white-box model of the system. However, the computational cost of adding such a huge amount of detail would effectively inhibit the usage of such a model. Additionally, the uncertainty would increase due to an overly complex system, because each separate part induces some amount of variance into the model. It is therefore usually appropriate to make some approximations to reduce the model to a sensible size. Engineers often can accept some approximations in order to get a more robust and simple model. For example Newton's classical mechanics is an approximated model of the real world. Still, Newton's model is quite sufficient for most ordinary-life situations, that is, as long as particle speeds are well below the speed of light, and we study macro-particles only. Training Any model which is not pure white-box contains some parameters that can be used to fit the model to the system it shall describe. If the modelling is done by a neural network, the optimization of parameters is called training. In more conventional modelling through explicitly given mathematical functions, parameters are determined by curve fitting. Model evaluation A crucial part of the modeling process is the evaluation of whether or not a given mathematical model describes a system accurately. This question can be difficult to answer as it involves several different types of evaluation. Fit to empirical data Usually the easiest part of model evaluation is checking whether a model fits experimental measurements or other empirical data. In models with parameters, a common approach to test this fit is to split the data into two disjoint subsets: training data and verification data. The training data are used to estimate the model parameters. An accurate model will closely match the verification data even though this data was not used to set the model's parameters. This practice is referred to as cross-validation in statistics. Defining a metric to measure distances between observed and predicted data is a useful tool of assessing model fit. In statistics, decision theory, and some economic models, a loss function plays a similar role. While it is rather straightforward to test the appropriateness of parameters, it can be more difficult to test the validity of the general mathematical form of a model. In general, more mathematical tools have been developed to test the fit of statistical models than models involving Differential equations. Tools from nonparametric statistics can sometimes be used to evaluate how well data fits a known distribution or to come up with a general model that makes only minimal assumptions about the model's mathematical form. Scope of the model Assessing the scope of a model, that is, determining what situations the model is applicable to, can be less straightforward. If the model was constructed based on a set of data, one must determine for what systems or situations the data is a typical set of data from. The question of whether the model describes well the properties of the system between data points is called interpolation, and the same question for events or data points outside the observed data is called extrapolation. As an example of the typical limitations of the scope of a model, in evaluating Newtonian classical mechanics, we can note that Newton made his measurements without advanced equipment, so he could not measure properties of particles travelling at speeds close to the speed of light. Likewise, he did not measure the movements of molecules and other small particles, but macro particles only. It is then not surprising that his model does not extrapolate well into these domains, even though his model is quite sufficient for ordinary life physics. Philosophical considerations Many types of modeling implicitly involve claims about causality. This is usually (but not always) true of models involving differential equations. As the purpose of modeling is to increase our understanding of the world, the validity of a model rests not only on its fit to empirical observations, but also on its ability to extrapolate to situations or data beyond those originally described in the model. One can argue that a model is worthless unless it provides some insight which goes beyond what is already known from direct investigation of the phenomenon being studied. An example of such criticism is the argument that the mathematical models of Optimal foraging theory do not offer insight that goes beyond the common-sense conclusions of evolution and other basic principles of ecology. Optimal Foraging Theory: A Critical Review - Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 15(1):523 - First Page Image . See also Biologically-inspired computing Cliodynamics Computer simulation Differential equations Dynamical systems Model Model (economics) Mathematical biology Mathematical models in physics Mathematical diagram Mathematical psychology Mathematical sociology Simulation Statistical model References Further reading Books Aris, Rutherford [ 1978 ] ( 1994 ). Mathematical Modelling Techniques, New York : Dover. ISBN 0-486-68131-9 Lin, C.C. & Segel, L.A. ( 1988 ). Mathematics Applied to Deterministic Problems in the Natural Sciences, Philadelphia : SIAM. ISBN 0-89871-229-7 Gershenfeld, N., The Nature of Mathematical Modeling, Cambridge University Press, (1998).ISBN 0521570956 Yang, X.-S., Mathematical Modelling for Earth Sciences, Dudedin Academic, (2008). ISBN 1903765927 Specific applications Peierls, Rudolf. Model-making in physics, Contemporary Physics, Volume 21 (1), January 1980, 3-17 Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. ( 2006 ). Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth. Moscow : Editorial URSS. ISBN 5-484-00414-4 External links General reference material McLaughlin, Michael P. ( 1999 ) Patrone, F. Introduction to modeling via differential equations, with critical remarks. Plus teacher and student package: Mathematical Modelling. Brings together all articles on mathematical modelling from Plus, the online mathematics magazine produced by the Millennium Mathematics Project at the University of Cambridge. 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1,119	Aargau	Aargau (German ; rarely anglicized Argovia) is one of the more northerly cantons of Switzerland. It comprises the lower course of the river Aare, which is why the canton is called Aar-gau (meaning Aare district). Geography Its total area is . The capital is Aarau. It borders Germany to the north. To the west lie the cantons of Basel-Landschaft, Solothurn and Bern. The canton of Lucerne lies south of the canton of Aargau, Zürich and Zug to the east. The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. The valleys alternate with pleasant hills, most of which are full of woods. Slightly over one-third of the canton is wooded (), while nearly half is used from farming (). or about 2.4% of the canton is considered unproductive, mostly lakes and streams. The canton is heavily developed, with or about 15% of the canton developed for housing or transportation . It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of Baden and Schinznach, while at Rheinfelden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Koenigsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of Vindonissa (Windisch). History Aarau Argovia was the border region between Alamannia and Burgundy, and was a disputed territory between these duchies. A line of the von Wetterau (Conradines) became the counts of Aargau from 750 on and off till about 1030 when they lost it, and in the meantime had taken the name von Tegerfelden. From the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty up to 1415, it was ruled by the Habsburgs, and many historical old castles can be found there. Examples include Habsburg, Lenzburg, Tegerfelden, Bobikon, Stin and Wildegg. There are also a number of former monasteries, such as in Wettingen and Muri. All of these were founded by the Habsburg family. They were closed by the government in 1841, which in 1846, was one of the causes of Switzerland's civil war, the "Sonderbund War". Aargau is also believed to be the ancestral home of Reformist author George Mangold (1822-1894). In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen, Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg). Some districts, named the Freie Ämter or free bailiwicks (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the countship of Baden, were ruled as subject lands by all or certain of the Confederates. 10 March - 18 April 1798 it was under French occupation, thereafter the Bernese portion became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the remainder forming the Canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves were united under the name of canton of Aargau, Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11. which was then admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. The Fricktal, ceded in 1802 by Austria, via Napoleonic France, to the Helvetic Republic, was shortly a separate Swiss canton under a Statthalter ('Lieutenant'), but on 9 March 1803 became incorporated as part of the canton Aargau. The chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly: first two consecutive Regierungsstatthalter : April 1798 - November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (b. 1754 - d. 1833) 1802 - 1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz (b. 1766 - d. 1833) Presidents of the Government Commission 10 March 1803 - 26 April 1803 Johann Rudolf Dolder (b. 1753 - d. 1807) 26 April 1803 - 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly) annual Amtsbürgermeister 1815-1831 annual Landammänner since 1815 In the year 2003 the canton Aargau celebrated its 200th birthday. For centuries, two villages in the Aargau, Endingen and Lengnau, were the only places in Switzerland where Jews were permitted to live. They were not permitted to own houses or to live under the same roof with Christians. For the slow process of Jewish emancipation in Aargau and Switzerland, see link below. Economy The farmland of the canton of Aargau is some of the most fertile in Switzerland. Dairy farming, cereal and fruit farming are among the canton's main economic activities. The canton is also industrially developed, particularly in the fields of electrical engineering, precision instruments, iron, steel and cement. Three of Switzerland's five nuclear power plants are in the canton of Aargau (Beznau I + II and Leibstadt). Additionally, the many rivers supply enough water for numerous hydroelectric power plants throughout the canton. The canton of Aargau is often called "the energy canton". A significant number of people commute into the financial center of the city of Zürich, which is just across the cantonal border. Tourism is significant, particularly for the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach Bad, the ancient castles, the landscape, and the many old museums in the canton "Aargau." Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 January 2007 . Hillwalking is another tourist attraction, but is only of limited significance. Municipalities There are a total of 231 municipalities in the canton of Aargau. Districts Demographics The population of Aargau is 581,562 (2007) of which 118,407 (20.36%) are foreigners . Religiously, they are () nearly evenly split between Roman Catholic (40%) and Protestant (37%) . German is the most common language in the canton, with 87% of the population speaking it . See also Aargauer Zeitung FC Aarau GP Kanton Aargau, bicycle race References Sources and External links Official website Official Statistics Jewish Encyclopedia: aargau nan:Aargau Chiu	Aargau \|@lemmatized aargau:22 german:2 rarely:1 anglicized:1 argovia:2 one:4 northerly:1 canton:27 switzerland:6 comprise:1 low:2 course:1 river:2 aare:2 call:2 aar:3 gau:1 mean:1 district:3 geography:1 total:2 area:1 capital:1 aarau:4 border:3 germany:1 north:2 west:2 lie:2 basel:1 landschaft:1 solothurn:1 bern:2 lucerne:1 south:2 zürich:2 zug:1 east:2 least:1 mountainous:1 swiss:3 form:2 part:2 great:1 table:1 land:2 alp:1 jura:1 rise:1 hill:3 surface:1 country:1 beautifully:1 diversified:1 undulating:1 tract:1 well:1 wooded:2 alternate:2 fertile:2 valley:2 water:2 mainly:1 tributary:1 pleasant:1 full:2 wood:1 slightly:1 third:1 nearly:2 half:2 use:1 farm:1 consider:1 unproductive:1 mostly:1 lakes:1 stream:1 heavily:1 develop:2 housing:1 transportation:1 contain:1 famous:1 hot:2 sulphur:1 spring:3 baden:4 schinznach:2 rheinfelden:1 extensive:1 saline:1 brugg:3 reuss:1 limmat:1 join:1 around:1 ruined:1 castle:3 habsburg:5 old:3 convent:1 koenigsfelden:1 fine:1 paint:1 medieval:1 glass:1 remains:1 roman:2 settlement:1 vindonissa:1 windisch:1 history:1 region:2 alamannia:1 burgundy:1 disputed:1 territory:1 duchy:1 line:1 von:2 wetterau:1 conradines:1 become:3 count:1 till:1 lose:1 meantime:1 take:2 name:3 tegerfelden:2 end:1 hohenstaufen:1 dynasty:1 rule:2 many:3 historical:1 find:1 example:1 include:1 lenzburg:2 bobikon:1 stin:1 wildegg:1 also:4 number:2 former:1 monastery:1 wettingen:1 muri:2 found:1 family:1 close:1 government:2 cause:1 civil:1 war:2 sonderbund:1 believe:1 ancestral:1 home:1 reformist:1 author:1 george:1 mangold:1 confederate:2 keep:1 portion:2 zofingen:1 aarburg:1 freie:1 ämter:1 free:1 bailiwick:1 mellingen:1 villmergen:1 bremgarten:1 countship:1 subject:1 certain:1 march:3 april:4 french:1 occupation:1 thereafter:1 bernese:1 helvetic:2 republic:2 remainder:1 two:3 unite:1 bridgwater:1 w:1 beatrice:1 aldrich:1 columbia:2 viking:1 desk:1 encyclopedia:2 university:1 p:1 admit:1 member:1 reconstituted:1 confederation:1 fricktal:1 cede:1 austria:1 via:1 napoleonic:1 france:1 shortly:1 separate:1 statthalter:1 lieutenant:1 incorporate:1 chief:1 magistracy:1 change:1 style:1 repeatedly:1 first:1 consecutive:1 regierungsstatthalter:1 november:1 jakob:1 emmanuel:1 feer:1 b:3 johann:2 heinrich:1 rothpletz:1 president:2 commission:1 rudolf:1 dolder:1 small:1 council:1 rotate:1 monthly:1 annual:2 amtsbürgermeister:1 landammänner:1 since:1 year:1 celebrate:1 birthday:1 century:1 village:1 endingen:1 lengnau:1 place:1 jew:1 permit:2 live:2 house:1 roof:1 christian:1 slow:1 process:1 jewish:2 emancipation:1 see:2 link:2 economy:1 farmland:1 dairy:1 farming:2 cereal:1 fruit:1 among:1 main:1 economic:1 activity:1 industrially:1 developed:1 particularly:2 field:1 electrical:1 engineering:1 precision:1 instrument:1 iron:1 steel:1 cement:1 three:1 five:1 nuclear:1 power:2 plant:2 beznau:1 ii:1 leibstadt:1 additionally:1 supply:1 enough:1 numerous:1 hydroelectric:1 throughout:1 often:1 energy:1 significant:2 people:1 commute:1 financial:1 center:1 city:1 across:1 cantonal:1 tourism:1 bad:1 ancient:1 landscape:1 museum:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 january:1 hillwalking:1 another:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 limited:1 significance:1 municipality:2 demographics:1 population:2 foreigner:1 religiously:1 evenly:1 split:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 common:1 language:1 speak:1 aargauer:1 zeitung:1 fc:1 gp:1 kanton:1 bicycle:1 race:1 reference:1 source:1 external:1 official:2 website:1 statistic:1 nan:1 chiu:1 \|@bigram canton_aargau:11 swiss_canton:2 hohenstaufen_dynasty:1 bridgwater_w:1 beatrice_aldrich:1 aldrich_columbia:1 viking_desk:1 johann_heinrich:1 celebrate_birthday:1 dairy_farming:1 encyclopædia_britannica:1 tourist_attraction:1 external_link:1
1,120	Johann_Georg_Albrechtsberger	Johann Georg Albrechtsberger portrait by Leopold Kupelwieser Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (3 February 1736 – 7 March 1809) was an Austrian musician who was born at Klosterneuburg, near Vienna. He originally studied music at Melk Abbey and philosophy at a Benedictine seminary in Vienna and became one of the most learned and skillful contrapuntists of his age. After being employed as organist at Raab in 1755 and Maria Taferl in 1757, he was appointed Thurnermeister back at Melk Abbey. In 1772 he was appointed organist to the court of Vienna, and in 1792 Kapellmeister of St. Stephen's Cathedral. His fame as a theorist attracted to him in the Austrian capital a large number of pupils, some of whom afterwards became eminent musicians. Among these were Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Ignaz Moscheles, Josef Weigl (1766-1846) and Beethoven. Beethoven had arrived in Vienna in 1792 to study with Haydn but quickly became infuriated when his work was not being given attention or corrected. Haydn recommended his friend Albrechtsberger, with whom Beethoven then studied harmony and counterpoint. On completion of his studies, the young student noted, "Patience, diligence, persistence, and sincerity will lead to success," which reflects upon Albrechtsberger's own compositional philosophies. Albrechtsberger died in Vienna; his grave is in St. Marx cemetery. His published compositions consist of preludes, fugues and sonatas for the piano and organ, string quartets, etc.; but the greater proportion of his works, vocal and instrumental, exists only in manuscript. They are in the library of the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Around 1765, Albrechtsberger wrote at least seven concerti for Jew's harp and strings (three survive in the Hungarian National Library in Budapest). They are pleasant, well written works in the galant style. Probably the most valuable service he rendered to music was in his theoretical works. In 1790 he published at Leipzig a treatise on composition, of which a third edition appeared in 1821. A collection of his writings on harmony, in three volumes, was published under the care of his pupil Ignaz von Seyfried (1776-1841) in 1826. An English version of this was published by Novello in 1855. His compositional style derives from Johann Joseph Fux's counterpoint, who was Kapellmeister at St. Stephen's Cathedral 1713-1741, a position that Albrechtsberger would hold 52 years later. One of his most notable works is his concerto for Alto Trombone and Orchestra in Bb Major. As the trombone has few works dating back to the classical period, his concerto is often highlighted by the trombone community. References Catholic Encyclopedia article External links	Johann_Georg_Albrechtsberger \|@lemmatized johann:4 georg:2 albrechtsberger:7 portrait:1 leopold:1 kupelwieser:1 february:1 march:1 austrian:2 musician:2 bear:1 klosterneuburg:1 near:1 vienna:6 originally:1 study:4 music:2 melk:2 abbey:2 philosophy:2 benedictine:1 seminary:1 become:3 one:2 learned:1 skillful:1 contrapuntist:1 age:1 employ:1 organist:2 raab:1 maria:1 taferl:1 appoint:2 thurnermeister:1 back:2 court:1 kapellmeister:2 st:3 stephen:2 cathedral:2 fame:1 theorist:1 attract:1 capital:1 large:1 number:1 pupil:2 afterwards:1 eminent:1 among:1 nepomuk:1 hummel:1 ignaz:2 moscheles:1 josef:1 weigl:1 beethoven:3 arrive:1 haydn:2 quickly:1 infuriated:1 work:6 give:1 attention:1 correct:1 recommend:1 friend:1 harmony:2 counterpoint:2 completion:1 young:1 student:1 note:1 patience:1 diligence:1 persistence:1 sincerity:1 lead:1 success:1 reflect:1 upon:1 compositional:2 die:1 grave:1 marx:1 cemetery:1 published:1 composition:2 consist:1 prelude:1 fugue:1 sonata:1 piano:1 organ:1 string:2 quartet:1 etc:1 great:1 proportion:1 vocal:1 instrumental:1 exist:1 manuscript:1 library:2 gesellschaft:1 der:1 musikfreunde:1 around:1 write:2 least:1 seven:1 concerto:3 jew:1 harp:1 three:2 survive:1 hungarian:1 national:1 budapest:1 pleasant:1 well:1 galant:1 style:2 probably:1 valuable:1 service:1 render:1 theoretical:1 publish:3 leipzig:1 treatise:1 third:1 edition:1 appear:1 collection:1 writing:1 volume:1 care:1 von:1 seyfried:1 english:1 version:1 novello:1 derives:1 joseph:1 fux:1 position:1 would:1 hold:1 year:1 later:1 notable:1 alto:1 trombone:3 orchestra:1 bb:1 major:1 date:1 classical:1 period:1 often:1 highlight:1 community:1 reference:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 article:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram johann_georg:2 johann_nepomuk:1 nepomuk_hummel:1 prelude_fugue:1 string_quartet:1 gesellschaft_der:1 joseph_fux:1 external_link:1
1,121	Badtrans	BadTrans is a malicious Microsoft Windows computer worm distributed by e-mail. Because of a known vulnerability in older versions of Internet Explorer, some e-mail programs, such as Microsoft's Outlook Express and Microsoft Outlook programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed. Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host's machine, and installs a keystroke logger, which then captures everything typed on the affected computer. Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses. (For more technical details on the worm, see this.) Among the e-mail addresses that received the keyloggers were free addresses at Excite, Yahoo, and IJustGotFired.com. IJustGotFired is a free service of MonkeyBrains, a San Francisco-based Internet service provider. The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving e-mails at 3:23pm on November 24, 2001. Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived. The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone. In mid-December, the FBI contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data. All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans. Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website http://badtrans.monkeybrains.net for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised. The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data.	Badtrans \|@lemmatized badtrans:4 malicious:1 microsoft:3 window:1 computer:2 worm:5 distribute:1 e:7 mail:7 known:1 vulnerability:1 old:1 version:1 internet:2 explorer:1 program:2 outlook:2 express:1 may:1 install:2 execute:2 soon:1 message:2 view:1 replicate:1 send:1 copy:2 address:7 find:1 host:1 machine:1 keystroke:1 logger:1 capture:1 everything:1 type:1 affected:1 transmit:1 data:4 one:1 several:1 technical:1 detail:1 see:1 among:1 receive:3 keyloggers:1 free:2 excite:1 yahoo:1 ijustgotfired:3 com:1 service:2 monkeybrains:4 san:1 francisco:1 base:1 provider:1 target:1 begin:1 november:1 account:1 exceed:1 quota:1 automatically:1 disabled:1 still:1 save:1 arrive:1 keylogs:1 first:1 day:1 alone:1 mid:1 december:1 fbi:2 contact:1 rudy:1 rucker:1 jr:1 owner:1 request:2 keylogged:2 steal:1 victim:1 include:1 information:1 creator:1 instead:1 comply:1 publish:1 database:2 website:1 http:1 net:1 public:1 determine:1 give:1 compromise:1 reveal:1 actual:1 password:1 \|@bigram microsoft_window:1 internet_explorer:1 keystroke_logger:1 san_francisco:1 rudy_rucker:1
1,122	Politics_of_the_Comoros	Politics of the Union of the Comoros takes place in a framework of a federal presidential republic, whereby the President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. As of 2008, Comoros and Mauritania are considered by US-based organization Freedom House as the only real “electoral democracies” of the Arab World. Freedom House Country Report 2008 Political background The Union of the Comoros, known as the Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros until 2003, is ruled by Ahmed Abdallah Sambi. The political situation in Comoros has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in 1975, subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection. Colonel Azali Assoumani seized power in a bloodless coup in April 1999, overthrowing Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde, who himself had held the office since the death of democratically elected President Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim in November, 1998. In May 1999, Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, Bainrifi Tarmidi, in December 1999; however, Azali retained the mantle of Head of State and army Commander. In December 2000, Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, Hamada Madi, and formed a new civilian Cabinet. When Azali took power he also pledged to step down in April 2000 and relinquish control to a democratically elected president--a pledge with mixed results. In a separate nod to pressure to restore civilian rule, the government organized several committees to compose a new constitution, including the August 2000 National Congress and November 2000 Tripartite Commission. The opposition parties initially refused to participate in the Tripartite Commission, but on 17 February, representatives of the government, the Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a "Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros," brokered by the Organization for African Unity The accord called for the creation of a new Tripartite Commission for National Reconciliation to develop a "New Comorian Entity" with a new constitution. The new federal Constitution came into effect in 2002; it included elements of consociationalism, including a presidency that rotates every four years among the islands and extensive autonomy for each island. Presidential elections were held in 2002, at which Azali Assoumani was elected President. In April 2004 legislative elections were held, completing the implementation of the new constitution. The new Union of the Comoros consists of three islands, Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli. Each island has a president, who shares the presidency of the Union on a rotating basis. The president and his vice-presidents are elected for a term of four years. The constitution states that, "the islands enjoy financial autonomy, freely draw up and manage their budgets". President Assoumani Azali of Grande Comore is the first Union president. President Mohamed Bacar of Anjouan formed his 13-member government at the end of April, 2003. On 15 May, 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi, a cleric and successful businessman educated in Iran, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, was declared the winner of elections for President of the Republic. He is considered a moderate Islamist and is called Ayatollah by his supporters. He beat out retired French air force officer Mohamed Djaanfari and long-time politician Ibrahim Halidi, whose candidacy was backed by Azali Assoumani, the outgoing president. A referendum took place on May 16, 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum. The referendum would cause each island's president to become a governor and the ministers to become councilors. The Islands The constitution gives Moheli, Anjouan and Grande Comore the right to govern most of their own affairs with their own presidents. Executive branch \|President \|Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi \| \|26 May 2006 \|- \|} The federal presidency is rotated between the islands' presidents. The Comoros abolished the position of Prime Minister. Legislative branch The Assembly of the Union has 33 seats, 18 elected in single seat constutuencies and 15 representatives of the regional assemblies. Judicial branch The Supreme Court or Cour Supremes, has two members appointed by the president, two members elected by the Federal Assembly, one by the Council of each island, and former presidents of the republic. Political parties and elections Elections were held in 2004 where federal president Azali suffered a major setback by only winning 6 of the 18 seats in the National assembly, the other going to the supporters of the presidents of the semi-autonomous islands. International organization participation The Comoros are member of the ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AMF, African Union, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, InOC, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAS, NAM, OIC, OPCW (signatory), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WMO. References External links	Politics_of_the_Comoros \|@lemmatized politics:1 union:7 comoros:10 take:3 place:2 framework:2 federal:7 presidential:2 republic:4 whereby:1 president:21 head:3 state:3 government:7 multi:1 party:3 system:1 executive:3 power:5 exercise:1 legislative:4 vest:1 parliament:1 mauritania:1 consider:2 u:1 base:1 organization:4 freedom:2 house:2 real:1 electoral:1 democracy:1 arab:1 world:1 country:2 report:1 political:6 background:1 know:1 islamic:1 rule:2 ahmed:3 abdallah:3 sambi:3 situation:1 extremely:1 fluid:1 since:2 independence:1 subject:1 volatility:1 coup:2 insurrection:1 colonel:1 azali:10 assoumani:4 seized:1 bloodless:1 april:4 overthrow:1 interim:1 tadjidine:1 ben:1 say:1 massounde:1 hold:4 office:1 death:1 democratically:2 elect:6 mohamed:4 taki:1 abdoulkarim:1 november:2 may:4 decree:1 constitution:7 give:2 bow:1 somewhat:1 international:2 criticism:1 appoint:2 civilian:4 prime:3 minister:4 bainrifi:1 tarmidi:1 december:2 however:1 retain:1 mantle:1 army:1 commander:1 name:1 new:9 hamada:1 madi:1 form:2 cabinet:1 also:1 pledge:2 step:1 relinquish:1 control:1 mixed:1 result:1 separate:1 nod:1 pressure:1 restore:1 organize:1 several:1 committee:1 compose:1 include:3 august:1 national:3 congress:1 tripartite:3 commission:3 opposition:2 initially:1 refuse:1 participate:1 february:1 representative:2 anjouan:4 separatist:1 civil:1 society:1 sign:1 accord:2 reconciliation:2 broker:1 african:2 unity:1 call:2 creation:1 develop:1 comorian:1 entity:1 come:1 effect:1 element:1 consociationalism:1 presidency:3 rotate:2 every:1 four:2 year:2 among:1 island:10 extensive:1 autonomy:2 election:5 complete:1 implementation:1 consist:1 three:1 grande:3 comore:3 mohéli:1 share:1 rotating:1 basis:1 vice:1 term:1 enjoy:1 financial:1 freely:1 draw:1 manage:1 budget:1 first:1 bacar:1 member:4 end:1 cleric:1 successful:1 businessman:1 educate:1 iran:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 sudan:1 declare:1 winner:1 moderate:1 islamist:1 ayatollah:1 supporter:2 beat:1 retired:1 french:1 air:1 force:1 officer:1 djaanfari:1 long:1 time:1 politician:1 ibrahim:1 halidi:1 whose:1 candidacy:1 back:1 outgo:1 referendum:3 decide:1 whether:1 cut:1 unwieldy:1 bureaucracy:1 eligible:1 voted:1 vote:1 cast:1 approval:1 would:1 cause:1 become:2 governor:1 councilors:1 moheli:1 right:1 govern:1 affair:1 branch:3 abolish:1 position:1 assembly:4 seat:3 single:1 constutuencies:1 regional:1 judicial:1 supreme:1 court:1 cour:1 supremes:1 two:2 one:1 council:1 former:1 suffer:1 major:1 setback:1 win:1 go:1 semi:1 autonomous:1 participation:1 acct:1 acp:1 afdb:1 amf:1 fao:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 signatory:2 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 inoc:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 itu:1 la:1 nam:1 oic:1 opcw:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wco:1 wmo:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram ahmed_abdallah:3 azali_assoumani:3 bloodless_coup:1 democratically_elect:2 prime_minister:3 presidential_election:1 grande_comore:3 anjouan_mohéli:1 vice_president:1 saudi_arabia:1 legislative_branch:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 semi_autonomous:1 acct_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_signatory:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_itu:1 nam_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wco:1 external_link:1
1,123	Adaptive_radiation	Four of the 13 finch species found on the Galápagos Archipelago, are thought to have evolved by an adaptive radiation that diversified their beak shapes to adapt them to different food sources. An adaptive radiation is a rapid evolutionary radiation characterized by an increase in the morphological and ecological diversity of a single, rapidly diversifying lineage. Phenotypes adapt in response to the environment, with new and useful traits arising. This is an evolutionary process driven by natural selection. Causes: Innovation The evolution of a novel feature may permit a clade to diversify by making new areas of morphospace accessible. A classic example is the evolution of a fourth cusp in the mammalian tooth. This trait permits a vast increase in the range of foodstuffs which can be fed on. Evolution of this character has thus increased the number of ecological niches available to mammals. The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation. Birds find other ways to provide for each other, ie. the evolution of flight opened new avenues for evolution to explore, initiating an adaptive radiation. The Origin and Evolution of Birds by Alan Feduccia (1999) Causes: Opportunity Adaptive radiations often occur as a result of an organism arising in an environment with unoccupied niches, such as a newly formed lake or isolated island chain. The colonizing population may diversify rapidly to take advantage of all possible niches. In Lake Victoria, an isolated lake which formed recently in the African rift valley, over 300 species of cichlid fish adaptively radiated from one parent species in just 15,000 years. Adaptive radiations commonly follow mass extinctions: following an extinction, many niches are left vacant. A classic example of this is the replacement of the non-avian dinosaurs with mammals at the end of the Cretaceous, and of brachiopods by bivalves at the Permo-Triassic boundary.. 1. Species A migrates from the mainland to the first island. 2. Isolated from the mainland, species A evolves to species B.3. Species B migrates to the second island.4. Species B evolves in species C.5. Species C recolonizes the first islands, but is now unable to reproduce with species B.6. Species C migrates to the third island.7. Species C evolves into species D.8. Species D migrates to the first and second island.9. Species D evolves to species E. This process could go on indefinitely until a large diversity is reached. See also Evolutionary radiation – a more general term to describe any radiation Cambrian explosion – the most famous evolutionary radiation Further reading Wilson, E. et al. Life on Earth, by Wilson,E.; Eisner,T.; Briggs,W.; Dickerson,R.; Metzenberg,R.; O'brien,R.; Susman,M.; Boggs,W.; (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography, pp 824–877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes Galápagos Islands, Hawaii, and Australia subcontinent, (plus St. Helena Island, etc.). Leakey,Richard. The Origin of Humankind – on adaptive radiation in biology and human evolution, pp. 28–32, 1994, Orion Publishing. Grant, P.R. 1999. The ecology and evolution of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Mayer, Ernst. 2001. What evolution is. Basic Books, New York, NY. Kemp, A.C. 1978. A review of the hornbills: biology and radiation. The Living Bird 17: 105–136. References	Adaptive_radiation \|@lemmatized four:1 finch:2 specie:18 find:2 galápagos:2 archipelago:1 think:1 evolve:2 adaptive:7 radiation:12 diversify:4 beak:1 shape:1 adapt:2 different:2 food:1 source:1 rapid:1 evolutionary:4 characterize:1 increase:3 morphological:1 ecological:2 diversity:2 single:1 rapidly:2 lineage:1 phenotype:1 response:1 environment:2 new:4 useful:1 trait:3 arise:3 process:2 drive:1 natural:1 selection:1 cause:2 innovation:1 evolution:9 novel:1 feature:1 may:2 permit:2 clade:1 make:1 area:1 morphospace:1 accessible:1 classic:2 example:2 fourth:1 cusp:1 mammalian:1 tooth:1 vast:1 range:1 foodstuff:1 feed:1 character:1 thus:1 number:2 niche:4 available:1 mammal:2 time:1 group:1 cenozoic:1 instance:1 immediately:1 follow:3 bird:3 way:1 provide:1 ie:1 flight:1 open:1 avenue:1 explore:1 initiate:1 origin:2 alan:1 feduccia:1 opportunity:1 often:1 occur:1 result:1 organism:1 unoccupied:1 newly:1 form:2 lake:3 isolate:2 island:8 chain:1 colonize:1 population:1 take:1 advantage:1 possible:1 victoria:1 isolated:1 recently:1 african:1 rift:1 valley:1 cichlid:1 fish:1 adaptively:1 radiate:1 one:1 parent:1 year:1 commonly:1 mass:1 extinction:2 many:1 leave:1 vacant:1 replacement:1 non:1 avian:1 dinosaur:1 end:1 cretaceous:1 brachiopod:1 bivalve:1 permo:1 triassic:1 boundary:1 migrates:4 mainland:2 first:3 species:1 evolves:3 b:4 second:2 c:6 recolonizes:1 unable:1 reproduce:1 third:1 e:3 could:1 go:1 indefinitely:1 large:1 reach:1 see:1 also:2 general:1 term:1 describe:1 cambrian:1 explosion:1 famous:1 far:1 reading:1 wilson:2 et:1 al:1 life:1 earth:1 eisner:1 briggs:1 w:3 dickerson:1 r:4 metzenberg:1 brien:1 susman:1 boggs:1 sinauer:1 associate:1 inc:1 publisher:1 stamford:1 connecticut:1 chapter:1 multiplication:1 biogeography:1 pp:2 graph:1 picture:1 table:1 photo:1 etc:2 include:1 hawaii:1 australia:1 subcontinent:1 plus:1 st:1 helena:1 leakey:1 richard:1 humankind:1 biology:2 human:1 orion:1 publishing:1 grant:1 p:1 ecology:1 darwin:1 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 nj:1 mayer:1 ernst:1 basic:1 book:1 york:1 ny:1 kemp:1 review:1 hornbill:1 living:1 reference:1 \|@bigram adaptive_radiation:7 ecological_niche:1 rift_valley:1 avian_dinosaur:1 cambrian_explosion:1 et_al:1 sinauer_associate:1 stamford_connecticut:1 galápagos_island:1 princeton_nj:1
1,124	Characteristic_subgroup	In mathematics, particularly in the area of abstract algebra known as group theory, a characteristic subgroup is a subgroup that is invariant under all automorphisms of the parent group. Because conjugation is an automorphism, every characteristic subgroup is normal, though not every normal subgroup is characteristic. Examples of characteristic subgroups include the commutator subgroup and the center of a group. Definitions A characteristic subgroup of a group G is a subgroup H that is invariant under each automorphism of G. That is, for every automorphism φ of G (where φ(H) denotes the image of H under φ). The statement “H is a characteristic subgroup of G” is written Characteristic vs. normal If G is a group, and g is a fixed element of G, then the conjugation map is an automorphism of G (known as an inner automorphism). A subgroup of G that is invariant under all inner automorphisms is called normal. Since a characteristic subgroup is invariant under all automorphisms, every characteristic subgroup is normal. Not every normal subgroup is characteristic. Here are several examples: Let H be a group, and let G be the direct product H × H. Then the subgroups {1} × H and H × {1} are both normal, but neither is characteristic. In particular, neither of these subgroups is invariant under the automorphism (x, y) → (y, x) that switches the two factors. For a concrete example of this, let V be the Klein four-group (which is isomorphic to the direct product Z2 × Z2). Since this group is abelian, every subgroup is normal; but every permutation of the three non-identity elements is an automorphism of V, so the three subgroups of order 2 are not characteristic. In the quaternion group of order 8, each of the cyclic subgroups of order 4 is normal, but none of these are characteristic. However, the subgroup {1, −1} is characteristic, since it is the only subgroup of order 2. If n is even, the dihedral group of order 2n has three subgroups of index two, all of which are normal. One of these is the cyclic subgroup, which is characteristic. The other two subgroups are dihedral; these are permuted by an outer automorphism of the parent group, and are therefore not characteristic. Comparison to other subgroup properties Distinguished subgroups A related concept is that of a distinguished subgroup. In this case the subgroup H is invariant under the applications of surjective endomorphisms. For a finite group this is the same, because surjectivity implies injectivity, but not for an infinite group: a surjective endomorphism is not necessarily an automorphism. Fully invariant subgroups For an even stronger constraint, a fully characteristic subgroup (also called a fully invariant subgroup) H of a group G is a group remaining invariant under every endomorphism of G; in other words, if f : G → G is any homomorphism, then f(H) is a subgroup of H. Verbal subgroups An even stronger constraint is verbal subgroup, which is the image of a characteristic subgroup of a free group under a homomorphism. Containments Every subgroup that is fully characteristic is certainly distinguished and therefore characteristic; but a characteristic or even distinguished subgroup need not be fully characteristic. The center of a group is easily seen to always be a distinguished subgroup, but it is not always fully characteristic. The finite group of order 12, Sym(3) × Z/2Z has a homomorphism taking (π, y) to ( (1,2)y, 0) which takes the center 1 × Z/2Z into a subgroup of Sym(3) × 1, which is meets the center only in the identity. The relationship amongst these subgroup properties can be expressed as: subgroup ⇐ normal subgroup ⇐ characteristic subgroup ⇐ distinguished subgroup ⇐ fully characteristic subgroup ⇐ verbal subgroup Examples Finite example Consider the group G = S3 × Z2 (the group of order 12 which is the direct product of the symmetric group of order 6 and a cyclic group of order 2). The center of G is its second factor Z2. Note that the first factor S3 contains subgroups isomorphic to Z2, for instance {identity,(12)}; let f: Z2 → S3 be the morphism mapping Z2 onto the indicated subgroup. Then the composition of the projection of G onto its second factor Z2, followed by f, followed by the inclusion of S3 into G as its first factor, provides an endomorphism of G under which the image of the center Z2 is not contained in the center, so here the center is not a fully characteristic subgroup of G. Cyclic groups Every subgroup of a cyclic group is characteristic. Subgroup functors The derived subgroup (or commutator subgroup) of a group is a verbal subgroup. The torsion subgroup of an abelian group is a fully invariant subgroup. Transitivity The property of being characteristic or fully characteristic is transitive; if H is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of K, and K is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of G, then H is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of G. Moreover, while it is not true that every normal subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal, it is true that every characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal. Similarly, while it is not true that every distinguished subgroup of a distinguished subgroup is distinguished, it is true that every fully characteristic subgroup of a distinguished subgroup is distinguished. Map on Aut and End If , then every automorphism of G induces an automorphism of the quotient group G/H, which yields a map . If H is fully characteristic in G, then analogously, every endomorphism of G induces an endomorphism of G/H, which yields a map . See also characteristically simple group. References	Characteristic_subgroup \|@lemmatized mathematics:1 particularly:1 area:1 abstract:1 algebra:1 know:2 group:28 theory:1 characteristic:35 subgroup:65 invariant:10 automorphisms:3 parent:2 conjugation:2 automorphism:11 every:16 normal:16 though:1 example:4 include:1 commutator:2 center:8 definitions:1 g:27 h:18 φ:3 denote:1 image:3 statement:1 write:1 v:3 fixed:1 element:2 map:5 inner:2 call:2 since:3 several:1 let:4 direct:3 product:3 neither:2 particular:1 x:2 switch:1 two:3 factor:5 concrete:1 klein:1 four:1 isomorphic:2 abelian:2 permutation:1 three:3 non:1 identity:3 order:9 quaternion:1 cyclic:5 none:1 however:1 n:1 even:4 dihedral:2 index:1 one:1 permute:1 therefore:2 comparison:1 property:3 distinguish:11 related:1 concept:1 case:1 application:1 surjective:2 endomorphisms:1 finite:3 surjectivity:1 implies:1 injectivity:1 infinite:1 endomorphism:5 necessarily:1 fully:15 strong:2 constraint:2 also:2 remain:1 word:1 f:4 homomorphism:3 verbal:4 subgroups:1 free:1 containment:1 certainly:1 need:1 easily:1 see:2 always:2 sym:2 z:2 take:2 π:1 meet:1 relationship:1 amongst:1 express:1 examples:1 consider:1 symmetric:1 second:2 note:1 first:2 contain:2 instance:1 morphism:1 onto:2 indicated:1 composition:1 projection:1 follow:2 inclusion:1 provide:1 functors:1 derive:1 torsion:1 transitivity:1 transitive:1 k:2 moreover:1 true:4 similarly:1 aut:1 end:1 induces:2 quotient:1 yield:2 analogously:1 characteristically:1 simple:1 reference:1 \|@bigram abstract_algebra:1 normal_subgroup:6 commutator_subgroup:2 inner_automorphisms:1 cyclic_subgroup:2
1,125	Foreign_relations_of_Liechtenstein	Liechtenstein's foreign economic policy has been dominated by its customs union with Switzerland (and with Austria-Hungary until World War I). This union also led to its independent membership in EFTA in 1991. Unlike Switzerland however (where citizens rejected membership in a referendum), Liechtenstein is part of the European Economic Area. Liechtenstein was admitted to the United Nations in 1990. It is also a member of most specialized organizations of the UN system, a prominent exception being UNESCO. Liechtenstein has resorted two times to international dispute settlement by the International Court of Justice, in the Nottebohm case against Guatemala in the 1950s and in a case concerning art property of the Liechtenstein family against Germany in 2005. It lost however in both cases. Liechtenstein maintains resident embassies in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Holy See, Switzerland and the United States, along with a number of missions to international organisations. Liechtenstein is the only country in the world not to host any embassy. There are, however, a number of honorary consulates in the principality. Most of these are situated in the capital Vaduz, however, some are found in Schaan, Schellenberg and Triesen. International dispute with the Czech Republic and Slovakia The country has also an international dispute with the Czech Republic and Slovakia concerning the estates of its royal family in those countries. After World War II, Czechoslovakia, the predecessor of the Czech Republic and Slovakia, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia which compose the Czech Republic and the rest in Slovakia. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the World Court) included over 1,600 km² (618 sq mi) (which is ten times the size of Liechtenstein) agricultural and forest land, also including several family castles and palaces. Liechtenstein does not diplomatically recognize the Czech Republic and Slovakia, and they in turn do not diplomatically recognize Liechtenstein. Incidents involving the Swiss military Switzerland has a relatively active military due to ongoing conscription. Several incidents have occurred during routine training: In 1985, rockets fired by the Swiss army landed in Liechtenstein, causing a forest fire. Compensation was paid. In March 2007, the country was subject to an "invasion" when 171 Swiss soldiers mistakenly entered its territory. However, the Liechtenstein authorities were alerted and the troops were returned to Swiss territory before they had traveled more than 2 km into the country, and the incident was disregarded by both sides. http://www.courrierinternational.com/article.asp?obj_id=71448 Membership in international organizations CE, EBRD, ECE, EFTA, IAEA, ICC, ICRM, IFRCS, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UNCTAD, UPU, WCL, WIPO, WTO See also Liechtenstein diplomatic missions List of diplomatic missions in Liechtenstein References	Foreign_relations_of_Liechtenstein \|@lemmatized liechtenstein:15 foreign:1 economic:2 policy:1 dominate:1 custom:1 union:2 switzerland:4 austria:2 hungary:1 world:4 war:2 also:5 lead:1 independent:1 membership:3 efta:2 unlike:1 however:5 citizen:1 reject:1 referendum:1 part:1 european:1 area:1 admit:1 united:2 nation:1 member:1 specialized:1 organization:2 un:1 system:1 prominent:1 exception:1 unesco:1 resort:1 two:1 time:2 international:6 dispute:4 settlement:1 court:2 justice:1 nottebohm:1 case:3 guatemala:1 concern:2 art:1 property:1 family:3 germany:2 lose:1 maintain:1 resident:1 embassy:2 belgium:1 holy:1 see:2 state:1 along:1 number:2 mission:3 organisation:1 country:5 host:1 honorary:1 consulate:1 principality:1 situate:1 capital:1 vaduz:1 find:1 schaan:1 schellenberg:1 triesen:1 czech:5 republic:5 slovakia:5 estate:1 royal:1 ii:1 czechoslovakia:1 predecessor:1 act:1 seize:1 consider:1 german:1 possession:2 expropriate:1 entirety:1 dynasty:1 hereditary:1 land:3 bohemia:1 moravia:1 silesia:1 compose:1 rest:1 expropriation:1 subject:2 modern:1 legal:1 include:2 sq:1 mi:1 ten:1 size:1 agricultural:1 forest:2 several:2 castle:1 palace:1 diplomatically:2 recognize:2 turn:1 incident:3 involve:1 swiss:4 military:2 relatively:1 active:1 due:1 ongoing:1 conscription:1 occur:1 routine:1 training:1 rocket:1 fire:2 army:1 cause:1 compensation:1 pay:1 march:1 invasion:1 soldier:1 mistakenly:1 enter:1 territory:2 authority:1 alert:1 troop:1 return:1 travel:1 km:1 disregard:1 side:1 http:1 www:1 courrierinternational:1 com:1 article:1 asp:1 ce:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 iaea:1 icc:1 icrm:1 ifrcs:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 itu:1 opcw:1 osce:1 pca:1 unctad:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wipo:1 wto:1 diplomatic:2 list:1 reference:1 \|@bigram austria_hungary:1 honorary_consulate:1 czech_republic:5 bohemia_moravia:1 moravia_silesia:1 sq_mi:1 http_www:1 ebrd_ece:1 icc_icrm:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_itu:1 itu_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 osce_pca:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wipo:1 diplomatic_mission:2
1,126	Konqueror	Konqueror is a web browser, file manager and file viewer designed as a core part of the K Desktop Environment. It is developed by volunteers and can run on most Unix-like operating systems. Konqueror, along with the rest of the components in the KDEBase package, is licensed and distributed under the GNU General Public License. The name "Konqueror" is a reference to the two primary competitors at the time of the browser's first release: "first comes the Navigator, then Explorer, and then the Konqueror". It also follows the KDE naming convention: the names of most KDE programs begin with the letter K. http://docs.kde.org/stable/en/kdebase/faq/webbrowser.html#id2556978 Konqueror came with the version 2 of KDE, released on October 23, 2000. K Desktop Environment - KDE 2.0 Release Announcement It replaces its predecessor, KFM (KDE file manager). Konqueror - Konqueror FAQ User interface Konqueror's user interface is somewhat reminiscent of Microsoft's Internet Explorer (in turn designed after Netscape Navigator and NCSA Mosaic), though it is more customizable. It works extensively with "panels", which can be rearranged or added. For example, one could have an Internet bookmarks panel on the left side of the browser window, and by clicking a bookmark, the respective web page would be viewed in the larger panel to the right. Alternatively, one could display a hierarchical list of folders in one panel and the content of the selected folder in another. The panels are quite flexible and can even include a console window. Panel configurations can be saved, and there are some default configurations. (For example, "Midnight Commander" displays a screen split into two panels, where each one contains a folder, Web site, or file view.) Navigation functions (back, forward, history, etc.) are available during all operations. Most keyboard shortcuts can be remapped using a graphical configuration, and navigation can be conducted through an assignment of letters to nodes on the active file by pressing the control key. The address bar has extensive autocompletion support for local directories, past URLs, and past search terms. The application uses a tabbed document interface, wherein a window can contain multiple documents in tabs. Multiple document interfaces are not supported, however it is possible to recursively divide a window to view multiple documents simultaneously, or simply open another window. Web browser Konqueror displaying the Wikipedia Main page Konqueror has been developed as an autonomous web browser project. It uses KHTML as its layout engine, which is compliant with HTML and supports JavaScript, Java applets, CSS, SSL, and other relevant open standards. Konqueror integrates several customizable search services which can be accessed by entering the service's abbreviation code (for example, gg: for Google) followed by the search term(s). One can add their own search service; for instance, to retrieve Wikipedia articles, a shortcut may be added with the URL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=\{@}&go=Go. Konqueror's rendering speed is on par with that of competing browsers, but sites with malformed HTML are sometimes less leniently rendered than by other browsers. Problems can also result from the use of plugins on a web site which cannot be run under the operating system on which Konqueror is run; the use of QuickTime movies, or Shockwave animations can result in such problems. However, SWF (Flash), PDF, Java applets, and other plugins are supported if the respective software is installed. Konqueror is replaced as the primary web browser by Firefox in many distributions, though it is generally present for dependency reasons. File manager Konqueror's file manager profile Konqueror also allows browsing the local directory hierarchy—either by entering locations in the address bar, or by selecting items in the file browser window. It allows browsing in different views, which differ in their usage of icons and layout. Files can also be executed, viewed, copied, moved, and deleted. The user can also open an embedded version of Konsole in which they can directly execute shell commands. Although this functionality is not removed from it, in KDE 4 Konqueror is replaced by Dolphin as the default file manager. File viewer Using the KParts object model, Konqueror executes components that are capable of viewing (and sometimes editing) specific filetypes and embeds their client area directly into the Konqueror panel in which the respective files have been opened. This makes it possible to, for example, view an OpenDocument (via KOffice) or PDF document directly from within Konqueror. Any application that implements the KParts model correctly can be embedded in this fashion. KParts can also be used to embed certain types of multimedia content into HTML pages; for example, KMPlayer's KPart enables Konqueror to show embedded video on web pages. KIO Konqueror displaying the contents of an audio CD In addition to browsing files and web sites, Konqueror utilizes KIO plugins to extend its capabilities well beyond those of other browsers and file managers. It uses components of KIO, the Konqueror I/O plugin system, to access different protocols such as HTTP and FTP (support for these is built-in). Similarly, Konqueror can use KIO plugins (called IOslaves) to access ZIP files and other archives, smb (Windows) shares, to process ed2k links (edonkey/emule), or even to browse audio CDs, ("audiocd:/") and rip them via drag-and-drop. The FISH ("fish://user@host") IOslave allows Konqueror to manage files on remote secure shell servers, and the "man:" and "info:" IOslaves are handy for fetching nicely formatted documentation. A complete list is available in the KDE Info Center's Protocols section. Platforms Konqueror displaying Wikipedia in Windows Vista Konqueror has traditionally been developed for Linux, but it supports all platforms that KDE supports. This includes other Unix-like systems, such as BSD and Solaris, as well as Mac OS X. Konqueror can be run under Windows as part of the KDE on Windows project. References See also Konqueror Embedded KHTML KJS KSVG List of web browsers Comparison of web browsers Comparison of file managers External links Konqueror homepage	Konqueror \|@lemmatized konqueror:31 web:11 browser:12 file:17 manager:7 viewer:2 design:2 core:1 part:2 k:3 desktop:2 environment:2 develop:3 volunteer:1 run:4 unix:2 like:2 operate:1 system:4 along:1 rest:1 component:3 kdebase:2 package:1 license:2 distribute:1 gnu:1 general:1 public:1 name:3 reference:2 two:2 primary:2 competitor:1 time:1 first:2 release:3 come:2 navigator:2 explorer:2 also:7 follow:2 kde:10 convention:1 program:1 begin:1 letter:2 http:3 doc:1 org:2 stable:1 en:2 faq:2 webbrowser:1 html:4 version:2 october:1 announcement:1 replace:3 predecessor:1 kfm:1 user:4 interface:4 somewhat:1 reminiscent:1 microsoft:1 internet:2 turn:1 netscape:1 ncsa:1 mosaic:1 though:2 customizable:2 work:1 extensively:1 panel:8 rearrange:1 add:3 example:5 one:5 could:2 bookmark:2 left:1 side:1 window:10 click:1 respective:3 page:4 would:1 view:7 large:1 right:1 alternatively:1 display:5 hierarchical:1 list:3 folder:3 content:3 select:2 another:2 quite:1 flexible:1 even:2 include:2 console:1 configuration:3 save:1 default:2 midnight:1 commander:1 screen:1 split:1 contain:2 site:3 navigation:2 function:1 back:1 forward:1 history:1 etc:1 available:2 operation:1 keyboard:1 shortcut:2 remapped:1 use:9 graphical:1 conduct:1 assignment:1 node:1 active:1 press:1 control:1 key:1 address:2 bar:2 extensive:1 autocompletion:1 support:7 local:2 directory:2 past:2 url:2 search:6 term:2 application:2 tabbed:1 document:5 wherein:1 multiple:3 tab:1 however:2 possible:2 recursively:1 divide:1 simultaneously:1 simply:1 open:4 wikipedia:4 main:1 autonomous:1 project:2 khtml:2 layout:2 engine:1 compliant:1 javascript:1 java:2 applet:2 cs:1 ssl:1 relevant:1 standard:1 integrate:1 several:1 service:3 access:3 enter:2 abbreviation:1 code:1 gg:1 google:1 instance:1 retrieve:1 article:1 may:1 wiki:1 special:1 go:2 render:2 speed:1 par:1 compete:1 sit:1 malformed:1 sometimes:2 less:1 leniently:1 problem:2 result:2 plugins:4 cannot:1 operating:1 quicktime:1 movie:1 shockwave:1 animation:1 swf:1 flash:1 pdf:2 software:1 instal:1 firefox:1 many:1 distribution:1 generally:1 present:1 dependency:1 reason:1 profile:1 allow:3 browse:4 hierarchy:1 either:1 location:1 item:1 different:2 differ:1 usage:1 icon:1 execute:3 copy:1 move:1 delete:1 embedded:2 konsole:1 directly:3 shell:2 command:1 although:1 functionality:1 remove:1 dolphin:1 kparts:3 object:1 model:2 capable:1 edit:1 specific:1 filetypes:1 embed:4 client:1 area:1 make:1 opendocument:1 via:2 koffice:1 within:1 implement:1 correctly:1 fashion:1 certain:1 type:1 multimedia:1 kmplayer:1 kpart:1 enable:1 show:1 video:1 kio:4 audio:2 cd:2 addition:1 utilizes:1 extend:1 capability:1 well:2 beyond:1 plugin:1 protocol:2 ftp:1 build:1 similarly:1 call:1 ioslaves:2 zip:1 archive:1 smb:1 share:1 process:1 link:2 edonkey:1 emule:1 audiocd:1 rip:1 drag:1 drop:1 fish:2 host:1 ioslave:1 manage:1 remote:1 secure:1 server:1 man:1 info:2 handy:1 fetch:1 nicely:1 format:1 documentation:1 complete:1 center:1 section:1 platform:2 vista:1 traditionally:1 linux:1 bsd:1 solaris:1 mac:1 x:1 see:1 kjs:1 ksvg:1 comparison:2 external:1 homepage:1 \|@bigram web_browser:6 user_interface:2 internet_explorer:1 netscape_navigator:1 ncsa_mosaic:1 keyboard_shortcut:1 tabbed_document:1 java_applet:2 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 quicktime_movie:1 window_vista:1 external_link:1
1,127	Nereus	Nereus (Νηρεύς), in Greek Mythology, was the eldest son of Pontus (the Sea) and Gaia (the Earth), a Titan who (with Doris) fathered the Nereids, with whom Nereus lived in the Aegean Sea. Hesiod, Theogony 233-36, is unequivocal that Nereus is the Old Man of the Sea, whereas the Odyssey refers the sobriquet to Nereus (xxiv.58) to Proteus (iv.365, , 387), and to Phorkys (xiii.96, 345). In the Iliad Iliad i.358, 538, 556; xviii.141; xx.107; xxiv.562. the Old Man of the Sea (ἅλιος γέρων) is the father of Nereids, though Nereus is not directly named. He was one of the manifestations of the Old Man of the Sea, never more so than when he was described, like Proteus, as a shapeshifter with the power of prophecy, who would aid heroes such as Heracles Or, as Proteus, Menelaus. who managed to catch him even as he changed shapes. Nereus and Proteus ("first") seem to be two manifestations of the god of the sea who was supplanted by Poseidon when Zeus overthrew Cronus. The earliest poet to link Nereus with the labours of Heracles was Pherekydes, according to a scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes. On Argonautica iv.1396f, noted by Ruth Glynn,"Herakles, Nereus and Triton: A Study of Iconography in Sixth Century Athens" American Journal of Archaeology 85.2 (April 1981, pp. 121-132) p 121f. During the course of the fifth century BCE, Nereus was gradually replaced by Triton, who does not appear in Homer, in the imagery of the struggle between Heracles and the sea-god who had to be restrained in order to deliver his information that was employed by the vase-painters, independent of any literary testimony. Glynn 1981:121-132. Nereus in a frieze of the Pergamon Altar (Berlin) Nereus was known for his truthfulness and virtue:"But Pontos, the great sea, was father of truthful Nereus who tells no lies, eldest of his sons. They call him the Old Gentleman because he is trustworthy, and gentle, and never forgetful of what is right, but the thoughts of his mind are mild and righteous." — Hesiod, Theogony 233 The Attic vase-painters showed the draped torso of Nereus issuing from a long coiling scaly fishlike tail Theoi.com; Glynn 1981. Bearded Nereus generally wields a staff of authority. He was also shown in scenes depicting the flight of the Nereides as Peleus wrestled their sister Thetis. In Aelian's natural history, written in the early third century of the Common Era, On Animals 14.28 Nereus was also the father of a watery consort of Aphrodite named Nerites who was transformed into "a shellfish with a spiral shell, small in size but of surpassing beauty." Nereus was father to Thetis, one of the Nereids, who in turn was mother to the great Greek hero Achilles. The largest Mediterranean underwater sea cave yet found, lying northwest of Sardinia, was named by the discoverers, the Nereo Cave, in honor of this mythological figure. Notes References Karl Kerenyi, 1951. The Gods of the GreeksRobert Graves, The Greek Myths'' External links [] - Theoi Project, Nereus - the sea-god in classical literature and art	Nereus \|@lemmatized nereus:17 νηρεύς:1 greek:3 mythology:1 eldest:2 son:2 pontus:1 sea:10 gaia:1 earth:1 titan:1 doris:1 father:5 nereid:4 live:1 aegean:1 hesiod:2 theogony:2 unequivocal:1 old:4 man:3 whereas:1 odyssey:1 refer:1 sobriquet:1 xxiv:2 proteus:4 iv:2 phorkys:1 xiii:1 iliad:2 xviii:1 xx:1 ἅλιος:1 γέρων:1 though:1 directly:1 name:3 one:2 manifestation:2 never:2 describe:1 like:1 shapeshifter:1 power:1 prophecy:1 would:1 aid:1 hero:2 heracles:3 menelaus:1 manage:1 catch:1 even:1 change:1 shape:1 first:1 seem:1 two:1 god:4 supplant:1 poseidon:1 zeus:1 overthrow:1 cronus:1 early:2 poet:1 link:2 labour:1 pherekydes:1 accord:1 scholion:1 apollonius:1 rhodes:1 argonautica:1 note:2 ruth:1 glynn:3 herakles:1 triton:2 study:1 iconography:1 sixth:1 century:3 athens:1 american:1 journal:1 archaeology:1 april:1 pp:1 p:1 course:1 fifth:1 bce:1 gradually:1 replace:1 appear:1 homer:1 imagery:1 struggle:1 restrain:1 order:1 deliver:1 information:1 employ:1 vase:2 painter:2 independent:1 literary:1 testimony:1 frieze:1 pergamon:1 altar:1 berlin:1 know:1 truthfulness:1 virtue:1 pontos:1 great:2 truthful:1 tell:1 lie:2 call:1 gentleman:1 trustworthy:1 gentle:1 forgetful:1 right:1 thought:1 mind:1 mild:1 righteous:1 attic:1 show:2 draped:1 torso:1 issue:1 long:1 coiling:1 scaly:1 fishlike:1 tail:1 theoi:2 com:1 beard:1 generally:1 wield:1 staff:1 authority:1 also:2 scene:1 depict:1 flight:1 peleus:1 wrestle:1 sister:1 thetis:2 aelian:1 natural:1 history:1 write:1 third:1 common:1 era:1 animal:1 watery:1 consort:1 aphrodite:1 nerites:1 transform:1 shellfish:1 spiral:1 shell:1 small:1 size:1 surpass:1 beauty:1 turn:1 mother:1 achilles:1 large:1 mediterranean:1 underwater:1 cave:2 yet:1 find:1 northwest:1 sardinia:1 discoverer:1 nereo:1 honor:1 mythological:1 figure:1 reference:1 karl:1 kerenyi:1 greeksrobert:1 graf:1 myth:1 external:1 project:1 classical:1 literature:1 art:1 \|@bigram eldest_son:2 aegean_sea:1 hesiod_theogony:2 iliad_xviii:1 apollonius_rhodes:1 rhodes_argonautica:1 attic_vase:1 theoi_com:1 karl_kerenyi:1 external_link:1 theoi_project:1
1,128	Barry_Bonds	Barry Lamar Bonds (born July 24, 1964) is a Major League Baseball outfielder who is currently a free agent. He is the son of former major league All-Star Bobby Bonds, godson of Hall of Famer Willie Mays, nephew of 1964 Olympian Rosie Bonds, and a distant cousin of Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson. He debuted in the Major Leagues with the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1986 and joined the San Francisco Giants in 1993, where he stayed through 2007. Bonds filed for free agency following the 2007 World Series. Bonds' accomplishments place him among the greatest baseball players of all-time. He has a record-setting seven Most Valuable Player awards, including a record-setting four consecutive MVPs. He is a fourteen-time All-Star and eight-time Gold Glove-winner. He holds numerous Major League Baseball records, including the all-time Major League Baseball home run record with 762 and the single-season Major League record for home runs with 73 (set in ), and is also the all-time career leader in both walks (2,558) and intentional walks (688). Since 2003, Bonds has been a key figure in the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO) scandal. He was under investigation by a federal grand jury regarding his testimony in the BALCO case, and was indicted on perjury and obstruction of justice charges on November 15, 2007. The indictment alleges that Bonds lied while under oath about his alleged use of steroids. Early life Born in , Bonds grew up in and attended Junípero Serra High School in and excelled in baseball, basketball and football. As a freshman, he spent the baseball season on the JV team. The next three years—1980 to 1982—he starred on the varsity team. He batted for a .467 batting average his senior year, and was honored as a prep All-American. The Giants drafted Bonds in the second round of the 1982 MLB draft as a high school senior, but the Giants and Bonds were unable to agree on contract terms, so Bonds instead decided to attend college. Bonds attended Arizona State University, hitting .347 with 45 home runs and 175 runs batted in (RBI). In 1984 he batted .360 and had 30 stolen bases. In 1985 he hit 23 home runs with 66 RBIs and a .368 batting average. He was a Sporting News All-American selection that year. He tied the NCAA record with seven consecutive hits in the College World Series as sophomore and was named to All-Time College World Series Team in 1996. He graduated from Arizona State in 1986 with a degree in criminology. During college, he played part of one summer in the amateur Alaska Baseball League with the Alaska Goldpanners. Major league career Pittsburgh Pirates (1986–1992) Bonds was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first round (6th overall) of the Major League Baseball draft. Bonds joined the Prince William Pirates of the Carolina League and was named July 1985 Player of the Month for the league. In , he hit .311 in 44 games for the Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League, and he made his major league debut on May 30. In 1986, Bonds led National League (NL) rookies with 16 home runs, 48 RBI, 36 stolen bases and 65 walks, but he finished 6th in Rookie of the Year voting. He hit 25 home runs in his second season, along with 32 stolen bases and 59 RBIs. Bonds improved in 1988, hitting .283 with 24 home runs. Bonds finished with 19 homers, 58 RBIs, and 14 outfield assists, which was 2nd in the NL. Bonds won his first MVP award in 1990, hitting .301 with 33 home runs and 114 RBIs. His 52 stolen bases were third in the league. He won his first Gold Glove and Silver Slugger Awards. That year, the Pirates won the National League East title for their first postseason birth since winning the 1979 World Series. However, they were defeated in the NLCS by the eventual World Champion Cincinnati Reds. In 1991, Bonds also put up great numbers, hitting 25 homers and driving in 116 runs, and obtained another Gold Glove and Silver Slugger. He finished second to the Atlanta Braves' Terry Pendleton (the NL batting champion) in the MVP voting. The next season, Bonds won his second MVP award. He dominated the NL, hitting .311 with 34 homers and 103 RBIs, and propelling the Pirates to their third straight National League East division title. However, Pittsburgh was defeated by the Braves in a seven-game National League Championship Series. Bonds was involved in the final play of Game 7 of the NLCS, where he fielded a base hit by Francisco Cabrera and attempted to throw out Sid Bream at home plate. But the throw to Pirates catcher Mike LaValliere was late and Bream scored the winning run. For the third consecutive season, the NL East Champion Pirates were denied a trip to the World Series. San Francisco Giants (1993–2007) Bonds in the field. In 1993, Bonds left the Pirates to sign a lucrative free agent contract worth a then-record $43.75 million over 6 years with the Giants, with whom his father spent the first 7 years of his career, and with whom his godfather Willie Mays played 22 of his 24 Major League seasons. The deal was at that time the largest in baseball history, in terms of both total value and average annual salary. Chass, Murray. "Giants Make Investment: $43 Million in Bonds", The New York Times, published December 6, 1992, accessed January 31, 2008. To honor his father, Bonds switched his jersey number to 25 once he signed with the Giants, as it had been Bobby's number in San Francisco. (His number during most of his stay with the Pirates, 24, was retired in honor of Mays anyway). Bonds hit .336 in 1993, leading the league with 46 home runs and 123 RBI en route to his second consecutive MVP award, and third overall. As good as the Giants were (winning 103 games), the Atlanta Braves won 104 in what some call the last great pennant race (due to the Wild Card being instituted shortly after). In the strike-shortened season of , Bonds hit .312 with 37 home runs and a league-leading 74 walks, and he finished 4th in MVP voting. In , Bonds hit 33 homers and drove in 104 runs, hitting .294 but finished only 12th in MVP voting. In , Bonds became the first National League player and second (of the current list of four) major league player(s) to hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in the same season. The other members of the 40-40 club are José Canseco—1988, Alex Rodriguez—1998, and Alfonso Soriano—2006; his father Bobby Bonds was one home run short in 1973 when he hit 39 home runs and stole 43 bases. Bonds drove in 129 runs with a .308 average and walked a then-National League record 151 times. During the 1996 season Bonds became the 4th player in history to steal 300 bases and hit 300 home runs for a career, joining Willie Mays, Andre Dawson, and Bobby Bonds in the 300-300 club, but he only finished fifth in the MVP balloting. In Bonds hit .291, his lowest average since 1989. He hit 40 home runs for the second straight year and drove in 101 runs, leading the league in walks again with 145. He tied his father in 1997 for having the most 30/30 seasons, and he again placed fifth in the MVP balloting. In , he hit .303 with 37 home runs and drove in 122 runs, winning his eighth Gold Glove, and became the first player ever to enter the 400-400 club by having career totals of 400 home runs and 400 stolen bases. With two outs in the 9th inning of a game against the Arizona Diamondbacks on May 28, 1998, Bonds became only the fifth player in baseball history to be given an intentional walk with the bases loaded. Nap Lajoie (1901), Del Bissonette (1928) and Bill Nicholson (1944) were three others in the 20th century who received that rare honor; however Abner Dalrymple was the first to receive one in 1881. Bonds finished 8th in the MVP voting. Bill James ranked Bonds as the best player of the 1990s, adding that the decade's second-best player (Craig Biggio) had been closer in production to the decade's 10th-best player than to Bonds. In 1999, with statistics through 1997 being considered, Bonds ranked Number 34 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, making him the highest-ranking active player. When the Sporting News list was redone in 2005, Bonds was ranked 6th behind Babe Ruth, Willie Mays, Ty Cobb, Walter Johnson, and Henry Aaron. Bonds was omitted from 1999's Major League Baseball All-Century Team, to which Ken Griffey, Jr. was elected. James wrote of Bonds, "Certainly the most unappreciated superstar of my lifetime... Griffey has always been more popular, but Bonds has been a far, far greater player." In 1999, James rated Bonds as the 16th best player of all time. "When people begin to take in all of his accomplishments", James predicted, "Bonds may well be rated among the five greatest players in the history of the game." as cited at Bonds at the plate with the Giants. In 2000, the following year, Bonds hit .306 with a slugging percentage of .688 (career best at that time) and hit 49 home runs in just 143 games (also a career high to that point), while drawing a league-leading 117 walks. The next year, Bonds' offensive production reached even higher levels, breaking not only his own personal records but several major league records. In the Giants' first 50 games in 2001, Bonds hit 28 home runs, including 17 in May—a career high. He also hit 39 home runs by the All-star break (a major league record), drew a major league record 177 walks, and had a .515 on-base average, a feat not seen since Mickey Mantle and Ted Williams over forty years earlier. Bonds' slugging percentage was a major league record .863 (411 total bases in 476 at-bats), and, most impressively, he ended the season with a major league record 73 home runs. Bonds re-signed with the Giants for a five-year, $90 million contract in January 2002. That year, he hit 46 home runs in 403 at-bats. He won the NL batting title with a career-high .370 average and struck out only 47 times. Despite playing in nine fewer games than the previous season, he drew 198 walks, a major-league record, 68 of them intentional. He slugged .799, then the fourth-highest total all time. Bonds broke Ted Williams' major league record for on-base average with .582. Bonds also hit his 600th home run, less than a year and a half after hitting his 500th. In 2003, Bonds played in just 130 games. He hit 45 home runs in just 390 at-bats, along with a .341 batting average. He slugged .749, walked 148 times, and had an on-base average well over .500 (.529) for the third straight year. He also became the only member of the career 500 home run/500 stolen base club. In 2004, Bonds had perhaps his best season. He hit .362 en route to his second National League batting title, and broke his own record by walking 232 times. He slugged .812, which was fourth-highest of all time, and broke his on-base percentage record with a .609 average. Bonds passed Mays on the career home run list, hitting his 700th near the end of the season. Bonds hit 45 home runs in 373 at-bats, and struck out just 41 times, putting himself in elite company, as few major leaguers have ever had more home runs than strikeouts in a season. Bonds would win his fourth consecutive MVP award and his seventh overall. His seven MVP awards are four more than any other player in history. In addition, no other player from either league has been awarded the MVP four times in a row. (The MVP award was first given in 1931). On July 4, 2004 he tied and passed Rickey Henderson's career bases on balls record with his 2190th and 2191st career walks. . As Bonds neared Aaron's record, Aaron was called on for his opinion of Bonds. He clarified that he was a fan and admirer of Bonds and avoided the controversy regarding whether the record should be denoted with an asterisk due Bonds' to alleged steroid usage. He felt recognition and respect for the award was something to be determined by the fans. As the steroid controversy received greater media attention during the offseason before the 2005 season, Aaron expressed some reservations about the statements Bonds made on the issue. Aaron expressed that he felt drug and steroid use to boost athletic performance was inappropriate. Aaron was frustrated that the media could not focus on events that occurred in the field of play and wished drugs or gambling allegations such as those associated with Pete Rose could be emphasized less. In 2007, Aaron felt the whole steroid use issue was very controversial and decided that he would not attend any possible record-breaking games. Aaron congratulated Bonds through the media when Bonds broke Aaron's record. Bonds' salary for the 2005 season was $22 million, the second-highest salary in Major League Baseball (the Yankees' Alex Rodriguez earned the highest, $25.2 million). Bonds endured a knee injury, multiple surgeries, and rehabilitation. He was activated on September 12, 2005, and started in left field. In his return against the San Diego Padres, he nearly hit a home run in his first at-bat. Bonds finished the night 1-for-4. Upon his return, Bonds resumed his high-caliber performance at the plate, hitting home runs in four consecutive games from September 18, 2005 to September 21, 2005 and finishing with five homers in only 14 games. 2006 season Bonds batting against the Chicago Cubs in 2006 In 2006, Bonds earned $20 million (not including bonuses), the fourth highest salary in baseball. Through the 2006 season he had earned approximately $172 million during his then 21-year career, making him baseball's all-time highest paid player. Bonds hit under .200 for his first 10 games of the season and did not hit a home run until April 22, 2006. This 10-game stretch was his longest home run slump since the 1998 season. On May 7, 2006, Bonds drew within one home run of tying Babe Ruth for second place on the all time list, hitting his 713th career home run into the second level of Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, off pitcher Jon Lieber in an ESPN nationally-televised game in which the Giants lost to the Philadelphia Phillies. The towering home run—one of the longest in Citizens Bank Park's two-season history, traveling an estimated 450 feet (140 m)—hit off the facade of the third deck in right field. Then, on May 20, 2006, Bonds tied Ruth, hitting his 714th career home run to deep right field to lead off the top of the 2nd inning. The home run came off left-handed pitcher Brad Halsey of the Oakland A's, in an interleague game played in Oakland, California. Since this was an interleague game at an American League stadium, Bonds was batting as the designated hitter in the lineup for the Giants. Bonds was quoted after the game as being "glad it's over with" and stated that more attention could be focused on Albert Pujols, who was on a very rapid home run pace in early 2006. On May 28, 2006, Bonds passed Ruth, hitting his 715th career home run to center field off Colorado Rockies pitcher Byung-Hyun Kim. The ball was hit an estimated 445 feet (140 m) into center field where it went through the hands of several fans but then fell onto an elevated platform in center field. Then it rolled off the platform where Andrew Morbitzer, a 38-year-old San Francisco resident, caught the ball while he was in line at a concession stand. Mysteriously, radio broadcaster Dave Flemming's radio play-by-play of the home run went silent just as the ball was hit, apparently from a microphone failure. But the televised version, called by Giants broadcaster Duane Kuiper, was not affected. On September 22, 2006, Bonds tied Henry Aaron's National League career home run record of 733. The home run came in the top of the 6th inning of a high-scoring game against the Milwaukee Brewers, at Miller Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The achievement was notable for its occurrence in the very city where Aaron began (with the Milwaukee Braves) and concluded (with the Brewers, then in the American League) his career. With the Giants trailing 10–8, Bonds hit a blast to deep center field on a 2–0 pitch off the Brewers' Chris Spurling with runners on first and second and one out. Though the Giants were at the time clinging to only a slim chance of making the playoffs, Bonds' home run provided the additional drama of giving the Giants an 11–10 lead late in a critical game in the final days of a pennant race. The Brewers eventually won the game, 13–12, despite Bonds' going 3 for 5, with 2 doubles, the record-tying home run, and 6 runs batted in. On the following day, September 23, 2006, Bonds surpassed Aaron for the NL career home run record. Hit in Milwaukee like the previous one, this was a solo home run off Chris Capuano of the Brewers. This was the last home run Bonds hit in 2006. In 2006, Bonds recorded his lowest slugging percentage (a statistic that he has historically ranked among league leaders season after season) since 1991 with the Pittsburgh Pirates. In January 2007, the New York Daily News reported that Bonds had tested positive for amphetamines. Under baseball's amphetamine policy, which had been in effect for one season, players testing positive were to submit to six additional tests and undergo treatment and counseling. The policy also stated that players were not to be identified for a first positive test, but the New York Daily News leaked the test's results. When the Players Association informed Bonds of the test results, he initially attributed it to a substance he had taken from the locker of Giants teammate Mark Sweeney, but would later retract this claim and publicly apologize to Sweeney. 2007 season Bonds at the plate against the Rockies in 2007 On January 29, 2007, the Giants finalized a contract with Bonds for the 2007 season. After the commissioner's office rejected Bonds's one-year, $15.8 million deal because it contained a personal-appearance provision, the team sent revised documents to his agent, Jeff Borris, who stated that "At this time, Barry is not signing the new documents." Bonds signed a revised one-year, $15.8 million contract on February 15, 2007, and reported to the Giants' Spring Training camp on time. Bonds resumed his march to the all-time record early in the 2007 season. After an opening game in which all he had was a first-inning single past third base against a right-shifted infield (immediately followed by a stolen base and then a base-running misjudgment that got him thrown out at home) and a deep out to left field late in the game, Bonds returned the next day, April 4, 2007, with another mission. In his first at-bat of the season's second game at the Giants' AT&T Park, Bonds hit a Chris Young (of the San Diego Padres) pitch just over the wall to the left of straightaway center field for career home run 735. This home run put Bonds past the midway point between Ruth and Aaron. Bonds did not homer again until April 13, 2007 when he hit two (736 and 737) in a 3 for 3 night that included 4 RBI against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Home runs number 739 and 740 came in back to back games on April 21, 2007 and April 22, 2007 against the Arizona Diamondbacks. The hype surrounding Bonds' pursuit of the home run record escalated on May 14, 2007. On this day, Sports Auction for Heritage (a Dallas-based auction house) offered US$1 million to the fan that caught Bonds' record-breaking 756th-career home run. The million dollar offer was rescinded on June 11, 2007 out of concern of fan safety. On that same day, Bonds launched home run 747, ending the relative drought of the previous month. This one came off Josh Towers of the Toronto Blue Jays, and landed in AT&T Park's right center field stands. His next home run, 748, came on Father's Day, June 17, 2007, in the final game of a 3-game road series against the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park, where Bonds had never previously played. With this homer, Fenway Park became the 36th major league ballpark in which Bonds had hit a home run. He hit a Tim Wakefield knuckleball just over the low fence into the Giant's bullpen in right field. It was his first home run off his former Pittsburgh Pirate teammate, who became the 441st different pitcher to surrender a four-bagger to Bonds. The 750th career home run, hit on June 29, 2007, also came off a former teammate: Liván Hernández. The blast came in the 8th inning and at that point tied the game at 3–3. On July 19, 2007, after a 21 at-bat hitless streak, Bonds hit 2 home runs, numbers 752 and 753 against the Chicago Cubs. He went 3–3 with 2 home runs, 6 RBIs, and a walk on that day. The struggling last place Giants still lost the game 9–8. On July 27, 2007, Bonds hit home run 754 against Florida Marlins pitcher Rick VandenHurk. Bonds was then walked his next 4 at bats in the game, but 2-run shot helped the Giants win the game 12–10. It marked the first game Bonds had homered in that the Giants won since he had hit #747. On August 4, 2007, Bonds hit a 382 foot (116 m) home run against Clay Hensley of the San Diego Padres for home run number 755, tying Hank Aaron's all-time record. Bonds greeted his son, Nikolai, with an extended bear hug after crossing home plate. Bonds greeted his teammates and then his wife, Liz Watson, and daughter Aisha Lynn behind the backstop. Hensley was the 445th different pitcher to give up a home run to Bonds. Ironically, given the cloud of suspicion that surrounded Bonds, the tying home run was hit off a pitcher who'd been suspended by baseball in 2005 for steroid use. SignOnSanDiego.com > San Diego Padres - Steroids violators in minors He was walked in his next at bat and eventually scored on a fielder's choice. On August 7, 2007 at 8:51 PM PDT, Bonds hit a 435 foot (133 m) home run, his 756th, off a pitch from Mike Bacsik of the Washington Nationals, breaking the all-time career home run record, formerly held by Hank Aaron. Coincidentally, Bacsik's father had faced Aaron (as a pitcher for the Texas Rangers) after Aaron had hit his 755th home run. On August 23, 1976, Michael J. Bacsik held Aaron to a single and a fly out to right field. The younger Bacsik commented later, "If my dad had been gracious enough to let Hank Aaron hit a home run, we both would have given up 756." Pitcher's father faced Hank, Associated Press August 8, 2007, Lexington Herald-Leader p B5. After hitting the home run, Bonds gave Bacsik an autographed bat. The pitch, the seventh of the at-bat, was a 3–2 pitch which Bonds hit into the right-center field bleachers. The fan who ended up with the ball, 22-year-old Matt Murphy from Queens, New York (and a Met fan), was promptly protected and escorted away from the mayhem by a group of San Francisco police officers. After Bonds finished his home run trot, a ten-minute delay followed, including a brief video by Aaron congratulating Bonds on breaking the record Aaron had held for 33 years, and expressing the hope that "the achievement of this record will inspire others to chase their own dreams." Bonds made an impromptu emotional statement on the field, with Willie Mays, his godfather, at his side and thanked his teammates, family and his late father. Bonds sat out the rest of the game and was replaced in left field. The commissioner, Bud Selig, was not in attendance in this game but was represented by the Executive Vice President of Baseball Operations, Jimmie Lee Solomon. Selig called Bonds later that night to congratulate him on breaking the record. President George W. Bush also called Bonds the next day to congratulate him. On August 24, 2007, San Francisco honored and celebrated Bonds' career accomplishments and breaking the home run record with a large rally in Justin Herman Plaza. The rally included video messages from Lou Brock, Ernie Banks, Ozzie Smith, Joe Montana, Wayne Gretzky and Michael Jordan. Speeches were made by Willie Mays, Giants teammates Omar Vizquel and Rich Aurilia, and Giants owner Peter Magowan. Mayor Gavin Newsom presented Bonds the key to the City and County of San Francisco and Giants vice president Larry Baer gave Bonds the home plate he touched after hitting his 756th career home run. The record-setting ball was consigned to an auction house on August 21, 2007, and sold with a winning bid of USD$752,467 on September 15, 2007. The high bidder, fashion designer Marc Ecko, created a website to let fans decide its fate. Ben Padnos, who submitted the (US) $186,750 winning bid on Bonds' record-tying 755th home run ball also set up a website to let fans decide its fate. Of Ecko's plans, Bonds said "He spent $750,000 on the ball and that's what he's doing with it? What he's doing is stupid." Bonds concluded the 2007 season with a .276 batting average, 28 home runs, and 66 RBIs in 126 games and 340 at bats. At the age of 43, he led both leagues in walks with 132. 2008 and 2009 seasons On September 21, 2007, the San Francisco Giants confirmed that they would not re-sign Bonds for the 2008 season. The story was first announced on Bonds' own web site earlier that day. Bonds officially filed for free agency on October 29, 2007. His agent Jeff Borris said: "I'm anticipating widespread interest from every Major League team." There was much speculation before the 2008 season about where Bonds might play. However, no one signed him during the 2008 season — and the 2009 season also began without him on any team's roster. "Bonds wants federal charges dropped." United Press International, November 6, 2008. If he ever returns to Major League Baseball, Bonds would be within close range of several significant hitting milestones: he needs just 65 hits to reach 3,000, 4 runs batted in to reach 2,000, and 38 home runs to reach 800. He needs 69 more runs scored to move past Rickey Henderson as the all-time runs champion, and 37 extra base hits to move past Hank Aaron as the all-time extra base hits champion. Controversies BALCO Scandal In 2003, Bonds became embroiled in a scandal when Greg Anderson of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative (BALCO), Bonds' trainer since 2000, was indicted by a federal grand jury in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and charged with supplying anabolic steroids to athletes, including a number of baseball players. This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance-enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball. Bonds declared his innocence, attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding, diet and legitimate supplements. During grand jury testimony on December 4, 2003, Bonds said that he used a clear substance and a cream that he received from his personal strength trainer, Greg Anderson, who told him they were the nutritional supplement flaxseed oil and a rubbing balm for arthritis. This testimony, as reported by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, has frequently been misrepresented. Later reports on Bonds's leaked grand-jury testimony contend that he admitted to unknowingly using "the cream" and "the clear". In July 2005, all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial, including Anderson, struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs. Players' Union Bonds withdrew from the MLB Players Association's (MLBPA) licensing agreement because he felt independent marketing deals would be more lucrative for him. Bonds is the first player in the thirty-year history of the licensing program not to sign. Because of this withdrawal, his name and likeness are not usable in any merchandise licensed by the MLBPA. In order to use his name or likeness, a company must deal directly with Bonds. For this reason he does not appear in some baseball video games, forcing game-makers to create generic athletes to replace him. For example, Bonds is replaced by "Jon Dowd" in MVP Baseball 2005. Game of Shadows In March, 2006 the book Game of Shadows, written by Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada, was released amid a storm of media publicity including the cover of Sports Illustrated. Initially small excerpts of the book were released by the authors in the issue of Sports Illustrated. The book alleges Bonds used stanozolol and a host of other steroids, and is perhaps most responsible for the change in public opinion regarding Bonds' steroid use. The book contained excerpts of grand jury testimony that is supposed to be sealed and confidential by law. The authors have been steadfast in their refusal to divulge their sources, and at one point faced jail time. On February 14, 2007, Troy Ellerman, one of Victor Conte's lawyers, pled guilty to leaking grand jury testimony. Through the plea agreement, he will spend two and a half years in jail. Love Me, Hate Me In May 2006, former Sports Illustrated writer Jeff Pearlman released a scathing biography of Bonds entitled Love Me, Hate Me: Barry Bonds and the Making of an Anti-Hero. The book also contained many allegations against Bonds. The book, which describes Bonds as a polarizing insufferable braggart with a legendary ego and staggering ability, relied on over five hundred interviews. Perjury investigation and federal indictment On November 15, 2007, Bonds was indicted for both four counts of perjury and one count of obstruction of justice as it relates to the government investigation of BALCO. On February 14, 2008 a typo in court papers filed by Federal prosecutors erroneously alleged that Bonds tested positive for steroids in November, 2001, a month after hitting his record 73rd home run. The reference was meant instead to refer to a November 2000 test that had already been disclosed and previously reported. The typo sparked a brief media frenzy. His trial for obstruction of justice is to begin on March 2, 2009. Bonds is not expected to get prison time should he be convicted after a pro cyclist facing similar charges in the case was given house arrest and probation instead of jail time. Bonds on Bonds In April 2006 and May 2006, ESPN aired a few episodes of a 10-part reality TV (unscripted, documentary-style) series starring Bonds. The show, titled Bonds on Bonds, focused on Bonds' chase of Babe Ruth's and Hank Aaron's home run records. Some felt the show should be put on hiatus until baseball investigated Bonds' steroid use allegations. The series was canceled in June 2006, ESPN and producer Tollin/Robbins Productions citing "creative control" issues with Bonds and his representatives. Personal life Bonds met Susann ("Sun") Margreth Branco, the mother of his first two children, in in August 1987. They eloped in February 5, 1988. They had two children (Nikolai and Shikari) and separated in June 1994, divorced in December 1994 and had their marriage annulled in 1997 by the Catholic Church. The divorce was a media affair because Bonds had his Swedish spouse sign a prenuptial agreement in which she "waived her right to a share of his present and future earnings" and which was upheld. Bonds had been providing his wife $20,000/month in child support and $10,000 in spousal support at the time of the ruling. During the hearings to set permanent support levels, allegations of abuse came from both parties. The trial dragged on for months, but Bonds was awarded both houses and reduced support. Nikolai was a batboy for the Giants and always sat next to his dad in the dugout during games. Bonds remarried on January 10, 1998 in the San Francisco Ritz-Carlton Hotel in front of 240 guests. Bonds lives in Los Altos Hills, California, with his second wife, Liz Watson, and their daughter Aisha. He also owns a home in the exclusive gated community of Beverly Park in Beverly Hills, CA. Bonds also had an extensive intimate relationship with Kimberly Bell from 1994 through May, 2003. Bonds purchased a home in for Kimberly. Bonds has an older brother, Bobby, Jr. who was a professional baseball player. His paternal aunt, Rosie Bonds, is a former American record holder in the 80 meter hurdles, and she competed in the 1964 Olympics. He is a distant cousin of Hall of Famer Reggie Jackson. Career statistics Year Age Tm Lg G AB R H 2B 3B HR RBI SB CS BB SO BA OBP SLG TB SH SF IBB HBP GDP 1986 21 PIT NL 150 413 72 92 26 3 16 48 36 7 65 102 .223 .330 .416 172 2 2 2 2 4 1987 22 PIT NL 150 551 99 144 34 9 25 59 32 10 54 88 .261 .329 .492 271 0 3 3 3 4 1988 23 PIT NL 144 538 97 152 30 5 24 58 17 11 72 82 .283 .368 .491 264 0 2 14 2 3 1989 24 PIT NL 159 580 96 144 34 6 19 58 32 10 93 93 .248 .351 .426 247 1 4 22 1 9 1990 25 PIT NL 151 519 104 156 32 3 33 114 52 13 93 83 .301 .406 .565~ 293 0 6 15 3 8 1991 26 PIT NL 153 510 95 149 28 5 25 116 43 13 107 73 .292 .410^ .514 262 0 13 25 4 8 1992 27 PIT NL 140 473 109^ 147 36 5 34 103 39 8 127~ 69 .311 .456~ .624~ 295 0 7 32~ 5 9 1993 28 SF NL 159 539 129 181 38 4 46~ 123^ 29 12 126 79 .336 .458^ .677~ 365~ 0 7 43~ 2 11 1994 29 SF NL 112 391 89 122 18 1 37 81 29 9 74^ 43 .312 .426 .647 253 0 3 18^ 6 3 1995 30 SF NL 144^ 506 109 149 30 7 33 104 31 10 120^ 83 .294 .431^ .577 292 0 4 22^ 5 12 1996 31 SF NL 158 517 122 159 27 3 42 129 40 7 151~ 76 .308 .461 .615 318 0 6 30~ 1 11 1997 32 SF NL 159 532 123 155 26 5 40 101 37 8 145~ 87 .291 .446 .585 311 0 5 34~ 8 13 1998 33 SF NL 156 552 120 167 44 7 37 122 28 12 130 92 .303 .438 .609 336 1 6 29~ 8 15 1999 34 SF NL 102 355 91 93 20 2 34 83 15 2 73 62 .262 .389 .617 219 0 3 9 3 6 2000 35 SF NL 143 480 129 147 28 4 49 106 11 3 117^ 77 .306 .440 .688 330 0 7 22 3 6 2001 36 SF NL 153 476 129 156 32 2 73 137 13 3 177+ 93 .328 .515~ .863 411 0 2 35 9 5 2002 37 SF NL 143 403 117 149 31 2 46 110 9 2 198+ 47 .370~ .582+ .799~ 322 0 2 68+ 9 4 2003 38 SF NL 130 390 111 133 22 1 45 90 7 0 148~ 58 .341 .529~ .749~ 292 0 2 61~ 10 7 2004 39 SF NL 147 373 129 135 27 3 45 101 6 1 232 41 .362^ .609 .812~ 303 0 3 120 9 5 2005 40 SF NL 14 42 8 12 1 0 5 10 0 0 9 6 .286 .404 .667 28 0 1 3 0 0 2006 41 SF NL 130 367 74 99 23 0 26 77 3 0 115^ 51 .270 .454^ .545 200 0 1 38~ 10 9 2007 42 SF NL 126 340 75 94 14 0 28 66 5 0 132~ 54 .276 .480~ .565 192 0 2 43~ 3 13Totals: 2,986 9,847 2,227 2,935 601 77762 1,996 514 141 2,558 1,539 .298 .444 .607 5,976 4 91 688 106 165 ^ = Led NL ~ = Led MLB + = Former MLB Record Bold = MLB Record Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player: 1990, 1992, 1993, 2001–2004 All-Star Team, NL:1990, 1992–1998, 2000–2004, 2007 Through September 26, 2007 Watchlists Home Runs Barry Bonds 762 Hank Aaron 755 Babe Ruth 714 Willie Mays 660 Ken Griffey, Jr. 614 RBI Hank Aaron 2,297 Babe Ruth 2,217 Cap Anson 2,076 Barry Bonds 1,996 Lou Gehrig 1,995 Runs Rickey Henderson 2,295 Ty Cobb 2,246 Barry Bonds 2,227 Hank Aaron 2,174 Babe Ruth 2,174 Extra Base Hits Hank Aaron 1,477 Barry Bonds 1,440 Stan Musial 1,377 Babe Ruth 1,356 Willie Mays 1,323Total Bases Hank Aaron 6,856 Stan Musial 6,134 Willie Mays 6,066 Barry Bonds 5,976 Ty Cobb 5,854 Times on Base Pete Rose 5,929 Barry Bonds 5,599 Ty Cobb 5,532 Rickey Henderson 5,343 Carl Yastrzemski 5,304 Walks Barry Bonds 2,558 Rickey Henderson 2,190 Babe Ruth 2,062 Ted Williams 2,021 Joe Morgan 1,865 Intentional Walks Barry Bonds 688 Hank Aaron 293 Willie McCovey 260 Ken Griffey, Jr. 230 (active) George Brett 229The Road to 3,000 Hits 27. Roberto Clemente 3,000 R 28. Sam Rice 2,987 L 29. Sam Crawford 2,961 L 30. Frank Robinson 2,943 R 31. Barry Bonds 2,935 L Through 2008 Major League Baseball season Career distinctions Besides holding Major League career records in home runs (762), walks (2,558), and intentional walks (688), Bonds also leads all active players in RBI (1,996), on-base percentage (.444), runs (2,227), games (2,986), extra-base hits (1,440), at-bats per home run (12.92), and total bases (5,976). He is 2nd in doubles (601), slugging percentage (.607), stolen bases (514), at-bats (9,847), and hits (2,935), 6th in triples (77), 8th in sacrifice flies (91), and 9th in strikeouts (1,539), through September 26, 2007. Bonds is the lone member of the 500–500 club, which means he has hit at least 500 home runs (762) and stolen 500 bases (514). He is also one of only four baseball players all-time to be in the 40–40 club (1996), which means he hit 40 home runs (42) and stole 40 bases (40) in the same season; the other members are José Canseco, Alex Rodriguez and Alfonso Soriano. Records held Home runs in a single season (73), 2001 Home runs in a single post-season (8), 2002 Home runs against different pitchers (449) Home runs since turning 40 years old (74) Home runs in the year he turned 43 years old (28) Consecutive seasons with 30 or more home runs (13), 1992-2004 Slugging percentage in a single season (.863), 2001 Slugging percentage in a World Series (1.294), 2002 Consecutive seasons with .600 slugging percentage or higher (8), 1998-2005 On-base percentage in a single season (.609), 2004 Walks in a single season (232), 2004 Intentional walks in a single season (120), 2004 Consecutive games with a walk (18) MVP awards (7—closest competitors trail with 3), 1990, 1992-93, 2001-04 Consecutive MVP awards (4), 2001-04 National League Player of the Month selections (13—the next highest in either league is 8 by Frank Thomas, and the next highest in the N.L. is 6 by George Foster, Pete Rose and Dale Murphy) Oldest player (age 38) to win the National League batting title (.370) for the first time, 2002 Tied National League high with 4 home runs in the 2002 World Series, one short of major league record of 5, by Reggie Jackson of the 1977 Yankees. Records shared Consecutive plate appearances with a walk (7) Consecutive plate appearances reaching base (15) Tied with his father, Bobby, for most seasons with 30 home runs and 30 stolen bases (five) and are the only father-son members of the 30-30 club Home runs in a single post-season (8), 2002 Other accomplishments 5-time SF Giants Player of the Year (1998, 2001–04) 7-time Baseball America NL All-Star (1993, 1998, 2000–04) 3-Time Major League Player of the Year (1990, 2001, 2004) 3-Time Baseball America MLB Player of the Year (2001, 2003–04) 8-Time Gold Glove winner for NL Outfielder (1990–94, 1996–98) 12-Time Silver Slugger winner for NL Outfielder (1990–94, 1996–97, 2000–04) 14-time All-Star (1990, 1992–98, 2000–04, 2007) 3-Time NL Hank Aaron Award winner (2001–02, 2004) Listed at #6 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, the highest-ranked active player, in 2005. Named a finalist to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team in 1999, but not elected to the team in the fan balloting. Rating of 352 on Baseball-Reference.com's Hall of Fame monitor (100 is a good HOF candidate); 9th among all hitters, highest among hitters not in HOF yet. Only the second player to twice have a single-season slugging percentage over .800, with his record .863 in 2001 and .812 in 2004. Babe Ruth was the other, with .847 in 1920 and .846 in 1921. Became the first player in history with more times on base (376) than official times at bats (373) in 2004. This was due to the record number of walks, which count as a time on base but not a time at-bat. He had 135 hits, 232 walks, and 9 hit-by-pitches for the 376 number. With his father Bobby (332, 461), leads all father-son combinations in combined home runs (1,094) and stolen bases (975), respectively through September 26, 2007. Played minor league baseball in both Alaska and Hawaii. In 1983, he played for the Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks in the Alaska Baseball League, and in 1986, he played for the Hawaii Islanders in the Pacific Coast League. See also 300-300 club 30-30 club 40-40 club 50 home run club 500 home run club List of Major League Baseball batting champions List of Major League Baseball home run champions List of Major League Baseball Home Run Records List of Major League Baseball RBI Records List of Major League Baseball doubles records List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 400 doubles List of Major League Baseball players with 400 stolen bases List of Major League Baseball players with 500 stolen bases List of Major League Baseball RBI champions List of Major League Baseball runs scored champions List of major league players with 2,000 hits List of MLB individual streaks List of second generation MLB players Major League Baseball hitters with three home runs in one game MLB players who have hit 30 or more home runs before the All-Star break List of top 500 Major League Baseball home run hitters List of Barry Bonds 73 Home Runs Milestone home runs by Barry Bonds Progression of the single-season MLB home run record References External links barrybonds.com - Official website Championship succession boxes Award succession boxes Records succession boxes	Barry_Bonds \|@lemmatized barry:14 lamar:1 bond:181 bear:3 july:6 major:46 league:74 baseball:49 outfielder:3 currently:1 free:4 agent:4 son:4 former:6 star:9 bobby:7 godson:1 hall:4 famer:3 willie:10 may:22 nephew:1 olympian:1 rosie:2 distant:2 cousin:2 reggie:3 jackson:3 debut:2 pittsburgh:7 pirate:13 join:3 san:13 francisco:10 giant:31 stay:2 file:3 agency:2 follow:3 world:8 series:11 accomplishment:4 place:4 among:5 great:8 player:47 time:48 record:54 set:6 seven:4 valuable:2 award:15 include:10 four:9 consecutive:12 mvp:17 fourteen:1 eight:1 gold:5 glove:5 winner:4 hold:6 numerous:1 home:108 run:119 single:12 season:49 also:17 career:29 leader:3 walk:27 intentional:6 since:10 key:2 figure:1 bay:2 area:2 laboratory:2 co:2 operative:2 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1,129	Book_of_Esther	The Book of Esther is one of the books of the Ketuvim ("Writings") of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and of the Historical Books of the Old Testament. The Book of Esther or the Megillah is the basis for the Jewish celebration of Purim. Its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration, in the evening and again the following morning. Setting The Biblical Book of Esther is set in the third year of Ahasuerus, a king of Persia who is identified as Artaxerxes in the Greek version of the book (as well as by Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah, the Ethiopic translation and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus who identified him more precisely as Artaxerxes II <ref>E A W Budge, The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus, Gorgias Press LLC, reprinted 2003</ref>). It tells a story of palace intrigue and genocide thwarted by a Jewish queen of Persia. Plot summary The book commences with a feast organized by Ahasuerus, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards for all inhabitants of Shushan. Ahasuerus orders his wife Vashti to display her beauty before the guests. She refuses. Ahasuerus removes her as queen. Ahasuerus then orders all "beautiful young girls to be presented to him, so he can choose a new queen to replace Vashti. One of these is Esther, who had no parents and is being fostered by her cousin Mordechai. She finds favor in the king's eyes, and is made his new wife. Esther does not reveal that she is Jewish. Shortly afterwards, Mordechai discovers a plot by courtiers Bigthan and Teresh to assassinate Ahasuerus. They are apprehended and executed, and Mordechai's service to the king is recorded Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his prime minister. Mordechai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavor as he refuses to bow down to him. Having found out that Mordechai is Jewish, Haman plans to kill not just Mordechai but all the Jews in the empire. He obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and he casts lots to choose the date on which to do this - the thirteenth of the month of Adar. When Mordechai finds out about the plans he orders fasting. Esther discovers what has transpired; she requests that all Jews fast and pray for three days together with her, and on the third day she seeks an audience with Ahasuerus, during which she invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordechai and builds a gallows for him. That night, Ahasuerus suffers from insomnia, and when the court's records are read to him to help him sleep, he learns of the services rendered by Mordechai in the previous plot against his life. Ahasuerus is told that Mordechai has not received any recognition for saving the king's life. Just then, Haman appears, and King Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that he wishes to honor. Thinking that the man that the king wishes to honor is him, Haman says that the man should be dressed in the king's royal robes and led around on the king's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the king honours a man he wishes to reward!" To his horror, the king instructs Haman to do so to Mordechai. Later that evening, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet, at which she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her. Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation. The king comes back in at this moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier than before and he orders Haman hanged on the gallows that had been prepared for Mordechai. The previous decree against the Jews cannot be annulled, but the king allows the Jews to defend themselves during attacks. As a result, on 13 Adar, five hundred attackers and Haman's ten sons are killed in Shushan. Mordechai assumes a prominent position in Ahasuerus' court, and institutes an annual commemoration of the delivery of the Jewish people from annihilation. Esther chapters 9-10 Authorship and date Scroll of Esther (Megillah)Esther is usually dated to the third or fourth century BC. Jewish tradition regards it as a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text written by Mordecai. Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Baba Bathra 15a The Greek additions to Esther (which do not appear in the Jewish/Hebrew; see "Additions to Esther" below) are dated to around the late 2nd century or early 1st BC. Freedman, David Noel; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN:978-0802824004 p.428 Debate over historicity As early as the eighteenth century, the lack of clear corroboration of any of the details of the story of the Book of Esther with what was known of Persian history from classical sources led some scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate. It was argued that the form of the story seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely. From the late nineteenth century onwards, several scholars explored the theory that the Book of Esther actually was a myth related to the spring festival of Purim which may have had a mixed West-Semitic/Akkadian/Canaanite origin. According to this interpretation the tale celebrates the triumph of the Babylonian deities Marduk and Ishtar (which seem phonetically similar to the names of the heroes in this book - Esther for Ishtar and Marduk for Mordechai) over the deities of Elam or more likely the renewal of life in the spring and the casting out of the scapegoat of the old year. Although this view is not widely held by the religious scholars today, it remains well known. It is explored in depth in the works of Theodor Gaster. Traditionalists like Joyce G Baldwin, a principal of Trinity College, Bristol, have fought back, arguing that Esther can be seen to derive from real history. For example, some historians occasionally give strong credence to the narrative based upon the traditions of a people. Thus, because the feast of Purim (which is a retelling of the book of Esther) is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event. Also, based on the derivation of "Ahasuerus" from "Xerxes", identification of Ahasuerus with Xerxes I is common and parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes and the events in Esther have been noted. Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Dr. Jacob Hoschander wrote The Book of Esther in the Light of History, in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the still more-or-less monotheistic Zoroastrianism and those who wanted to bring back the Magian worship of Mithra and Anahita. Some Christian readers have also tried to see the story as a Christian allegory, in the same vein as the Song of Solomon. The various major readings are considered separately in the sections that follow: Esther and Babylonian mythology The History of Religions school of thought, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, argued against the historicity of the Bible by drawing comparisons between Biblical narratives and pagan myths. The fact that the events of the Book of Esther give rise to the spring festival of Purim was a reason for scholars arguing that the story emerged from a Babylonian seasonal myth. As the 19th/early 20th century scholars did not have the benefit of the Ugaritic texts, they sought an origin in Akkadian tradition rather than the more local West Semitic cultures. In particular, these scholars drew comparisons and parallels between individuals in the Book of Esther and various real and conjectured Babylonian and Elamite gods and goddesses: The name Esther was thought to derive from the similarly sounding Ishtar, the chief Babylonian goddess. Her original Hebrew name Hadassah was compared with Akkadian hadashatu said to be a title of Ishtar meaning "bride". The custom of preparing homentashn at Purim is reminiscent of a description of Ishtar in Jeremiah 7:18, when it was customary "to make cakes to the Queen of Heaven." The name Mordechai was thought to derive from the Babylonian god Marduk. Marduk is a cousin of Ishtar in Chaldean mythology, as was Mordechai a cousin of Esther. The name Vashti was thought to derive from an Elamite goddess named Mashti, although Vashti is a Persian name. The name Haman was thought to derive from an Elamite demon named Homayun or Humayun or an Elamite god named Uman or Human (or other variations) or alternatively a Babylonian demon. The festival of Purim was thought to derive from various real and conjectured Babylonian or Elamite festivals, including an alleged Elamite or Babylonian festival marking the victory of Ishtar and Marduk over Uman and Mashti, similar to the triumph of Esther and Mordechai over their rivals Haman and Vashti. Other suggestions were that the Babylonian New Year festival (Sumerian Zagmuk, Akkadian Akitu, called Sacaea by Berosus) honouring Marduk - it was suggested that purim ("lots") originally referred to a belief that the gods chose one's fate for the year by lots; the Persian festival of Farvardigan; or the Greek festival of Pithoigia ("wine flask opening"), and it was noted that Hebrew for wine press is purah resembling purim. These arguments were subsequently thought to be flawed, though there is evidence both for and against them: Ishtar was well known to the Jews who officially opposed her worship. Her name in Hebrew scriptures is Ashtoreth which is phonetically unrelated to Esther despite the superficial similarity when transliterated into English (consonantal root vs ). Although the vowelization of the Hebrew name is thought to be a deliberate mispronunciation reflecting the vowels of the word bosheth denoting a shameful thing, the consonants accurately reflect the original name. "Esther" is most commonly understood to be related to the Persian word for star (cognate with English star) and the Median word for myrtle. (See Esther for a discussion of the meaning of the name.) The Akkadian hadashatu was not a standard title of Ishtar. It occurs once in a description of Ishtar as a "new bride" and its meaning is "new" not "bride". It is a cognate of Hebrew hadash (with a guttural h) and is phonetically unrelated to "Hadassah" (consonantal root vs ). The Hamantaschen custom originated amongst Jews of Eastern Europe in relatively recent times. In Hebrew they are called "the ears of Haman." The name Mordechai is indeed most commonly connected with that of the god Marduk. It is considered equivalent to Marduka or Marduku, well attested in the Persepolis texts as a genuine name of the period. The Talmud relates that his full name was Mordecai Bilshan (Megillah 15a). This has been understood as the Babylonian Marduk-bel-shunu ("Marduk is their lord"). Similar accounts of Jews in exile being assigned names relating to Babylonian gods is seen in the Book of Daniel. Babylonian gods and goddesses are indeed organized into families making many including Marduk and Ishtar some form of cousins but this is never a point explicitly stated in Babylonian texts. An Elamite goddess named Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources, whereas "Vashti" can be understood as a genuine Persian name meaning "beautiful". Elamite theophoric elements such as Khuban, Khumban or Khumma are known but are pronounced with an initial guttural consonant and not as Uman or Human or Haman, and are phonetically unrelated to the Persian name Hamayun, Homayun or Humayun, meaning "magnificent". The Babylonian demon is named Humbaba or Huwawa which is also pronounced with an initial guttural consonant kh and unrelated to Haman. The 19th century Bible critic Jensen associated it with the Elamite god Humban, a view dismissed by later scholars. An Elamite or Babylonian festival marking a victory of Ishtar and Marduk over alleged Uman and Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources. The Babylonian New Year occurs at a very different date from Purim (in the month of Nisan not Adar). A decision of fate by lots by the gods is not attested in any sources. Farvardigan was a five day commemoration of the dead bearing no resemblance to Purim. Pithoigia also occurs at a different time to Purim and although Purim is celebrated with wine drinking this is not its focus; moreover the plural of the Hebrew for wine press is puroth not purim. Nonetheless, there are some similarities between some Baybylonain myths and the story of Esther. As for Haman, several etymologies have been proposed for this name. It may be related to the Persian name Omanes, recorded by Greek historians or with the Persian name Vohuman meaning "good thoughts". It may be derived from the Persian word Hamayun meaning "illustrious" or "magnificent", or from Homayun, or Humayun, or from the sacred drink Haoma. Historical reading Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther, most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes II (ruled 405 - 359 B.C.) although in the past it was often assumed that he was Xerxes I (ruled 486 - 465 B.C.). The Hebrew Ahasuerus is most likely derived from Persian Khshayarsha, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem with the exception of a domineering Queen consort Amestris, a daughter of one of his generals, Otanes. (Ctesias however refers to a father-in-law and general of Xerxes named Onaphas). Amestris has often been identified with Vashti in the past. The identification is problematic however - Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I while Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. (Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.) The name Marduka or Marduku (considered equivalent to Mordecai) has been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius, and may refer to up to four individuals with the possibility that one of these is the Biblical Mordecai. The Septuagint version of Esther however translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes - a Greek name derived from the Persian: Artakhshatra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks and the Midrashic text, Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II. This is not to say that the names are equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by Josephus as well as in Septuagint occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Rather the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Arshu, understood as a shortening of Achshiyarshu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Khshayarsha (Xerxes) through which the Hebrew Achashverosh (Ahasuerus) is derived. Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, Oxford University Press, 1923 . Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Khshayarsha. Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465 - 424 B.C.) - the latter had a Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, who was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424 - 405 B.C.). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene. Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625 - 585 B.C.). In certain manuscripts of Tobit the former is called Achiachar which like the Greek: Cyaxares is thought to be derived from Persian: Akhuwakhshatra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5-6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 B.C.. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested. Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods. (Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana, however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.) Whenever the book was written and whatever the historicity of the events recounted in it, clearly by the time it was written the term "Yehudim" (יהודים - Jews) already gained a meaning quite close to what it means up to the present - i.e. an ethnic-religious group, scattered in many countries, organised in autonomous communities and the target of intense hatred by fanatic groups. Allegorical reading There are many classical Jewish readings of allegories into the book of Esther, mostly from Hasidic sources. They say that the literal meaning is true, however there is hidden behind this historical account many allegories. Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and God. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the Song of Solomon and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the Shekinah. Relation to the rest of the BibleEsther is (in the Hebrew version) one of only two books of the Bible that do not explicitly mention God (the other is the Song of Songs, which is sometimes read as a metaphor for God's relationship with the Israelites). It is the only book of the Tanakh that is not represented among the Dead Sea scrolls. It has often been compared to the first half of the Book of Daniel and to the deuterocanonical Books of Tobit and Judith for its subject matter. The story is also the first time that the word Jew (יְהוּדִי) was used. Before this, Jews were referred to as Hebrews or Israelites. Moreover, whatever the historical validity of the specific events depicted, the book clearly reflects a situation in which Jews were an ethnic-religious minority - scattered in many countries, organised in self-contained, self-governing communities and subjected to intensive and sometimes violent hatred by some members of the surrounding society. Clearly, whenever the book was actually composed, a phenomenon which can already be identified as a kind of antisemitism was in existence - whether or not Haman is an actual historical character. Additions to Esther An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation, which then was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate; additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, perhaps because it was felt that the above-mentioned lack of mention of God was inappropriate in a holy book. Jerome recognized them as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4-16:24. However, some modern Catholic English Bibles restore the Septuagint order, such as Esther in the NAB. By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite. The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint –- Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique, and reflect Luther's antisemitism, although his antisemitism is disputed, such as in the biography of Luther by Derek Wilson, which points out that Luther's anger at the Jews was not at their race but at their theology. The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. While modern Roman Catholic scholars openly recognize the Greek additions as clearly being additions to the text, the Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England Article VI: OF THE SUFFICIENCY OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES FOR SALVATION : "The rest of the Book of Esther". Some scholars suggest that Additions to Esther is the work of an Egyptian Jew, writing around 170 BCE, who sought to give the book a more religious tone, and to suggest that the Jews were saved from destruction because of their piety. Esther Rabbah includes all of Additions to Esther save the "letter texts". It is these "letter texts" that contain the ahistorical assertions that Haman was a Greek. Reinterpretations of the story The 2006 film One Night with the King is loosely based on the Biblical story of Esther. The classic 1960 Hollywood film version of the story, Esther and the King was directed by Raoul Walsh starring Joan Collins and Richard Egan. In 1992 a 30-minute, fully-animated video, twelfth in Hanna-Barbera's bestselling The Greatest Adventure series, titled Queen Esther features the voices of Helen Slater as Queen Esther, Dean Jones as King Ahasuerus, Werner Klemperer as Haman, and Ron Rifkin as Mordecai. Hanna-Barbera's Greatest Adventure Series Videos - Queen Esther The Greatest Adventure Stories From The Bible There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by Millais.VeggieTales also made an animated version entitled Esther: The Girl Who Became Queen. References External links What is Megillah? The Book of Esther: A Historical Perspective Chanting of the Megillat Esther Classes on the Megilla Chanting Megillat Esther, Baghdadi Tune Text and translations Jewish translations: Esther (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Mechon Mamre Full text, Aleppo Codex: text of Esther in Hebrew Christian translations: Online Bible at GospelHall.org The Book of Esther Full text, KJV, (also available at Arabic) Esther in the NAB Esther NRSV translation with photos of Susa Introduction and analysis Early 20th century views The 1910 Jewish Encyclopedia: Early 20th century critical perspective as well a discussion of traditional Jewish views of Esther. The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica: Early 20th century critical perspective. The 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia: Counter arguments to early 20th century criticism. Modern scholarship Introduction to the Old Testament: Esther Beal, Timothy K. The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Derrida, Levinas Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin: Liberal Jewish view. Michael Fox Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmanns, 2001. 333 pp., highly-regarded literary analysis Sasson, Jack M. “Esther” in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335-341, literary view The Historicity of Megillat Esther: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting an historical reading of Esther Esther, Book of: A Christian perspective of the book. Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by Theodor Gaster. 1950. White, Sidnie Ann. “Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora” in Newsom Commentaries and other books Clines, David J.A. The Esther Scroll. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, 30. Sheffield, England: Sheffield, 1984. Fischer, James A. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986. Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001. Levenson, Jon D. Esther. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997. McConville, John C.L. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985. Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. Paton, Lewis B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther''. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908.	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1,130	Churches_Uniting_in_Christ	Churches Uniting in Christ (CUIC) brings together ten mainline American denominations (including both predominantly white and predominantly black churches), and was inaugurated on January 20, 2002. CUIC is the successor organization to the Consultation on Church Union (COCU) founded in 1962. The original task of COCU was to negotiate a merger between its ten member denominations; however, the membership of the denominations overwhelmingly rejected a merger when it was proposed in 1969. With the failure of the merger proposal, COCU then turned to negotiating "full communion", whereby each member church would retain its own autonomy and identity, while recognizing the validity of the rites and ministry of the others and accepting them as true churches. In 1991 it was proposed that this was to be done on the historic model of bishop, presbyter and deacon. However, the Presbyterian Church USA was unwilling to implement some of the changes to its internal rules that this model would require, and the Episcopal Church did not feel able to participate at the time. It was then proposed that intercommunion be established without a resolution of the ministry issue, which would be resolved by 2007 by means of intensive dialog between the churches. This modified proposal was then accepted by the member churches. CUIC is not a merger, but rather an intercommunion agreement whereby each member recognizes the others as part of the true church, and recognizes its rites (baptism, communion) as valid. The original proposal for CUIC also had a full recognition of each other's ministers, but the Episcopal Church's insistence on the historic episcopate, which conflicts with the system of organization and governance in some other member churches (especially in the Presbyterian Church USA and the United Church of Christ), has meant that this part of the CUIC proposal has been put on hold. CUIC will however hold negotiations once it is established, possibly leading to a full recognition of each other's ministers within the next few years. Full members African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Christian Methodist Episcopal Church The Episcopal Church (TEC) International Council of Community Churches Moravian Church Northern Province Presbyterian Church (USA) United Church of Christ United Methodist Church Partners in mission and dialogue Evangelical Lutheran Church in America See also Christian ecumenism Christian Churches Together External links Churches Uniting in Christ homepage Christian Century, May 10, 2000	Churches_Uniting_in_Christ \|@lemmatized church:27 unite:3 christ:5 cuic:6 bring:1 together:2 ten:2 mainline:1 american:1 denomination:3 include:1 predominantly:2 white:1 black:1 inaugurate:1 january:1 successor:1 organization:2 consultation:1 union:1 cocu:3 found:1 original:2 task:1 negotiate:2 merger:4 member:6 however:3 membership:1 overwhelmingly:1 reject:1 propose:3 failure:1 proposal:4 turn:1 full:4 communion:2 whereby:2 would:3 retain:1 autonomy:1 identity:1 recognize:3 validity:1 rite:2 ministry:2 others:2 accept:2 true:2 historic:2 model:2 bishop:1 presbyter:1 deacon:1 presbyterian:3 usa:3 unwilling:1 implement:1 change:1 internal:1 rule:1 require:1 episcopal:6 feel:1 able:1 participate:1 time:1 intercommunion:2 establish:2 without:1 resolution:1 issue:1 resolve:1 mean:2 intensive:1 dialog:1 modify:1 rather:1 agreement:1 part:2 baptism:1 valid:1 also:2 recognition:2 minister:2 insistence:1 episcopate:1 conflict:1 system:1 governance:1 especially:1 united:2 put:1 hold:2 negotiation:1 possibly:1 lead:1 within:1 next:1 year:1 african:2 methodist:4 zion:1 christian:5 disciple:1 tec:1 international:1 council:1 community:1 moravian:1 northern:1 province:1 partner:1 mission:1 dialogue:1 evangelical:1 lutheran:1 america:1 see:1 ecumenism:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 century:1 may:1 \|@bigram bishop_presbyter:1 presbyter_deacon:1 historic_episcopate:1 methodist_episcopal:3 evangelical_lutheran:1 external_link:1
1,131	Geography_of_Kuwait	Satellite image of Kuwait Kuwait is situated in Southwest Asia, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Once a small Persian Gulf sheikhdom known locally as a center for pearl diving and boat construction, Kuwait came to international prominence in the post-World War II era largely because of its enormous oil revenues. Yet its history as an autonomous political entity is much older, dating back to the eighteenth century. At that time, the town of Kuwait was settled by migrants from central Arabia who arrived at what was then a lightly populated fishing village under the suzerainty of the Bani Khalid tribe of Arabia. Members of one family, the Al Sabah, have ruled Kuwait from that time. Since2009 Kuwait has been ruled by Shaykh Jabir al Ahmad al Jabir Al Sabah and his designated successor, Shaykh Saad al Abd Allah as Salim Al Sabah, the prime minister and crown prince. In the postwar period, these men have supported, with some ambivalence, the strengthening of popular participation in decision making as provided for in the constitution. Kuwait is located at the far northwestern corner of the Persian Gulf. It is a small state of about 200.000 square kilometers, a little smaller than the state of New Jersey. At its most distant points, it is about 200 kilometers north to south and 170 kilometers east to west. Geographic coordinates Boundaries Kuwait's boundaries and other features Shaped roughly like a triangle, Kuwait borders the Persian Gulf to the east, with 195 kilometers of coast. Kuwait includes within its territory nine Persian Gulf islands, two of which, Bubiyan (the largest) and Warbah, are largely uninhabited but strategically important. The island of Faylakah, at the mouth of Kuwait Bay, is densely inhabited. It is believed to be the outermost point of the ancient civilization of Dilmun, which was centered in what is present-day Bahrain. Faylakah is the site of an ancient Greek temple built by the forces of Alexander the Great. Kuwait's most prominent geographic feature is Kuwait Bay, which indents the shoreline for about forty kilometers, providing natural protection for the port of Kuwait and accounting for nearly onehalf the state's shoreline. To the south and west, Kuwait shares a long border of 250 kilometers with Saudi Arabia. The boundary between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia was set by the Treaty of Al Uqayr in 1922, which also established the Kuwait-Saudi Arabia neutral zone of 5,700 square kilometers. In 1966 Kuwait and Saudi Arabia agreed to divide the Neutral Zone; the partitioning agreement making each country responsible for administration in its portion was signed in December 1969. The resources in the area, since known as the Divided Zone, are not affected by the agreement, and the oil from onshore and offshore fields continues to be shared equally between the two countries. The third side of the triangle is the 240 kilometers of historically contested border to the north and west that Kuwait shares with Iraq. Although the Iraqi government, which had first asserted a claim to rule Kuwait in 1938, recognized the borders with Kuwait in 1963 (based on agreements made earlier in the century), it continued to press Kuwait for control over Bubiyan and Warbah islands through the 1960s and 1970s. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and, shortly thereafter, formally incorporated the entire country into Iraq. Under United Nations (UN) Security Council Resolution 687, after the restoration of Kuwaiti sovereignty in 1991, a UN commission undertook formal demarcation of the borders on the basis of those agreed to in 1963. The boundary was demarcated in 1992, but Iraq refuses to accept the commission's findings. Climate Dust storm over Kuwait and Southern Iraq, April 16, 2003 Kuwait has a desert climate, hot and dry. Rainfall varies from seventy-five to 150 millimeters a year across the country; actual rainfall has ranged from twenty-five millimeters a year to as much as 325 millimeters. In summer, average daily high temperatures range from 42°C to 46°C; the highest recorded temperature is 52°C. The lowest official temperature was -7°C at Kuwait City International Airport in January 1964. Flakes of snow were reported in some inland areas in that month. The summers are relentlessly long, punctuated mainly by dramatic dust storms in June and July when northwesterly winds cover the cities in sand. In late summer, which is more humid, there are occasional sharp, brief thunderstorms. By November, all of the hot weather is over, and colder winter weather sets in, dropping temperatures to as low as 0°C at night; daytime temperature is in the 15 - 20°C range. Frost occurs when the temperatures are at least below 5°C; rain is more common and falls mostly in the winter and spring. Kuwait's Winter is colder compared to all the other Persian Gulf countries like Bahrain, Qatar or Oman. Kuwait experiences colder weather because is in a northern position, and because of cold winds from upper Iraq and Iran. Geology Topography The land was formed in a recent geologic era. In the south, limestone rises in a ong, north-oriented dome that lies beneath the surface. It is within and below this formation that the principal oil fields, Kuwait's most important natural resource, are located. In the west and north, layers of sand, gravel, silt, and clay overlie the limestone to a depth of more than 210 meters. The upper portions of these beds are part of a mass of sediment deposited by a great wadi whose most recent channel was the Wadi al Batin, the broad shallow valley forming the western boundary of the country. On the western side of Ar Rawdatayn geological formation, a freshwater aquifer was discovered in 1960 and became Kuwait's principal water source. The supply is insufficient to support extensive irrigation, but it is tapped to supplement the distilled water supply that fills most of the country's needs. The only other exploited aquifer lies in the permeable zone in the top of the limestone of the Ash Shuaybah field south and east of the city of Kuwait. Unlike water from the Ar Rawdatayn aquifer, water from the Ash Shuaybah aquifer is brackish. Millions of liters a day of this water are produced for commercial and household purposes. Area boundaries Area Total: 17,820 km² Land: 17,820 km² Water: 0 km² Area--comparative Slightly smaller than New Jersey Land boundaries Total: 462 km Border countries: Iraq 240 km, Saudi Arabia 222 km Coastline 499 km Maritime claims Territorial sea: 12 nm Elevation extremes Lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m Highest point: unnamed location 306 m Resources and land use Natural resources Petroleum, fish, shrimp, natural gas Land use Arable land: 0.84% Permanent crops: 0.17% Other: 98.99% (2005 est.) Irrigated land 130 km² (2003 est.) Environmental concerns Natural hazards Sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April; they bring heavy rain which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust storms occur throughout the year, but are most common between March and August Environment--current issues Limited natural fresh water resources; some of world's largest and most sophisticated desalination facilities provide much of the water; air and water pollution; desertification Environment--international agreements Party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection Signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping Geography--note Strategic location at head of Persian Gulf See also Kuwait List of islands of Kuwait References	Geography_of_Kuwait \|@lemmatized satellite:1 image:1 kuwait:33 situate:1 southwest:1 asia:1 border:7 persian:8 gulf:8 iraq:8 saudi:6 arabia:8 small:4 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1,132	Affidavit	An affidavit is a formal sworn statement of fact, signed by the declarant (who is called the affiant or deponent) and witnessed (as to the veracity of the affiant's signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a notary public. The name is Medieval Latin for he has declared upon oath. Uses of affidavits include: To allow evidence to be gathered from witnesses or participants who may not be available to testify in person before the court, or who may otherwise fear for their safety if their true identities are revealed in court. To obtain a declaration on a legal document, such as an application for voter registration, that the information provided by the applicant is truthful to the best of the applicant's knowledge. If, after signing such a declaration, the information is found to be deliberately untrue with the intent to deceive, the applicant may face perjury charges. Affidavits may be written in the first or third person, depending on who drafted the document. If in the first person, the document's component parts are: a commencement which identifies the affiant; the individual averments, almost always numbered as mandated by law, each one making a separate claim; a conclusion generally stating that everything is true, under penalty of perjury, fine, or imprisonment; and an attestation clause, usually a jurat, at the end certifying the affiant made oath and the date. If an affidavit is notarized or authenticated, it will also include a caption with a venue and title in reference to judicial proceedings. In some cases, an introductory clause, called a preambule, is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority. United States In American jurisprudence, under the rules for hearsay, admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual (especially if the affiant is not available for cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar. Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence. An affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witness' recollection. Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence. If the affiant is a party in the case, the affiant's opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence, as statements by a party-opponent are not considered hearsay. Some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion. In such a case, a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit: The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy. The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment. The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit. The acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions. Equally, the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court (for swearing the affidavit)is not a given. This matter is addressed by the use of the Apostille, a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the 1961 Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalization for Foreign Public Documents. Documents which have been notarized by a notary public, and certain other documents, and then certified with a conformant apostille are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the Hague Convention. Thus most Affidavits now require to be Apostilled if used for cross border issues. Ireland Affidavits are made in a similar way as to England and Wales, although "make oath" is sometimes omitted. A declaration may be substituted for an affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths. The person making the affidavit is known as the deponent but does not sign the affidavit. The affidavit concludes in the standard format "sworn (declared) before me, [name of commissioner for oaths/solicitor], a commissioner for oaths (solicitor), on the [date] at [location] in the county/city of [county/city], and I know the deponent (declarant)", and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths. See also Statutory declaration Deposition (law)	Affidavit \|@lemmatized affidavit:19 formal:1 sworn:3 statement:3 fact:4 sign:5 declarant:2 call:3 affiant:8 deponent:3 witness:3 veracity:1 signature:1 taker:1 oath:7 notary:2 public:3 name:2 medieval:1 latin:1 declare:2 upon:2 us:1 include:3 allow:1 evidence:7 gather:1 participant:1 may:9 available:2 testify:1 person:5 court:7 otherwise:2 fear:1 safety:1 true:2 identity:1 reveal:1 obtain:1 declaration:4 legal:3 document:8 application:1 voter:1 registration:1 information:2 provide:1 applicant:3 truthful:1 best:1 knowledge:1 find:2 deliberately:1 untrue:1 intent:1 deceive:1 face:1 perjury:2 charge:1 write:1 first:2 third:1 depend:1 draft:1 component:1 part:1 commencement:1 identify:1 individual:1 averment:1 almost:1 always:1 number:1 mandate:1 law:2 one:2 make:7 separate:1 claim:1 conclusion:1 generally:1 state:2 everything:1 penalty:2 fine:1 imprisonment:1 attestation:1 clause:2 usually:2 jurat:1 end:1 certify:3 date:2 notarize:2 authenticate:1 also:2 caption:1 venue:1 title:1 reference:1 judicial:2 proceeding:1 case:4 introductory:1 preambule:1 added:1 attest:1 personally:1 appear:2 authenticating:1 authority:1 united:1 american:1 jurisprudence:1 rule:1 hearsay:2 admission:1 unsupported:1 unusual:1 especially:1 cross:2 examination:1 regard:1 material:2 dispositive:1 matter:2 bar:1 dead:1 incapacitate:1 cannot:1 locate:1 accept:4 presence:1 corroborate:1 reflect:1 good:1 grasp:1 close:1 time:1 actual:1 event:1 use:6 refresh:2 recollection:2 admissible:1 party:2 opponent:2 successful:1 admit:1 consider:1 type:1 motion:3 unless:1 accompany:1 independent:2 support:2 need:1 filing:1 attorney:1 certain:2 assumption:1 wit:1 place:1 swear:3 testimony:1 promote:1 economy:1 lawyer:3 officer:2 know:3 false:1 swearing:1 could:1 ground:1 severe:1 disbarment:1 would:1 able:1 present:1 detailed:1 prove:1 set:1 forth:1 acceptance:3 society:1 confirm:1 jurisdiction:1 equally:1 give:1 address:1 apostille:2 mean:1 legalization:2 international:1 term:1 hague:2 convention:2 abolish:1 requirement:1 foreign:1 conformant:1 nation:1 thus:1 require:1 apostilled:1 border:1 issue:1 ireland:1 similar:1 way:1 england:1 wale:1 although:1 sometimes:1 omit:1 substitute:1 oppose:1 conclude:1 standard:1 format:1 commissioner:3 oaths:1 solicitor:2 location:1 county:2 city:2 stamp:1 see:1 statutory:1 deposition:1 \|@bigram sworn_statement:2 voter_registration:1 admissible_evidence:1 swear_oath:1
1,133	Lammas	In some English-speaking countries in the Northern Hemisphere, August 1 is Lammas Day (loaf-mass day), the festival of the first wheat harvest of the year. On this day it was customary to bring to church a loaf made from the new crop. In many parts of England, tenants were bound to present freshly harvested wheat to their landlords on or before the first day of August. In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, where it is referred to regularly, it is called "the feast of first fruits". The blessing of new fruits was performed annually in both the Eastern and Western Churches on the first, or the sixth, of August. The Sacramentary of Pope Gregory I (died 604) specifies the sixth. In mediæval times the feast was known as the "Gule of August", but the meaning of "gule" is unknown. Ronald Hutton suggests that it may be an Anglicisation of Gŵyl Awst, the Welsh name for August 1 meaning "feast of August", but this is not certain. If so, this points to a pre-Christian origin for Lammas among the Anglo-Saxons and a link to the Gaelic festival of Lughnasadh. 'Gule' could also come from 'Geohhol' (Old English form of 'jule') and thus Lammas Day was the 'Jule of August'. There are several historical references to it being known as Lambess eve, such as 'Publications of the Scottish Historical Society' 1964 and this alternate name is the origin of the Lambess surname, just as Hallowmass and Christmas were also adopted as familial titles. People in the Southern Hemisphere that celebrate Lammas do so February 1, to reflect the 6 month offset of seasons on the other side of the planet. Neopaganism Lammas is a neopagan holiday, being a cross-quarter holiday between the Summer Solstice (Litha) and Fall Equinox (Mabon). It is opposite Candlemas or Imbolc, in early February. Lammas takes place with the Sun near the midpoint of Leo. Candlemas takes place with the Sun near the midpoint of Aquarius. Other uses Lammas is one of the Scottish quarter days. Lammas means sheep in Estonian and Finnish. Lammas leaves or lammas growth refers to a second crop of leaves produced in high summer by deciduous trees in temperate countries to replace those lost to insect damage. They often differ slightly in shape, texture and/or hairiness from the earlier leaves. References The Stations of the Sun, Ronald Hutton, Oxford 1996 (1.3.19),Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare, "Come Lammas-eve at night shall she [Juliet] be fourteen." 'Publications of the Scottish Historical Society' 1964 See also Harvest festival Harvest Home Ould Lammas Fair Leyton Marshes External links Pretanic World Pre-Christian Holidays & Pre-Christian Traditions of Christian Holidays from Britain and Ireland Gule of August Observations on Popular Antiquities	Lammas \|@lemmatized english:2 speaking:1 country:2 northern:1 hemisphere:2 august:8 lammas:12 day:6 loaf:2 mass:1 festival:3 first:4 wheat:2 harvest:4 year:1 customary:1 bring:1 church:2 make:1 new:2 crop:2 many:1 part:1 england:1 tenant:1 bind:1 present:1 freshly:1 landlord:1 anglo:2 saxon:2 chronicle:1 refer:1 regularly:1 call:1 feast:3 fruit:2 blessing:1 perform:1 annually:1 eastern:1 western:1 sixth:2 sacramentary:1 pope:1 gregory:1 die:1 specify:1 mediæval:1 time:1 know:2 gule:4 meaning:2 unknown:1 ronald:2 hutton:2 suggest:1 may:1 anglicisation:1 gŵyl:1 awst:1 welsh:1 name:2 certain:1 point:1 pre:3 christian:4 origin:2 among:1 link:2 gaelic:1 lughnasadh:1 could:1 also:3 come:2 geohhol:1 old:1 form:1 jule:2 thus:1 several:1 historical:3 reference:2 lambess:2 eve:2 publication:2 scottish:3 society:2 alternate:1 surname:1 hallowmas:1 christmas:1 adopt:1 familial:1 title:1 people:1 southern:1 celebrate:1 february:2 reflect:1 month:1 offset:1 season:1 side:1 planet:1 neopaganism:1 neopagan:1 holiday:4 cross:1 quarter:2 summer:2 solstice:1 litha:1 fall:1 equinox:1 mabon:1 opposite:1 candlemas:2 imbolc:1 early:2 take:2 place:2 sun:3 near:2 midpoint:2 leo:1 aquarius:1 uses:1 one:1 mean:1 sheep:1 estonian:1 finnish:1 leave:1 growth:1 refers:1 second:1 leaf:2 produce:1 high:1 deciduous:1 tree:1 temperate:1 replace:1 lose:1 insect:1 damage:1 often:1 differ:1 slightly:1 shape:1 texture:1 hairiness:1 station:1 oxford:1 romeo:1 juliet:2 william:1 shakespeare:1 night:1 shall:1 fourteen:1 see:1 home:1 ould:1 fair:1 leyton:1 marshes:1 external:1 pretanic:1 world:1 tradition:1 britain:1 ireland:1 observation:1 popular:1 antiquity:1 \|@bigram northern_hemisphere:1 anglo_saxon:2 saxon_chronicle:1 pope_gregory:1 ronald_hutton:2 southern_hemisphere:1 summer_solstice:1 deciduous_tree:1 romeo_juliet:1 external_link:1
1,134	Garage_Inc.	Garage Inc. is a cover album by American heavy metal band Metallica, released in 1998 (see 1998 in music). It includes recorded cover versions of other artists' songs, all of their b-side covers released up to that point, and the entire The $5.98 E.P.: Garage Days Re-Revisited, which had gone out of print since its original release in 1987. The title is a combination of Garage Days Re-Revisited and their song Damage, Inc. Over 5 million copies have been sold in the US as certified by the RIAA. Reception Rolling Stone (12/10/99, p.122) - 4 Stars (out of 5) -"Gloriously hard as the album is, you can't miss Metallica's good natured side coming through." Entertainment Weekly (12/18/98, p.84) - "We'll have to wait until Metallica's next 'proper' album to find out if this trip to the garage recharges their batteries. Still, all things considered, Garage Inc. is an intermittently exhilarating joyride." - Rating: B- CMJ (12/21/98, p.29) - "Those who still relate to the adolescent angst of the 'Metallicats' earliest days will find plenty to like on Garage Inc." Track listing Disc one These tracks were recorded in September-October 1998 for the Garage Inc. album. Disc two These tracks are a collection of B-sides from artists Metallica were inspired by throughout the early years of the band. Personnel James Hetfield – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, lead guitar on "Whiskey in the Jar" Kirk Hammett – lead guitar Jason Newsted – bass, backing vocals Lars Ulrich – drums, percussion Cliff Burton – bass on "Blitzkrieg" and "Am I Evil?" Guests artists on "Tuesday's Gone" Pepper Keenan of Corrosion of Conformity Jerry Cantrell and Sean Kinney of Alice in Chains "Big" Jim Martin of Faith No More John Popper of Blues Traveler on harmonica Gary Rossington of Lynyrd Skynyrd on additional guitar Les Claypool of Primus on banjo Production Bob Rock, James Hetfield, Lars Ulrich – producers Mike Clink, Brian Dobbs, Jeffrey Norman, Csaba Petocz, Randy Staub, Toby Wright – engineers Leff Lefferts, Chris Manning, Kent Matcke – assistant engineers Michael Fraser, Flemming Rasmussen, Randy Staub – mixing George Marino – mastering George Marino – remastering Paul DeCarli, Mike Gillies – digital editing Andie Airfix – design Ross Halfin – cover design Anton Corbijn, Ross Halfin, Mark Leialoha – photography David Fricke – liner notes Charts Album Year Chart Position 1998 The Billboard 200 2 1998 Top Canadian Albums 3 Singles Year Single Chart Position 1998 "Turn the Page" Mainstream Rock Tracks 1 1999 "Die, Die My Darling" Mainstream Rock Tracks 26 1999 "Turn the Page" Modern Rock Tracks 39 1999 "Whiskey in the Jar" Mainstream Rock Tracks 4 Certification Country Sales CertificationUnited States3,041,0003x Platinum Awards Grammy Awards Year Winner Category 1991 "Stone Cold Crazy" Best Metal Performance Year Winner Category 2000 "Whiskey in the Jar" Best Hard Rock Performance References External links Information about the album on the official website	Garage_Inc. \|@lemmatized garage:7 inc:5 cover:4 album:6 american:1 heavy:1 metal:2 band:2 metallica:4 release:3 see:1 music:1 include:1 record:2 version:1 artist:3 song:2 b:3 side:3 point:1 entire:1 e:1 p:4 day:3 revisit:2 go:2 print:1 since:1 original:1 title:1 combination:1 damage:1 million:1 copy:1 sell:1 u:1 certify:1 riaa:1 reception:1 roll:1 stone:2 star:1 gloriously:1 hard:2 miss:1 good:1 natured:1 come:1 entertainment:1 weekly:1 wait:1 next:1 proper:1 find:2 trip:1 recharge:1 battery:1 still:2 thing:1 consider:1 intermittently:1 exhilarate:1 joyride:1 rating:1 cmj:1 relate:1 adolescent:1 angst:1 metallicats:1 early:2 plenty:1 like:1 track:7 listing:1 disc:2 one:1 september:1 october:1 two:1 collection:1 inspire:1 throughout:1 year:5 personnel:1 james:2 hetfield:2 lead:3 vocal:2 rhythm:1 guitar:4 whiskey:3 jar:3 kirk:1 hammett:1 jason:1 newsted:1 bass:2 back:1 lars:2 ulrich:2 drum:1 percussion:1 cliff:1 burton:1 blitzkrieg:1 evil:1 guest:1 tuesday:1 pepper:1 keenan:1 corrosion:1 conformity:1 jerry:1 cantrell:1 sean:1 kinney:1 alice:1 chain:1 big:1 jim:1 martin:1 faith:1 john:1 popper:1 blue:1 traveler:1 harmonica:1 gary:1 rossington:1 lynyrd:1 skynyrd:1 additional:1 les:1 claypool:1 primus:1 banjo:1 production:1 bob:1 rock:6 producer:1 mike:2 clink:1 brian:1 dobbs:1 jeffrey:1 norman:1 csaba:1 petocz:1 randy:2 staub:2 toby:1 wright:1 engineer:2 leff:1 lefferts:1 chris:1 manning:1 kent:1 matcke:1 assistant:1 michael:1 fraser:1 flemming:1 rasmussen:1 mix:1 george:2 marino:2 master:1 remastering:1 paul:1 decarli:1 gillie:1 digital:1 editing:1 andie:1 airfix:1 design:2 ross:2 halfin:2 anton:1 corbijn:1 mark:1 leialoha:1 photography:1 david:1 fricke:1 liner:1 note:1 chart:3 position:2 billboard:1 top:1 canadian:1 albums:1 single:2 turn:2 page:2 mainstream:3 die:2 darling:1 modern:1 certification:1 country:1 sale:1 certificationunited:1 platinum:1 award:2 grammy:1 winner:2 category:2 cold:1 crazy:1 best:2 performance:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 official:1 website:1 \|@bigram roll_stone:1 good_natured:1 entertainment_weekly:1 james_hetfield:2 whiskey_jar:3 kirk_hammett:1 jason_newsted:1 lars_ulrich:2 drum_percussion:1 cliff_burton:1 gary_rossington:1 lynyrd_skynyrd:1 les_claypool:1 hetfield_lars:1 anton_corbijn:1 liner_note:1 grammy_award:1 external_link:1
1,135	Boxing	Boxing (sometimes also known as "Western boxing" or "pugilism") is a combat sport where two participants, generally of similar weight, fight each other with their fists. Boxing is supervised by a referee and is typically engaged in during a series of one to three-minute intervals called rounds. Victory is achieved if the opponent is knocked down and unable to get up before the referee counts to ten seconds (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO). If there is no stoppage of the fight before an agreed number of rounds, a winner is determined either by the referee's decision or by judges' scorecards. Although fighting with fists comes naturally to people, evidence of fist-fighting contests first appear on ancient Sumerian, Egyptian and Minoan reliefs. The ancient Greeks provide us our first historical records of boxing as a formal sport; they codified a set of rules and staged tournaments with professionals. The birth hour of boxing as a sport may be its acceptance as an Olympic game as early as 688 BC. Modern boxing evolved in Europe, particularly Great Britain. In some countries with their own fighting sports, the sport is referred to as "English Boxing" (e.g. in France to contrast with French boxing, or in Burma with Burmese boxing and in Thailand with Thai boxing). There are numerous different styles of boxing practised around the world. Early history Minoan youths boxing, Knossos fresco. Earliest documented use of 'gloves'. Fist fighting is depicted in Sumerian relief carvings from the 3rd millennium BC, while an ancient Egyptian relief from the 2nd millenium BC depicts both fist-fighters and spectators. Encyclopaedia Britannica entry for Boxing Both depictions show bare-fisted contests. In 1927 Dr. E. A. Speiser, an archaeologist, discovered a Mesopotamian stone tablet in Baghdad, Iraq depicting two men getting ready for a prize fight. The tablet is believed to be 7,000 years old. Boxing Ancient History & Cartoon Fun from Brownielocks Fist-fighting or boxing is also described in several ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata. Evidence was also found in excavations at the Indus Valley cities of Mohenjadaro and Harappa. INDIAN MIRROR - History of games & sports in India The earliest evidence for fist fighting with a kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete (c. 1500-900 BC), and on Sardinia, if we consider the boxing statues of Prama mountains (c. 2000-1000 BC). The lebo and the Etruscans called boxing pugilism (a term now synonymous with boxing). The Greeks and Etruscans were not the first to give rules to the sport, if we consider Mediterranean peoples who preceded them, such as the Shardana and the Egyptians. In the Mediterranean area while clinching was strictly forbidden, there were (unlike in modern boxing) no weight classes. Fights were not separated into rounds and had no time limit. They ended at a knockout, or at a fighter abandoning the fight, or sometimes at the death of one of the fighters. Although gloves were used in practice, in competition fighters wrapped their hands in strips of hardened leather which protected the fist and caused unpleasant injuries for the opponent. Homer's Iliad (ca. 675 BC) contains the first detailed account of a boxing fight (Book XXIII). Homer, Iliad, 23.655-696 According to the Iliad, Mycenaean warriors included boxing among their competitions honoring the fallen, though it is possible that the Homeric epics reflect later culture. Another legend holds that the heroic ruler Theseus, said to have lived around the 9th century BC, invented a form of boxing in which two men sat face to face and beat each other with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the boxers began to fight while standing and wearing gloves (with spikes) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, although otherwise they competed naked. Boxing was first accepted as an Olympic sport in 688 BC, being called Pygme or Pygmachia. Participants trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Fighters wore leather straps (called himantes) over their hands, wrists, and sometimes breast, to protect them from injury. The straps left their fingers free. Legend had it that the Spartans were the first to box as a way to prepare for sword and shield fighting. Ancient Roman boxing In ancient Rome, there were two forms of boxing both coming from Etruscan boxing. The athletic form of boxing remained popular throughout the Roman world. The other form of boxing was gladiatorial. Fighters were usually criminals and slaves who hoped to become champions and gain their freedom; however, free men, women, and even aristocrats also fought. Gladiators wore lead "cestae" over their knuckles and heavy leather straps on their forearms to protect against blows. The deeply scarred and cauliflower eared figure of the Boxer of Quirinal show what a brutal sport it could be (matches often ending in the death or maiming of an opponent). Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even emperors started fighting, and the practice was promoted by Caesar Neronis. A fight between the agile Dares and the towering Entellus is described at length in the Roman national epic Aeneid (1st century BC). Virgil, Aeneid, 5.421 In 393 A.D., the Olympics were banned by the Christian emperor Theodosius, and in 500 A.D., boxing was banned altogether by Theodoric the Great as being an insult to God because it disfigures the face, the image of God. However, this edict had little effect outside the major cities of the Eastern Empire. BBC. The origins of Boxing, BBC History By this time, western Europe was no longer part of the Roman Empire. Boxing remained popular in Europe throughout the Middle Ages and beyond. Wrestling, fencing and racing (both chariot and foot) were never banned by the late Romans, as they did not cause disfigurement. Modern boxing London Prize Ring rules (1743) A straight right demonstrated in Edmund Price's The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Fistfight. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719. James B. Roberts and Alexander G. Skutt (1999). James Figg, IBOHF This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came to be used. Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee. In general, it was very chaotic. The first boxing rules, called the London Prize Ring rules, were introduced by heavyweight champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. John Rennie (2006) East London Prize Ring Rules 1743 Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented and encouraged the use of "mufflers", a form of padded gloves, which were used in training and exhibitions. The first paper on boxing was published in the late 18th century by successful Birmingham boxer 'William Futrell' who remained undefeated until his one hour and seventeen minute fight at Smitham Bottom, Croydon, on July 9, 1788 against a much younger "Gentleman" John Jackson which was attended by the Prince of Wales. Although bare-knuckle fighting was in almost every aspect far more brutal than modern boxing, it did allow the fighters a single advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers: The London Prize Rules permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to begin a 30-second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover. Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system. Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, a certain amount of restraint was required when striking the head. In 1838, the London Prize Ring rules were expanded in detail. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following: Clay Moyle and Arly Allen (2006), 1838 Prize Rules Fights occurred in a -square ring surrounded by ropes. If a fighter was knocked down, he had to rise within 30 seconds under his own power to be allowed to continue. Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls. Through the late nineteenth century, boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy. Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police. Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences. Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics. Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them. There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be "a fair stand-up boxing match" in a 24-foot-square ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned. The introduction of gloves of "fair-size" also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. Encyclopedia Britannica (2006). Queensbury Rules, Britannica The gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows. As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling. Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face. The English case of R v. Coney in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England. The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was "Gentleman Jim" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans. Tracy Callis (2006). James Corbett, Cyberboxingzone.com Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy, aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions from John L. Sullivan to Jack Dempsey. Shortly after this era, boxing commissions and other sanctioning bodies were established to regulate the sport and establish universally recognized champions. Rules The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867. A boxing match typically consists of a predetermined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 12 rounds (formerly 15). A minute is typically spent between each round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls. Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches that connect, defense, knockdowns, and other, more subjective, measures. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach, as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signaled end of each round. A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to "go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knockout; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet and can continue. Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked out" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO). A "technical knockout" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns result in a TKO. A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule may also be in effect, in which the referee counts no higher than eight to a boxer who regains his or her footing after a knockdown, allowing the referee time to assess if the boxer is able to continue. In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, spitting or wrestling. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the neck or head (called a "rabbit-punch") or the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between). If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the nearest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue. Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a "no decision" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed. Professional vs. amateur boxing Throughout the 17th through 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prizes, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result. The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908. In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts. Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators. Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics. For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career. Amateur boxing Headgear is mandatory in modern amateur boxing Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations. Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage. Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of two minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds. Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso is awarded a point. A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows. A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches - any boxer repeatedly landing low blows (below the belt) is disqualified. Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging. If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified. Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced. Andrew Eisele (2005). Olympic Boxing Rules, About.com Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as "RSC" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH). Professional boxing Professional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters. There are also some two- BoxRec Boxing Records and three-round professional bouts BoxRec Boxing Records , especially in Australia. Through the early twentieth century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey. Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the twentieth century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Duk Koo Kim reduced the limit to twelve. Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win. A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory. In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare chested. Bert Randolph Sugar (2001). "Boxing," World Book Online Americas Edition Boxing style terminology In boxing, no two fighters' styles are identical. A boxer's style evolves as he or she applies what they learn in practice, and performs in such a way as to suit him or herself. Nonetheless, many terms are used which broadly describe a boxer's style. Note that a boxer is not necessarily limited to being described by one of these terms. A fighter may be accomplished at both in-fighting and out-fighting, a good example of this being Bernard Hopkins. Boxer/Out-fighter Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork. Notable out-fighters include Gene Tunney James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.162 , Billy Conn James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.254 , Willie Pep James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.384 , and Muhammad Ali James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.190, 194 . Boxer/Puncher A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter), but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout. For a boxer to be effective using this style, she or he must be well rounded. Notable punchers include Manny Pacquiao, Sam Langford James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.120 , Henry Armstrong James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.204 , Joe Louis James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.337 , Sugar Ray Robinson James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.403 , Tony Zale, Archie Moore, Carlos Monzon James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.353 , Khaosai Galaxy, and Oscar De La Hoya. Brawler/Slugger A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favour of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Notable brawlers include Stanley Ketchel James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.114,115 , Max Baer James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.50 , Rocky Graziano James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.293 , Sonny Liston James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, "Doug Grant",2008 p.330 and George Foreman. Swarmers/In-fighter In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts. A successful in-fighter often needs a good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting. The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression due to intense training resulting in superior endurance. Generally swarmers lack technique due to losing control of their emotions and the difficulty of maintaining finesse when constantly throwing punches. Many short in-fighters utilize their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter. Some in-fighters have been known for being notoriously hard to hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving. Notable swarmers include Harry Greb James Roberts, Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.98, 99 , Jack Dempsey James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.75 , Rocky Marciano James Roberts and Alexander Skutt, The Boxing Register, 1999, p.339, 340 , Joe Frazier, Jake LaMotta, and also Mike Tyson. Style matchups There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others. In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a puncher, and a puncher has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock-paper-scissors. Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that "styles make fights." Punchers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting puncher, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day. A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier. Heavyweight undefeated champion Gene Tunney Although in-fighters struggle against heavy punchers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers. Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent. The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries. On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches. The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade. For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights. Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime. Joe Louis, Rocky Marciano, Jack Dempsey, Gene Tunney, Ali and Mike Tyson are considered to be in the same group as the greatest heavyweight fighters ever. The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter. The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight. If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out. If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout. Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers. Equipment Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand. Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without hand/wrist wraps and boxing gloves. Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them. Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters. Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage. The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout. A mouth guard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout. Boxers practice their skills on two basic types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped "speed bag" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical "heavy bag" filled with sand or a synthetic substitute is used to practice power punching and body blows. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also utilize more general use training equipment to build strength, speed, and agility. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls. Headgear, required in amateur boxing and used by professionals when sparring, protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling. It also ensures limited to no jarring of the brain compared to sports like rugby , football and surprisingly even tennis. Technique Stance The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hookers such as Jack Johnson. In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step behind the lead foot. Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist. Both feet are pointed slightly inward, and the right heel is off the ground. The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs. Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together. Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side. The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand. North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side. The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots. Modern boxers can sometimes be seen tapping their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). Boxers are taught to push off with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body. Punches There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, straight right/left hand, hook and uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), his left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand. For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed. For clarity, the following discussion will assume a right-handed boxer. Jab - A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is recognised as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counter punch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power. Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or 'wear down' their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko. Cross - A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown. Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross can also follow a jab, creating the classic "one-two" combination. The cross is also called a "straight" or "right", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab. Hook - A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the "rip" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand. Uppercut - A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to "lift" the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift the opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out. These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or "combos". The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the "one-two combo". This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully. A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a "roundhouse", "haymaker", or sucker-punch. Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard. Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter. For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation. Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in. Another unconventional punch is the rarely used "bolo punch", in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm. Defense There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below. Slip - Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to "slip" past. Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson. Sway or Fade - To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened. Also called "rolling with the punch" or " Riding The Punch". Duck or Break - To drop down with the back straight so that a punch aimed at the head glances or misses entirely. Bob and Weave - Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer "weaves" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the outside". To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called "bobbing to the inside". Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving. Parry/Block - Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks. A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it. A "palm" or "cuff" is a block which intentionally takes the incoming punch on that portion of the defender's glove. The Cover-Up - Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches "roll" off the guard. To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. This type of guard is weak against attacks from below. The Clinch - Clinching is a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or "tie up" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee. Guards There are several defensive positions (guards or styles) used in boxing. Within each style, there is considerable variation among fighters, as some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches. Many fighters vary their defensive style throughout a bout in order to adapt to the situation of the moment, choosing the position best suited to protect them. Boxers who use an upright stance protect their chin with the rear hand in either the low or mixed guard styles depicted below. Crouch fighters tend to use the "peek-a-boo" style, discussed below. Peek-a-boo - Sometimes known as the "earmuffs," the hands are placed next to each other in front of the face (fighters tend to vary the exact positioning) and elbows are brought in tight to the body(this position can be achieved by bringing the elbows as close together while not straining yourself to do so). This defensive style is what a boxer is taught to do when he begins to box, after he gains experience he can decide to change or vary the guard. This style is middle-of-the-road style in terms of counterpunching and damage reduction. A boxer can counter punch from this stance, but it is difficult. However, there have been boxers who can do this very well. This defense covers up a fighter well, but there are holes. Hooks do damage by going around the hands and by hitting just behind the elbows. Winky Wright uses this style very well from a damage reduction stand point. Another famous example is Mike Tyson, who in his early career used the Peek-a-Boo with great success. Cross-armed - The forearms are placed on top of each other horizontally in front of the face with the glove of one arm being on the top of the elbow of the other arm. This style is greatly varied when the back hand rises vertically. This style is the most effective for reducing head damage. The only head punch that a fighter is susceptible to is a jab to the top of the head. The body is open, but most fighters who use this style bend and lean to protect the body, but while upright and unaltered the body is there to be hit. This position is very difficult to counterpunch from, but virtually eliminates all head damage. Philly Shell or Crab - The lead arm is placed across the torso usually somewhere in between the belly button and chest and the lead hand rests on the opposite side of the fighter's torso. The back hand is placed on the side of the face. The lead shoulder is brought in tight against the side of the face. This style is used by fighters who like to counterpunch. To execute this guard a fighter must be very athletic and experienced. This style is so effective for counterpunching because it allows fighters to slip punches by rotating and dipping their upper body and causing blows to glance off the fighter. After the punch glances off, the fighter's back hand is in perfect position to hit his out-of-positioned opponent. The shoulder lean is used in this stance. To execute the shoulder lean a fighter rotates and ducks when his opponent's punch is coming towards him and then rotates back towards his opponent while his opponent is bringing his hand back. The fighter will throw a punch with his back hand as he is rotating towards his undefended opponent. The weakness to this style is that when a fighter is stationary and not rotating he is open to be hit, so a fighter must be athletic and well conditioned to effectively execute this style. To beat this style fighters like to jab their opponent's shoulder causing the shoulder and arm to be in pain and to demobilize that arm. Boxers generally attempt to land high, fast combinations and then quickly shift position to avoid a possible response by their opponent. Strategically, the ring's centre is generally the desired position since a boxer is able to conserve movement by forcing the opponent to circle around them. When in the centre, the boxer is also less likely to be knocked backwards against the ropes surrounding the ring and cornered. Depending on the boxer's style, the centre is the desired location as cornering opponents is always a good strategy. Most fighters, though, will not move around the boxer in the center because doing so makes them vulnerable to shots thrown at good angles. Movement is the most important tool in the ring and allows the fighter to avoid punches that were not telegraphed. If a boxer is standing still, his opponent has a better chance of hitting him. A fighter anticipating a shot while stationary is less likely to be able to evade the shot than a fighter already in motion. Less common strategies The "rope-a-dope" strategy : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 "Rumble in the Jungle" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves laying back on the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to land punches. Weathering the blows, the boxer lures the opponent into expending energy whilst conserving his/her own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit. In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault. Bolo punch : Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch. This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle. Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard and Kid Gavilan. Overhand right : The overhand right is a punch not found in every boxer's arsenal. Unlike the right cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand right has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over-the-shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer. It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents. Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon. The overhand right has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking. Mighty Mo employed it to score a dramatic 2nd Round KO over 7 ft 2 in tall Hong-Man Choi in the K-1 Yokohama Grand Prix Tournament and the overhand right has become a signature move for former UFC Light Heavy Weight champion Chuck Liddell. Check hook : A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in. There are two parts to the check hook. The first part consists of a regular hook. The second, trickier part involves the footwork. As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around. If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador. This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute. Floyd Mayweather, Jr. demonstrated a picture perfect example of this punch against Ricky Hatton in their 2007 encounter. Hatton was caught with the check hook as he was lunging in; Hatton continued forward as he was knocked off balance and proceeded to ram his head into the ring post as Mayweather stepped out of harm's way. When interviewed, Mayweather stated that he was taught the check hook in the Michigan amateurs. Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past. Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport. The corner In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where he rests in between rounds and where his trainers stand. Typically, three men stand in the corner besides the boxer himself; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman. The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what he is doing wrong as well as encouraging him if he is losing. The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts and blood. This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts that threaten the boxer's eyes. In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury. The corner will occasionally literally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender. This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather. In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal. Boxing Hall of Fame The sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the World Boxing Hall of Fame (WBHF), with the IBHOF being the more widely recognized boxing hall of fame. The WBHF was founded by Everett L. Sanders in 1980. Since its inception the WBHOF has never had a permanent location or museum, which has allowed the more recent IBHOF to garner more publicity and prestige. Boxing's International Hall of Fame was inspired by a tribute an American town held for two local heroes in 1982. The town, Canastota, New York, (which is about east of Syracuse, via the New York State Thruway), honored former world welterweight/middleweight champion Carmen Basilio and his nephew, former world welterweight champion Billy Backus. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute which inspired the idea of creating an official, annual hall of fame for notable boxers. The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota in 1989. The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali. Other world-class figures include Roberto "Manos de Piedra" Duran, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzon, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas, and Ken Buchanan. The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event. The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself. Governing and sanctioning bodies Champions since 1920 of heavyweight boxing of 5 most important Associations Governing BodyWebsiteBritish Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC)http://www.bbbofc.com/Nevada State Athletic Commissionhttp://boxing.nv.gov/American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians (AAPRP)http://www.aaprp.org/Sanctioning BodyWebsiteWorld Boxing Association (W.B.A.)http://www.wbaonline.com/World Boxing Council (W.B.C.)http://www.wbcboxing.com/International Boxing Federation (I.B.F.)http://www.ibf-usba-boxing.com/World Boxing Organization (W.B.O.)http://www.wbo-int.com/International Boxing Organization (I.B.O.)http://www.iboboxing.com/ See also Boxing at the Summer Olympics List of female boxers Women's boxing White Collar Boxing List of current world boxing champions List of Triple Champions of Boxing Boxing training References General references Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni (July/August 2005). Illinois Alumni, 18(1), 47. Beating the heck outta their instruments Death Under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velazquez Boxing Fatality Collection Fleischer, Nat, Sam Andre, Nigel Collins, Dan Rafael (2002). An Illustrated History of Boxing. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2201-1 Fox, James A. (2001). Boxing. Stewart, Tabori and Chang. ISBN 1-58479-133-0 Godfrey, John "Boxing" from Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense, 1747 Gunn M, Ormerod D. The legality of boxing. Legal Studies. 1995;15:181. Halbert, Christy (2003). The Ultimate Boxer: Understanding the Sport and Skills of Boxing. Impact Seminars, Inc. ISBN 0-9630968-5-0 Hatmaker, Mark (2004). Boxing Mastery: Advanced Technique, Tactics, and Strategies from the Sweet Science. Tracks Publishing. ISBN 1-884654-21-5 McIlvanney, Hugh (2001). The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-658-02154-0 Myler, Patrick (1997). A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-86105-258-8. Price, Edmund The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling, 1867 Robert Anasi (2003). The Gloves: A Boxing Chronicle. North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-652-7 Schulberg, Budd (2007). Ringside: A Treasury of Boxing Reportage. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-749-X Silverman, Jeff (2004). The Greatest Boxing Stories Ever Told: Thirty-Six Incredible Tales from the Ring. The Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59228-479-5 Scully, John Learn to Box with the Iceman U.S. Amateur Boxing Inc. (1994). Coaching Olympic Style Boxing. 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1,136	Anarchist_communism	Anarchist communism advocates the abolition of the state, private property and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms Alan James Mayne Published 1999 Greenwood Publishing Group 316 pages ISBN 0275961516 Anarchism for Know-It-Alls By Know-It-Alls For Know-It-Alls, For Know-It-Alls Published by Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2008 ISBN 1599862182, 9781599862187 72 pages direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, workers' councils and/or a gift economy through which everyone will be free to satisfy their needs. According to anarchist communists Peter Kropotkin and Murray Bookchin, the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid. Kropotkin, Peter Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0–900384–36–0, also at Project Gutenberg Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest of Bread, first published 1892, also at Anarchy Archives Kropotkin, Peter Fields, Factories and Workshops, available at Anarchy Archives Bookchin, Murray Post Scarcity Anarchism (1971 and 2004) ISBN 1–904859–06–2. Kropotkin believed that private property was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition, Kropotkin, Peter. Words of a Rebel, p99. advocating instead common ownership, except where property-like personal possessions are used for oneself. According to Kropotkin, "peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate," and "a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space... considered necessary for that number of people" and the artisan "working with their own tools or handloom" would not be interfered with, Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N. Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5] arguing that "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source." Anarchist communism is also known as anarcho-communism, communist anarchism, or sometimes, libertarian communism. However, while all anarchist communists are libertarian communists, some libertarian communists, such as council communists and Luxembourgists, are not anarchists but are instead Libertarian Marxists. What distinguishes anarchist communism from other variants of libertarian communism is the former's opposition to all forms of political power, hierarchy and domination. However, some writers use libertarian communism and libertarian socialism as synonyms for anarchist communism or even anarchism in general. Ross, Dr. Jeffery Ian. ‘Controlling State Crime’ Transaction Publishers (200) p.400 Development of ideas Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 1700s. Gerrard Winstanley, who was part of the radical Diggers movement in England, wrote in his 1649 pamphlet, The New Law of Righteousness, that there "shall be no buying or selling, no fairs nor markets, but the whole earth shall be a common treasury for every man," and "there shall be none Lord over others, but every one shall be a Lord of himself." Robert Graham, Anarchism - A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas - Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939), Black Rose Books, 2005 During the French Revolution, Sylvain Maréchal, in his Manifesto of the Equals (1796), demanded "the communal enjoyment of the fruits of the earth" and looked forward to the disappearance of "the revolting distinction of rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed." An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as "libertarian". Joseph Déjacque, De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque (in French) Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." The collectivist anarchists advocated remuneration for labor, but held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. As Bakunin's associate, James Guillaume, put it in his essay, Ideas on Social Organization (1876), "When... production comes to outstrip consumption... [e]veryone will draw what he needs from the abundant social reserve of commodities, without fear of depletion; and the moral sentiment which will be more highly developed among free and equal workers will prevent, or greatly reduce, abuse and waste." James Guillaume, Ideas on Social Organization First International Anarchist communism as a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin's death. James Guillaume, "Michael Bakunin - A Biographical Sketch" The collectivist anarchists sought to collectivize ownership of the means of production while retaining payment for labor, but the anarcho-communists sought to extend the concept of collective ownership to the products of labor as well. While both groups argued against capitalism, the anarchist communists departed from Proudhon and Bakunin, who maintained that individuals have a right to the product of their labor and to be remunerated for their work, by proposing that individuals should be free to access goods according to their needs without respect to how much labor they exert. Cafiero explains in Anarchy and Communism (1880) that private property in the product of labor will lead to unequal accumulation of capital and, therefore, undesirable class distinctions: "If we preserve the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals." At the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International in 1876, held in a forest outside Florence due to police activity, they declared the principles of anarcho-communism, beginning with: "The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity. The federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point..." The above report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the (Swiss) Jura Federation's bulletin later that year. Peter Kropotkin Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. Kropotkin felt that co-operation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution that this was illustrated in nature. He advocated the abolition of private property through the "expropriation of the whole of social wealth" by the people themselves, Peter Kropotkin, Words of a Rebel, p99. and for the economy to be co-ordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread, p145. where goods are distributed according to the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labor. Marshall Shatz, Introduction to Kropotkin: The Conquest of Bread and Other Writings, Cambridge University Press 1995, p. xvi "Anarchist communism called for the socialization not only of production but of the distribution of goods: the community would supply the subsistence requirements of each individual member free of charge, and the criterion, 'to each according to his labor' would be superseded by the criterion 'to each according to his needs.'" He further argued that these "needs," as society progressed, would not merely be physical needs but "[a]s soon as his material wants are satisfied, other needs, of an artistic character, will thrust themselves forward the more ardently. Aims of life vary with each and every individual; and the more society is civilized, the more will individuality be developed, and the more will desires be varied." Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread Chapter IX The Need For Luxury He maintained that, in anarcho-communism: Individuals and groups would use and control whatever resources they needed, as the aim of anarchist-communism was to place "the product reaped or manufactured at the disposal of all, leaving to each the liberty to consume them as he pleases in his own home." The Place of Anarchism in the Evolution of Socialist Thought He supported the expropriation of property to ensure that everyone would have access to what they needed without being forced to sell their labour to get it. He said that a "peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate," and "a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space... considered necessary for that number of people" and the artisan "working with their own tools or handloom" would not be interfered with, Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N. Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5] arguing that "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source." While many anarcho-communists are opposed to trade, some post-left and post-scarcity anarcho-communists, and ones with syndicalist sympathies, are not opposed to trade. Some support a non-monetary form of trade in the form of non-monetary commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, non-monetary form of trade such as P2P. Tiziana Terranova, "Free Labor: Producing Culture for the Digital Economy". 07-26-2005 Economic theory Anarcho-communism stresses egalitarianism and the abolition of social hierarchy and class distinctions that arise from unequal wealth distribution, as well as the abolition of private property and money. Replacing these approaches would be collective production and distribution of wealth by means of voluntary association. In anarchist communism, the state and private property would no longer exist. Each individual and group would be free to contribute to production and to satisfy their needs based on their own choice. Systems of production and distribution would be managed by their participants. The abolition of wage labor is central to anarchist communism. With distribution of wealth being based on self-determined needs, people would be free to engage in whatever activities they found most fulfilling and would no longer have to engage in work for which they have neither the temperament nor the aptitude. Anarchist communists argue that there is no valid way of measuring the value of any one person's economic contributions because all wealth is a collective product of current and preceding generations. For instance, one could not measure the value of a factory worker's daily production without taking into account how transportation, food, water, shelter, relaxation, machine efficiency, emotional mood etc. contributed to their production. To truly give numerical economic value to anything, an overwhelming amount of externalities and contributing factors would need to be taken into account especially current or past labor contributing to the ability to utilize future labor. Anarchist communists argue that any economic system based on wage labor and private property requires a coercive state apparatus to enforce property rights and to maintain unequal economic relationships that inevitably arise from differences in wages or amount of property. They further argue that markets and systems of currency divide labor into classes and assign artificial numerical values to an individual's work and attempt to regulate production, consumption and distribution. They argue that money restricts an individual's ability to consume the products of their labor by limiting their intake with prices and wages. Anarchist communists recognize money as fundamentally quantitative in nature, rather than qualitative. They believe production should be a qualitative matter, and that consumption and distribution should be self-determined by each individual without arbitrary value assigned to labor, goods and services by others. In place of a market, most anarcho-communists support a currency-less gift economy where goods and services are produced by workers and distributed in community stores where everyone (including the workers who produced them) is essentially entitled to consume whatever they want or need as "payment" for their production of goods and services. A gift economy does not necessarily involve an immediate return (such as with remuneration); compensation comes in the form of whatever the person decides is of equal value to their products of labor (what is commonly called bartering). Any limits on production and distribution would be determined by the individuals within the groups involved, rather than by capitalist owners, investors, banks or other artificial market pressures. Communist anarchism shares many traits with collectivist anarchism but has defining differences. Collectivist anarchism believes in collective ownership but communist anarchism negates the entire concept of ownership in favor of the concept of usage. Alexander Berkman. What is Anarchism?, p. 217 Thus, things are seen as either private possessions used by an individual, or social possessions used to produce for society. Anarcho-communists believe that means of production should not be owned by any one person or entity, leaving it free to be used by individuals for their own self-determined needs and wants. Land and housing would no longer be subject to rent or property taxes (and therefore, its use would be free of eviction threats). It would instead be subject simply to the desires of occupants on an egalitarian basis. For example, in an apartment building in which many live, no one person would have a say in the arrangements. All who live there would be involved in decisionmaking. For example, occupants may decide to share certain responsibilities on a revolving-door basis rather than relegate them to a particular individual. Crucially, the abstract relationship of "landlord" and "tenant" would no longer exist, for such titles are held to occur under conditional legal coercion and are not absolutely necessary to occupy buildings or spaces (intellectual property rights would also cease). In addition to believing rent and other fees are exploitative, anarcho-communists feel these are arbitrary pressures inducing people to carry out unrelated functions. For example, they question why one should have to work for 'X hours' a day to merely live somewhere. So instead of working conditionally for the sake of the wage earned, they believe in working directly for the objective at hand. From this it follows that, rather than land being for sale or rent, vacant land and housing would be freely taken regardless of one's employment or financial status (essentially, the "for sale" sign could be replaced by a "vacant" sign). Therefore, in anarcho-communist theory, land used by individuals for themselves or their families, or productive property used to produce for an individual (such as a small farm), would be considered private possessions rather than social possessions. The individual would be perfectly free to create something and keep it as long as it is not a crucial means of production for the community or general public. So an artist's paintbrushes would not need outside approval to be utilized, and the same basic principle would apply to other personal items such as one's toothbrush, musical instruments or book collection, which others needn't tamper with. However, if the matter at hand involves production for society (such as a factory which makes toothbrushes, musical instruments or books), it would become a social possession, accountable to all who work within it and the consuming public. In that regard, anarcho-communism could be considered a compromise between collective and individual use. Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N. Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5] Anarcho-communists reject mutualist economics because they believe that market competition, even non-capitalist markets, inherently create inequalities in wealth and land which would lead to inequalities of power - thus the recreation of the State and capitalism as some workers would have more access to capital and defence force than others. They reject collectivist economics arguing that remuneration would require a type of currency, which, again, anarcho-communists reject as an artificial measurement of the value of labor. They further argue that those who are not part of collective groups or unions in workers' councils and collectives could be alienated from access to capital, and thus promote free common use over ownership by society. Philosophical arguments Anarchist communists reject the claim that wage labor is necessary because people are by "nature" lazy and selfish. They point out that even the so-called "idle rich" sometimes find useful things to do despite having all their needs satisfied by the labour of others. Anarcho-communists generally do not agree with the belief in a pre-set 'human nature', arguing that human culture and behavior is very largely determined by socialization. Many, like Peter Kropotkin, also believe that human evolutionary tendency is for humans to cooperate with each other for mutual benefit and survival instead of existing as lone competitors. Peter Kropotkin Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution Anarchist communists support communism as a means for ensuring the greatest freedom and well-being for everyone, rather than only the wealthy and powerful. In this sense, anarchist communism is a profoundly egalitarian philosophy. Anarchist communists do not think that anyone has the right to be anyone else's master, or 'boss' as this is a concept of capitalism and the state. Some contemporary anarchist communists and advocates of post-left anarchy such as Bob Black reject the concept of work altogether in favor of turning necessary subsistence tasks into voluntary free play. Many anarcho-communists (and collectivist anarchists as well) reject "individualism" and "collectivism" as illusory concepts A.2 What does anarchism stand for? . They argue that an individual sacrificing themself for the "greater good" or being ruled by the "community" or "society" is not possible because society is composed of individuals rather than being a cohesive unit separate from the individual, and argue that collective control over the individual is tyrannical and un-anarchistic. The Place of Anarchism in the Evolution of Socialist Thought, p. 14-15 Criticisms and responses Proudhon's criticisms Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, some of whose philosophy has influenced social anarchists (social Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy was heavily influenced by Proudhon Hayward, Jack, After the French Revolution, p. 213 ), was critical of communism, "whether of the Utopian or the Marxist variety, [believing] that it destroyed freedom by taking away from the individual control over his means of production." From Encyclopedia Britannica article "Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph" (2006) At the time he wrote most of his works, the word "communism" was typically used to refer to the views of the Utopian socialists, whom Proudhon accused of attempting to impose equality by sovereign decrees. In opposition to the communist maxim "to each according to need", Proudhon said "To each according to his works, first; and if, on occasion, I am impelled to aid you, I will do it with a good grace; but I will not be constrained". Pierre Joseph Proudhon, System of Economical Contradictions: or, the Philosophy of Misery However, Proudhon was against the hoarding of private property in an unequal society and thus supported people being in equal condition which he believed would negate the difference in amounts of private property. In his treatise What is Property?(1849), Proudhon answers with "Property is theft!" Pierre Joseph Proudhon, What Is Property? (1849) In natural resources, he sees two conceivable types of property, de jure property and de facto property, and argues that the former is illegitimate. Proudhon's fundamental premise is that equality of condition is the essence of justice. "By this method of investigation, we soon see that every argument which has been invented in behalf of property, whatever it may be, always and of necessity leads to equality; that is, to the negation of property." Proudhon, "What Is Property?", Chapter 1. He argued that an inegalitarian condition in society would impoverish some people at the hands of people with more land, However, while being opposed to communism, he was also opposed to capitalism. In a series of commentaries, from What is Property? (1840) through the posthumously-published Théorie de la propriété, he first declared that "property is theft", "property is impossible", "property is despotism" and "property is freedom". When he said property is theft, he was referring to the landowner or capitalist who he believed stole the profits from laborers. For Proudhon, the capitalist's employee was "subordinated, exploited: his permanent condition is one of obedience." Pierre Joseph Proudhon, [http://fair-use.org/p-j-proudhon/general-idea-of-the-revolution/organization-of-economic-forces#s3p5 General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851), Sixth Study, § 3 ¶ 5]. Proudhon called himself a "socialist" and called his philosophy "anarchist socialism". He opposed state ownership of capital goods in favour of ownership by workers themselves in associations. Individualist criticisms Many individualist anarchists believe that elements of anarcho-communism are undesirable or even incompatible with anarchism. Benjamin Tucker referred to it as "pseudo-anarchism" Benjamin Tucker, Labor and its Pay when admonishing Peter Kropotkin for opposing wages. Henry Appleton said: "All Communism, under whatever guise, is the natural enemy of Anarchism, and a Communist sailing under the flag of Anarchism is as false a figure as could be invented."<ref>Henry Appleton, Anarchism, True and False (1884)]</ref> Victor Yarros says 'no logical justification, no rational explanation, and no "scientific" reasoning has been, is, will be, or can be advanced in defence of that unimaginable impossibility, Communistic Anarchism'. Victor Yarros, A Princely Paradox Clarence Lee Swartz says in What is Mutualism: "One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of one's labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property." William Kline says that the individualists and communists "could not reconcile their differences, the Communist Anarchists dedicated to a community of property and the Individualist Anarchists deeply committed to private property and individual effort." William Kline, The Individualist Anarchists: A Critique of Liberalism Anarcho-communists counter these criticisms by arguing that the abolition of property creates maximum freedom for all individuals. As Errico Malatesta argues, Anarcho-communists argue that individual worker cooperatives have the potential to isolate and control those who do not belong to such institutions, or those with less money. Anarcho-communists in general argue that the value of labor is subjective and thus cannot be measured by any monetary means, arguing that such values are arbitrary and lead to a stratification in society by a division of labor. Kropotkin and other communists anarchists have argued that the existence of defence associations, even worker-owned ones that are freely available for everyone, have authoritarian implications, "[f]or their self-defence, both the citizen and group have a right to any violence [within individualist anarchy] ... Violence is also justified for enforcing the duty of keeping an agreement. Tucker ... opens ... the way for reconstructing under the heading of the 'defence' all the functions of the State." Kropotkin's Revolutionary Pamphlets, p. 297 Moreover, anarcho-communists argue that even in a socialistic market such as in individualist and mutualist anarchy, as some workers reaped more revenue than others, due to different productivity in market competition, those with more money would have more access to capital (means of production) and thus become able to unilaterally influence market deals, decision-making and employment, offering the highest bids to defence firms and thus reconstituting capitalism and the State. Alfie Kohn points out "strife of competition reduces empathic sympathy, distorts communication, impairs the mutuality of support and sharing, and decreases the satisfaction of personal need." Nathan Ackerman, quoted by Alfie Kohn, Op. Cit., pp. 142-3 Communist anarchist Albert Meltzer harshly argued, "the school of Benjamin Tucker by virtue of their individualism accepted the need for police to break strikes so as to guarantee the employer's 'freedom.' All this school of so-called Individualists accept ... the necessity of the police force, hence for government, and the prime definition of anarchism is no government." Albert Meltzer, Anarchism: Arguments For and Against, p. 8 More recently, advocates of post-left anarchy, such as Bob Black in Anarchy After Leftism, argue that leftists have an attachment to generic moral standards that are incompatible with anarchism and seek to establish political forms, such as platformism and direct democracy, that amount to forms of the state. Bob Black is a libertarian socialist, and likely an anarcho-communist (given his reference to attempts on his part to defend anarcho-communism in his essay "The Libertarian As Conservative") and his references to "leftism" are mostly against what he perceives as Marxist influences in libertarian socialism. However, supporters of direct democracy claiming to be anarchists reject Black's claim, stating that direct democracy, albeit being the rule of some (relative majority) over others (relative minority as well as "silent majority"), would include no hierarchy or monopolization of force and territory. Bob Black is an anarchist and possibly an anarchist communist himself due to his rejection of wage labor and rejection of market systems. Capitalist criticisms One capitalist criticism of anarcho-communism is that such a society would not be able to keep productivity up because individuals would not be paid for their labor, since wages would be abolished and people would instead be given things "according to their needs." Donald F. Busky, Communism in History and Theory: From Utopian Socialism to the Fall of the Soviet Union. Praeger/Greenwood 2002, p. 101 Anarchist communists propose that economic distribution should be based on the maxim "from each according to their ability and to each according to their needs" believing these "abilities" and "needs" should be self-determined. Anarchist communists reject markets based on the principle that all theories of monetary value are subjective and argue that private property is inherently exploitative, Berkman, Alexander. What Is Communist Anarchism? p.11 and could not exist without force or without the eventual creation of a State to protect it. They also put forward the idea that, by making productive property freely accessible to all, it would increase individual liberty. Peter Kropotkin. The Place of Anarchism in the Evolution of Socialist Thought, p.14-15 They argue that labor should not be an obligation and should be a voluntary task that should be enjoyable or provide necessary services. Peter Kropotkin, Fields, Factories and Workshops Tomorrow, p. 197 Alexander Berkman in particular believed that all forms of private ownership of production are authoritarian whether or not they have an established state to protect them, "[so the boss] gives you a job: that is permission to work in the factory or mill which was not built by him but by other workers like yourself. And for that permission you help to support him for ...as long as you work for him." Bob Black further argued, "Some people giving orders and others obeying them: this is the essence of servitude. Of course, as [right-Libertarians] smugly [observe], 'one can at least change jobs,' but you can't avoid having a job just as under statism one can at least change nationalities but you can't avoid subjection to one nation-state or another. But freedom means more than the right to change masters" Bob Black, The Libertarian as Conservative Charlotte Wilson argued that it would not be possible to be forced into an anarcho-communist commune as the abolition of property (the anarchist conception of property) cannot be authoritarian, "every man [or woman] is free to take what he [or she] requires....[and so] it is hardly conceivable that personal necessaries and conveniences will not be appropriated.....[for] when property is protected by no legal enactments, backed by armed force, and is unable to buy personal service, its resuscitation on such a scale as to be dangerous to society is little to be dreaded. The amount appropriated by each individual ... must be left to his [or her] own conscience, and the pressure exercised upon him [or her] by the moral sense and distinct interests of his [or her] neighbours." She further argued, "Property is the domination of an individual, or a coalition of individuals, over things; it is not the claim of any person or persons to the use of things this is, usufruct, a very different matter. Property means the monopoly of wealth, the right to prevent others using it, whether the owner needs it or not. Usufruct implies the claim to the use of such wealth as supplies the users needs. If any individual shuts off a portion of it (which he is not using, and does not need for his own use) from his fellows, he is defrauding the whole community." Anarchist Essays, pp. 22-23 and p. 40 Marxist criticisms Marxists criticize anarchism as being incapable of creating a successful and lasting revolution because it is philosophically flat-footed and does not aptly identify issues of class and modes of production. "anarchism developed in opposition to the growth of capitalist society...the liberty defended by the anarchists was not the freedom of the working class to make collectively a new society. Rather, anarchism defended the freedom of the small property owner the shopkeeper, artisan and tradesman against the encroachments of large-scale capitalist enterprise." Socialism From Below McNally, David Both Marxist and anarchist class analyses are based on the idea that society is divided up into many different "classes", each with differing interests according to their material circumstances. The two differ, however, in where they draw the lines between these groups. For Marxists, the two most relevant classes are the "bourgeoisie" (owners of the means of production) and the "proletariat" (wage laborers). Anarchists argue that it is not the capital class who actually has control over the state, but another upper class which is part of the ruling class (and thus, defending its interests), but with its own concerns, particularly retaining political power, national territory and military power. A revolutionary minority taking over State power and imposing its will on the people would be just as authoritarian as the ruling minority in capitalism, and would eventually constitute itself as a ruling class since the class that governs the state is seen as separate from the labor class. This was predicted by Bakunin long before the Russian Revolution and the fall of the Soviet Union, when he wrote: If you took the most ardent revolutionary, vested him in absolute power, within a year he would be worse than the Czar himself. (Quoted in Daniel Guerin, Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970), pp.25-26) Also, anarchists have traditionally advocated that a successful revolution needs the support of the peasantry, and a joint effort between both rural agricultural workers and industrial workers. K. Steven Vincent, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and the Rise of French Republican Socialism, pp. 282-3 That is, it explicitly rejects imposing state property of the land. Some modern anarchists (particularly pareconists) argue that there are three “classes,” which have relevance to social change - not two. The first is the labor class which includes everyone whose labor is involved in producing and distributing goods; the second is the coordinator class which includes everyone whose labor is primarily concerned with “coordinating” and managing the labor of others primarily on behalf of the bourgeoisie (this would include bureaucrats, politicians, intellectuals and party hierarchs); and the third is the elite owning class or "capital class" which derives its income from its control of wealth, land, property and resources. Elements of Political Economy" quoted by David Ellerman, Property and Contract in Economics, pp. 53-4 These Anarchists contend that Marxism fails, and will always fail, because it creates a dictatorship of the coordinating class and that a "dictatorship of the proletariat" is a logical impossibility. The Bolsheviks and Workers' Control, p. xiv Murray Bookchin, Post-Scarcity Anarchism, p. 152 They argue its theoretical "socialist mode of production" involves centralizing and empowering the State apparatus which empowers people from the coordinator class to seize control of the State and means of production to manage the labor class. Bakunin foreshadowed this argument when he wrote: Anarchists do not differentiate between peasants, lumpen, merchants, some small business owners, and proletarians and instead define all people who work for the profit of others or sell the products of their own labor as members of the working class, regardless of occupation. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon What is Property? p. 137 Anarchists do differentiate between the economic and political elites who set policy and the business and government functionaries that carry those policies out, whereas Marxists lump the two together. Errico Malatesta, Life and Ideas, p. 145 Leon Trotsky Stalinism and Bolshevism Further, some anarchists argue that Marxism fails because it springs from the minds of middle class intellectuals, while arguing that anarchism springs spontaneously from the self-activity and self-organization of the labor class. Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings, p. 170-2 They point to "Perhaps significantly, these few Marxist tendencies which are closest to anarchism are, like the branches of anarchism itself, not named after individuals." the fact that schools of Marxism are often named after the intellectuals who formed the movements through high analytical and philosophical praxis theorization. Essential Works of Lenin, pp. 74-5 Marxists, however, contend that their ideas are not new ideologies which sprang from intellectuals but are ideas which form from the class contradictions of each economic and social mode of history. They argue that Marxian socialism in particular arose from the minds of the working class due to the class contradictions of the capitalist mode of production. Some Marxists even argue that anarchism springs from the ideas of proletarians (or even petty bourgeoisie) who have been marginalized by capitalism as an unorganized and unrefined reactionary struggle against the forces of capitalism. David McNally, Socialism From Below Marxists believe that attempts by oppressed people to liberate themselves will continue to fail to achieve their full aims until class society is done away with, because under capitalism and other class societies, social power rests at the point of production. Many Marxists point to the sometimes rag-tag nature of anarchist revolutions as evidence that any working class movement needs a sufficient backbone organizational focus to maintain good tactics and inspire a proletarian class consciousness, often in the form of a revolutionary vanguard party. Marxism and direct action by Phil Mitchinson http://www.marxist.com/Theory/direct_action.html Some Marxists believe anarchist revolutions tend to be reactionary (in the sense of reacting against the alienating effects of capitalism) and fail to stop capitalism due to their hostility to established political power. They argue that anti-capitalist revolutions need to seize sufficient political power in the form of a state in order to prevent the return of capitalism and to create an economy which allows both capitalism and the state to become unnecessary. "Stalinism and Bolshevism", Socialist Workers Review, no. 146, p. 16 Phil Mitchinson argues: "task of this state would be to develop the economy to eradicate want. Less need, means less need to govern society, less need for a state." Anarcho-communists counter-argue that decentralized, stateless collective federations are sufficient to give both power to workers and preserve personal freedom and point to the fact that no socialist state has ever showed signs of "withering away". However, it should be noted that these disagreements are less of a problem for libertarian Marxists who believe that a State apparatus should operate on proletariat-controlled participatory democracy or even as a consociational state. Marxists and anarcho-communists would both agree that "It is this class division of society which gives rise to the state - because the minority need a special force to maintain their rule over the majority - which has evolved over thousands of years into the complicated structures we see today."However, despite criticisms, anarchist communist communes, such as anarchist Catalonia during the Spanish Civil War, saw increased productivity. The production of potatoes increased 50% and the production of sugar beets and feed for livestock doubled. Through the use of more modernized machinery and chemical fertilizers, the yield per hectare was 50% greater on collective property than on individually-owned land. Dolgoff, Sam. The Anarchist Collectives, ch. 10 The anarchist collectivization in Spain also showed that such ideas are possible to implement in industrial settings. 75% of Spanish industry was located in the Catalon region. According to local sources at the time, The collectivist projects were quite successful, sources noted Example societies through history Anarcho-communism shares similarities with the traditional family. Each member contributes income purely by altruism. Parents can please their children even though it contradicts their self-interest and there is no internal price system in the traditional family, which is also the main feature of anarcho-communism. There have been several attempts, both successful and unsuccessful, at creating other anarchist-communist societies throughout much of the world. Anarchist-communists and some green anarchists (especially anarcho-primivists) argue that hunter-gatherer tribes, like families, were early forms of anarchist-communism, due to their egalitarian nature. Early Christian communities have been described by Christian anarchists and some historians as having anarcho-communist characteristics. In modern history, the first anarchist communist societies are arguably egalitarian religious communities such as the Diggers Movement during the English Revolution. Large communities and federations of communities such as Anarchist Catalonia and the Free Territory of revolutionary Ukraine are examples of successful anarchist-communism in 20th century Europe. The free territories of Hungary during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 could be seen as another example of large-scale successful anarcho-communism. The flag of the French Fulor Anarcho-Communist movement The Korean Anarchist Movement in Korea led by Kim Jwa Jin briefly brought anarcho-communism to Korea. The success was short-lived and much less widespread than the anarchism in Spain or Hungary. Some consider the current existing anarchist nature of communities in Argentina and the Zapatista councils in Mexico to be anarcho-communist. Others consider them to be collectivist or syndicalist. Aspects of the Free Software community, like the Free Software movement, the GNU Project and its copyleft principle are a type of a gift economy for information and software; a gift economy is the preferred economic system of anarcho-communists. Programmers make the source code of their programs available for anyone to copy, modify and improve. Individual programmers gain prestige and respect, and the community benefits from better software. Markus Giesler, in his ethnography Consumer Gift Systems, explored music downloading as a system of social solidarity based on gift transactions. Markus Giesler, Consumer Gift Systems Countless Exchanges in the Gift Economy Some organizations such as online commons (such as the Wikimedia Commons), wikis and Indymedia are held up as examples of functioning anarcho-communistic organizations. See also Anarchist Federation (British Isles) Consensus Democracy Libertarian Communism (journal) Peer-to-peer (meme) Zapatista Army of National Liberation Further reading Federazione dei Comunisti Anarchici, [http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1336 Anarchist Communists: A Question Of Class, others Alexander Berkman, What is Communist Anarchism?, Prison Memoirs of an Anarchist, others Mikhail Bakunin, God and the State, The Paris Commune and the Idea of the State, others Emma Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays, Living My Life, others Kropotkin, Peter Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0-900384-36-0, also at Project Gutenburg Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest of Bread, first published 1892, also at Anarchy Archives Kropotkin, Peter Fields, Factories and Workshops, available at Anarchy Archives Bookchin, Murray Post Scarcity Anarchism (1971 and 2004) ISBN 1-904859-06-2 Nestor Makhno, Ida Mett, Piotr Arshinov, Valevsky, Linsky, The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists (available in: Castellano, čeština, Deutsch, English, Έλληνικά, Français, Italiano, Ivrit, Magyar, Nederlands, Polska, Português, Pyccкий, Svenska, Türkçe) Robert Graham, Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume 1: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939)'' http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm contains extensive selections from the anarchist communists, including Joseph Dejacque, Carlo Cafiero, Peter Kropotkin, Luigi Galleani, Errico Malatesta, Charlotte Wilson, Ricardo Flores Magon, Shifu, Hatta Shuzo, Alexander Berkman, Voline, and Isaac Puente. External links Introductory articles on anarchist communism "Communism: what's in a word?" Work - Community - Politics - War: An easy introduction to anti-political insurrectionist communism Anarchist communist websites and portals Anarkismo.net - Anarchist communist news, discussion and theory from across the globe libcom.org - The home of anarchism and libertarian communism in the UK Anarchist Federation - Anarchist communist organisation in Britain Workers Solidarity Movement - Anarchist communist organisation in Ireland Not Bored - Situationist influenced anarchist communist magazine Antagonism - anarchist/left communist resources In other languages Federazione dei Comunisti Anarchici (FdCA) (in Italian) Anarsist Komunist Portal - a portal that is being created by Turkish speaking Anarchist Communists (in Turkish) References	Anarchist_communism \|@lemmatized anarchist:81 communism:41 advocate:7 abolition:8 state:31 private:17 property:51 capitalism:14 favor:3 common:7 ownership:10 mean:14 production:28 politics:3 past:2 future:2 integrated:1 analysis:2 current:5 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1,137	Adam_Smith	Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790 ) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Adam Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics. Smith studied moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow and Oxford University. After graduating he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life he took a tutoring position which allowed him to travel throughout Europe where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations (mainly from his lecture notes) which was published in 1776. He died in 1790. Biography Early life Adam Smith was born to Margaret F. Douglas at Kirkcaldy, Scotland. His father, also named Adam Smith, was a lawyer, civil servant, and widower who married Margaret Douglas in 1720 and died six months before Smith was born. Although the exact date of Smith's birth is unknown, his baptism was recorded on 16 June 1723 at Kirkcaldy. Though few events in Smith's early childhood are known, Scottish journalist and biographer of Smith John Rae recorded that Smith was abducted by gypsies at the age of four and eventually released when others went to rescue him. Smith was particularly close to his mother, who likely encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy – characterised by Rae as "one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period" – from 1729 to 1737. There he studied Latin, mathematics, history, and writing. Formal education Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here he developed his passion for liberty, reason, and free speech. In 1740, Smith was awarded the Snell exhibition and left the University of Glasgow to attend Balliol College, Oxford. Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, and found his experience at the latter to be intellectually stifling. In Book V, Chapter II of The Wealth of Nations, Smith wrot: "In the University of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching." Smith is also reported to have complained to friends that Oxford officials once detected him reading a copy of David Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, and they subsequently confiscated his book and punished him severely for reading it. According to William Robert Scott, "The Oxford of [Smith's] time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework." Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach himself several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Oxford library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, according to his letters. Near the end of his time at Oxford, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown. He left Oxford University in 1746, before his scholarship ended. In Book V of The Wealth of Nations, Smith comments on the low quality of instruction and the meager intellectual activity at English universities, when compared to their Scottish counterparts. He attributes this both to the rich endowments of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, which made the income of professors independent of their ability to attract students, and to the fact that distinguished men of letters could make an even more comfortable living as ministers of the Church of England. Smith had originally intended to study theology and enter the clergy, but his subsequent learning, especially from the skeptical writings of David Hume, persuaded him to take a different route. Teaching and early writings Smith began delivering public lectures in 1748 at Edinburgh under the patronage of Lord Kames. His lecture , economics, and religion indicate that they shared a closer intellectual alliance and friendship than with the others who were to play important roles during the emergence of what has come to be known as the Scottish Enlightenment. In 1751, Smith earned a professorship at Glasgow University teaching logic courses. When the Chair of Moral Philosophy died the next year, Smith took over the position. Smith would continue academic work for the next thirteen years, which Smith characterized as "by far the most useful and therefore by far the happiest and most honourable period [of his life]". His lectures covered the fields of ethics, rhetoric, jurisprudence, political economy, and "police and revenue". He published The Theory of Moral Sentiments in 1759, embodying some of his Glasgow lectures. This work was concerned with how human communication depends on sympathy between agent and spectator, or the individual and other members of society. His analysis of language evolution was somewhat superficial, as shown only fourteen years later by a more rigorous examination of primitive language evolution by Lord Monboddo in his Of the Origin and Progress of Language. Smith showed strong capacity for fluent and persuasive—if rather rhetorical—argument. He bases his explanation not on a special "moral sense", as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, nor on utility as Hume did, but on sympathy. Smith's popularity greatly increased due to the The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and as a result, many wealthy students left their schools in other countries to enroll at Glasgow to learn under Smith. After the publication of The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lectures and less to his theories of morals. The development of his ideas on political economy can be observed from the lecture notes taken down by a student in 1763, and from what William Robert Scott described as an early version of part of The Wealth of Nations. For example, Smith lectured that labor—rather than the nation's quantity of gold or silver—is the cause of increase in national wealth. In 1762, the academic senate of the University of Glasgow conferred on Smith the title of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.). At the end of 1763, he obtained a lucrative offer from Charles Townshend (who had been introduced to Smith by David Hume) to tutor his stepson, Henry Scott, the young Duke of Buccleuch. Smith subsequently resigned from his professorship to take the tutoring position. Because he resigned in the middle of the term, Smith attempted to return the fees he had collected from his students, but they refused. Tutoring and travels Smith's tutoring job entailed touring Europe with Henry Scott while teaching him subjects including proper Polish. Smith was paid £300 per year plus expenses along with £300 per year pension, which was roughly twice his former income as a teacher. Smith first traveled as a tutor to Toulouse, France, where he stayed for a year and a half. According to accounts, Smith found Toulouse to be very boring, and he wrote to Hume that he "had begun to write a book in order to pass away the time". After touring the south of France, the group moved to Geneva. While in Geneva, Smith met with the philosopher Voltaire. After staying in Geneva, the party went to Paris. While in Paris, Smith came to know intellectual leaders such as Benjamin Franklin, Turgot, Jean D'Alembert, André Morellet, Helvétius and, in particular, Francois Quesnay, the head of the Physiocratic school, whose work he respected greatly. The physiocrats believed that wealth came from production and not from the attainment of precious metals, which was adverse to mercantilist thought. They also believed that agriculture tended to produce wealth and that merchants and manufacturers did not. While Smith did not embrace all of the physiocrats ideas, he did say that physiocracy was "with all its imperfections [perhaps] the nearest approximation to the truth that has yet been published upon the subject of political economy". Later years and writings In 1766, Henry Scott's younger brother died in Paris, and Smith's tour as a tutor ended shortly thereafter. Smith returned home that year to Kirkcaldy, and he devoted much of the next ten years to his magnum opus which was published in 1776. The publication of the book was an instant success, selling out the first edition in only six months. In May 1773 he was elected fellow of the Royal Society of London, and was elected a member of the Literary Club in 1775. In 1778 Smith was appointed to a post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Edinburgh. Five years later, he became one of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and from 1787 to 1789 he occupied the honorary position of Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow. He died in Edinburgh on 17 July 1790 after a painful illness and was buried in the Canongate Kirkyard. On his death bed, Smith expressed disappointment that he had not achieved more. Smith's literary executors were two friends from the Scottish academic world: the physicist and chemist Joseph Black, and the pioneering geologist James Hutton. Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication. He mentioned an early unpublished History of Astronomy as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material such as Essays on Philosophical Subjects. Personality and beliefs Character Not much is known about Smith's personal views beyond what can be deduced from his published works. His personal papers were destroyed after his death. He never married and seems to have maintained a close relationship with his mother, with whom he lived after his return from France and who died six years before his own death. Contemporary accounts describe Smith as an eccentric but benevolent intellectual, comically absent minded, with peculiar habits of speech and gait and a smile of "inexpressible benignity". He was known to talk to himself, and had occasional spells of imaginary illness. Smith is often described as a prototypical absent-minded professor. He is reported to have had books and papers stacked up in his study, with a habit he developed during childhood of speaking to himself and smiling in rapt conversation with invisible companions. Various anecdotes have discussed his absentminded nature. In one story, Smith reportedly took Charles Townshend on a tour of a tanning factory and while discussing free trade, Smith walked into a huge tanning pit from which he had to be removed. Another episode records that he put bread and butter into a teapot, drank the concoction, and declared it to be the worst cup of tea he ever had. In another example, Smith went out walking and daydreaming in his nightgown and ended up outside town before nearby church bells brought him back to reality. Smith is reported to have been an odd-looking fellow. One author stated that Smith "had a large nose, bulging eyes, a protruding lower lip, a nervous twitch, and a speech impediment". Smith is reported to have acknowledged his looks at one point saying, "I am a beau in nothing but my books." Smith "never" sat for portraits, so depictions of him created during his lifetime were drawn from memory, with rare exceptions. The most famous examples were a profile by James Tassie and two etchings by John Kay. The line engravings produced for the covers of 19th century reprints of The Wealth of Nations were based largely off of Tassie's medallion. Religious views There has been considerable scholarly debate about the nature of Adam Smith's religious views. Smith's father had a strong interest in Christianity and belonged to the moderate wing of the Church of Scotland. Smith may have gone to England with the intention of a career in the Church of England: this is controversial and depends on the status of the Snell Exhibition. At Oxford, Smith rejected Christianity and it is generally believed that he returned to Scotland as a Deist. Economist Ronald Coase has challenged the view that Smith was a Deist, stating that while Smith may have referred to the "Great Architect of the Universe", other scholars have "very much exaggerated the extent to which Adam Smith was committed to a belief in a personal God". He based this on analysis of a remark in The Wealth of Nations where Smith writes that the curiosity of mankind about the "great phenomena of nature" such as "the generation, the life, growth and dissolution of plants and animals" has led men to "enquire into their causes". Coase notes Smith's observation that "[s]uperstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods". Smith's close friend and colleague David Hume, with whom he agreed on most matters, was described by contemporaries as an atheist, although there is some debate about the exact nature of his views among modern philosophers. In a letter to William Strahan, Smith's account of Hume's courage and tranquility in the face of death aroused violent public controversy, since it contradicted the assumption, widespread among orthodox believers, that an untroubled death was impossible without the consolation of religious belief. Published works Adam Smith published a large body of works throughout his life, some of which have shaped the field of economics. Smith's first book, The Theory of Moral Sentiments was written in 1759. It provided the ethical, philosophical, psychological and methodological underpinnings to Smith's later works, including An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937), Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795), Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896), and Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) In 1759, Smith published his first work, The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He continued to revise the work throughout his life, making extensive revisions to the final (6th) edition shortly before his death in 1790. Although The Wealth of Nations is widely regarded as Smith's most influential work, it has been reported that Smith himself "always considered his Theory of Moral Sentiments a much superior work to his Wealth of Nations". P. J. O'Rourke, author of the commentary On The Wealth of Nations (2007), has agreed, calling Theory of Moral Sentiments "the better book". It was in this work that Smith first referred to the "invisible hand" to describe the apparent benefits to society of people behaving in their own interests. In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith critically examined the moral thinking of the time and suggested that conscience arises from social relationships. His aim in the work is to explain the source of mankind's ability to form moral judgements, in spite of man's natural inclinations toward self-interest. Smith proposes a theory of sympathy in which the act of observing others makes people aware of themselves and the morality of their own behavior. Haakonssen writes that in Smith's theory, "Society is ... the mirror in which one catches sight of oneself, morally speaking." In part because Theory of Moral Sentiments emphasizes sympathy for others while Wealth of Nations famously emphasizes the role of self interest, some scholars have perceived a conflict between these works. As one economic historian observed: "Many writers, including the present author at an early stage of his study of Smith, have found these two works in some measure basically inconsistent." But in recent years most scholars of Adam Smith's work have argued that no contradiction exists. In Theory of Moral Sentiments, Smith develops a theory of psychology in which individuals find it in their self-interest to develop sympathy as they seek approval of the "impartial spectator". The self-interest he speaks of is not a narrow selfishness but something that involves sympathy. Haakonssen adds that Theory of Moral Sentiments and Wealth of Nations "only contradict each other if Smithian sympathy is misinterpreted as benevolence and self-interest wrongly is narrowed to selfishness and then taken to be the reductive basis for all human motivation". Rather than viewing the Wealth of Nations and Theory of Moral Sentiments as presenting incompatible views of human nature, most Smith scholars regard the works as emphasizing different aspects of human nature that vary depending on the situation. The Wealth of Nations draws on situations where man's morality is likely to play a smaller role—such as the laborer involved in pin-making—whereas the Theory of Moral Sentiments focuses on situations where man's morality is likely to play a dominant role among more personal exchanges. The Wealth of Nations (1776) The Wealth of Nations expounds that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called "invisible hand". The image of the invisible hand was previously employed by Smith in Theory of Moral Sentiments, but it has its original use in his essay, "The History of Astronomy". Smith believed that when an individual pursues his self-interest, he promotes the good of society more than so if he intends to benefit society: "by pursuing his own interest, [the individual] frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he intends to promote it." Wealth of Nations Self-interested competition in the free market, he argued, would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and argued against the formation of monopolies. An often-quoted passage from The Wealth of Nations is: Value theory was important in classical theory. Smith wrote that the "real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it" as influenced by its scarcity. Smith maintained that, with rent and profit, other costs besides wages also enter the price of a commodity. Smith, Adam (1776). The Wealth of Nations, Bk. 1, Ch. 5, 6. Other classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value'. Classical economics focused on the tendency of markets to move to long-run equilibrium. Smith also believed that a division of labour would effect a great increase in production. One example he used was the making of pins. One worker could probably make only twenty pins per day. However, if ten people divided up the eighteen steps required to make a pin, they could make a combined amount of 48,000 pins in one day. However, Noam Chomsky has stated that Smith's views on division of labour are not unambiguously positive, and are typically mis-characterized: "Everybody reads the first paragraph of Wealth of Nations where he talks about how wonderful the division of labor is. But not many people get to the point hundreds of pages later, where he says that division of labor will destroy human beings and turn people into creatures as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human being to be." Chomsky, Noam (1995). http://www.chomsky.info/books/warfare02.htm Other works Shortly before his death, Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years, he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects, a history of astronomy down to Smith's own era, plus some thoughts on ancient physics and metaphysics, probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. Lectures on Jurisprudence were notes taken from Smith's early lectures, plus an early draft of The Wealth of Nations, published as part of the 1976 Glasgow Edition of the works and correspondence of Adam Smith. Other works, including some published posthumously, include Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue, and Arms (1763) (first published in 1896); A Treatise on Public Opulence (1764) (first published in 1937); and Essays on Philosophical Subject (1795). Legacy The Wealth of Nations, one of the earliest attempts to study the rise of industry and commercial development in Europe, was a precursor to the modern academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, Smith expounded how rational self-interest and competition can lead to economic prosperity and well-being. It also provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for free trade and capitalism, greatly influencing the writings of later economists. Smith was ranked #30 in Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history, and he is often cited as the father of modern economics. George Stigler attributes to Smith the central proposition of mainstream economic theory, namely that an individual will invest a resource, for example, land or labour, so as to earn the highest possible return on it. Consequently, all uses of the resource should yield a risk-adjusted equal rate of return; otherwise resource reallocation would result. On the other hand, Joseph Schumpeter dismissed Smith's contributions as unoriginal, saying "His very limitation made for success. Had he been more brilliant, he would not have been taken so seriously. Had he dug more deeply, had he unearthed more recondite truth, had he used more difficult and ingenious methods, he would not have been understood. But he had no such ambitions; in fact he disliked whatever went beyond plain common sense. He never moved above the heads of even the dullest readers. He led them on gently, encouraging them by trivialities and homely observations, making them feel comfortable all along.” (Schumpeter History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press, p 185) Classical economists presented variations on Smith, termed the 'labour theory of value', later Marxian economics descends from classical economics also using Smith's labor theories in part. The first volume of Karl Marx's major work, Capital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital. Roemer, J.E. (1987). "Marxian Value Analysis". The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, 383. <ref>Mandel, Ernest (1987). "Marx, Karl Heinrich", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economicsv. 3, pp. 372, 376.</ref> The labour theory of value held that the value of a thing was determined by the labor that went into its production. This contrasts with the modern understanding of mainstream economics, that the value of a thing is determined by what one is willing to give up to obtain the thing. It is a paradox that Smith is often cited not only as the conceptual builder of free markets in capitalism but also as a main contributor to communist theory, via his influence on Marx. A body of theory later termed 'neoclassical economics' or 'marginalism' formed from about 1870 to 1910. The term 'economics' was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for 'economic science' and a substitute for the earlier, broader term 'political economy' used by Smith. This corresponded to the influence on the subject of mathematical methods used in the natural sciences. Clark, B. (1998). Political-economy: A comparative approach, 2nd ed., Westport, CT: Preagerp. p. 32.. Neoclassical economics systematized supply and demand as joint determinants of price and quantity in market equilibrium, affecting both the allocation of output and the distribution of income. It dispensed with the labour theory of value of which Smith was most famously identified with in classical economics, in favor of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side. Campos, Antonietta (1987). "Marginalist Economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 320 The bicentennial anniversary of the publication of The Wealth of Nations was celebrated in 1976, resulting in increased interest for The Theory of Moral Sentiments and his other works throughout academia. After 1976 Adam Smith was more likely to be represented as the author of both The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and thereby as the founder of a moral philosophy and the science of economics. His homo economicus or "economic man" was also more often represented as a moral person. Additionally, his opposition to slavery, colonialism, and empire was emphasised, as were his statements about high wages for the poor, and his views that a common street porter was not intellectually inferior to a philosopher. Portraits, monuments and banknotes Adam Smith has been commemorated in the UK on banknotes printed by two different banks; his portrait has appeared since 1981 on the £50 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank in Scotland, and in in March 2007 Smith's image also appeared on the new series of £20 notes issued by the Bank of England, making him the first Scotsman to feature on an English banknote. A large-scale memorial of Smith was unveiled on 4 July 2008 in Edinburgh. It is a -tall bronze sculpture and it stands above the Royal Mile outside St Giles' Cathedral in Parliament Square, near the Mercat cross. 20th century sculptor James Sanborn (best known for creating the Kryptos sculpture at the United States Central Intelligence Agency) has created multiple pieces which feature Adam Smith's work. At Central Connecticut State University is Circulating Capital, a tall cylinder which features an extract from The Wealth of Nations on the lower half, and on the upper half, some of the same text but represented in binary code. At the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, outside the Belk College of Business Administration, is Adam Smith's Spinning Top. Another Adam Smith sculpture is at Cleveland State University. As a symbol of free market economics Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free market policies as the founder of free market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute, Adam Smith Society and the Australian Adam Smith Club, and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie. Alan Greenspan argues that, while Smith did not coin the term laissez-faire, "it was left to Adam Smith to identify the more-general set of principles that brought conceptual clarity to the seeming chaos of market transactions". Greenspan continues that The Wealth of Nations was "one of the great achievements in human intellectual history". P. J. O'Rourke describes Adam Smith as the "founder of free market economics". However, other writers have argued that Smith's support for laissez-faire has been overstated. Herbert Stein wrote that the people who "wear an Adam Smith necktie" do it to "make a statement of their devotion to the idea of free markets and limited government", and that this misrepresents Smith's ideas. Stein writes that Smith "was not pure or doctrinaire about this idea. He viewed government intervention in the market with great skepticism ... yet he was prepared to accept or propose qualifications to that policy in the specific cases where he judged that their net effect would be beneficial and would not undermine the basically free character of the system. He did not wear the Adam Smith necktie." In Stein's reading, The Wealth of Nations could justify the Food and Drug Administration, The Consumer Product Safety Commission, mandatory employer health benefits, environmentalism, and "discriminatory taxation to deter improper or luxurious behavior". Similarly, Vivienne Brown stated in The Economic Journal that in the 20th century United States, Reaganomics supporters, The Wall Street Journal, and other similar sources have spread among the general public a partial and misleading vision of Adam Smith, portraying him as an "extreme dogmatic defender of laissez-faire capitalism and supply-side economics". In fact, The Wealth of Nations includes the following statement on the payment of taxes:"The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state." Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations: Book V, Chapter II (Of the Sources of the General or Public Revenue of the Society, Part II, Of Taxes; V.2.25) Noam Chomsky has argued See ch. 2,5,6 and 10 of his Understanding Power, New Press (February 2002), along with his Year 501: The Conquest Continues, primarily ch. 1, South End Press, 1993. that several aspects of Smith's thought have been misrepresented and falsified by contemporary ideology, including Smith’s reasons for supporting markets and Smith’s views on corporations. Chomsky argues that Smith supported markets in the belief that they would lead to equality. Chapter 6 Economic historians such as Jacob Viner regard Smith as a strong advocate of free markets and limited government (what Smith called "natural liberty") but not as a dogmatic supporter of laissez-faire. Footnotes Notes References . . . . . . . . . . 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1,138	Economy_of_Alberta	Alberta's economy is one of the strongest in Canada, supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and, to a lesser extent, agriculture and technology. The per capita GDP in 2007 was by far the highest of any province in Canada at C$74,825 (approx. US$74,000). In 2006 Alberta's per capita GDP was higher than all US states, and one the highest figures in the world . Alberta's per capita GDP in 2007 was 61% higher than the Canadian average of C$46,441 and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. in 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Measured from north to south, the region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population). It is also one of the fastest growing regions in the country. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor is the only Canadian urban centre to amass a U.S level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian-style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The study found GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average U.S. metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time. According to the Fraser Institute, Alberta has very high levels of economic freedom. It is by far the most free economy in Canada, and is rated as the 2nd most free economy of U.S. states and Canadian provinces. ISBN 0-88975-213-3 Employment Alberta's economy is a highly developed one in which most people work in services such as healthcare, government, or retail. Primary industries are also of great importance, however. According to Alberta Venture magazine's list of the 50 largest employers in the province, the largest employers are: Alberta Venture 50 Largest Employers 2007 Rank (2007) Employer Industry Alberta employees Total employees Head office Description 1. Capital Health Healthcare 30,000 30,000 Edmonton public health authority for the Edmonton region 2. Government of Alberta Government 24,062 24,062 Edmonton 3. Calgary Health Region Healthcare 14,569 14,569 Calgary public health authority for the Calgary region 4. Canada Safeway Limited Retail 14,553 34,318 Calgary food and drug retailer 5. Westfair Foods Ltd. Retail 14,400 35,700 Calgary wholesaler and retailer of food products 6. City of Calgary Government 14,077 14,077 Calgary 7. City of Edmonton Government 11,630 11,630 Edmonton 8. University of Alberta Education 11,000 11,000 Edmonton 9. Calgary Board of Education Education 10,972 10,972 Calgary public education school board 10. Edmonton School District No. 7 Education 10,000 10,000 Edmonton public education school board Sectors Industry Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in the country. Alberta is the world’s 2nd largest exporter of natural gas and the 4th largest producer. State of Alaska - Trade Report on Alberta Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. The Athabasca Oil Sands (sometimes known as the Athabasca Tar sands) have estimated non-conventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be . With the development of new extraction methods such as steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), which was developed in Alberta, bitumen and synthetic crude oil can be produced at costs close to those of conventional crude. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. With current technology and at current prices, about of bitumen are recoverable. Fort McMurray, one of Canada's fastest growing cities, has grown enormously in recent years because of the large corporations which have taken on the task of oil production. As of late 2006 there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta. Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the Tar Sands is the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 have made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive liquid crystal display systems. Interactive display system - US Patent U.S. Patent No. 5,448,263; U.S. Patent for Touch Sensitive Technology - SMART Technologies With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds. Energy Oil and gas Drilling rig in Alberta. Since the early 1940s, Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the United States. The Athabasca River region produces oil for internal and external use. The Athabasca Oil Sands contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world outside Saudi Arabia. Natural gas has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids (ethane, propane, and butanes) totalled , valued at $2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States. Notable gas reserves were discovered in the 1883 near Medicine Hat. Alberta Energy: Energy Facts The town of Medicine Hat began using gas for lighting the town, and suppling light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing. In fact a large glassworks was established at Redcliff. When Rudyard Kipling visited Medicine Hat he described it as the city "with all hell for a basement". Basic statistics In 2003, Alberta produced of conventional light, medium, and heavy crude, plus an additional of pentanes plus used for blending with heavy crude oil and bitumen to facilitate its transportation through pipelines. Government of Alberta. Energy Overview Alberta exports over of oil to US markets accounting for 10 per cent of US oil imports. The conventional oil resource is estimated to have approximately of remaining established reserves. Conventional crude oil production (not including oil sands and pentanes plus) represented 38.6% of Alberta ’s total crude oil and equivalent production and 25.5% of Canada’s total crude oil and equivalent production. Alberta's oil sands reserve is considered to be one of the largest in the world, containing of bitumen initially in place. Of this total, are considered to be remaining established reserves, recoverable using current technology under present and anticipated economic conditions. To date, about 2% of the initial established resource has been produced. In 2003, total crude bitumen production in Alberta averaged . Disposition of Alberta ’s total crude oil and equivalent production in 2003 was approximately: 62% to the United States 24% within Alberta 14% to the rest of Canada In 2003, Alberta produced of marketable natural gas. The average Albertan household uses of natural gas a year. Over 80 per cent of Canada’s natural gas production is from Alberta. In 2006, Alberta consumed of natural gas. The rest was exported across Canada and to the United States. Royalties to Alberta from natural gas and its byproducts are larger than royalties from crude oil and bitumen. In 2006, there were 13,473 successful natural gas wells drilled in Alberta: 12,029 conventional gas wells and 1,444 coalbed methane wells There may be up to of coalbed methane in Alberta, although it is unknown how much of this gas might be recoverable. Alberta has one of the most extensive natural gas systems in the world as part of its energy infrastructure, with of energy related pipelines. Coal Coal has been mined in Alberta since the late 1800s. Over 1800 mines have operated in Alberta since then. The coal industry was vital to the early development of several communities, especially those in the foothills and along deep river valleys where coal was close to the surface. Alberta is still a major coal producer, every two weeks Alberta produces enough coal to fill the Sky Dome in Toronto. Much of that coal is burned in Alberta for electricity generation. Alberta uses over 25 million tonnes of coal annually to generate electricity. Alberta has vast coal resources and 70 per cent of Canada's coal reserves are located in Alberta. This amounts to 33.6 Gigatonnes. Vast beds of coal are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains. The coal belongs to the Cretaceous beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in England is of excellent quality. In the valley of the Bow River, alongside the Canadian Pacific Railway, valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked. The usual coal deposits of the are of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal. These are largely worked at Lethbridge in southern Alberta and Edmonton in the centre of the province. Many other parts of the province have pits for private use. Electricity , Alberta's generating capacity was 11,919 MW, and Alberta has about of transmission lines. Alberta has over 490 megawatts of wind power capacity. Alberta has added 4400 MW of new supply since 1998 – that's equal to all the power generated in Saskatchewan. Winter peak for power use in one day was in November 2006 – 9,661 MW. Summer peak for power use in one day was set on July 18, 2007 – 9,192 MW. Mineral mining Building stones mined in Alberta include Rundle stone, and Paskapoo sandstone. Diamonds were first found in Alberta in 1958, and many stones have been found since, although to date no large-scale mines have been developed.. Manufacturing The Edmonton area, and in particular Nisku is a major centre for manufacturing oil and gas related equipment. As well Edmonton's refinery row is home to a petrochemical industry. Biotechnology Several companies and services in the biotech sector are clustered around the University of Alberta, for example ColdFX. Food processing Owing to the strength of agriculture, food processing was one a major part of the economies of Edmonton and Calgary, but this sector has increasingly moved to smaller centres such as Brooks, the home of Lakeside Packers. Transportation Edmonton is a major distribution centre for northern communities, hence the nickname "Gateway to the North". Edmonton is one CN Rail's most important hubs. Calgary is the main hub for the WestJet airline, and an important centre for CP Rail. Agriculture and forestry Canola field in central Alberta In the past, cattle, horses, and sheep were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over $3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quantities. In this region irrigation is widely used. Wheat, accounting for almost half of the $2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by canola, barley, rye, sugar beets, and other mixed farming. Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. Over three million cattle are residents of the province at one time or another, Alberta Livestock Inspections - August 2006 - Alberta Government, Department of Agriculture and Albertan beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains buffalo (bison) for the consumer market. Sheep for wool and lamb are also raised. Grain elevator in southern Alberta Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other grains also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need. The vast northern forest reserves of softwood allow Alberta to produce large quantities of lumber, oriented strand board (OSB) and plywood, and several plants in northern Alberta supply North America and the Pacific Rim nations with bleached wood pulp and newsprint. In 1999, lumber products from Alberta were valued at $4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province's land area, the government allows about to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands. Services Despite the high profile of the extractive industries, Alberta has a mature economy and most people work in services. Finance Calgary is head office for many major oil and gas related companies, and many financial service business have grown up around them. Edmonton is the headquarters of the only major Canadian banks west of Toronto: Canadian Western Bank, and ATB Financial. Government Despite Alberta's reputation as a "small government" province, many health care and education professionals are lured to Alberta from other provinces by the higher wages the Alberta government is able to offer because of oil revenues. See also Economy of Lethbridge Canadian Oil Patch, for the petroleum industry History of the petroleum industry in Canada References External links CBC Digital Archives - Striking Oil in Alberta	Economy_of_Alberta \|@lemmatized alberta:72 economy:10 one:15 strong:1 canada:14 support:2 burgeon:1 petroleum:3 industry:12 less:2 extent:1 agriculture:5 technology:5 per:7 caput:4 gdp:4 far:2 high:8 province:16 c:2 approx:1 u:10 state:7 figure:1 world:9 canadian:11 average:5 twice:1 atlantic:1 deviation:1 national:1 large:16 history:2 calgary:14 edmonton:20 corridor:4 urbanized:1 region:9 dense:1 measure:2 north:6 south:1 cover:2 distance:2 roughly:1 kilometre:1 population:2 million:3 also:7 fast:2 grow:5 country:2 study:2 td:1 bank:3 financial:4 group:1 find:7 urban:1 centre:6 amass:1 level:2 wealth:1 maintain:1 style:1 quality:2 life:1 offer:2 universal:1 health:6 care:2 benefit:1 metropolitan:1 area:3 city:5 time:2 accord:2 fraser:1 institute:1 economic:2 freedom:1 free:2 rat:1 isbn:1 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1,139	Demographics_of_Cameroon	This article is about the demographic features of the population of Cameroon, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Linguistic survey of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Benin Speakers of Makaa-Njem languages in Cameroon and neighbouring countries. The ethnic groups of Cameroon who speak Duala languages. The demographic profile of Cameroon is complex for a country of its population. Cameroon comprises an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions: western highlanders (Semi-Bantu or grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamum (or Bamoun), and many smaller Tikar groups in the Northwest (est. 38% of total population); coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala (or Douala), and many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%); southern tropical forest peoples, including the Beti-Pahuin, Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Maka, Njem, and Baka pygmies (18%); predominantly Islamic peoples of the northern semi-arid regions (the Sahel) and central highlands, including the Fulani (or Peuhl in French) (14%); and the "Kirdi", non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%). A Tikar family in the Northwest Province An up-to-date demographic profile is unavailable from the country's government, which hasn't published census data since 1976. The Cameroon government held two national censuses during the country's first 44 years as an independent country, in 1976 and again in 1987. Results from the second head count were never published. A third census, expected to take years to product results, began on November 11, 2005, with a three-week interviewing phase. It is one of a series of projects and reforms required by the International Monetary Fund as prerequisites for foreign debt relief. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Estimated number of inhabitants (in thousands), based on 2005 data from the Food and Agriculture Organization. Population 17,340,702 Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 41.2% (male 3,614,430/female 3,531,047) 15-64 years: 55.5% (male 4,835,453/female 4,796,276) 65 years and over: 3.2% (male 260,342/female 303,154) (2006 est.) Median age Total: 18.9 years Male: 18.7 years Female: 19 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 2.04% (2006 est.) Birth rate 33.89 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 13.47 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 63.52 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 67.38 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 59.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 52.86 years Male: 52.15 years Female: 53.59 years (2007 est.) Total fertility rate 4.39 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 6.9% (2003 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 560,000 (2003 est.) Deaths: 49,000 (2003 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: very high Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne diseases: malaria and yellow fever are high risks in some locations Water contact disease: schistosomiasis Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2005) Nationality Noun: Cameroonian(s) Adjective: Cameroonian Ethnic groups Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1% Religions Indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20% See also Bahá'í Faith in Cameroon, Bwiti, Islam in Cameroon, Jengu, and Roman Catholicism in Cameroon. Languages There are 24 major African language groups in Cameroon; additionally, English and French are official languages. Cameroonian Pidgin English is also widely spoken. Peoples concentrated in the Southwest and Northwest Provinces — around Buea and Bamenda — use standard English and Cameroonian Pidgin English, as well as their local languages. In the three northern provinces — Adamawa, North, and Far North — either French or Fulfulde (the language of the Fulani) is widely spoken. Elsewhere, French is the principal second language, although pidgin and some local languages such as Ewondo, the dialect of a Beti clan from the Yaoundé area, have a wide currency. Indigenous languages of Cameroon include: Basaa Bikya Bung Kanuri Ngumba Yeni Bamum Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 67.9% (2004 est.; source: UNDP 2006; NB- this figure is given without reference to which languages are considered) Male: 77.0% Female: 59.8% References Cameroon Undertakes Nationwide Census, a November 2005 article from Voice of America UNDP. 2006. Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis. Human Development Report 2006. New York: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (Cameroon http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/data_sheets/cty_ds_CMR.html )	Demographics_of_Cameroon \|@lemmatized article:2 demographic:5 feature:1 population:15 cameroon:15 include:6 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 linguistic:1 survey:1 nigeria:1 benin:1 speaker:1 makaa:1 njem:2 language:11 neighbouring:1 country:7 ethnic:3 group:6 speak:3 duala:2 profile:2 complex:1 comprise:1 estimated:1 distinct:1 may:1 form:1 five:1 large:1 regional:1 cultural:1 division:1 western:1 highlander:2 semi:2 bantu:3 grassfielders:1 bamileke:1 bamum:2 bamoun:1 many:2 small:2 tikar:2 northwest:3 est:16 total:7 coastal:1 tropical:2 forest:2 people:6 bassa:1 douala:1 southwest:2 southern:1 beti:4 pahuin:3 bulu:1 subgroup:2 fang:1 maka:1 baka:1 pygmy:1 predominantly:1 islamic:3 northern:3 arid:1 region:1 sahel:1 central:2 highland:2 fulani:3 peuhl:1 french:4 kirdi:2 non:2 recently:1 desert:1 family:1 province:3 date:1 unavailable:1 government:2 publish:2 census:4 data:2 since:1 hold:1 two:1 national:1 first:1 year:14 independent:1 result:3 second:2 head:1 count:1 never:1 third:1 expect:2 take:2 product:1 begin:1 november:2 three:2 week:1 interviewing:1 phase:1 one:1 series:1 project:1 reform:1 require:1 international:1 monetary:1 fund:1 prerequisite:1 foreign:1 debt:1 relief:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:3 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 estimate:2 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 base:1 food:2 agriculture:1 organization:1 note:1 explicitly:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:1 aid:3 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 high:3 infant:2 death:7 rate:9 growth:2 change:1 distribution:1 age:4 sex:2 would:1 july:1 structure:1 male:12 female:12 median:1 birth:7 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 ratio:1 live:4 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 major:2 infectious:1 disease:5 degree:1 risk:2 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:2 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 yellow:1 location:1 water:2 contact:1 schistosomiasis:1 respiratory:1 meningococcal:1 meningitis:1 nationality:1 noun:1 cameroonian:4 adjective:1 equatorial:1 northwestern:1 eastern:1 nigritic:1 african:3 less:1 religion:1 indigenous:2 belief:1 christian:1 muslim:1 see:1 also:2 bahá:1 í:1 faith:1 bwiti:1 islam:1 jengu:1 roman:1 catholicism:1 additionally:1 english:4 official:1 pidgin:3 widely:2 concentrate:1 around:1 buea:1 bamenda:1 use:1 standard:1 well:1 local:2 adamawa:1 north:2 far:1 either:1 fulfulde:1 elsewhere:1 principal:1 although:1 ewondo:1 dialect:1 clan:1 yaoundé:1 area:1 wide:1 currency:1 basaa:1 bikya:1 bung:1 kanuri:1 ngumba:1 yeni:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 source:1 undp:4 nb:1 figure:1 give:1 without:1 reference:2 consider:1 undertakes:1 nationwide:1 voice:1 america:1 beyond:1 scarcity:1 power:1 poverty:1 global:1 crisis:1 human:1 development:2 report:1 new:1 york:1 united:1 nation:1 programme:1 http:1 hdr:1 org:1 html:1 \|@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 nigeria_cameroon:1 semi_arid:1 monetary_fund:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 yellow_fever:1 meningococcal_meningitis:1 nationality_noun:1 bahá_í:1 í_faith:1 roman_catholicism:1 literacy_definition:1 programme_undp:1 undp_org:1
1,140	Foreign_relations_of_Djibouti	Djibouti's military and economic agreements with France provide continued security and economic assistance. Links with Arab states and East Asian states, Japan and People's Republic of China in particular, also are welcome. Djibouti is a member of the Arab League, as well as the Organization of African Unity (OAU), and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD). After the terror attacks of September 11, 2001, Djibouti joined the Global War on Terror, and now hosts a large military camp, home to soldiers from many countries, but primarily the U.S. The U.S. and Djibouti have forged strong ties in recent years. Foreign Aid from the U.S. plays the lead role in Djibouti's economy. Djibouti is greatly affected by events in Somalia and Ethiopia, and therefore relations are important and, at times, very delicate. The fall of the Siad Barre and Mengistu governments in Somalia and Ethiopia, respectively, in 1991, caused Djibouti to face national security threats due to the instability in the neighboring states and a massive influx of refugees estimated at 100,000 from Somalia and Ethiopia. In 2000, after 3 years of insufficient rain, 50,000 drought victims entered Djibouti. In 1996 a revitalized organization of seven East African states, the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), established its secretariat in Djibouti. IGAD’s mandate is for regional cooperation and economic integration. In 1991 and 2000, Djibouti played a key role in the search for peace in Somalia by hosting Somali Reconciliation Conferences. In the summer of 2000, Djibouti hosted the Arta Conference which brought together various Somali clans and warlords. Djibouti's efforts to promote reconciliation in Somalia led to the establishment of the Transitional National Government (TNG) in Somalia. Djibouti hopes the TNG can form the basis for bringing peace and stability to Somalia. With the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998 - 2000), Ethiopia channeled most of its trade through Djibouti. Though Djibouti is nominally neutral, it broke off relations with Eritrea in November 1998, renewing relations in 2000. Eritrea's President Isaias visited Djibouti in early 2001 and President Ismail Omar Guelleh made a reciprocal visit to Asmara in the early summer of 2001. While Djibouti’s President Ismail Omar Guelleh has close ties with Ethiopia’s ruling Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), he has tried to maintain an even hand, developing relations with Eritrea. On June 10, 2008 clashes broke out in the Ras Doumeira region between Djibouti and Eritrea. Djibouti has been the host country for French military units since independence. In 2002, United States units began operations from Djibouti with the aim of countering the possible threat of Islamic terrorism in the Horn of Africa. Somalia has in the past claimed the areas of Djibouti inhabited by Somalis as part of the Greater Somalia idea. Djibouti is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). See also Diplomatic missions of Djibouti Canada-Djibouti relations Djibouti-United States relations Djibouti-Pakistan relations List of diplomatic missions in Djibouti External links Embassy of the United States in Djibouti	Foreign_relations_of_Djibouti \|@lemmatized djibouti:28 military:4 economic:3 agreement:2 france:1 provide:1 continue:1 security:2 assistance:1 link:2 arab:2 state:7 east:2 asian:1 japan:1 people:2 republic:1 china:1 particular:1 also:3 welcome:1 member:2 league:1 well:1 organization:2 african:2 unity:1 oau:1 intergovernmental:2 authority:2 development:2 igad:3 terror:2 attack:1 september:1 join:1 global:1 war:2 host:4 large:1 camp:1 home:1 soldier:1 many:1 country:2 primarily:1 u:4 forge:1 strong:1 tie:2 recent:1 year:2 foreign:1 aid:1 play:2 lead:2 role:2 economy:1 greatly:1 affect:1 event:1 somalia:9 ethiopia:5 therefore:1 relation:7 important:1 time:1 delicate:1 fall:1 siad:1 barre:1 mengistu:1 government:2 respectively:1 cause:1 face:1 national:2 threat:2 due:1 instability:1 neighboring:1 massive:1 influx:1 refugee:1 estimate:1 insufficient:1 rain:1 drought:1 victim:1 enter:1 revitalized:1 seven:1 establish:1 secretariat:1 mandate:1 regional:1 cooperation:1 integration:1 key:1 search:1 peace:2 somali:3 reconciliation:2 conference:2 summer:2 arta:1 bring:2 together:1 various:1 clan:1 warlord:1 effort:1 promote:1 establishment:1 transitional:1 tng:2 hop:1 form:1 basis:1 stability:1 eritrean:1 ethiopian:2 channel:1 trade:1 though:1 nominally:1 neutral:1 break:2 eritrea:4 november:1 renew:1 president:3 isaias:1 visit:2 early:2 ismail:2 omar:2 guelleh:2 make:1 reciprocal:1 asmara:1 close:1 rule:1 revolutionary:1 democratic:1 front:1 eprdf:1 try:1 maintain:1 even:1 hand:1 develop:1 june:1 clash:1 ra:1 doumeira:1 region:1 french:1 unit:2 since:1 independence:1 united:3 begin:1 operation:1 aim:1 counter:1 possible:1 islamic:1 terrorism:1 horn:1 africa:1 past:1 claim:1 area:1 inhabit:1 part:1 great:1 idea:1 international:1 criminal:1 court:1 bilateral:1 immunity:1 protection:1 cover:1 article:1 see:1 diplomatic:2 mission:2 canada:1 pakistan:1 list:1 external:1 embassy:1 \|@bigram unity_oau:1 somalia_ethiopia:3 siad_barre:1 eritrean_ethiopian:1 ismail_omar:2 omar_guelleh:2 bilateral_immunity:1 diplomatic_mission:2 external_link:1
1,141	Arabs	An Arab (, ʿarabi) is a person who identifies as such on linguistic or cultural grounds. Encyclopedia of the Orient Francis Mading Deng, War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan , Published 1995, Brookings Institution Press, p. 405, via Google Books The plural form, Arabs (العرب al-ʿarab), refers to the ethnocultural group at large. Though the Arabic language is older, Arabic culture was first spread in the Middle East beginning in the 2nd century as culturally Arab Christians such as the Ghassanids, Lakhmids and Banu Judham began migrating into the Syrian Desert and the Levant. Banu Judham migration Ghassanids Arabic linguistic influence in Syria The Arabic language gained greater prominence with the rise of Islam in the 7th century CE as the language of the Qur'an, and Arabic language and culture were more widely disseminated as a result of early Islamic expansion. Islam and the Arabic language Etymology "Arab" is defined independently of religious identity, and pre-dates the rise of Islam, with historically attested Arab Christian kingdoms and Arab Jews. The earliest documented use of the word "Arab" as defining a group of people dates from the 9th century BCE. http://books.google.com/books?id=pUepRuQO8ZkC&pg=PA211&lpg=PA211&dq=%22west+semites%22&source=web&ots=6kyuNF1B1w&sig=sLzW2BOuHDDYHYEHbQqW-RyqVh8#PPA105,M1 Islamized but non-Arabized peoples, and therefore the majority of the world's Muslims, do not form part of the Arab World but comprise what is the geographically larger and diverse Muslim World. In the modern era, defining who is an Arab is done on the grounds of one or more of the following three criteria: Genealogical: someone who can trace his or her ancestry to the tribes of Arabia - the original inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula - and the Syrian Desert. This definition covers fewer self-identified Arabs than not, and was the definition used in medieval times, for example by Ibn Khaldun. Linguistic: someone whose first language, and by extension cultural expression, is Arabic, including any of its varieties. This definition covers more than 250 million people. Certain groups that fulfill this criterion reject this definition on the basis of genealogy, such an example may be seen in the identity of many Egyptians. Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Kakhlidi, ed., Origins of Arab Nationalism, pp. 244–45 qtd in Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton University Press. 2003, p. 99 Political: in the modern nationalist era, any person who is a citizen of a country where Arabic is either the national language or one of the official languages, and/or a citizen of a country which may simply be a member of the Arab League (thereby having Arabic as an official government language, even if not used by the majority of the population). This definition would cover over 300 million people. It may be the most contested definition as it is the most simplistic one. It would exclude the entire Arab diaspora, but include not only those genealogically Arabs (Gulf Arabs and others, such as Bedouins, where they may exist) and those Arabized-Arab-identified, but would also include Arabized non-Arab-identified groups (including many Lebanese and many Egyptians, both Christians and Muslims) and even non-Arabized ethnic minorities which have remained non-Arabic-speaking (such as the Berbers in Morocco, Kurds in Iraq, or the Somali majority of Arab League member Somalia). The relative importance of these three factors is estimated differently by different groups and frequently disputed. Some combine aspects of each definition, as done by Habib Hassan Touma, 1996, p.xviii who defines an Arab "in the modern sense of the word", as "one who is a national of an Arab state, has command of the Arabic language, and possesses a fundamental knowledge of Arab tradition, that is, of the manners, customs, and political and social systems of the culture." Most people who consider themselves Arab do so based on the overlap of the political and linguistic definitions. Few people consider themselves Arab based on the political definition without the linguistic one; thus few Kurds and Berbers identify as Arab. But some do, for instance some Berbers also consider themselves Arab (v. e.g. Gellner, Ernest and Micaud, Charles, Eds. Arabs and Berbers: from tribe to nation in North Africa. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1972). Some religious minorities within the Middle East and North Africa who have Arabic or any of its varieties as their primary community language, such as Egyptian Copts, may not identify as Arabs. The Arab League at its formation in 1946 defined Arab as "a person whose language is Arabic, who lives in an Arabic speaking country, who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the Arabic speaking peoples". The relation of and is complicated further by the notion of "lost Arabs" mentioned in the Qur'an as punished for their disbelief. All contemporary Arabs were considered as descended from two ancestors, Qahtan and Adnan. Versteegh (1997) is uncertain whether to ascribe this distinction to the memory of a real difference of origin of the two groups, but it is certain that the difference was strongly felt in early Islamic times. Even in Islamic Spain there was enmity between the Qays of the northern and the Kalb of the southern group. The so-called Himyarite language described by Al-Hamdani (died 946) appears to be a special case of language contact between the two groups, an originally north Arabic dialect spoken in the south, and influenced by Old South Arabian. During the Muslim conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, the Arabs forged an Arab Empire (under the Rashidun and Umayyads, and later the Abbasids) whose borders touched southern France in the west, China in the east, Asia Minor in the north, and the Sudan in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. In much of this area, the Arabs spread Islam and the Arabic language (the language of the Qur'an) through conversion and cultural assimilation. Many groups became known as "Arabs" through this process of Arabization rather than through descent. Thus, over time, the term Arab came to carry a broader meaning than the original ethnic term: cultural Arab vs. ethnic Arab. Arab nationalism declares that Arabs are united in a shared history, culture and language. A related ideology, Pan-Arabism, calls for all Arab lands to be united as one state. Arab nationalism has often competed for existence with regional nationalism in the Middle East, such as Lebanese and Egyptian. Population The top 15 countries with the largest Arab populations outside the "Pan-Arab states" or the Arab world of the Middle East and North Africa by rankings. Often the main Arabic ethnic-national groups are Syrians and Lebanese, but can include other Arab nationalities. Brazil = 6 to 8 million, but can exceed 10 million. Iran = 1.2 to 1.8 million (an Shi'ite Arab minority in Khuzestan). United States = 1 to 2 million (the most numerous are Lebanese and Syrian descent). Mexico = at 1 million. Israel = estimated at 1 to 1.5 million Arabs or of Arab descent (see Palestinians for more information). United Kingdom = 1.0 million. Argentina = 800 to 900,000. Turkey = 800,000 to 1.2 million. Chile = 600 to 800,000 (esp. Palestinian Chileans). France = 500,000 (estimated). Australia = 400 to 500,000 (a large number are Lebanese). Canada = 300 to 500,000. Germany = 300 to 400,000. Pakistan = 200 to 300,000. Ecuador = 200,000. 24 other nations with above 100,000 Arabs: Haiti, Sierra Leone, Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, Senegal, Nigeria, Venezuela, Colombia, Uruguay, New Zealand, Denmark, Cyprus, Spain, Bulgaria, Ghana, Switzerland, Greece, Jamaica, The Philippines, Dominician Republic, Trinidad & Tobago, Sweden, Honduras and Russia. And 100 more nations with over 10,000 Arabs. The global presence of Arab diasporas is significant to the development and contributions of the Arab culture in the world, from the Islamic religion to the economic well-being of several nations, and the contributions of arts and sciences by the Arabic peoples in the last millennia in Europe, Africa and Asia. Origins and history Pre-Arabic Near East Early Semitic peoples from the Ancient Near East, such as the Arameans, Akkadians and Canaanites, built civilizations in Mesopotamia and the Levant; genetically, they often interlapped and mixed. Journal of Semitic Studies Volume 52, Number 1 Slowly, however, they lost their political domination of the Near East due to internal turmoil and attacks by non-Semitic peoples. Although the Semites eventually lost political control of the Middle East to the Persian Empire, the Aramaic language remained the lingua Franca of Mesopotamia and the Levant. Aramaic itself was replaced by Greek as the Middle East's prestige language following the conquest of Alexander the Great. The first written attestation of the ethnonym "Arab" occurs in an Assyrian inscription of 853 BCE, where Shalmaneser III lists a King Gindibu of mâtu arbâi (Arab land) as among the people he defeated at the Battle of Karkar. Some of the names given in these texts are Aramaic, while others are the first attestations of Proto-Arabic dialects. In fact several different ethnonyms are found in Assyrian texts that are conventionally translated "Arab": Arabi, Arubu, Aribi and Urbi. The Hebrew Bible occasionally refers to Arvi peoples (or variants thereof), translated as "Arab" or "Arabian." The scope of the term at that early stage is unclear, but it seems to have referred to various desert-dwelling Semitic tribes in the Syrian Desert and Arabia. Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence. The earliest are written in variants of epigraphic south Arabian musnad script, including the 8th century BCE Hasaean inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, the 6th century BCE Lihyanite texts of southeastern Saudi Arabia and the Thamudic texts found throughout Arabia and the Sinai (not in reality connected with Thamud). The Nabataeans were nomadic newcomers who moved into territory vacated by the Edomites -- Semites who settled the region centuries before them. Their early inscriptions were in Aramaic, but gradually switched to Arabic, and since they had writing, it was they who made the first inscriptions in Arabic. The Nabataean Alphabet was adopted by Arabs to the south, and evolved into modern Arabic script around the 4th century. This is attested by Safaitic inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BCE) and the many Arabic personal names in Nabataean inscriptions. From about the 2nd century BCE, a few inscriptions from Qaryat al-Faw (near Sulayyil) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered "proto-Arabic", but pre-classical Arabic. Yemeni migrations to the North In Sassanid times, Arabia Petraea was a border province between the Roman and Persian empires, and from the early centuries AD was increasingly affected by Arab influence, notably with the Ghassanids migrating north from the 3rd century. The Ghassanids,Lakhmids and Kindites were the last major migration of non-Muslims out of Yemen to the north. The Ghassanids revived the Semitic presence in the then Hellenized Syria. They mainly settled in the Hauran region and spread to modern Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan. The Ghassanids held Syria until the expansion of Islam. Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Romans called Yemen "Arabia Felix" . The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire "Arabia Petraea" after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna. The Lakhmids settled the mid Tigris region around their capital Al-hira they ended up allying with the Sassanid against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the Central Arabian tribes with the Kindites with the Lakhmids eventually destroying Kinda in 540 after the fall of their main ally Himyar. The Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arbia from Qaryah dhat Kahl (the present-day Qaryat al-Faw) in Central Arabia. They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian peninsula until the fall of the Himyarites in 525AD. Early Islamic period Muslims of Medina referred to the nomadic tribes of the deserts as the A'raab, and considered themselves sedentary, but were aware of their close racial bonds. The term "A'raab' mirrors the term Assyrians used to describe the closely related nomads they defeated in Syria. The Qur'an does not use the word , only the nisba adjective . The Qur'an calls itself , "Arabic", and , "clear". The two qualities are connected for example in ayat 43.2-3, "By the clear Book: We have made it an Arabic recitation in order that you may understand". The Qur'an became regarded as the prime example of the , the language of the Arabs. The term has the same root and refers to a particularly clear and correct mode of speech. The plural noun refers to the Bedouin tribes of the desert who resisted Muhammad, for example in ayat 9.97, "the Bedouin are the worst in disbelief and hypocrisy". Based on this, in early Islamic terminology, referred to the language, and to the Arab Bedouins, carrying a negative connotation due to the Qur'anic verdict just cited. But after the Islamic conquest of the 8th century, the language of the nomadic Arabs became regarded as the most pure by the grammarians following Abi Ishaq, and the term , "language of the Arabs", denoted the uncontaminated language of the Bedouins. Levant and Iraq The arrival of Islam united many tribes in Arabia, who then moved northwards to conquer the Levant and Iraq. In 661, and throughout the Caliphate's rule by the Ummayad dynasty, Damascus was established as the Muslim capital. In these newly acquired territories, Arabs comprised the ruling military elite and as such, enjoyed special privileges. They were proud of their Arab ancestry and sponsored the poetry and culture of pre-Islamic Arabia whilst diffusing with Levantine and Iraqi culture. They established garrison towns at Ramla, ar-Raqqah, Basra, Kufa, Mosul and Samarra, all of which developed into major cities. Caliph Abd al-Malik established Arabic as the Caliphate's official language in 686. This reform greatly influenced the conquered non-Arab peoples and fueled the Arabization of the region. However, the Arabs' higher status among non-Arab Muslim converts and the latter's obligation to pay heavy taxes caused resentment. Caliph Umar II strove to resolve the conflict when he came to power in 717. He rectified the situation, demanding that all Muslims be treated as equals, but his intended reforms did not take effect as he died after only three years of rule. By now, discontent with the Umayyads swept the region and an uprising occurred in which the Abbasids came to power and moved the capital to Baghdad. The Abbasids were also Arabs (descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas), but unlike the Ummayads, they had the support of non-Arab Islamic groups. Through the adoption of the Arabic language and Islam, the Levantine and Iraqi populations became Arabized. North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula The Phoenicians and later the Carthaginians dominated North African and Iberian shores for more than 8 centuries until they were suppressed by the Romans and the later Vandal invasion. Inland, the nomadic Berbers allied with Arab Muslims in invading Spain. The Arabs mainly settled the old Phoenician and Carthagenian towns, while the Berbers remained dominant inland. Inland north Africa remained partly Arab until the 11th century, whereas the Iberian Peninsula, particularly its southern part, remained heavily Arab, until the expulsion of the Moriscos in the 17th century. Medieval Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddima distinguishes between sedentary Muslims who used to be nomadic Arabs and the Bedouin nomadic Arabs of the desert. He used the term "formerly-nomadic" Arabs and refers to sedentary Muslims by the region or city they lived in, as in Egyptians, Spaniards and Yemenis. Levity.com, Islam The Christians of Italy and the Crusaders preferred the term Saracens for all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. www.eyewitnesstohistory.com - The Christians of Iberia used the term Moor to describe all the Arabs and Muslims of that time. - [http] Arabs of Central Asia According to the History of Ibn Khaldun, the Arabs that were once in Central Asia have been either killed or have fled the Tatar invasion of the region, leaving only the locals (e.g. Kazakhs, Tajiks, Uzbeks). History of Ibn Khaldun However, today many people in Central Asia identify as Arabs. Most Arabs of Central Asia are fully assimilated with local populations, and call themselves the same as locals (e.g. Kazakhs, Tajiks, Uzbeks) but they use special titles to show their Arabic origin such as Sayyid, Khoja or Siddiqui. Arabic As a Minority Language By Jonathan Owens, pg. 184 Iranian Arab communities are also found in Khorasan Province. Banu Umayya of Damascus in the Levant & North Africa, 661AD The Umayyid Caliphs starting with Mu'awiyah Ibn Abi Sufyaan were the first Arab force to conquer the North African region, however most of them where in Damascus (The Levant) at this time and not in North Africa. It is not until their removal from Damascus by the Abbasid Caliphs will they enter Spain/Andalus and then North Africa after their expulsion from Spain/Andalus. Banu Fahr in North Africa, 670AD Uqbah Ibn Naafi' and his forces (Banu Fahr) subdued Kusayla (a Berber chief) after the first Berber apostacy in the Aures Mountain region in modern day Algeria. This led to many bloody battles between the Arab Banu Fahr and the Apostates of the region. Uqbah Ibn Naafi' the chief of the Muslim forces was slain during these battles and buried in what will later be known as the city of Sidi Uqbah in the province of Biskra,Algeria. Uqbah Ibn Naafi', a companion of Muhammad, The Prophet of Islam and the Banu Fahr build the city of Qayrawan in modern day Tunisia and the city of Uqbah ibn Naafi' in modern day Algeria Banu Hashim (Idrisids) in North Africa, 788AD Idris I, fell into a quarrel with the Abbasids and fled Egypt for the Maghreb. With the support of the Berber of the Region they established the Idrisid dynasty which was located in modern day Morocco and Algeria. Banu Umayya of Andalus/Cordoba in North Africa, 1031AD The Umayyad Dynasty eventually fell after much infighting and mismanagement left them weak to invading European forces from France. This led to the wholesale murder, expulsion, and destruction of both the Muslim Arabs and Non-Arabs as well as much of the monuments and literature which they left behind. The Banu Umayya clan then fled with the rest of the Muslims to the Maghreb region. Banu Hilal and Banu Muqal (Banu Hashim) in North Africa, 1046AD The Banu Hilal was a populous Arab tribal confederation, organized by the Fatimids. They struck in Libya, reducing the Zenata Berbers (a clan that claimed Yemeni ancestry from pre-Islamic periods) and the Sanhaja berber confederation to small coastal towns. The Banu Hilal, Banu Muqal, Banu Jashm and other smaller tribes eventually Settled in modern Morocco and Algeria. Banu Sulaym in North Africa, 1049AD The Banu Sulyam is another Bedouin tribal confederation from Nejd which followed through the trials of Banu Hilal and helped them defeat the Zirids in the Battle of Gabis in 1052 AD, and finally took Kairuan in 1057 Ad. The Banu Sulaym mainly settled and completely Arabized Libya. Banu Kanz Nubia/Sudan, 11th-14th century A branch of the Rabi'ah tribe settled in north Sudan and slowly Arabized the Makurian kingdom in modern Sudan until 1315 AD when the Banu Kanz inherited the kingdom of Makuria and paved the way for the Arabization of the Sudan, that was completed by the arrival of the Ja'Alin and Juhayna Arab tribes. Banu Hassan Mauritania 1644–1674AD The Banu Maqil is a Yemeni nomadic tribe that settled in Tunisia in the 13th century. The Banu Hassan a Maqil branch moved into the Sanhaja region in whats today the Western Sahara and Mauritania, they fought a thirty years war on the side of the Lamtuna Arabized Berbers who claimed Himyarite ancestry (from the early Islamic invasions) defeating the Sanhaja berbers and Arabizing Mauritania. Tribal genealogy Medieval Arab genealogists divided Arabs into three groups: "Ancient Arabs", tribes that had vanished or been destroyed, such as 'Ad and Thamud, often mentioned in the Qur'an as examples of God's power to destroy wicked peoples. "Pure Arabs" of South Arabia, descending from Qahtan. The Qahtanites (Qahtanis) are said to have migrated the land of Yemen following the destruction of the Ma'rib Dam (sadd Ma'rib). The "Arabized Arabs" (musta`ribah) of center and North Arabia, descending from Ishmael son of Abraham. The Book of Jubilees claims that the The sons of Ishmael intermingled with the 6 sons of Keturah from Abraham And was called Arabs and Ishmaelites: Book of Jubilees 20:13 And Ishmael and his sons, and the sons of Keturah and their sons, went together and dwelt from Paran to the entering in of Babylon in all the land which is towards the East facing the desert. And these mingled with each other, and their name was called Arabs, and Ishmaelites. Religions Arab Muslims are generally Sunni, Shia, Ismaili and Druze. The self-identified Arab Christians generally follow Eastern Churches such as the Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches and the Maronite church. CHRISTIANS (in the Arab world) The Greek Catholic churches and Maronite church are under the Pope of Rome, and a part of the larger worldwide Catholic Church. Before the coming of Islam, most Arabs followed a religion with a number of deities, including Hubal, Is Hubal The Same As Allah? Wadd, Encyclopedia Mythica entry on Wadd Allāt, Dictionary of Ancient Deities Manat, The Book of Idols (Kitab Al-Asnam) by Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi and Uzza. The Book of Idols (Kitab Al-Asnam) by Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi A few individuals, the hanifs, had apparently rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism unaffiliated with any particular religion. Some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism. The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the Ghassanid and Lakhmid kingdoms. From Marib The Sabean Capital To Carantania When the Himyarite king converted to Judaism in the late 4th century, Msn Encarta entry on Himyarites the elites of the other prominent Arab kingdom, the Kindites, being Himyirite vassals, apparently also converted (at least partly). With the expansion of Islam, polytheistic Arabs were rapidly Islamized, and polytheistic traditions gradually disappeared. History of Islam Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion Today, Sunni Islam dominates in most areas, overwhelmingly so in North Africa. Shia Islam is dominant in southern Iraq, Bahrain and Lebanon. Substantial Shi'a populations exist in Saudi Arabia, Shia Muslims in the Mideast Kuwait, northern Syria, the al-Batinah region in Oman, and in northern Yemen. The Druze community, concentrated in the Levant, follow a faith that was originally an offshoot of Ismaili Shia Islam, Britannica - Druze and are also Arab. Christians make up 5.5% of the population of the Near East. In Lebanon they number about 39% of the population although not all Lebanese Christians identify as Arabs. CIA - The World Factbook - Lebanon In Syria, Christians make up 16% of the population. CIA - The World Factbook - Syria In Palestine before the creation of Israel estimates ranged as high as 25%, but is now 3.8% due largely to the 1948 Palestinian exodus. In West Bank and in Gaza, Arab Christians make up 8% and 0.8% of the populations, respectively. CIA The World Factbook - West Bank CIA The World Factbook - Gaza In Israel, Arab Christians constitute 1.7% (roughly 9% of the Palestinian Arab population). CIA The World Factbook - Israel Arab Christians make up 6% of the population of Jordan. CIA The World Factbook - Jordan Most North and South American Arabs are Christian, as are about half of Arabs in Australia who come particularly from Lebanon, Syria, and the Palestinian territories. Jews from Arab countries – mainly Mizrahi Jews and Yemenite Jews – are today usually not categorised as Arab. Sociologist Philip Mendes asserts that before the anti-Jewish actions of the 1930s and 1940s, overall Iraqi Jews "viewed themselves as Arabs of the Jewish faith, rather than as a separate race or nationality". THE FORGOTTEN REFUGEES: the causes of the post-1948 Jewish Exodus from Arab Countries By Philip Mendes Prior to the emergence of the term Mizrahi, the term "Arab Jews" (Yehudim ‘Áravim, יהודים ערבים) was sometimes used to describe Jews of the Arab world. The term is rarely used today. The few remaining Jews in the Arab countries reside mostly in Morocco and Tunisia. From the late 1940s to the early 1960s, following the creation of the state of Israel, most of these Jews left or were expelled from their countries of birth and are now mostly concentrated in Israel. Some immigrated to France, where they form the largest Jewish community, outnumbering European Jews, but relatively few to the United States. See Jewish exodus from Arab lands. ' Photo Gallery See also General Arabia Umayyad Abbasid Lakhmids Tanukhids Arab Nationalism Arab world Arab Jews Arab Empire Arab League Anti-Arabism Pan-Arabism Pan-Arab colors Rashidun Women in Arab societies Human rights in Saudi Arabia Origins Arabian mythology Adnani Arabs Qahtani Arabs Nabataeans Bedouin Semitic Ishmaelites Saracens Ancient Arabs Midianites Language and culture Arabic alphabet Arabic culture Arabic language Arabic literature Arabic music Arabic poetry Arab cinema Arab cuisine Varieties of Arabic History of the Arabs Diaspora Arab diaspora Middle East North Africa Philip the Arab Arab Christians Arab American Chaush (Yemenis in South India) Arab Brazilian Arab British Arab Canadian Arab Mexican Arab Singaporean Arabs in Turkey Arab citizens of Israel Iranian Arabs Negev bedouins Arab Haitian Sources Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus P, 1996. ISBN 0-931340-88-8. Lipinski, Edward. Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar, 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001 Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997) Nitle / Nitle - Nitle The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/le.html#People History of Arabic language, Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. History Of Arabic Language(1894) - GupShup Forums . Retrieved Feb.17, 2006 The Arabic language, National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education web page (2006). Retrieved June 14, 2006. Hooker, Richard. "Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture." WSU Web Site. 6 June 1999. Washington State University. Owen, Roger. "State Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East 3rd Ed" Page 57 ISBN 0-415-29714-1 References and notes	Arabs \|@lemmatized arab:144 ʿarabi:1 person:3 identify:9 linguistic:5 cultural:4 ground:2 encyclopedia:4 orient:1 francis:1 mading:1 deng:1 war:2 vision:1 conflict:2 identity:3 sudan:6 publish:1 brookings:1 institution:1 press:3 p:4 via:1 google:2 book:9 plural:2 form:3 العرب:1 al:11 ʿarab:1 refers:5 ethnocultural:1 group:12 large:7 though:1 arabic:46 language:34 old:3 culture:10 first:7 spread:3 middle:8 east:16 beginning:1 century:20 culturally:1 christian:16 ghassanids:8 lakhmids:7 banu:26 judham:2 begin:2 migrate:4 syrian:5 desert:10 levant:8 migration:3 influence:4 syria:8 gain:1 great:2 prominence:1 rise:2 islam:15 ce:1 qur:8 widely:1 disseminate:1 result:1 early:13 islamic:12 expansion:3 etymology:1 define:4 independently:1 religious:2 pre:6 date:2 historically:1 attest:2 kingdom:9 jew:11 documented:1 use:11 word:3 people:16 bce:6 http:2 com:3 id:1 pg:2 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1,142	Nervaâ%80%93Antonine_dynasty	125 AD Nervan-Antonian dynasty is a dynasty of six loosely connected Roman Emperors, who ruled over the Roman Empire for almost the whole 2nd century (96-192). These emperors are: Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Commodus This dynasty may be broken up into the Nervan and Antonine dynasties. The first five emperors are also known as Five Good Emperors.	Nervaâ%80%93Antonine_dynasty \|@lemmatized ad:1 nervan:2 antonian:1 dynasty:4 six:1 loosely:1 connect:1 roman:2 emperor:4 rule:1 empire:1 almost:1 whole:1 century:1 nerva:1 trajan:1 hadrian:1 antoninus:1 pius:1 marcus:1 aurelius:1 commodus:1 may:1 break:1 antonine:1 first:1 five:2 also:1 know:1 good:1 \|@bigram trajan_hadrian:1 hadrian_antoninus:1 antoninus_pius:1 marcus_aurelius:1
1,143	Anthroposophy	Anthroposophy, a spiritual philosophy based on the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, postulates the existence of an objective, intellectually comprehensible spiritual world accessible to direct experience through inner development — more specifically through cultivating conscientiously a form of thinking independent of sensory experience. Robert McDermott, The Essential Steiner, ISBN 0-06-065345-0, pp. 3–11, 392–5 "Anthroposophy", Encyclopedia Britannica online, accessed 10/09/07 In its investigations of the spiritual world, anthroposophy aims to attain the precision and clarity of natural science's investigations of the physical world. Whether this is a sufficient basis for anthroposophy to be considered a spiritual science has been a matter of controversy. Carlo Willmann, Waldorfpädagogik: Theologische und religionspädagogische Befunde, ISBN 3-412-16700-2, Chap. 1 Olav Hammer, Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age, Brill 2004, pp. 243, 329, 204, 225–8 Anthroposophical ideas have been applied practically in areas including Steiner/Waldorf education, special education (most prominently the Camphill movement), biodynamic agriculture, anthroposophical medicine, ethical banking and the arts. Heiner Ullrich, "Rudolf Steiner", Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, p. 555–572. The Anthroposophical Society has its international center at the Goetheanum in Dornach, Switzerland. History Rudolf Steiner. The early work of the founder of anthroposophy, Rudolf Steiner, culminated in his Philosophy of Freedom (also translated as The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity and Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path). Here, Steiner developed a concept of free will which is based upon inner experiences, especially those which occur in the creative activity of independent thought. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Steiner's interests were leading him further and further into explicitly spiritual areas of research. These studies were of interest to others who were already oriented towards spiritual ideas; among these was the Theosophical Society. Theosophy was in vogue in Esotericism in Germany and Austria during that time. Steiner took a leading role in the Society's section in Germany, becoming its secretary. By 1907, a split between Steiner and the mainstream Theosophical Society began to be apparent. While the Society was oriented toward an Eastern and especially Indian approach, Steiner was trying to develop a path which embraced Christianity and natural science. Gary Lachman, Rudolf Steiner, New York:Tarcher/Penguin ISBN 978-1-58542-543-3 The split became irrevocable when Annie Besant, then president of the Theosophical Society, began to present the child Jiddu Krishnamurti as the reincarnated Christ. Steiner strongly objected and considered any comparison between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense; many years later, Krishnamurti also repudiated the assertion. Steiner's continuing differences with Besant led him to separate from the Theosophical Society Adyar; he was followed by the great majority of the membership of the Theosophical Society's German Section, as well as members of other national sections. By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher. Ahern, Geoffrey. (1984): Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner movement and the Western esoteric tradition He spoke about what he considered to be his direct experience of the Akashic Records (sometimes called the "Akasha Chronicle"), thought to be a spiritual chronicle of the history, pre-history, and future of the world and mankind. In a number of works, especially How to Know Higher Worlds and An Outline of Esoteric Science Steiner described a path of inner development which he felt would enable anyone to attain comparable spiritual experiences. Sound vision could be developed, in part, by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration, and meditation; in particular, a person's moral development must precede the development of spiritual faculties. Second Goetheanum, seat of the Anthroposophical Society. In 1912, the Anthroposophical Society was founded. After World War I, the Anthroposophical movement took on new directions. Projects such as schools, centers for those with special needs, organic farms and medical clinics were established, all inspired by anthroposophy. In 1923, faced with differences between older members focusing on inner development and younger members eager to become active in the social transformations of the time, Steiner refounded the Society in an inclusive manner and established a School for Spiritual Science. As a spiritual basis for the refounded movement, Steiner wrote the mantric poem Foundation Stone Meditation expressing the aspects of the human soul in relation to the outer and spiritual worlds. Steiner died just over a year later, in 1925. The Second World War temporarily hindered the anthroposophical movement in most of Continental Europe, as the Anthroposophical Society and most of its daughter movements (e.g. Steiner/Waldorf education) were banned by the National Socialists (Nazis); Inge Hansen-Schaberg and Bruno Schonig (eds.), Waldorf-Pädogogik, ISBN 3834000426 virtually no anthroposophists ever joined the National Socialist Party. Helmut Zander, Anthroposophie in Deutschland, ISBN 978-3-525-55452-4. P. 250 By 2007, national branches of the Anthroposophical Society had been established in fifty countries, and about 10,000 institutions around the world were working on the basis of anthroposophy. Goetheanum In the same year, the Anthroposophical Society was called the "most important esoteric society in European history." Tom Grote, "Kosmische Wirkkräfte", German Radio interview 08/08/2007 Etymology of anthroposophy The term anthroposophy is from the Greek, virtually , from "human", and "wisdom". It is listed by Nathan Bailey (1742) as meaning "the knowledge of the nature of man" (OED). Authors whose usage predates Steiner's include occultist Agrippa von Nettesheim, alchemist Thomas Vaughn (Anthroposophia Theomagica), and philosophers Immanuel Hermann Fichte and Robert Zimmermann (Anthroposophie im Umriss); Steiner attended the latter's classes at the University of Vienna. Richard Webster, Encyclopedia of Angels, "Anthroposophy", pp.16-17. ISBN 9780738714622. Etymology of anthroposophy; the term was also used in a discussion of Boehme in Notes and Queries, May 9, 1863, p. 373 Steiner began using the word to refer to his philosophy in the early 1900s as an alternative to theosophy, the term for Madame Blavatsky's movement, itself from the Greek , with a longer history with a meaning of "divine wisdom". Anthroposophy in brief Spiritual knowledge and freedom Anthroposophical proponents aim to extend the clarity of the scientific method to phenomena of human soul-life and to spiritual experiences. This requires developing new faculties of objective spiritual perception, which Steiner maintained was possible for humanity today. The steps of this process of inner development he identified as consciously achieved imagination, inspiration and intuition. Peter Schneider, Einführung in die Waldorfpädogogik, ISBN 3-608-93006-X Steiner believed that the results of this form of spiritual research should be expressed in a way which can be understood and evaluated on the same basis as the results of natural science: "The anthroposophical schooling of thinking leads to the development of a non-sensory, or so-called supersensory consciousness, whereby the spiritual researcher brings the experiences of this realm into ideas, concepts, and expressive language in a form which people can understand who do not yet have the capacity to achieve the supersensory experiences necessary for individual research." Steiner hoped to form a spiritual movement which would free the individual from any external authority: "The most important problem of all human thinking is this: to comprehend the human being as a personality grounded in him or herself." Peter Schneider, Einführung in die Waldorfpädogogik, pp. 20-1; Schneider quotes here from Steiner's dissertation, Truth and Knowledge For Steiner, it was the human capacity for rational thought which would allow individuals to comprehend spiritual research on their own and to bypass the danger of dependency on an authority. Steiner contrasted the anthroposophical approach with both conventional mysticism, which he considered lacking the clarity necessary for exact knowledge, and natural science, which he considered arbitrarily limited to investigating the outer world. Nature of the human being Steiner saw human beings as consisting of a physical body, the nature of which is common to the inorganic world; a life body (also called the etheric body) which all living creatures (including plants) possess; the bearer of sentience or consciousness (also called the astral body), held also by all animals; and the ego, in which is anchored the faculty of self-awareness unique to human beings. Anthroposophy describes a broad evolution of human consciousness as follows. Early stages of human evolution possess an intuitive perception of reality, including a clairvoyant perception of spiritual realities. Humanity has progressively evolved an increasing reliance on intellectual faculties and a corresponding loss of intuitive or clairvoyant experiences, which have become atavistic. The increasing intellectualization of consciousness, initially a progressive direction of evolution, has led to an excessive reliance on abstraction and a loss of contact with both natural and spiritual realities. However, in order to go further, new capacities must be developed which combine the clarity of intellectual thought with the imagination, and beyond this with consciously achieved inspiration and intuitive insights. Robert A. McDermott, "Rudolf Steiner and Anthroposophy", in Faivre and Needleman, Modern Esoteric Spirituality, ISBN 0-8245-1444-0, p. 299–301; 288ff The Representative of Humanity, detail of a sculpture in wood by Rudolf Steiner and Edith Maryon. Anthroposophy speaks of the reincarnation of the human spirit: that the human being passes between stages of existence, incarnating into an earthly body, living on earth, leaving the body behind and entering into the spiritual worlds before returning to be born again into a new life on earth. After the death of the physical body, the human spirit recapitulates the past life, perceiving its events as they were experienced by the objects of its actions. A complex transformation takes place between the review of the past life and the preparation for the next life; the individual's karmic condition eventually leading to a choice of parents, physical body, disposition and capacities which will provide the challenges and opportunities needed for further development, which includes karmically chosen tasks for the future life. Steiner described some conditions that determine the interdependence of a person's lives, or karma. Rudolf Steiner, Theosophy, ISBN 0-85440-269-1 Rudolf Steiner, An Outline of Esoteric Science, ISBN 0-88010-409-0 Christ between Lucifer and Ahriman Lucifer and his counterpart Ahriman figure in anthroposophy as two polar, generally evil influences on world and human evolution. Steiner described both positive and negative aspects of both figures, however: Lucifer as the light spirit which "plays on human pride and offers the delusion of divinity", but also motivates creativity and spirituality; Ahriman as the dark spirit which tempts human beings to "deny [their] link with divinity and to live entirely on the material plane", but also stimulates intellectuality and technology. Both figures exert a negative effect on humanity when their influence becomes misplaced or one-sided, yet their influences are necessary for human freedom to unfold. According to anthroposophy, each human being has the task to find a balance between these opposing influences, and each is helped in this task by the mediation of the Representative of Humanity, also known as the Christ being, a spiritual entity who stands between and harmonizes the two extremes. Applications Applications of anthroposophy include: Steiner/Waldorf education Out of the anthroposophical movement have come over 900 schools worldwide. German Education Research Group, "International Associations and Waldorf Schools in alphabetical order of country" These are called Steiner/Waldorf schools or simply Waldorf schools, after the first such school, founded in 1919. Sixteen Waldorf schools in 14 countries have been affiliated with the United Nations' UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network, a program which sponsors education projects which foster improved quality of education throughout the world, in particular in terms of its ethical, cultural and international dimensions. Agenda Fact Sheet, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization dated 18 April 2001 The foundation, Friends of Waldorf Education (Freunde der Erziehungskunst), is one of the 26 non-governmental organizations worldwide to maintain official relations with UNESCO. UNESCO Official Relations Waldorf schools receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations, Australia and in parts of the United States (as Waldorf method public or charter schools). Since the first school opened in Germany in 1919, Waldorf education has spread to every continent, and has been characterized as "the leader of the international movement for a New Education," Ullrich, Heiner, "Rudolf Steiner" "Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education, UNESCO: International Bureau of education, vol XXIV, no. 3/4, 1994, pp. 8–9 2000 Schools based on Steiner/Waldorf education are found in a wide variety of communities and cultures: the impoverished favelas of São Paulo White, Ralph, Interview with Rene M. Querido Lapis Magazine and the wealthy suburbs of New York City, in India, Egypt, Australia, Holland and Mexico. Though most of the early Waldorf schools were teacher-founded, the schools today are usually initiated and later supported by an active parent community. Waldorf education is one of the most visible practical applications of an anthroposophical view and understanding of the human being. Lenart, Claudia M: "Steiner's Chicago Legacy Shines Brightly", Conscious Choice June 2003 Biodynamic agriculture Biodynamic agriculture, the first intentional form of organic farming, Claudia M. Lenart, "Steiner's Chicago Legacy Shines Brightly", Conscious Choice, June 2003 began in the 1920s when Rudolf Steiner gave a series of lectures since published as Agriculture. Steiner is considered one of the founders of the modern organic farming movement. Apples: Botany, Production and Uses By David Curtis Ferree, Ian J. Warrington, ISBN 0851993575, p. 553 David Kupfer, "Trailblazers, Heroes & Pioneers: The Organic Farming Movement" Anthroposophical medicine Steiner gave several series of lectures to physicians and medical students; out of this grew a complementary medical movement which now includes hundreds of M.D.s, chiefly in Europe and North America, and which has its own clinics, hospitals, and medical schools. One of the most studied applications has been the use of mistletoe extracts in cancer therapy. Study by the National Cancer Institute on mistletoe's use for treating cancer Centers for helping those with special needs (including Camphill Villages) Early in the twentieth century, when proper care for those with special needs was largely ignored in many countries, anthroposophical homes and communities were founded for the needy. The first was the Sonnenhof in Switzerland, founded by Ita Wegman in 1922; later, in 1940, the Camphill Movement was founded by Karl König in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now well over a hundred Camphill communities and other anthroposophical homes for children and adults in need of special care in more than 22 countries around the world. Camphill Architecture The First Goetheanum, 1920, Dornach, Switzerland. Steiner himself designed around thirteen buildings, many of them significant works in a unique, organic-expressionistic style. Sharp, Dennis, Rudolf Steiner and the Way to a New Style in Architecture, Architectural Association Journal, June 1963 Foremost among these are his designs for the two Goetheanum buildings in Dornach, Switzerland. Thousands of further buildings have been built by later generations of anthroposophic architects. Raab and Klingborg, Waldorfschule baut, Verlag Freies Geistesleben, 2002. Architects who have been strongly influenced by the anthroposophic style include Imre Makovecz in Hungary, Hans Scharoun and Joachim Eble in Germany, Erik Asmussen in Sweden, Kenji Imai in Japan, Thomas Rau, Anton Alberts and Max van Huut in Holland, Christopher Day and Camphill Architects in the UK, Thompson and Rose in America, Denis Bowman in Canada, and Walter Burley Griffin and Gregory Burgess in Australia.<ref>Raab, Klingborg and Fånt, Eloquent Concrete, London: 1979.</ref> Pearson, David, New Organic Architecture. University of California Press, 2001, ISBN 9781856751025 One of the most famous contemporary buildings by an anthroposophical architect is ING House, an ING Bank building in Amsterdam, which has been given many awards for its ecological design and approach to a self-sustaining ecology as an autonomous building. Eurythmy In the arts, Steiner's new art of eurythmy gained early renown. Thomas Poplawski Eurythmy, p. 67, Steiner Books, 1998 ISBN 978-0880104593 Eurythmy seeks to renew the spiritual foundations of dance, revealing speech and music in visible movement. There are now active stage groups and training centers, mostly of modest proportions, in 12 countries. Stage groups and Trainings Social Finance Around the world today there are a number of banks, companies, charities and schools for developing co-operative forms of business which work out of Steiner's ideas about economic associations, aiming at harmonious and socially responsible roles in the world economy. The first anthroposophic bank was the Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken in Bochum, Germany, founded in 1974. Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken Socially-responsible banks founded out of anthroposophy in the English-speaking world include Triodos Bank, founded in 1980 and active in the UK and Netherlands, and RSF Social Finance Earth Times in San Francisco. RSF has been independently rated one of the top 10 organisations which "best exemplify the building of economic opportunity and hope for individuals through community investing." Green Money Journal San Diego Earth Times Organizational development, counselling and biography work Bernard Lievegoed, a psychiatrist, founded a new method of individual and institutional development oriented towards humanizing organizations and linked with Steiner's ideas of the threefold social order. This work is represented by the NPI Institute for Organizational Development in Holland and sister organizations in many other countries. Various forms of biographic and counselling work have been developed on the basis of anthroposophy. Speech and drama There are also anthroposophical movements to renew speech and drama, the most important of which have their basis in the work of Marie Steiner-von Sivers (speech formation, also known as Creative Speech) and the Chekhov Method originated by Michael Chekhov (nephew of Anton Chekhov). Byckling, L: Michael Chekhov as Actor, Teacher and Director in the West. Toronto Slavic Quarterly No 1 — Summer 2002. University of Toronto, Academic Electronic Journal in Slavic Studies. Other areas Other areas of anthroposophic work include: John Wilkes' fountain-like flowforms. These sculptural forms guide water into rhythmic movement and are used both in water-purification projects and as decorative fountains. Australian Governmental Cascade Project Dr. Philip Kilner and Dr. Guang-Zhong Yang,Flowforms Phenomenological approaches to science, New approaches to painting and sculpture. Social goals For a period after World War I, Steiner was extremely active and well-known in Germany, in part because he lectured widely proposing social reforms. Steiner was a sharp critic of nationalism, which he saw as outdated, and a proponent of achieving social solidarity through individual freedom. A petition proposing a radical change in the German constitution and expressing his basic social ideas (signed by Herman Hesse, among others) was widely circulated. His main book on social reform is Toward Social Renewal. Anthroposophy continues to aim at reforming society through maintaining and strengthening the independence of the spheres of cultural life, human rights and the economy. It emphasizes a particular ideal in each of these three realms of society: Freedom in cultural life Equality of rights, the sphere of legislation and the judiciary Fraternity in the economic sphere Esoteric path Paths of spiritual development According to Steiner, a real spiritual world exists out of which the material one gradually condensed and evolved. Steiner held that the spiritual world can be researched in the right circumstances through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline. Steiner described many exercises which he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline; the most complete exposition of these is found in his book How To Know Higher Worlds. The aim of these exercises is to develop higher levels of consciousness through meditation and observation. Details about the spiritual world, Steiner suggested, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, though no more infallibly than the results of natural science. Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience. He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development. He consistently emphasised that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life. In anthroposophy, artistic expression is also treated as a potentially valuable bridge between spiritual and material reality. Lindenberg, p. 97 Prerequisites to and stages of inner development Steiner's stated prerequisites to beginning on a spiritual path include a willingness to take up serious cognitive studies, a respect for factual evidence, and a responsible attitude. Central to progress on the path itself is a harmonious cultivation of the following qualities: Carlo Willmann, Waldorfpädagogik, ISBN 3-412-16700-2, pp. 10–13 Control over one's own thinking Control over one's will Composure Positivity Impartiality Steiner sees meditation as a concentration and enhancement of the power of thought. By focusing consciously on an idea, feeling or intention the meditant seeks to arrive at pure thinking, a state exemplified by but not confined to pure mathematics. In Steiner's view, conventional sensory-material knowledge is achieved through relating perception and concepts. The anthroposophic path of esoteric training articulates three further stages of supersensory knowledge, which do not necessarily follow strictly sequentially in any single individual's spiritual progress. Stein, W. J., Die moderne naturwissenschaftliche Vorstellungsart und die Weltanschauung Goethes, wie sie Rudolf Steiner vertritt, reprinted in Meyer, Thomas, W.J. Stein / Rudolf Steiner, pp. 267–75; 256–7. Through focusing on symbolic patterns, images and poetic mantras, the meditant can achieve consciously directed Imaginations which allow sensory phenomena to appear as the expression of underlying beings of a soul-spiritual nature. By transcending such imaginative pictures, the meditant can become conscious of the meditative activity itself, which leads to experiences of expressions of soul-spiritual beings unmediated by sensory phenomena or qualities. Steiner calls this stage Inspiration. By intensifying the will-forces through exercises such as a chronologically-reversed review of the day's events, a further stage of inner independence from sensory experience is achieved, leading to direct contact, and even union, with spiritual beings ("Intuition") without loss of individual awareness. Exercises Steiner described numerous exercises which he believed would bring spiritual development; other anthroposophists have added many others. A central principle is that "for every step in spiritual perception, three steps are to be taken in moral development." According to Anthroposophy, moral development reveals the extent to which one has achieved control over one's inner life and can exercise it in harmony with the spiritual life of other people; it shows the real progress in spiritual development, the fruits of which are given in spiritual perception. It also guarantees the capacity to distinguish between false perceptions or illusions (which are possible in perceptions of both the outer world and the inner world) and true perceptions, or, better said, to distinguish in any perception between the influence of subjective elements (i.e. viewpoint) and the objective reality to which the perception points. Place in Western philosophy Steiner built upon Goethe's conception of an imaginative power capable of synthesizing the sense-perceptible form of a thing (an image of its outer appearance) and the concept we have of that thing (an image of its inner structure or nature). Steiner added to this the conception that a further step in the development of thinking is possible when the thinker observes his or her own thought processes. "The organ of observation and the observed thought process are then identical, so that the condition thus arrived at is simultaneously one of perception through thinking and one of thought through perception." Thus, in Steiner's view, we can overcome the subject-object divide through inner activity, even though all human experience begins by being conditioned by it. In this connection, Steiner examines the step from thinking which is determined by outer impressions to what he calls sense-free thinking. He characterizes thoughts which he considers to be without sensory content, such as mathematical or logical thoughts, as free deeds. Steiner believed that he had thus located the origin of free will in our thinking, and in particular in sense-free thinking. Some of the epistemic basis for Steiner's later anthroposophical work is contained in the seminal work, Philosophy of Freedom, Ellen Pifer, "Saul Bellow Against the Grain", University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990; see also Steiner's doctoral thesis, Truth and Science . In his early works, Steiner sought to overcome what he perceived as the dualism of Cartesian idealism and Kantian subjectivism by developing Goethe's conception of the human being as a natural-supernatural entity, that is: natural in that humanity is a product of nature, supernatural in that through our conceptual powers we extend nature's realm, allowing it to achieve a reflective capacity in us as philosophy, art and science. Richard Tarnas, The Passion of the Western Mind, ISBN 0712673326 Steiner was one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split in Western thought. Though not well-known among philosophers, his philosophical work was taken up by Owen Barfield (and through him influenced the Inklings, an Oxford group of Christian writers which included J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis) Doris T. Myers, "C.S. Lewis in Context." Kent State University Press, 1994. and Richard Tarnas. Possibility of a union of science and spirit Steiner believed in the possibility of applying the clarity of scientific thinking to spiritual experience, which he saw as deriving from an objectively existing spiritual world. Christoph Lindenberg, Rudolf Steiner, Rowohlt 1992, ISBN 3-499-50500-2, pp. 77ff Steiner identified mathematics, which attains certainty through thinking itself, thus through inner experience rather than empirical observation, Albert Einstein, Geometry and Experience as the basis of his epistemology of spiritual experience. Rudolf Steiner, Anthroposophy and Science, lecture of March 16, 1921 Relationship to religion The Christ as the center of earthly evolution Steiner's writing, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes Western tradition as having evolved to meet contemporary needs. He describes Christ and his mission on earth of bringing individuated consciousness as having a particularly important place in human evolution. Steiner emphasized his belief that: Christianity has evolved out of previous religions; The being which manifests in Christianity also manifests in all faiths and religions; Each religion is valid and true for the time and cultural context in which it was born; The historical forms of Christianity need to be transformed considerably to meet the continuing evolution of humanity. For Steiner, Christ is a being who unifies all religions. He believed that Christ is not any particular religious faith, but instead is the central force in human evolution. This Christ Being is, according to Steiner, not only the Redeemer of the Fall from Paradise, but also the unique pivot and meaning of earth's evolutionary processes and of human history, which he believed to be manifested in all religions and cultures. This view has certain similarities to the concepts of Christogenesis advocated by Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. Divergence from conventional Christian thought Steiner's views of Christianity diverge from conventional Christian thought in key places, and include gnostic elements: One central point of divergence is Steiner's views on reincarnation and karma. Steiner differentiated three contemporary paths by which he believed it possible to arrive at Christ: Through heart-filled experiences of the Gospels; Steiner described this as the historically dominant path, but becoming less important in the future. Through inner experiences of a spiritual reality; this Steiner regarded as increasingly the path of spiritual or religious seekers today. Through initiatory experiences whereby the reality of Christ's death and resurrection are experienced; Steiner believed this to be the path which people will increasingly take. Steiner also believed that there were two different Jesus children involved in the Incarnation of the Christ: one child descended from Solomon, as described in the Gospel of Matthew, the other child from Nathan, as described in the Gospel of Luke. (The genealogies given in the two gospels diverge some thirty generations before Jesus' birth, and 'Jesus' was a common name in biblical times.) His view of the second coming of Christ is also unusual; he suggested that this would not be a physical reappearance, but that the Christ being would become manifest in non-physical form, visible to spiritual vision and apparent in community life for increasing numbers of people beginning around the year 1933. Rudolf Steiner, "The Appearance of Christ in the Etheric World" He emphasized his belief that in the future humanity would need to be able to recognize the Spirit of Love in all its genuine forms, regardless of what name would be used to describe this being. He also warned that the traditional name of the Christ might be misused, and the true essence of this being of love ignored. The Christian Community Towards the end of Steiner's life, a group of theology students (Lutheran as well as Catholic) approached Steiner for help in reviving Christianity, in particular "to bridge the widening gulf between modern science and the world of spirit." They approached a notable Lutheran pastor, Friedrich Rittelmeyer, already working with Steiner's ideas to join their efforts. Out of their co-operative endeavor, the Movement for Religious Renewal, now generally known as The Christian Community, was born. Steiner emphasized that this help was given independently of his anthroposophical work, as he saw anthroposophy as independent of any particular religion or religious denomination. Reception of anthroposophy Notable supporters Anthroposophy has had many prominent supporters outside of the movement. Among these have been many writers, artists and musicians; these include Pulitzer Prize-winning and Nobel Laureate Saul Bellow, Robert Fulford, "Bellow: the novelist as homespun philosopher", The National Post, October 23, 2000 Andrej Belyj, Books and Writers, Andrey Bely J.D. Elsworth, Andrej Bely:A Critical Study of the Novels, Cambridge:1983, cf. Josef Beuys, John F. Moffitt, "Occultism in Avant-Garde Art: The Case of Joseph Beuys", Art Journal, Vol. 50, No. 1, (Spring, 1991), pp. 96–98 Owen Barfield, Wassily Kandinsky, Peg Weiss, "Kandinsky and Old Russia: The Artist as Ethnographer and Shaman", The Slavic and East European Journal, Vol. 41, No. 2 (Summer, 1997), pp. 371–373 Arts Ablaze, Kandinsky: The Path to Abstraction 1908–1922 Nobel Laureates Selma Lagerlöf Nobel Foundation, Selma Lagerlöf and Albert Schweitzer, Andrei Tarkovsky Layla Alexander Garrett, Nostalghia, Andrey Tarkovsky-Enigma and Mystery Bruno Walter, Bruno Walter, "Mein Weg zur Anthroposophie". In: Das Goetheanum 52 (1961), 418–2 and Alternative Nobel Prize winner Ibrahim Abouleish. Ibrahim Abouleish, Sekem: A Sustainable Community in the Egyptian Desert, ISBN 0863155324 Religious nature As an explicitly spiritual movement, anthroposophy has sometimes been called religious. - MSN Encarta Encyclopedia In 2005, a California federal court ruled that a group alleging that anthroposophy is a religion for Establishment Clause purposes did not provide any legally admissible evidence in support of this view; the case is under appeal. In 2000, a French court ruled that a government minister's description of anthroposophy as a cult was defamatory. Scientific basis Though Rudolf Steiner studied natural science at the Vienna Technical University at the undergraduate level, his doctorate was in epistemology and very little of his work is directly concerned with the traditional realm of contemporary science, the natural world; when in his mature work he did refer to science it was often to present Goethean science as an alternative to what he considered the materialistic science of his contemporaries. His primary interest, however, was in applying the methodology of science to realms of inner experience and the spiritual worlds (Steiner's appreciation that the essence of science is its method of inquiry is unusual among esotericists), and Steiner called anthroposophy Geisteswissenschaft (lit.: Science of the mind, or cultural or spiritual science), a term generally used in German to refer to the humanities and social sciences; Philolex entry in fact, the term "science" is used more broadly in Europe as a general term which refers to any exact knowledge. Jacques Barzun, Science: The Glorious Entertainment, Harper and Row 1964. P. 191 "[Anthroposophy's] methodology is to employ a scientific way of thinking, but to apply this methodology, which normally excludes our inner experience from consideration, instead to the human being proper." As Freda Easton explained in her study of Waldorf schools, "Whether one accepts anthroposophy as a science depends upon whether one accepts Steiner's interpretation of a science that extends the consciousness and capacity of human beings to experience their inner spiritual world." Freda Easton, The Waldorf Impulse in Education, Columbia University dissertation 1995 Sven Ove Hansson has disputed anthroposophy's claim to a scientific basis, stating that its ideas are not empirically derived and neither reproducible nor testable. Sven Ove Hansson, Is Anthroposophy Science?, Professor, Philosophy Unit of the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology, in Conceptus XXV (1991), No. 64, pp. 37–49. Carlo Willmann points out that as, on its own terms, anthroposophical methodology offers no possibility of being falsified except through its own procedures of spiritual investigation, no intersubjective validation is possible by conventional scientific methods; it thus cannot stand up to positivistic science's criticism. Peter Schneider calls such objections untenable on the grounds that if a non-sensory, non-physical realm exists, then according to Steiner the experiences of pure thinking possible within the normal realm of consciousness would already be experiences of that, and it would be impossible to exclude the possibility of empirically-grounded experiences of other supersensory content. Olav Hammer suggests that anthroposophy carries scientism "to lengths unparalleled in any other Esoteric position" due to its dependence upon claims of clairvoyant experience, its subsuming natural science under "spiritual science", and its development of what Hammer calls "fringe" sciences such as anthroposophical medicine and biodynamic agriculture justified partly on the basis of the ethical and ecological values they promote, rather than purely on a scientific basis. Though Steiner saw that spiritual vision itself is difficult for others to achieve, he recommended open-mindedly exploring and rationally testing the results of such research; he also urged others to follow a spiritual training which would allow them directly to apply the methods he used eventually to achieve comparable results. Some results of Steiner's research have been investigated and supported by scientists working to further and extend scientific observation in directions suggested by an anthroposophical approach. Genetics and the Manipulation of Life, The Forgotten Factor of Context, by biologist Craig Holdrege; The Wholeness of Nature, Goethe's Way toward A Science of Conscious Participation in Nature, by physicist Henri Bortoft; Developmental Dynamics in Humans and Other Primates, by theoretical chemist Jos Verhulst. Statements on race Anthroposophical ideas have been criticized from both sides in the race debate; for their strongly anti-racist stance: From the mid-1930s on, National Socialist ideologues attacked the anthroposophical world-view as being opposed to Nazi racism and nationalistic principles; anthroposophy considered "Blood, Race and Folk" as primitive instincts which needed to be overcome. Jakob Wilhelm Hauer, 7. Februar 1935. BAD R 4901–3285. Report of the SD-Hauptamtes Berlin: "Anthroposophy”, May 1936, BAD Z/B I 904. as well as for "rankings" of races which occur in Steiner's philosophy: "...with regard to race, a naive version of the evolution of consciousness, a theory foundational to both Steiner's anthroposophy and Waldorf education, sometimes places one race below another in one or another dimension of development." Ray McDermott et al.: Waldorf education in an inner-city public school. The Urban Review, Volume 28, Number 2 / June, 1996, pp. 119–140 To clarify its stance, the Anthroposophical Society in America has stated: We explicitly reject any racial theory that may be construed to be part of Rudolf Steiner's writings. The Anthroposophical Society in America is an open, public society and it rejects any purported spiritual or scientific theory on the basis of which the alleged superiority of one race is justified at the expense of another race. The General Council of the Anthroposophical Society in America (1998) Position Statement on Diversity. See also Hermeticism Esotericism in Germany and Austria Pneumatosophy Psychosophy Notes Further reading Ahern, Geoffrey (2009): Sun at Midnight: the Rudolf Steiner Movement and Gnosis in the West James Clarke & Co.ISBN 9780227172933 http://www.jamesclarke.co.uk/jc/titles/sunatmid.htm Archiati, Pietro, The Great Religions: Pathways to our Innermost Being, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 1-902636-01-5 Archiati, Pietro, Reincarnation in Modern Life: Toward a New Christian Awareness. Temple Lodge Press. ISBN 0-904693-88-0 Barnes, Henry, A Life for the Spirit: Rudolf Steiner in the Crosscurrents of Our Time, Anthroposophic Press, 1997. Davy, John, Hope, Evolution and Change", Hawthorn Press. ISBN 0-9507062-7-2 Edelglass, Stephen et al., The Marriage of Sense and Thought, Lindisfarne Press. ISBN 0-940262-82-7 Forward, William and Blaxland-de Lange, Simon (eds.), Trumpet to the Morn (Golden Blade 2001), ISBN 0-9531600-3-3 Forward, William and Blaxland-de Lange, Simon (eds.), Working with Destiny II (Golden Blade 1998), ISBN 0-9531600-0-9 Gleich, Sigismund, The Sources of Inspiration of Anthroposophy, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-87-2 Goebel, Wolfgang and Glöckler, Michaela, A Guide to Child Health. Floris Books. ISBN 0-86315-390-9 Gulbekian, Sevak (ed.), The Future is Now: Anthroposophy at the New Millennium, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 1-902636-09-0 Hauschka, Rudolf, At the Dawn of a New Age, Anthroposophic Press ISBN 0-919924-25-5 Hindes, James H. (1995) Renewing Christianity Floris Books Klocek, Dennis, The Seer's Handbook: A Guide to Higher Perception, SteinerBooks 2006. ISBN 0-88010-548-8 König, Karl, The Human Soul, Floris Books ISBN 0-86315-042-X Kühlewind, Georg, The Logos-Structure of the World: Language as a Model of Reality, Lindisfarne Press ISBN 0-940262-48-7 Lievegoed, Bernard, The Battle for the Soul: The Working Together of Three Great Leaders of Humanity, Hawthorn Press ISBN 1-869890-64-7 Lievegoed, Bernard, Man on the Threshold. Hawthorn Press ISBN 0-9507062-6-4 McDermott, Robert A., The Essential Steiner: Basic Writings of Rudolf Steiner, Lindisfarne Press ISBN 9781584200512. Murphy, Christine (ed.), Iscador: Mistletoe and Cancer Therapy. Lantern Books, 2005. ISBN 1-930051-76-X Nesfield-Cookson, Bernard, Michael and the Two-Horned Beast: The Challenge of Evil Today in the Light of Rudolf Steiner's Science of the Spirit, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-98-8 Nesfield-Cookson, Bernard, Rudolf Steiner's Vision of Love: spiritual science and the logic of the heart. Rudolf Steiner Press' Oort, Henk van, 'Anthroposophy' A Concise Introduction to Rudolf Steiner's Spiritual Philosophy'(2008)ISBN 978-1-902636-92-4 Paddock, Fred and M. Spiegler, Ed.(2003) Judaism and Anthroposophy. SteinerBooks Pietzner, Carlo, Transforming Earth, Transforming Self, Camphill Books ISBN 0-88010-428-7 Prokofieff, Sergei, The East in the Light of the West, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-57-0 Prokofieff, Sergei, The Occult Significance of Forgiveness. Temple Lodge Press. ISBN 0-904693-71-6. Schaefer, Christopher and Voors, Tyno, Vision in Action. Lindisfarne Press ISBN 0-940262-74-6 Schwenk, Theodor Sensitive Chaos. Rudolf Steiner Press ISBN 1-85584-055-3 Shepherd, A. P. 1885–1968 :The Battle for The Spirit: The Church and Rudolf Steiner Anastasi Shepherd, A. P., 1885–1968 : A Scientist of the Invisible: An introduction to the life and work of Rudolf Steiner Floris Books Soesman, Albert (1990). The Twelve Senses" Hawthorn Press Steiner, Marie, Esoteric Studies, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-58-9 Steiner, Rudolf: Intuitive Thinking As a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom; Anthroposophic Press ISBN 0-88010-385-XTheosophy, Anthroposophic PressCosmic Memory, Anthroposophic PressHow to Know Higher Worlds Anthroposophic Press 1994 ISBN 0-88010-508-9An Outline of Esoteric Science Anthroposophic PressVerses and Meditations. Rudolf Steiner Press ISBN 1-85584-197-5Esoteric Development Anthroposophic PressA Western Approach to Reincarnation and Karma Anthroposophic Press Steiner, Rudolf and Welburn, Andrew, The Mysteries: Rudolf Steiner's Writings on Spiritual Initiation, Floris Books ISBN 0-86315-243-0 Suchantke, Andreas, Eco-Geography. Lindisfarne Press ISBN 0-940262-99-1 Swassjan, Karen, The Ultimate Communion of Mankind Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-82-1 Treichler, Rudolf, Soulways. Hawthorn Press ISBN 1-869890-13-2 Verhulst, Jos, Developmental Dynamics in Humans and Other Primates. Adonis Press ISBN 0-932776-29-9 Warren, Edward, Freedom as Spiritual Activity, Temple Lodge Press ISBN 0-904693-60-0 Welburn, Andrew Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy and the Crisis of Contemporary Thought Floris Books Wilkes, John, Flowforms: The Rhythmic Power of Water Floris Books ISBN 0-86315-392-5 External linksAnthroposophical societiesGeneral Anthroposophical Society (Goetheanum) Anthroposophical Society in America Anthroposophical Society in Great Britain and Anthroposophical links in Great Britain Anthroposophical Initiatives in India Anthroposophical Society in Australia Anthroposophical Society in New ZealandAnthroposophical adult education centersEmerson College Sussex, England Rudolf Steiner College Sacramento, California USA Sunbridge College Chestnut Ridge, New York USAMiscellany'' Rudolf Steiner Archive (Steiner's works online) (Steiner's work complete, in German)	Anthroposophy \|@lemmatized anthroposophy:43 spiritual:67 philosophy:12 base:3 teaching:1 rudolf:39 steiner:127 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1,144	Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia	The breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 deprived the Economy of the Republic of Macedonia, then its poorest republic (only 5% of the total federal output of goods and services), of its key protected markets and large transfer payments from the center. An absence of infrastructure, United Nations sanctions on its largest market Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo hindered economic growth until 1996. Worker remittances and foreign aid have softened the subsequent volatile recovery period. GDP has increased each year except in 2001, rising by 5% in 2000. However, growth in 1999 was held down by the severe regional economic dislocations caused by the Kosovo war. Successful privatization in 2000 boosted the country's reserves to over $700 million. Also, the leadership demonstrated a continuing commitment to economic reform, free trade, and regional integration. The economy can meet its basic food needs but depends on outside sources for all of its oil and gas and most of its modern machinery and parts. Inflation jumped to 11% in 2000, largely due to higher oil prices.	Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Macedonia \|@lemmatized breakup:1 yugoslavia:2 deprive:1 economy:2 republic:3 macedonia:1 poor:1 total:1 federal:2 output:1 good:1 service:1 key:1 protect:1 market:2 large:2 transfer:1 payment:1 center:1 absence:1 infrastructure:1 united:1 nation:1 sanction:1 greek:1 economic:4 embargo:1 hinder:1 growth:2 worker:1 remittance:1 foreign:1 aid:1 soften:1 subsequent:1 volatile:1 recovery:1 period:1 gdp:1 increase:1 year:1 except:1 rise:1 however:1 hold:1 severe:1 regional:2 dislocation:1 cause:1 kosovo:1 war:1 successful:1 privatization:1 boost:1 country:1 reserve:1 million:1 also:1 leadership:1 demonstrate:1 continue:1 commitment:1 reform:1 free:1 trade:1 integration:1 meet:1 basic:1 food:1 need:1 depend:1 outside:1 source:1 oil:2 gas:1 modern:1 machinery:1 part:1 inflation:1 jump:1 largely:1 due:1 high:1 price:1 \|@bigram republic_macedonia:1 worker_remittance:1
1,145	Knowledge_Query_and_Manipulation_Language	The Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language, or KQML, is a language and protocol for communication among software agents and knowledge-based systems. It was developed in the early 1990s part of the DARPA knowledge Sharing Effort, which was aimed at developing techniques for building large-scale knowledge bases which are shareable and reusable. While originally conceived of as an interface to knowledge based systems, it was soon repurposed as an Agent communication language. Work on KQML was led by Tim Finin of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County and Jay Weber of EITech and involved contributions from many researchers. The KQML message format and protocol can be used to interact with an intelligent system, either by an application program, or by another intelligent system. KQML's "performatives" are operations that agents perform on each other's knowledge and goal stores. Higher-level interactions such as contract nets and negotiation are built using these. KQML's "communication facilitators" coordinate the interactions of other agents to support knowledge sharing. Experimental prototype systems support concurrent engineering, intelligent design, intelligent planning, and scheduling. KQML is superseded by FIPA-ACL. See also Agent Communications Language Knowledge Interchange Format FIPA References External links UMBC Agent Web	Knowledge_Query_and_Manipulation_Language \|@lemmatized knowledge:8 query:1 manipulation:1 language:4 kqml:6 protocol:2 communication:4 among:1 software:1 agent:6 base:3 system:5 develop:2 early:1 part:1 darpa:1 share:2 effort:1 aim:1 technique:1 build:2 large:1 scale:1 shareable:1 reusable:1 originally:1 conceive:1 interface:1 soon:1 repurposed:1 work:1 lead:1 tim:1 finin:1 university:1 maryland:1 baltimore:1 county:1 jay:1 weber:1 eitech:1 involved:1 contribution:1 many:1 researcher:1 message:1 format:2 use:2 interact:1 intelligent:4 either:1 application:1 program:1 another:1 performatives:1 operation:1 perform:1 goal:1 store:1 high:1 level:1 interaction:2 contract:1 net:1 negotiation:1 facilitator:1 coordinate:1 support:2 experimental:1 prototype:1 concurrent:1 engineering:1 design:1 planning:1 schedule:1 supersede:1 fipa:2 acl:1 see:1 also:1 interchange:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 umbc:1 web:1 \|@bigram intelligent_design:1 interchange_format:1 external_link:1
1,146	Demographics_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia	This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Federated States of Micronesia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populous, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia refers to the population characteristics of people who inhabit the Federated States of Micronesia. The indigenous population of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups. English has become the common language. Population growth remains high at more than 3%, but is ameliorated somewhat by net emigration. The island of Pohnpei is genetically notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of color blindness known as maskun. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 133,144 (July 2000 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: NA 15-64 years: NA 65 years and over: NA Population growth rate: -0.11% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 27.09 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate: 5.95 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: 11.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 33.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 68.63 years male: 66.67 years female: 70.62 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 3.83 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality: noun: Micronesian(s) adjective: Micronesian; Kosrae(s), Pohnpeian(s), Trukese, Yapese Ethnic groups: Chuukese 48.8%, Pohnpeian 24.2%, Yapese 9.7%, Kosraean 6.2%, other 11.1% Religions: Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 47%, other and none 3% (see Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia) Languages: English (official and common language), Trukese, Pohnpeian, Yapese, Kosraean Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 89% male: 91% female: 88% (1980 est.)	Demographics_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia \|@lemmatized article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 population:13 federated:6 state:6 micronesia:6 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populous:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 refers:1 characteristic:1 people:1 inhabit:1 indigenous:1 predominantly:1 micronesian:3 consist:1 various:1 ethnolinguistic:1 group:2 english:2 become:1 common:2 language:2 growth:2 remain:1 high:1 ameliorate:1 somewhat:1 net:2 emigration:1 island:1 pohnpei:1 genetically:1 notable:1 prevalence:1 extreme:1 form:1 color:1 blindness:1 know:1 maskun:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 data:1 fao:1 year:7 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:9 age:2 structure:1 na:3 rate:6 birth:4 death:3 migration:1 migrant:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 total:3 male:2 female:2 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 kosrae:1 pohnpeian:3 trukese:2 yapese:3 ethnic:1 chuukese:1 kosraean:2 religion:2 roman:1 catholic:1 protestant:1 none:1 see:1 languages:1 official:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 \|@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 color_blindness:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1 male_female:1
1,147	Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands	Heard Island and McDonald Islands (abbreviated as HIMI ) (formally named the Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands CIA World Factbook. Accessed 2009.01.04. ) are a volcanic group of barren islands located in the Southern Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Madagascar to Antarctica, approximately 4099 km south west of Perth. Cocky Flies, Geoscience Australia Discovered in the mid-19th century, they have been territories of Australia since 1947, and contain the only two active volcanoes in Australian territory, one of which, Mawson Peak, is the highest Australian mountain. The group's overall size is in area, and it has 101.9 km of coastline. The islands are uninhabited. Geography Location of Heard and McDonald Islands Map of Heard and McDonald Islands CIA World Factbook. Accessed 2009.01.04. Heard Island, by far the largest of the group, is a bleak and mountainous island located at . Its mountains are covered in glaciers (the island is 80% covered with ice CIA World Factbook. ) and dominated by Mawson Peak, a high complex volcano which forms part of the Big Ben massif. Mawson Peak is the highest Australian mountain (higher than Mount Kosciuszko), and one of only 2 active volcanoes in Australian territory, the other being McDonald Island. A long thin spit named "Elephant Spit" extends from the east of the island. There is a small group of islets and rocks about north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet, Sail Rock, Morgan Island and Black Rock. They total approximately in area. The McDonald Islands are located to the west of Heard Island at . The islands are small and rocky and consist of McDonald Island ( high), Flat Island ( high) and Meyer Rock ( high). They total approximately in area and, as with Heard Island, are surface exposures of the Kerguelen Plateau. The volcano on McDonald Island, after being dormant for 75,000 years, erupted in 1992 and has erupted again several times since, its most recent eruption being on 10 August 2005. Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbours; ships must anchor offshore. The coastline is , and a territorial sea and exclusive fishing zone are claimed. CIA World Factbook. The islands have an Antarctic climate, tempered by their maritime setting. The weather is marked by low seasonal and daily temperature ranges, persistent and generally low cloud cover, frequent precipitation and strong winds. Monthly average temperatures at Atlas Cove (at the northwestern end of Heard Island) range from 0.0° to 4.2 °C, with an average daily range of 3.7 to 5.2 °C in summer and -0.8 to 0.3 °C in winter. The winds are predominantly westerly and persistently strong. At Atlas Cove, monthly average wind speeds range between around 26 to 33.5 km/h. Gusts in excess of 180 km/h have been recorded. Annual precipitation at sea level on Heard Island is in the order of 1.3 to 1.9 m; rain or snow falls on about 3/4 of days. HIMI official website. The antipode to the central Mawson Peak of Heard Island is located less than West by south of Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Canada. History Neither island cluster had visitors until the mid-1850s. Peter Kemp, a British sealer, is the first person thought to have seen the island. On 27 November 1833, he spotted it from the brig Magnet during a voyage from Kerguelen to the Antarctic and was believed to have entered the island on his 1833 chart. An American sealer, Captain John Heard, on the ship Oriental, sighted the island on 25 November 1853, en route from Boston to Melbourne. He reported the discovery one month later and had the island named after him. Captain William McDonald aboard the Samarang discovered the nearby McDonald Islands six weeks later, on 4 January 1854. No landing was made on the islands until March 1855, when sealers from the Corinthian, led by Captain Erasmus Darwin Rogers, went ashore at a place called Oil Barrel Point. In the sealing period from 1855-1880, a number of American sealers spent a year or more on the island, living in appalling conditions in dark smelly huts, also at Oil Barrel Point. At its peak the community consisted of 200 people. By 1880, most of the seal population had been wiped out and the sealers left the island. In all, more than 100,000 barrels of elephant seal oil was produced during this period. There are a number of wrecks in the vicinity of the islands. The islands have been a territory of Australia since 1947, when they were transferred from the U.K. CIA World Factbook. The archipelago became a World Heritage Site in 1997. Administration and economy The islands are a territory (Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands) of Australia administered from Hobart by the Australian Antarctic Division of the Australian Department of the Environment and Water Resources. They are populated by large numbers of seal and bird species. The islands are contained within a marine reserve and are primarily visited for research. There is no permanent human habitation. CIA World Factbook. From 1947 until 1955 there were camps of visiting scientists on Heard Island (at Atlas Cove in the northwest, which was in 1969 again occupied by American scientists and expanded in 1971 by French scientists) and in 1971 on McDonald Island (at Williams Bay). Later expeditions used a temporary base at Spit Bay in the northeast, such as in 1988, 1992–93 and 2004–2005. With no population, there is no indigenous economic activity. The islands' only natural resource is fish; the Australian government allows limited fishing in the surrounding waters.<ref>CIA World Factbook.</ref> Despite the lack of population, the islands have been assigned the country code HM in ISO 3166-1 (ISO 3166-2:HM) and therefore the Internet top-level domain .hm. See also Australian Antarctic Territory Birds of Heard and McDonald Islands List of islands of Australia Sub-antarctic islands References Further reading Scholes, Arthur. (1949) Fourteen men; story of the Australian Antarctic Expedition to Heard Island. Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire. Smith, Jeremy. (1986) Specks in the Southern Ocean''. Armidale: University of New England Press. ISBN 085834615X External links Heard Island and McDonald Islands official website World heritage listing for Heard Island and McDonald Islands Image gallery of Heard Island and McDonald Island with high quality limited copyright images. MODIS satellite image, taken 30 September 2004 and showing a von Kármán vortex street in the clouds, caused by Mawson Peak's effect on the wind World Heritage Site entry Fan's page with further historical and geographic information and a map	Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands \|@lemmatized heard:17 island:56 mcdonald:17 abbreviate:1 himi:2 formally:1 name:3 territory:8 cia:7 world:10 factbook:7 accessed:2 volcanic:1 group:4 barren:1 locate:4 southern:2 ocean:2 two:2 third:1 way:1 madagascar:1 antarctica:1 approximately:3 km:4 south:2 west:3 perth:1 cocky:1 fly:1 geoscience:1 australia:5 discover:2 mid:2 century:1 since:3 contain:2 active:2 volcano:4 australian:9 one:3 mawson:5 peak:6 high:8 mountain:3 overall:1 size:1 area:3 coastline:2 uninhabited:1 geography:1 location:1 map:2 far:2 large:2 bleak:1 mountainous:1 cover:3 glacier:1 ice:1 dominate:1 complex:1 form:1 part:1 big:1 ben:1 massif:1 mount:1 kosciuszko:1 long:1 thin:1 spit:3 elephant:2 extend:1 east:1 small:2 islet:2 rock:4 north:1 consist:3 shag:1 sail:1 morgan:1 black:1 total:2 rocky:1 flat:1 meyer:1 surface:1 exposure:1 kerguelen:2 plateau:1 dormant:1 year:2 erupt:2 several:1 time:1 recent:1 eruption:1 august:1 hear:3 port:1 harbour:1 ship:2 must:1 anchor:1 offshore:1 territorial:1 sea:2 exclusive:1 fishing:2 zone:1 claim:1 antarctic:6 climate:1 temper:1 maritime:1 setting:1 weather:1 mark:1 low:2 seasonal:1 daily:2 temperature:2 range:4 persistent:1 generally:1 cloud:2 frequent:1 precipitation:2 strong:2 wind:4 monthly:2 average:3 atlas:3 cove:3 northwestern:1 end:1 c:3 summer:1 winter:1 predominantly:1 westerly:1 persistently:1 speed:1 around:1 h:2 gust:1 excess:1 record:1 annual:1 level:2 order:1 rain:1 snow:1 fall:1 day:1 official:2 website:2 antipode:1 central:1 less:1 prince:1 albert:1 saskatchewan:1 canada:1 history:1 neither:1 cluster:1 visitor:1 peter:1 kemp:1 british:1 sealer:5 first:1 person:1 think:1 see:2 november:2 spot:1 brig:1 magnet:1 voyage:1 believe:1 enter:1 chart:1 american:3 captain:3 john:1 oriental:1 sight:1 en:1 route:1 boston:1 melbourne:2 report:1 discovery:1 month:1 later:2 william:1 aboard:1 samarang:1 nearby:1 islands:1 six:1 week:1 january:1 landing:1 make:1 march:1 corinthian:1 lead:1 erasmus:1 darwin:1 rogers:1 go:1 ashore:1 place:1 call:1 oil:3 barrel:3 point:2 sealing:1 period:2 number:3 spend:1 live:1 appal:1 condition:1 dark:1 smelly:1 hut:1 also:2 community:1 people:1 seal:3 population:3 wipe:1 leave:1 produce:1 wreck:1 vicinity:1 transfer:1 u:1 k:1 archipelago:1 become:1 heritage:3 site:2 administration:1 economy:1 administer:1 hobart:1 division:1 department:1 environment:1 water:2 resource:2 populate:1 bird:2 specie:1 within:1 marine:1 reserve:1 primarily:1 visit:2 research:1 permanent:1 human:1 habitation:1 camp:1 scientist:3 northwest:1 occupy:1 expand:1 french:1 williams:1 bay:2 late:1 expedition:2 use:1 temporary:1 base:1 northeast:1 indigenous:1 economic:1 activity:1 natural:1 fish:1 government:1 allows:1 limit:2 surround:1 ref:2 despite:1 lack:1 assign:1 country:1 code:1 hm:3 iso:2 therefore:1 internet:1 top:1 domain:1 list:2 sub:1 reference:1 read:1 scholes:1 arthur:1 fourteen:1 men:1 story:1 f:1 w:1 cheshire:1 smith:1 jeremy:1 speck:1 armidale:1 university:1 new:1 england:1 press:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 image:3 gallery:1 quality:1 copyright:1 modis:1 satellite:1 take:1 september:1 show:1 von:1 kármán:1 vortex:1 street:1 cause:1 effect:1 entry:1 fan:1 page:1 historical:1 geographic:1 information:1 \|@bigram geoscience_australia:1 active_volcano:2 mawson_peak:5 heard_mcdonald:3 annual_precipitation:1 en_route:1 erasmus_darwin:1 iso_iso:1 external_link:1 von_kármán:1
1,148	Aspirin	Aspirin (USAN), also known as acetylsalicylic acid (, abbreviated ASA), is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication. Aspirin also has an antiplatelet, or "anti-coagulate", effect by inhibiting thromboxane prostaglandins, which under normal circumstances bind platelet molecules together to repair damaged blood vessels. This is why aspirin is used in long-term, low doses to prevent heart attacks, strokes, and blood clot formation in people at high risk for developing blood clots. It has also been established that low doses of aspirin may be given immediately after a heart attack to reduce the risk of another heart attack or of the death of cardiac tissue. The main undesirable side effects of aspirin are gastrointestinal ulcers, stomach bleeding, and tinnitus, especially in higher doses. In children and adolescents, aspirin is no longer used to control flu-like symptoms or the symptoms of chickenpox or other viral illnesses, due to the risk of Reye's syndrome. Aspirin was the first discovered member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), not all of which are salicylates, although they all have similar effects and most have inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase as their mechanism of action. Today, aspirin is one of the most widely used medications in the world, with an estimated 40,000 metric tons of it being consumed each year. In countries where Aspirin is a registered trademark owned by Bayer, the generic term is acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). http://www.wordconstructions.com/articles/health/aspirin.html http://www.inta.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=202&Itemid=126&getcontent=5 History Medicines containing derivatives of salicylic acid, structurally similar to aspirin, have been in medical use since ancient times. Salicylate-rich willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century. By the nineteenth century pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related to salicylic acid, the active component of willow extract. A French chemist, Charles Frederic Gerhardt, was the first to prepare acetylsalicylic acid in 1853 (patented under the name aspirin on March 6, 1899 ). In the course of his work on the synthesis and properties of various acid anhydrides, he mixed acetyl chloride with a sodium salt of salicylic acid (sodium salicylate). A vigorous reaction ensued, and the resulting melt soon solidified. Since no structural theory existed at that time, Gerhardt called the compound he obtained "salicylic-acetic anhydride" (wasserfreie Salicylsäure-Essigsäure). This preparation of aspirin ("salicylic-acetic anhydride") was one of the many reactions Gerhardt conducted for his paper on anhydrides, but he did not pursue it further. Advertisement for Aspirin, Heroin, Lycetol, Salophen Six years later, in 1859, von Gilm obtained analytically pure acetylsalicylic acid (which he called "acetylierte Salicylsäure", acetylated salicylic acid) by a reaction of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride. In 1869 Schröder, Prinzhorn and Kraut repeated both Gerhardt's (from sodium salicylate) and von Gilm's (from salicylic acid) syntheses and concluded that both reactions gave the same compound—acetylsalicylic acid. They were first to assign to it the correct structure with the acetyl group connected to the phenolic oxygen. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world. The name Aspirin is derived from A = Acetyl and "Spirsäure" = an old (German) name for salicylic acid. Ueber Aspirin. Pflügers Archiv : European journal of physiology, Volume: 84, Issue: 11-12 (March 1, 1901), pp: 527-546. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century, spurred by its effectiveness in the wake of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, and aspirin's profitability led to fierce competition and the proliferation of aspirin brands and products, especially after the American patent held by Bayer expired in 1917. Jeffreys, Aspirin, pp. 136–142 and 151-152 http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history.do?action=VideoArticle&id=52415 Aspirin's popularity declined after the market releases of paracetamol (acetaminophen) in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1969. Jeffreys, Aspirin, pp. 212–217 In the 1960s and 1970s, John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin's effects, while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases. Jeffreys, Aspirin, pp. 226–231 Aspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century, and remain strong in the twenty-first, thanks to widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes. Jeffreys, Aspirin, pp. 267–269 Trademark in most countries As part of war reparations specified in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles following Germany's surrender after World War I, Aspirin (along with Heroin) lost its status as a registered trademark in France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, where it became a generic name and can be spelled in lower case. http://www.ul.ie/~childsp/CinA/Issue59/TOC43_Aspirin.htm Today, "aspirin" is a generic word in Australia, Argentina, Britain, France, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Africa and the United States. Aspirin remains a registered trademark of Bayer in Germany, Canada, Mexico, and in over 80 other countries, where the first letter of its name should be capitalized and used only in reference to and on ASA products manufactured and marketed by Bayer. http://www.aspirin.com/faq_en.html Therapeutic uses Mind Map Showing Summary of Actions, Kinetics and Uses of aspirin Aspirin is one of the most frequently used drugs in the treatment of mild to moderate pain, including that of migraines and fever. It is often combined with other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and opioid analgesics in the treatment of moderate to severe pain. In high doses, aspirin and other salicylates are used in the treatment of rheumatic fever, rheumatic arthritis, and other inflammatory joint conditions. In lower doses, aspirin (or its equivalents, e.g., carbasalate calcium) also inhibits platelet aggregation, and has been shown to reduce the incidence of transient ischemic attacks and unstable angina in men, and can be used prophylactically. It is also used in the treatment of pericarditis, coronary artery disease, and acute myocardial infarction. Low doses of aspirin are also recommended for the prevention of stroke, and myocardial infarction in patients with diagnosed cardiovascular disease. It is of no value in people without proven heart disease. Pediatric Aspirin is no longer used in children and adolescents due to the risk of Reye's syndrome (see Adverse effects); paracetamol (known as acetaminophen in the United States) or non-salicylate NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, are now used instead. Kawasaki disease remains one of the few indications for aspirin use in children, although even this use has been questioned by some authors. In the United Kingdom, the only indications for aspirin use in children and adolescents under 16 are Kawasaki disease and prevention of blood clot formation. Experimental Aspirin in its pure state Aspirin has been theorized to reduce cataract formation in diabetic patients, but one study showed it was ineffective for this purpose. The role of aspirin in reducing the incidence of many forms of cancer has also been widely studied. In several studies, aspirin use did not reduce the incidence of prostate cancer. Its effects on the incidence of pancreatic cancer are mixed; one study published in 2004 found a statistically significant increase in the risk of pancreatic cancer among women, while a meta-analysis of several studies, published in 2006, found no evidence that aspirin or other NSAIDs are associated with an increased risk for the disease. The drug may be effective in reduction of risk of various cancers, including those of the colon, lung, Free full text and possibly the upper GI tract, though some evidence of its effectiveness in preventing cancer of the upper GI tract has been inconclusive. Its preventative effect against adenocarcinomas may be explained by its inhibition of COX-2 enzymes expressed in them. In a 2009 article published by the Journal of Clinical Investigation, it was found that aspirin might prevent liver damage. In their experiment, scientists from Yale University and The University of Iowa induced damage in certain liver cells called hepatocytes using excessive doses of acetaminophen. This caused hepatoxicity and hepatocyte death which triggered an increase in the production of TLR9. The expression of TLR9 caused an inflammatory cascade involving pro–IL-1β and pro-IL-18. Aspirin was found to have a protective effect on hepatocytes because it led to the "downregulation of proinflammatory cytokines" . Veterinary uses Aspirin has been used to treat pain and arthritis in veterinary medicine, primarily in dogs, although it is often not recommended for this purpose, as there are newer medications available with fewer side effects in these animals. Dogs, for example, are particularly susceptible to the gastrointestinal side effects associated with salicylates. Horses have also been given aspirin for pain relief, although it is not commonly used due to its relatively short-lived analgesic effects. Horses are also fairly sensitive to the gastrointestinal side effects. Nevertheless, it has shown promise in its use as an anticoagulant, mostly in cases of laminitis. Aspirin should only be used in animals under the direct supervision of a veterinarian. Aspirin should never be given to cats because they lack the ability to form glucuronide conjugates, which makes it more likely that aspirin will be toxic. Toxicity may be reduced by administering dosages at longer intervals. Lappin, p. 160 Mechanism of action Structure of COX-2 inactivated by Aspirin. In the active site of each of the two monomers, Serine 530 has been acetylated. Also visible is the salicylic acid which has transferred the acyl group, and the heme cofactor. Discovering the mechanism In 1971, British pharmacologist John Robert Vane, then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed that aspirin suppressed the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. For this discovery, he was awarded both a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 and a knighthood. Suppression of prostaglandins and thromboxanes Aspirin's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its irreversible inactivation of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme. Cyclooxygenase is required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the COX enzyme. This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen), which are reversible inhibitors. Low-dose, long-term aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation. This anticoagulant property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks. 40 mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A2 release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition. Prostaglandins are local hormones produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including the transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat, and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots. Heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and low doses of aspirin are seen as an effective medical intervention for acute myocardial infarction. The major side-effect of this is that because the ability of blood to clot is reduced, excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin. COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition There are at least two different types of cyclooxygenase: COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and modifies the enzymatic activity of COX-2. Normally COX-2 produces prostanoids, most of which are pro-inflammatory. Aspirin-modified COX-2 produces lipoxins, most of which are anti-inflammatory. Newer NSAID drugs called COX-2 selective inhibitors have been developed that inhibit only COX-2, with the intent to reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal side-effects. However, several of the new COX-2 selective inhibitors, such as Vioxx, have been withdrawn recently, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack. It is proposed that endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in the body express COX-2, and, by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandins (specifically PGI2; prostacyclin) are downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGI2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, an important difference with reversible inhibitors. Additional mechanisms Aspirin has been shown to have at least three additional modes of action. It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria, by diffusing from the inner membrane space as a proton carrier back into the mitochondrial matrix, where it ionizes once again to release protons. In short, aspirin buffers and transports the protons. When high doses of aspirin are given, aspirin may actually cause fever due to the heat released from the electron transport chain, as opposed to the antipyretic action of aspirin seen with lower doses. Additionally, aspirin induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body, which have been shown in mice to have an independent mechanism of reducing inflammation. This reduced leukocyte adhesion, which is an important step in immune response to infection; however, there is currently insufficient evidence to show that aspirin helps to fight infection. Mark J. Paul-Clark, Thong van Cao, Niloufar Moradi-Bidhendi, Dianne Cooper, and Derek W. Gilroy 15-epi-lipoxin A4–mediated Induction of Nitric Oxide Explains How Aspirin Inhibits Acute Inflammation J. Exp. Med. 200: 69-78; published online before print as 10.1084/jem.20040566 More recent data also suggests that salicylic acid and its derivatives modulate signaling through NF-κB. NF-κB is a transcription factor complex that plays a central role in many biological processes, including inflammation. Chemistry Aspirin is an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid that is a white, crystalline, weakly acidic substance, with melting point 135°C. Acetylsalicylic acid decomposes rapidly in solutions of ammonium acetate or of the acetates, carbonates, citrates or hydroxides of the alkali metals. Acetylsalicylic acid is stable in dry air, but gradually hydrolyses in contact with moisture to acetic and salicylic acids. In solution with alkalis, the hydrolysis proceeds rapidly and the clear solutions formed may consist entirely of acetate and salicylate. Reynolds EF (ed) (1982). Aspirin and similar analgesic and anti-inflammatory agents. Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia 28 Ed, 234-82. Synthesis The synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride, an acid derivative, causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic acid's phenol group into an acetyl group, (R-OH → R-OCOCH3). This process yields aspirin and acetic acid, which is considered a byproduct of this reaction. Small amounts of sulfuric acid (and occasionally phosphoric acid) are almost always used as a catalyst. This method is commonly employed in undergraduate teaching labs. Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar. This is because aspirin can decompose through hydrolysis in moist conditions, yielding salicylic acid and acetic acid. The acid dissociation constant (pKa) for acetylsalicylic acid is 3.5 at 25 °C. Polymorphism Polymorphism, or the ability of a substance to form more than one crystal structure, is important in the development of pharmaceutical ingredients. Many drugs are receiving regulatory approval for only a single crystal form or polymorph. For a long time, only one crystal structure for aspirin was known, although there had been indications that aspirin might have a second crystalline form since the 1960s. The elusive second polymorph was first discovered by Vishweshwar and coworkers in 2005, and fine structural details were given by Bond et al. A new crystal type was found after attempted co-crystallization of aspirin and levetiracetam from hot acetonitrile. The form II is only stable at 100 K and reverts back to form I at ambient temperature. In the (unambiguous) form I, two salicylic molecules form centrosymmetric dimers through the acetyl groups with the (acidic) methyl proton to carbonyl hydrogen bonds, and in the newly claimed form II, each salicylic molecule forms the same hydrogen bonds with two neighboring molecules instead of one. With respect to the hydrogen bonds formed by the carboxylic acid groups both polymorphs form identical dimer structures. Pharmacokinetics Salicylic acid is a weak acid, and very little of it is ionized in the stomach after oral administration. Acetylsalicylic acid is poorly soluble in the acidic conditions of the stomach, which can delay absorption of high doses for 8 to 24 hours. In addition to the increased pH of the small intestine, aspirin is rapidly absorbed there due to the increased surface area, which in turn allows more of the salicylate to dissolve. Due to the issue of solubility, however, aspirin is absorbed much more slowly during overdose, and plasma concentrations can continue to rise for up to 24 hours after ingestion. About 50–80% of salicylate in the blood is bound by protein while the rest remains in the active, ionized state; protein binding is concentration-dependent. Saturation of binding sites leads to more free salicylate and increased toxicity. The volume of distribution is 0.1–0.2 l/kg. Acidosis increases the volume of distribution because of enhancement of tissue penetration of salicylates. As much as 80% of therapeutic doses of salicylic acid is metabolized in the liver. Conjugation with glycine forms salicyluric acid and with glucuronic acid forms salicyl acyl and phenolic glucuronide. These metabolic pathways have only a limited capacity. Small amounts of salicylic acid are also hydroxylated to gentisic acid. With large salicylate doses, the kinetics switch from first order to zero order, as metabolic pathways become saturated and renal excretion becomes increasingly important. Salicylates are excreted mainly by the kidneys as salicyluric acid (75%), free salicylic acid (10%), salicylic phenol (10%) and acyl (5%) glucuronides, and gentisic acid (< 1%). When small doses (less than 250 mg in an adult) are ingested, all pathways proceed by first order kinetics, with an elimination half-life of about 2 to 4.5 hours. When higher doses of salicylate are ingested (more than 4 g), the half-life becomes much longer (15–30 hours) because the biotransformation pathways concerned with the formation of salicyluric acid and salicyl phenolic glucuronide become saturated. Renal excretion of salicylic acid becomes increasingly important as the metabolic pathways become saturated, because it is extremely sensitive to changes in urinary pH. There is a 10 to 20 fold increase in renal clearance when urine pH is increased from 5 to 8. The use of urinary alkalinization exploits this particular aspect of salicylate elimination. Contraindications and resistance Aspirin should not be taken by people who are allergic to ibuprofen or naproxen, or to have salicylate intolerance or a more generalized drug intolerance to NSAIDs, and caution should be exercised in those with asthma or NSAID-precipitated bronchospasm. Due to its effect on the stomach lining, manufacturers recommend that people with peptic ulcers, mild diabetes, or gastritis seek medical advice before using aspirin. . Even if none of these conditions are present, there is still an increased risk of stomach bleeding when aspirin is taken with alcohol or warfarin. Patients with hemophilia or other bleeding tendencies should not take aspirin or other salicylates. Aspirin is known to cause hemolytic anemia in people who have the genetic disease glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency (G6PD), particularly in large doses and depending on the severity of the disease. Use of aspirin during Dengue Fever is not recommended due to increased bleeding tendency. People with kidney disease, hyperuricemia, or gout should not take aspirin because aspirin inhibits the kidneys' ability to excrete uric acid and thus may exacerbate these conditions. Aspirin should not be given to children or adolescents to control cold or influenza symptoms as this has been linked with Reye's syndrome. For some people, aspirin does not have as strong an effect on platelets as for others, an effect known as aspirin resistance or insensitivity. One study has suggested that women are more likely to be resistant than men and a different, aggregate study of 2,930 patients found 28% to be resistant. A study in 100 Italian patients found that of the apparent 31% aspirin resistant subjects, only 5% were truly resistant, and the others were non-compliant. Adverse effects Right\|Mind Map Summarizing adverse effects, Toxicity and Drug interactions of aspirin Gastrointestinal Aspirin use has been shown to increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. Although some enteric coated formulations of aspirin are advertised as being "gentle to the stomach", in one study enteric coating did not seem to reduce this risk. Combining aspirin with other NSAIDs has also been shown to further increase this risk. Using aspirin in combination with clopidogrel or warfarin also increases the risk of upper GI bleeding. Central effects Large doses of salicylate, a metabolite of aspirin, have been proposed to cause tinnitus, based on the experiments in rats, via the action on arachidonic acid and NMDA receptors cascade. Reye's syndrome Reye's syndrome, a severe illness characterized by acute encephalopathy and fatty liver, can occur when children or adolescents are given aspirin for a fever or other illnesses or infections. From 1981 through 1997, 1207 cases of Reye's syndrome in under-18 patients were reported to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Of these, 93% reported being ill in the three weeks preceding onset of Reye's syndrome, most commonly with a respiratory infection, chickenpox, or diarrhea. Salicylates were detectable in 81.9% of children for whom test results were reported. After the association between Reye's syndrome and aspirin was reported and safety measures to prevent it (including a Surgeon General's warning and changes to the labeling of aspirin-containing drugs) were implemented, aspirin-taking by children declined considerably in the United States, as did the number of reported cases of Reye's syndrome; a similar decline was found in the United Kingdom after warnings against pediatric aspirin use were issued. The United States Food and Drug Administration now recommends that aspirin (or aspirin-containing products) should not be given to anyone under the age of 19 who has a fever. Hives/swelling For a small number of people, aspirin can result in symptoms that resemble an allergic reaction and include hives, swelling, and headache. The reaction is caused by salicylate intolerance and is not a true allergy but rather an inability to metabolize even small amounts of aspirin, resulting in an overdose. Other effects Aspirin can cause prolonged bleeding after operations for up to 10 days. In one study, thirty patients were observed after their various surgeries. Twenty of the thirty patients had to have an additional unplanned operation because of postoperative bleeding. This diffuse bleeding was associated with aspirin alone or in combination with another NSAID in 19 out of the 20 who had to have another operation due to bleeding after their operation. The average recovery time for the second operation was 11 days. Aspirin can induce angioedema in some people. In one study, angioedema appeared 1–6 hours after ingesting aspirin in some of the patients participating in the study. However, when the aspirin was taken alone it did not cause angioedema in these patients; the aspirin had been taken in combination with another NSAID-induced drug when angioedema appeared. Interactions Aspirin is known to interact with other drugs. For example, acetazolamide and ammonium chloride have been known to enhance the intoxicating effect of salicyclates, and alcohol also increases the gastrointestinal bleeding associated with these types of drugs. Aspirin is known to displace a number of drugs from protein binding sites in the blood, including the anti-diabetic drugs tolbutamide and chlorpropamide, the immunosuppressant methotrexate, phenytoin, probenecid, valproic acid (as well as interfering with beta oxidation, an important part of valproate metabolism) and any nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Corticosteroids may also reduce the concentration of aspirin. The pharmacological activity of spironolactone may be reduced by taking aspirin, and aspirin is known to compete with Penicillin G for renal tubular secretion. Katzung (1998), p. 584. Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C. Dosage Coated 325 mg aspirin tablets For adults doses are generally taken four times a day for fever or arthritis, with doses near the maximal daily dose used historically for the treatment of rheumatic fever. Aspirin monograph: dosages, etc For the prevention of myocardial infarction in someone with documented or suspected coronary artery disease, much lower doses are taken once daily. New recommendations from the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF, March, 2009) on the use of aspirin for the primary prevention of coronary heart disease encourage men aged 45-79 and women aged 55-79 to use aspirin when the potential benefit of a reduction in myocardial infarction (MI) for men or stroke for women outweighs the potential harm of an increase in gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Regular low dose (75 mg) aspirin users had a 25% lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease and a 14% lower risk of death from any cause. Low dose aspirin use was also associated with a trend toward lower risk of cardiovascular events, and lower aspirin doses (75 to 81 mg/day) may optimize efficacy and safety for patients requiring aspirin for long-term prevention . In children with Kawasaki disease, aspirin is taken at dosages based on body weight, initially four times a day for up to two weeks and then at a lower dose once daily for a further six to eight weeks. Overdose Aspirin overdose can be acute or chronic. In acute poisoning, a single large dose is taken; in chronic poisoning, higher than normal doses are taken over a period of time. Acute overdose has a mortality rate of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal with a mortality rate of 25%; chronic overdose may be especially severe in children. Symptoms Aspirin overdose has potentially serious consequences, sometimes leading to significant morbidity and death. Patients with mild intoxication frequently have nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, tinnitus, and dizziness. More significant symptoms occur in more severe poisonings and include hyperthermia, tachypnea, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, hypokalemia, hypoglycemia, hallucinations, confusion, seizure, cerebral edema, and coma. The most common cause of death following an aspirin overdose is cardiopulmonary arrest usually due to pulmonary edema. Toxicity The acutely toxic dose of aspirin is generally considered greater than 150 mg per kg of body mass. Moderate toxicity occurs at doses up to 300 mg/kg, severe toxicity occurs between 300 to 500 mg/kg, and a potentially lethal dose is greater than 500 mg/kg. Chronic toxicity may occur following doses of 100 mg/kg per day for two or more days. Treatment All overdosed patients should be conveyed to a hospital for assessment immediately. Initial treatment of an acute overdose includes gastric decontamination by administering activated charcoal, which adsorbs the aspirin in the gastrointestinal tract. Stomach pumping is no longer routinely used in the treatment of poisonings but is sometimes considered if the patient has ingested a potentially lethal amount less than one hour before presentation. Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is not recommended. Repeated doses of charcoal have been proposed to be beneficial in cases of aspirin overdosing, although one study found that they might not be of significant value. Regardless, most clinical toxicologists will administer additional charcoal if serum salicylate levels are increasing. Patients are monitored until their peak salicylate blood level has been determined. Blood levels are usually assessed four hours after ingestion and then every two hours after that to determine the maximum level. Maximum levels can be used as a guide to toxic effects expected. There is no antidote to salicylate poisoning. Monitoring of biochemical parameters such as electrolytes, liver and kidney function, urinalysis, and complete blood count is undertaken along with frequent checking of salicylate and blood sugar levels. Arterial blood gas assessments are performed to test for respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis. Patients are monitored and often treated according to their individual symptoms. Patients may be given intravenous potassium chloride to counteract hypokalemia, glucose to restore blood sugar levels, benzodiazepines for any seizure activity, fluids for dehydration, and importantly sodium bicarbonate to restore the blood's sensitive pH balance. Sodium bicarbonate also has the effect of increasing the pH of urine, which in turn increases the elimination of salicylate. Additionally, hemodialysis can be implemented to enhance the removal of salicylate from the blood. Hemodialysis is usually used in severely poisoned patients; for example, patients with significantly high salicylate blood levels, significant neurotoxicity (agitation, coma, convulsions), renal failure, pulmonary edema, or cardiovascular instability are hemodialyzed. Hemodialysis also has the advantage of restoring electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities while removing salicylate; hemodialysis is often life-saving in severely ill patients. Epidemiology During the latter part of the 20th century, the number of poisonings from salicylates declined, mainly because of the increased popularity of other over-the-counter analgesics such as paracetamol (acetaminophen). Fifty-two deaths involving single-ingredient aspirin were reported in the United States in 2000; however, in all but three of these cases, the reason for the ingestion of lethal doses was intentional; predominantly suicidal. Weight loss Aspirin, combined with ephedrine and caffeine (commonly referred to as an ECA Stack) can be used by overweight individuals as strong thermogenic. See also Aspergum Copper aspirinate Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug History of aspirin Salicylic acid Ibuprofen Paracetamol (acetaminophen) Naproxen References References Lappin, Michael R. (2001). Feline Internal Medicine Secrets. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 1560534613. External links NextBio Aspirin Entry Colour-enhanced scanning electron micrograph of aspirin crystals The History of Aspirin How Aspirin works The science behind aspirin Take two: Aspirin, New uses and new dangers are still being discovered as aspirin enters its second century. 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1,149	Colloid	Milk is an emulsified colloid of liquid butterfat globules dispersed within a water-based fluid. A colloid is a type of chemical mixture where one substance is dispersed evenly throughout another. The particles of the dispersed substance are only suspended in the mixture, unlike a solution, where they are completely dissolved within. This occurs because the particles in a colloid are larger than in a solution - small enough to be dispersed evenly and maintain a homogenous appearance, but large enough to scatter light and not dissolve. Because of this dispersal, some colloids have the appearance of solutions. A colloidal system consists of two separate phases: a dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous phase (or dispersion medium). A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, or gaseous. Many familiar substances are colloids, as shown in the chart below. The subsequent table compares particle(s) diameters of colloids, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture: Particle size less than 10-9 m 10-9 – 10-6 m greater than 10-6 m homogenous mixture colloids non-homogeneous mixtures Thus, colloid suspensions are intermediate between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures. They are sometimes classified as either "homogeneous" or "heterogeneous" based upon their appearance. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter of between approximately 5 and 200 nanometers. , p. 955 Such particles are normally invisible to an optical microscope, though their presence can be confirmed with the use of an ultramicroscope or an electron microscope. Homogeneous mixtures with a dispersed phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions, or hydrosols. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are largely affected by the surface chemistry present in the colloid. Some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color. Colloidal systems (also called colloidal solutions or colloidal suspensions) are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham. Classification of colloids Because the size of the dispersed phase may be difficult to measure, and because colloids have the appearance of solutions, colloids are sometimes identified and characterized by their physico-chemical and transport properties. For example, if a colloid consists of a solid phase dispersed in a liquid, the solid particles will not diffuse through a membrane, whereas with a solution the dissolved ions or molecules will diffuse through a membrane. Colloids can be classified as follows: Medium / Phases Dispersed Phase Gas Liquid Solid Continuous Medium Gas NONE(All gases are mutually miscible) <center>Liquid AerosolExamples: fog, mist, clouds <td><center>Solid AerosolExamples: smoke, soot, air particulates Liquid <center>FoamExample: whipped cream <center>EmulsionExamples: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream <center>SolExamples: pigmented ink, blood Solid <center>Solid FoamExamples: aerogel, styrofoam, pumice <center>GelExamples: agar, gelatin, jelly, silicagel, opal <center>Solid SolExample: cranberry glass In some cases, a colloid can be considered as a homogeneous mixture. This is because the distinction between "dissolved" and "particulate" matter can be sometimes a matter of approach. Hydrocolloids A hydrocolloid is defined as a colloid system wherein the colloid particles are dispersed in water. A hydrocolloid has colloid particles spread throughout water and depending on the quantity of water available that can take place in different states, e.g., gel or sol (liquid). Hydrocolloids can be either irreversible (single-state) or reversible. For example, agar, a reversible hydrocolloid of seaweed extract, can exist in a gel and sol state, and alternate between states with the addition or elimination of heat. Many hydrocolloids are derived from natural sources. For example, agar-agar and carrageenan are extracted from seaweed, gelatin is produced by hydrolysis of proteins of bovine and fish origins, and pectin is extracted from citrus peel and apple pomace. Gelatin desserts like jelly or Jell-O are made from gelatin powder, another effective hydrocolloid. Hydrocolloids are employed in food mainly to influence texture or viscosity (e.g., a sauce). Hydrocolloid-based medical dressings are used for skin and wound treatment. Interaction between colloid particles The following forces play an important role in the interaction of colloid particles: Excluded volume repulsion: This refers to the impossibility of any overlap between hard particles. Electrostatic interaction: Colloidal particles often carry an electrical charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the dispersed phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction. van der Waals forces: This is due to interaction between two dipoles that are either permanent or induced. Even if the particles do not have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron density gives rise to a temporary dipole in a particle. This temporary dipole induces a dipole in particles nearby. The temporary dipole and the induced dipoles are then attracted to each other. This is known as van der Waals force, and is always present, is short-range, and is attractive. Entropic forces: According to the second law of thermodynamics, a system progresses to a state in which entropy is maximized. This can result in effective forces even between hard spheres. Steric forces between polymer-covered surfaces or in solutions containing non-adsorbing polymer can modulate interparticle forces, producing an additional steric repulsive force (which is predominantly entropic in origin) or an attractive depletion force between them. Such an effect is specifically searched for with tailor-made superplasticizers developed to increase the workability of concrete and to reduce its water content. Stabilization of a colloidal dispersion (peptization) Stabilization serves to prevent colloids from aggregating. Steric stabilization and electrostatic stabilization are the two main mechanisms for colloid stabilization. Electrostatic stabilization is based on the mutual repulsion of like electrical charges. Different phases generally have different charge affinities, so that a electrical double layer forms at any interface. Small particle sizes lead to enormous surface areas, and this effect is greatly amplified in colloids. In a stable colloid, mass of a dispersed phase is so low that its buoyancy or kinetic energy is too weak to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between charged layers of the dispersing phase. The charge on the dispersed particles can be observed by applying an electric field: all particles migrate to the same electrode and therefore must all have the same sign charge. Destabilizing a colloidal dispersion (flocculation) Unstable colloidal dispersions form flocs as the particles aggregate due to interparticle attractions. In this way photonic glasses can be grown. This can be accomplished by a number of different methods: Removal of the electrostatic barrier that prevents aggregation of the particles. This can be accomplished by the addition of salt to a suspension or changing the pH of a suspension to effectively neutralize or "screen" the surface charge of the particles in suspension. This removes the repulsive forces that keep colloidal particles separate and allows for coagulation due to van der Waals forces. Addition of a charged polymer flocculant. Polymer flocculants can bridge individual colloidal particles by attractive electrostatic interactions. For example, negatively-charged colloidal silica or clay particles can be flocculated by the addition of a positively-charged polymer. Addition of non-adsorbed polymers called depletants that cause aggregation due to entropic effects. Physical deformation of the particle (e.g., stretching) may increase the van der Waals forces more than stabilization forces (such as electrostatic), resulting coagulation of colloids at certain orientations. Unstable colloidal suspensions of low-volume fraction form clustered liquid suspensions, wherein individual clusters of particles fall to the bottom of the suspension (or float to the top if the particles are less dense than the suspending medium) once the clusters are of sufficient size for the Brownian forces that work to keep the particles in suspension to be overcome by gravitational forces. However, colloidal suspensions of higher-volume fraction form colloidal gels with viscoelastic properties. Viscoelastic colloidal gels, such as bentonite and toothpaste, flow like liquids under shear, but maintain their shape when shear is removed. It is for this reason that toothpaste can be squeezed from a toothpaste tube, but stays on the toothbrush after it is applied. Colloids as a model system for atoms In physics, colloids are an interesting model system for atoms. Micrometre-scale colloidal particles are large enough to be observed by optical techniques such as confocal microscopy. Many of the forces that govern the structure and behavior of matter, such as excluded volume interactions or electrostatic forces, govern the structure and behavior of colloidal suspensions. For example, the same techniques used to model ideal gases can be applied to model the behavior of a hard sphere colloidal suspension. In addition, phase transitions in colloidal suspensions can be studied in real time using optical techniques, and are analogous to phase transitions in liquids. Colloidal crystals A colloidal crystal is a highly ordered array of particles which can be formed over a very long range (typically on the order of a few millimeters to one centimeter) and which appear analogous to their atomic or molecular counterparts. Pieranski, P. (1983) Colloidal Crystals, Contemp. Phys., Vol. 24, p. 25. One of the finest natural examples of this ordering phenomenon can be found in precious opal, where brilliant regions of pure spectral color result from close-packed domains of amorphous colloidal spheres of silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2). Sanders, J.V. (1964) Structure of Opal, Nature, Vol. 204, p. 1151. ; Darragh, P.J., et al., (1976) Scientific American, Vol. 234, p. 84. These spherical particles precipitate in highly siliceous pools in Australia and elsewhere, and form these highly ordered arrays after years of sedimentation and compression under hydrostatic and gravitational forces. The periodic arrays of submicrometre spherical particles provide similar arrays of interstitial voids, which act as a natural diffraction grating for visible light waves, particularly when the interstitial spacing is of the same order of magnitude as the incident lightwave. Luck, W. et al., Ber. Busenges (1963) Phys. Chem., Vol. 67, p. 84. Hiltner, P.A. and Krieger, I.M. (1969) Diffraction of light by ordered suspensions, J. Phys. Chem., Vol. 73, p. 2306. Thus, it has been known for many years that, due to repulsive Coulombic interactions, electrically charged macromolecules in an aqueous environment can exhibit long-range crystal-like correlations with interparticle separation distances often being considerably greater than the individual particle diameter. In all of these cases in nature, the same brilliant iridescence (or play of colors) can be attributed to the diffraction and constructive interference of visible lightwaves which satisfy Bragg’s law, in a matter analogous to the scattering of X-rays in crystalline solids. The large number of experiments exploring the physics and chemistry of these so-called “colloidal crystals” has emerged as a result of the relatively simple methods which have evolved in the last 20 years for preparing synthetic monodisperse colloids (both polymer and mineral) and, through various mechanisms, implementing and preserving their long-range order formation. One of the best examples is the Gilson Opal. Gilson Opal . Colloids in biology In the early 20th century, before enzymology was well understood, colloids were thought to be the key to the operation of enzymes; i.e., the addition of small quantities of an enzyme to a quantity of water would, in some fashion yet to be specified, subtly alter the properties of the water so that it would break down the enzyme's specific substrate, such as a solution of ATPase breaking down ATP. Furthermore, life itself was explainable in terms of the aggregate properties of all the colloidal substances that make up an organism. As more detailed knowledge of biology and biochemistry developed, the colloidal theory was replaced by the macromolecular theory, which explains an enzyme as a collection of identical huge molecules that act as very tiny machines, freely moving about between the water molecules of the solution and individually operating on the substrate, no more mysterious than a factory full of machinery. The properties of the water in the solution are not altered, other than the simple osmotic changes that would be caused by the presence of any solute. In humans, both the thyroid gland and the intermediate lobe (pars intermedia) of the pituitary gland contain colloid follicles. Colloids in the environment Colloidal particles can also serve as transport vector of diverse contaminants in the surface water (sea water, lakes, rivers, fresh water bodies) and in underground water circulating in fissured rocks (limestone, sandstone, granite, ...). Radionuclides and heavy metals easily sorb onto colloids suspended in water. Various types of colloids are recognised: inorganic colloids (clay particles, silicates, iron oxy-hydroxides, ...), organic colloids (humic and fulvic substances). When heavy metals or radionuclides form their own pure colloids, the term "Eigencolloid" is used to designate pure phases, e.g., Tc(OH)4, U(OH)4, Am(OH)3. Colloids have been suspected for the long range transport of plutonium on the Nevada Nuclear Test Site. They have been the subject of detailed studies for many years. However, the mobility of inorganic colloids is very low in compacted bentonites and in deep clay formations because of the process of ultrafiltration occurring in dense clay membrane. The question is less clear for small organic colloids often mixed in porewater with truly dissolved organic molecules. See also Aerosol Colloid-facilitated transport Dispersion Eigencolloid Emulsion Flocculation Foam Gel Gum (botany) Hydrosol Interface Nanoparticle Peptization Sol (colloid) Sol-gel Superplasticizer Suspension Colloidal crystal Electrical double layer (EDL) Entropic force Streaming potential Zeta potential Bacteriophage Micromeritics References Extra readings Lyklema, J. Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science, Vol. 2, p. 3208, 1995 Hunter, R.J. Foundations of Colloid Science, Oxford University Press, 1989 Dukhin, S.S. & Derjaguin, B.V. Electrokinetic Phenomena, J.Willey and Sons, 1974 Russel, W.B., Saville, D.A. and Schowalter, W.R. Colloidal Dispersions, Cambridge, 1989 University Press Kruyt, H.R. Colloid Science, Volume 1, Irreversible systems, Elsevier, 1959 Dukhin, A.S. and Goetz, P.J. Ultrasound for characterizing colloids, Elsevier, 2002 Rodil, Ma. Lourdes C., Chemistry The Central Science, 7th Ed. ISBN 013533480 Pieranski, P., Colloidal Crystals, Contemp. Phys., Vol. 24, p. 25 (1983) Sanders, J.V., Structure of Opal, Nature, Vol. 204, p. 1151, (1964); Darragh, P.J., et al., Scientific American, Vol. 234, p. 84, (1976) Luck, W. et al., Ber. Busenges Phys. Chem. , Vol. 67, p. 84 (1963); Hiltner, P.A. and Krieger, I.M., Diffraction of Light by Ordered Suspensions, J. Phys. Chem., Vol. 73, p. 2306 (1969) Arora, A.K., Tata, B.V.R., Eds. Ordering & Phase Transitions in Charged Colloids Wiley, New York (1996) Sood, A.K. in Solid State Physics, Eds. Ehrenreich, H., Turnbull, D., Vol. 45, p. 1 (1991) Murray, C.A. and Grier, D.G., Colloidal Crystals, Amer. Scientist, Vol. 83, p. 238 (1995); Video Microscopy of Monodisperse Colloidal Systems, Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem., Vol. 47, p. 421 (1996) External links Texture - A hydrocolloid recipe collection More about colloids from Malvern Instruments Gilson Opals	Colloid \|@lemmatized milk:2 emulsified:1 colloid:52 liquid:10 butterfat:1 globule:1 disperse:6 within:2 water:14 base:4 fluid:1 type:2 chemical:2 mixture:8 one:4 substance:4 evenly:2 throughout:2 another:2 particle:37 dispersed:9 suspend:3 unlike:1 solution:10 completely:1 dissolve:4 occur:2 large:4 small:4 enough:3 maintain:2 homogenous:2 appearance:4 scatter:1 light:5 dispersal:1 colloidal:37 system:9 consist:2 two:3 separate:2 phase:20 internal:1 continuous:3 dispersion:7 medium:4 may:5 solid:10 gaseous:1 many:5 familiar:1 show:1 chart:1 subsequent:1 table:1 compare:1 diameter:3 homogeneous:6 heterogeneous:3 size:5 less:3 great:2 non:3 thus:2 suspension:16 intermediate:2 sometimes:3 classify:2 either:3 upon:1 approximately:1 nanometer:1 p:22 normally:1 invisible:1 optical:3 microscope:2 though:1 presence:2 confirm:1 use:5 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1,150	The_Doors	The Doors were an American rock band formed in 1965 in Los Angeles, California by vocalist Jim Morrison, keyboardist Ray Manzarek, drummer John Densmore, and guitarist Robby Krieger. They were considered a controversial band, due mostly to Morrison's cryptic lyrics and unpredictable stage persona. After Morrison's death on July 3, 1971, the remaining members continued as a threesome until disbanding in 1973. Despite a career that barely totaled eight years, The Doors still enjoy a huge cult following as well as status in the mainstream music industry as being hugely influential and original. According to the RIAA, they have sold over 32 million albums in the US alone. History Origins and formation The origins of The Doors lay in a chance meeting between acquaintances and fellow UCLA film school alumni Jim Morrison and Ray Manzarek on Venice Beach California in July 1965. Morrison told Manzarek he had been writing songs (Morrison said "I was taking notes at a fantastic rock-n-roll concert going on in my head") and, with Manzarek's encouragement, sang "Moonlight Drive". Impressed by Morrison's lyrics, Manzarek suggested they form a band. Keyboardist Manzarek was in a band called Rick & the Ravens with his brothers Rick & Jim Manzarek, while drummer John Densmore was playing with The Psychedelic Rangers, and knew Manzarek from meditation classes. In August, Densmore joined the group and, along with members of The Ravens and bass player Pat Sullivan (later credited using her married name Patricia Hansen in the 1997 box CD release), recorded a six-song demo in September 1965. This circulated widely as a bootleg recording and appeared in full on the 1997 Doors box set. That month the group recruited guitarist Robby Krieger, and the final lineup — Morrison, Manzarek, Krieger and Densmore — was complete. The band took their name from the title of a book by Aldous Huxley, The Doors of Perception (1954). That title was in turn taken from a line in a poem by the 18th-century artist and poet William Blake: "If the doors of perception were cleansed, every thing would appear to man as it is: infinite". "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell" The Doors were unusual among rock groups because they did not use a bass guitar when playing live. Instead, Manzarek played the bass lines with his left hand on the newly invented Fender Rhodes Piano Bass, an offshoot of the Fender Rhodes electric piano, playing other keyboards with his right hand. On their studio albums (with the notable exception of their eponymous first record), The Doors did, however, use bass players, such as Jerry Scheff, Doug Lubahn (who also played with Clear Light), Harvey Brooks, Kerry Magness, Lonnie Mack, Larry Knechtel, Leroy Vinnegar, and Ray Neapolitan. Many of The Doors' original songs were group compositions, with Morrison or Krieger contributing the lyrics and an initial melody, and the others providing harmonic and rhythmic suggestions, or even entire sections of songs, such as Manzarek's organ introduction to "Light My Fire". By 1966, the group was playing the London Fog club and soon graduated to the prestigious Whisky a Go Go, where they were the house band, supporting acts including Van Morrison's group Them. On their last night together the two bands joined up for "In the Midnight Hour" and a twenty-minute jam session of Them's "Gloria". Whiskey a Go Go 1971 On August 10, they were spotted by Elektra Records president Jac Holzman who was present at the recommendation of Love singer Arthur Lee, whose group was on Elektra. After Holzman and producer Paul A. Rothchild saw two sets of the band playing at the Whisky a Go Go, they signed them to the Elektra Records label on August 18—the start of a long and successful partnership with Rothchild and engineer Bruce Botnick. The timing was fortunate, because on August 21 the club fired the band after a profanity-filled performance of "The End". In an incident that foreshadowed the controversy that later followed the group, an acid-tripping Morrison raucously recited his own version of the Greek drama Oedipus Rex, in which Oedipus kills his father and has sex with his mother. Debut album 'The Doors' self-titled debut LP was released in the first week of January 1967. It featured most of the major songs from their set, including the 11.5-minute musical drama "The End". The band recorded their first album at Sunset Sound Recording Studios - 6650 West Sunset Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA, Wed. Aug. 24 - Wed. 31: 1966, almost entirely live in the studio, with several of the songs being captured in a single take. In November 1966, Mark Abramson directed a promotional film for the lead single "Break On Through (To the Other Side)." In hindsight this has been seen as a significant advance toward the development of the music video phenomenon. To promote the single, the Doors made their television debut on a Los Angeles TV show called Boss City, circa 1966, possibly early 1967 and then on a Los Angeles TV show called Shebang, miming to "Break On Through," on New Years 1967. This clip has never been officially released by the Doors but can be seen on YouTube. The second single, "Light My Fire," became a smash hit after its release in June 1967, selling 1 million copies and reaching #1 on the Billboard Charts on July 29th, keeping the top spot for three weeks. It established the group — in the vein of The Byrds and Jefferson Airplane — as one of America's counterculture bands. For AM radio airplay, the long middle organ and guitar solos were cut from the song making it 2:52 instead of the 6:50 original Light My Fire . Today, the song is played in its entirety on the radio. Early live recordings at The Matrix From March 7 to March 11, 1967, The Doors performed at The Matrix Club in San Francisco, California. The March 7 and 10 shows were recorded by a co-owner of The Matrix, Peter Abram. These recordings are notable as they are among the earliest live recordings of the band to circulate. On November 18, 2008, The Doors published a compilation of these recordings, Live at the Matrix 1967, on the band's boutique Bright Midnight Archives label. Early TV performances In September 1967 the Doors gave a memorable performance of "Light My Fire" on the Ed Sullivan Show. According to Ray Manzarek, network executives asked that the word 'higher' be removed in favor of 'better', as you couldn't say 'high' on national TV. The group initially agreed to this, but nonetheless performed the song in its original form, either because they had never intended to comply with the request, or Jim Morrison was nervous and forgot to make the change (Manzarek has given conflicting accounts). Either way, 'higher' was sung out on national TV, and a furious Ed Sullivan cancelled another six shows that had been planned, to which Jim Morrison reportedly said: "Hey man, so what? We just DID the Ed Sullivan Show". In May 1967, The Doors made their international television debut by recording a version of "The End" for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) at O'Keefe Centre in Toronto . It remained unreleased except in bootleg form since its initial broadcasts until the release of The Doors Soundstage Performances DVD in 2002. On December 24, the Doors taped "Light My Fire" and "Moonlight Drive" live for the Jonathan Winters Show. From December 26 to December 28, the group played at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco. An excerpt taken from Stephen Davis' book on Jim Morrison p. 219-220:The next night at Winterland, a TV set was wheeled onstage during the Doors set so the band could see themselves on the Jonathan Winters Show. They stopped playing Back Door Man when their song came on. The audience watched the Doors watching themselves on TV. They finished the song when their bit was done, and Ray walked over and turned the TV off. The next night was their last ever in Winterland.They played two more dates in Denver on December 30 and December 31, capping off a year of almost constant touring. Strange Days The second Doors LP, Strange Days, continued to explore the genre of acid rock. The closing track, "When the Music's Over," evoked the length and drama of "The End." The album was also commercially successful and featured now-classic Doors songs such as "People Are Strange" and "Love Me Two Times." Waiting for the Sun In April, the recording of the third album was marred by tension as a result of Morrison's increasing dependence on alcohol. Approaching the height of their popularity, the Doors played a series of outdoor shows that led to frenzied scenes between fans and police, particularly at Chicago Coliseum on May 10. The band began to branch out from their initial form for their third LP. Because they had exhausted their original repertoire, they began writing new material. Waiting for the Sun became their first #1 LP, and the single "Hello, I Love You" was their second and last US #1 single. In 1968, controversy arose with the release of the "Hello, I Love You" single when the rock press pointed out the song's musical resemblance to The Kinks' 1965 hit, "All Day and All of the Night." Members of the Kinks have concurred with music critics; Kinks guitarist Dave Davies has been known to add snippets of "Hello, I Love You" during live solo performances of "All Day and All of the Night" as a sarcastic commentary on the subject. Loyal Pains: The Davies Boys Are Still at It However, the two songs are distinctively different in arrangement, scope, and overall execution. In concert, Morrison was occasionally dismissive of the song, and left the vocal chores to Manzarek, as can be seen in the documentary The Doors are Open A month after riotous scenes took place at the Singer Bowl in New York, the group flew to Britain for its first venue outside of North America. They held a press conference at the ICA Gallery in London and played shows at The Roundhouse Theatre. The results of the trip were broadcast on Granada TV's The Doors Are Open, which was later released on video. They played dates in Europe, along with Jefferson Airplane, including a show in Amsterdam where Morrison collapsed on stage from a drug binge. The group flew back to the US and played nine more US dates before returning to work in November on their fourth LP. They ended the year with a successful new single, "Touch Me," (released in December 1968), which hit US #3. In 1969, they started the year with a sold out show at Madison Square Garden on January 24. New Haven Incident On December 9, 1967, The Doors performed at an infamous concert in New Haven Arena in New Haven, Connecticut which ended abruptly with Morrison's on-stage arrest by local police. The incidents leading up to Morrison's arrest in New Haven are still somewhat unclear, though it is widely rumored (most notably dramatized in a scene in Oliver Stone's film, The Doors) that Morrison was having a conversation backstage in a bathroom stall with a female companion when a police officer appeared, allegedly harassed the pair—causing Morrison to become belligerent—and subsequently sprayed mace in Morrison's eyes. On stage, Morrison proceeded to go on an obscenity-laced tirade to the audience, explaining what had happened backstage, and belittling New Haven police. It was at this time that Morrison was apprehended and dragged offstage by the police. A riot ensued which spilled from the gates of the New Haven Arena into the streets of New Haven. Morrison was taken to a local police station, photographed and booked on charges of indecency and public obscenity. Morrison later referred to this event in the song "Peace Frog" on the 1970 album Morrison Hotel, which contains the lyric, "Blood in the streets in the town of New Haven." Morrison's mugshot can be bought at many locations across the country. Miami Incident The Miami incident refers to a Doors concert on March 1, 1969, at the Dinner Key Auditorium in Miami, Florida where Morrison gave a controversial performance. The restless crowd was subjected to Morrison's lack of interest in singing songs that night, as well as to his unconventional emotional outbursts, screaming challenges to the audience, and making irreverent social statements. The confusion and taunts led to some out-of-control situations, such as Morrison allegedly exposing his penis, which resulted in an abrupt end to the show after only one hour. At first the performance was simply seen as Morrison drunk beyond any saving grace, combined with his frustration over the trappings of rock stardom and his personal demons finally reaching a climax. But once a review of the show was reported in the local press on March 3, Morrison's exhibitionism took on a snowball effect in the form of a media and legal firestorm. On March 5, a warrant was issued for Morrison's arrest on charges of indecency and obscenity, and one after another all the subsequent shows were canceled. Between the time Morrison returned from his post-Miami trip to Jamaica with The Doors, he recorded some of his poetry and began shooting HWY, an experimental film about a hitchhiker played by Morrison himself. The Doors would eventually set the poetry session to music for the 1978 album An American Prayer. HWY contains virtually no dialog and circulates privately among collectors. The group's only public appearance was on a PBS television special recorded late in April and broadcast the following month. The group performed songs from their upcoming Soft Parade album. The Doors resumed touring with their appearance at the Chicago Auditorium Theater on June 14. They played at two dates in Hollywood on July 21 and July 22. Morrison appeared bearded; wearing casual hippie attire and tinted aviator glasses, and sitting on a stool. They also headlined at The Toronto Rock and Roll Revival on September 13, 1969, a one day festival also noted for the appearance of the Plastic Ono Band and the resulting Live Peace in Toronto 1969 album. Once The Doors completed their fifth album, Morrison Hotel, with a tour to support it, Morrison and the band found their career consumed by the Miami trial. On October 30, 1970, Morrison was found guilty of two charges: profanity and indecent exposure. He was acquitted of the charge of drunkenness but found guilty of lewd behavior, a felony. The verdict was contested and Morrison died in July 1971 while his case was still on appeal. The Soft Parade Their fourth album, The Soft Parade, released in June, further distanced the group from their core fan base, containing pop-oriented arrangements and horn sections. The lead single "Touch Me" featured saxophonist Curtis Amy. While the band was trying to maintain their previous momentum, efforts to expand their sound gave the album an experimental feel, causing critics to attack their musical integrity. Morrison's drinking made him difficult and unreliable, and the recording sessions dragged on for weeks. Studio costs piled up, and The Doors came close to disintegrating . Despite all this, the album was immensely successful, becoming the band's fourth hit album and producing their last top ten single. During the recording of their next album, in November 1969, Morrison found himself in trouble with the law after harassing an airline staff during a flight to Phoenix, Arizona to see The Rolling Stones in concert. He was acquitted the following April after a steward mistakenly identified Morrison as his traveling companion, American actor Tom Baker . The group started 1970 in New York with two well-received nights at The Felt Forum, just prior to the release of Morrison Hotel. Aquarius Theatre performances The Doors gave two concerts at the Earl Carroll Theatre (then called the "Aquarius" theatre) on Sunset Bvd, Hollywood. The two shows were performed on 21 July 1969. A "backstage" performance, a so-called "private rehearsal" without an audience occurred on 22 July 1969. This was only a few months after the "Miami incident" in March of that year. The shows featured a more laid back, bluesy style of Doors music. Morrison appeared not as his trademark, "young lion" in black leather pants. Instead, he wore a beard and sported loose fitting carpenter-like pants. The performances included Morrison singing sitting on a stool. His usual theatrics were more sober and subdued as compared to previous performances; the proverbial convulsing and writhing were not seen. Morrison focused on his vocals and expressed himself more musically—even shaking maracas during many of the songs. Of the songs performed with an audience, "Universal Mind" and the "Celebration of the Lizard" suite were released on The Doors' 1970 Absolutely Live album, whereas "You Make Me Real" was released on Alive, She Cried in 1983. Further, the Van Morrison track "Gloria", which was performed and recorded during the audience-less rehearsal, was also released on Alive, She Cried. The entire performance was released in 2001. Morrison Hotel and Absolutely Live The Doors staged a return to form with their 1970 LP Morrison Hotel. Featuring a consistent, hard rock sound, the album's opener was "Roadhouse Blues." The record reached US #4 and revived their status among their core fanbase and the rock press. Dave Marsh, the editor of Creem magazine, said of the album: "the most horrifying rock and roll I have ever heard. When they're good, they're simply unbeatable. I know this is the best record I've listened to ... so far" J. Hopkins and D. Sugerman: No One Here Gets Out Alive, p. 284 . Rock Magazine called it "without any doubt their ballsiest (and best) album to date" J. Hopkins and D. Sugerman: No One Here Gets Out Alive, p. 284 . Circus Magazine praised it as "possibly the best album yet from the Doors" and "Good hard, evil rock, and one of the best albums released this decade" J. Hopkins and D. Sugerman: No One Here Gets Out Alive, p. 284 . The album also saw Jim Morrison returning as main songwriter, writing or co-writing all of the album's tracks (as opposed to the poppier The Soft Parade, for which Robbie Krieger contributed a large number of songs). The 40th Anniversary CD reissue of Absolutely Live contains outtakes and alternate takes, including different versions of "The Spy" and "Roadhouse Blues" (with Lonnie Mack on bass guitar and The Lovin' Spoonful's John Sebastian on a bluesy harmonica). The band continued to perform at arenas throughout the summer. Morrison faced trial in Miami in August, but the group made it to the Isle of Wight Festival on August 29. They performed alongside artists such as Jimi Hendrix, The Who, Joni Mitchell, Miles Davis and Sly & The Family Stone. Two songs from the show were featured in the 1995 documentary Message To Love. In July 1970, The Doors released Absolutely Live. Back in Miami for his trial, Morrison took the stand on September 16, but the jury returned a guilty verdict for profanity and indecent exposure on September 20. Morrison was sentenced to eight months' custody but was allowed to go free pending an appeal. Last public performance On December 8, 1970, his 27th birthday, Morrison recorded another poetry session. This would end up on An American Prayer: Jim Morrison in 1978 with music, and is currently under the possession of the Courson family. The Doors' tour to promote their upcoming album L.A. Woman would comprise only two dates. The first was held in Dallas, Texas on December 11 and reportedly went well. During the Doors' last public performance, at The Warehouse in New Orleans, Louisiana, on December 12, 1970, Morrison apparently had a breakdown on stage. Midway through the set he slammed the microphone numerous times into the stage floor until the platform beneath was destroyed, then sat down and refused to perform for the remainder of the show. Drummer John Densmore recalls the incident in his biography Riders On the Storm, where after the show he met with Ray and Robbie; they decided to end their live act, citing their mutual agreement that Morrison was ready to retire from performing. Shortly thereafter while finishing the recording of their album, Morrison decided to move to Paris with his girlfriend Pamela. L. A. Woman The Doors set to reclaim their status as a premier act with L.A. Woman in 1971. It contained two top 20 hits and has gone on to be their second best-selling studio album, surpassed in sales only by their debut. The album explored their R&B roots, although during rehearsals they had a falling-out with Rothchild. Denouncing "Love Her Madly" as 'cocktail music,' he quit and handed the production to Botnick. The result is considered a classic Doors album. The singles "L.A. Woman", "Love Her Madly", and "Riders on the Storm" remain mainstays of rock radio programming. During the sessions, a short clip of the band performing "Crawling King Snake" was filmed. So far as known, this is the last clip of the Doors performing with Morrison. Post-Morrison years Before and after Morrison's death In April, 1971, following the recording of L.A. Woman, Morrison decided to take some time off and moved to Paris with Pamela Courson. He had visited the city the previous summer and seemed interested in moving there to become a writer in exile. While in Paris, he was again drinking heavily. On June 16, the last known recording of Morrison was made when he befriended two street musicians at a bar and invited them to a studio. This recording was finally released in 1994 on a bootleg CD entitled The Lost Paris Tapes. Morrison's death Morrison died under mysterious circumstances, on July 3, 1971. The most accepted version, according to witnesses, is as follows: After watching a film together, Jim and Pam went to their favorite night club, the "Rock 'n' Roll Circus." Pamela had ordered heroin—a particularly pure form from Vietnam via Marseille (French Connection)—from her friend, Jean De Breteuil, a well known drug dealer among social elites. The drug was brought to the club, and nobody except Morrison was to receive it. Pamela helped Morrison sample the drug. A witness noticed a commotion and was later told that "Morrison felt really bad, it's an overdose." The witness saw Morrison collapsing. Then the night club owner, Bernett, had Morrison taken to the Alcalzar restaurant—which was connected to the Rock 'n' Roll Circus by a corridor—where Morrison was left in the bathroom with some friends. Other witnesses confirmed this. Bernett was trying to avoid any entanglement with the French police. This took place at about 3-4am. Other witnesses claimed Morrison was already dead at that time. Finally Morrison was taken to his own apartment, 17 rue Beautreillis. A bath was immediately prepared in hope of waking Morrison up; a common technique for reviving overdose victims. Pamela finally called the emergency services. The firemen arrived around 9:30am. The water was still hot, and Morrison's nose was slightly bleeding. They brought the body into the bedroom but they could not save him; he was already dead for at least four hours, according to the coroner. Earlier, around 6am, the Rock'n'Roll Circus Deejay—who was not aware of the situation—was met by two unknown persons who announced that "Morrison is dead." A Luxemburg Radio reporter, who was there, called his radio station and revealed the news. Jean de Breteuil and Marianne Faithfull escaped the same morning to Morocco from fear of becoming accessories to Morrison's death. In the final report, however, Morrison died of a heart attack, although it was later revealed that no autopsy had been performed. Jim Morrison was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery on July 7. Morrison died at age 27, the same age as several other famous rock stars. Some notable members of the 27 club include Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin of Big Brother and the Holding Company and solo career, Brian Jones of The Rolling Stones, Ron "Pigpen" McKernan of The Grateful Dead and Kurt Cobain of Nirvana. It is also the age that his girlfriend, Pamela Courson, died. Other Voices and Full Circle The surviving Doors continued for some time, initially considering replacing Morrison with a new singer. Instead, Krieger and Manzarek took over on vocals and The Doors released two more albums before disbanding. The recording of Other Voices took place from June to August 1971, and the album was released in October, 1971. The recordings for Full Circle took place during the spring of 1972, and the album was released in August, 1972. The Doors went on tour after the releases in support of the albums. The last album expanded into jazz territory. While neither album has been reissued on CD in the United States, they have been released on 2-on-1 CDs in Germany and Russia. The legality of the re-issues is debatable. An American Prayer The third post-Morrison album, An American Prayer, was released in 1978. It consisted of the band adding a musical track to spoken-word recordings of Morrison reciting his poetry. The record was a fair commercial success, acquiring a platinum certificate. Legacy In 1979 Francis Ford Coppola, who attended the film school at UCLA with Morrison, released Apocalypse Now with "The End" used prominently in the sound track. In 1980, the Jim Morrison biography No One Here Gets Out Alive by Jerry Hopkins and Danny Sugerman resulted in a revival of Doors interest, and the book became a bestseller. In 1983, The surviving Doors released Alive, She Cried, a collection of live performances which also has the rock anthem "Gloria", recorded at a rehearsal at the Aquarius Theatre on July 22, 1969. In 1991, director Oliver Stone released his film The Doors, starring Val Kilmer as Morrison and with cameos by Krieger and Densmore. British vocalist Ian Astbury of The Cult was Stone's preferred choice to play Morrison, but Astbury chose not to appear in the film. Kilmer's impersonation and the film itself were praised by critics, despite its inaccuracies. Members of the group criticized Stone's portrayal of Morrison as an out-of-control sociopath. Singer Billy Idol had a cameo in the film and recorded a cover of "L.A. Woman." In 1993, Ray Manzarek, John Densmore, and Robby Krieger reunited for their induction into The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Eddie Vedder, lead singer of Pearl Jam, sang vocals. The group performed three songs, Roadhouse Blues, Break on Through, and Light my Fire. In 1994, the Forrest Gump soundtrack featured Break on Through (To the Other Side) while the movie itself included four other Doors songs. Another Tom Hanks film, Cast Away, featured the main character singing "Light My Fire." In 1998, the American comedy The Waterboy starring Adam Sandler features the song "Peace Frog" and was in the movie's soundtrack. In 2001, Ray Manzarek, John Densmore and Robby Krieger reunited again to perform The Doors' hits as part of the VH1 Storytellers series. Singing with the band were guest lead vocalists, including The Cult's Ian Astbury, Creed's Scott Stapp, Stone Temple Pilots' Scott Weiland, Jane's Addiction's Perry Farrell and Days of the New's Travis Meeks. The show was later released on DVD as VH1 Storytellers - The Doors (A Celebration). Fatboy Slim's 2000 album halfway between the gutter and the stars featured the song Sunset (Bird of Prey) with samples of "Bird of Prey" from the An American Prayer: Jim Morrison sessions. The single peaked at number 9 in the UK charts. Later in the same year, rap producer Kanye West produced a song called Takeover for Jay-Z for the latter's 2001 critically acclaimed album The Blueprint. The song heavily sampled The Doors's song "Five To One", including the background music and Jim Morrison's vocals. Snoop Dogg used "Riders on the Storm" in a song of the same name. It was used in the soundtrack of Need for Speed: Underground 2, a 2004 street racing video game. Riders on the Storm/Manzarek-Krieger(2002–present) In 2002, Manzarek and Krieger reunited and produced a new version of The Doors, called "The Doors of the 21st Century." The lineup was fronted by Astbury, with Angelo Barbera from Krieger's band on bass. At their first concert, the group announced that drummer John Densmore would not perform, and it was later reported that he was unable to play because he suffered from tinnitus. Densmore was initially replaced by Stewart Copeland of The Police, but after Copeland broke his arm falling off a bicycle, the arrangement ended in mutual lawsuits, and he was replaced by Ty Dennis, drummer with Krieger's band. Densmore subsequently claimed that he had in fact not been invited to take part in the reunion. In February 2003, he filed an injunction against his former band mates, hoping to prevent them from using the name "The Doors of the 21st Century." His motion was denied in court and Ray Manzarek publicly stated that the invitation for Densmore to return to the group still stood. It was also reported that both Morrison's family and that of Pamela Courson had joined Densmore in seeking to prevent Manzarek and Krieger from using The Doors' name. In July 2005, Densmore and the Morrison estate won a permanent injunction, causing the new band to switch to the name "D21C." It now plays under the name Riders on the Storm, a song by The Doors released in 1971 as the last track on the final Morrison-Era album, L.A. Woman. They are allowed to play under names such as "former Doors" and "members of The Doors." Later in July 2007 Densmore said that he would not rejoin The Doors unless it was fronted by Eddie Vedder. Densmore says, "I play with Jim. If there's someone of that level, OK. I'm not gonna join them with Ian. That's not to diss Ian, he's a good singer - but he's no Jim Morrison. Eddie Vedder? My God, there's a singer." Densmore has been steadfast in refusing to license The Doors' music for use in television commercials, including an offer of $15 million by Cadillac to lease the song "Break on Through (to the Other Side)," feeling that that would be in violation of the spirit in which the music was created. Densmore wrote about this subject for The Nation. He later gave an interview about this to LA Times: People lost their virginity to this music, got high for the first time to this music. I've had people say kids died in Vietnam listening to this music, other people say they know someone who didn't commit suicide because of this music.... On stage, when we played these songs, they felt mysterious and magic. That's not for rent. Riders on the Storm Ray Manzarek was quoted as saying, "We're all getting older. We should, the three of us, be playing these songs because, hey, the end is always near. Morrison was a poet, and above all, a poet wants his words heard." When Morrison was asked what he would most like to be remembered for, he responded, "My words, man, my words." Drummer Nixes Doors Song for TV Ad On February 16, 2007 Ian Astbury quit Riders on the Storm, and relaunched his old band The Cult. On March 14, 2007 Brett Scallions, former lead singer of the band Fuel, was announced as the new lead singer of Riders on the Storm. In 2007, Manzarek described the band's sound as "Bauhaus" music. "It's clean, it's pure. There is a keyboard on one side, a guitar on the other, drums in the middle, a bass line underneath that and the singer up front and you can hear the words. That's one of the reasons why The Doors' sound is still important today. It's perfectly modern. That's what we wanted." Thomas, Graeme. "After Death do us Part". The Word Magazine, February 2007 Strange Days, Morrison Hotel, and L.A Woman incorporate different styles, including psychedelic pop, hard rock, and blues. Three non-album tracks have been released, the b-sides "Who Scared You," "Tree Trunk," and a cover of Willie Dixon's "(You Need Meat) Don't Go Further" sung by Ray. "Who Scared You" and "(You Need Meat) Don't Go Further" appeared on the 1972 compilation Weird Scenes Inside The Goldmine. "Who Scared You" was also released on CD in edited form on the 1997 box set and "You Need Meat" was included on the new "Perception" box set. "Tree Trunk" has seen no other official release. Additional songs have been only performed live. On April 20, 2008 members of The Doors Manzarek and Krieger got together in the Ecuadorian capital city of Quito to celebrate the band's 40 years of existence with a reunion concert. The two are performing with the name "Riders On The Storm" with Ty Dennis in the drums and Phil Chen (who played with Robby and John Densmore in The Butts Band) playing the bass. Last FM: Riders on the Storm On August, 2008, the California Supreme Court decided not to hear the case involving Krieger and Manzarek's use of the name "The Doors" in performances over the objections of Densmore and the Morrison estate, so the judgment against Krieger and Manzarek stands. http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gHLUQ-tiqEOHu_paMoWStxqZBfOwD92N8QE00 In February 2009 Ray and Robby went back on tour using the name "Ray Manzarek and Robby Krieger of The Doors." New material In 1997 the first archive material was included on the release of The Doors box set, a 4-CD set, one of which was a "greatest hits" type CD. Some of the material had been previously available on bootlegs. A notable inclusion on the compilation was a CD of highlights from the 1970 Felt Forum concert and a cleaned-up recording of the (edited) 1969 "Rock Is Dead" session. The surviving members again re-united to add new musical backing to the solo Morrison song "Orange County Suite". In November 2000 The Doors announced the creation of Bright Midnight Records, a label through which 36 albums and 90 hours of previously unreleased Morrison-era Doors material would be made available on CD. This was launched with a sampler of forthcoming material, mostly from live concerts. The first full release was a 2-CD set of the May 1970 show at Detroit's Cobo Arena, notable for being, according to Doors manager Danny Sugerman in its liner notes, "easily... the longest Doors' set ever performed." It was followed by two CDs of interviews, mostly with Morrison, and the two 1969 Aquarius shows and one of the rehearsals. A 4-CD set "Boot Yer Butt" included bootleg quality material but sold out nevertheless . It was notable for the inclusion of the only known performances of songs from L.A Woman including the title track and "The Changeling" from The Doors' final recorded show in December 1970, Dallas, Texas. In 2005 a 2-CD concert from Philadelphia in 1970 was released. Many bootleg recordings are available of the group. Among them are a wealth of shows from March 1967 at the Matrix Club in San Francisco. Many shows are available from 1968 when the band reached the height of its popularity, notably two shows in Stockholm, Sweden. The infamous Miami show has become widely available while many 1970 shows, notably a radio broadcast of the June 5 Seattle and June 6 Vancouver show, make the rounds. The complete 1969 Rock Is Dead studio jam was discovered in the mid 1990s. The 1999 Complete Studio Recordings box set only included the first six studio albums (omitting An American Prayer, Other Voices and Full Circle), and the Perception box set, released on November 21, 2006, continued the same trend omitting the three post-Morrison studio albums. The 2006 box set contained about two hours of mostly unheard studio outtakes from the first six albums. Each album was represented by two discs: a CD of the album and the bonus tracks, and a DVD-Audio with both stereo and 5.1 surround sound mixes (produced and mixed by Bruce Botnick) in 96 kHz/24-bit LPCM, Dolby Digital, and DTS as well as mostly previously released video footage. The discs were accompanied by new liner notes by Botnick and articles from several music critics and historians for each album. Awards and Accolades In 1993, The Doors were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame In 1998, Light My Fire was inductee into the Grammy Hall of Fame under the category Rock (track) In 2002, The Doors (their debut album) was inductee into the Grammy Hall of Fame under the category Rock (Album) In 2007, The Doors received a lifetime achievement award at the 2007 Grammy Awards In 2007, The Doors received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame In 2004, Rolling Stone Magazine ranked The Doors #41 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time by Rolling Stone magazine includes 3 studio albums by The Doors. The Doors at #42, L.A Woman at #362 and Strange Days at #407 The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time by Rolling Stone magazine includes 2 songs by The Doors. Light My Fire at #35 and The End at #328 In 2000 The Doors are ranked #32 on VH1's 100 Greatest Hard Rock Artists The Doors' "Light My Fire" is ranked #7 on VH1 Greatest Rock Songs, in 2000 The Doors were the first American Rock-n-Roll band to sell 8 consecutive Gold records The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following albums as Gold (RIAA Web Search) Absolutely Live Alive, She Cried Legacy: The Absolute Best Weird Scenes Inside the Gold Mine The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following albums as Platinum (RIAA Web Search) An American Prayer In Concert Morrison Hotel Strange Days The Doors - 13 The Doors (Movie Soundtrack) The Doors Box Set The Soft Parade Waiting For The Sun The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following albums as Multi-Platinum (RIAA Web Search) Greatest Hits (1996 Reissue) (2.0x Platinum) L.A. Woman (2.0x Platinum) Greatest Hits (LP) (3.0x Platinum) The Doors (4.0x Platinum) The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following albums as Diamond (RIAA Web Search) The Best of The Doors The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following singles as Gold (RIAA Web Search) Hello, I Love You Light My Fire Touch Me The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following videos as Gold (RIAA Web Search) No One Here Gets Out Alive Soundstage The RIAA, as of November 2008, certifies the following videos as Platinum (RIAA Web Search) A Tribute to Jim Morrison Dance on Fire Live In Europe The Doors Live at The Hollywood Bowl Band members (July 1965–September 1965) Jim Morrison - lead vocals Ray Manzarek - keyboards, vocals John Densmore - drums Rick Manzarek - guitar Jim Manzarek - Harmonica Pat Sullivan - Bass (1965–1971) Jim Morrison - lead vocals Robby Krieger - guitar, vocals Ray Manzarek - keyboards, keyboard bass, vocals John Densmore - drums, percussion (1971–1973) Robby Krieger - guitar, lead vocals Ray Manzarek - keyboards, keyboard bass, vocals John Densmore - drums, percussion (2002) Robby Kreger - guitar, vocals Ray Manzarek - keyboards, keyboard bass, vocals Ian Astbury - lead vocals Angelo Barbera - bass guitar Stuart Copeland - drums, percussion (2002-2007) Robby Krieger - guitar, vocals Ray Manzarek - keyboards, keyboard bass, vocals Ian Astbury - lead vocals Angelo Barbera - bass guitar Ty Dennis - drums, percussion (2007-2009) Robby Krieger - guitar, vocals Ray Manzarek - keyboards, keyboard bass, vocals Brett Scallions - lead vocals Phil Chen - bass guitar Ty Dennis - drums, percussion Discography 1967 - The Doors 1967 - Strange Days 1968 - Waiting for the Sun 1969 - The Soft Parade 1970 - Morrison Hotel 1971 - L.A. Woman 1971 - Other Voices 1972 - Full Circle 1978 - An American Prayer See also Best selling music artists Arthur Rimbaud William Blake Friedrich Nietzsche Further reading Light My Fire: My Life with the Doors, by Ray Manzarek, Berkeley Publishing Group, ISBN 0-425-17045-4 No One Here Gets Out Alive, by Jerry Hopkins and Danny Sugerman, Warner Books, ISBN 0-446-60228-0 Riders on the Storm: My Life with Jim Morrison and The Doors, by John Densmore, Delta Books, ISBN 0-385-30447-1 "The Doors" by Danny Sugerman "Wild Child: Life with Jim Morrison", by Linda Ashcroft, Avalon Publishing Group, ISBN 1-56025-249-9 References External links Official website Official Riders on the Storm website Riders on the Storm Performing Live	The_Doors \|@lemmatized door:96 american:12 rock:28 band:35 form:9 los:4 angeles:4 california:4 vocalist:3 jim:21 morrison:111 keyboardist:2 ray:20 manzarek:36 drummer:6 john:12 densmore:24 guitarist:3 robby:12 krieger:22 consider:3 controversial:2 due:1 mostly:5 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1,151	Aelia_Capitolina	The Madaba Map depiction of sixth-century Jerusalem has the Cardo Maximus, the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today's Damascus Gate, and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to Nea Church. Aelia Capitolina (Latin in full: Colonia Aelia Capitolina) was a city built by the emperor Hadrian, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Jerusalem, which was still in ruins from the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 A.D. Josephus, a contemporary, reports that: When Emperor Hadrian vowed to rebuild Jerusalem from the wreckage in 130 A.D., he intended the reconstruction as a gift for the Jewish people. However, fundamentalist Jews secretly started putting aside arms from the Roman munitions workshops; soon after, a revolt broke out under Simeon ben Kosiba. This Bar Kokhba revolt, which the Romans managed to suppress, enraged Hadrian, and he came to be determined to erase Judaism from the province; Judea was renamed Syria Palaestina, and Jews were banned from entering the city, on pain of death, except during Tisha B'Av. The Sanhedrin relocated to Jamnia. Hadrian's new plans included temples to the major regional deities, and certain Roman gods; the city had formerly been the single Holy City of most forms of Judaism. Aelia came from Hadrian's nomen gentile, Aelius, while Capitolina meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a temple was built on the site of the former Jewish temple, the Temple Mount. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th Edition The city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth Legion, during the Late Roman Period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which apparently encamped all over the city’s western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the fourth century. The Latin name Aelia is the source of the Arabic term Iliya (إلياء), an early Islamic name for Jerusalem. The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise The Cardo Hebrew University . The urban grid was based on the usual central north-south road (cardo) and central east-west route (decumanus). However, as the main cardo ran up the western hill, and the Temple Mount blocked the eastward route of the main decumanus, a second pair of main roads was added; the secondary cardo ran down the tyropoean valley, and the secondary decumanus ran just to the north of the temple mount. The main Hadrianic cardo terminated not far beyond its junction with the decumanus, where it reached the Roman garrison's encampment, but in the Byzantine era it was extended over the former camp to reach the southern walls of the city. The two cardines converged near the Damascus Gate, and a semicircular piazza covered the remaining space; in the piazza a columnar monument was constructed, hence the traditional name for the gate - Bab el-Amud (Gate of the Column). Tetrapylon were constructed at the other junctions between the main roads. This street pattern has been preserved through Jerusalem's later history; the western cardo is Suq Khan ez-Zeit (Olive-oil Inn Market), the southern decumanus is both the Street of the Chain and Suq el-Bazaar (Bazaar Market; called David Street by Israelis), the eastern cardo is Al-wad Road (Valley road), and the northern decumanus is now the Via Dolorosa. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about 73 feet (22 meters) wide (roughly the equivalent of a present-day six lane motorway), but buildings have extended onto the streets over the centuries, and the modern lanes replacing the ancient grid are now quite narrow. The substantial remains of the western cardo have now been exposed to view near the junction with Suq el-Bazaar, and remnants of one of the tetrapylon are preserved in the 19th century Franciscan chapel at the junction of the Via Dolorosa and Suq Khan ez-Zeit. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about 73 feet (22 meters) wide (roughly the equivalent of a present-day six lane highway). As was standard for new Roman cities, Hadrian placed the city's main Forum at the junction of the main cardo and decumanus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan. Adjacent to the Forum, at the junction of the same cardo, and the other decumanus, Hadrian built a large temple to the goddess Venus, which later became the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; despite 11th century destruction, which resulted in the modern Church having a much smaller footprint, several boundary walls of Hadrian's temple have been found among the archaeological remains beneath the Church Virgilio Corbo, The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1981) . The Struthion Pool lay in the path of the northern decumanus, so Hadrian placed vaulting over it, added a large pavement on top, and turned it into a secondary Forum Pierre Benoit, The Archaeological Reconstruction of the Antonia Fortress, in Jerusalem Revealed (edited by Yigael Yadin), (1976) ; the pavement can still be seen under the Convent of the Sisters of Zion. Notes External links Detailed description (including map) of the city of Aelia Capitolina: Hadrian placed an enormous statue of himself in front of the Temple of Jupiter which he constructed on the Temple Mount; the installation of graven images on the Temple Mount plus Hadrian's banning of the practice of circumcision ignited the Jewish revolt led by Simon Bar Kochba: Pictures of the cave where it is believed by Christians that Jesus was buried and from which it is believed he resurrected and a picture of the remains of the walls of the Temple of Venus previously constructed on that site by the Emperor Hadrian: See also Judea Iudaea Province Palestine Church of the Holy Sepulchre Kingdom of Jerusalem Names of Jerusalem	Aelia_Capitolina \|@lemmatized madaba:1 map:2 depiction:1 sixth:1 century:5 jerusalem:10 cardo:11 maximus:1 town:2 main:9 street:5 begin:1 northern:3 gate:5 today:1 damascus:2 traverse:1 city:13 straight:1 line:1 north:3 south:2 nea:1 church:5 aelia:6 capitolina:5 latin:2 full:1 colonia:1 build:3 emperor:3 hadrian:12 occupy:1 roman:9 colony:1 site:3 still:2 ruin:1 great:1 jewish:4 revolt:4 josephus:1 contemporary:1 report:1 vow:1 rebuild:1 wreckage:1 intend:1 reconstruction:2 gift:1 people:1 however:2 fundamentalist:1 jew:3 secretly:1 start:1 put:1 aside:1 arm:1 munition:1 workshops:1 soon:1 break:1 simeon:1 ben:1 kosiba:1 bar:2 kokhba:1 manage:1 suppress:1 enraged:1 come:2 determine:1 erase:1 judaism:2 province:2 judea:2 rename:1 syria:1 palaestina:1 ban:1 enter:1 pain:1 death:1 except:1 tisha:1 b:1 av:1 sanhedrin:1 relocate:1 jamnia:1 new:3 plan:2 include:2 temple:12 major:1 regional:1 deity:1 certain:1 god:1 formerly:1 single:1 holy:4 form:1 nomen:1 gentile:1 aelius:1 mean:1 dedicate:1 jupiter:2 capitolinus:1 former:2 mount:5 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 edition:1 without:1 wall:4 protect:1 light:1 garrison:2 tenth:1 legion:1 late:1 period:1 detachment:1 apparently:1 encamp:1 western:4 hill:2 responsible:1 prevent:1 return:1 enforcement:1 prohibition:1 continue:1 fourth:1 name:4 source:1 arabic:1 term:1 iliya:1 إلياء:1 early:1 islamic:1 urban:3 typical:1 wherein:1 thoroughfare:3 crisscross:1 grid:3 lengthwise:1 widthwise:1 hebrew:1 university:1 base:1 usual:1 central:2 road:5 east:1 west:1 route:2 decumanus:9 run:3 block:1 eastward:1 second:1 pair:1 add:2 secondary:3 tyropoean:1 valley:2 hadrianic:1 terminate:1 far:1 beyond:1 junction:6 reach:2 encampment:1 byzantine:1 era:1 extend:2 camp:1 southern:2 two:1 cardines:1 converge:1 near:2 semicircular:1 piazza:2 cover:1 remain:2 space:1 columnar:1 monument:1 construct:4 hence:1 traditional:1 bab:1 el:3 amud:1 column:3 tetrapylon:2 pattern:1 preserve:2 later:2 history:1 suq:4 khan:2 ez:2 zeit:2 olive:1 oil:1 inn:1 market:2 chain:1 bazaar:3 call:1 david:1 israelis:1 eastern:1 al:1 wad:1 via:2 dolorosa:2 original:2 flank:2 row:2 shop:2 foot:2 meter:2 wide:2 roughly:2 equivalent:2 present:2 day:2 six:2 lane:3 motorway:1 building:1 onto:1 modern:2 replace:1 ancient:1 quite:1 narrow:1 substantial:1 remains:2 expose:1 view:1 remnant:1 one:1 franciscan:1 chapel:1 highway:1 standard:1 place:3 forum:3 location:1 small:2 muristan:1 adjacent:1 large:2 goddess:1 venus:2 become:1 sepulchre:3 despite:1 destruction:1 result:1 much:1 footprint:1 several:1 boundary:1 find:1 among:1 archaeological:2 beneath:1 virgilio:1 corbo:1 struthion:1 pool:1 lay:1 path:1 vault:1 pavement:2 top:1 turn:1 pierre:1 benoit:1 antonia:1 fortress:1 reveal:1 edit:1 yigael:1 yadin:1 see:2 convent:1 sister:1 zion:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 detail:1 description:1 enormous:1 statue:1 front:1 installation:1 graven:1 image:1 plus:1 banning:1 practice:1 circumcision:1 ignite:1 lead:1 simon:1 kochba:1 picture:2 cave:1 believe:2 christian:1 jesus:1 bury:1 resurrect:1 previously:1 also:1 iudaea:1 palestine:1 kingdom:1 \|@bigram aelia_capitolina:4 bar_kokhba:1 kokhba_revolt:1 tisha_b:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 bab_el:1 olive_oil:1 via_dolorosa:2 lane_motorway:1 holy_sepulchre:3 sepulchre_jerusalem:1 yigael_yadin:1 external_link:1 graven_image:1 bar_kochba:1 iudaea_province:1
1,152	Nigeria	Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea, a part of the Atlantic Ocean, in the south. The capital city is Abuja. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. The people of Nigeria have an extensive history, and archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BCE. McIntosh, Susan Keech, Current directions in west African prehistory. Palo Alto, California: Annual Reviews Inc., 1981. 215-258 p.: ill. The Benue-Cross River area is thought to be the original homeland of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BCE and the 2nd millennium CE. The name Nigeria was created from a portmanteau of the words Niger and Area, taken from the River Niger running through Nigeria. This name was coined by Flora Shaw, the future wife of Baron Lugard, a British colonial administrator, in the late 19th century. Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the eighth most populous country in the world, and with a population of over 150 million it is the most populous 'black' country in the world. It is a regional power, is listed among the "Next Eleven" economies, and is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The economy of Nigeria is one of the fastest growing in the world with the International Monetary Fund projecting a growth of 9% in 2008 and 8.3% in 2009. The majority of the population of the country lives in absolute poverty. http://www.ngo-online.de/ganze_nachricht.php?Nr=10891 History Early history The Bini mask is one of Nigeria's most famous and recognized products The Nok people in central Nigeria produced terracotta sculptures that have been discovered by archaeologists. Shaw, Thurstan, Nigeria: Its Archaeology and early history. Retrieved February 22, 2007. A Nok sculpture resident at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, portrays a sitting dignitary wearing a "Shepherds Crook" on the right arm, and a "hinged flail" on the left. These are symbols of authority associated with ancient Egyptian pharaohs, and the god Osiris, and suggests that an ancient Egyptian style of social structure, and perhaps religion, existed in the area of modern Nigeria during the late Pharonic period. In the northern part of the country, Kano and Katsina has recorded history which dates back to around CE 999. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa. The Yoruba people date their presence in the area of modern republics of Nigeria, Benin and Togo to about 8500 BCE. The kingdoms of Ifẹ and Oyo in the western block of Nigeria became prominent about 700-900 and 1400 respectively. However, the Yoruba mythology believes that Ile-Ife is the source of the human race and that it predates any other civilization. Ifẹ produced the terra cotta and bronze heads, the Ọyọ extended as far as modern Togo. Another prominent kingdom in south western Nigeria was the Kingdom of Benin whose power lasted between the 15th and 19th century. Their dominance reached as far as the well known city of Eko, later named Lagos by the Portuguese. The Slave Trade In southeastern Nigeria the Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people flourished from the controversial date of around the 10th century CE until 1911 CE. The Nri Kingdom was ruled by the Eze Nri. The city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture. Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan, who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure, Eri. Colonial era Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to begin trade in Nigeria, and called the port Lagos after the Portuguese town of Lagos, in Algarve. This name stuck on with more European trade with the region. The Europeans traded with the ethnicities of the coast and also established a trade in slaves which affected many Nigerian ethnicities. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian interior. In 1885 British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition and in the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered under the leadership of Sir George Taubman Goldie. In 1900 the company's territory came under the control of the British government, which moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria. On January 1, 1901 Nigeria became a British protectorate, part of the British Empire, the foremost world power at the time. Stamp of Southern Nigeria picturing Victoria of the United Kingdom, 1901 In 1914, the area was formally united as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. Administratively, Nigeria remained divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony. Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Slavery was not finally outlawed in northern Nigeria until 1936. The end of slavery, BBC World Service \| The Story of Africa Following World War II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative and increasingly federal basis. By the middle of the 20th century, the great wave for independence was sweeping across Africa. Post-independence On October 1, 1960, Nigeria gained its independence from the United Kingdom. The new republic incorporated a number of people with aspirations of their own sovereign nations. Newly independent Nigeria's government was a coalition of conservative parties: the Nigerian People's Congress (NPC), a party dominated by Northerners and those of the Islamic faith, and the Igbo and Christian dominated National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) led by Nnamdi Azikiwe, who became Nigeria's maiden Governor-General in 1960. Forming the opposition was the comparatively liberal Action Group (AG), which was largely dominated by Yoruba people and led by Obafemi Awolowo. Udofia, Nigerian Political Parties: Their Role in Modernizing the political System, 1920-1966, Journal of Black Studies, June 1981. Retrieved February 22, 2007, pp 437-447. Map of Nigeria An imbalance was created in the polity by the result of the 1961 plebiscite. Southern Cameroon opted to join the Republic of Cameroon while northern Cameroon chose to remain in Nigeria. The northern part of the country was now far larger than the southern part. The nation parted with its British legacy in 1963 by declaring itself a Federal Republic, with Azikiwe as the first president. When elections came about in 1965, the AG was outmanoeuvered for control of Nigeria's Western Region by the Nigerian National Democratic Party, an amalgamation of conservative Yoruba elements backed heavily by the Federal Government amid dubious electoral circumstances. Nigerian-Biafran War This disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led in 1966 to several back-to-back military coups. The first was in January and led by a collection of young leftists under Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna and Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu. It was partially successful - the coupists murdered the Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the Premier of the Northern Region, Sir Ahmadu Bello, and the Premier of the Western Region, Sir Ladoke Akintola. Despite this, the coupists could not set up a central government due to logistic reasons. Sir Nwafor Orizu, the acting President was then pressured to hand over government to the Nigeria Army, under the Command of General JTU Aguyi-Ironsi. This coup was counter-acted by another successful plot, supported primarily by Northern military officers and Northerners who favoured the NPC, it was engineered by Northern officers, which allowed Lt Colonel Yakubu Gowon to become head of state. This sequence of events led to an increase in ethnic tension and violence. The Northern coup, which was mostly motivated by ethnic and religious reasons was a bloodbath of both military officers and civilians, especially those of Igbo extraction. The violence against the Igbo increased their desire for autonomy and protection from the military's wrath. By May 1967, the Eastern Region had declared itself an independent state called the Republic of Biafra under the leadership of Lt Colonel Emeka Ojukwu in line with the wishes of the people. The Nigerian Civil War began as the Nigerian (Western and Northern) side attacked Biafra (South-eastern) on July 6, 1967 at Garkem signalling the beginning of the 30 month war that ended in January 1970. "Background Paper on Nigeria and Biafra, Declassified Documents reference System Following the war, Nigeria became to an extent even more mired in ethnic strife, as the defeated southeast and indeed southern Nigeria was now conquered territory for the federal military regime, which changed heads of state twice as army officers staged a bloodless coup against Gowon and enthroned Murtala Mohammed; Olusegun Obansanjo succeeded the former after an assassination. Military era During the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria joined OPEC and billions of dollars generated by production in the oil-rich Niger Delta flowed into the coffers of the Nigerian state. However, increasing corruption and graft at all levels of government squandered most of these earnings. The northern military clique benefited immensely from the oil boom to the detriment of the Nigerian people and economy. As oil revenues fuelled the rise of federal subventions to states and precariously to individuals, the Federal Government soon became the centre of political struggle and the centre became the threshold of power in the country. As oil production and revenue rose, the Nigerian government created a dangerous situation as it became increasingly dependent on oil revenues and the international commodity markets for budgetary and economic concerns eschewing economic stability. That spelled doom to federalism in Nigeria. Watts Michael, State, Oil and Agriculture in Nigeria, Berkeley, 1987. Retrieved February 22, 2007. Beginning in 1979, Nigerians participated in a brief return to democracy when Obasanjo transferred power to the civilian regime of Shehu Shagari. The Shagari government was viewed as corrupt and incompetent by virtually all sectors of Nigerian society, so when the regime was overthrown by the military coup of Mohammadu Buhari shortly after the regime's fraudulent re-election in 1984, it was generally viewed as a positive development by most of the population. Nigeria, Military Faces Daunting Challenges, AP Press International, March 3, 1984. Retrieved February 22, 2007. Buhari promised major reforms but his government fared little better than its predecessor, and his regime was overthrown by yet another military coup in 1985. Nigeria stays calms as leader toppled in bloodless coup, The Globe and Mail, August, 28 1985. Retrieved February 22, 2007. The new head of state, Ibrahim Babangida, promptly declared himself President and Commander in chief of the Armed Forces and the ruling Supreme Military Council and also set 1990 as the official deadline for a return to democratic governance. Babangida's tenure was marked by a flurry of political activity: he instituted the International Monetary Fund's Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) to aid in the repayment of the country's crushing international debt, which most federal revenue was dedicated to servicing. He also inflamed religious tensions in the nation and particularly the south by enrolling Nigeria in the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Michael Holman, Nigeria, Politics; Religious Differences Intensify, Financial Times, February 24, 1986. After Babangida survived an abortive coup, he pushed back the promised return to democracy to 1992. When free and fair elections were finally held on the 12th of June, 1993, Babangida declared that the results showing a presidential victory for Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola null and void, sparking mass civilian violence in protest which effectively shut down the country for weeks and forced Babangida to keep his shaky promise to relinquish office to a civilian run government. Bilski Andrew, "Broken Promises" Maclean, September 6, 1993. Babangida's regime is adjudged to be at the apogee of corruption in the history of the nation as it was during his time that corruption became officially diluted in Nigeria. Diamond, larry, Kirk-Greene Anthoiny, Oyeleye Oyediran, Transition without End: Nigerian Politics and Civil Society Under Babangida. Babangida's caretaker regime headed by Ernest Shonekan survived only until late 1993 when General Sani Abacha took power in another military coup. Abacha proved to be perhaps Nigeria's most brutal ruler and employed violence on a wide scale to suppress the continuing pandemic of civilian unrest. Money had been found in various western European countries banks traced to him. He avoided coup plots by bribing army generals. Several hundred millions dollars in accounts traced to him were unearthed in 1999. "Nigerian Lawyer: Abacha accounts apparently in Switzerland, Luxembourg, France, and Germany", AP press, January 10, 2000. The regime would come to an end in 1998 when the dictator was found dead amid dubious circumstances. Abacha's death yielded an opportunity for return to civilian rule. Recent history Nigeria re-achieved democracy in 1999 when it elected Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba and former military head of state, as the new President ending almost thirty three-years of military rule (from 1966 until 1999) excluding the short-lived second republic (between 1979-1983) by military dictators who seized power in coups d'état and counter-coups during the Nigerian military juntas of 1966-1979 and 1983-1998. Although the elections which brought Obasanjo to power in 1999 and again in 2003 were condemned as unfree and unfair, Nigeria has shown marked improvements in attempts to tackle government corruption and to hasten development. While Obasanjo showed willingness to fight corruption, he was accused by others of the same. Umaru Yar'Adua, of the People's Democratic Party, came into power in the general election of 2007 - an election that was witnessed and condemned by the international community as being massively flawed. Ethnic violence over the oil producing Niger Delta region (see Conflict in the Niger Delta) and inadequate infrastructures are some of the current issues in the country. Government Nigeria is a Federal Republic modelled after the United States, with executive power exercised by the president and with overtones of the Westminster System model in the composition and management of the upper and lower houses of the bicameral legislature. Umaru Yar'Adua of the People's Democratic Party is the current president of Nigeria The current president of Nigeria is Umaru Musa Yar'Adua who was elected in 2007. The president presides as both Chief of State and Head of Government and is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two four-year terms. The president's power is checked by a Senate and a House of Representatives, which are combined in a bicameral body called the National Assembly. The Senate is a 109-seat body with three members from each state and one from the capital region of Abuja; members are elected by popular vote to four-year terms. The House contains 360 seats and the number of seats per state is determined by population. Ethnocentricism, tribalism, sectarianism (especially religious), and prebendalism have played a visible role in Nigerian politics both prior and subsequent to independence in 1960. Kin-selective altruism has made its way into Nigerian politics and has spurned various attempts by tribalists to concentrate Federal power to a particular region of their interests. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, who served briefly as Nigeria's second president, devoted his government to combating this phenomenon with Decree 33, which banned 81 political parties and 26 tribal and cultural organizations in the name of national unity. See Osaghae, The Crippled Giant: Nigeria Since Independence, Indiana University Press, 1998, p. 57. ISBN 0253211972. Nationalism has also led to active secessionist movements such as MASSOB, Nationalist movements such as Oodua Peoples Congress, Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta and a civil war. Nigeria's three largest ethnic groups have maintained historical preeminence in Nigerian politics; competition amongst these three groups, the Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo, has fuelled corruption and graft. See, for instance, Rashid, Khadijat K. "Ethnicity and Sub-Nationalism in Nigeria: Movement for a Mid-West State/Ethnic Politics in Kenya and Nigeria/Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria", in African Studies Review, September, 2003. Due to the above issues, Nigeria's current political parties are pan-national and irreligious in character (though this does not preclude the continuing preeminence of the dominant ethnicities). Ibid. See also, Lancia, Nicole. "Ethnic Politics in Nigeria: The Realities of Regionalism" in Capitol Scholar. The major political parties at present include the ruling People's Democratic Party of Nigeria which maintains 223 seats in the House and 76 in the Senate (61.9% and 69.7% respectively) and is led by the current President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua; the opposition All Nigeria People's Party under the leadership of Muhammadu Buhari has 96 House seats and 27 in the Senate (26.6% and 24.7%). There are also about twenty other minor opposition parties registered. The immediate past president, Olusegun Obasanjo, acknowledged fraud and other electoral "lapses" but said the result reflected opinion polls. In a national television address he added that if Nigerians did not like the victory of his handpicked successor they would have an opportunity to vote again in four years. Like in many other African societies, prebendalism and extremely excessive corruption continue to constitute major challenges to Nigeria, as vote rigging and other means of coercion are practised by all major parties in order to remain competitive. In 1983, it was adjudged by the policy institute at Kuru that only the 1959 and 1979 elections witnessed minimal rigging. Jibrin Ibrahim, Legislation and the Electoral Process: The Third Term Agenda and the Future of Nigerian Democracy. Paper for Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) Nigeria Roundtable, 2006. Law There are four distinct systems of law in Nigeria: English law which is derived from its colonial past with Britain; Common law, a development of its post colonial independence; Customary law which is derived from indigenous traditional norms and practice, including the dispute resolution meetings of pre-colonial Yorubaland secret societies; Sharia law, used only in the predominantly Muslim north of the country. It is an Islamic legal system which had been used long before the colonial administration in Nigeria but recently politicised and spearheaded in Zamfara in late 1999 and eleven other states followed suit. These states are Kano, Katsina, Niger, Bauchi, Borno, Kaduna, Gombe, Sokoto, Jigawa, Yobe, and Kebbi. Sharia Law in the Northern States of Nigeria: To Implement or Not to Implement, the Constitutionality is the Question The country has a judicial branch, the highest court of which is the Supreme Court of Nigeria. Foreign relations and military Upon gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria made the liberation and restoration of the dignity of Africa the centrepiece of its foreign policy and played a leading role in the fight against the apartheid regime in South Africa. "Collins Edomaruse, how Obasanjo cut UK, US to size", by Andrew Young, This Day (Nigeria) -, July 20, 2006. One notable exception to the African focus of Nigeria's foreign policy was the close relationship the country enjoyed with Israel throughout the 1960s, with the latter country sponsoring and overseeing the construction of Nigeria's parliament buildings. Golda. Elinor Burkett, pg 202 Nigeria's foreign policy was soon tested in the 1970s after the country emerged united from its own civil war and quickly committed itself to the liberation struggles going on in the Southern Africa sub-region. Though Nigeria never sent an expeditionary force in that struggle, it offered more than rhetoric to the African National Congress (ANC) by taking a committed tough line with regard to the racist regime and their incursions in southern Africa, in addition to expediting large sums to aid anti-colonial struggles. Nigeria was also a founding member of the Organization for African Unity (now the African Union), and has tremendous influence in West Africa and Africa on the whole. Nigeria has additionally founded regional cooperative efforts in West Africa, functioning as standard-bearer for ECOWAS and ECOMOG, economic and military organizations respectively. Former President Olusegun Obasanjo with US President Jimmy Carter in Lagos, 1978. With this African-centred stance, Nigeria readily sent troops to the Congo at the behest of the United Nations shortly after independence (and has maintained membership since that time); Nigeria also supported several Pan African and pro-self government causes in the 1970s, including garnering support for Angola's MPLA, SWAPO in Namibia, and aiding anti-colonial struggles in Mozambique, and Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia) military and economically. Nigeria retains membership in the Non-Aligned Movement, and in late November 2006 organized an Africa-South America Summit in Abuja to promote what some attendees termed "South-South" linkages on a variety of fronts. See, e.g., the African Union website, at http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Conferences/Past/2006/November/SummitASA/summit.htm Nigeria is also a member of the International Criminal Court, and the Commonwealth of Nations, from which it was temporarily expelled in 1995 under the Abacha regime. Nigeria has remained a key player in the international oil industry since the 1970s, and maintains membership in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC which it joined in July, 1971. Its status as a major petroleum producer figures prominently in its sometimes vicissitudinous international relations with both developed countries, notably the United States and more recently China and developing countries, notably Ghana, Jamaica and Kenya. Shaw Timothy, The State of Nigeria: Oil Prices Power Bases and Foreign Policy, Canadian Journal of African Studies, Vol 18, no 2, 1984. Millions of Nigerians have emigrated at times of economic hardship to Europe, North America and Australia among others. It is estimated that over a million Nigerians have emigrated to the United States and constitute the Nigerian American populace. Of such Diasporic communities include the "Egbe Omo Yoruba" society. "Egbe Omo Yoruba, National Association Of Yoruba descendants in North America", yorubanation.org, May 19, 2007. Nigerian troops with a US C-130 Hercules The NNS Aradu, a MEKO 360 classfrigate, flagship of the Nigerian Navy The Nigerian Military are charged with protecting The Federal Republic of Nigeria, promoting Nigeria's global security interests, and supporting peacekeeping efforts especially in West Africa. The Nigerian Military consist of an Army, a Navy and an Air Force. The military in Nigeria have played a major role in the country's history since independence. Various juntas have seized control of the country and ruled it through most of its history. Its last period of rule ended in 1999 following the sudden death of former dictator Sani Abacha in 1998, with his successor, Abdulsalam Abubakar handing over to the democratically elected government of Olusegun Obasanjo in 1999. Taking advantage of its role of Africa's most populated country, Nigeria has repositioned its military as an African peacekeeping force. Since 1995, the Nigerian military through ECOMOG mandates have been deployed as peacekeepers in Liberia (1997), Ivory Coast (1997-1999), Sierra Leone 1997-1999, Ed O'Loughlin, Nigerians outshine the British brass, The Independent (London), March 11, 1998. and presently in Sudan's Darfur region under an African Union mandate. Geography Nigeria is located in western Africa on the Gulf of Guinea and has a total area of 923,768 km² (356,669 mi²), Rank Order - Area making it the world's 32nd-largest country (after Tanzania). It is comparable in size to Venezuela, and is about twice the size of California. It shares a 4047 km (2515-mile) border with Benin (773 km), Niger (1497 km), Chad (87 km), Cameroon (1690 km), and has a coastline of at least 853 km. CIA World Factbook. Note that coastlines, and borders based on rivers or natural features, are fractals, the length of which is imprecise and depends on the measurement convention adopted. Nigeria has a varied landscape. From the Obudu Hills in the southeast through the beaches in the south, the rainforest, the Lagos estuary and savannah in the middle and southwest of the country and the Sahel to the encroaching Sahara in the extreme north. The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at 2,419 m (7,936 ft). Nigeria's main rivers are the Niger and the Benue which converge and empty into the Niger Delta, the world's largest river deltas. Nigeria is also an important centre for biodiversity. It is widely believed that the areas surrounding Calabar, Cross River State, contain the world's largest diversity of butterflies. The drill monkey is only found in the wild in Southeast Nigeria and neighboring Cameroon. Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue River valleys (which merge into each other and form a "y" shape). Plains rise to the north of the valleys. To the southwest of the Niger there is "rugged" highland, and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon. Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast. When dividing Nigeria by climatic regions, three regions, the far south, the far north, and the rest of the country emerge. The far south is defined by its tropical rainforest climate, where annual rainfall is 60 to 80 inches a year. The far north is defined by its almost desert-like climate, where rain is less than 20 inches per year. The rest of the country, everything in between the far south and the far north, is savannah, and rainfall is between 20 and 60 inches per year. Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannah (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land. (The latter is the least common, and is mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroonian border.) Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts. The forest zone's most southerly portion is defined as salt water swamp, also known as a mangrove swamp due to the large amount of mangroves in the area. North of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water swamp, and north of that is rain forest. The savannah zone's three categories are divided into "Guinea savannah," the most common across the country, "Sudan savannah," and "Sahel savannah." Guinea savannah is made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees; Sudan savannah is similar but with "shorter grasses and shorter trees." Sahel savannah is comprised patches of grass and sand, and is found in the northeast. Subdivisions Nigeria is divided into thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory, which are further sub-divided into 774 Local Government Areas (LGAs). The plethora of states, of which there were only three at independence, reflect the country's tumultuous history and the difficulties of managing such a heterogeneous national entity at all levels of government. Nigeria has six cities with a population of over 1 million people (from largest to smallest: Lagos, Kano, Ibadan, Kaduna, Port Harcourt, and Benin City). Lagos is the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of over 10 million in its urban area alone. Population of Nigeria's cities over a million include Lagos (7,937,932), Kano (3,848,885), Ibadan (3,078,400), Kaduna (1,652,844), Port Harcourt (1,320,214), Benin City (1,051,600), Maiduguri (1,044,497) and Zaria (1,018,827) Environment A market in Lagos The 'Okada' is a motorcycle and is Nigeria'smost popular form of public transport Nigeria's Delta region, home of the large oil industry, experiences serious oil spills and other environmental problems. See Environmental issues in the Niger Delta for more details, and Conflict in the Niger Delta about strife which has arisen in connection with those issues. Waste management including sewage treatment, the linked processes of deforestation and soil degradation, and climate change or global warming are the major environmental problems in Nigeria. Waste management presents problems in a mega city like Lagos and other major Nigerian cities which are linked with economic development, population growth and the inability of municipal councils to manage the resulting rise in industrial and domestic waste. Haphazard industrial planning, increased urbanization, poverty and lack of competence of the municipal government are seen as the major reasons for high levels of waste pollution in major Nigerian cities. Some of the 'solutions' have been disastrous to the environment, resulting in untreated waste being dumped in places where it can pollute waterways and groundwater. D. N. Ogbonna, I. K. E. Ekweozor, F. U. Igwe (2002). "Waste Management: A Tool for Environmental Protection in Nigeria." A Journal of the Human Environment, 31, (1) (February 2002). In terms of global warming, Africans contribute only about one metric ton of carbon dioxide per person per year. It is perceived by many climate change experts that food production and security in the northern sahel region of the country will suffer as semi-arid areas will have more dry periods in the future. Fields, Scott (2005). "Continental Divide: Why Africa’s Climate Change Burden Is Greater". Environmental Health Perspectives 113 (8), August 2005. Retrieved May 15, 2007. Economy Nigerian Stock Exchange Lagos, the largest financial center of Nigeria Nigeria is classified as an emerging market, and is rapidly approaching middle income status , with its abundant supply of resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, transport sectors and stock exchange (the Nigerian Stock Exchange), which is the second largest in Africa. Nigeria is ranked 37th in the world in terms of GDP (PPP) as of 2007. Nigeria is the United States' largest trading partner in sub-Saharan Africa and supplies a fifth of its oil (11% of oil imports). It has the seventh-largest trade surplus with the U.S. of any country worldwide. Nigeria is currently the 50th-largest export market for U.S. goods and the 14th-largest exporter of goods to the U.S. The United States is the country's largest foreign investor. The bulk of economic activity is centred in 4 main cities: Lagos, Kaduna, Port Harcourt, and Abuja. Beyond these three economic centers, development is marginal. Previously, economic development had been hindered by years of military rule, corruption, and mismanagement, the restoration of democracy and subsequent economic reforms have successfully put Nigeria back on track towards achieving its full economic potential as one of the Major Economies in Africa. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit and the World Bank, Nigerian GDP at purchasing power parity has nearly doubled from $170.7 billion in 2005 to 292.6 billion in 2007. The GDP per head has jumped from $692 per person in 2006 to $1,754 per person in 2007. Economist.com \| Country Briefings: Nigeria at www.economist.com During the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria accumulated a significant foreign debt to finance major infrastructural investments. With the fall of oil prices during the oil glutthe 1980s, Nigeria struggled to keep up with its loan payments and eventually defaulted on its principal debt repayments, limiting repayment to the interest portion of the loans. Arrears and penalty interest accumulated on the unpaid principal which increased the size of the debt. However, after negotiations by the Nigeria authorities, in October 2005 Nigeria and its Paris Club creditors reached an agreement in which Nigeria repurchased its debt at a discount of approximately 60%. Nigeria used part of its oil profits to pay the residual 40%, freeing up at least $1.15 billion annually for poverty reduction programmes. Nigeria made history in April 2006 by becoming the first African Country to completely pay off its debt (estimated $30 billion) owed to the Paris Club. Key sectors Nigeria is the 12th largest producer of petroleum in the world and the 8th largest exporter, and has the 10th largest proven reserves. (The country joined OPEC in 1971). Petroleum plays a large role in the Nigerian economy, accounting for 40% of GDP and 80% of Government earnings. However, agitation for better resource control in the Niger Delta, its main oil producing region, has led to disruptions in oil production and currently prevents the country from exporting at 100% capacity. Nigeria has one of the fastest growing telecommunications markets in the world, major emerging market operators (like MTN, Etisalat, Zain and Globacom) basing their largest and most profitable centres in the country. The government has recently begun expanding this infrastructure to space based communications. Nigeria has a space satellite which is monitored at the Nigerian National Space Research and Development Agency Headquarters in Abuja. The country has a highly developed financial services sector, with a mix of local and international banks, asset management companies, brokerage houses, insurance companies and brokers, private equity funds and investment banks. Nigeria also has a wide array of underexploited mineral resources which include natural gas, coal, bauxite, tantalite, gold, tin, iron ore, limestone, niobium, lead and zinc. Despite huge deposits of these natural resources, the mining industry in Nigeria is still in it infancy. Agriculture used to be the principal foreign exchange earner of Nigeria. At one time, Nigeria was the world's largest exporter of groundnuts, cocoa, and palm oil and a significant producer of coconuts, citrus fruits, maize, pearl millet, cassava, yams and sugar cane. About 60% of Nigerians work in the agricultural sector, and Nigeria has vast areas of underutilized arable land. It also has a manufacturing industry which includes leather and textiles (centred Kano, Abeokuta, Onitsha, and Lagos), car manufacturing (for the French car manufacturer Peugeot as well as for the English truck manufacturer Bedford, now a subsidiary of General Motors), t-shirts, plastics and processed food. The country has recently made considerable amount of revenue from home made Nigerian Movies which are sold locally and Internationally. These movies are popular in other African countries and some parts of Europe. Demographics A Hausa harpist Igbo men Yoruba drummers Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa but exactly how populous is a subject of speculation. The United Nations estimates that the population in 2004 was at 131,530,000, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database at esa.un.org with the population distributed as 51.7% rural and 48.3% urban, and with a population density of 139 people per square kilometer. National census results in the past few decades have been disputed. The results of the most recent census were released in December 2006. The census gave a population of 140,003,542. The only breakdown available was by gender: males numbered 71,709,859, females numbered 68,293,08. According to the United Nations, Nigeria has been undergoing explosive population growth and one of the highest growth and fertility rates in the world. By their projections, Nigeria will be one of the countries in the world that will account for most of the world's total population increase by 2050. According to current data, one out of every four Africans is Nigerian. Presently, Nigeria is the eighth most populous country in the world, and even conservative estimates conclude that more than 20% of the world's black population lives in Nigeria. 2006 estimates claim 42.3% of the population is between 0-14 years of age, while 54.6% is between 15-65; the birth rate is significantly higher than the death rate, at 40.4 and 16.9 per 1000 people respectively. United States Library of Congress - Federal Research Division. Country Profile-Nigeria (2006). Health, health care, and general living conditions in Nigeria are poor. Life expectancy is 47 years (average male/female) and just over half the population has access to potable water and appropriate sanitation; the percentage is of children under five has gone up rather than down between 1990 and 2003 and infant mortality is 97.1 deaths per 1000 live births. HIV/AIDS rate in Nigeria is much lower compared to the other African nations such as Kenya or South Africa whose prevalence (percentage) rates are in the double digits. Nigeria, like many developing countries, also suffers from a polio crisis as well as periodic outbreaks of cholera, malaria, and sleeping sickness. As of 2004, there has been a vaccination drive, spearheaded by the W.H.O., to combat polio and malaria that has been met with controversy in some regions. Population density in Nigeria Education is also in a state of neglect. After the 1970s oil boom, tertiary education was improved so that it would reach every subregion of Nigeria. Education is provided free by the government, but the attendance rate for secondary education is only 29% (32% for males, 27% for females). The education system has been described as "dysfunctional" largely due to decaying institutional infrastructure. 68% of the population is literate, and the rate for men (75.7%) is higher than that for women (60.6%). Nigeria's largest city is Lagos. Lagos has grown from 300,000 in 1950 Lagos, Nigeria facts - National Geographic to an estimated 15 million today, and the Nigerian government estimates that city will have expanded to 25 million residents by 2015. Lagos, the mega-city of slums, irinnews.org, September 5, 2006 Ethno-linguistic groups Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic groups, with varying languages and customs, creating a country of rich ethnic diversity. The largest ethnic groups are the Fulani/Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, accounting for 68% of population, while the Edo, Ijaw, Kanuri, Ibibio, Ebira Nupe and Tiv comprise 27%; other minorities make up the remaining 7 percent. Geographica: The complete Atlas of the world, "Nigeria", (Random House, 2002). The middle belt of Nigeria is known for its diversity of ethnic groups, including the Pyem, Goemai, and Kofyar. There are small minorities of British, Americans, East Indians, Chinese (est. 50,000), China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration, By Malia Politzer, Migration Information Source, August 2008 white Zimbabweans, Why white Zimbabwean farmers plan to stay in Nigeria, By Sarah Simpson, csmonitor.com, May 2, 2008 Japanese, Syrian, Lebanese and refugees and immigrants from other West African or East African nations. These minorities mostly reside in major cities such as Lagos and Abuja, or in the Niger Delta as employees for the major oil companies. A number of Cubans settled Nigeria as political refugees following the Cuban Revolution. In the middle of the nineteenth century, a number of ex-slaves of Afro-Cuban and Afro-Brazilian descent Toyin Falola; The History of Nigeria, Greenwood Press, 1999. pp 41,47 and emigrants from Sierra Leone established communities in Lagos, Ibadan and other regions of Nigeria. Many ex-slaves came to Nigeria following the emancipation of slaves in Latin America. Many of the immigrants, sometimes called Saros (immigrants from Sierra Leone) and Amaro (ex-slaves from Brazil) Abiola Dosumu Elegbede-Fernandez, Lagos A Legacy of Honour. Spectrum Books, 1992.pp 19,27 later became prominent merchants and missionaries in Lagos and Abeokuta. Language Linguistic map of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Benin The number of languages currently estimated and catalogued in Nigeria is 521. This number includes 510 living languages, two second languages without native speakers and nine extinct languages. In some areas of Nigeria, ethnic groups speak more than one language. The official language of Nigeria, English, was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country. The choice of English as the official language was partially related to the fact that a part of the Nigerian population spoke English as a result of British colonization that ended in 1960. The major languages spoken in Nigeria represent three major families of African languages - the majority are Niger-Congo languages, such as Yoruba, Igbo, the Hausa language is Afro-Asiatic; and Kanuri, spoken in the northeast, primarily Borno State, is a member of the Nilo-Saharan family. Even though most ethnic groups prefer to communicate in their own languages, English, being the official language, is widely used for education, business transactions and for official purposes. English as a first language, however, remains an exclusive preserve of a small minority of the country's urban elite, and it is not spoken at all in some rural areas. With the majority of Nigeria's populace in the rural areas, the major languages of communication in the country remain indigenous languages. Some of the largest of these, notably Yoruba and Ibo, have derived standardized languages from a number of different dialects and are widely spoken by those ethnic groups. Nigerian Pidgin English, often known simply as 'Pidgin' or 'Broken' (Broken English), is also a popular lingua franca, though with varying regional influences on dialect and slang. The pidgin English or Nigerian English is widely spoken within the Niger Delta Regions, predominately in Warri, Sapele, Port Harcourt, Agenebode, and Benin City. Culture Literature Nigeria has a rich literary history, and Nigerians have authored many influential works of post-colonial literature in the English language. Nigeria's best-known writers are Wole Soyinka, the first African Nobel Laureate in Literature, and Chinua Achebe, best known for the novel, Things Fall Apart and his controversial critique of Joseph Conrad. Other Nigerian writers and poets who are well known internationally include John Pepper Clark, Ben Okri, Buchi Emecheta, Helon Habila, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, and Ken Saro Wiwa, who was executed in 1995 by the military regime. Nigeria has the second largest newspaper market in Africa (after Egypt) with an estimated circulation of several million copies daily in 2003. Nigeria - Media at www.nationsencyclopedia.com Music and film \|Femi Kuti, son of Fela Kuti, is one of the major performers of modern Afrobeat music Nigeria (naija) has been called "the heart of African music" because of its role in the development of West African highlife and palm-wine music, which fuses native rhythms with techniques imported from the Congo, Brazil, Cuba and elsewhere. Nigerian music includes many kinds of folk and popular music, some of which are known worldwide. Styles of folk music are related to the multitudes of ethnic groups in the country, each with their own techniques, instruments and songs. As a result, there are many different types of music that come from Nigeria. Many late 20th century musicians such as Fela Kuti have famously fused cultural elements of various indigenous music with American Jazz and Soul to form Afrobeat music. Adams, S. Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti: New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, New York; This Is Lagos: Yabis Night, Music and Fela: Skoto Gallery, New York, New York [Exhibit]. African Arts v. 37 no. 1 (Spring 2004 Country JuJu music which is percussion music fused with traditional music from the Yoruba nation and made famous by King Sunny Adé, is also from Nigeria. There is also fuji music, a Yoruba percussion style, created and popularized by the one and only Mr. Fuji, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister. There is a budding hip hop movement in Nigeria. Kennis Music, the self proclaimed "No 1 Record Label in Africa" and one of Nigeria's biggest record labels, has a roster almost entirely dominated by hip hop artists. Some famous musicians that come from Nigeria are Fela Kuti, Adewale Ayuba, Ezebuiro Obinna, Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister, King Sunny Adé, Ebenezer Obey, Femi Kuti, Lagbaja, Dr. Alban, Sade Adu, Wasiu Alabi, Bola Abimbola and Tuface Idibia. In November 2008, Nigeria's music scene (and that of Africa) received international attention when MTV hosted the continent's first African music awards show in Abuja. The Nigerian film industry is known as Nollywood. Many of the film studios are based in Lagos and Abuja and the industry is now a very lucrative income for these cities. Religion Osun temple. Nigeria is home to a variety of religions which tend to vary regionally. This situation accentuates regional and ethnic distinctions and has often been seen as a source of sectarian conflict amongst the population. Osita Agbu; Ethnic Militias and the Threat to Democracy in Post-Transition Nigeria, Nordic African Institute, 2004, pp 6. The main religions are Islam (see Islam in Nigeria), Christianity (see Christianity in Nigeria), and indigenous religions, most notably Yoruba Orisha or Orisa veneration and Ifá and Igbo Odinani. Christianity is concentrated in the south while Islam dominates in the north; central regions tend to be religiously divided. The majority of Nigerian Muslims are Sunni (95%), but a significant Shia minority exists (see Shia in Nigeria). Some northern states have incorporated Sharia law into their previously secular legal systems, which has brought about some controversy. Owobi Angrew, Tiptoeing Through A Constitutional Minefield: The Great Sharia Controversy in Nigeria, Journal Of African law, Vol 48, No 2, 2002. Kano State has sought to incorporate Sharia law into its constitution. "Kano Seeks Supremacy of Sharia Over Constitution", wwrn.org, Accessed May 19, 2007. Christian Nigerians are about evenly split between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Leading Protestant churches are the Church of Nigeria, of the Anglican communion, and the Nigerian Baptist Convention. The Yoruba area contains a large Anglican population, while Igboland is predominantly Catholic. Across Yorubaland (western Nigeria, Benin, Togo), many people are adherents to Yorubo/Irunmole spirituality with its philosophy of divine destiny that all can become Orisha (ori, spiritual head; sha, is chosen: to be one with Olodumare (oni odu, the God source of all energy; ma re, enlighthens / triumphs). Other minority religious and spiritual groups in Nigeria include Hinduism, "Adherents by Location", Adherents.com, Accessed May 19, 2007. Judaism, The Bahá’í Faith, and Chrislam (a syncretic faith melding elements of Christianity and Islam). "In African, Islam and Christianity are growing - and blending", csmonitor.com, Accessed May 19, 2007. Further, Nigeria has become an African hub for the Grail Movement, "Grail Movement - Nigeria", grailmovementnigeria.org, Accessed May 19, 2007. the Rosicrucian order (AMORC), "Region Three covers Nigeria", amorc.org.uk, Accessed May 19, 2007. and the Hare Krishnas. "Day Hare Krishna Came to Town", wwrn.org, Accessed May 19, 2007. Cuisine Suya Nigerian cuisine, like West African cuisine in general, is known for its richness and variety. Many different spices, herbs and flavourings are used in conjunction with palm oil or groundnut oil to create deeply-flavoured sauces and soups often made very hot with chilli peppers. Nigerian feasts are colourful and lavish, while aromatic market and roadside snacks cooked on barbecues or fried in oil are plentiful and varied. H.O. Anthonio & M. Isoun: "Nigerian Cookbook". Macmillan, Lagos, 1982. Sport Like many nations, football is Nigeria's national sport. There is also a local Premier League of football. Nigeria's national football team, known as the Super Eagles, has made the World Cup on three occasions 1994, 1998, and 2002, won the African Cup of Nations in 1980 and 1994, and also hosted the Junior World Cup. They won the gold medal for football in the 1996 Summer Olympics (in which they beat Argentina) and have reached the finals of the U-20 World Championship in 2005. In September 2007, Nigeria won the U-17 World cup for the third time, becoming the first African nation to have achieved that feat and the second nation (after Brazil) to do so. Nigeria had previously won the very first U-17 tournament in 1985 (China '85), 1993 (Japan '93) and in 2007 (Korea '07). The nation's cadet team to Japan '93 produced some of the world's finest players notably Nwankwo Kanu, a two-time African Footballer of the year who won the European Champions League with Ajax Amsterdam and later played with Inter Milan (Italy), Arsenal FC (London, UK), West Bromwich Albion (UK) and Portsmouth F.C. (UK). Other players that graduated from the Junior teams are Celestine Babayaro (of Newcastle United, UK), Wilson Oruma and Taye Taiwo (of Marseille, France) . According to the official September 2007 FIFA World Rankings, Nigeria was the top-ranked football nation in Africa and the 19th highest in the world. Nigeria is also involved in other sports such as basketball, cricket and track and field. AFRICABASKET, "Nigerian Basketball", Africabasket.com, Accessed April 29, 2007. Boxing is also an important sport in Nigeria; Dick Tiger and Samuel Peter are both former World Champions. Societal issues Despite its vast government revenue from the mining of petroleum, Nigeria is faced by a number of societal issues due primarily to a history of inefficiency in its governance. Human rights Nigeria's human rights record remains poor and government officials at all levels continue to commit serious abuses. According to the U.S. Department of State, the most significant human rights problems are: extrajudicial killings and use of excessive force by security forces; impunity for abuses by security forces; arbitrary arrests; prolonged pretrial detention; judicial corruption and executive influence on the judiciary; rape, torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment of prisoners, detainees and suspects; harsh and life‑threatening prison and detention center conditions; human trafficking for the purpose of prostitution and forced labor; societal violence and vigilante killings; child labor, child abuse and child sexual exploitation; female genital mutilation (FGM); domestic violence; discrimination based on sex, ethnicity, region and religion; restrictions on freedom of assembly, movement, press, speech and religion; infringement of privacy rights; and the abridgement of the right of citizens to change the government. Under the Shari'a penal code that applies to Muslims in twelve northern states, offenses such as alcohol consumption, homosexuality, infidelity and theft carry harsh sentences, including amputation, lashing, stoning and long prison terms. Strife and sectarian violence Due to its multitude of diverse, sometimes competing ethno-linguistic groups, Nigeria prior to independence has been faced with sectarian tensions and violence. This is particularly a major issue in the oil-producing Niger Delta region, where both state and civilian forces employ varying methods of coercion in attempts gain control over regional petroleum resources. Some of the ethnic groups like the Ogoni, have experienced severe environmental degradation due to petroleum extraction. Since the end of the civil war in 1970, some ethnic violence has persisted. There has subsequently been a period of relative harmony since the Federal Government introduced tough new measures against religious violence in all affected parts of the country. In 2002, organizers of the Miss World Pageant were forced to move the pageant from the Nigerian capital, Abuja, to London in the wake of violent protests in the Northern part of the country that left more than 100 people dead and over 500 injured. The rioting erupted after Muslims in the country reacted in anger to comments made by a newspaper reporter. Rioters in Kaduna killed an estimated 105 men, women, and children with a further 521 injured taken to hospital. Health issues Nigeria has been reorganizing its health system since the Bamako Initiative of 1987 formally promoted community-based methods of increasing accessibility of drugs and health care services to the population, in part by implementing user fees. The new strategy dramatically increased accessibility through community-based healthcare reform, resulting in more efficient and equitable provision of services. A comprehensive approach strategy was extended to all areas of health care, with subsequent improvement in the health care indicators and improvement in health care efficiency and cost. The Nigerian health care system is continuously faced with a shortage of doctors known as 'brain drain' due to the fact that many highly skilled Nigerian doctors emigrate to North America and Europe. In 1995, It was estimated that 21,000 Nigerian doctors were practicing in the United States alone, which about the same as the number of doctors working in the Nigerian public service. Retaining these expensively-trained professionals has been identified as one of the goals of the government. Mike Chinedu Anekwe: "Brain Drain: The Nigerian Experience." Niger Delta Congress website accessed April 8, 2007. Education Children at school in Ile-Ife, Nigeria Nigeria provides free, government-supported education, but attendance is not compulsory at any level, and certain groups, such as nomads and the handicapped, are under-served. The education system consists of six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years of university education leading to a bachelor’s degree. The rate of secondary school attendance is 32 percent for males and 27 percent for females. In 2004 the Nigerian National Planning Commission described the country’s education system as “disfunctional.” Reasons for this characterization included decaying institutions and ill-prepared graduates. Nigeria country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (June 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Happiness survey In 2003, Nigerians were reported to be the happiest people in a scientific survey carried out in 65 nations in 1999-2001. BBC: Nigeria tops happiness survey, Thursday, October 2, 2003. Website accessed March 26, 2007. The research was reported by one of the world's top science magazines, New Scientist, and was picked up by a number of news outlets. See Nigeria tops happiness survey. The report considered that the country's family life and culture were more important than its problems and material wealth in determining happiness. Crime A type of advance fee fraud known as "419" (named after Section 419 of the Nigerian Penal Code) and the "Nigerian scam" is a form of confidence trick practiced by individuals and criminal syndicates (organized crime) that is commonly associated with Nigeria, though it is now used in other places. The confidence man persuades the target to advance relatively small sums of money (the advance fee) in the hope of realizing a much larger gain (usually touted as millions). In 2003, the Nigerian Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (or EFCC) was created to combat this and other forms of organized financial crime. www.efccnigeria.org It has succeeded in bringing several "419" crime bosses to justice and in some cases has been able to return the stolen money to victims. Media Representation Documentary Drilling and Killing: Chevron and Nigeria's Oil Dictatorship, an audio documentary produced by Amy Goodman first aired in 1998 on Democracy Now! Sweet Crude, a documentary film produced and directed by Sandy Cioffi about Nigeria's oil-rich Niger Delta Poison Fire, a documentary exposing oil and gas abuses in Nigeria, featuring Friends of the Earth Nigeria volunteers, which premiered at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam Nollywood Babylon, a 2008 documentary by Montrealers Ben Addelman and Samir Mallal about the Nigerian film industry, Nollywood. It premiered at the Festival de nouveau cinéma de Montréal 2008. See also Index of Nigeria-related articles Outline of Nigeria References External links Government Nigerian Government website Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria - 1999 Interactive Map of Nigeria Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Nigeria from UCB Libraries GovPubs News media Vanguard daily newspaper This Day daily newspaper Nigeria Compendium of Nigeria Related News Tourism be-x-old:Ніґерыя	Nigeria \|@lemmatized nigeria:200 officially:2 federal:18 republic:12 constitutional:2 comprise:2 thirty:3 six:4 state:35 one:20 capital:5 territory:5 country:57 locate:3 west:13 africa:30 share:2 land:3 border:5 benin:9 chad:2 cameroon:9 east:3 niger:23 north:15 coast:3 lie:1 gulf:2 guinea:4 part:13 atlantic:1 ocean:1 south:15 city:18 abuja:9 three:16 large:30 influential:2 ethnic:21 group:16 hausa:6 igbo:13 yoruba:18 people:20 extensive:1 history:14 archaeological:1 evidence:1 show:5 human:7 habitation:1 area:20 date:4 back:8 least:4 bce:3 mcintosh:1 susan:1 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1,153	Lonsdaleite	Atomic structure of Lonsdaleite Lonsdaleite (named in honour of Kathleen Lonsdale), also called Hexagonal diamond in reference to the crystal structure, is an allotrope of carbon with a hexagonal lattice. In Nature, it forms from graphite present in meteorites upon their impact to Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice. Lonsdaleite was first identified from the Canyon Diablo meteorite at Barringer Crater (also known as Meteor Crater) in Arizona. It was first discovered in nature in 1967 . Lonsdaleite occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond in the Canyon Diablo meteorite; Kenna meteorite, New Mexico; and Allan Hills (ALH) 77283, Victoria Land, Antarctica meteorite. It has also been reported from the Tunguska impact site, Russia. Hexagonal diamond has also been synthesized in the lab in 1966 or earlier (published in 1967 F. P. Bundy and J. S. Kasper "Hexagonal Diamond—A New Form of Carbon" J. Chem. Phys. 46, 3437 (1967) ) by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives H. He, T. Sekine, and T. Kobayashi "Direct transformation of cubic diamond to hexagonal diamond" Appl. Phys. Lett. 81, 610 (2002) . It has also been produced by Chemical vapor deposition S. Bhagarva et al. "Diamond polytypes in the chemical vapor deposited diamond films" Appl. Phys. Lett. 67, 1706 (1995) M. Nishitani-Gamo "Confocal Raman spectroscopic observation of hexagonal diamond formation from dissolved carbon in nickel under chemical vapor deposition conditions" Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 765 (1998) A. Misra et al. "Hexagonal diamond synthesis on h-GaN strained films" Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 071911 (2006) . It is translucent brownish-yellow in colour and has an index of refraction from 2.40 to 2.41, a specific gravity from 3.2 to 3.3, and a Mohs hardness of 7–8. The Mohs hardness of diamond is 10; the lower hardness of lonsdaleite is chiefly attributed to impurities and imperfections in the naturally occurring material, and a pure sample could be 58% harder than diamond. Discovery News: Taking Diamonds Down a Notch It can also be created by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly (hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure under argon starting at . Crystal Structure Lonsdaleite has a hexagonal unit cell, related to the diamond unit cell in the same way that the hexagonal and cubic close packed crystal systems are related. The diamond structure can be considered to be made up of interlocking rings of six carbon atoms, in the chair conformation. In Lonsdaleite some of the rings are in the boat conformation instead. Hardness Lonsdaleite might be 58% harder than diamond. In February 2009 scientists from the University of Nevada and the Shanghai Jiao Tong University reported simulations that show by applying very high indentation loads to lonsdaleite the mineral should react by increasing its resistance by as much as 78%. The resulting material is calculated to resist indentation pressures of 152 GPa, much higher than diamond, which under the same conditions will break at 97 GPa. See also List of minerals List of minerals named after people References Further reading External links Mindat.org accessed 3/13/05. Webmineral accessed 3/13/05. Materials Science and Technology Division, Naval Research Laboratory website accessed 5/14/2006. 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1,154	Ankara	Ankara as seen from space. Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after Istanbul. The city has a mean elevation of 850 m (2800 ft), and as of 2007 the city had a population of 4,751,360, which includes eight districts under the city's administration. Ankara also serves as the capital of Ankara Province. As with many ancient cities, Ankara has gone by several names over the ages: The Hittites gave it the name Ankuwash before 1200 BC. Judy Turman: Early Christianity in Turkey Saffet Emre Tonguç: Ankara (Hürriyet Seyahat) The Galatians and Romans called it Ancyra. In the classical, Hellenistic, and Byzantine periods it was known as Ánkyra. The local Armenians called it Enkare. It was also known as Angora after it fell to the Seljuks in 1073, and was so known up until 1930. Centrally located in Anatolia, Ankara is an important commercial and industrial city. It is the center of the Turkish Government, and houses all foreign embassies. It is an important crossroads of trade, strategically located at the center of Turkey's highway and railway networks, and serves as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous for its long-haired Angora goat and its prized wool (mohair), a unique breed of cat (Angora cat), white rabbits and their prized wool (Angora wool), pears, honey, and the region's muscat grapes. Ankara is situated upon a steep and rocky hill, which rises above the plain on the left bank of the Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakarya (Sangarius) river. The city is located at 39°52'30" North, 32°52' East (), about to the southeast of Istanbul, the country's largest city. Ankara is one of the driest places in Turkey and is surrounded by a barren steppe vegetation, with various Hittite, Phrygian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman archaeological sites. It has a harsh, dry continental climate with cold, snowy winters and hot, dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn. The hill which overlooks the city is crowned by the ruins of the old castle, which adds to the picturesqueness of the view, but only a few historic structures surrounding the old citadel have survived to our date. There are, however, many finely preserved remains of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most remarkable being the Temple of Augustus and Rome (20 BC) which is also known as the Monumentum Ancyranum. Climate History Hittite artifacts on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. The region's vibrant history can be traced back to the Bronze Age Hatti civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the Hittites, in the 10th century BC by the Phrygians, and later by the Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Galatians, Romans, Byzantines, and Turks (Seljuk Empire then Ottoman Empire and then Turkey). The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belong to the Hatti civilization which lived during the Bronze Age. Artifacts discovered in the city have revealed that the Hittites called Ankara with the name Ankuwash prior to 1200 BC. The city significantly grew in size and importance under the Phrygians starting from around 1000 BC, experiencing a large expansion following the mass migration from Gordion, the capital of Phrygia, after an earthquake which severely damaged that city in antiquity. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was actually far older, in line with the present-day knowledge that we have on its history. Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.4.1., "Ancyra was actually older even than that." Phrygian rule was succeeded first by Lydian and later by Persian rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of the Greek king Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC. Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire amongst his generals, Ankara and its environs fell into the share of Antigonus. Apart from the Phrygian period in which the city experienced its largest expansion in the ancient times, another important expansion took place under the Greeks of Pontos who came there and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the Black Sea ports and Crimea to the north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east. By that time the city also took its name Áγκυρα - Ànkyra (meaning anchor in Greek) which is still used by the Turks with the slightly modified form of Ankara. The Dying Gaul was a famous statue commissioned in some time between 230 BC and 220 BC by King Attalos I of Pergamon to honor his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia. Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late third century BCE. Capitoline Museums, Rome. In 278 BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by the Celtic race of Galatians, who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centres, the headquarters of the Tectosages tribe. Other centres were Pessinos, today's Balhisar, for the Trocmi tribe; and Tavium, to the east of Ankara, for the Tolstibogii tribe. The city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian-speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At the end of the 4th century AD, St. Jerome, a native of Galatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near Trier. Ancyra was the capital of the Celtic kingdom of Galatia, and later of the Roman province with the same name, after its conquest by Augustus in 25 BC. The city was subsequently conquered by Augustus in 25 BC and passed under the control of the Roman Empire. Now the capital city of the Roman province of Galatia, Ancyra continued to be a center of great commercial importance. Ankara is also famous for the Monumentum Ancyranum (Temple of Augustus and Rome) which contains the official record of the Acts of Augustus, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable bas-reliefs, inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Augustus decided to make Ancyra one of three main administrative centres in central Anatolia. The town was then populated by Phrygians and Celts—the Galatians who spoke a language closely related to Welsh and Gaelic. Ancyra was the center of a tribe known as the Tectosages, and Augustus upgraded it into a major provincial capital for his empire. Two other Galatian tribal centres, Tavium near Yozgat, and Pessinus (Balhisar) to the west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis. An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early twentieth century. A small river, the Ankara Çayı, ran through the centre of the Roman town. It has now been covered over and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Çankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one Roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where the Çankaya Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downwards as far as the site presently occupied by Hacettepe University. It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of Gaul or Britannia. Ancyra's importance rested on the fact was that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north-south and east-west intersected. The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In the second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the Goths coming from the west (who rode far into the heart of Cappadocia, taking slaves and pillaging) and later by the Arabs. For about a decade, the town was one of the western outposts of one of the most brilliant queens of the ancient world, the Arab empress Zenobia from Palmyra in the Syrian desert, who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the Roman Empire to set up a short-lived state of her own. In the Temple of Augustus and Rome (commonly known as Monumentum Ancyranum) in Ulus, the primary intact copy of Res Gestae written by the first Roman Emperor Augustus survives. The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under the Emperor Aurelian in 272. The tetrarchy, a system of multiple (up to four) emperors introduced by Diocletian (284-305), seems to have engaged in a substantial programme of rebuilding and of road construction from Ankara westwards to Germe and Dorylaeum (now Eskişehir). In its heyday, Roman Ankara was a large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital, where a high official ruled from the city's Praetorium, a large administrative palace or office. During the 3rd century, life in Ancyra, as in other Anatolian towns, seems to have become somewhat militarised in response to the invasions and instability of the town. In this period, like other cities of central Anatolia, Ankara was also undergoing Christianisation. Early martyrs, about whom little is known, included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown village of Kallippi, near Ancyra, and suffered repression under the emperor Trajan (98-117). In the 280s AD we hear of Philumenos, a Christian corn merchant from southern Anatolia, being captured and martyred in Ankara, and Eustathius. Like in other Roman towns, the reign of Diocletian marked the culmination point of repression against Christians. In 303, Ancyra was one of the towns where the co-Emperors Diocletian and his deputy Galerius launched their anti-Christian persecution. In Ancyra, their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town, whose name was Clement. Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome, then sent back, and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he, and his brother, and various companions were put to death. The remains of the church of St. Clement can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in the Ulus district. Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement was originally buried. Four years later, a doctor of the town named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius. Theodotus of Ancyra is also venerated as a saint. The Column of Julianus, now in the Ulus district, was erected in honor of the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate's visit to Ancyra in 362. However, the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra was the center of an important council of the early church; which considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the Christian church after the persecutions, and in particular the treatment of 'lapsi'—Christians who had given in and conformed to paganism during these persecutions. Three councils were held in the former capital of Galatia in Asia Minor, during the 4th century. The first, an orthodox plenary synod, was held in 314, and its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the Sacrament of Penance. Nine of them deal with conditions for the reconciliation of the lapsi; the others, with marriage, alienations of church property, etc. Though paganism was probably tottering in Ancyra in Clement's day, it may still have been the majority religion. Twenty years later, Christianity and monotheism had taken its place. Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city, with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes. The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead. During the middle of the 4th century, Ancyra was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of Christ, and a form of Arianism seems to have originated there. The synod of 358 was a Semi-Arian conciliabulum, presided over by Basil of Ancyra. It condemned the grosser Arian blasphemies, but set forth an equally heretical doctrine in the proposition that the Son was in all things similar to the Father, but not identical in substance. Aerial view of the current Turkish Parliament building, designed in 1938 by the renowned Austrian architect Clemens Holzmeister. In 362-363, the Emperor Julian the Apostate passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians, and according to Christian sources, engaged in a persecution of various holy men. The stone base for a statue, with an inscription describing Julian as "Lord of the whole world from the British Ocean to the barbarian nations", can still be seen, built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of Ankara Castle. The Column of Julian which was erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still stands today. In 375, Arian bishops met at Ancyra and deposed several bishops, among them St. Gregory of Nyssa. The modern Ankara, also known in some Western texts as Angora, remains a Roman Catholic titular see in the former Roman province of Galatia in Asia Minor, suffragan of Laodicea. Its episcopal list is given in Gams, "Series episc. Eccl. cath."; also that of another Ancyra in Phrygia Pacatiana. In the later 4th century Ancyra became something of an imperial holiday resort. After Constantinople became the East Roman capital, emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the Bosphorus to the drier mountain atmosphere of Ancyra. Theodosius II (408-450) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers. Laws issued in Ancyra testify to the time they spent there. The city's military as well as logistical significance lasted well into the long Byzantine reign. Although Ancyra fell into the hands of several Arab armies numerous times after the 6th century, it remained an important crossroads polis within the Byzantine Empire until the late 11th century. In 1071, the Seljuk Sultan Alparslan opened the gates of Anatolia for the Turks with his victory at the Battle of Manzikert (Malazgirt). He then annexed Ankara, an important location for military transportation and natural resources, to his territory in 1073. Orhan I, second Bey of the Ottoman Empire, captured the city in 1356. Another Turkic ruler, Timur, defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Ankara in 1402 and captured the city, but in 1403 Ankara was again under Ottoman control. Dikmen Valley Towers. Armada Tower in the center and Halkbank Tower in the background. Following the Ottoman defeat at World War I, the Ottoman capital Istanbul and much of Anatolia were occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between Armenia, France, Greece, Italy and the United Kingdom leaving the Turks the core piece of land in central Asia Minor. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, Kemal Atatürk, established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Ankara in 1920 (see Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence). After the War of Independence was won, the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Ankara had replaced Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) as the new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923. After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called Ulus, and a new section, called Yenişehir. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered around Kızılay, has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital. It was "a small town of no importance" Columbia Lippincott Gazeteer when it was made the capital of Turkey. In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. Population Central Ankara has a population of 3,763,591 (2007) of which 1,870,831 are men and 1,892,760 are women. The metropolitan municipality, containing the central part of the city and the remaining balance of the 8 districts under its jurisdiction, had a total population of 3,901,201 the same year. Population of Ankara Year Population 2007 3,901,201 2000 3,703,362 1990 2,583,963 1985 2,251,533 1970 1,209,000 1965 906,000 1960 646,000 1955 453,000 1950 287,000 1927 75,000 Attractions Museums Anıtkabir, Atatürk's mausoleum. A Hattian artifact, Ceremonial standard, bronze, Alacahöyük, second half of the third millenium BC. Height 24cm. The Guide Book to the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 2006, p.71 from the 3rd millennium BC, in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. Anıtkabir is located on an imposing hill, Anıttepe quarter of the city, where the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey, stands. Completed in 1953, it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles. An adjacent museum houses a wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and during the establishment of the Republic. Anıtkabir is open every day, while the adjacent museum is open every day except Mondays. Ankara Ethnography Museum (Etnoğrafya Müzesi) This museum is opposite the Opera House on Talat Paşa Boulevard, in the Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric as well as Seljuk- and Ottoman-era artifacts. Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi) Situated at the entrance of Ankara Castle, it is an old "bedesten" (covered bazaar) that has been beautifully restored and now houses a unique collection of Paleolithic, Neolithic, Hatti, Hittite, Phrygian, Urartian, and Roman works as well as a major section dedicated to Lydian treasures. State Art and Sculpture Museum (Resim-Heykel Müzesi) This museum is close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions. War of Independence Museum (Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi) This building, located on Ulus Square, was originally the first Parliament building (TBMM) of the Republic of Turkey. The War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, wax figures of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit. TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum - An open-air museum which traces the history of steam locomotives. Turkish Air Force Aviation Museum Museum is near the Istanbul Road, Etimesgut. The museum is home to various aircraft which are or have served in Turkish Air Force (Jets like F-86, F-100, F-102, F-104, F-5, F-4 and cargo planes like C-160 transtall). Also a Hungarian Mig-21, a Pakistani Mig-19 and a Bulgarian Mig-17 are on display in the museum. Archeological sites Ankara Citadel Ankara Citadel walls. The foundations of the citadel or castle were laid by the Galatians on a prominent lava outcrop, and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine, music and of course, Rakı. The citadel was depicted in various Turkish banknotes during 1927-1952 and 1983-1989. The citadel was depicted in the following Turkish banknotes: On the obverse of the 1 lira banknote of 1927-1939 (1. Emission Group - One Turkish Lira - I. Series). On the obverse of the 5 lira banknote of 1927-1937 (1. Emission Group - Five Turkish Lira - I. Series). On the reverse of the 10 lira banknote of 1927-1938 (1. Emission Group - Ten Turkish Lira - I. Series). On the reverse of the 10 lira banknote of 1938-1952 (2. Emission Group - Ten Turkish Lira - I. Series). On the reverse of the 100 lira banknotes of 1983-1989 (7. Emission Group - One Hundred Turkish Lira - I. Series & II. Series). Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum. – Links retrieved on 20 April 2009. Roman Theatre The remains, the stage, and the backstage can be seen outside the castle. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (see above). The seating area is still under excavation. Temple of Augustus and Rome The temple, also known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, was built between 25 BC - 20 BC following the conquest of Central Anatolia by the Roman Empire and the formation of the Roman province of Galatia, with Ancyra (modern Ankara) as its administrative capital. After the death of Augustus in 14 AD, a copy of the text of Res Gestae Divi Augusti was inscribed on the interior of the pronaos in Latin, whereas a Greek translation is also present on an exterior wall of the cella. The temple, on the ancient Acropolis of Ancyra, was enlarged by the Romans in the 2nd century. In the 5th century it was converted into a church by the Byzantines. It is located in the Ulus quarter of the city. Roman Bath This bath has all the typical features of a classical Roman bath: a frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (cool room) and caldarium (hot room). The bath was built during the reign of Emperor Caracalla in the 3rd century AD to honour Asclepios, the God of Medicine. Today, only the basement and first floors remain. It is situated in the Ulus quarter. Column of Julian The column, popularly known among the locals as the Belkıs Minaresi (literally the "Queen of Sheba Column", for reasons unknown), was erected to commemorate a visit to Ancyra by the Roman emperor Julian in A.D. 362. The Corinthian capital dates to the 6th century; the stork's nest, a permanent crowning feature, is of more recent vintage. Mosques Kocatepe Mosque. The Alaaddin Mosque It has a carved walnut mimber, the inscription on which records that the mosque was built in the 12th century by the Seljuk ruler, Mesut. Ahi Elvan Mosque The mosque was founded in the Ulus quarter near the Ankara Citadel and was constructed during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The finely carved walnut mimber (pulpit) is of particular interest. Hacı Bayram Mosque This mosque, in the Ulus quarter next to the Temple of Augustus, was built in the early 15th century in Seljuk style by an unknown architect. It was subsequently restored by architect Sinan in the 16th century, with Kütahya tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of Hacı Bayram Veli, whose tomb is next to the mosque, two years before his death (1427-28). The usable space inside this mosque is on the first floor and on the second floor. Yeni (Cenab Ahmet) Mosque This the largest Ottoman mosque in Ankara and was built by the famous architect Sinan in the 16th century. The mimber (pulpit) and mihrap (prayer niche) are of white marble, and the mosque itself is of Ankara stone (red porphyry), an example of very fine workmanship. Yeni Cami is on Ulucanlar Avenue. Kocatepe Mosque This is the largest and most notable mosque in the city. Located in the Kocatepe quarter, it was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in classical Ottoman style with four minarets. Its size and prominent location have made it a landmark for the city. Historic buildings Çankaya Köşkü - the residence of the President of Turkey Pembe Köşk - the residence of Turkish President Ismet Inönü from 1925 to 1973 Modern monuments Kızılay Square is the heart of Ankara. Victory Monument Erected in 1927 on Zafer Square in the Sıhhiye quarter, it depicts Atatürk in uniform. Monument to a Secure, Confident Future This monument, located in Güven Park near Kızılay Square, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: "Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself." The monument was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 5 lira banknote of 1937-1952 Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 2. Emission Group - Five Turkish Lira - I. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. and of the 1000 lira banknotes of 1939-1946. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 2. Emission Group - One Thousand Turkish Lira - I. Series & II. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Hatti Monument Built in the 1970s on Sıhhiye Square, this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti gods and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization. Parks Göksu Park in Eryaman. Gençlik Park in central Ankara. Ankara has many parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: Gençlik Park (houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing), the Botanical Garden, Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, Kuğulu Park (famous for the swans received as a gift from the Chinese government), Abdi İpekçi Park, Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), Altınpark (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyarı (claimed to be Biggest Park of Europe inside city borders) and Göksu Park. Gençlik Park was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes of 1952-1976. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 5. Emission Group - One Hundred Turkish Lira - I. Series, II. Series, III. Series, IV. Series, V. Series & VI. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo (Atatürk Orman Çiftliği) is an expansive recreational farming area which houses a zoo, several small agricultural farms, greenhouses, restaurants, a dairy farm and a brewery. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in 1881, in Thessaloniki, Greece. Visitors to the "Çiftlik" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm such as old-fashioned beer and ice cream, fresh dairy products and meat rolls/kebaps made on charcoal, at a traditional restaurant (Merkez Lokantası, Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered around the farm. Shopping Interior view of Karum Shopping & Business Center. Armada Shopping Center in Ankara was selected as "Europe's Best Shopping Mall" by the ICSC in 2003, becoming the second mall in Turkey after Akmerkez in Istanbul (Europe's Best 1995, World's Best 1996) to win this prestigious award. Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu (Weavers' Road) near Ulus, where myriad things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found at bargain prices. Bakırcılar Çarşısı (Bazaar of Coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Up the hill to the castle gate, there are many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, dried fruits, nuts, and other produce. Modern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay, or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of Karum (named after the ancient Assyrian merchant colonies (Karum) that were established in central Anatolia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC) which is located towards the end of the Avenue; and in the Atakule Tower at Çankaya, the quarter with the highest elevation in the city, which commands a magnificent view over the whole city and also has a revolving restaurant at the top where the complete panorama can be enjoyed in a more leisurely fashion. The symbol of the Armada Shopping Mall is an anchor, and there's a large anchor monument at its entrance, as a reference to the ancient Greek name of the city, Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra), which means anchor. Likewise, the anchor is also related with the Spanish name of the mall, Armada, which means naval fleet. As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, there are several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities along the western highway, also known as the Eskişehir Road. The Armada and CEPA malls on the highway, the Galleria in Ümitköy, and a huge mall in Bilkent Center offer North American and European style shopping opportunities (these places can be reached following the Eskişehir Highway). There is also the newly expanded Ankamall at the outskirts, on the Istanbul Highway, which houses most of the well-known European brands. This mall is the largest throughout the Ankara region. Culture and education Ankara Opera House of the Turkish State Opera and Ballet. The historical Evkaf Apartmanı in which the Head Office of the Turkish State Theaters is situated. The building also houses the Küçük Tiyatro and Oda Tiyatrosu. Turkish State Opera and Ballet, the national directorate of opera and ballet companies of Turkey, has its headquarters in Ankara, and serves the city with three venues: Ankara Opera House (Opera Sahnesi, also known as Büyük Tiyatro) Leyla Gencer Sahnesi (named after world-famous soprano Leyla Gencer) Operet Sahnesi (also known as the Türkocağı Binası) The Turkish State Theatres also has its head office in Ankara and runs the following stages in the city: 125. Yıl Çayyolu Sahnesi Büyük Tiyatro (also doubling as the Ankara Opera House) Küçük Tiyatro, Şinasi Sahnesi, Akün Sahnesi, Altındağ Tiyatrosu, İrfan Şahinbaş Atölye Sahnesi, Oda Tiyatrosu, Mahir Canova Sahnesi, Muhsin Ertuğrul Sahnesi. In addition the city is served by several private theatre companies among which Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu who have their own stage in the city centre is a notable example. Ankara is host to five classical music orchestras: Cumhurbaşkanlığı Senfoni Orkestrası (Turkish Presidential Symphony Orchestra) Bilkent Senfoni Orkestrası Hacettepe Senfoni Orkestrası Orkestra Akademik Başkent Başkent Oda Orkestrası (Chamber Orchestra of the Capital) There are four concert halls in the city: CSO Konser Salonu Bilkent Konser Salonu MEB Şura Salonu (also known as the Festival Hall) Çankaya Çağdaş Sanatlar Merkezi Konser Salonu The city has been host to several well-established, annual theatre, music, film festivals: Ankara Film Festivali Ankara Uluslararası Müzik Festivali (International Ankara Music Festival) Ankara Tiyatro Festivali Ankara Caz Festivali Universities Part of the METU campus, as seen from its MM Building. Ankara is noted, within Turkey, for the multitude of universities it is home to. These include the following, several of them being among the most reputable in the country: Ankara University Atılım University Başkent University Bilkent University Çankaya University Gazi University Hacettepe University Middle East Technical University TOBB University of Economics and Technology Ufuk University Gülhane Military Academy of Medicine Turkish Military Academy Turkish National Police Academy Transportation Ankara rapid transit network. Esenboğa International Airport, located in the north-east of the city, is the main airport of Ankara. Ankara Intercity Bus Terminal () is an important part of the bus network which covers every neighbourhood in the city. The central train station, "Ankara Garı" of the Turkish State Railways (), is an important hub connecting the western and eastern parts of the country. High-speed rail services are to be operated between Ankara and Istanbul, beginning in 2009. The Electricity, Gas, Bus General Directorate (EGO) operates the Ankara Metro and other forms of public transportation. Ankara is currently served by suburban rail and two subway lines with about 300,000 total daily commuters, and three additional subway lines are under construction. Sports Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadium. Like in all the other cities of Turkey, football is the most popular sport in Ankara. The city has four football clubs currently competing in the Turkcell Super League: Ankaragücü founded in 1910 is the oldest club in Ankara and associated with Ankara's military arsenal manufacturing company MKE. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1972 and 1981. Their rival is Gençlerbirliği founded in 1923 known as Ankara Wind or the Poppies because of their colours: red and black. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1987 and 2001. Gençler's B team, Hacettepe SK (formerly known as Gençlerbirliği OFTAŞ) has been allowed to ascend to the Super League along with its A team as long as they have 2 different chairmen. All these three teams have their home at the Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadium in Ulus, which has a capacity of 21,250 (all-seater). World Stadiums: Ankara 19 Mayıs Stadium The fourth team is owned by the Municipality, Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor who are nicknamed the Leopards. Their home is the Yenikent Asaş Stadium in the Sincan district of Yenikent, outside the city center. Ankaraspor as been associated with Melih Gökçek and has been the object of anti-Gökçek jokes and insults. Ankara has a large number of minor teams, playing at regional levels: Bugsaşspor in Sincan; Etimesgut Şekerspor in Etimesgut; Türk Telekom owned by the phone company in Yenimahalle; Demirspor in Çankaya; Keçiörengücü, Keçiörenspor, Pursaklarspor, Bağlumspor in Keçiören; and Petrol Ofisi Spor. In the Turkish Basketball League, Ankara is represented by Türk Telekom, whose home is the ASKI Sport Hall, and CASA TED Kolejliler, whose home is the TOBB Sport Hall. Ankara Buz Pateni Sarayı is where the ice skating and ice hockey competitions take place in the city. There are many popular spots for skateboarding which is active in the city since the 1980s. Skaters in Ankara usually meet in the park near the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Other Turkish Angora Ankara is also home to a world famous cat breed — the Turkish Angora, called Ankara Kedisi in Turkish. Ankara image gallery Town twinning The sister cities {{cite web\|url=http://www.ankara-bel.gov.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/avrupa_gunu_kutlamasi.aspx\|title=Ankara Metropolitan Municipality: Sister Cities of Ankara\|publisher=© 2007 Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi - Tüm Hakları Saklıdır. Kullanım Koşulları & Gizlilik.\|accessdate=2008-12-08}} of Ankara are listed below: Africa Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (2006) Cairo, Egypt (2004) Khartoum, Sudan (1992) Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (2005) Mogadishu, Somalia (2000) Americas Havana, Cuba (1993) Santiago, Chile (2000) Asia Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (1994) Astana, Kazakhstan (2001) Beijing, China (1990) Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (1992) Dushanbe, Tajikistan (2002) Hanoi, Vietnam (1998) Islamabad, Pakistan (1982) Shiraz, Iran Kabul, Afghanistan (2003) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1984) Kuwait City, Kuwait (1994) Manama, Bahrain (2000) Sana'a, Yemen (2006) Seoul, South Korea (1971) Tashkent, Uzbekistan (2004) Ulan Bator, Mongolia (2003) Europe Baku, Azerbaijan Bucharest, Romania (1998) Budapest, Hungary (1992) Chişinău, Moldova (2001) Dipkarpaz, Northern Cyprus (1986) Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia (2005) Kiev, Ukraine (1993) Minsk, Belarus (2007) {{cite web\|url=http://minsk.gov.by/cgi-bin/org_ps.pl?k_org=3604&mode=doc&doc=3604_2_a&lang=eng\|title=Twin towns of Minsk\|publisher=© 2008 The department of protocol and international relations of Minsk City Executive Committee\|accessdate=2008-12-08}} Moscow, Russia (1992) Pristina, Kosovo (2005) Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994) Skopje, Macedonia (1995) Sofia, Bulgaria (1992) Tbilisi, Georgia (1996) Tirana, Albania (1995) Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia (1997) See also Synod of Ancyra State Art and Sculpture Museum Museum of Anatolian Civilizations Ankara Ethnography Museum Turkish Angora Notable people from Ankara Filiz Akın, actress Emre Araci, music historian, composer, conductor İdil Biret, concert pianist, recording artist Emin Çölaşan, journalist Yasemin Dalkılıç, free diver Vedat Dalokay, architect Ordal Demokan, physicist Can Dündar, journalist Erdal İnönü, politician and physicist Vehbi Koç, pioneer industrialist Fazil Say, concert pianist, composer Kartal Tibet, actor Musicians and music bands Tarkan Gökhan Özen Hadise Funda Arar İdil Biret Joe Strummer Hande Dalkılıç maNga Mazhar Alanson Nil Karaibrahimgil Özlem Tekin Peter Murphy (musician) Pilli Bebek Yağmur Sarıgül Zerrin Özer References and notes External links Ankara Photo Gallery Esenboğa International Airport Municipality of Ankara Governor of Ankara Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism's Ankara page Ankara Weather Forecast Information Ankara City Guide Ankara Haber Ankaranın şirin ilçesi nallıhan Turkey Live Ankara Publications be-x-old:Анкара	Ankara \|@lemmatized ankara:102 see:9 space:3 capital:17 turkey:23 country:4 second:6 large:14 city:66 istanbul:8 mean:4 elevation:2 ft:1 population:7 include:4 eight:1 district:6 administration:2 also:31 serve:7 province:5 many:10 ancient:8 go:1 several:8 name:11 age:3 hittite:6 give:4 ankuwash:2 bc:18 judy:1 turman:1 early:9 christianity:2 saffet:1 emre:2 tonguç:1 hürriyet:1 seyahat:1 galatian:7 roman:40 call:7 ancyra:36 classical:4 hellenistic:4 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1,155	Ligand	In chemistry, a ligand is either an atom, ion, or molecule (see also: functional group) that bonds to a central metal to produce a coordination complex. The bonding between the metal and ligand generally involves formal donation of one or more of the ligand's electrons. The metal-ligand bonding ranges from covalent to more ionic. Furthermore, the metal-ligand bond order can range from one to three. Ligands are viewed as Lewis bases, although rare cases are known involving Lewis acidic "ligands." Metal and metalloids are bound to ligands in virtually all circumstances, although gaseous "naked" metal ions can be generated in high vacuum. Ligands in a complex dictate the reactivity of the central atom, including ligand substitution rates, the reactivity of the ligands themselves, and redox. Ligand selection is a critical consideration in many practical areas, including bioinorganic and medicinal chemistry, homogeneous catalysis, and environmental chemistry. Ligands are classified in many ways: their charge, size (bulk), the identity of the coordinating atom(s), and the number of electrons donated to the metal (denticity or hapticity). The size of a ligand is indicated by its cone angle. History Coordination complexes were known - although not understood in any sense - since the beginning of chemistry, e.g. Prussian blue and copper vitriol. The key breakthrough occurred when Alfred Werner proposed, among other things, that Co(III) bears six ligands in an octahedral geometry. The theory allows one to understand the difference between coordinated and ionic chloride in the cobalt ammine chlorides and to explain many of the previously inexplicable isomers. He resolved the first coordination complex called hexol into optical isomers, overthrowing the theory that chirality was necessarily associated with carbon compounds. Inner- vs out-sphere ligands In coordination chemistry, the ligands that are directly bonded to the metal (that is, share electrons), are sometimes called "inner sphere" ligands. "Outer-sphere" ligands are not directly attached to the metal, but are bonded, generally weakly, to the first coordination shell, affecting the inner sphere in subtle ways. The complex of the metal with the inner sphere ligands is then called a coordination complex, which can be neutral, cationic, or anionic. The complex, along with its counter ions (if required), is called a coordination compound. Metal-EDTA complex, wherein the aminocarboxylate is a hexadentate chelating ligand. Cobalt(III) complex containing six ammonia ligands, which are monodentate. The chloride is not a ligand. Strong field and weak field ligands In general, ligands are viewed as donating electrons and electrostatic molecules to the central atom. Bonding is often described using the formalisms of molecular orbital theory. In general, electron pairs occupy the HOMO of the ligands. Ligands and metal ions can be ordered in many ways, one ranking system focuses on ligand 'hardness' (see also hard soft acid base theory). Metal ions preferentially bind certain ligands. In general, 'hard' metal ions prefer weak field ligands, whereas 'soft' metal ions prefer strong field ligands. From a MO point of view, the HOMO of the ligand should have an energy that overlaps with the LUMO of the metal preferential. Metal ions bound to strong-field ligands follow the Aufbau principle, whereas complexes bound to weak-field ligands follow Hund's rule. Binding of the metal with the ligands results in a set of molecular orbitals, where the metal can be identified with a new HOMO and LUMO (the orbitals defining the properties and reactivity of the resulting complex) and a certain ordering of the 5 d-orbitals (which may be filled, or partially filled with electrons). In an octahedral environment, the 5 otherwise degenerate d-orbitals split in sets of 2 and 3 orbitals (for a more in depth explanation, see crystal field theory). 3 orbitals of low energy: dxy, dxz and dyz 2 of high energy: dz2 and dx2−y2 The energy difference between these 2 sets of d-orbitals is called the splitting parameter, Δo. The magnitude of Δo is determined by the field-strength of the ligand: strong field ligands, by definition, increase Δo more than weak field ligands. Ligands can now be sorted according to the magnitude of Δo (see the table below). This ordering of ligands is almost invariable for all metal ions and is called spectrochemical series. For complexes with a tetrahedral surrounding, the d-orbitals again split into two sets, but this time in reverse order: 2 orbitals of low energy: dz2 and dx2−y2 3 orbitals of high energy: dxy, dxz and dyz The energy difference between these 2 sets of d-orbitals is now called Δt. The magnitude of Δt is smaller than for Δo, because in a tetrahedral complex only 4 ligands influence the d-orbitals, whereas in an octahedral complex the d-orbitals are influenced by 6 ligands. When the coordination number is neither octahedral nor tetrahedral, the splitting becomes correspondingly more complex. For the purposes of ranking ligands, however, the properties of the octahedral complexes and the resulting Δo has been of primary interest. The arrangement of the d-orbitals on the central atom (as determined by the 'strength' of the ligand), has a strong effect on virtually all the properties of the resulting complexes. E.g. the energy differences in the d-orbitals has a strong effect in the optical absorption spectra of metal complexes. It turns out that valence electrons occupying orbitals with significant 3d-orbital character absorb in the 400-800 nm region of the spectrum (UV-visible range). The absorption of light (what we perceive as the color) by these electrons (that is, excitation of electrons from one orbital to another orbital under influence of light) can be correlated to the ground state of the metal complex, which reflects the bonding properties of the ligands. The relative change in (relative) energy of the d-orbitals as a function of the field-strength of the ligands is described in Tanabe-Sugano diagrams. In cases where the ligand has low energy LUMO, such orbitals also participate in the bonding. The metal-ligand bond can be further stabilised by a formal donation of electron density back to the ligand in a process known as back-bonding. In this case a filled, central-atom-based orbital donates density into the LUMO of the (coordinated) ligand. Carbon monoxide is the preeminent example a ligand that engages metals via back-donation. Complementarily, ligands with low-energy filled orbitals of pi-symmetry can serve as pi-donor. Polydentate and polyhapto ligand motifs and nomenclature Denticity Denticity (represented by κ) refers to the number of times a ligand bonds to a metal through non-contiguous donor sites. Many ligands are capable of binding metal ions through multiple sites, usually because the ligands have lone pairs on more than one atom. Ligands that bind via more than one atom are often termed chelating. A ligand that binds through two sites is classified as bidentate, and three sites as tridentate. The "bite angle" refers to the angle between the two bonds of a bidentate chelate. Chelating ligands are commonly formed by linking donor groups via organic linkers. A classic bidentate ligand is ethylenediamine, which is derived by the linking of two ammonia groups with an ethylene (-CH2CH2-) linker. A classic example of a polydentate ligand is the hexadentate chelating agent EDTA, which is able to bond through six sites, completely surrounding some metals. The number of times a polydentate ligand bind to a metal centre is symbolized with "κn", where "n" indicates the number sites by which a ligand attaches to a metal. EDTA4−, when it is sexidentate, binds as a κ6-ligand, the amines and the carboxylate oxygen atoms are not contiguous. In practice, the n value of a ligand is not indicated explicitly but rather assumed. The binding affinity of a chelating system depends on the chelating angle or bite angle. Complexes of polydentate ligands are called chelate complexes. They tend to be more stable than complexes derived from monodentate ligands. This enhanced stability, the chelate effect, is usually attributed to effects of entropy, which favors the displacement of many ligands by one polydentate ligand. When the chelating ligand forms a large ring that at least partially surrounds the central atom and bonds to it, leaving the central atom at the centre of a large ring. The more rigid and the higher its denticity, the more inert will be the macrocyclic complex. Heme is a good example: the iron atom is at the centre of a porphyrin macrocycle, being bound to four nitrogen atoms of the tetrapyrrole macrocycle. The very stable dimethylglyoximate complex of nickel is a synthetic macrocycle derived from the anion of dimethylglyoxime. Hapticity Hapticity (represented by η) refers to the number contiguous atoms that comprise a donor site and attach to a metal center. Butadiene forms both η2 and η4 complexes depending on the number of carbon atoms that are bonded to the metal. Single atom bonding motifs Ambidentate ligand Unlike polydentate ligands, ambidentate ligands can attach to the central atom in two places but not both. A good example of this is thiocyanate, SCN−, which can attach at either the sulfur atom or the nitrogen atom. Such compounds give rise to linkage isomerism. Polyfunctional ligands, see especially proteins, can bond to a metal center through different ligand atoms to form various isomers. Bridging ligand Bridging ligand link two or more metal centers. Polyatomic ligands such as CO22- are especially prone to bridge. The bonding is complicated because polyatomic ligands are ambidentate and thus the capacity for many different linkage isomers. Atoms that bridge metals are sometimes indicated with prefix of "μ" (mu). Most inorganic solids, e.g. FeCl2, are polymers by virtue of the presence of multiple bridging ligands. Metal ligand multiple bond Metal ligand multiple bonds some ligands can bond to a metal center through the same atom but with a different number of lone pairs. The bond order of the metal ligand bond can be in part distinguished through the metal ligand bond angle (M-X-R). This bond angle is often referred to as being linear or bent with further discussion concerning the degree to which the angle is bent. For example, an imido ligand in the ionic form has three lone pairs. One lone pair is used as a sigma X donor, the other two lone pairs are available as L type pi donors. If both lone pairs are used in pi bonds then the M-N-R geometry is linear. However, if one or both these lone pairs is non-bonding then the M-N-R bond is bent and the extent of the bend speaks to how much pi bonding there may be. η1-Nitric oxide can coordinate to a metal center in linear or bent manner. Specialized ligand types Non-innocent ligand Non-innocent ligands bond with metals in such a manner that the distribution of electron density between the metal center and ligand is unclear. Describing the bonding of noninnocent ligands often involves writing multiple resonance forms which have partial contributions to the overall state. Trans-spanning ligand Trans-spanning ligands are bidentate ligands that can span coordination positions on opposite sides of a coordination complex. Common ligands See nomenclature. Virtually every molecule and every ion can serve as a ligand for (or "coordinate to") metals. Monodentate ligands include virtually all anions and all simple Lewis bases. Thus, the halides and pseudohalides are important anionic ligands whereas ammonia, carbon monoxide, and water are particularly common charge-neutral ligands. Simple organic species are also very common, be they anionic (RO− and RCO2−) or neutral (R2O, R2S, R3−xNHx, and R3P). The steric properties of some ligands are evaluated in terms of their cone angles. Beyond the classical Lewis bases and anions, all unsaturated molecules are also ligands, utilizing their π-electrons in forming the coordinate bond. Also, metals can bind to the σ bonds in for example silanes, hydrocarbons, and dihydrogen (see also: agostic interaction). In complexes of non-innocent ligands, the ligand is bonded to metals via conventional bonds, but the ligand is also redox-active. Examples of common ligands (by field strength) In the following table the ligands are sorted by field strength (weak field ligands first): Ligand formula (bonding atom(s) in bold) Charge Most common denticity Remark(s) Iodide (iodo) I− monoanionic monodentate Bromide (bromo) Br− monoanionic monodentate Sulfide (thio or less commonly "bridging thiolate") S2− dianionic monodentate (M=S), or bidentate bridging (M-S-M') Thiocyanate (thiocyanato) S-CN− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also isothiocyanate, below) Chloride (chloro) Cl− monoanionic monodentate also found bridging Nitrate (nitroso) O-NO2− monoanionic monodentate Azide (azido) N-N2− monoanionic monodentate Fluoride ( fluorido) F− monoanionic monodentate Hydroxide hydroxo O-H− monoanionic monodentate often found as a bridging ligand Oxalate (oxalato) [O-C(=O)-C(=O)-O]2− dianionic bidentate Water (aqua) H-O-H neutral monodentate monodentate Nitrite nitrito O-N-O− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also nitro) Isothiocyanate (isothiocyanato) N=C=S− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also thiocyanate, above) Acetonitrile (acetonitrilo) CH3CN neutral monodentate Pyridine (pyridino) C5H5N neutral monodentate Ammonia (ammine or less commonly "ammino") NH3 neutral monodentate Ethylenediamine en neutral bidentate 2,2'-Bipyridine bipy neutral bidentate easily reduced to its (radical) anion or even to its dianion 1,10-Phenanthroline phen neutral bidentate Nitrite (nitro) N-O2− monoanionic monodentate ambidentate (see also nitrito) Triphenylphosphine PPh3 neutral monodentate Cyanide (cyano) CN− monoanionic monodentate can bridge between metals (both metals bound to C, or one to C and one to N) Carbon monoxide carbonyl CO neutral monodentate can bridge between metals (both metals bound to C) Note: The entries in the table are sorted by field strength, binding through the stated atom (i.e. as a terminal ligand), the 'strength' of the ligand changes when the ligand binds in an alternative binding mode (e.g. when it bridges between metals) or when the conformation of the ligand gets distorted (e.g. a linear ligand that is forced through steric interactions to bind in a non-linear fashion). Other general encountered ligands (alphabetical) In this table other common ligands are listed in alphabetical order. Ligand formula (bonding atom(s) in bold) Charge Most common denticity Remark(s) Acetonitrile MeCN neutral monodentate Acetylacetonate (Acac) CH3-C(O)-CH-C(O)-CH3 monoanionic bidentate In general bidentate, bound through both oxygens, but sometimes bound through the central carbon only, see also analogous ketimine analogues Alkenes R2C=CR2 neutral compounds with a C-C double bond Benzene C6H6 neutral and other arenes 1,2-Bis(diphenylphosphino)ethane (dppe) Ph2PC2H4PPh2 neutral bidentate 1,1-Bis(diphenylphosphino)methane (dppm) C25H22P2 neutral Can bond to 2 metal atoms at once, forming dimers Corroles tetradentate Crown ethers neutral primarily for alkali and alkaline earth metal cations 2,2,2-crypt hexadentate primarily for alkali and alkaline earth metal cations Cryptates neutral Cyclopentadienyl [C5H5]− monoanionic Diethylenetriamine (dien) C4H13N3 neutral tridentate related to TACN, but not constrained to facial complexation Dimethylglyoximate (dmgH−) monoanionic Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) tetra-anionic hexadentate actual ligand is the tetra-anion Ethylenediaminetriacetate trianionic pentadentate actual ligand is the trianion glycinate bidentate other α-amino acid anions are comparable (but chiral) Heme dianionic tetradentate macrocyclic ligand Nitrosyl NO+ cationic bent (1e) and linear (3e) bonding mode Pyrazine N2C4H4 neutral ditopic sometimes bridging Scorpionate ligand tridentate Sulfite monoanionic monodentate ambidentate 2,2',5',2-Terpyridine (terpy) \|\| \|\| neutral \|\| tridentate \|\| meridional bonding only \|- \| Thiocyanate \|\| \|\| monoanionic \|\| monodentate \|\| ambidentate, sometimes bridging \|- \| Triazacyclononane (tacn) \|\| (C2H4)3(NR)3 \|\| neutral \|\| tridentate \|\| macrocyclic ligand see also the N,N',N"-trimethylated analogue \|- \| Tricyclohexylphosphine \|\| (C6H11)3P or (PCy3) \|\| neutral \|\| monodentate \|\| \|- \| Triethylenetetramine (trien) \|\| \|\| neutral \|\| tetradentate \|\| \|- \| Trimethylphosphine \|\| PMe3 \|\| neutral \|\| monodentate \|\| \|- \| Tri(o-tolyl)phosphine \|\| P(o''-tolyl)3 neutral monodentate Tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (tren) (NH2CH2CH2)3N neutral tetradentate Tris(2-diphenylphosphineethyl)amine (np3) neutral tetradentate Terpyridine C15H11N3 neutral tridentate Tropylium C7H<sub>7+ cationic See also Crystal field theory Ligand field theory Coordination chemistry Inorganic chemistry Tanabe-Sugano diagram Spectrochemical series References	Ligand \|@lemmatized chemistry:7 ligand:113 either:2 atom:26 ion:11 molecule:4 see:14 also:16 functional:1 group:3 bond:34 central:9 metal:53 produce:1 coordination:11 complex:26 bonding:8 generally:2 involve:3 formal:2 donation:3 one:12 electron:12 range:3 covalent:1 ionic:3 furthermore:1 order:5 three:3 view:3 lewis:4 base:5 although:3 rare:1 case:3 know:3 acidic:1 ligands:10 metalloids:1 bind:16 virtually:4 circumstance:1 gaseous:1 naked:1 generate:1 high:4 vacuum:1 dictate:1 reactivity:3 include:3 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monodentate:29 strong:6 field:17 weak:5 general:5 electrostatic:1 often:5 describe:3 use:3 formalism:1 molecular:2 orbital:5 pair:8 occupy:2 homo:3 ranking:1 system:2 focus:1 hardness:1 hard:2 soft:2 acid:2 preferentially:1 certain:2 prefer:2 whereas:4 mo:1 point:1 energy:11 overlap:1 lumo:4 preferential:1 bound:3 follow:2 aufbau:1 principle:1 complexes:1 hund:1 rule:1 binding:2 result:4 set:5 orbitals:19 identify:1 new:1 define:1 property:5 ordering:2 may:2 fill:4 partially:2 environment:1 otherwise:1 degenerate:1 split:2 depth:1 explanation:1 crystal:2 low:4 dxy:2 dxz:2 dyz:2 splitting:2 parameter:1 δo:6 magnitude:3 determine:2 strength:7 definition:1 increase:1 sort:3 accord:1 table:4 almost:1 invariable:1 spectrochemical:2 series:2 tetrahedral:3 surrounding:1 two:7 time:3 reverse:1 δt:2 small:1 influence:3 neither:1 become:1 correspondingly:1 purpose:1 rank:1 however:2 primary:1 interest:1 arrangement:1 effect:4 absorption:2 spectrum:2 turn:1 valence:1 significant:1 character:1 absorb:1 nm:1 region:1 uv:1 visible:1 light:2 perceive:1 color:1 excitation:1 another:1 correlate:1 ground:1 state:3 reflect:1 relative:2 change:2 function:1 tanabe:2 sugano:2 diagram:2 participate:1 far:1 stabilise:1 density:3 back:3 process:1 donates:1 monoxide:3 preeminent:1 example:7 engage:1 via:4 complementarily:1 pi:5 symmetry:1 serve:2 donor:6 polydentate:6 polyhapto:1 motif:2 nomenclature:2 represent:2 κ:1 refers:3 non:6 contiguous:3 site:7 capable:1 multiple:5 usually:2 lone:7 termed:1 chelate:6 bidentate:13 tridentate:6 bite:2 commonly:3 form:8 link:2 organic:2 linkers:1 classic:2 ethylenediamine:2 derive:3 linking:1 ethylene:1 linker:1 agent:1 able:1 completely:1 surround:2 centre:3 symbolize:1 κn:1 n:12 sexidentate:1 amine:3 carboxylate:1 oxygen:2 practice:1 value:1 explicitly:1 rather:1 assume:1 affinity:1 depend:2 tend:1 stable:2 enhanced:1 stability:1 attribute:1 entropy:1 favor:1 displacement:1 large:2 ring:2 least:1 leave:1 rigid:1 inert:1 macrocyclic:3 heme:2 good:2 iron:1 porphyrin:1 macrocycle:3 four:1 nitrogen:2 tetrapyrrole:1 dimethylglyoximate:2 nickel:1 synthetic:1 anion:6 dimethylglyoxime:1 η:1 comprise:1 center:6 butadiene:1 single:1 ambidentate:9 unlike:1 place:1 thiocyanate:4 scn:1 sulfur:1 give:1 rise:1 linkage:2 isomerism:1 polyfunctional:1 especially:2 protein:1 different:3 various:1 bridge:12 polyatomic:2 prone:1 complicate:1 thus:2 capacity:1 prefix:1 μ:1 mu:1 inorganic:2 solid:1 polymer:1 virtue:1 presence:1 part:1 distinguish:1 x:2 r:3 refer:1 linear:6 bent:5 discussion:1 concern:1 degree:1 imido:1 sigma:1 available:1 l:1 type:2 extent:1 bend:1 speak:1 much:1 nitric:1 oxide:1 manner:2 specialized:1 innocent:3 distribution:1 unclear:1 noninnocent:1 write:1 resonance:1 partial:1 contribution:1 overall:1 trans:2 span:3 position:1 opposite:1 side:1 common:7 every:2 simple:2 halide:1 pseudohalides:1 important:1 water:2 particularly:1 specie:1 ro:1 xnhx:1 steric:2 evaluate:1 term:1 beyond:1 classical:1 unsaturated:1 utilize:1 π:1 σ:1 silanes:1 hydrocarbon:1 dihydrogen:1 agostic:1 interaction:2 conventional:1 active:1 following:1 formula:2 bold:2 remark:2 iodide:1 iodo:1 monoanionic:17 bromide:1 bromo:1 br:1 sulfide:1 thio:1 less:2 thiolate:1 dianionic:3 bridging:2 thiocyanato:1 cn:2 isothiocyanate:2 chloro:1 cl:1 find:2 nitrate:1 nitroso:1 azide:1 azido:1 fluoride:1 fluorido:1 f:1 hydroxide:1 hydroxo:1 h:3 oxalate:1 oxalato:1 c:10 aqua:1 nitrite:2 nitrito:2 nitro:2 isothiocyanato:1 acetonitrile:2 acetonitrilo:1 pyridine:1 pyridino:1 ammino:1 en:1 bipyridine:1 bipy:1 easily:1 reduce:1 radical:1 even:1 dianion:1 phenanthroline:1 phen:1 triphenylphosphine:1 cyanide:1 cyano:1 carbonyl:1 note:1 entry:1 terminal:1 alternative:1 mode:2 conformation:1 get:1 distort:1 force:1 fashion:1 encounter:1 alphabetical:2 list:1 mecn:1 acetylacetonate:1 acac:1 ch:1 analogous:1 ketimine:1 analogue:2 alkene:1 double:1 benzene:1 arenes:1 bi:2 diphenylphosphino:2 ethane:1 dppe:1 methane:1 dppm:1 dimer:1 corroles:1 tetradentate:5 crown:1 ether:1 primarily:2 alkali:2 alkaline:2 earth:2 cation:2 crypt:1 cryptates:1 cyclopentadienyl:1 diethylenetriamine:1 dien:1 relate:1 tacn:2 constrain:1 facial:1 complexation:1 dmgh:1 ethylenediaminetetraacetate:1 tetra:2 actual:2 ethylenediaminetriacetate:1 trianionic:1 pentadentate:1 trianion:1 glycinate:1 α:1 amino:1 comparable:1 chiral:1 nitrosyl:1 pyrazine:1 ditopic:1 scorpionate:1 sulfite:1 terpyridine:2 terpy:1 meridional:1 triazacyclononane:1 nr:1 trimethylated:1 tricyclohexylphosphine:1 triethylenetetramine:1 trien:1 trimethylphosphine:1 tri:1 tolyl:2 phosphine:1 p:1 tris:2 aminoethyl:1 tren:1 diphenylphosphineethyl:1 tropylium:1 sub:1 reference:1 \|@bigram covalent_ionic:1 metal_metalloids:1 molecular_orbital:1 molecular_orbitals:1 absorption_spectrum:1 valence_electron:1 carbon_monoxide:3 lone_pair:7 polydentate_ligand:5 carbon_atom:1 nitric_oxide:1 monoanionic_monodentate:14 monodentate_ambidentate:6 neutral_monodentate:10 alphabetical_order:1 alkali_alkaline:2 amino_acid:1 inorganic_chemistry:1
1,156	Carl_Sagan	Carl Edward Sagan, Ph.D. (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer, astrochemist, author, and highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics and other natural sciences. He pioneered exobiology and promoted the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI). He is world-famous for writing popular science books and for co-writing and presenting the award-winning 1980 television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, which has been seen by more than 600 million people in over 60 countries, making it the most widely watched PBS program in history. A book to accompany the program was also published. He also wrote the novel Contact, the basis for the 1997 Robert Zemeckis film of the same name starring Jodie Foster. During his lifetime, Sagan published more than 600 scientific papers and popular articles and was author, co-author, or editor of more than 20 books. In his works, he frequently advocated skeptical inquiry, secular humanism, and the scientific method. Education and scientific career Carl Sagan was born in Brooklyn, to a Russian Jewish family. His father, Sam Sagan, was a Russian immigrant garment worker; his mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife. Carl was named in honor of Rachel's biological mother, Chaiya Clara, "the mother she never knew", in Sagan's words. Sagan graduated from Rahway High School in Rahway, New Jersey in 1951. He attended the University of Chicago, where he participated in the Ryerson Astronomical Society http://astro.uchicago.edu/RAS/ , received an A.B. with general and special honors (1954), an S.B. (1955) and an S.M. (1956) in physics, before earning a Ph.D. degree (1960) in astronomy and astrophysics. Graduate students receive first Sagan teaching awards During his time as an undergraduate, Sagan spent some time working in the laboratory of the geneticist H. J. Muller. From 1960 to 1962 he was a Miller Fellow at the University of California, Berkeley. From 1962 to 1968, he worked at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Sagan lectured and did research annually at Harvard University until 1968, when he moved to Cornell University in New York State. He became a full Professor at Cornell in 1971, and he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies there. From 1972 to 1981, Sagan was the Associate Director of the Center for Radio Physics and Space Research at Cornell. Sagan was a scientist connected with the American space program since its inception. From the 1950s onward, he worked as an adviser to NASA. One of his many duties during his tenure at the space agency included briefing the Apollo astronauts before their flights to the Moon. Sagan contributed to many of the robotic spacecraft missions that explored the solar system during his lifetime, arranging experiments on many of the expeditions. He conceived the idea of adding an unalterable and universal message on spacecraft destined to leave the solar system that could be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find it. Sagan assembled the first physical message that was sent into space: a gold-anodized plaque, attached to the space probe Pioneer 10, launched in 1972. Pioneer 11, also carrying another copy of the plaque, was launched the following year. He continued to refine his designs throughout his lifetime; the most elaborate message he helped to develop and assemble was the Voyager Golden Record that was sent out with the Voyager space probes in 1977. Sagan often challenged the decisions to fund the Space Shuttle and Space Station at the expense of other robotic missions. Charlie Rose interview, January 5, 1994 At Cornell University, Sagan taught a course on critical thinking until his death in 1996 from a rare bone marrow disease. The course had only a limited number of seats. Although hundreds of students applied each year, only about 20 were chosen to attend each semester. The course was discontinued immediately after Sagan's death, but it was resumed by Dr. Yervant Terzian in 2000. Scientific achievements Carl Sagan's contributions were central to the discovery of the high surface temperatures of the planet Venus. In the early 1960s no one knew for certain the basic conditions of that planet's surface, and Sagan listed the possibilities in a report later depicted for popularization in a Time-Life book, Planets. His own view was that Venus was dry and very hot as opposed to the balmy paradise others had imagined. He had investigated radio emissions from Venus and concluded that there was a surface temperature of 500 °C (900 °F). As a visiting scientist to NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he contributed to the first Mariner missions to Venus, working on the design and management of the project. Mariner 2 confirmed his conclusions on the surface conditions of Venus in 1962. Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn's moon Titan might possess oceans of liquid compounds on its surface and that Jupiter's moon Europa might possess subsurface oceans of water. This made Europa potentially habitable for life. Much of Sagan's research in the field of planetary science is outlined by William Poundstone. Poundstone's biography of Sagan includes an 8-page list of Sagan's scientific articles published from 1957 to 1998. Detailed information about Sagan's scientific work comes from the primary research articles. Example: Sagan, C., Thompson, W. R., and Khare, B. N. Titan: A Laboratory for Prebiological Organic Chemistry, Accounts of Chemical Research, volume 25, page 286 (1992). There is commentary on this research article about Titan at The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight. Europa's subsurface ocean of water was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft Galileo. Sagan also helped solve the mystery of the reddish haze seen on Titan, revealing that it is composed of complex organic molecules constantly raining down onto the moon's surface. He further contributed insights regarding the atmospheres of Venus and Jupiter as well as seasonal changes on Mars. Sagan established that the atmosphere of Venus is extremely hot and dense with pressures increasing steadily all the way down to the surface. He also perceived global warming as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of Venus into a hot, life-hostile planet through a kind of runaway greenhouse effect. Sagan and his Cornell colleague Edwin Ernest Salpeter speculated about life in Jupiter's clouds, given the planet's dense atmospheric composition rich in organic molecules. He studied the observed color variations on Mars’ surface and concluded that they were not seasonal or vegetational changes as most believed but shifts in surface dust caused by windstorms. Sagan is best known, however, for his research on the possibilities of extraterrestrial life, including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation. He is also the 1994 recipient of the Public Welfare Medal, the highest award of the National Academy of Sciences for "distinguished contributions in the application of science to the public welfare." Scientific advocacy Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life. He urged the scientific community to listen with radio telescopes for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial life-forms. So persuasive was he that by 1982 he was able to get a petition advocating SETI published in the journal Science and signed by 70 scientists including seven Nobel Prize winners. This was a tremendous turnaround in the respectability of this controversial field. Sagan also helped Dr. Frank Drake write the Arecibo message, a radio message beamed into space from the Arecibo radio telescope on November 16, 1974, aimed at informing extraterrestrials about Earth. Sagan was chief technology officer of the professional planetary research journal Icarus for twelve years. He co-founded the Planetary Society, the largest space-interest group in the world, with over 1,000,000 members in more than 149 countries, and was a member of the SETI Institute Board of Trustees. Sagan served as Chairman of the Division for Planetary Science of the American Astronomical Society, as President of the Planetology Section of the American Geophysical Union, and as Chairman of the Astronomy Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. At the height of the Cold War, Sagan became involved in public awareness efforts for the effects of nuclear war when a mathematical climate model suggested that a substantial nuclear exchange could upset the delicate balance of life on Earth. He was one of five authors—the "S" of the "TTAPS" report as the research paper came to be known. He eventually co-authored the scientific paper hypothesizing a global nuclear winter following nuclear war. Turco RP, Toon OB, Ackerman TP, Pollack JB, Sagan C. Climate and smoke: an appraisal of nuclear winter, Science, volume 247, pages 166-176 (1990). PubMed abstract JSTOR link to full text article. Carl Sagan discussed his involvement in the political nuclear winter debates and his erroneous global cooling prediction for the Gulf War fires in his book, The Demon-Haunted World. He also co-authored the book A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race, a comprehensive examination of the phenomenon of nuclear winter. Sagan erroneously predicted in January 1991 that so much smoke from the Kuwaiti oil fires "might get so high as to disrupt agriculture in much of South Asia…" He acknowledged the error in The Demon-Haunted World: "as events transpired, it was pitch black at noon and temperatures dropped 4–6°C over the Persian Gulf, but not much smoke reached stratospheric altitudes and Asia was spared." Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted World. p. 257. In his later years Sagan advocated the creation of an organized search for near Earth objects that would impact the Earth. When others suggested creating large nuclear bombs that could be used to alter the orbit of an NEO that was predicted to hit the Earth, Sagan proposed the Deflection Dilemma: If we create the ability to deflect an asteroid away from the Earth, then we also create the ability to deflect an asteroid towards the Earth—providing an evil power with a true doomsday bomb. Social concerns Sagan believed that the Drake equation, on substitution of reasonable guesstimates, suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations highlighted by the Fermi paradox suggests technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This stimulated his interest in identifying and publicizing ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such a cataclysm and eventually becoming a spacefaring species. Sagan's deep concern regarding the potential destruction of human civilization in a nuclear holocaust was conveyed in a memorable cinematic sequence in the final episode of Cosmos, called "Who Speaks for Earth?". Following his marriage to his third wife (novelist Ann Druyan) in June 1981, Sagan became more politically active—particularly in regard to the escalation of the nuclear arms race under President Ronald Reagan. In March 1983, hoping to blunt the momentum of the nuclear freeze movement, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative—a multi-billion dollar project to develop a comprehensive defense against attack by nuclear missiles, which was quickly dubbed the "Star Wars" program. Sagan spoke out against the project, arguing that it was technically impossible to develop a system with the level of perfection required, and far more expensive to build than for an enemy to defeat through decoys and other means—and that its construction would seriously destabilize the nuclear balance between the United States and the Soviet Union, making further progress toward nuclear disarmament impossible. When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev declared a unilateral moratorium on the testing of nuclear weapons, which would begin on August 6, 1985—the 40th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima—the Reagan administration dismissed the dramatic move as nothing more than propaganda, and refused to follow suit. In response, American anti-nuclear and peace activists staged a series of protest actions at the Nevada Test Site, beginning on Easter Sunday of 1986 and continuing through 1987. Hundreds of people were arrested, including Sagan, who (previously being arrested for participating in an anti-war protest during the Vietnam War) was arrested on two separate occasions as he climbed over a chain-link fence at the Test Site. Popularization of science Sagan's capability to convey his ideas allowed many people to better understand the cosmos—simultaneously emphasizing the value and worthiness of the human race, and the relative insignificance of the earth in comparison to the universe. He delivered the 1977/1978 Christmas Lectures for Young People at the Royal Institution. He hosted and, with Ann Druyan, co-wrote and co-produced the highly popular thirteen-part PBS television series Cosmos: A Personal Voyage modeled on Jacob Bronowski's The Ascent of Man. Cosmos covered a wide range of scientific subjects including the origin of life and a perspective of our place in the universe. The series was first broadcast by the Public Broadcasting Service in 1980, winning an Emmy and a Peabody Award. It has been broadcast in more than 60 countries and seen by over 600 million people, according to the Science Channel. www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/sagan_carl.html Sagan also wrote books to popularize science, such as Cosmos, which reflected and expanded upon some of the themes of A Personal Voyage, and became the best-selling science book ever published in English; The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence, which won a Pulitzer Prize; and Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science. Sagan also wrote the best-selling science fiction novel Contact, but did not live to see the book's 1997 motion picture adaptation, which starred Jodie Foster and won the 1998 Hugo Award. From Cosmos and his frequent appearances on The Tonight Show, Sagan became associated with the catch phrase "billions and billions". As Sagan himself stated, he never actually used the phrase in the Cosmos series. The closest that he ever came was in the book Cosmos, where he talked of "billions upon billions": However, his frequent use of the word billions, and distinctive delivery emphasizing the "b" (which he did intentionally, in place of more cumbersome alternatives such as "billions with a 'b'", in order to distinguish the word from "millions" in viewers' minds), made him a favorite target of comic performers including Johnny Carson, Gary Kroeger, Mike Myers, Myers portrayed Sagan in "SNL: Carl Sagan's Global Warming Christmas Special [VIDEO]"<http://www.alternet.org/blogs/video/71374/> Bronson Pinchot, Harry Shearer, and others. Frank Zappa satirized the line in the song Be In My Video, noting as well 'atomic light.' Sagan took this all in good humor, and his final book was entitled Billions and Billions which opened with a tongue-in-cheek discussion of this catch phrase, observing that Carson himself was an amateur astronomer and that Carson's comic caricature often included real science. As a humorous tribute to him, a Sagan has been defined as a humorous unit of measurement equal to at least four billion, since the lower bound of a number conforming to the constraint of billions and billions must be two billion plus two billion. Sagan at dictionary.reference.com (definition from the Jargon File) William Safire, ON LANGUAGE; Footprints on the Infobahn, New York Times, April 17, 1994 Assuming one uses the short scale definition for billion, there are nearly 100 Sagan (400,000,000,000) stars in the Milky Way galaxy. In 1994, Apple Computer began developing the Power Macintosh 7100. They chose the internal code name "Carl Sagan", the reference being that the mid-range PowerMac 7100 should make Apple "billions and billions." Though the internal project name was never used in public marketing, it did come up in Usenet postings and news of the name grew from there. When Sagan learned of this he sued Apple Computer to force the use of a different project name. Other models released conjointly had code names such as "Cold fusion" and "Piltdown Man", and Sagan was displeased at being associated with what he considered pseudoscience. (He was at the time writing a book discrediting pseudoscience.) Though Sagan lost the lawsuit Apple engineers complied with his demands anyway and renamed the project "BHA" (for Butt-Head Astronomer). Sagan promptly sued Apple for libel over the new name, claiming that it subjected him to contempt and ridicule, but he lost this lawsuit as well. Still, the 7100 saw another name change: it was finally referred to internally as "LAW" (Lawyers Are Wimps). Carl Sagan, Plaintiff, v. Apple Computer, Inc., Defendant CV 94-2180 LGB (BRx) United States District Court for the Central District of California 874 F. Supp. 1072; 1994 U.S. Dist. Lexis 20154 June 27, 1994, Decided June 27, 1994, Filed Whilst Sagan was outspoken about political issues, the popular perception of his characterisation of large cosmic quantities continued to be a sense of wonderment at the numinousness of space and time as in his phrase "The total number of stars in the Universe is larger than all the grains of sand on all the beaches of the planet Earth", however this famous saying was widely misunderstood, as he was in fact referring, in his Cosmos series, to the world being at a "critical branch point in history where our actions will propagate down through the centuries" as in the following quote from Cosmos: A personal Voyage: Episode 8: Journeys in Space and Time: He wrote a sequel to Cosmos, Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space, which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by The New York Times. He appeared on PBS' Charlie Rose program in January 1995. starts at 00:39:29 Sagan also wrote an introduction for the bestselling book by Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time. Sagan was also known for his popularization of science, his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public, and his positions in favor of scientific skepticism and against pseudoscience, such as his debunking of the Betty and Barney Hill abduction. To mark the tenth anniversary of Sagan's passing, David Morrison, a former student of Sagan, recalled "Sagan's immense contributions to planetary research, the public understanding of science, and the skeptical movement" in Skeptical Inquirer. Morrison, David (2007). Man for the Cosmos: Carl Sagan's Life and Legacy as Scientist, Teacher, and Skeptic. Skeptical Inquirer January/February, 31(1), pp. 29-38. Personal life and beliefs In 1966, Sagan was asked to contribute an interview about the possibility of extraterrestrials to a proposed introduction to the film 2001: A Space Odyssey. Sagan allegedly responded by saying that he wanted editorial control and a percentage of the film's box office receipts. These terms were rejected. Sagan wrote frequently about religion and the relationship between religion and science, expressing his skepticism about the conventional conceptualization of God as a sapient being. Sagan once stated, for instance, that: Sagan is also widely regarded as a freethinker or skeptic; one of his most famous quotations, in Cosmos, was, "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence." This was actually based on a nearly identical earlier quote by fellow CSICOP founder Marcello Truzzi, "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof." In turn, those quotes originated with Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827), a French mathematician and astronomer who said, "The weight of evidence for an extraordinary claim must be proportioned to its strangeness." A sense of place in the heartland, The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel Online Sagan was, however, not an atheist, expressing that, "An atheist has to know a lot more than I know." http://voices.washingtonpost.com/achenblog/2006/04/the_sagan_file.html; reprinted in Achenbach, Joel (2007). The Sagan File. Skeptic 13(1), pp. 55-56. In reply to a direct question in 1996 about his religious beliefs, Sagan gave a direct answer: "I'm agnostic." Head, Tom (2007). Conversations with Carl. Skeptic 13(1), pp. 32-38; excerpted from Head, Tom, editor (2006). Conversations with Carl Sagan. Univ. of Mississippi Press. ISBN 1-57806-736-7. Sagan argued that the idea of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could challenge it would be an infinitely old universe. Sagan married three times: to biologist Lynn Margulis, mother of Dorion Sagan and Jeremy Sagan, in 1957; to artist Linda Salzman, mother of Nick Sagan, in 1968; and to author Ann Druyan, mother of Alexandra Rachel (Sasha) and Samuel Democritus (Sam), in 1981. His marriage to Druyan continued until his death in 1996. Isaac Asimov described Sagan as one of only two people he ever met who were smarter than Asimov himself. The other was the computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert Marvin Minsky. Sagan was a user of marijuana. Under the pseudonym "Mr. X", he wrote an essay concerning cannabis smoking in the 1971 book Marihuana Reconsidered, written by Sagan's close friend Lester Grinspoon. In his essay, Sagan wrote how marijuana use had helped to inspire some of his works and enhance sensual and intellectual experiences. After Sagan's death, Grinspoon disclosed this to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson. The publishing of the biography, Carl Sagan: A Life, in 1999, brought much media attention about this. a. b. c. Sagan warned against human beings' tendency for anthropocentrism, and was the faculty adviser for the Cornell Students for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In the COSMOS chapter "Blues For a Red Planet" Sagan states, "If there is life on Mars, then I believe we should do nothing to disturb that life. Mars, then, belongs to the Martians, even if they are microbes." Late in his life, Sagan's books elaborated on his skeptical, naturalistic view of the world. In The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark, he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating wide use of critical thinking and the scientific method. The compilation, Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium, published in 1997 after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on abortion, and his widow Ann Druyan's account of his death as a skeptic, agnostic, and freethinker. In 2006, Ann Druyan edited Sagan's 1985 Glasgow Gifford Lectures in Natural Theology into a new book, The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God, in which he elaborates on his views of divinity in the natural world. Sagan and UFOs Sagan had some interest in UFO reports from at least 1964, when he had several conversations on the subject with Jacques Vallee. Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought scientists should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports. Stuart Appelle notes that Sagan "wrote frequently on what he perceived as the logical and empirical fallacies regarding UFOs and the abduction experience. Sagan rejected an extraterrestrial explanation for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and pedagogical benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study." In 1966, Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review Project Blue Book, the U.S. Air Force's UFO investigation project. The committee concluded Blue Book had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny. The result was the Condon Committee (1966–1968), led by physicist Edward Condon, and in their final report they formally concluded that UFOs, regardless of what any of them actually were, did not behave in a manner consistent with a threat to national security. Ron Westrum writes that "The high point of Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the AAAS's symposium in 1969. A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents such as James McDonald and J. Allen Hynek but also skeptics like astronomers William Hartmann and Donald Menzel. The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from Edward Condon". With physicist Thornton Page, Sagan edited the lectures and discussions given at the symposium; these were published in 1972 as UFOs: A Scientific Debate. Some of Sagan's many books examine UFOs (as did one episode of Cosmos) and he claimed a religious undercurrent to the phenomenon. Sagan again revealed his views on interstellar travel in his 1980 Cosmos series. In one of his last written works, Sagan argued that the chances of extraterrestrial spacecraft visiting Earth are vanishingly small. However, Sagan did think it plausible that Cold War concerns contributed to governments misleading their citizens about UFOs, and that "some UFO reports and analyses, and perhaps voluminous files, have been made inaccessible to the public which pays the bills ... It's time for the files to be declassified and made generally available." He cautioned against jumping to conclusions about suppressed UFO data and stressed that there was no strong evidence that aliens were visiting the Earth either in the past or present. Sagan, 1996: 81-96, 99-104 Death and legacy After a long and difficult fight with myelodysplasia, which included three bone marrow transplants, Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62 at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington on December 20, 1996. Surviving him were his wife and five children. After landing, the unmanned Mars Pathfinder spacecraft was renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station on July 5, 1997. Asteroid 2709 Sagan is also named in his honor. He was buried at Lakeview Cemetery in Ithaca, New York. The 1997 movie Contact, based on Sagan's novel of the same name and finished after his death, ends with the dedication "For Carl". On November 9, 2001, on what would have been Sagan's 67th birthday, the NASA Ames Research Center dedicated the site for the Carl Sagan Center for the Study of Life in the Cosmos. "Carl was an incredible visionary, and now his legacy can be preserved and advanced by a 21st century research and education laboratory committed to enhancing our understanding of life in the universe and furthering the cause of space exploration for all time", said NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin. Ann Druyan was at the Center as it opened its doors on October 22, 2006. Sagan's son, Nick Sagan, wrote several episodes in the Star Trek franchise. In an episode of Star Trek: Enterprise entitled "Terra Prime", a quick shot is shown of the relic rover Sojourner, part of the Mars Pathfinder mission, placed by a historical marker at Carl Sagan Memorial Station on the Martian surface. The marker displays a quote from Sagan: "Whatever the reason you're on Mars, I'm glad you're there, and I wish I was with you." Sagan's student Steve Squyres led the team that landed the Spirit Rover and Opportunity Rover successfully on Mars in 2004. Sagan has at least three awards named in his honor: The Carl Sagan Memorial Award presented jointly since 1997 by the American Astronautical Society (AAS) and the Planetary Society, The Carl Sagan Medal for Excellence in Public Communication in Planetary Science presented since 1998 by the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences (AAS/DPS) for outstanding communication by an active planetary scientist to the general public — Carl Sagan was one of the original organizing committee members of the DPS, and The Carl Sagan Award for Public Understanding of Science presented by the Council of Scientific Society Presidents (CSSP) — Sagan himself was the first recipient of the CSSP award in 1993. In 2006, the Carl Sagan Medal was awarded to astrobiologist and author David Grinspoon, the son of Sagan's friend Lester Grinspoon. On December 20, 2006, the tenth anniversary of Sagan's death, a blogger, Joel Schlosberg, organized a Carl Sagan "blog-a-thon" to commemorate Sagan's death, and the idea was supported by Nick Sagan. Joel's humanistic blog: Announcing the Carl Sagan memorial blog-a-thon Many members of the blogging community participated. In 2008, Benn Jordan, also known as The Flashbulb, released the album "Pale Blue Dot: A Tribute to Carl Sagan". Awards and honors Annual Award for Television Excellence - 1981 - Ohio State University - PBS series Cosmos Apollo Achievement Award - National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal - National Aeronautics and Space Administration (twice) Emmy - Outstanding Individual Achievement - 1981 - PBS series Cosmos Emmy - Outstanding Informational Series - 1981 - PBS series Cosmos Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal - National Aeronautics and Space Administration Helen Caldicott Leadership Award - Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament Hugo Award - 1981 - Cosmos Humanist of the Year - 1981 - Awarded by the American Humanist Association In Praise of Reason Award - 1987 - Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Isaac Asimov Award - 1994 - Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award - American Astronautical Society John W. Campbell Memorial Award - 1974 - Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective Joseph Priestley Award - "For distinguished contributions to the welfare of mankind" Klumpke-Roberts Award of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific - 1974 Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal - Awarded by the Soviet Cosmonauts Federation Locus Award 1986 - Contact Lowell Thomas Award - Explorers Club - 75th Anniversary Masursky Award - American Astronomical Society Miller Research Fellowship - Miller Institute (1960–1962) New Jersey Hall of Fame - 2009 inductee New Jersey to Bon Jovi: You Give Us a Good Name Yahoo News, February 2, 2009 Oersted Medal - 1990 - American Association of Physics Teachers Peabody Award - 1980 - PBS series Cosmos Prix Galbert - The international prize of Astronautics Public Welfare Medal - 1994 - National Academy of Sciences Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction - 1978 - The Dragons of Eden SF Chronicle Award - 1998 - Contact Named the "99th Greatest American" on the June 5, 2005, Greatest American show on the Discovery Channel Bibliography By Sagan Planets (LIFE Science Library), Sagan, Carl, Jonathon Norton Leonard and editors of Life, Time, Inc., 1966 Intelligent Life in the Universe, I.S. Shklovskii coauthor, Random House, 1966, 509 pgs UFO's: A Scientific Debate, Thornton Page coauthor, Cornell University Press, 1972, 310 pgs Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. MIT Press, 1973, 428 pgs Mars and the Mind of Man, Sagan, Carl, et al., Harper & Row, 1973, 143 pgs Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective, Jerome Agel coauthor, Anchor Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-78303-8, 301 pgs Other Worlds. Bantam Books, 1975 Murmurs of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record, Sagan, Carl, et al., Random House, ISBN 0-394-41047-5, 1978 The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence. Ballantine Books, 1978, ISBN 0-345-34629-7, 288 pgs Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science. Ballantine Books, 1979, ISBN 0-345-33689-5, 416 pgs Cosmos. Random house, 1980. Random House New Edition, May 7, 2002, ISBN 0-375-50832-5, 384 pgs The Nuclear Winter: The World After Nuclear War, Sagan, Carl et al., Sidgwick & Jackson, 1985 Comet, Ann Druyan coauthor, Ballantine Books, 1985, ISBN 0-345-41222-2, 496 pgs Contact. Simon and Schuster, 1985; Reissued August 1997 by Doubleday Books, ISBN 1-56865-424-3, 352 pgs The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God, Ann Druyan editor, 1985 Gifford lectures, Penguin Press, 2006, ISBN 1-59420-107-2, 304 pgs A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race, Richard Turco coauthor, Random House, 1990, ISBN 0-394-58307-8, 499 pgs Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors: A Search for Who We Are, Ann Druyan coauthor, Ballantine Books, October 1993, ISBN 0-345-38472-5, 528 pgs Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space. Random House, November 1994, ISBN 0-679-43841-6, 429 pgs The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Ballantine Books, March 1996, ISBN 0-345-40946-9, 480 pgs (note: the book was first published and copyrighted in 1995 with an errata slip inserted) Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium, Ann Druyan coauthor, Ballantine Books, June 1997, ISBN 0-345-37918-7, 320 pgs The Varieties of Scientific Experience: A Personal View of the Search for God, Carl Sagan (writer) & Ann Druyan (editor), Penguin Press HC, November 2006, ISBN 1-59420-107-2, 304 pgs About Sagan Morrison, David (2006). Carl Sagan: The People's Astronomer. AmeriQuests, vol. 3. no. 2: <http://ejournals.library.vanderbilt.edu/ameriquests/include/getdoc.php?id=402&article=93&mode=pdf>. Achenbach, Joel (1999). Captured by Aliens: the search for life and truth in a very large universe. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84856-2. Includes detailed account of Sagan's role in the search for extraterrestrial life. References External links The Carl Sagan Portal Can We Know the Universe? – 1979 essay by Carl Sagan, taken from his book Broca's Brain Talk of the Nation – Ira Flatow interviews Sagan on his book The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (May 3, 1996) Skeptical Inquirer: Carl Sagan's Life & Legacy (Jan./Feb. 2007) We Are Here: The Pale Blue Dot – A short film narrated by Carl Sagan (40 min extended version) Carl Sagan Charlie Rose interviews Carl Sagan Prize for Science Popularization Carl Sagan Medal for Excellence in Public Communication in Planetary Science, presented by the American Astronomical Society's Division for Planetary Sciences (AAS/DPS) Cosmos Magazine, an Australian popular science magazine inspired by Carl Sagan and launched in June 2005	Carl_Sagan \|@lemmatized carl:40 edward:3 sagan:152 ph:2 november:5 december:3 american:15 astronomer:6 astrochemist:1 author:8 highly:2 successful:1 popularizer:1 astronomy:4 astrophysics:2 natural:4 science:32 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1,157	Belfast	Belfast ( but mistakenly thought to mean "mouth of the Farset") is the capital city of Northern Ireland and the seat of devolved government and legislative assembly in Northern Ireland. It is the largest urban area in the Irish province of Ulster, and the second largest city on the island of Ireland. The City of Belfast has a population of 267,500, and lies at the heart of Metropolitan Belfast, which has a population of 483,418. Belfast was granted city status in 1888. Historically, Belfast has been a centre for the Irish linen industry, tobacco production, rope-making and shipbuilding: the city's main shipbuilders, Harland and Wolff, which built the ill-fated RMS Titanic, propelled Belfast on to the global stage in the early 20th century as the largest and most productive shipyard in the world. Belfast played a key role in the Industrial Revolution, establishing its place as a global industrial centre until the latter half of the 20th century. Today, Belfast remains a centre for industry, as well as the arts, higher education and business, is a legal centre of the United Kingdom, and is the economic engine of Northern Ireland. The city suffered greatly during the period of disruption, conflict, and destruction called the Troubles, but latterly has undergone a sustained period of calmness and substantial economic and commercial growth. Belfast city centre has undergone considerable expansion and regeneration in recent years, with the newly developed Victoria Square area attracting international attention. Belfast is partially composed of seven "quarters", each dedicated to reflect the history of the city. It was first said at the Ireland-US Council that Belfast was once a city of two halves, but is now a city of seven quarters. The historic heart of Belfast, the Cathedral Quarter, has also seen substantial regeneration in recent years, and is seen as a sign of the resurgence of the City's cultural heritage. Belfast is served by two airports: Belfast International Airport to the north-west of the city, and George Best Belfast City Airport in the east of the city. Belfast is also a major seaport, with commercial and industrial docks dominating the Belfast Lough shoreline, including the famous Harland and Wolff shipyard. Belfast is a constituent city of the Dublin-Belfast corridor with a population of 3million, comprising of half the total population of the island of Ireland. History Although the county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, the city continues to be viewed as straddling County Antrim and County Down. Origins The name, Belfast, is the anglicised version of the Irish Béal Feirste, which translates as "Mouth of the (River) Farset". This term refers to the sand bar that formed where the River Farset met the River Lagan at what is now Donegall Quay and flowed into Belfast Lough, which became the hub around which the city developed. The site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city centre in the 12th century, but this was on a lesser scale and not as strategically important as Carrickfergus Castle to the north, which was built by de Courcy in 1177. The O'Neill clan had a presence in the area. In the 14th century the Clan Aedh Buidh, descendants of "Yellow" Hugh O'Neill built Grey Castle at Castlereagh, now in the east of the city. Conn O'Neill also owned land in the area, one remaining link being the Conn's Water river flowing through east Belfast. Growth Belfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as a town by Sir Arthur Chichester, which was initially settled by Protestant English and Scottish migrants at the time of the Plantation of Ulster. (Belfast and County Antrim, however, did not form part of the Plantation scheme.) In 1791, the Society of United Irishmen was founded in Belfast, after Henry Joy McCracken and other prominent Presbyterians from the city invited Theobald Wolfe Tone and Thomas Russell. to a meeting, after having read Tone's "Argument on Behalf of the Catholics of Ireland". Belfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th and 19th centuries and became Ireland's pre-eminent industrial city. Industries thrived, including linen, rope-making, tobacco, heavy engineering and shipbuilding, and at the end of the nineteenth century, Belfast briefly overtook Dublin as the largest city in Ireland. The Harland and Wolff shipyards became one of the largest shipbuilders in the world, employing up to 35,000 workers. Belfast was heavily bombed during World War II. In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Outside of London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the Blitz. The Troubles Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Since its emergence as a major city, it had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Roman Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'. The most recent example of this is known as the Troubles - a civil conflict that raged from c.1969 to the late 1990s. Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups forming on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. The Provisional IRA detonated twenty-two bombs, all in a confined area in the city centre in 1972, on what is known as "Bloody Friday", killing nine people. Loyalist paramilitaries, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA) claimed that the murders they carried out were in retaliation to the PIRA campaign. Most of their victims were Roman Catholic civilians entirely unconnected to the Provisional IRA. A particularly notorious group, based on the Shankill Road in the mid 1970s became known as the Shankill Butchers. In all, over one thousand five hundred people were killed in political violence in the city from 1969 until 2001. Part of the legacy of the Troubles is that both republican and loyalist paramilitary groups in Belfast have become involved in organised crime and racketeering. Governance Belfast was granted borough status by James I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly. For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency. Local government The city of Belfast has a mayoral form of municipal government. The City's officials are the Lord Mayor, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among fifty-one councillors. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892. As of June 2008, the Lord Mayor of Belfast is Sinn Féin politician, Tom Hartley, who is only the second Sinn Féin Lord Mayor of the city. His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, and representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage. Hartley replaces the Ulster Unionist Party Lord Mayor, Jim Rodgers OBE. In 1997, Unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between Nationalists and Unionists. This position was confirmed in the council elections of 2001 and 2005. Since then it has had three Nationalist mayors, two from the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and one from Sinn Féin. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the SDLP, in 1996. In the 2005 local government elections, the voters of Belfast elected fifty-one councillors to Belfast City Council from the following political parties: 15 Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 14 Sinn Féin, 8 SDLP, 7 Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 4 Alliance Party, 2 Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), and 1 Independent (a former deputy mayor who takes the UUP whip was a member of the defunct Loyalist paramilitary linked, Ulster Democratic Party). Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster The Parliament Buildings at Stormont. Built in 1932 and home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: North Belfast, West Belfast, South Belfast and East Belfast. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2007, Belfast elected 24 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), 6 from each constituency. The MLA breakdown consisted of 8 Sinn Féin, 6 DUP, 4 SDLP, 3 UUP, 2 Alliance Party, and 1 PUP. In the 2005 UK general election, Belfast elected one MP from each constituency to the House of Commons at Westminster, London. This comprised 2 DUP, 1 SDLP, and 1 Sinn Féin. Coat of arms and motto The city of Belfast has the Latin motto "Pro tanto quid retribuamus". This is taken from Psalm 116 Verse 12 in the Latin Vulgate Bible and is literally "For (Pro) the much (tanto) what (quid) we shall repay (retribuamus)" The verse has been translated in different bibles differently - for example as "What shall I render unto the Lord for all his benefits toward me?". King James Bible, Psalm 116 Verse 12 It is also translated as "In return for so much, what shall we give back?" "I reflected on the two mottos of Belfast and America - 'Pro Tanto Quid' and 'E Pluribus Unum'. I am reliably informed that these roughly translate as 'In return for so much, what shall we give back?' and 'From many, one'" Celebrating diversity, by Belfast Lord Mayor Tom Ekin The Queen's University Students' Union Rag Week publication PTQ derives its name from the first three words of the motto. The city's coat of arms shows a central shield, bearing a ship and a bell, flanked by a chained wolf (or wolfhound) on the left and a seahorse on the right. A smaller seahorse sits at the top. This crest dates back to 1613, when King James I granted Belfast town status. The seal was used by Belfast merchants throughout the seventeenth century on their signs and trade-coins. A large stained glass window in the City Hall displays the seal, where an explanation suggests that the seahorse and the ship refer to Belfast's significant maritime history. The wolf may be a tribute to the city's founder, Sir Arthur Chichester, and refer to his own coat of arms. Geography Cavehill, a basaltic hill overlooking the city. Belfast is situated on Ireland's eastern coast at . The city is flanked to the northwest by a series of hills, including Cavehill, which is thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's novel, Gulliver's Travels. Belfast is located at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan making it an ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous. When the Titanic was built in Belfast in 1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world. Belfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast. A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00. Belfast is located at the eastern end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan. In 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name (). The area of Belfast Local Government District is . The River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish feirste meaning ‘sand spit’). Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century. Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge. However, superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street. The city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels. When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of the Limestone Road in Belfast, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city. The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as Napoleon's Nose, is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a sixteenth century chieftain who controlled the area at that time. The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast. Former poet and Catholic Bishop of Down and Connor, Dr William Philbin wrote this of Belfast: "Belfast is a city walled in by mountains, moated by sees, and undermined by deposits of history". Climate Belfast has a temperate climate. Average daily high temperatures are 18 °C (64 °F) in July and 6 °C (43 °F) in January. The highest temperature recorded in Belfast was 30.8 °C (87.4 °F) on 12 July 1983. The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 0.01 in/0.25 mm) on 213 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of , less than the Lake District or the Scottish Highlands, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland. As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year. The city is also renowned for how warm it can get during the winter month at its high latitude. In February, temperatures have hit 17 °C, at the same latitude where it is ~-45 °C in Russia and Canada. It is not uncommon for temperatures in summer to reach as high as 27 °C (80 °F) on numerous days. The consistently humid climate that prevails over Ireland can make temperatures feel uncomfortable when they stray into the high 20s (80-85°F), more so than similar temperatures in hotter climates in the rest of Europe. Areas and districts View of Belfast from The Ashby Building, part of QUB. The David Keir Building of Queen's University is in the foreground. The yellow façade of Belfast City Hospital is visible in the centre background, with the city's current tallest building Windsor House in the right background. Belfast expanded very rapidly from market town to industrial city during the course of the nineteenth century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements. Including the city centre, the city can be divided into five areas with north Belfast, east Belfast, south Belfast, and west Belfast. Each of these is a parliamentary constituency. Belfast remains segregated by walls, commonly known as “peace lines”, erected by the Army after August 1969, and which still divide fourteen neighbourhoods in the inner city. In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'. "A Process for Removing Interface Barriers", Tony Macaulay, July 2008 In June 2007, a UK£16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre. Major arterial roads (quality bus corridor) into the city include the Antrim Road, Shore Road, Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, Ormeau Road, Malone Road, Lisburn Road, Falls Road, Springfield Road, Shankill Road, and Crumlin Road. Belfast city centre is divided by two postcodes, BT1 for the area lying north of the City Hall, and BT2 for the area to its south. The industrial estate and docklands share BT3. The rest of the Greater Belfast postcodes are set out in a clockwise system. Although BT stands for Belfast, it is used across the whole of Northern Ireland. View of Belfast from the Big Wheel at the City Hall Since 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural quarters. The Cathedral Quarter takes its name from St. Anne’s Cathedral (Church of Ireland) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality. It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival. View of Belfast City Hall from the Big Wheel In March 2008, Victoria Square, a £400m shopping complex opened in the centre of Belfast, consisting of shops, restaurants, a cinema (opening in June 2008) and the largest of any House of Fraser store, increasing the shopping area of Belfast by up to a third. Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. The Gaeltacht Quarter is an area around the Falls Road in West Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the Irish language. The Queen's Quarter in South Belfast is named after Queen's University. The area has a large student population and hosts the annual Belfast Festival at Queen’s each autumn. It is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum, closed for major redevelopment until 2009. The Golden Mile is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University. Taking in Great Victoria St, Shaftesbury Square and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city. Since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip. Finally, The Titanic Quarter covers 0.75 km² of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast harbour, formerly known as Queen's Island. Named after the Titanic, which was built here in 1912, work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into "one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe". Plans also include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum. Parks and gardens Belfast has over forty public parks. The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces. They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993. In 2006, the City Council set aside UK£8 million to continue this work. The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland. With 700,000 visitors in 2005, one of the most popular parks is Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts. U2 played here in 1997. Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden. Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms. It has an area of of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a Princess Diana Memorial Garden, a Japanese Garden, a walled garden, and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the Queen’s Golden Jubilee celebrations. In 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the RHS Britain in Bloom competition along with London Borough of Croydon and Sheffield. Demography In the 2001 census, the population within the city limits (the Belfast Urban Area) was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area. This made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation. Belfast experienced a huge growth in population around the first half of the twentieth century. This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area. Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population. The 2001 census population within the same Urban Area, had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area. The population density in the same year was 2,415 people/km² (compared to 119 for the rest of Northern Ireland). As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road to the south. An area of greater deprivation extends to the west of the city. The areas around the Falls and Shankill Roads are the most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. Despite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working class neighbourhoods. These zones - ‘Catholic’ or ‘Republican’ on one side and ‘Protestant’, or ‘Loyalist’ on the other - are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals. Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast, but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city. This escalation in segregation, described as a "ratchet effect", has shown little sign of decreasing during times of peace. When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas. The highest levels of segregation in the city are in West Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic. Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant East Belfast. Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas. Ethnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s. The largest groups are Chinese and Irish travellers. Since the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants. Census figures (2001) showed that Belfast has a total ethnic minority population of 4,584 or 1.3% of the population. Over half of these live in South Belfast, where they comprise 2.63% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living and working in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area. Economy The IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast. This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The Waterfront Hall. Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue. Other major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island until eclipsed by the U2 Tower in Dublin. Today, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub. In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%. Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4 per cent, compared with 9.2 per cent for the UK as a whole. Northern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city. In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK. In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in South Belfast being £141,000. In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%. Peace has also boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast. There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004. The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs. Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005. The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe. Belfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest British cities over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found. "That's because [of] the fundamentals of the UK economy and [because] people actually want to invest in the UK," he commented on that report. WNS BBC Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic. There are "huge amounts" of foreign investment coming into the country. WNS http://www.wilson-nesbitt.com/articles/758/12052008/northern_ireland_an_attractive_investment_opportunity The Times wrote about Belfast's growing economy: According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990’s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country. As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth. In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has also established itself as a significant location for call centres." The Times Since the ending of the regions conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost. The Times Der Spiegel, a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as The New Celtic Tiger which is "open for business". Der Spiegel Industrial growth When the population of Belfast town began to grow in the seventeenth century, its economy was built on commerce. It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port. The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America. In the mid-seventeenth century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco. Around this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the eighteenth century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast. The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution. It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed. By the turn of the nineteenth century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname "Linenopolis". A 1907 stereoscope postcard depicting the construction of a liner at the Harland and Wolff shipyard. Belfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships. Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished. The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the Titanic was built in Belfast in 1912 it had become the largest shipyard in the world. Short Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast. It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world. The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff. Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast. The rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade. Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by The Troubles. More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s. For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to UK£4 billion per year. Ongoing sectarian violence has made it difficult for Belfast to compete with Dublin's Celtic Tiger economy. This has meant that wage rates in Belfast and Northern Ireland now run almost 40% behind that of the Republic of Ireland, however the Republic has experienced high levels of uncharacteristic inflation in recent years with the result that the general 'cost of living' is significantly greater. Architecture Belfast City Hall and the Big Wheel at night \|City hall and Big Wheel during daytime The architectural style of Belfast's buildings range from Edwardian, like the City Hall, to modern, like Waterfront Hall. Many of the city's Victorian landmarks, including the main Lanyon Building at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, were designed by Sir Charles Lanyon. The City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast’s city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. The Edwardian architectural influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is 173 ft (53 m) high and figures above the door state “Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City”. Among the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: Ulster Bank in Waring Street (built in 1860) and Northern Bank, in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769). The Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's Supreme Court. Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area. Windsor House, 262 ft (80 m) high, has twenty-three floors and is the tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland. Work has started on the taller Obel Tower and in 2007, plans were approved for the Aurora building. At 37 storeys and 358 ft (109 m) high, this will surpass both previous buildings. The ornately decorated Crown Liquor Saloon, designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is the only bar in the UK owned by the National Trust. It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, Odd Man Out, starring James Mason. The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for Britannic, the sister ship of the Titanic, built in Belfast. The Harland and Wolff shipyard is now the location of the world's largest dry dock, where the giant cranes, Samson and Goliath stand out against Belfast's skyline. Including the Waterfront Hall and the Odyssey Arena, Belfast has several other venues for performing arts. The architecture of the Grand Opera House has a distinctly oriental theme and was completed in 1895. It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory. The Lyric Theatre, the only full-time producing theatre in the country, is where film star Liam Neeson began his career. The Ulster Hall (1859-1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue. Lloyd George, Parnell and Patrick Pearse all attended political rallies there. Infrastructure Belfast saw the worst of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city. However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh. Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city. The University of Ulster also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture. Belfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million. Utilities Silent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow Most of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via Dunore Water Treatment Works in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007. Belfast has approximately 1,300 km of sewers, which are currently being replaced in a project costing over UK£100 million and due for completion in 2009. Northern Ireland Electricity is responsible for transmitting electricity in Northern Ireland. Belfast's electricity comes from Kilroot Power Station, a 520 megawatt dual coal and oil fired plant, situated near Carrickfergus. Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. has been granted the licence for the transportation of natural gas across the Irish Sea from Stranraer to supply Greater Belfast from a base station near Carrickfergus. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the Valuation and Lands Agency. The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular. Health care The Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally-renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland. It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services. The Belfast City Hospital is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland. Musgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing GB£9 million and opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall in May, 2006. Other hospitals in Belfast include the Mater Hospital in north Belfast and the Children's Hospital. Transport Belfast is a relatively car-dependent city, by European standards, with an extensive road network including the ten lane M2 motorway. A recent survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot. It also showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland. A significant road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard. The Westlink, a dual-carriageway skirting the western edge of the city Centre, connects all three Belfast motorways and often suffers from chronic congestion. The work will cost UK£103.9 million and is scheduled for completion in 2009. Commentators have argued that this may simply create a bottleneck at York Street, the next at-grade intersection, until that too is upgraded (planned for 2011). Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These, however, are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on twelve quality bus corridors running along main radial roads, resulting in poor connections between different suburban areas. More distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast’s northern suburbs to Carrickfergus and Larne, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast also has a direct rail connection with Dublin called Enterprise which is operated jointly by NIR and Iarnród Éireann, the state railway company of the Republic of Ireland. In April 2008, the DRD reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to Dublin. The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable.The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not. The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase. The city has two airports: the Belfast International Airport offers domestic, European and transatlantic flights and is located north-west of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the George Best Belfast City Airport is closer to the city centre, adjacent to Belfast Lough. In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers. Belfast has a large port which is used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services. Stena Line run regular routes to Stranraer in Scotland using its HSS (High Speed Service) vessel—with a crossing time of around 90 minutes— and/or its conventional vessel—with a crossing time of around 3hrs 45 minutes. Norfolkline—formally Norse Merchant Ferries—runs a passenger/cargo ferry to and from Liverpool, with a crossing time of 8 hours and a seasonal sailing to Douglas, Isle of Man is operated by the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company. Culture Belfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents. These two distinct vibrant cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture. Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music. In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation. In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture. The bid was run by an independent company, Imagine Belfast, who boasted that it would "make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion." According to The Guardian the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics. In 2004-05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year). The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and arts activities, twice as many as in 2003-04. A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before. In 2004-05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent UK£262.5 million. The Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded. The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square). There are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music. Well known city centre venues would include Kelly's cellars, Maddens and the Hercules bar. Famous musicians would include The mcPeakes and Brian Kennedy. Musicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast: Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor. Further in Belfast the Oh Yeah Belfast Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as chance to been supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music-scene. The Irish Language is very prominent in the city and Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in the north. There are around a dozen Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school, there is a local Irish language radio station Radio Failte. West Belfast is a designated Gaeltacht area with many of the shops and businesses displaying their signage in Irish. All the Nationalist areas in Belfast have their street signs in Irish. Media Broadcasting House on Ormeau Avenue, home to BBC Northern Ireland. Belfast is the home of The News Letter, the oldest English language newspaper in the world still in publication. Other newspapers include the Irish News and Belfast Telegraph and an Irish language daily newspaper called Lá Nua (). The city also contains a number of free publications including Go Belfast, Fate magazine and the Vacuum that are distributed through bar, cafes and public venues. The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, the ITV station UTV and the commercial radio stations Belfast CityBeat & U105 Two community radio stations, Feile FM and Irish language station Raidió Fáilte broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as well as Queen's Radio - a student-run radio station which broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations NvTv is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. There are two independent cinemas in Belfast, the Queen's Film Theatre and the Strand Cinema, which host screenings during the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast Festival at Queen's. Also broadcasting only over the internet is the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations, Homely Planet. Films shot in Belfast Cherrybomb (2009) Five Minutes of Heaven (2009) Pumpgirl (2009) Fifty Dead Men Walking(2008) Freakdog (2008) Hunger (2008) Peacefire (2008) Waveriders (2008) Buy Borrow Steal (2007) City of Ember (2007) Closing the Ring (2007) How About You (2007) Kings (2007) Puffball (2007) Shrooms (2007) Waz (2007) In the Name of the Father (1993) My Left Foot (1989) Mickybo And Me(2004) Sports George Best mural, close to his childhood home in the Cregagh estate. Watching and playing sports is an important part of Belfast culture. Almost six out of ten (59%) of the adult population in Northern Ireland regularly participate in one or more sports. Belfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports including association football, rugby, Gaelic games, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, and attracted 14,300 participants in 2007. The Northern Ireland national football team, ranked 27th in September 2007 in the FIFA World Rankings, and 1st in the FIFA rankings per capita in April 2007 plays its home matches in Windsor Park. The 2007-08 Irish League champions Linfield are also based at Windsor Park, in the south of the city. Other teams include Glentoran based in east Belfast, Cliftonville and Crusaders in north Belfast and Donegal Celtic in west Belfast. Belfast was the home town of the renowned player George Best who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre. Gaelic football is the most popular spectator sport in Ireland, and Belfast is home to over twenty football and hurling clubs. South Antrim Clubs. CLG Aontroim. Retrieved on 11 November 2007. Casement Park in West Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. The 2006 Celtic League champions and 1999 European Rugby Union champions Ulster play at Ravenhill in South Belfast. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins (who play at Deramore Park in south Belfast) and Malone (who play at Gibson Park in south-east Belfast) are in the Second Division; and Instonians (Shaw's Bridge, south Belfast) and Queen's University RFC (south Belfast) are in the Third Division. Belfast boasts Ireland's premier cricket venue at Stormont. The Ireland cricket team plays many of its home games at this venue, which in 2006 hosted the first ever One Day International between Ireland and England. In 2007, Ireland, India and South Africa played a triangular series of one-day internationals at Stormont, and in 2008 the qualifying tournament for the ICC World Twenty20 was held there. At club level, Belfast has seven senior teams: Instonians (Shaw's Bridge, south Belfast) and Civil Service North (Stormont, east Belfast) are in Section 1 of the Northern Cricket Union League; CIYMS (Circular Road, east Belfast), Cooke Collegians (Shaw's Bridge) and Woodvale (Ballygomartin Road, west Belfast) are in Section 2; and Cregagh (Gibson Park, south-east Belfast) and Police Service of Northern Ireland (Newforge Lane, south Belfast) are in Section 4. Ireland's first professional ice hockey team, the Belfast Giants play their home matches at the Odyssey Arena, watched by up to seven thousand fans. The Belfast Bulls and Belfast Trojans American football teams represent Belfast in the IAFL, competing for the Shamrock Bowl. Other significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion Alex "Hurricane" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough and Rinty Monaghan. Education The Lanyon Building of Queen's University in south Belfast Belfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 20 leading research-intensive universities in the UK. It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit. The University of Ulster, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment. The Jordanstown campus, just seven miles (11 km) from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science. The Conflict Archive on the INternet (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland. Belfast Metropolitan College is a large further education college with several campuses around the city. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK. The Belfast Education and Library Board was established in 1973 as the local authority responsible for education, youth and library services within the city. There are 184 primary, secondary and grammar schools in the city. The Ulster Museum is also located in Belfast. Tourism Frommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its Top 12 Destinations to Visit in 2009. The other listed destinations were Istanbul, Berlin, Cape Town, Saqqara, Washington DC, Cambodia, Waiheke Island, Cartagena, Waterton Lakes National Park, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, Alabama and the Lassen Volcanic National Park Belfast makes the Top 12 Daily Telegraph To further enhance the tourist industry in Northern Ireland, the Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed attraction. They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million. Twin cities Belfast is twinned with: "Sister Cities Online Directory: UK, Europe." Sister Cities International. Retrieved on 26 March 2007. Nashville, Tennessee Bonn, Germany Hefei, China "Belfast signs sister city agreement with Hefei." 4NI.co.uk. Retrieved on 19 February 2008. Wonju, South Korea References </div> Further reading Beesley, S. and Wilde, J. 1997. Urban Flora of Belfast. Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast. Deane, C.Douglas. 1983. The Ulster Countryside. Century Books. ISBN 0903152177 Nesbitt, Noel. 1982. The Changing Face of Belfast. Ulster Museum, Belfast. Publication no. 183. Gillespie, R. 2007. Early Belfast. Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation. ISBN 978-1-903688-72-4. Walker,B.M. and Dixon,H. 1984. Early Photoraphs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864 - 1880. The Friar's Bush Press, ISBN 0946872 Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1983. No Mean City: Belfast 1880 - 1914. ISBN 0 946872 00 7. Nesbitt N. 1982. The Changing Face of Belfast. Ulster Museum Belfast, publication no. 183. External links Belfast - Northern Ireland Tourist Board Belfast City Council Belfast City Council - Profile of the City Belfast Living from Simply Belfast GO Belfast magazine GO Belfast Awards Belfast City Online - public service portal Belfast's political wall murals Go To Belfast - Tourism Belfast Travel Guide Travel, Weather, News, Video, Photos, History etc. The Story of Belfast and Its Surroundings An illustrated history, circa 1913 Architecture of Belfast Waterfront Hall The Ulster Museum. 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1,158	Burgundians	The Burgundians (Latin: Burgundiones) were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr (the Island of the Burgundians), and from there to mainland Europe. In Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, Veseti settled in an island or holm, which was called Borgund's holm, i.e. Bornholm. Alfred the Great's translation of Orosius uses the name Burgenda land. The poet and early mythologist Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895), (Our Fathers' Godsaga) asserted from an early medieval source, Vita Sigismundi, that the Burgundians themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin. Early history Tribal origins The Burgundians' tradition of Scandinavian origin finds support in place-name evidence and archaeological evidence (Stjerna) and many consider their tradition to be correct (e.g. Musset, p. 62). Possibly because Scandinavia was beyond the horizon of the earliest Roman sources, including Tacitus (who only mentions one Scandinavian tribe, the Suiones), Roman sources do not mention where the Burgundians came from, and the first Roman references place them east of the Rhine (inter alia, Ammianus Marcellinus, XVIII, 2, 15). Early Roman sources considered them simply another East Germanic tribe. About 300, the population of Bornholm (the island of the Burgundians) largely disappeared from the island. Most cemeteries ceased to be used, and those that were still used had few burials (Stjerna, in Nerman 1925:176). In the year 369, the Emperor Valentinian I enlisted the aid of the Burgundians in his war against another Germanic tribe, the Alamanni (Ammianus, XXVIII, 5, 8-15). At this time, the Burgundians were possibly living in the Vistula basin, according to the mid-6th-century historian of the Goths, Jordanes. Sometime after their war against the Alamanni, the Burgundians were beaten in battle by Fastida, king of the Gepids and were overwhelmed and almost annihilated. Approximately four decades later, the Burgundians appear again. Following Stilicho’s withdrawal of troops to fight Alaric I the Visigoth in AD 406-408, the northern tribes crossed the Rhine and entered the Empire in the Völkerwanderung, or Germanic migrations. Among them were the Alans, Vandals, the Suevi, and possibly the Burgundians. The Burgundians migrated westwards and settled in the Rhine Valley. Conversion to Christianity Somewhere in the east the Burgundians had converted to the Arian form of Christianity from their native Germanic polytheism. Their Arianism proved a source of suspicion and distrust between the Burgundians and the Catholic Western Roman Empire. Divisions were evidently healed or healing circa AD 500, however, as Gundobad, one of the last Burgundian kings, maintained a close personal friendship with Avitus, the bishop of Vienne. Moreover, Gundobad's son and successor, Sigismund, was himself a Catholic, and there is evidence that many of the Burgundian people had converted by this time as well, including several female members of the ruling family. Early relationship with the Romans Initially, the Burgundians seem to have had a stormy relationship with the Romans. They were used by the Empire to fend off other tribes, but also raided the border regions and expanded their influence when possible. Burgundian kingdoms First Kingdom In 411, the Burgundian king Gundahar or Gundicar set up a puppet emperor, Jovinus, in cooperation with Goar, king of the Alans. With the authority of the Gallic emperor that he controlled, Gundahar settled on the left (Roman) bank of the Rhine, between the river Lauter and the Nahe, seizing Worms, Speyer, and Straßburg. Apparently as part of a truce, the Emperor Honorius later officially "granted" them the land. (Prosper, a. 386) Despite their new status as foederati, Burgundian raids into Roman Upper Gallia Belgica became intolerable and were ruthlessly brought to an end in 436, when the Roman general Aëtius called in Hun mercenaries who overwhelmed the Rhineland kingdom (with its capital at the old Celtic Roman settlement of Borbetomagus/Worms) in 437. Gundahar was killed in the fighting, reportedly along with the majority of the Burgundian tribe. (Prosper; Chronica Gallica 452; Hydatius; and Sidonius Apollinaris) The destruction of Worms and the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns became the subject of heroic legends that were afterwards incorporated in the Nibelungenlied—on which Wagner based his Ring Cycle—where King Gunther (Gundahar) and Queen Brünhild hold their court at Worms, and Siegfried comes to woo Kriemhild. (In Old Norse sources the names are Gunnar, Brynhild, and Gudrún as normally rendered in English.) In fact, the Etzel of the Nibelungenlied is based on Attila the Hun. Second Kingdom For reasons not cited in the sources, the Burgundians were granted foederati status a second time, and in 443 were resettled by Aëtius in the region of Sapaudia. (Chronica Gallica 452) Though the precise geography is uncertain, Sapaudia corresponds to the modern-day Savoy, and the Burgundians probably lived near Lugdunum, known today as Lyon. (Wood 1994, Gregory II, 9) A new king Gundioc, or Gunderic, presumed to be Gundahar's son, appears to have reigned from his father's death. (Drew, p.1) Historien Pline tells that Gonderic reigned the areas of Saone, Dauphiny, Savoie and a part of Provence. He set up Vienne as the capital of the kingdom of Burgundy. In all, eight Burgundian kings of the house of Gundahar ruled until the kingdom was overrun by the Franks in 534. As allies of Rome in its last decades, the Burgundians fought alongside Aëtius and a confederation of Visigoths and others in the battle against Attila at the Battle of Chalons (also called "The Battle of the Catalaunian Fields") in 451. The alliance between Burgundians and Visigoths seems to have been strong, as Gundioc and his brother Chilperic I accompanied Theodoric II to Spain to fight the Sueves in 455. (Jordanes, Getica, 231) Aspirations to the Empire Also in 455, an ambiguous reference infidoque tibi Burdundio ductu (Sidonius Apollinaris in Panegyr. Avit. 442.) implicates an unnamed treacherous Burgundian leader in the murder of the emperor Petronius Maximus in the chaos preceding the sack of Rome by the Vandals. The Patrician Ricimer is also blamed; this event marks the first indication of the link between the Burgundians and Ricimer, who was probably Gundioc's brother-in-law and Gundobad's uncle. (John Malalas, 374) The Burgundians, apparently confident in their growing power, negotiated in 456 a territorial expansion and power sharing arrangement with the local Roman senators. (Marius of Avenches) In 457, Ricimer overthrew another emperor, Avitus, raising Majorian to the throne. This new emperor proved unhelpful to Ricimer and the Burgundians. The year after his ascension, Majorian stripped the Burgundians of the lands they had acquired two years earlier. After showing further signs of independence, he was murdered by Ricimer in 461. Ten years later, in 472, Ricimer–who was by now the son-in-law of the Western Emperor Anthemius–was plotting with Gundobad to kill his father-in-law; Gundobad beheaded the emperor (apparently personally). (Chronica Gallica 511; John of Antioch, fr. 209; Jordanes, Getica, 239) Ricimer then appointed Olybrius; both died, surprisingly of natural causes, within a few months. Gundobad seems then to have succeeded his uncle as Patrician and king-maker, and raised Glycerius to the throne. (Marius of Avenches; John of Antioch, fr. 209) In 474, Burgundian influence over the empire seems to have ended. Glycerius was deposed in favor of Julius Nepos, and Gundobad returned to Burgundy, presumably at the death of his father Gundioc. At this time or shortly afterward, the Burgundian kingdom was divided between Gundobad and his brothers, Godigisel, Chilperic II, and Gundomar I. (Gregory, II, 28) Consolidation of the Kingdom According to Gregory of Tours, the years following Gundobad's return to Burgundy saw a bloody consolidation of power. Gregory states that Gundobad murdered his brother Chilperic, drowning his wife and exiling their daughters (one of whom was to become the wife of Clovis the Frank, and was reputedly responsible for his conversion). Gregory, II, 28. Gregory's chronology of the events surrounding Clovis and Gundobad has been questioned by Bury, Shanzer, and Wood, among others. Gregory was somewhat of a Frankish apologist, and commonly discredited the enemies of Clovis by attributing to them some fairly shocking acts. As with Godegisel, he also commonly refers to the treachery of Clovis' allies, when in fact Clovis seems to have bought them off (e.g., in the case of the Ripuarians). This is contested by, e.g., Bury, who points out problems in much of Gregory's chronology for the events. C.500, when Gundobad and Clovis were at war, Gundobad appears to have been betrayed by his brother Godegisel, who joined the Franks; together Godegisel's and Clovis' forces "crushed the army of Gundobad." (Marius a. 500; Gregory, II, 32) Gundobad was temporarily holed up in Avignon, but was able to re-muster his army and sacked Vienne, where Godegisel and many of his followers were put to death. From this point, Gundobad appears to have been the sole king of Burgundy. (e.g., Gregory, II, 33) This would imply that his brother Gundomar was already dead, though there are no specific mentions of the event in the sources. Either Gundobad and Clovis reconciled their differences, or Gundobad was forced into some sort of vassalage by Clovis' earlier victory, as the Burgundian king appears to have assisted the Franks in 507 in their victory over Alaric II the Visigoth. During the upheaval, sometime between 483-501, Gundobad began to set forth the Lex Gundobada (see below), issuing roughly the first half, which drew upon the Lex Visigothorum. (Drew, p. 1) Following his consolidation of power, between 501 and his death in 516, Gundobad issued the second half of his law, which was more originally Burgundian. Fall of the Second Kingdom The Burgundians were extending their power over southeastern Gaul; that is, northern Italy, western Switzerland, and southeastern France. In 493 Clovis, king of the Franks, married the Burgundian princess Clotilda (daughter of Chilperic), who converted him to the Catholic faith. At first allies with Clovis' Franks against the Visigoths in the early 6th century, the Burgundians were eventually conquered by the Franks in 534 after a first attempt in the battle of Vézeronce. The Burgundian kingdom was made part of the Merovingian kingdoms, and the Burgundians themselves were by and large absorbed as well. Burgundian laws The Burgundians left three legal codes, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes. The Liber Consitutionum sive Lex Gundobada (The Book of the Constitution following the Law of Gundobad), also known as the Lex Burgundionum, or more simply the Lex Gundobada or the Liber, was issued in several parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund. (Drew, p. 6-7) It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period. In particular, the Liber borrowed from the Lex Visigothorum (Drew, p. 6) and influenced the later Lex Ribuaria. (Rivers, p. 9) The Liber is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings. Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities. Thus, in addition to the Lex Gundobada, Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the Lex Romana Burgundionum (The Roman Law of the Burgundians). In addition to the above codes, Gundobad's son Sigismund later published the Prima Constitutio. Origin of Burgundy The name of the Burgundians has since remained connected to the area of modern France that still bears their name: see the later history of Burgundy. Between the 6th and 20th centuries, however, the boundaries and political connections of this area have changed frequently; none of those changes have had anything to do with the original Burgundians. The name Burgundians used here and generally used by English writers to refer to the Burgundiones is a later formation and more precisely refers to the inhabitants of the territory of Burgundy which was named from the people called Burgundiones. The descendants of the Burgundians today are found primarily among the west Swiss and neighbouring regions of France. See also Nibelung (later legends of the Burgundian kings). King of Burgundy Duchy of Burgundy Franche-Comté Dauphiné Dauphiny Notes References Bury, J.B. The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians. London: Macmillan and Co., 1928. Dalton, O.M. The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927. Drew, Katherine Fischer. The Burgundian Code. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972. Gordon, C.D. The Age of Attila. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961. Murray, Alexander Callander. From Roman to Merovingian Gaul. Broadview Press, 2000. Musset, Lucien. The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe AD 400-600. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975. Nerman, Birger. Det svenska rikets uppkomst. Generalstabens litagrafiska anstalt: Stockholm. 1925. Rivers, Theodore John. Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks. New York: AMS Press, 1986. Rolfe, J.C., trans, Ammianus Marcellinus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950. Shanzer, Danuta. ‘Dating the Baptism of Clovis.’ In Early Medieval Europe, volume 7, pages 29–57. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1998. Shanzer, D. and I. Wood. Avitus of Vienne: Letters and Selected Prose. Translated with an Introduction and Notes. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002. Werner, J. (1953). "Beiträge sur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches", Die Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaft. Abhandlungen. N.F. XXXVIII A Philosophische-philologische und historische Klasse. Münche Wood, Ian N. ‘Ethnicity and the Ethnogenesis of the Burgundians’. In Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl, editors, Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern, volume 1, pages 53–69. Vienna: Denkschriften der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990. Wood, Ian N. The Merovingian Kingdoms. Harlow, England: The Longman Group, 1994.	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1,159	Education	A kindergarten classroom in Afghanistan. An elementary classroom in Mexico. A college classroom in New York City. Education in its broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual (e.g., the consciousness of an infant is educated by its environment through its interaction with its environment); and in its technical sense education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to another through institutions. George F. Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971). pp.20-21. Teachers in such institutions direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. This technical process is sometimes called schooling when referring to the compulsory education of youth. For example, Samuel Bowles Prof. Samuel Bowles, Research Professor and Director of the Behavioral Sciences Program, Santa Fe Institute and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (Basic Books, 1977), or the terms "homeschooling" or "un-schooling". Teachers in specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or zoology may teach only a certain subject, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is also instruction in fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition there is an array of education possible at the informal level, e.g., at museums and libraries, with the Internet, and in life experience. The right to education has been described as a basic human right: since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13. Systems of formal education Education is a broad concept, referring to all the experiences in which students can learn something: Instruction refers to the intentional facilitating of learning toward identified objectives, delivered either by an instructor or other forms. Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student. Teaching refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion. Primary education Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842. Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first few years of formal, structured education. In general, main education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. UNESCO, education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools. Secondary education In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States and Canada primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (i.e. emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a relatively higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe the grammar school or academy existed from as early as the 1500s, public schools or fee paying schools, or charitable educational foundations have an even longer history. Higher education The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning. Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. Adult education Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning and e-learning. A number of career specific courses such as veterinary, medical billing and coding, real estate license, bookkeeping and many more are now available to students through the Internet. Alternative education Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods. Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community. Indigenous education Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and content) as an alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems, has come to represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous communities who choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors. As an educational method, the inclusion of indigenous ways of knowing, learning, instructing, teaching and training, has been viewed by many critical and postmodern scholars as important for ensuring that students/learners and teachers/instructors (whether indigenous or non-indigenous) are able to benefit from education in a culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances awareness of indigenous traditions. See Merriam et al. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007). Sharan Merriam, Rosemary Caffarella and Lisa Baumgartner write that “we need only look more closely inside our own borders, to Native Americans, for example… to find major systems of thought and beliefs embedded in entirely different cultural values and epistemological systems that can be drawn upon to enlarge our understanding of adult learning” (p. 218). Merriam et al. then go on to explain that another purpose in becoming familiar with other knowledge systems is the benefit this knowledge will have in affecting our practice with learners having other than Western worldviews. Antone and Gamlin (2004) for example, argue that to be effective, literacy programs with Aboriginal people (a term they use to refer to First Nations, Inuit, and Metis persons and collectivities) must be more than ‘reading, numeracy and writing which is typically geared towards gaining access to mainstream employment’ (p. 26). Rather Aboriginal literacy is about sustaining a particular worldview and about the survival of a distinct and vital culture. Being literate is about resymbolizing and reinterpreting past experience, while at the same time honoring traditional values. Being literate is about "living" these values in contemporary times. Being literate is about "visioning" a future in which an Aboriginal "way of being" will continue to thrive. Meaningful Aboriginal literacy will develop and find expression in everything that is done. Consequently, Aboriginal literacy programs must reflect a broad approach that recognizes the unique ways that Aboriginal people represent their experience and knowledge. [p. 26; italics in original] Frequently, Merriam et al. also return to this need “to enlarge our understanding of adult learning” through the lens of cultural sensitivity by focusing on theories related to the intimate connection between learning and social context– often framed in terms of inclusiveness and respect for differing values, beliefs, experiences, perspectives and environments as strongly correlated with the traditional ways and methods inherent in both individual and collective notions of culture. For instance, in their discussion of experiential learning, the authors comment that “in acknowledging cognition and learning from experience as a cultural phenomenon, the perspectives of critical… and postmodern thinkers become crucial. Among the major results of thinking about cognition from a cultural frame are the critiques that have been fostered about traditional educational theory and practice… Foremost among these critiques is a challenge to the fundamental notion that learning is something that occurs within the individual. Rather, learning encompasses the interaction of learners and the social environments in which they function” (p. 180). For indigenous students or learners, and teachers or instructors, the inclusion of these methods often enhances educational effectiveness, success and learning outcomes by providing education that adheres to their own inherent perspectives, experiences and worldview. For non-indigenous students and teachers, education using such methods often has the effect of raising awareness of the individual traditions and collective experience of surrounding indigenous communities and peoples, thereby promoting greater respect for and appreciation of the cultural realities of these communities and peoples. In terms of educational content, the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, traditions, perspectives, worldviews and conceptions within curricula, instructional materials and textbooks and coursebooks have largely the same effects as the inclusion of indigenous methods in education. Indigenous students and teachers benefit from enhanced academic effectiveness, success and learning outcomes, while non-indigenous students/learners and teachers often have greater awareness, respect, and appreciation for indigenous communities and peoples in consequence of the content that is shared during the course of educational pursuits. See generally R. A. Malatest et al. Best Practices in Increasing Aboriginal Post-secondary Enrollment Rates (Canada: Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 2002)and Dr. Pamela Toulouse, Supporting Aboriginal Student Success: Self-Esteem and Identity, A Living Teachings Approach (Presentation delivered at the 2007 Ontario Education Research Symposium) A prime example of how indigenous methods and content can be used to promote the above outcomes is demonstrated within higher education in Canada. Due to certain jurisdictions' focus on enhancing academic success for Aboriginal learners and promoting the values of multiculturalism in society, the inclusion of indigenous methods and content in education is often seen as an important obligation and duty of both governmental and educational authorities. In the Canadian province of Manitoba for instance, collaborative efforts between the government and post-secondary institutions (both universities and colleges) has resulted in the implementation of 13 Access Programs (spanning several disciplines and program focus areas). These Access programs often place emphasis on indigenous methods and content in the delivery of post-secondary education and training, while also providing students with a variety of other culturally sensitive supports (such as elders and mentors) in order to enhance their success in higher education. Advocates of such programs will often highlight the fact that, between 2001/02 and 2005/06 (most recent available data) a total of 800 students successfully graduated from these programs with post-secondary credentials, while an average of 70.8 per cent of all students enrolled during these same years were Aboriginal. Statistics cited according to pp. 141-143 of the Manitoba Council on Post-Secondary Education Statistical Compendium For the Academic Years Ending in 2006 According to these advocates, the inclusion of indigenous models of education in those Access Programs that are intended for Aboriginal learners, is an important factor contributing to the completion of post-secondary education for the estimated 566 Aboriginal students who would not otherwise have been likely to achieve this same level of success. Process Curriculum An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Functionally, disciplines are usually defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and by the learned societies to which their practitioners belong. Professors say schooling is 80% psychological, 20% physical effort. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences. Learning modalities There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator follows a similar but more simplified approach. It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning modalities Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser. are probably the most common: Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned. Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information. Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities. It is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness. Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser. A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them. Learning modality description from the Learning Curve website Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as VAK are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning. Teaching Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to students. The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. Studies from the US suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible. / How the world's best school systems come out topg Technology Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions. Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a “diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.” These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings. ICT in Education Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries. The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka. The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming. Open University of the United Kingdom Official website Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies. Indira Gandhi National Open University Official website The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching. Educational Theory Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists and sophists and includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and andragogy. In the 20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to teaching, assessment and education law, most of which are informed by various academic fields, which can be seen in the below sections. Economics It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth. Hanushek, Economic Outcomes and School Quality Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn form the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital." UCLA Economics 183 Lecture from Professor Boustan Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation." American Economic Review 91,no.5 (December 2001):1369-1401. and the role of cognitive skills. Eric A. Hanushek, and Ludger Woessmann, "The role of cognitive skills in economic development." Journal of Economic Literature 46,no.3 (September 2008):607-608. At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer, Jacob Mincer, "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to the human capital approach." Journal of Economic Literature 8,no.1 (March 1970):1-26. on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling. See, for example, David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, edited by Orley Ashenfelter and David Card. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999:1801-1863; James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, edited by Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006:307-458. Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Ginits famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other. Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (Basic Books, 1976) History A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994 "began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially. When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC. Philosophy John Locke's work Some Thoughts Concerning Education was written in 1693 and still reflects traditional education priorities in the Western world Philosophy of education is the philosophical study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of education. Philosophy of education can naturally be considered a branch of both philosophy and education. Philosophy of education is commonly housed in colleges and departments of education, yet it is applied philosophy, drawing from the traditional fields of philosophy (ontology, ethics, epistemology, etc.) and approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions regarding education policy, human development, education research methodology, and curriculum theory, to name a few. Psychology A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families. Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 214-233. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists. Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006). Sociology Bumming around the house doing nothing is the new education. Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities. Schofield, K. (1999). "The Purposes of Education", Queensland State Education: 2010, [Online] URL: www.aspa.asn.au/Papers/eqfinalc.PDF [Accessed 2002, Oct 28] The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes differs according to the sociological paradigm used. Educational Development World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report) In some developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are naturally greater. People in more remote or agrarian areas are sometimes unaware of the importance of education. However, many countries have an active Ministry of Education, and in many subjects, such as foreign language learning, the degree of education is actually much higher than in industrialized countries; for example, it is not at all uncommon for students in many developing countries to be reasonably fluent in multiple foreign languages, whereas this is much more of a rarity in the supposedly "more educated" countries where much of the population is in fact monolingual. There is also economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar professions. A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities, is evident in countries with a relatively high population density. In some countries, there are uniform, over structured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education. Due to globalization, increased pressure on students in curricular activities Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade) India is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a $100 laptop. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world. In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school programme" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the Perpetual Education Fund. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. Internationalisation Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Programme stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience. Dubois, H.F.W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006) Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review, 53(2): 110–116. See also Academic Dishonesty Adult education Alternative education Behavior modification Classical education Classroom of the future Collaborative learning Comparative education Curriculum studies Curriculum Developmental Education Distance education Home schooling e-learning Education Index Educational animation Entrepreneurship education Educational psychology Educational research Educational technology Educational software Efficient learning method Experiential education Gifted education Glossary of education-related terms Graduate education History of education Indoctrination Instructional technology Language education Learning Learning 2.0 Learning by teaching (LdL) Learning community Learning sciences Legal education Life skills Lifelong education List of educators Medical education Online learning community Over-education Pedagogy Philosophy of education Public education Remedial Education School School of the Future Single-sex education Socialization Sociology of education Special education Special Educational Needs Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Teacher Tertiary education Tutoring University Virtual education Vocational education Wikipedia Books: Education References External links Educational Resources from UCB Libraries GovPubs UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems OECD education statistics be-x-old:Адукацыя	Education \|@lemmatized kindergarten:1 classroom:7 afghanistan:1 elementary:2 mexico:1 college:5 new:9 york:2 city:1 education:157 broad:5 sense:4 act:1 experience:13 formative:1 effect:5 mind:1 character:1 physical:2 ability:3 individual:11 e:8 g:5 consciousness:1 infant:2 educate:1 environment:8 interaction:2 technical:2 process:7 society:6 deliberately:1 transmit:2 accumulated:1 knowledge:15 value:8 skill:10 one:5 generation:4 another:4 institution:9 george:1 f:2 kneller:1 introduction:1 philosophy:11 john:2 wiley:1 son:1 pp:2 teacher:17 direct:2 student:37 might:1 draw:5 many:11 subject:4 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1,160	Andy_Warhol	For the song by David Bowie, see Andy Warhol (song). Andrew Warhola (, August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987), more commonly known as Andy Warhol, was an American painter, printmaker, and filmmaker who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as pop art. After a successful career as a commercial illustrator, Warhol became famous worldwide for his work as a painter, avant-garde filmmaker, record producer, author, and public figure known for his membership in wildly diverse social circles that included bohemian street people, distinguished intellectuals, Hollywood celebrities and wealthy aristocrats. Warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. He coined the expression "15 minutes of fame." Childhood Andy Warhol was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the third child of his parents, Andrej Warhola and Ulja. His parents were working-class immigrants of Rusyn ethnicity from Miková, Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in northeastern Slovakia). Warhol's father immigrated to the US in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Andy Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The family was Byzantine Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers, John (Ján) and Paul (Pavol), who were born in today's Slovakia. Paul's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator. In third grade, Warhol had St. Vitus' dance, a nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever and causes skin pigmentation blotchiness. He became somewhat of a hypochondriac, developing a fear of hospitals and doctors. Often bed-ridden as a child, he became an outcast among his school-mates and bonded strongly with his mother. When in bed he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. Early career Warhol showed early artistic talent and studied commercial art at the School of Fine Arts at Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh (now Carnegie Mellon University). In 1949, he moved to New York City and began a successful career in magazine illustration and advertising. During the 1950s, he gained fame for his whimsical ink drawings of shoe advertisements. These were done in a loose, blotted ink style, and figured in some of his earliest showings in New York at the Bodley Gallery. With the concurrent rapid expansion of the record industry and the introduction of the vinyl record, Hi-Fi, and stereophonic recordings, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials. Campbell's Soup I (1968) The 1960s His first one-man gallery exhibition as a fine artist was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles, California. The exhibition marked the West Coast debut of pop art. Andy Warhol's first New York solo Pop exhibit was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6-24, 1962. The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych, 100 Soup Cans, 100 Coke Bottles and 100 Dollar Bills. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, Sleep, in 1963. It was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American products such as Campbell's Soup Cans from the Campbell Soup Company and Coca-Cola bottles, as well as paintings of celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Troy Donahue, and Elizabeth Taylor. He founded "The Factory," his studio during these years, and gathered around himself a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. He began producing prints using the silkscreen method. His work became popular and controversial. Among the imagery tackled by Warhol were dollar bills, celebrities and brand name products. He also used as imagery for his paintings newspaper headlines of photographs of mushroom clouds, electric chairs, and police dogs attacking civil rights protesters. Warhol also used Coca Cola bottles as subject matter for paintings. He had this to say about Coca Cola: New York's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists like Warhol were attacked for "capitulating" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception. Throughout the decade it became more and more clear that there had been a profound change in the culture of the art world, and that Warhol was at the center of that shift. Campbell's Tomato Juice Box (1964) A pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit The American Supermarket, a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc. were created by six prominent pop artists of the time including the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what is art. Andy Warhol and fellow pop artist Billy Apple show their "products" during the 1964 show The American Supermarket. As an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; in the 1960s, however, this was particularly true. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with producing silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at "The Factory", Warhol's aluminum foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape record his phone conversations). During the 60s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation "Superstars", including Edie Sedgwick, Viva, and Ultra Violet. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some, like Berlin, remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this period. Shooting On June 3, 1968, Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and art critic and curator Mario Amaya at Warhol's studio. Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She founded a "group" called S.C.U.M. (Society for Cutting Up Men) and authored the S.C.U.M. Manifesto, a separatist feminist attack on patriarchy. Over the years, Solanas' manifesto has found a following. Solanas appears in the 1968 Warhol film I, A Man. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script, apparently, had been misplaced. Jobey, Liz, "Solanas and Son", The Guardian (Manchester, England) August 24, 1996: page T10 and following. (This article contains the most detailed and reliable account of Solanas' life.) Amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol however, was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived (doctors opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again). He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life. The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art. Solanas was arrested the day after the assault. By way of explanation, she said that "He had too much control over my life," following which she was eventually sentenced to 3 years under the control of the department of corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene became much more tightly controlled, and for many this event brought the "Factory 60s" to an end. The shooting was mostly overshadowed in the media due to the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy two days later. Warhol had this to say about the attack: "Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there – I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it’s the way things happen in life that’s unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it’s like watching television – you don’t feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it’s all television." The 1970s Compared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s would prove a much quieter decade, as Warhol became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions including Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, Brigitte Bardot, and Michael Jackson. Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, Interview magazine, and published The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (1975). An idea expressed in the book: "Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art." Warhol used to socialize at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City, Serendipity 3 and, later in the '70s, Studio 54. He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him "the white mole of Union Square." The 1980s Warhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the "bull market" of '80s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi. By this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a "business artist." In 1979 unfavorable reviews met his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects. This criticism was echoed for his 1980 exhibit of ten portraits at the Jewish Museum in New York, entitled Jewish Geniuses, which Warhol, who exhibited no interest in Judaism or matters of interest to Jews, had described in his diary as "They're going to sell." In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as "the most brilliant mirror of our times," contending that "Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s." Warhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: "I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic." Sexuality Many people think of Warhol as "asexual" and merely a "voyeur", however it is now well established that he was gay (see biographers such as Victor Bockris, Bob Colacello, and the art historian Richard Meyer. ). The question of how Warhol's sexuality influenced his work and shaped his relationship to the art world is a major subject of scholarship on the artist, and is an issue that Warhol himself addressed in interviews, in conversation with his contemporaries, and in his publications (e.g. Popism: The Warhol Sixties). Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes and one rare one of a woman "pati palomeras". Many of his most famous works (portraits of Liza Minnelli, Judy Garland, and Elizabeth Taylor, and films like Blow Job, My Hustler, and Lonesome Cowboys) draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. Many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters. That said, some stories about Warhol's development as an artist revolved around the obstacle his sexuality initially presented as he tried to launch his career. The first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were homoerotic drawings of male nudes. They were rejected for being too openly gay. In Popism, furthermore, the artist recalls a conversation with the film maker Emile de Antonio about the difficulty Warhol had being accepted socially by the then more famous (but closeted) gay artists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. De Antonio explained that Warhol was "too swish and that upsets them." In response to this, Warhol writes, "There was nothing I could say to that. It was all too true. So I decided I just wasn't going to care, because those were all the things that I didn't want to change anyway, that I didn't think I 'should' want to change... Other people could change their attitudes but not me". In exploring Warhol's biography, many turn to this period the late 1950s and early 1960s as a key moment in the development of his persona. Some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work, to speak about himself (confining himself in interviews to responses like "Um, No" and "Um, Yes", and often allowing others to speak for him), and even the evolution of his Pop style can be traced to the years when Warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the New York art world. Religious beliefs Images of Jesus from The Last Supper cycle (1986). Warhol made almost 100 variations on the theme, which the Guggenheim felt "indicates an almost obsessive investment in the subject matter." Warhol was a practicing member of the Byzantine Rite Ruthenian Catholic Church. He regularly volunteered at homeless shelters in New York, particularly during the busier times of the year, and described himself as a religious person. Several of Warhol's later works depicted religious subjects, including two series, Details of Renaissance Paintings (1984) and The Last Supper (1986). In addition, a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate. During his life, Warhol regularly attended Mass, and the priest at Warhol's church, Saint Vincent's, said that the artist went there almost daily. His art is noticeably influenced by the eastern Christian iconographic tradition which was so evident in his places of worship. Warhol's brother has described the artist as "really religious, but he didn't want people to know about that because [it was] private." Despite the private nature of his faith, in Warhol's eulogy John Richardson depicted it as devout: "To my certain knowledge, he was responsible for at least one conversion. He took considerable pride in financing his nephew's studies for the priesthood." Death Warhol died in New York City at 6:32 a.m. on February 22, 1987. According to news reports, he had been making good recovery from a routine gallbladder surgery at New York Hospital before dying in his sleep from a sudden post-operative cardiac arrhythmia. Prior to his diagnosis and operation, Warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked, as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors. Warhol's grave at St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery Warhol's body was taken back to Pittsburgh by his brothers for burial. The wake was at Thomas P. Kunsak Funeral Home and was an open-coffin ceremony. The coffin was a solid bronze casket with gold plated rails and white upholstery. Warhol wore a black cashmere suit, a paisley tie, a platinum wig, and sunglasses. He was holding a small prayer book and a red rose. The funeral liturgy was held at the Holy Ghost Byzantine Catholic Church on Pittsburgh's North Side. The eulogy was given by Monsignor Peter Tay. Yoko Ono also made an appearance. The coffin was covered with white roses and asparagus ferns. After the liturgy, the coffin was driven to St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, a south suburb of Pittsburgh. At the grave, the priest said a brief prayer and sprinkled holy water on the casket. Before the coffin was lowered, Paige Powell dropped a copy of Interview magazine, an Interview t-shirt, and a bottle of the Estee Lauder perfume "Beautiful" into the grave. Warhol was buried next to his mother and father. Weeks later a memorial service was held in Manhattan for Warhol on April 1, 1987 at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York. Warhol's will dictated that his entire estate, with the exception of a few modest legacies to family members, would go to create a foundation dedicated to the "advancement of the visual arts." Warhol had so many possessions that it took Sotheby's nine days to auction his estate after his death; the auction grossed more than US$20 million. His total estate was worth considerably more, in no small part due to shrewd investments over the years. In 1987, in accordance for Warhol's will, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts was founded. The Foundation not only serves as the official Estate of Andy Warhol, but it also has a mission "to foster innovative artistic expression and the creative process" and is "focused primarily on supporting work of a challenging and often experimental nature." The Artists Rights Society is the U.S. copyright representative for the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts for all Warhol works with the exception of Warhol film stills. The U.S. copyright representative for Warhol film stills is the Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. Additionally, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts has agreements in place for their image archive. All digital images of Warhol are exclusively managed by Corbis, while all transparency images of Warhol are managed by Art Resource. The Andy Warhol Foundation released its 20th Anniversary Annual Report as a three-volume set in 2007: Vol. I, 1987-2007; Vol. II, Grants & Exhibitions; and Vol. III, Legacy Program. The Foundation remains one of the largest grant-giving organizations for the visual arts in the U.S. Works Paintings By the beginning of the 1960s, Warhol was a very successful commercial illustrator. His detailed and elegant drawings for I. Miller shoes were particularly popular. These illustrations consisted mainly of "blotted ink" drawings (or monoprints), a technique which he applied in much of his early art. Although many artists of this period worked in commercial art, most did so discreetly. Warhol was so successful, however, that his profile as an illustrator seemed to undermine his efforts to be taken seriously as an artist. In the early 1960s, Warhol tried to exhibit some of his drawings using these techniques in a gallery, only to be turned down. He began to rethink the relationship between his commercial work and the rest of his art. Instead of treating these things as opposites, he merged them, and began to take commercial and popular culture more explicitly as his topic. Pop Art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the "Pope of Pop," turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Robert Rauschenberg). Eventually, Warhol pared his image vocabulary down to the icon itself to brand names, celebrities, dollar signs and removed all traces of the artist's "hand" in the production of his paintings. To him, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being used by Lichtenstein, typography by Jasper Johns, and so on; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested he should paint the things he loved the most. In his signature way of taking things literally, for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of Campbell's Soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. The work sold for $10,000 at an auction on November 17, 1971 at Sotheby's New York, which is a minimal amount for the artist whose paintings sell for over $6 million more recently. He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the hand-made from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations. In 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group 4 Race Version of the then elite supercar BMW M1 for the fourth installment in the BMW Art Car Project. Unlike the three artists before him, Warhol declined the use of a small scale practice model, instead opting to immediately paint directly onto the full scale automobile. It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car. http://www.carbodydesign.com/archive/2006/03/27-bmw-art-car-1979-andy-warhol-m1/bmw-art-car-1979-andy-warhol-m1.php Warhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 1962–63 Death and Disaster series. The Death and Disaster paintings (such as Red Car Crash, Purple Jumping Man, and Orange Disaster) transform personal tragedies into public spectacles, and signal the use of images of disaster in the then evolving media. The unifying element in Warhol's work is his deadpan Keatonesque style artistically and personally affectless. This was mirrored by Warhol's own demeanor, as he often played "dumb" to the media, and refused to explain his work. The artist was famous for having said that all you need to know about him and his works is already there, "on the surface." His Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works and their means of production mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York "Factory." Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's "piss paintings": Warhol's The Last Supper cycle, a deeply religious body of work, was his last series, possibly his largest and "arguably his greatest". It is also the largest series of religious works by any U.S. artist. Films Warhol worked across a wide range of media painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. In addition, he was a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than sixty films. One of his most famous films, Sleep, monitors poet John Giorno sleeping for six hours. The 35-minute film Blow Job, is one continuous shot of the face of DeVeren Bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from filmmaker Willard Maas, although the camera never tilts down to see this. Another, 1964's Empire, consists of eight hours of footage of the Empire State Building in New York City at dusk. The film Eat consists of a man eating a mushroom for 45 minutes. Warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by LaMonte Young called Trio for Strings and subsequently created his famous series of static films including Kiss, Eat, and Sleep (for which Young initially was commissioned to provide music). Uwe Husslein cites filmmaker Jonas Mekas, who accompanied Warhol to the Trio premiere, and who claims Warhol’s static films were directly inspired by the performance. Batman Dracula is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of DC Comics. It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the Batman series, Warhol's movie was an "homage" to the series, and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. The film was until recently thought to have been lost, until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis. Warhol's 1965 film Vinyl is an adaptation of Anthony Burgess' popular dystopian novel A Clockwork Orange. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, Viva, Edie Sedgwick, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, Nico, and Jackie Curtis. Legendary underground artist Jack Smith appears in the film Camp. His most popular and critically successful film was 1966's Chelsea Girls. The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mm films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that "story" while it was lowered for the other. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s. The influence of the film's split-screen, multi-narrative style could be felt in such modern work as Mike Figgis' Timecode and, however indirectly, the early seasons of 24. Other important films include Bike Boy, My Hustler, and Lonesome Cowboys, a raunchy pseudo-western. These and other titles document gay underground and camp culture, and continue to feature prominently in scholarship about sexuality and art. Blue Movie, a film in which Warhol superstar Viva makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time, was Warhol's last film as director. The film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. For many years Viva refused to allow it to be screened. It was publicly screened in New York in 2005 for the first time in over thirty years. After his June 3, 1968 shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, Paul Morrissey, took over the film-making chores for the Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with Flesh, Trash, and Heat. All of these films, including the later Andy Warhol's Dracula and Andy Warhol's Frankenstein, were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter "Warhol" films starred Joe Dallesandro, who was more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar. Factory in New York Factory: 1342 Lexington Avenue (the first Factory) The Factory: 231 East 47th street 1963-1967 (the building no longer exists) Factory: 33 Union Square 1967-1973 (Decker Building) Factory: 860 Broadway (near 33 Union Square) 1973-1984 (the building has now been completely remodeled and was for a time (2000-2001) the headquarters of the dot-com consultancy Scient) Factory: 22 East 33rd Street 1984-1987 (the building no longer exists) Home: 1342 Lexington Avenue Home: 57 East 66th street (Warhol's last home) Last personal studio: 158 Madison Avenue Filmography Music In the mid 1960s, Warhol adopted the band The Velvet Underground, making them a crucial element of the Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performance art show. Warhol, with Paul Morrissey, acted as the band's manager, introducing them to Nico (who would perform with the band at Warhol's request). In 1966 he "produced" their first album The Velvet Underground & Nico, as well as providing its album art. His actual participation in the album's production amounted to simply paying for the studio time. After the band's first album, Warhol and band leader Lou Reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take, and their artistic friendship ended. Warhol designed many album covers for various artists starting with the photographic cover of John Wallowitch's debut album, This Is John Wallowitch!!! (1964). Warhol designed the cover art for The Rolling Stones albums Sticky Fingers (1971) and Love You Live (1977), and the John Cale album Honi Soit in 1981. In 1975, Warhol was commissioned to do several portraits of the band's frontman Mick Jagger while in 1982, he designed the album cover for the Diana Ross album Silk Electric. One of his last works was a portrait of Aretha Franklin for the cover of her 1986 gold album Aretha, which was done in the style of the Reigning Queens series he had completed the year before. Warhol was also friendly with many recording artists, including Deborah Harry, Grace Jones, Diana Ross and John Lennon - he designed the cover to Lennon's 1986 posthumously released Menlove Ave.. Warhol also appeared as a bartender in The Cars' music video for their single "Hello Again", and Curiosity Killed The Cat's video for their "Misfit" single (both videos, and others, were produced by Warhol's video production company). Warhol strongly influenced the New Wave/punk rock band Devo, as well as David Bowie. Bowie recorded a song called "Andy Warhol" for his 1971 album Hunky Dory. Lou Reed wrote the song "Andy's Chest", about Valerie Solanas, the woman who shot Warhol, in 1968. He recorded it with the Velvet Underground, but this version wasn't officially released until the VU album appeared in 1985. He recorded a new version for his 1972 solo album Transformer, produced by Bowie and Mick Ronson. Cover of copy no. 18 of 25 Cats Name [sic] Sam and One Blue Pussy by Andy Warhol given in 1954 to Edgar de Evia and Robert Denning when the author was a guest in their home in the Rhinelander Mansion. Books and print Beginning in the early 1950s, Warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work. The first of several bound self-published books by Warhol was 25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy, printed in 1954 by Seymour Berlin on Arches brand watermarked paper using his blotted line technique for the lithographs. The original edition was limited to 190 numbered, hand colored copies, using Dr. Martin's ink washes. Most of these were given by Warhol as gifts to clients and friends. Copy #4, inscribed "Jerry" on the front cover and given to Geraldine Stutz, was used for a facsimile printing in 1987 and the original was auctioned in May 2006 for US $35,000 by Doyle New York. Other self-published books by Warhol include: A Gold Book Wild Raspberries Holy Cats After gaining fame, Warhol "wrote" several books that were commercially published: a, A Novel (1968, ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling of audio recordings of Ondine and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out. The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B & Back Again) (1975, ISBN 0-15-671720-4) according to Pat Hackett's introduction to The Andy Warhol Diaries, Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with Brigid Berlin (also known as Brigid Polk) and former Interview magazine editor Bob Colacello. Popism: The Warhol Sixties (1980, ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and Pat Hackett is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of Pop Art. The Andy Warhol Diaries (1989, ISBN 0-446-39138-7), edited by Pat Hackett, is a diary dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started the diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited, although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations. Warhol created the fashion magazine Interview that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces. Other media As stated, although Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he has authored works in many different media. Drawing: Warhol started his career as a commercial illustrator, producing drawings in "blotted-ink" style for advertisements and magazine articles. Best known of these early works are his drawings of shoes. Some of his personal drawings were self-published in small booklets, such as Yum, Yum, Yum (about food), Ho, Ho, Ho (about Christmas) and (of course) Shoes, Shoes, Shoes. His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably A Gold Book, compiled of sensitive drawings of young men. A Gold Book is so named because of the gold leaf that decorates its pages. Sculpture: Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his Brillo Boxes, silkscreened ink on wood replicas of Brillo soap pad boxes, part of a series of "grocery carton" sculptures that also included Heinz ketchup and Campbell's tomato juice cases. Other famous works include the Silver Clouds helium filled, silver mylar, pillow-shaped balloons. A Silver Cloud was included in the traveling exhibition Air Art (1968-69) curated by Willoughby Sharp. Clouds was also adapted by Warhol for avant-garde choreographer Merce Cunningham's dance piece RainForest (1968). Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his "wife." Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his "Invisible Sculpture", a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer. Time Capsules: In 1973, Warhol began saving ephemera from his daily life correspondence, newspapers, souvenirs, childhood objects, even used plane tickets and food which was sealed in plain cardboard boxes dubbed Time Capsules. By the time of his death, the collection grew to include 600, individually dated "capsules." The boxes are now housed at the Andy Warhol Museum. Television: Andy Warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call The Nothing Special, a special about his favorite subject: Nothing. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, Andy Warhol's TV in 1982 and Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes (based on his famous "fifteen minutes of fame" quotation) for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances on other programs, including The Love Boat wherein a Midwestern wife (Marion Ross) fears Andy Warhol will reveal to her husband (Tom Bosley, who starred alongside Ross in sitcom Happy Days) her secret past as a Warhol superstar named Marina del Rey. Warhol also produced a TV commercial for Schrafft's Restaurants in New York City, for an ice cream dessert appropriately titled the "Underground Sundae." Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: "I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?" One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject. Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged theatrical multimedia happenings at parties and public venues, combining music, film, slide projections and even Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable in 1966 was the culmination of this area of his work. Theater: Andy Warhol's PORK opened on May 5, 1971 at LaMama theater in New York for a two week run and was brought to the Roundhouse in London for a longer run in August, 1971. Pork was based on tape-recorded conversations between Brigin Berlin and Andy during which Brigid would play for Andy tapes she had made of phone conversations between herself and her mother, socialite Honey Berlin. The play featured Jayne County as "Vulva" and Cherry Vanilla as "Amanda Pork". Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. Warhol was an accomplished photographer, and took an enormous amount of photographs of Factory visitors, friends. Computer: Warhol used Amiga computers to generate digital art, which he helped design and build with Amiga, Inc. He also displayed the difference between slow fill and fast fill on live TV with Debby Harry as a model. Producer and product Warhol had assistants in producing his paintings. This is also true of his film-making and commercial enterprises. He founded the gossip magazine Interview, a stage for celebrities he "endorsed" and a business staffed by his friends. He collaborated with others on all of his books (some of which were written with Pat Hackett.) He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground, presenting them to the public as his latest interest, and collaborating with them. One might even say that he produced people (as in the Warholian "Superstar" and the Warholian portrait). He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and in films (he appeared in everything from Love Boat to Saturday Night Live and the Richard Pryor movie, Dynamite Chicken). In this respect Warhol was a fan of "Art Business" and "Business Art" he, in fact, wrote about his interest in thinking about art as business in The Philosophy of Andy Warhol from A to B and Back Again. Museums Two museums are dedicated to Andy Warhol. The Andy Warhol Museum, one of the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, is located at 117 Sandusky Street in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is the largest American art museum dedicated to a single artist, holding more than 12,000 works by the artist himself. The other museum is the Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art, established in 1991 by Andy's brother John Warhola, the Slovak Ministry of Culture, and the Warhol Foundation in New York. It is located in the small town of Medzilaborce, Slovakia. Andy's parents were born 15 kilometers away in the village of Miková. The museum houses several originals donated mainly by the Andy Warhol Foundation in New York and also personal items donated by Warhol's relatives. Dramatic portrayals of Warhol Warhol (right) with director Ulli Lommel on the set of 1979's Cocaine Cowboys, in which Warhol appeared as himself In 1979, Warhol appeared as himself in the film Cocaine Cowboys. Lommel, Ulli (director). Cocaine Cowboys After his passing, Warhol was portrayed by Crispin Glover in Oliver Stone's film The Doors (1991), by David Bowie in Basquiat, a film by Julian Schnabel, and by Jared Harris in the film I Shot Andy Warhol directed by Mary Harron (1996). Warhol appears as a character in Michael Daugherty's 1997 opera Jackie O. Actor Mark Bringleson makes a brief cameo as Warhol in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997). Many films by avant-garde cineast Jonas Mekas have caught the moments of Andy's life. Sean Gregory Sullivan depicted Warhol in the 1998 film 54. Guy Pearce potrayed Warhol in the 2007 film, Factory Girl, about Edie Sedgwick's life. Hickenlooper, George (director). Factory Girl Actor Greg Travis portrays Warhol in a brief scene from the 2009 film Watchmen. Gus Van Sant was planning a version of Warhol's life with River Phoenix in the lead role just before Phoenix's death in 1993. Documentaries The 2001 documentary, Absolut Warhola was produced by Polish director Stanislaw Mucha, featuring Warhol's parents' family and hometown in Slovakia. Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film is a reverential four-hour 2006 movie by Ric Burns. is a 52 minute movie by lan Yentob about the difficulties in authenticating Warhol's work http://www.myandywarhol.eu/videos/videos1.asp Legacy Two years after Warhol's death, Songs for Drella, a co-commissioned work by The Brooklyn Academy of Music and The Arts at St. Ann's in New York City, was staged as a concept album performed by Lou Reed and John Cale, alumni of The Velvet Underground. The performance was filmed and directed by Ed Lachman, on December 6, 1989, and released on VHS and laserdisc formats. It was released on CD in a black velveteen package in 1990 by Sire Records. Drella was a nickname coined by Warhol superstar Ondine for Warhol, a portmanteau of Dracula and Cinderella, used by Warhol's crowd. Songs for Drella offers a kind of vie romancée of Warhol, focusing on his interpersonal relations. The songs fall roughly into three categories: Warhol's (semi-fictitious) first-person perspective, third-person narratives chronicling events and affairs, and first-person feelings towards and commentaries on Warhol by Reed and Cale themselves. On Drella, Reed apologizes to a departed Warhol and comes to terms with his part in their personal conflict. Reed and Cale had been playing the songs live in 1989 as a song cycle before committing them to tape. By the end of recording Cale vowed never to work with Reed again due to personal differences; nevertheless, Songs for Drella would prove to be the overture to a full-blown Velvet Underground reunion. Although the album was conceived as an indivisible whole, a single was released off it, "Nobody But You." On the twentieth anniversary of his death The Gershwin Hotel in New York City held a week-long series of events commemorating Warhol's art and his superstars. There was an award ceremony, a fashion show, and Blondie performed at the closing party. At the same time, The Carrozzini von Buhler Gallery in New York City held an exhibit titled, Andy Warhol: In His Wake. The exhibit featured the art of Warhol's superstars Ultra Violet, Billy Name, Taylor Mead, and Ivy Nicholson as well as art by a younger generation of artists who have been inspired by Warhol. One interactive sculpture in the exhibit, The Great Warhola, by Cynthia von Buhler, depicted Warhol as an arcade fortune-telling machine. The gallery was transformed to look like Warhol's silver factory. Factory Girl, a film about the life of Edie Sedgwick, starring Sienna Miller and Hayden Christensen, was also released one week before the anniversary of Warhol's death. In 2007, the Financial Times described British painter Stella Vine as "Warhol's descendent". Wullschlager, Jackie. "Where art history meets Hello!", Financial Times 21 July 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2009. Arifa Akbar of The Independent said Vine's examination of the culture of celebrity had been described as descending from the same tradition as Warhol. Akbar, Arifa. "The Warhol tradition: The Many Faces of Stella Vine", "The Independent", July 17 2007. Retrieved 10 December 2008. Vine feels a strong link with Warhol, commenting she is "the same type of person as him", Eyre, Hermione. "Completing my new show was the only thing that saved me from suicide", 15 July 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2008. and has done an in depth study of Warhol on a course at Tate Modern. References Further reading "A symposium on Pop Art." Arts Magazine, April 1963, pp.36–45. The symposium was held in 1962, at The Museum of Modern Art, and published in this issue the following year. Doyle, Jennifer, Jonathan Flatley, and José Esteban Muñoz eds. (1996). Pop Out: Queer Warhol. Durham: Duke University Press. James, James, "Andy Warhol: The Producer as Author", in Allegories of Cinema: American Film in the Sixties (1989), pp. 58–84. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Krauss, Rosalind E. "Warhol's Abstract Spectacle." In Abstraction, Gesture, Ecriture: Paintings from the Daros Collection. New York: Scalo, 1999, pp. 123–33. Lippard, Lucy R., Pop Art, Thames and Hudson, 1970 (1985 reprint), ISBN 0-500-20052-1 Suarez, Juan Antonio (1996). Bike Boys, Drag Queens, & Superstars: Avant-Garde, Mass Culture, and Gay Identities in the 1960s Underground Cinema. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. See also Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board Painting the Century 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900-2000 The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art in Medzilaborce Andy Warhol Bridge in Pittsburgh. Bodley Gallery Campbell's Soup Cans Camouflage Self-Portrait Big Electric Chair (Andy Warhol) Marilyn Diptych Green Coca-Cola Bottles External links Warhol Foundation in New York City Time Capsules: the Andy Warhol collection Warholstars: Andy Warhol Films, Art and Superstars Pop Art Masters - Andy Warhol Art Directors Club biography, portrait and images of work "Warhol, Soup Cans, Cowboys" (Studio 360 radio program, December 10, 2005) exhibition of 10 statues of liberty in Gallerie Lavignes bastille, Paris 1986 The Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art - city of origin	Andy_Warhol \|@lemmatized song:10 david:4 bowie:5 see:5 andy:57 warhol:236 andrew:1 warhola:7 august:3 february:2 commonly:1 know:9 american:7 painter:5 printmaker:1 filmmaker:5 leading:1 figure:5 visual:6 art:66 movement:5 pop:16 successful:7 career:10 commercial:12 illustrator:6 become:12 famous:13 worldwide:1 work:47 avant:4 garde:4 record:13 producer:4 author:6 public:5 membership:1 wildly:1 diverse:2 social:1 circle:2 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1,161	Numeral_system	A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a writing system for expressing numerals, and a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using graphemes or symbols in a consistent manner. It can be seen as the context that allows the numeral "11" to be interpreted as the binary numeral for three, the decimal numeral for eleven, or other numbers in different bases. Ideally, a numeral system will: Represent a useful set of numbers (e.g. all whole numbers, integers, or real numbers) Give every number represented a unique representation (or at least a standard representation) Reflect the algebraic and arithmetic structure of the numbers. For example, the usual decimal representation of whole numbers gives every whole number a unique representation as a finite sequence of digits, with the operations of arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) being present as the standard algorithms of arithmetic. However, when decimal representation is used for the rational or real numbers, the representation is no longer unique: many rational numbers have two numerals, a standard one that terminates, such as 2.31, and another that recurs, such as 2.309999999... . Numerals which terminate have no non-zero digits after a given position. For example, numerals like 2.31 and 2.310 are taken to be the same, except in the experimental sciences, where greater precision is denoted by the trailing zero. Numeral systems are sometimes called number systems, but that name is misleading, as it could refer to different systems of numbers, such as the system of real numbers, the system of complex numbers, the system of p-adic numbers, etc. Such systems are not the topic of this article. Types of numeral systems The most commonly used system of numerals is known as Hindu-Arabic numerals, and two Indian mathematicians are credited with developing them. Aryabhatta of Kusumapura who lived during the 5th century developed the place value notation and Brahmagupta a century later introduced the symbol zero. Hindu Arabic Numerals by David Eugene Smith Google Books) The simplest numeral system is the unary numeral system, in which every natural number is represented by a corresponding number of symbols. If the symbol / is chosen, for example, then the number seven would be represented by ///////. Tally marks represent one such system still in common use. In practice, the unary system is normally only useful for small numbers, although it plays an important role in theoretical computer science. Also, Elias gamma coding which is commonly used in data compression expresses arbitrary-sized numbers by using unary to indicate the length of a binary numeral. The unary notation can be abbreviated by introducing different symbols for certain new values. Very commonly, these values are powers of 10; so for instance, if / stands for one, - for ten and + for 100, then the number 304 can be compactly represented as +++ //// and number 123 as + - - /// without any need for zero. This is called sign-value notation. The ancient Egyptian system is of this type, and the Roman system is a modification of this idea. More useful still are systems which employ special abbreviations for repetitions of symbols; for example, using the first nine letters of our alphabet for these abbreviations, with A standing for "one occurrence", B "two occurrences", and so on, we could then write C+ D/ for the number 304. The numeral system of English is of this type ("three hundred [and] four"), as are those of virtually all other spoken languages, regardless of what written systems they have adopted. More elegant is a positional system, also known as place-value notation. Again working in base 10, we use ten different digits 0, ..., 9 and use the position of a digit to signify the power of ten that the digit is to be multiplied with, as in 304 = 3×100 + 0×10 + 4×1. Note that zero, which is not needed in the other systems, is of crucial importance here, in order to be able to "skip" a power. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system, borrowed from India, is a positional base 10 system; it is used today throughout the world. Arithmetic is much easier in positional systems than in the earlier additive ones; furthermore, additive systems have a need for a potentially infinite number of different symbols for the different powers of 10; positional systems need only 10 different symbols (assuming that it uses base 10). The numerals used when writing numbers with digits or symbols can be divided into two types that might be called the arithmetic numerals 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and the geometric numerals 1,10,100,1000,10000... respectively. The sign-value systems use only the geometric numerals and the positional system use only the arithmetic numerals. The sign-value system does not need arithmetic numerals because they are made by repetition (except for the Ionic system), and the positional system does not need geometric numerals because they are made by position. However, the spoken language uses both arithmetic and geometric numerals. In certain areas of computer science, a modified base-k positional system is used, called bijective numeration, with digits 1, 2, ..., k (k ≥ 1), and zero being represented by the empty string. This establishes a bijection between the set of all such digit-strings and the set of non-negative integers, avoiding the non-uniqueness caused by leading zeros. Bijective base-k numeration is also called k-adic notation, not to be confused with p-adic numbers. Bijective base-1 is the same as unary. See also Residue number system. Bases used Computing Switches, mimicked by their electronic successors built originally of vacuum tubes and in modern technology of transistors, have only two possible states: "open" and "closed". Substituting open=1 and closed=0 (or the other way around) yields the entire set of binary digits. This base-2 system (binary) is the basis for digital computers. It is used to perform integer arithmetic in almost all digital computers; some exotic base-3 (ternary) and base-10 computers have also been built, but those designs were discarded early in the history of computing hardware. Modern computers use transistors that represent two states with either high or low voltages. The smallest unit of memory for this binary state is called a bit. Bits are arranged in groups to aid in processing, and to make the binary numbers shorter and more manageable for humans. More recently these groups of bits, such as bytes and words, are sized in multiples of four. Thus base 16 (hexadecimal) is commonly used as shorthand. Base 8 (octal) has also been used for this purpose. A computer does not treat all of its data as numerical. For instance, some of it may be treated as program instructions or data such as text. However, arithmetic and Boolean logic constitute most internal operations. Whole numbers are represented exactly, as integers. Real numbers, allowing fractional values, are usually approximated as floating point numbers. The computer uses different methods to do arithmetic with these two kinds of numbers. Five A base-5 system (quinary) has been used in many cultures for counting. Plainly it is based on the number of fingers on a human hand. It may also be regarded as a sub-base of other bases, such as base 10 and base 60. Eight A base-8 system (octal) was devised by the Yuki tribe of Northern California, who used the spaces between the fingers to count, corresponding to the digits one through eight. There is also linguistic evidence which suggests that the Bronze Age Proto-Indo Europeans (from whom most European and Indic languages descend) might have replaced a base 8 system (or a system which could only count up to 8) with a base 10 system. The evidence is that the word for 9, newm, is suggested by some to derive from the word for 'new', newo-, suggesting that the number 9 had been recently invented and called the 'new number'. (Mallory & Adams 1997) Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture Ten The Algorists versus the Abacists by Gregor Reisch: Margarita Philosophica, 1508 The base-10 system (decimal) is the one most commonly used today. It is assumed to have originated because humans have ten fingers. These systems often use a larger superimposed base. See Decimal superbase. Twelve Base-12 systems (duodecimal or dozenal) have been popular because multiplication and division are easier than in base-10, with addition and subtraction being just as easy. Twelve is a useful base because it has many factors. It is the smallest multiple of one, two, three, four and six. There is still a special word for "dozen" and just like there is a word for 102, hundred, there is also a word for 122, gross. There are 24 hours per day, usually counted up to 12 until noon (p.m.) and once again until midnight (a.m.), often further divided per 6 hours in counting (for instance in Thailand) or as switches between using terms like 'night', 'morning', 'afternoon', and 'evening', whereas other languages use such terms with durations of 3 to 9 hours often according to switches at some of the 3-hour interval marks. Multiples of 12 have been in common use as English units of resolution in the analog and digital printing world, where 1 point equals 1/72 of an inch and 12 points equal 1 pica, and printer resolutions like 360, 600, 720, 1200 or 1440 dpi (dots per inch) are common. These are combinations of base-12 and base-10 factors: (3×12)×10, (5×12)×10, (6×12)×10, (10×12)×10 and (12×12)×10. Twenty The Maya civilization and other civilizations of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica used base-20 (vigesimal). Evidence of base-20 counting systems is also found in the languages of central and western Africa. Remnants of a Gaulish base-20 system also exist in French, as seen today in the names of the numbers from 60 through 99. For example, sixty-five is soixante-cinq (literally, "sixty [and] five"), while seventy-five is soixante-quinze (literally, "sixty [and] fifteen"). Furthermore, for any number between 80 and 99, the "tens-column" number is expressed as a multiple of twenty (somewhat similar to the archaic English manner of speaking of "scores", probably originating from the same underlying Celtic system). For example, eighty-two is quatre-vingt-deux (literally, four twenty[s] [and] two), while ninety-two is quatre-vingt-douze (literally, four twenty[s] [and] twelve). In Old French, forty was expressed as two twenties and sixty was three twenties, so that fifty-three was expressed as two twenties [and] thirteen, and so on. The Irish language also used base-20 in the past, twenty being fichid, forty dhá fhichid, sixty trí fhichid and eighty ceithre fhichid. A remnant of this system may be seen in the modern word for 40, daoichead. Danish numerals display a similar base-20 structure. The Maori language of New Zealand also has evidence of an underlying base-20 system as seen in the terms Te Hokowhitu a Tu refering to a War party(Literally the seven twenty's of Tu ) and Tama-hokotahi referring to a great warrior (the one man equal to 20) Sixty Base 60 (sexagesimal) was used by the Sumerians and their successors in Mesopotamia and survives today in our system of time (hence the division of an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds) and in our system of angular measure (a degree is divided into 60 minutes and a minute is divided into 60 seconds). Sixty also has a large number of factors, including the first six counting numbers. Base-60 systems are believed to have originated through the merging of base-10 and base-12 systems. The Chinese Calendar, for example, uses a base-60 Jia-Zi甲子 system to denote years, with each year within the 60-year cycle being named with two symbols, the first being base-10 (called Tian-Gan or heavenly stems) and the second symbol being base 12 (called Di-Zhi地支 or earthly branches). Both symbols are incremented in successive years until the first pattern recurs 60 years later. The second symbol of this system is also related to the 12-animal Chinese zodiac system. The Jia-zi system can also be applied to counting days, with a year containing roughly six 60-day cycles. Dual base (five and twenty) Many ancient counting systems use five as a primary base, almost surely coming from the number of fingers on a person's hand. Often these systems are supplemented with a secondary base, sometimes ten, sometimes twenty. In some African languages the word for five is the same as "hand" or "fist" (Dyola language of Guinea-Bissau, Banda language of Central Africa). Counting continues by adding 1, 2, 3, or 4 to combinations of 5, until the secondary base is reached. In the case of twenty, this word often means "man complete". This system is referred to as quinquavigesimal. It is found in many languages of the Sudan region. Base names Number From Latin From Greek Mixed or Other Cardinals Ordinals Distributives 1 unary primal singulary henadic Primary 2 dual binary dyadic Secondary 3 tertial ternary, trinary triadic Tertiary 4 quartal quaternary tetradic 5 quintal quinary pentadic quinternary 6 sextal senary hexadic heximal, hexary 7 septimal septenary hebdomadic septuary 8 octal octaval, octavary octonary ogdoadic octonal 9 nonary novenary enneadic novary, noval 10 decimal denary decadic 11 undecimal undenary hendecadic unodecimal 12 duodecimal duodenary duodecadic dozenal 13 tridecimal, tredecimal triodecimal 14 quattuordecimal, quadrodecimal tetradecimal 15 quindecimal quindenary pentadecimal 16 sedecimal sedenary hexadecimal, sexadecimal 17 septendecimal heptadecimal 18 octodecimal decennoctal 19 nonadecimal novodecimal, decennoval 20 vicesimal, vigesimal vicenary icosadic bigesimal, bidecimal 30 tricesimal, trigesimal tricenary triacontadic 40 quadragesimal quadragenary 50 quinquagesimal quinquagenary pentagesimal 60 sexagesimal sexagenary hexecontadic 70 septuagesimal septuagenary 80 octogesimal octogenary 90 nonagesimal nonagenary 100 centesimal centenary hecatontadic 200 ducentesimal ducenary bicentesimal, bicentimal 300 trecentesimal trecenary tercentimal, tricentesimal 400 quadringentesimal quadringenary quadricentesimal, quattrocentimal 500 quingentesimal quingenary pentacentesimal, quincentimal 600 sescentesimal hexacentesimal, hexacentimal 700 septingentesimal septingenary heptacentesimal, heptacentimal 800 octingentesimal octingenary octacentesimal, octacentimal 900 noningentesimal nongenary 1000 millesimal millenary chiliadic 10000 myriadic decamillesimal 24 - quadrovigesimal / quadriovigesimal 26 - hexavigesimal / sexavigesimal 27 - heptovigesimal 28 - octovigesimal 29 - novovigesimal 31 - unotrigesimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 36 - hexatridecimal / sexatrigesimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 41 - unoquadragesimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 51 - unoquinquagesimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 64 - quadrosexagesimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 110 - decacentimal 111 - unodecacentimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 210 - decabicentimal 211 - unodecabicentimal (...repeat naming pattern...) 800 - octocentimal / octocentesimal 2000 - bimillesimal (...repeat naming pattern...) Positional systems in detail In a positional base-b numeral system (with b a positive natural number known as the radix), b basic symbols (or digits) corresponding to the first b natural numbers including zero are used. To generate the rest of the numerals, the position of the symbol in the figure is used. The symbol in the last position has its own value, and as it moves to the left its value is multiplied by b. For example, in the decimal system (base 10), the numeral 4327 means (4×103) + (3×102) + (2×101) + (7×100), noting that 100 = 1. In general, if b is the base, we write a number in the numeral system of base b by expressing it in the form anbn + an − 1bn − 1 + an − 2bn − 2 + ... + a0b0 and writing the enumerated digits anan − 1an − 2 ... a0 in descending order. The digits are natural numbers between 0 and b − 1, inclusive. If a text (such as this one) discusses multiple bases, and if ambiguity exists, the base (itself represented in base 10) is added in subscript to the right of the number, like this: numberbase. Unless specified by context, numbers without subscript are considered to be decimal. By using a dot to divide the digits into two groups, one can also write fractions in the positional system. For example, the base-2 numeral 10.11 denotes 1×21 + 0×20 + 1×2−1 + 1×2−2 = 2.75. In general, numbers in the base b system are of the form: The numbers bk and b−k are the weights of the corresponding digits. The position k is the logarithm of the corresponding weight w, that is . The highest used position is close to the order of magnitude of the number. The number of tally marks required in the unary numeral system for describing the weight would have been w. In the positional system the number of digits required to describe it is only , for . E.g. to describe the weight 1000 then 4 digits are needed since . The number of digits required to describe the position is (in positions 1, 10, 100... only for simplicity in the decimal example). Position3210-1-2... Weight ... Digit ... Decimal example weight 1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 ... Decimal example digit 4 3 2 7 0 0 ... Note that a number has a terminating or repeating expansion if and only if it is rational; this does not depend on the base. A number that terminates in one base may repeat in another (thus 0.310 = 0.0100110011001...2). An irrational number stays unperiodic (infinite amount of unrepeating digits) in all integral bases. Thus, for example in base 2, = 3.1415926...10 can be written down as the unperiodic 11.001001000011111...2. If b = p is a prime number, one can define base-p numerals whose expansion to the left never stops; these are called the p-adic numbers. Change of radix A simple algorithm for converting integers between positive-integer radices is repeated division by the target radix; the remainders give the "digits" starting at the least significant. E.g., 1020304 base 10 into base 7: 1020304 / 7 = 145757 r 5 145757 / 7 = 20822 r 3 20822 / 7 = 2974 r 4 2974 / 7 = 424 r 6 424 / 7 = 60 r 4 60 / 7 = 8 r 4 8 / 7 = 1 r 1 1 / 7 = 0 r 1 => 11446435 E.g., 10110111 base 2 into base 5: 10110111 / 101 = 100100 r 11 (3) 100100 / 101 = 111 r 1 (1) 111 / 101 = 1 r 10 (2) 1 / 101 = 0 r 1 (1) => 1213 To convert a "decimal" fraction, do repeated multiplication, taking the protruding integer parts as the "digits". Unfortunately a terminating fraction in one base may not terminate in another. E.g., 0.1A4C base 16 into base 9: 0.1A4C × 9 = 0.ECAC 0.ECAC × 9 = 8.520C 0.520C × 9 = 2.E26C 0.E26C × 9 = 7.F5CC 0.F5CC × 9 = 8.A42C 0.A42C × 9 = 5.C58C => 0.082785... Generalized variable-length integers More general is using a notation (here written little-endian) like for , etc. This is used in punycode, one aspect of which is the representation of a sequence of non-negative integers of arbitrary size in the form of a sequence without delimiters, of "digits" from a collection of 36: a-z and 0-9, representing 0-25 and 26-35 respectively. A digit lower than a threshold value marks that it is the most-significant digit, hence the end of the number. The threshold value depends on the position in the number. For example, if the threshold value for the first digit is b (i.e. 1) then a (i.e. 0) marks the end of the number (it has just one digit), so in numbers of more than one digit the range is only b-9 (1-35), therefore the weight b1 is 35 instead of 36. Suppose the threshold values for the second and third digit are c (2), then the third digit has a weight 34 × 35 = 1190 and we have the following sequence: a (0), ba (1), ca (2), .., 9a (35), bb (36), cb (37), .., 9b (70), bca (71), .., 99a (1260), bcb (1261), etc. Note that unlike a regular base-35 numeral system, we have numbers like 9b where 9 and b each represent 35; yet the representation is unique because ac and aca are not allowed. The flexibility in choosing threshold values allows optimization depending on the frequency of occurrence of numbers of various sizes. The case with all threshold values equal to 1 corresponds to bijective numeration, where the zeros correspond to separators of numbers with digits which are nonzero. Properties of numerical systems with integer bases Numeral systems with base A, where A is a positive integer, possess the following properties: If A is even and A/2 is odd, all integral powers greater than zero of the number (A/2)+1 will contain (A/2)+1 as their last digit If both A and A/2 are even, then all integral powers greater than or equal to zero of the number (A/2)+1 will alternate between having (A/2)+1 and 1 as their last digit. (For odd powers it will be (A/2)+1, for even powers it will be 1) Proof of the first property: Define Then x is even, and all for p greater than 0 must be even. The property is equivalent to We first check the case for p=1 x is less than A, so the result is trivial. We then check for p=2: Since , then for all even N: Because x is even, then is congruent to zero modulo A. Therefore: Using induction, assuming that the property holds for p-1: Since the case holds for p-1, then . Since is a case of Equation 1, then . This leaves, for all p greater than 0, Q.E.D. Proof of the second property: Define Then x is odd, and all for p greater than or equal to 0 must be odd. The property is equivalent to Since , then for all odd E: The case is first checked for p=0: This result is trivial Next, for p=1: This result is also trivial Next, for p=2: Because x is odd, then x(x-1) is a case of Equation 2, Next, for p=3: Because is odd, is a case of Equation 2, Since , , so . Using induction, assuming that the property holds for p-1: If p is odd: Since is a case of Equation (2), , so If p is even: Since is a case of Equation (2), . , so Q.E.D. See also Babylonian numerals — a sexagesimal (base-60) system Computer numbering formats Golden ratio base List of numeral system topics N-ary Number names Quipu Recurring decimal Residue number system Subtractive notation References Georges Ifrah. The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, Wiley, 1999. ISBN 0-471-37568-3. D. Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming. Volume 2, 3rd Ed. Addison-Wesley. pp.194–213, "Positional Number Systems". J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, London and Chicago, 1997. Hans J. Nissen, P. Damerow, R. Englund, Archaic Bookkeeping, University of Chicago Press, 1993, ISBN 0-226-58659-6. Denise Schmandt-Besserat, How Writing Came About, University of Texas Press, 1992, ISBN 0-292-77704-3. Claudia Zaslavsky, Africa Counts: Number and Pattern in African Cultures, Lawrence Hill Books, 1999, ISBN 1-55652-350-5. External links Correspondences with numerals and letters (nine different alphabets) Counting Systems of Papua New Guinea Number Sense & Numeration Lessons Numerical Mechanisms and Children's Concept of Numbers Online Converter for Decimal/Roman Numerals (JavaScript, GPL) Online Converter for Different Numeral Systems (Base 2-36, JavaScript, GPL) Online Java applet for converting from any base to another Software for converting from one numeral system to another be-x-old:Сыстэма зьлічэньня	Numeral_system \|@lemmatized numeral:43 system:79 numeration:5 writing:2 express:6 mathematical:1 notation:8 represent:13 number:77 give:5 set:5 use:40 grapheme:1 symbol:16 consistent:1 manner:2 see:7 context:2 allow:4 interpret:1 binary:7 three:5 decimal:14 eleven:1 different:10 base:75 ideally:1 useful:4 e:10 g:5 whole:4 integer:11 real:4 every:3 unique:4 representation:8 least:2 standard:3 reflect:1 algebraic:1 arithmetic:11 structure:2 example:14 usual:1 finite:1 sequence:4 digit:32 operation:2 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1,162	Hammer	A modern claw hammer A hammer is a tool meant to deliver an impact to an object. The most common uses are for driving nails, fitting parts, forging metal and breaking up objects. Hammers are often designed for a specific purpose, and vary widely in their shape and structure. Usual features are a handle and a head, with most of the weight in the head. The basic design is hand-operated, but there are also many mechanically operated models for heavier uses. The hammer is a basic tool of many professions, and can also be used as a weapon. By analogy, the name hammer has also been used for devices that are designed to deliver blows, e.g. in the caplock mechanism of firearms. History Early stone hammer. The use of simple tools dates to about 2,400,000 BCE when various shaped stones were used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. Its archeological record means it is perhaps the oldest human tool known. Designs and variations The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver the blow to the intended target without itself deforming. The opposite side of a ball as in the ball-peen hammer and the cow hammer. Some upholstery hammers have a magnetized appendage, to pick up tacks. In the hatchet the hammer head is secondary to the cutting edge of the tool. In recent years the handles have been made of durable plastic or rubber. The hammer varies at the top, some are larger than others giving a larger surface area to hit different sized nails and such. Popular hand-powered variations include: carpenter's hammers (used for nailing), such as the framing hammer and the claw hammer upholstery hammer construction hammers, including the sledgehammer drilling hammer - a lightweight, short handled sledgehammer Ball-peen hammer, or mechanic's hammer Soft-faced hammer cross-peen hammer, or Warrington hammer mallets, including the rubber hammer and dead blow hammer. Splitting maul stonemason's hammer Geologist's hammer or rock pick lump hammer, or club hammer gavel, used by judges and presiding authorities in general Tinner's Hammer Mechanically-powered hammer Mechanically-powered hammers often look quite different from the hand tools, but nevertheless most of them work on the same principle. They include: jackhammer steam hammer trip hammer hammer drill, that combines a jackhammer-like mechanism with a drill In professional framing carpentry, the hammer has almost been completely replaced by the nail gun. In professional upholstery, its chief competitor is the staple gun. Tools used in conjunction with hammers Woodsplitting wedge - hit with a sledgehammer for splitting wood. Woodsplitting maul - can be hit with a sledgehammer for splitting wood. Masonry star drill Chisel Punch Anvil The physics of hammering Hammer as a force amplifier A hammer is basically a force amplifier that works by converting mechanical work into kinetic energy and back. In the swing that precedes each blow, a certain amount of kinetic energy gets stored in the hammer's head, equal to the length D of the swing times the force f produced by the muscles of the arm and by gravity. When the hammer strikes, the head gets stopped by an opposite force coming from the target; which is equal and opposite to the force applied by the head to the target. If the target is a hard and heavy object, or if it is resting on some sort of anvil, the head can travel only a very short distance d before stopping. Since the stopping force F times that distance must be equal to the head's kinetic energy, it follows that F will be much greater than the original driving force f — roughly, by a factor D/d. In this way, great strength is not needed to produce a force strong enough to bend steel, or crack the hardest stone. Effect of the head's mass The amount of energy delivered to the target by the hammer-blow is equivalent to one half the mass of the head times the square of the head's speed at the time of impact (). While the energy delivered to the target increases linearly with mass, it increases geometrically with the speed (see the effect of the handle, below). High tech titanium heads are lighter and allow for longer handles, thus increasing velocity and delivering more energy with less arm fatigue than that of a steel head hammer of the same weight. As hammers must be used in many circumstances, where the position of the person using them cannot be taken for granted, trade-offs are made for the sake of practicality. In areas where one has plenty of room, a long handle with a heavy head (like a sledge hammer) can deliver the maximum amount of energy to the target. But clearly, it's unreasonable to use a sledge hammer to drive upholstery tacks. Thus, the overall design has been modified repeatedly to achieve the optimum utility in a wide variety of situations. Effect of the handle The handle of the hammer helps in several ways. It keeps the user's hands away from the point of impact. It provides a broad area that is better-suited for gripping by the hand. Most importantly, it allows the user to maximize the speed of the head on each blow. The primary constraint on additional handle length is the lack of space in which to swing the hammer. This is why sledge hammers, largely used in open spaces, can have handles that are much longer than a standard carpenter's hammer. The second most important constraint is more subtle. Even without considering the effects of fatigue, the longer the handle, the harder it is to guide the head of the hammer to its target at full speed. Most designs are a compromise between practicality and energy efficiency. Too long a handle: the hammer is inefficient because it delivers force to the wrong place, off-target. Too short a handle: the hammer is inefficient because it doesn't deliver enough force, requiring more blows to complete a given task. Recently, modifications have also been made with respect to the effect of the hammer on the user. A titanium head has about 3% recoil and can result in greater efficiency and less fatigue when compared to a steel head with about 27% recoil. Handles made of shock-absorbing materials or varying angles attempt to make it easier for the user to continue to wield this age-old device, even as nail guns and other powered drivers encroach on its traditional field of use. War hammers The concept of putting a handle on a weight to make it more convenient to use may well have led to the very first weapons ever invented. The club is basically a variant of a hammer. In the Middle Ages, the war hammer became popular when edged weapons could no longer easily penetrate some forms of armour. Symbolic hammers The hammer, being one of the most used tools by Homo sapiens, has been used very much in symbols and arms. In the Middle Ages it was used often in blacksmith guild logos, as well as in many family symbols. The most recognised symbol with a hammer in it is the Hammer and Sickle, which was the symbol of the former Soviet Union and is very interlinked with Communism/Socialism. The hammer in this symbol represents the industrial working class (and the sickle the agricultural working class). The hammer is used in some coat of arms in (former) socialist countries like East Germany. In Norse Mythology, Thor, the god of thunder and lightning, wields a hammer named Mjolnir. Many artifacts of decorative hammers have been found leading many modern practitioners of this religion to often wear reproductions as a sign of their faith. External links Hammer types images and descriptions. 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1,163	Fred_Reed	Fred Reed (born 1945 in Crumpler, West Virginia) is a technology columnist for The Washington Times, and the author of Fred on Everything, a weekly independent column. He also writes books and other material. He has also written for The American Conservative and LewRockwell.com. A former Marine, Reed is a police writer, an occasional war correspondent, and an aficionado of raffish bars. His work, written in a unique and articulate style, is often satirical and opinionated. He got his start doing military columns and retired from national syndication to write travel books. He is now back as a columnist. Reed notes that his columns are often provocative, and calls himself "an equal-opportunity irritant." Fred's output defies characterization as his articles include those attacking feminism (generally the proviso of the right), George W. Bush (generally the proviso of the left) and evolution (generally the proviso of religious fundamentalists). Many of Reed's articles speak of a yearning for a simpler time, and urge the reader to forgo the pursuit of money and comforts in favor of a cultured life of the mind. Reed is currently living in Mexico as an American expatriate. Bibliography A Brass Pole in Bangkok: A Thing I Aspire to Be (2006) Nekkid in Austin (2002) The Great Possum-Squashing and Beer Storm of 1962: Reflections on the Remains of My Country (2000) External links Fred on Everything online Fred Reed's Article Archive at LewRockwell.com	Fred_Reed \|@lemmatized fred:5 reed:6 born:1 crumpler:1 west:1 virginia:1 technology:1 columnist:2 washington:1 time:2 author:1 everything:2 weekly:1 independent:1 column:3 also:2 write:4 book:2 material:1 american:2 conservative:1 lewrockwell:2 com:2 former:1 marine:1 police:1 writer:1 occasional:1 war:1 correspondent:1 aficionado:1 raffish:1 bar:1 work:1 unique:1 articulate:1 style:1 often:2 satirical:1 opinionated:1 get:1 start:1 military:1 retire:1 national:1 syndication:1 travel:1 back:1 note:1 provocative:1 call:1 equal:1 opportunity:1 irritant:1 output:1 defies:1 characterization:1 article:3 include:1 attack:1 feminism:1 generally:3 proviso:3 right:1 george:1 w:1 bush:1 left:1 evolution:1 religious:1 fundamentalist:1 many:1 speak:1 yearning:1 simpler:1 urge:1 reader:1 forgo:1 pursuit:1 money:1 comfort:1 favor:1 cultured:1 life:1 mind:1 currently:1 live:1 mexico:1 expatriate:1 bibliography:1 brass:1 pole:1 bangkok:1 thing:1 aspire:1 nekkid:1 austin:1 great:1 possum:1 squashing:1 beer:1 storm:1 reflection:1 remains:1 country:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 archive:1 \|@bigram lewrockwell_com:2 w_bush:1 external_link:1
1,164	Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe	Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, born Maria Ludwig Michael Mies (March 27, 1886 – August 17, 1969) was a German architect. He was commonly referred to and addressed by his surname, Mies, by most of his American students and others. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, along with Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, is widely regarded as one of the pioneering masters of modern architecture. Mies, like many of his post World War I contemporaries, sought to establish a new architectural style that could represent modern times just as Classical and Gothic did for their own eras. He created an influential 20th century architectural style, stated with extreme clarity and simplicity. His mature buildings made use of modern materials such as industrial steel and plate glass to define interior spaces. He strived towards an architecture with a minimal framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom of free-flowing open space. He called his buildings "skin and bones" architecture. He sought a rational approach that would guide the creative process of architectural design, and is known for his use of the aphorisms "less is more" and "God is in the details". Early career Mies worked in his father's stone-carving shop and at several local design firms before he moved to Berlin joining the office of interior designer Bruno Paul. He began his architectural career as an apprentice at the studio of Peter Behrens from 1908 to 1912, where he was exposed to the current design theories and to progressive German culture, working alongside Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier. Mies served as construction manager of the Embassy of the German Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens. His talent was quickly recognized and he soon began independent commissions, despite his lack of a formal college-level education. A physically imposing, deliberative, and reticent man, Ludwig Mies renamed himself as part of his rapid transformation from a tradesman's son to an architect working with Berlin's cultural elite, adding the more aristocratic surname "van der Rohe". He began his independent professional career designing upper class homes in traditional Germanic domestic styles. He admired the broad proportions, regularity of rhythmic elements, attention to the relationship of the manmade to nature, and compositions using simple cubic volumes of the early 19th century Prussian Neo-Classical architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, while dismissing the eclectic and cluttered classical so common at the turn of the century. Traditionalism to Modernism Villa Tugendhat built in 1930 in Brno, in today's Czech Republic, for Fritz Tugendhat. After World War I, Mies began, while still designing traditional custom homes, a parallel experimental effort in international style, joining his avant-garde peers in the long-running search for a new style for a new industrial democracy. The weak points of traditional styles had been under attack by progressive theorists since the mid-nineteenth century, primarily for attaching historical ornament unrelated to a modern structure's underlying construction. Their mounting criticism of the historical styles gained substantial cultural credibility after the disaster of World War I, widely seen as a failure of the old order of imperial leadership of Europe. The classical revival styles were particularly reviled by many as the architectural symbol of a now-discredited aristocratic system. Boldly abandoning ornament altogether, Mies made a dramatic debut with his stunning competition proposal for the faceted all-glass Friedrichstraße skyscraper in 1921, followed by a curved version in 1922. He continued with a series of pioneering projects, culminating in his two European masterworks: the temporary German Pavilion for the Barcelona exposition (often called the Barcelona Pavilion) in 1929 (a reconstruction is now built on the original site) and the elegant Villa Tugendhat in Brno, Czech Republic, completed in 1930. While continuing his traditional design practice Mies began to develop visionary projects that, though mostly unbuilt, rocketed him to fame as a progressive architect. He worked with the progressive design magazine G which started in July 1923. He developed prominence as architectural director of the Werkbund, organizing the influential Weissenhof prototype modernist housing exhibition. He was also one of the founders of the architectural association Der Ring. He joined the avant-garde Bauhaus design school as their director of architecture, adopting and developing their functionalist application of simple geometric forms in the design of useful objects. Like many other avant garde architects of the day, Mies based his own architectural theories and principles on his own personal re-combinations of ideas developed by many other thinkers and designers who had attacked the flaws of the traditional design styles, defined new criteria, and created alternative design solutions. Mies' modernist thinking was influenced by the aesthetic credos of Russian Constructivism with their ideology of "efficient" sculptural constructions using modern industrial materials. Mies found appeal in the use of simple rectilinear and planar forms, clean lines, pure use of color, and the extension of space around and beyond interiors expounded by the Dutch De Stijl group. In particular, the layering of functions in space and the clear articulation of parts as expressed by Gerrit Rietveld appealed to Mies. Like other architects in Europe, Mies was enthralled with the free-flowing inter-connected rooms which encompass their outdoor surroundings as demonstrated by the open floor plans of the American Prairie Style work of Frank Lloyd Wright. The theories of Adolf Loos found resonance with Mies, particularly the ideas of eradication of ornament and the casting off of the superficial, the use of unadorned but rich materials, the nobility of anonymity, and an admiration for the unfettered pragmatism of American engineering structures and machines. Significance and meaning Mies adopted an ambitious lifelong mission to create not only a new architectural style, but also a solid intellectual foundation for a new architectural language that could be used to represent the new era of technology and production. He saw a need for an architecture expressive of and in harmony with his epoch, just as Gothic architecture was for an era of spiritualism. He applied a disciplined design process using rational thought to achieve his spiritual goals. He adopted the idea that architecture communicated the meaning and significance of the culture in which it exists. The self-educated Mies painstakingly studied the great philosophers and thinkers of the past and of the day to enhance his own understanding of the character and essential qualities of the times he lived in. More than perhaps any other practising pioneer of modernism, Mies used philosophy as a basis for his work. Mies' architecture was created at a high level of abstraction, and his own descriptions of his work leave much room for interpretation. Yet his buildings also seem very direct and simple when viewed in person. Emigration to the United States Opportunities for commissions dwindled with the worldwide depression after 1929. In the early 1930s, Mies served briefly as the last Director of the faltering Bauhaus, at the request of his friend and competitor Walter Gropius. After 1933, Nazi political pressure soon forced Mies to close the government-financed school, a victim of its previous association with socialism, communism, and other progressive ideologies. He built very little in these years (one built commission was Philip Johnson's New York apartment); his style was rejected by the Nazis as not "German" in character. Frustrated and unhappy, he left his homeland reluctantly in 1937 as he saw his opportunity for any future building commissions vanish, accepting a residential commission in Wyoming and then an offer to head an architectural school in Chicago. When the refugee from the heavy-handed and constricting order of the Nazi government arrived in the United States after 30 years of practice in Germany, his reputation as a pioneer of modern architecture was already established by American promoters of the international style. Career in the United States IBM Plaza, Chicago, Illinois Mies settled in Chicago, Illinois where he was appointed as head of the architecture school at Chicago's Armour Institute of Technology (later renamed Illinois Institute of Technology - IIT). One of the benefits of taking this position was that he would be commissioned to design the new buildings and master plan for the campus. All his buildings still stand there, including Alumni Hall, the Chapel, and his masterpiece the S.R. Crown Hall, built as the home of IIT's School of Architecture. Crown Hall is widely regarded as Mies' finest work, the definition of Miesian architecture, although some regard the building as "completely inefficient". In 1944, he became an American citizen, completing his severance from his native Germany. His 30 years as an American architect reflect a more structural, pure approach towards achieving his goal of a new architecture for the 20th Century. He focused his efforts on the idea of enclosing open and adaptable "universal" spaces with clearly arranged structural frameworks, featuring pre-manufactured steel shapes infilled with large sheets of glass. His early projects at the IIT campus and for developer Herb Greenwald opened the eyes of Americans to a style that seemed a natural progression of the almost forgotten 19th century Chicago School style. His architecture, with origins in the German Bauhaus and western European International Style became an accepted mode of building for American cultural and educational institutions, developers, public agencies, and large corporations. The North American Period 860–880 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois. His significant projects in the U.S. include the residential towers of 860-880 Lake Shore Dr, Commonwealth Plaza-330-340 W Diversey Pkwy, the Farnsworth House, Crown Hall and other structures at IIT, all in and around Chicago, and the Seagram Building in New York. These iconic works became the prototypes for his other projects. Between 1946 and 1951, Mies van der Rohe designed and built the Farnsworth House, a weekend retreat outside Chicago for an independent professional woman, Dr. Edith Farnsworth. Here, Mies explored the relationship between ourselves, our shelter, and nature. This small masterpiece showed the world that cold exposed industrial steel and glass were materials capable of creating architecture of great emotional impact. The glass pavilion is raised six feet above a floodplain next to the Fox River, surrounded by forest and rural prairies. The highly crafted pristine white structural frame and all-glass walls define a simple rectilinear interior space, letting nature and light envelop the interior space. A wood-panelled fireplace (also housing mechanical equipment, kitchen, and toilets) is positioned within the open space to suggest living, dining and sleeping spaces without using walls. No partitions touch the surrounding all-glass enclosure. Without solid exterior walls, full-height draperies on a perimeter track allow freedom to provide full or partial privacy when and where desired. The house has been described as sublime, a temple hovering between heaven and earth, a poem, a work of art. The Farnsworth House and its wooded site was purchased at auction for US$7.5 million by preservation groups in 2004 and is now operated by the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois as a public museum. The influential building spawned hundreds of modernist glass houses, most notably the Glass House by Philip Johnson, located near New York City and also owned by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The iconic Farnsworth House is considered among Mies's greatest works. The house is an embodiment of Mies' mature vision of modern architecture for the new technological age: a single large space with a minimal "skin and bones" framework provides a steel and glass enclosure with a clearly understandable arrangement of architectural parts, with interior space loosely defined by independent partitions within the overall room, free-flowing to suggest freedom of use. His ideas are stated with clarity and simplicity, using materials that are allowed to express their own individual character. Mies then designed a series of four middle-income high-rise apartment buildings for developer Herb Greenwald (and his successor firms after his untimely death in a plane crash), the 860/880 and 900-910 Lake Shore Drive towers on Chicago's Lakefront. These towers, with façades of steel and glass, were radical departures from the typical residential brick apartment buildings of the time. Interestingly, Mies found their unit sizes too small for himself, choosing instead to continue living in a spacious traditional luxury apartment a few blocks away. The towers were simple rectangular boxes with a non-hierarchical wall enclosure, raised on stilts above a glass enclosed lobby. The lobby is set back from the perimeter columns which were exposed around the perimeter of the building above, creating a modern arcade not unlike those of the Greek temples. This configuration created a feeling of light, openness, and freedom of movement at the ground level that became the prototype for countless new towers designed both by Mies's office and his followers. Some historians argue that this new approach is an expression of the American spirit and the boundless open space of the frontier, which German culture so admired. Once Mies had established his basic design concept for the general form and details of his tower buildings, he applied those solutions (with evolving refinements) to his later high-rise building projects. The architecture of his towers appears to be similar, but each project represents new ideas about the formation of highly sophisticated urban space at ground level. He delighted in the composition of multiple towers arranged in a seemingly casual non-hierarchical relation to each other. He created, just as he did in his interiors, free flowing spaces and flat surfaces that represented the idea of an oasis of uncluttered clarity and calm within the chaos of the city. Nature was included by leaving openings in the pavement, through which plants seem to grow unfettered by urbanization, just as they would in their pre-settlement environment. In 1958, Mies van der Rohe designed what is often regarded as the pinnacle of the modernist high-rise architecture, the Seagram Building in New York City. Mies was chosen by the daughter of the client, Phyllis Bronfman Lambert, who has become a noted architectural figure and patron in her own right. The Seagram Building has become an icon of the growing power of that defining institution of the 20th century, the corporation. In a bold and innovative move, the architect chose to set the tower back from the property line to create a forecourt plaza and fountain on Park Avenue. Although now acclaimed and widely influential as an urban design feature, Mies had to convince Bronfman's bankers that a taller tower with significant "wasted" open space at ground level was a viable idea. Mies' design included a bronze curtain wall with external H-shaped mullions that were exaggerated in depth beyond what is structurally necessary, touching off criticism by his detractors that Mies had committed Adolf Loos's "crime of ornamentation". Philip Johnson had a role in interior materials selections and the plaza, and he designed the sumptuous Four Seasons Restaurant which has endured un-remodeled to today. The Seagram Building is said to be an early example of the innovative "fast-track" construction process, where design and construction are done concurrently. Using the Seagram as a prototype, Mies' office designed a number of modern high-rise office towers, notably the Chicago Federal Center, which includes the Dirksen and Kluczynski Federal Buildings and Post Office (1959) and the IBM Plaza in Chicago, the Westmount Square in Montreal and the Toronto-Dominion Centre in 1967. Each project applies the prototype rectangular form on stilts and enclosure walls system but each creates a unique set of exterior spaces that are an essential aspect of his creative energies. For the TD Centre he designed the font used on all the signage including the concourse area. The signage was still used in 2007, although is slowly being replaced as retailers update their store façades as leases turn over. TD Centre towers frame CN Tower in Toronto. During 1951-1952, Mies' designed the steel, glass and brick McCormick House, located in Elmhurst, Illinois (15 miles west of the Chicago Loop), for real-estate developer Robert Hall McCormick, Jr. A one story adaptation of the exterior curtain wall of his famous 860-880 Lake Shore Drive towers, it served as a prototype for an unbuilt series of speculative houses to be constructed in Melrose Park, Illinois. The house has been moved, but it exists today as a part of the public Elmhurst Art Museum. Mies's last work was the Neue Nationalgalerie art museum, the New National Gallery, in Berlin. Considered one of the most perfect statements of his architectural approach, the upper pavilion is a precise composition of monumental steel columns and a cantilevered (overhanging) roof plane with a glass enclosure. The simple square box is a powerful expression of his ideas about flexible interior space, defined by transparent walls and supported by an external structural frame. The pavilion is a relatively small portion of the overall building, serving as a symbolic architectural entry point and monumental gallery for larger scale art. A large podium building below the pavilion accommodates most of the buildings actual built area in more functional spaces for galleries, support and utilitarian rooms. As of May, 2009 a part of his ensemble at the Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) is threatened with demolition. The campus of Whitney Young High School and the adjacent Chicago Police Academy are two examples of the influence van der Rohe had on Chicago architecture. Furniture Mies designed modern furniture pieces using new industrial technologies that have become popular classics, such as the Barcelona chair and table, the Brno chair, and the Tugendhat chair. His furniture is known for fine craftsmanship, a mix of traditional luxurious fabrics like leather combined with modern chrome frames, and a distinct separation of the supporting structure and the supported surfaces, often employing cantilevers to enhance the feeling of lightness created by delicate structural frames. " View images of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's design work " During this period, he collaborated closely with interior designer and companion Lilly Reich. Mies as Educator Mies played a significant role as an educator, believing his architectural language could be learned, then applied to design any type of modern building. He worked personally and intensively on prototype solutions, and then allowed his students, both in school and his office, to develop derivative solutions for specific projects under his guidance. Some of Mies' curriculum is still put in practice in the first and second year programs at IIT, for example the excruciating drafting of bricks in second year. But when none was able to match the genius and poetic quality of his own work, he agonized about where his educational method had gone wrong. Mies placed great importance on education of architects who could carry on his design principles. He devoted a great deal of time and effort leading the architecture program at IIT. Mies served on the initial Advisory Board of the Graham Foundation in Chicago. His own practice was based on intensive personal involvement in design efforts to create prototype solutions for building types (860 Lake Shore Dr, the Farnsworth, Seagram, S.R. Crown Hall, The New National Gallery), then allowing his studio designers to develop derivative buildings under his supervision. Mies's grandson Dirk Lohan and two partners led the firm after he died in 1969. Lohan, who had collaborated with Mies on the New National Gallery, continued with existing projects but soon led the firm on his own independent path. Other disciples continued his teachings for a few years, notably Gene Summers, David Haid, Myron Goldsmith, Jacques Brownson, and other architects at the firms of C.F. Murphy and Skidmore Owings & Merrill. But while Mies' work had enormous influence and critical recognition, his approach failed to sustain a creative force as a style after his death and was eclipsed by the new wave of Post Modernism by the 1980s. He had hoped his architecture would serve as a universal model that could be easily imitated, but the aesthetic power of his best buildings proved impossible to match, instead resulting mostly in drab and uninspired structures. The failure of his followers to meet his high standard may have contributed to demise of Modernism and the rise of new competing design theories, notably Postmodernism. Death Mies van der Rohe's grave marker in Graceland Cemetery Over the last twenty years of his life, Mies developed and built his vision of a monumental "skin and bones" architecture that reflected his goal to provide the individual a place to fulfil himself in the modern era. Mies sought to create free and open spaces, enclosed within a structural order with minimal presence. Mies van der Rohe died in 1969, and was buried near Chicago's other famous architects in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery. His grave is marked by a simple black slab of granite and a large Honey locust tree. Archives The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Archive, an administratively independent section of the Museum of Modern Art's Department of Architecture and Design, was established in 1968 by the Museum's trustees. It was founded in response to the architect's desire to bequeath his entire work to the Museum. The Archive consists of about nineteen thousand drawings and prints, one thousand of which are by the designer and architect Lilly Reich (1885-1947), Mies van der Rohe's close collaborator from 1927 to 1937; of written documents (primarily, the business correspondence) covering nearly the entire career of the architect; of photographs of buildings, models, and furniture; and of audiotapes, books, and periodicals. Archival materials are also held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Collection, 1929-1969 (bulk 1948-1960) includes correspondence, articles, and materials related to his association with the Illinois Institute of Technology. The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe/Metropolitan Structures Collection, 1961-1969, includes scrapbooks and photographs documenting Chicago projects. Photo gallery Image:Collonade Apartments Notable works A memorial in Germany designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, built by Wilhelm Pieck, and inaugurated on 13 June 1926, later destroyed by the Nazis Canada Toronto-Dominion Centre - Office Tower Complex, Toronto Westmount Square - Office & Residential Tower Complex, Westmount Nuns' Island - 3 Residential Towers & Esso Service Station (Closed), Nuns' Island , Montreal (c.1969) Czech Republic Tugendhat House - Residential Home, Brno Germany Riehl House - Residential Home, Potsdam (1907) Peris House - Residential Home, Zehlendorf (1911) Werner House - Residential Home, Zehlendorf (1913) Urbig House - Residential Home, Potsdam (1917) Kempner House - Residential Home, Charlottenburg (1922) Eichstaedt House - Residential Home, Wannsee (1922) Feldmann House - Residential Home, Wilmersdorf (1922) Mosler House - Residential Home, Babelsberg (1926) Weissenhof Estate - Housing Exhibition coordinated by Mies and with a contribution by him, Stuttgart (1927) Haus Lange/Haus Ester - Residential Home and an art museum, Krefeld New National Gallery - Modern Art Museum, Berlin Auf dem Hügel - Essen Mexico Bacardi Office Building - Office Building, Mexico City Spain Barcelona Pavilion - World's Fair Pavilion, Barcelona United States The Promontory Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Library - District of Columbia Public Library, Washington, DC Richard King Mellon Hall of Science - Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA (1968) IBM Plaza - Office Tower, Chicago Lake Shore Drive Apartments - Residential Apartment Towers, Chicago Seagram Building - Office Tower, New York City Crown Hall - College of Architecture, and other buildings, at the Illinois Institute of Technology School of Social Services Administration, University of Chicago (1965) Farnsworth House - Residential Home, Plano, Illinois Chicago Federal Center Dirksen Federal Building - Office Tower, Chicago Kluczynski Federal Building - Office Tower, Chicago United States Post Office Loop Station - General Post Office, Chicago One Illinois Center - Office Tower, Chicago One Charles Center - Office Tower, Baltimore, Maryland Highfield House Condominium \| 4000 North Charles - Condominium Apartments, Baltimore, Maryland Colonnade and Pavilion Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Newark, New Jersey (1959) Lafayette Park - Residential Apartment Complex, Detroit, Michigan (1963). Vitullo-Martin, Julio, .The Biggest Mies Collection: His Lafayette Park residential development thrives in Detroit.The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on April 21, 2007. Commonwealth Promenade Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago (1956) Caroline Weiss Law Building, Cullinan Hall (1958) and Brown Pavilion (1974) additions, Museum of Fine Art, Houston American Life Building - Louisville, Kentucky (1973; completed after Mies's death by Bruno Conterato) References Further reading External links Mies van der Rohe Society Great Buildings Architects Mies in Berlin-Mies in America MoMA Architecture & Design Study Center Ludwig Mies van der Rohe YouTube Mies van der Rohe Photo Gallery Mies van der Rohe Foundation Elmhurst Art Museum, featuring McCormick House Barcelona chair Richard King Mellon Hall, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA The Farnsworth House, a property of the National Trust for Historic Preservation Mies, IIT, and the Second Chicago School	Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe \|@lemmatized ludwig:10 mies:70 van:18 der:19 rohe:18 bear:1 maria:1 michael:1 march:1 august:1 german:7 architect:15 commonly:1 refer:1 address:1 surname:2 american:11 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1,165	Alexandria	Alexandria (Arabic: al-Iskandariyya; Coptic: ; Greek: ; Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya), with a population of 4.1 million, is the second-largest city in Egypt, and is the country's largest seaport, serving about 80% of Egypt's imports and exports. Alexandria is also an important tourist resort. Alexandria extends about 32 km (20 miles) along the coast of the Mediterranean sea in north-central Egypt. It is home to the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (the new Library of Alexandria), and is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez, another city in Egypt. Alexandria was also an important trading post between Europe and Asia, because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. In ancient times, Alexandria was one of the most famous cities in the world. It was founded around a small pharaonic town c. 334 BC by Alexander the Great. It remained Egypt's capital for nearly a thousand years, until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD when a new capital was founded at Fustat (Fustat was later absorbed into Cairo). Alexandria was known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), the Library of Alexandria (the largest library in the ancient world) and the Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa (one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages). Ongoing maritime archaeology in the harbor of Alexandria, which began in 1994, is revealing details of Alexandria both before the arrival of Alexander, when a city named Rhakotis existed there, and during the Ptolemaic dynasty. History Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in 332 BC as (Alexándreia). Alexander's chief architect for the project was Dinocrates. Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile Valley. An Egyptian townlet, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore and was a resort filled with fishermen and pirates. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt for the East and never returned to his city. After Alexander departed, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Following a struggle with the other successors of Alexander, his general Ptolemy succeeded in bringing Alexander's body to Alexandria. Though Cleomenes was mainly in charge of seeing to Alexandria's continuous development, the Heptastadion and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarily Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became the main Greek city of Egypt, with an extraordinary mix of Greeks from many cities and backgrounds. Alexandria, sphinx made of pink granite, Ptolemaic. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism but was also home to the largest Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic center of learning (Library of Alexandria) but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek, Jewish, and Egyptian. From this division arose much of the later turbulence, which began to manifest itself under Ptolemy Philopater who reigned from 221–204 BC. The reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon from 144–116 BC was marked by purges and civil warfare. The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in 80 BC, according to the will of Ptolemy Alexander but only after it had been under Roman influence for more than a hundred years. It was captured by Julius Caesar in 47 BC during a Roman intervention in the domestic civil war between king Ptolemy XIII and his advisors, and usurper queen Cleopatra VII. It was finally captured by Octavian, future emperor Augustus on August 1, 30 BC, with the name of the month later being changed to august to commemorate his victory. In 115 AD, vast parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Greek-Jewish civil wars which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215 AD the emperor Caracalla visited the city and, because of some insulting satires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami (365 Crete earthquake), Ammianus Marcellinus, "Res Gestae", 26.10.15-19 an event two hundred years later still annually commemorated as "day of horror". Stiros, Stathis C.: “The AD 365 Crete earthquake and possible seismic clustering during the fourth to sixth centuries AD in the Eastern Mediterranean: a review of historical and archaeological data”, Journal of Structural Geology, Vol. 23 (2001), pp. 545-562 (549 & 557) In the late 4th century, persecution of pagans by newly Christian Romans had reached new levels of intensity. In 391, the Patriarch Theophilus destroyed all pagan temples in Alexandria under orders from Emperor Theodosius I. The Brucheum and Jewish quarters were desolate in the 5th century. On the mainland, life seemed to have centered in the vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both which became Christian churches. The Pharos and Heptastadium quarters, however, remained populous and were left intact. An ancient Roman theatre in Alexandria Historic map of Alexandria by Piri Reis In 619, Alexandria fell to the Sassanid Persians. Although the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general Amr ibn al-As, captured it after a siege that lasted fourteen months. Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the city on July 2, 1798 and it remained in their hands until the arrival of the British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria on March 21, 1801, following which they besieged the city which fell to them on 2 September 1801. Mohammed Ali, the Ottoman Governor of Egypt, began rebuilding the city around 1810, and by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory. In July 1882 the city came under bombardment from British naval forces and was occupied. In July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as the Lavon Affair. Only a few months later, Alexandria's Mansheyya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Gamal Abdel Nasser. Geography Alexandria from space, March 1990 Climate Alexandria has an arid Mediterranean climate characterized by mild, variably rainy winters and hot, dry summers. January and February are the coolest months with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from 12°C (53°F) to 18°C (64°F). Alexandria may experience violent storms, rain and sometimes hail during the cooler months. July and August are the hottest and humid months of the year with an average daily maximum temperature of 31°C (87°F). Autumn and spring are the ideal seasons to visit Alexandria, with temperatures averaging about 22°C (71°F). Layout of the ancient city Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions: Brucheum the Royal or Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal; The Jewish quarter forming the northeast portion of the city; Rhakotis occupied chiefly by Egyptians (from Coptic Rakotə "Alexandria"). Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about 60 metres (200 feet) wide, intersected in the center of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his Mausoleum) rose. This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great East–West "Canopic" street, only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharia Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city. Bibliotheca Alexandrina Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole nearly a mile long (1260 m) and called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia" — a stadium was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the "Moon Gate" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern "Ras al-Tiin" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The "Ras al-Tiin" quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbor, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbor. In Strabo's time, (latter half of 1st century BC) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbor. The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbor on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port," and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa. The Great Theater, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Caesar as a fortress, where he withstood a siege from the city mob after the battle of Pharsalus The Poseidon, or Temple of the Sea God, close to the Theatre The Timonium built by Mark Antony The Emporium (Exchange) The Apostases (Magazines) The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the seafront as far as the mole Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks, which become known as “Cleopatra's Needles”, and were transported to New York City and London. This temple became, in time, the Patriarchal Church, though some ancient remains of the temple have been discovered. The actual Caesareum, the parts not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new seawall. The Gymnasium and the Palaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown. The Temple of Saturn; site unknown. The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets. The Musaeum with its famous Library and theater in the same region; site unknown. The Serapeum, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far as to place it near “Pompey's Pillar” which was an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's siege of the city. The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, the The Great Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, reputed to be 138 meters (450 ft) high, was sited. The first Ptolemy began the project, and the second Ptolemy completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to complete and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest surviving ancient wonder next to the Great Pyramid of Giza. A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the first century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens (from a papyrus dated 32 CE), in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children, and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 500,000 to over 1,000,000, making it one of the largest cities ever built before the Industrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital. Ancient remains Pompey's Pillar Very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbor due to earthquake subsidence, and the rest has been built over in modern times. "Pompey's Pillar" is the best-known ancient monument still standing today. It is located on Alexandria's ancient acropolis — a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab cemetery — and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its pedestal, it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, 2.7 meters in diameter at the base, tapering to 2.4 meters at the top. The shaft is 88 feet high made out of a single piece of granite. This would be 132 cubic meters or approximately 396 tons. The Pyramids and Sphinx by Desmond Stewert and editors of the Newsweek Book Division 1971 p. 80-81 Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. The Romans had cranes but they weren't strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25 ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25 ton obelisk. Time Life Lost Civilizations series: Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)p. 56-57 The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when a bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated. "Pompey's Pillar" is a misnomer, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in 293 for Diocletian, possibly in memory of the rebellion of Domitius Domitianus. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god Serapis were enacted, and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. Alexandria's catacombs, known as Kom al-Soqqafa, are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase, and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other syncretic Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches and sarcophagi, as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by the citizens until they were discovered by accident in the 1800s. The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as Kom al-Dikka, and it has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of its Roman-era baths. Antiquities Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local Archaeological Society, and by many individuals, notably Greeks proud of a city which is one of the glories of their national history. The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered; D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest. Since the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Also, the general subsidence of the coast has submerged the lower-lying parts of the ancient town under water. This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team. It raised a noted head of Caesarion. These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy. The spaces that are most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata. The most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighborhood of “Pompey's Pillar”, where there is a good deal of open ground. Here substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Nearby, immense catacombs and columbaria have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors. The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom al-Shoqqafa (Roman) and Ras al-Tiin (painted). The German excavation team found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom al-Dikka, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress. The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground is doubtlessly immense; but despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighborhood of “Pompey's Pillar”. The native tomb-robbers, well-sinkers, dredgers, and the like, however, come upon valuable objects from time to time, most of which find their way into private collections. Modern city Alexandria at night Districts Modern Alexandria is divided into six districts: Montaza District: population 943,100 Eastern Alexandria District: population 933,600 Middle (or Downtown) Alexandria District: population 566,500 Amreya District: population 457,800 Western Alexandria District: population 450,300 Gumrok District: population 186,900 There are also two cities under the jurisdiction of the Alexandria governorate Forming metropolitan Alexandria: Borg Al-Arab city: population 186,900 New Borg Al-Arab city: population 7600 Neighborhoods Neighborhoods of Alexandria include: Agami, Amreya, Anfoushi, Assafra, Attarine, Azarita (aka Mazarita; originally Lazarette), Bab Sidra, Bahari, Bacchus, Bulkeley (aka Bokla), Burg el-Arab, Camp Shezar, Cleopatra, Dekheila, Downtown, Eastern Harbor, Fleming, Gabbari (aka: Qabbari, Qubbary, Kabbary), Janaklis, Glym (short for Glymenopoulos), Gumrok (aka al-Gomrok), Hadara, Ibrahimeya, King Mariout, Kafr Abdu, Karmous, also known as Karmouz, Kom el-Dik (aka Kom el-Dekka), Labban, Laurent, Louran, Maamoura Beach, Maamoura, Mafrouza, Mandara, Manshiyya, Mex, Miami, Montaza, Muharram Bey, Mustafa Kamel, Ramleh (aka el-Raml), Ras el-Tin, Rushdy, Saba Pasha , San Stefano, Shatby, Schutz, Sidi Bishr, Sidi Gaber, Smouha, Sporting, Stanley, Syouf, Tharwat, Victoria, Wardeyan, Western Harbor, and Zizinia. Squares (Ahmed) Orabi Square(Mansheya Square), in Downtown Saad Zaghlul Square, in Downtown Tahrir Square (formerly Mohammed Ali Square, originally Place des Consuls), in Downtown Ahmed Zewail Square, near Wabour El Mayah Palaces Montaza Palace, in Montaza Ras el-Tin Palace, in Ras el-Tin Presidential Palace, in Maamoura Educational institutions Educational institutions in Alexandria include: Colleges and Universities: Alexandria University Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport Alexandria Institute of Technology (AIT) High Institute For Computers & Information Systems (HICIS) HICIS Pharos University in Alexandria Université Senghor Schools: Collège Saint Marc Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide Lycée Al-Horreya, Alexandria Victoria College Alexandria American School Alexandria House of English Alexandria Language School (ALS) Ali ibn Abi Talib Prep. School British School of Alexandria Collège de la Mère de Dieu Collège Notre Dame de Sion Collège Saint Marc Deutsche Schule der Borromärinnen DSB A "Saint Charles Borromé" El Nasr Boys' School (EBS) El Nasr Girls' College (EGC) Ecole Champollion Ecoles des Soeurs Franciscaines (4 different schools) Ecole Gérard Ecole Saint Gabriel Ecole Saint-Vincent de Paul Ecole Sainte Catherine Egypt Modern School Egyptian American School Gamal Abdel Nasser High School Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide Janaklees National School (JNS) Kaumeya Language School (KLS) Lycée el-Horreya Manar English Girls School Modern American School Moharram Bey Schools Mubarak Technological School (MTS) Pioneers American sporting school Quds Language School (QLS) Ramml High School Riada Language School (RLS) Sacred Heart Girls' School (SHS) Schutz American School Sidi Gaber Language School {SLS} Taymour English School (TES) Zahran Language School (Z.L.S) Libraries The Royal Library of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the world. It is generally thought to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy II of Egypt. It was likely created after his father had built what would become the first part of the Library complex, the temple of the Muses — the Museion, Greek Μουσείον (from which the modern English word museum is derived). The Bibliotheca Alexandrina, a modern project based on reviving the ancient Library of Alexandria. It has been reasonably established that the Library, or parts of the collection, were destroyed by fire on a number of occasions (library fires were common and replacement of handwritten manuscripts was very difficult, expensive, and time-consuming). To this day the details of the destruction (or destructions) remain a lively source of controversy. The Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2003 near the site of the old Library. Museums Alexandria Aquarium The Graeco-Roman Museum The Royal Jewelry Museum The Museum of Fine Arts The Cavafy museum The Alexandria National Museum Recreational Alexandria Unknown Soldier Monument Facade of the Montaza Palace Montaza Royal Gardens Antoniades Park Shallalat Gardens Alexandria Zoo Green Plaza Fantazy Land Maamoura Beach, Alexandria Marina Village Religion Religious institutions include: Mosques Ali ibn Abi Talib Mosque, in Somouha, Bilal Mosque, al-Gamee al-Bahari, in Mandara, Hatem Mosque, in Somouha, Hoda al-Islam Mosque, in Sidi Bishr, Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque, in Anfushi, al-Mowasah Mosque, in Hadara, Sharq al-Madina Mosque, in Miami, al-Shohadaa' Mosque, in Mostafa Kamel, Qaed Ibrahim Mosque, Yehia Mosque, in Janaklis, Sidi Beshr Mosque, in Sidi Beshr, Sidi Gaber Mosque, in Sidi Gaber, Qasr al-Islam Mosque, In Sidi Gaber, al-Qabany Mosque, In Fleming, Abo al-Nor Mosque, In Bakos, al-Manara Mosque, In Shatby, Ansar al-Haq Mosque, In Sidi Beshr, al-Sayda Amna Mosque, In Sidi Gaber, al-Sadaka Mosque, In Sidi Beshr, Tag al-Ser Mosque, Victoria, al-Fath Mosque, Semouha, and Nour al-Islam mosque in Camp Cesar. Churches Saint Alexander Nevsky Church (Russian Orthodox Rite), Saint Anargyri Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Church of the Annunciation (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Anthony Church (Greek Orthodox Rite) Archangels Gabriel and Michael Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Catherine Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Catherine Church (Latin Catholic Rite), Pope Cyril I Church, in Cleopatra (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Cathedral of the Dormition, in Mansheya (Greek Catholic Rite), Church of the Dormition (Greek Orthodox Rite), Prophet Elijah Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Georges Church, in Sporting (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Georges Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Church of the Immaculate Conception, in Ibrahemeya (Greek Catholic Rite), Church of the Jesuits, in Cleopatra (Latin Catholic Rite), Saint Joseph Church, in Fleming (Greek Catholic Rite), Saint Joseph of Arimathea Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Mark Cathedral , in Ramleh (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Mark Church, in Shatby (Latin Catholic, Coptic Catholic and Coptic Orthodox Rites), Saint Mark & Saint Nectarios Chapel, in Ramleh (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Mark & Pope Peter I Church (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Mary Church, in Assafra (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Mary Church, in Gianaclis (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Menas Church, in Fleming (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Mina Church, in Mandara (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Nicholas Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Paraskevi Church (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Sava Cathedral, in Ramleh (Greek Orthodox Rite), Saint Tekle Haymanot Church (Coptic Orthodox Rite), Saint Theodore Chapel (Greek Orthodox Rite), Sightseeing Demolished monuments The Lighthouse of Alexandria was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Existing monuments The Roman Amphitheater Pompey's Pillar Citadels Citadel of Qaitbay Famous spots Bir Massoud, Miami The Unknown Soldier, Ahmed Orabi Square in Mansheyya El Montaza Royal Gardens Maamoura Beach Transportation Alexandria tram Alexandria tramway routes Airports - Alexandria is served by the nearby Al Nozha Airport, located 7 km to the southeast. - Another airport serves Alexandria named Borg al Arab Airport located about 25 km away from city center. This airport has been in use since about 2003. It was a military airport before that, and until now there is a military section there. Highways The International coastal road. (Alexandria - Port Said) The Desert road. (Alexandria - Cairo /220 km 6-8 lanes, mostly lit) The Agricultural road. (Alexandria - Cairo) The Circular road. the turnpike Ta'ameer Road "Mehwar El-Ta'ameer" - (Alexandria - North Coast) Train Extends from "Misr Station"; the main train station in Alexandria, to Abu Qir. Train stations include: Misr Station (the main station) Sidi Gaber Station Tram An extensive tramway network built in 1860 and is the oldest in Africa. A single ticket costs 25 Egyptian piastres (2008). The tram network is divided into two parts joined in the "Raml Station". Trams working east of the "Raml Station" are painted blue and usually known as "Tram al-Raml". The ones operating to the west of "Raml station" are painted yellow and are a little smaller, with a single tram working on both routes. Trams are the slowest means of transport in Alexandria but are convenient for short trips, 2-3 stations. If you are a sightseer with time to spare it is the cheapest way to see most of Alexandria. Taxis Taxis are a main means of public transportation in Alexandria. Taxis are painted black and yellow. Fare usually starts from 2 Egyptian pounds (2008). All taxis are required by law to have a meter but almost none are actually used since the fares have not changed in a very long time to keep up with inflation. Exactly what amount to charge a taxi is not exactly known and is left to the customers to estimate how much the trip is worth (like all other cities in Egypt, including Cairo) but most Alexandrians who use taxis usually know from experience what every trip costs. This creates a problem for travelers and tourists who are usually over-billed for their trips. Tourists are always advised to ask for how much they should pay for a taxi before hailing one. Other means of public transportation Minibus in Alexandria. - Buses and Minibuses. Port The port is divided into: The Eastern Harbor The Western Harbor Culture "Eskendereyya" This is a list of all words related to the word "Alexandria" in Arabic: al-Iskandareyya(h) (الإسكندرية) (noun) (formal): Refers to the city of "Alexandria", used in formal texts and speech. Its Egyptian Arabic equivalent is Eskenderreya or Iskindereyya(h). Iskandariyya(h) and Eskendereyya(h) are different in pronunciation, though they have the same spelling when written in Arabic. In Literary Arabic, Iskandariyya(h) always takes the definite article al-, whereas in Egyptian Arabic, Eskendereyya(h) never takes al-. The optional h at the end of both of them is called a ta' marbuta which is not usually pronounced, but is always written. "Alex" (noun): Natives of both Alexandria and Cairo refer to Alexandria as "Alex", especially informally. Eskandarany (اسكندراني) (adjective): Means 'native Alexandrian' or 'from Alexandria' in Egyptian Arabic. Sports A group of cyclists in Alexandria The main sport that interests Alexandrians is football, as is the case in the rest of Egypt and Africa. Alexandria was one of three cities that participated in hosting the African Cup of Nations in January 2006, which Egypt won. Sea sports such as surfing, jet-skiing and water polo are practised on a lower scale. Alexandria has four stadiums: Borg El Arab Stadium Harras El-Hedoud Stadium Alexandria Stadium El-Krom Stadium Other less popular sports like tennis and squash are usually played in private social and sports clubs, like: Alexandria Sporting Club - in "Sporting" Alexandria Country club El-Ittihad El-Iskandary Club El-Olympi Club Koroum Club Haras El Hodood Club Lagoon Resort Courts Smouha Club - in "Smouha" Writings Novels The Alexandria Semaphore by Robert Sole Academic Year (1955, set in late 1940s) by D.J. Enright. The Alexandria Quartet (1957-60, set in 1930s) by Lawrence Durrell. The Bat (part of the Drifting Cities trilogy) (1965, set in 1943-44) by Stratis Tsirkas. The Danger Tree (1977, set in 1942, partly in Alexandria) by Olivia Manning. The Beacon at Alexandria (1986, set in 4th century) by Gillian Bradshaw. City of Saffron (tr. 1989, set in 1930s) by Edwar Al-Kharrat. Girls of Alexandria (tr. 1993, set in 1930s and '40s) by Edwar Al-Kharrat. No One Sleeps in Alexandria (1996, set during World War II) by Ibrahim Abdel Meguid. Miramar (1967) by Naguib Mahfouz. Pashazade (2001, first book of the Arabesk trilogy set in a liberal Islamic Ottoman Alexandria in the 21st century) by Jon Courtenay Grimwood. History Alexandria: A History and a Guide (1922; numerous reprints) by E.M. Forster. Alexandria: City of Memory (Yale University Press, 2004) by Michael Haag. Memoir Out of Egypt (1994; describes family history in Alexandria) by André Aciman. Songs Songs in French: Alexandrie by Georges Moustaki. Alexandrie, Alexandra by Claude François. Songs in Greek: Alexandrinos by Yannis Kotsiras. Songs in Arabic: Shat Eskendereya by Fairouz. Ahsan Nas by Dalida. Leil Eskendereya by Moustafa Amar. Ya Wad Ya Eskandarany by Moustafa Amar. Ya Eskendereya by Mohamed Mounir (lyrics by Ahmed Fouad Negm). Songs in English: "Alexandria" by Kamelot Tourism Alexandria is a main summer resort in the Middle East, visited by people from all other cities to enjoy the sun and the sea. Beaches become full of umbrellas and families and the city is usually crowded in summer. There are both public beaches (which anyone can use for free, and are usually crowded) and private beaches (which can be used upon paying a small fee). There are also private beaches that are dedicated only to the guests of some hotels. Notable People Adolf El Assal (Egyptian Filmmaker) Ahmed Ramzy (Egyptian Actor) Ahmed Nazif (Egyptian Prime Minister) Alypius (4th century BC) Greek writer on music Alexander The Great Founder of Alexandria,Pharao of Egypt (334BC) Macedonian King André Aciman (American writer) Antonis Benakis (1873-1954) Greek art collector Apollos (1st century, Acts 8:24) Early Christian Evangelist Arius (4th century) who sparked the Arian controversy Pope Athanasius the Apostolic (Champion of Christianity) Claudius Ptolemaus - Soter (Egyptian Ruler) Started Ptolemaic Dynasty Cleopatra VII (Egyptian Ruler) Constantine P. Cavafy (1863-1933) Greek poet Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century) Greek monk, geographer and writer Demis Roussos (Greek singer) Eric Hobsbawm (British historian) F.C.Rabbath ( Filmmaker ) Farida of Egypt ( Former Queen of Egypt) Farouk Hosny (Egyptian Minister of Culture) Princess Fawzia (Egyptian princess) Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (Italian poet and artist) Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egyptian President) Georges Moustaki (Greek-French singer and composer) Gideon Gechtman (Israeli sculptor) Giuseppe Ungaretti (Italian poet) Haim Saban (American billionaire) Hossam Habeeb (Egyptian singer & composer) Hend Rostom (Egyptian actress) Hypatia (4th-5th century AD) Greek philosopher Jean Desses (1904-1970) Greek fashion designer Konstantinos Parthenis (1878-1967) Greek painter Bayram Al-Tunsi (Egyptian poet) Mohamed Al-Fayed (Egyptian entrepreneur ) Moustafa Amar (Egyptian singer) MTM (Egyptian hip-hop & rap music band) Origen (Greek Christian Scholar) Omar Sharif (Egyptian actor) Pappus (4th century AD) Hellenized Egyptian Mathematician Penelope Delta (1874-1941) Greek author Rudolf Hess (German deputy fuhrer of the Nazi Party) Sayed Darwish (Egyptian music composer) Tawfiq al-Hakeem (Egyptian writer) Youssef Chahine (Egyptian film director) Zahret El O'la (Egyptian Actress) International relations Twin towns - Sister cities Alexandria is twinned with Bratislava in Slovakia Odessa in Ukraine Cleveland in United States Constanţa in Romania Kazanlak in Bulgaria Durban in South Africa Saint Petersburg in Russia Shanghai in China Baltimore in United States See also Alexandria Governorate Governorates of Egypt List of megalithic sites Notes "Alexandria: City of Memory" by Michael Haag (London and New Haven, 2004). A social, political and literary portrait of cosmopolitan Alexandria during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Victor W. Von Hagen. The Roads that led to Rome The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York. 1967. References External links Official website Expatriates in Alexandria British Council's Lawrence Durrell Celebration in Alexandria Richard Stillwell, ed. 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1,166	Number	A number is a mathematical object used in counting and measuring. A notational symbol which represents a number is called a numeral, but in common usage the word number is used for both the abstract object and the symbol, as well as for the word for the number. In addition to their use in counting and measuring, numerals are often used for labels (telephone numbers), for ordering (serial numbers), and for codes (ISBNs). In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex numbers. Certain procedures which take one or more numbers as input and produce a number as output are called numerical operations. Unary operations take a single input number and produce a single output number. For example, the successor operation adds one to an integer, thus the successor of 4 is 5. More common are binary operations which take two input numbers and produce a single output number. Examples of binary operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation. The study of numerical operations is called arithmetic. The branch of mathematics that studies structure in number systems, by means of topics such as groups, rings and fields, is called abstract algebra. Types of numbers Numbers can be classified into sets, called number systems. (For different methods of expressing numbers with symbols, such as the Roman numerals, see numeral systems.) Natural numbers The most familiar numbers are the natural numbers or counting numbers: one, two, three, and so on. In the base ten number system, in almost universal use today for arithmetic operations, the symbols for natural numbers are written using ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In this base ten system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of one, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right. The symbol for the set of all natural numbers is N, also written . In set theory, which is capable of acting as an axiomatic foundation for modern mathematics, natural numbers can be represented by classes of equivalent sets. For instance, the number 3 can be represented as the class of all sets that have exactly three elements. Alternatively, in Peano Arithmetic, the number 3 is represented as sss0, where s is the "successor" function. Many different representations are possible; all that is needed to formally represent 3 is to inscribe a certain symbol or pattern of symbols 3 times. Integers Negative numbers are numbers that are less than zero. They are the opposite of positive numbers. For example, if a positive number indicates a bank deposit, then a negative number indicates a withdrawal of the same amount. Negative numbers are usually written by writing a negative sign (also called a minus sign) in front of the number they are the opposite of. Thus the opposite of 7 is written −7. When the set of negative numbers is combined with the natural numbers and zero, the result is the set of integer numbers, also called integers, Z (German Zahl, plural Zahlen), also written . Rational numbers A rational number is a number that can be expressed as a fraction with an integer numerator and a non-zero natural number denominator. The fraction m/n or represents m equal parts, where n equal parts of that size make up one whole. Two different fractions may correspond to the same rational number; for example 1/2 and 2/4 are equal, that is: If the absolute value of m is greater than n, then the absolute value of the fraction is greater than 1. Fractions can be greater than, less than, or equal to 1 and can also be positive, negative, or zero. The set of all rational numbers includes the integers, since every integer can be written as a fraction with denominator 1. For example −7 can be written −7/1. The symbol for the rational numbers is Q (for quotient), also written . Real numbers The real numbers include all of the measuring numbers. Real numbers are usually written using decimal numerals, in which a decimal point is placed to the right of the digit with place value one. Each digit to the right of the decimal point has a place value one-tenth of the place value of the digit to its left. Thus represents 1 hundred, 2 tens, 3 ones, 4 tenths, 5 hundredths, and 6 thousandths. In saying the number, the decimal is read "point", thus: "one two three point four five six ". In the US and UK and a number of other countries, the decimal point is represented by a period, whereas in continental Europe and certain other countries the decimal point is represented by a comma. Zero is often written as 0.0 when necessary to indicate that it is to be treated as a real number rather than as an integer. Negative real numbers are written with a preceding minus sign: Every rational number is also a real number. To write a fraction as a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator. It is not the case, however, that every real number is rational. If a real number cannot be written as a fraction of two integers, it is called irrational. A decimal that can be written as a fraction either ends (terminates) or forever repeats, because it is the answer to a problem in division. Thus the real number 0.5 can be written as 1/2 and the real number 0.333... (forever repeating threes) can be written as 1/3. On the other hand, the real number π (), the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter, is Since the decimal neither ends nor forever repeats, it cannot be written as a fraction, and is an example of an irrational number. Other irrational numbers include (the square root of 2, that is, the positive number whose square is 2). Thus 1.0 and 0.999... are two different decimal numerals representing the natural number 1. There are infinitely many other ways of representing the number 1, for example 2/2, 3/3, 1.00, 1.000, and so on. Every real number is either rational or irrational. Every real number corresponds to a point on the number line. The real numbers also have an important but highly technical property called the least upper bound property. The symbol for the real numbers is R or . When a real number represents a measurement, there is always a margin of error. This is often indicated by rounding or truncating a decimal, so that digits that suggest a greater accuracy than the measurement itself are removed. The remaining digits are called significant digits. For example, measurements with a ruler can seldom be made without a margin of error of at least 0.01 meters. If the sides of a rectangle are measured as 1.23 meters and 4.56 meters, then multiplication gives an area for the rectangle of 5.6088 square meters. Since only the first two digits after the decimal place are significant, this is usually rounded to 5.61. In abstract algebra, the real numbers are up to isomorphism uniquely characterized by being the only complete ordered field. They are not, however, an algebraically closed field. Complex numbers Moving to a greater level of abstraction, the real numbers can be extended to the complex numbers. This set of numbers arose, historically, from the question of whether a negative number can have a square root. This led to the invention of a new number: the square root of negative one, denoted by i, a symbol assigned by Leonhard Euler, and called the imaginary unit. The complex numbers consist of all numbers of the form where a and b are real numbers. In the expression a + bi, the real number a is called the real part and bi is called the imaginary part. If the real part of a complex number is zero, then the number is called an imaginary number or is referred to as purely imaginary; if the imaginary part is zero, then the number is a real number. Thus the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers. If the real and imaginary parts of a complex number are both integers, then the number is called a Gaussian integer. The symbol for the complex numbers is C or . In abstract algebra, the complex numbers are an example of an algebraically closed field, meaning that every polynomial with complex coefficients can be factored into linear factors. Like the real number system, the complex number system is a field and is complete, but unlike the real numbers it is not ordered. That is, there is no meaning in saying that i is greater than 1, nor is there any meaning in saying that that i is less than 1. In technical terms, the complex numbers lack the trichotomy property. Complex numbers correspond to points on the complex plane, sometimes called the Argand plane. Each of the number systems mentioned above is a proper subset of the next number system. Symbolically, N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C. Computable numbers Moving to problems of computation, the computable numbers are determined in the set of the real numbers. The computable numbers, also known as the recursive numbers or the computable reals, are the real numbers that can be computed to within any desired precision by a finite, terminating algorithm. Equivalent definitions can be given using μ-recursive functions, Turing machines or λ-calculus as the formal representation of algorithms. The computable numbers form a real closed field and can be used in the place of real numbers for many, but not all, mathematical purposes. Other types Hyperreal and hypercomplex numbers are used in non-standard analysis. The hyperreals, or nonstandard reals (usually denoted as R), denote an ordered field which is a proper extension of the ordered field of real numbers R and which satisfies the transfer principle. This principle allows true first order statements about R to be reinterpreted as true first order statements about R. Superreal and surreal numbers extend the real numbers by adding infinitesimally small numbers and infinitely large numbers, but still form fields. The idea behind p-adic numbers is this: While real numbers may have infinitely long expansions to the right of the decimal point, these numbers allow for infinitely long expansions to the left. The number system which results depends on what base is used for the digits: any base is possible, but a system with the best mathematical properties is obtained when the base is a prime number. For dealing with infinite collections, the natural numbers have been generalized to the ordinal numbers and to the cardinal numbers. The former gives the ordering of the collection, while the latter gives its size. For the finite set, the ordinal and cardinal numbers are equivalent, but they differ in the infinite case. There are also other sets of numbers with specialized uses. Some are subsets of the complex numbers. For example, algebraic numbers are the roots of polynomials with rational coefficients. Complex numbers that are not algebraic are called transcendental numbers. Sets of numbers that are not subsets of the complex numbers are sometimes called hypercomplex numbers. They include the quaternions H, invented by Sir William Rowan Hamilton, in which multiplication is not commutative, and the octonions, in which multiplication is not associative. Elements of function fields of non-zero characteristic behave in some ways like numbers and are often regarded as numbers by number theorists. In addition, various specific kinds of numbers are studied in sets of natural and integer numbers. An even number is an integer that is "evenly divisible" by 2, i.e., divisible by 2 without remainder; an odd number is an integer that is not evenly divisible by 2. (The old-fashioned term "evenly divisible" is now almost always shortened to "divisible".) A formal definition of an odd number is that it is an integer of the form n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer. An even number has the form n = 2k where k is an integer. A perfect number is defined as a positive integer which is the sum of its proper positive divisors, that is, the sum of the positive divisors not including the number itself. Equivalently, a perfect number is a number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors, or σ(n) = 2 n. The first perfect number is 6, because 1, 2, and 3 are its proper positive divisors and 1 + 2 + 3 = 6. The next perfect number is 28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14. The next perfect numbers are 496 and 8128 . These first four perfect numbers were the only ones known to early Greek mathematics. A figurate number is a number that can be represented as a regular and discrete geometric pattern (e.g. dots). If the pattern is polytopic, the figurate is labeled a polytopic number, and may be a polygonal number or a polyhedral number. Polytopic numbers for r = 2, 3, and 4 are: P2(n) = 1/2 n(n + 1) (triangular numbers) P3(n) = 1/6 n(n + 1)(n + 2) (tetrahedral numbers) P4(n) = 1/24 n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) (pentatopic numbers) A relation number is defined as the class of relations consisting of all those relations that are similar to one member of the class. "Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy" by Bertrand Russell, page 56 Numerals Numbers should be distinguished from numerals, the symbols used to represent numbers. Boyer showed that Egyptians created the first ciphered numeral system. Greeks followed by mapping their counting numbers onto Ionian and Doric alpabets. The number five can be represented by both the base ten numeral '5', by the Roman numeral 'V' and ciphered letters. Notations used to represent numbers are discussed in the article numeral systems. An important development in the history of numerals was the development of a positional system, like modern decimals, which can represent very large numbers. The Roman numerals require extra symbols for larger numbers. History History of integers The first use of numbers It is speculated that the first known use of numbers dates back to around 30,000 BC. Bones and other artifacts have been discovered with marks cut into them which many consider to be tally marks. The uses of these tally marks may have been for counting elapsed time, such as numbers of days, or keeping records of quantities, such as of animals. Tallying systems have no concept of place-value (such as in the currently used decimal notation), which limit its representation of large numbers and as such is often considered that this is the first kind of abstract system that would be used, and could be considered a Numeral System. The first known system with place-value was the Mesopotamian base 60 system (ca. 3400 BC) and the earliest known base 10 system dates to 3100 BC in Egypt. History of zero The use of zero as a number should be distinguished from its use as a placeholder numeral in place-value systems. Many ancient texts used zero. Babylonians and Egyptian texts used it. Egyptians used the word nfr to denote zero balance in double entry accounting entries. Indian texts used a Sanskrit word Shunya to refer to the concept of void; in mathematics texts this word would often be used to refer to the number zero. . In a similar vein, Pāṇini (5th century BC) used the null (zero) operator (ie a lambda production) in the Ashtadhyayi, his algebraic grammar for the Sanskrit language. (also see Pingala) Records show that the Ancient Greeks seemed unsure about the status of zero as a number: they asked themselves "how can 'nothing' be something?" leading to interesting philosophical and, by the Medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero. (The ancient Greeks even questioned if 1 was a number.) The late Olmec people of south-central Mexico began to use a true zero (a shell glyph) in the New World possibly by the 4th century BC but certainly by 40 BC, which became an integral part of Maya numerals and the Maya calendar. Mayan arithmetic used base 4 and base 5 written as base 20. Sanchez in 1961 reported a base 4, base 5 'finger' abacus. By 130, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not as just a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was the first documented use of a true zero in the Old World. In later Byzantine manuscripts of his Syntaxis Mathematica (Almagest), the Hellenistic zero had morphed into the Greek letter omicron (otherwise meaning 70). Another true zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, nulla meaning nothing, not as a symbol. When division produced zero as a remainder, nihil, also meaning nothing, was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval computists (calculators of Easter). An isolated use of their initial, N, was used in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or a colleague about 725, a true zero symbol. An early documented use of the zero by Brahmagupta (in the Brahmasphutasiddhanta) dates to 628. He treated zero as a number and discussed operations involving it, including division. By this time (7th century) the concept had clearly reached Cambodia, and documentation shows the idea later spreading to China and the Islamic world. History of negative numbers The abstract concept of negative numbers was recognised as early as 100 BC - 50 BC. The Chinese ”Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art” (Jiu-zhang Suanshu) contains methods for finding the areas of figures; red rods were used to denote positive coefficients, black for negative. This is the earliest known mention of negative numbers in the East; the first reference in a western work was in the 3rd century in Greece. Diophantus referred to the equation equivalent to (the solution would be negative) in Arithmetica, saying that the equation gave an absurd result. During the 600s, negative numbers were in use in India to represent debts. Diophantus’ previous reference was discussed more explicitly by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta 628, who used negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today. However, in the 12th century in India, Bhaskara gives negative roots for quadratic equations but says the negative value "is in this case not to be taken, for it is inadequate; people do not approve of negative roots." European mathematicians, for the most part, resisted the concept of negative numbers until the 17th century, although Fibonacci allowed negative solutions in financial problems where they could be interpreted as debits (chapter 13 of Liber Abaci, 1202) and later as losses (in Flos). At the same time, the Chinese were indicating negative numbers by drawing a diagonal stroke through the right-most nonzero digit of the corresponding positive number's numeral. The first use of negative numbers in a European work was by Chuquet during the 15th century. He used them as exponents, but referred to them as “absurd numbers”. As recently as the 18th century, the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler believed that negative numbers were greater than infinity, and it was common practice to ignore any negative results returned by equations on the assumption that they were meaningless, just as René Descartes did with negative solutions in a cartesian coordinate system. History of rational, irrational, and real numbers History of rational numbers It is likely that the concept of fractional numbers dates to prehistoric times. Even the Ancient Egyptians wrote math texts describing how to convert general fractions into their special notation. The RMP 2/n table and the Kahun Papyrus wrote out unit fraction series by using least common multiples. Classical Greek and Indian mathematicians made studies of the theory of rational numbers, as part of the general study of number theory. The best known of these is Euclid's Elements, dating to roughly 300 BC. Of the Indian texts, the most relevant is the Sthananga Sutra, which also covers number theory as part of a general study of mathematics. The concept of decimal fractions is closely linked with decimal place value notation; the two seem to have developed in tandem. For example, it is common for the Jain math sutras to include calculations of decimal-fraction approximations to or the square root of two. Similarly, Babylonian math texts had always used sexagesimal fractions with great frequency. History of irrational numbers The earliest known use of irrational numbers was in the Indian Sulba Sutras composed between 800-500 BC. The first existence proofs of irrational numbers is usually attributed to Pythagoras, more specifically to the Pythagorean Hippasus of Metapontum, who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2. The story goes that Hippasus discovered irrational numbers when trying to represent the square root of 2 as a fraction. However Pythagoras believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers. He could not disprove their existence through logic, but his beliefs would not accept the existence of irrational numbers and so he sentenced Hippasus to death by drowning. The sixteenth century saw the final acceptance by Europeans of negative, integral and fractional numbers. The seventeenth century saw decimal fractions with the modern notation quite generally used by mathematicians. But it was not until the nineteenth century that the irrationals were separated into algebraic and transcendental parts, and a scientific study of theory of irrationals was taken once more. It had remained almost dormant since Euclid. The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil Kossak), Heine (Crelle, 74), Georg Cantor (Annalen, 5), and Richard Dedekind. Méray had taken in 1869 the same point of departure as Heine, but the theory is generally referred to the year 1872. Weierstrass's method has been completely set forth by Salvatore Pincherle (1880), and Dedekind's has received additional prominence through the author's later work (1888) and the recent endorsement by Paul Tannery (1894). Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of real numbers, separating all rational numbers into two groups having certain characteristic properties. The subject has received later contributions at the hands of Weierstrass, Kronecker (Crelle, 101), and Méray. Continued fractions, closely related to irrational numbers (and due to Cataldi, 1613), received attention at the hands of Euler, and at the opening of the nineteenth century were brought into prominence through the writings of Joseph Louis Lagrange. Other noteworthy contributions have been made by Druckenmüller (1837), Kunze (1857), Lemke (1870), and Günther (1872). Ramus (1855) first connected the subject with determinants, resulting, with the subsequent contributions of Heine, Möbius, and Günther, in the theory of Kettenbruchdeterminanten. Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject. Transcendental numbers and reals The first results concerning transcendental numbers were Lambert's 1761 proof that π cannot be rational, and also that en is irrational if n is rational (unless n = 0). (The constant e was first referred to in Napier's 1618 work on logarithms.) Legendre extended this proof to show that π is not the square root of a rational number. The search for roots of quintic and higher degree equations was an important development, the Abel–Ruffini theorem (Ruffini 1799, Abel 1824) showed that they could not be solved by radicals (formula involving only arithmetical operations and roots). Hence it was necessary to consider the wider set of algebraic numbers (all solutions to polynomial equations). Galois (1832) linked polynomial equations to group theory giving rise to the field of Galois theory. Even the set of algebraic numbers was not sufficient and the full set of real number includes transcendental numbers. The existence of which was first established by Liouville (1844, 1851). Hermite proved in 1873 that e is transcendental and Lindemann proved in 1882 that π is transcendental. Finally Cantor shows that the set of all real numbers is uncountably infinite but the set of all algebraic numbers is countably infinite, so there is an uncountably infinite number of transcendental numbers. Infinity The earliest known conception of mathematical infinity appears in the Yajur Veda - an ancient script in India, which at one point states "if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity". Infinity was a popular topic of philosophical study among the Jain mathematicians circa 400 BC. They distinguished between five types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually. In the West, the traditional notion of mathematical infinity was defined by Aristotle, who distinguished between actual infinity and potential infinity; the general consensus being that only the latter had true value. Galileo's Two New Sciences discussed the idea of one-to-one correspondences between infinite sets. But the next major advance in the theory was made by Georg Cantor; in 1895 he published a book about his new set theory, introducing, among other things, transfinite numbers and formulating the continuum hypothesis. This was the first mathematical model that represented infinity by numbers and gave rules for operating with these infinite numbers. In the 1960s, Abraham Robinson showed how infinitely large and infinitesimal numbers can be rigorously defined and used to develop the field of nonstandard analysis. The system of hyperreal numbers represents a rigorous method of treating the ideas about infinite and infinitesimal numbers that had been used casually by mathematicians, scientists, and engineers ever since the invention of calculus by Newton and Leibniz. A modern geometrical version of infinity is given by projective geometry, which introduces "ideal points at infinity," one for each spatial direction. Each family of parallel lines in a given direction is postulated to converge to the corresponding ideal point. This is closely related to the idea of vanishing points in perspective drawing. Complex numbers The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers occurred in the work of the mathematician and inventor Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD, when he considered the volume of an impossible frustum of a pyramid. They became more prominent when in the 16th century closed formulas for the roots of third and fourth degree polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (see Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia, Gerolamo Cardano). It was soon realized that these formulas, even if one was only interested in real solutions, sometimes required the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers. This was doubly unsettling since they did not even consider negative numbers to be on firm ground at the time. The term "imaginary" for these quantities was coined by René Descartes in 1637 and was meant to be derogatory (see imaginary number for a discussion of the "reality" of complex numbers). A further source of confusion was that the equation seemed to be capriciously inconsistent with the algebraic identity which is valid for positive real numbers a and b, and which was also used in complex number calculations with one of a, b positive and the other negative. The incorrect use of this identity, and the related identity in the case when both a and b are negative even bedeviled Euler. This difficulty eventually led him to the convention of using the special symbol i in place of √−1 to guard against this mistake. The 18th century saw the labors of Abraham de Moivre and Leonhard Euler. To De Moivre is due (1730) the well-known formula which bears his name, de Moivre's formula: and to Euler (1748) Euler's formula of complex analysis: The existence of complex numbers was not completely accepted until the geometrical interpretation had been described by Caspar Wessel in 1799; it was rediscovered several years later and popularized by Carl Friedrich Gauss, and as a result the theory of complex numbers received a notable expansion. The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's De Algebra tractatus. Also in 1799, Gauss provided the first generally accepted proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra, showing that every polynomial over the complex numbers has a full set of solutions in that realm. The general acceptance of the theory of complex numbers is not a little due to the labors of Augustin Louis Cauchy and Niels Henrik Abel, and especially the latter, who was the first to boldly use complex numbers with a success that is well known. Gauss studied complex numbers of the form a + bi, where a and b are integral, or rational (and i is one of the two roots of x2 + 1 = 0). His student, Ferdinand Eisenstein, studied the type a + bω, where ω is a complex root of x3 − 1 = 0. Other such classes (called cyclotomic fields) of complex numbers are derived from the roots of unity xk − 1 = 0 for higher values of k. This generalization is largely due to Ernst Kummer, who also invented ideal numbers, which were expressed as geometrical entities by Felix Klein in 1893. The general theory of fields was created by Évariste Galois, who studied the fields generated by the roots of any polynomial equation F(x) = 0. In 1850 Victor Alexandre Puiseux took the key step of distinguishing between poles and branch points, and introduced the concept of essential singular points; this would eventually lead to the concept of the extended complex plane. Prime numbers Prime numbers have been studied throughout recorded history. Euclid devoted one book of the Elements to the theory of primes; in it he proved the infinitude of the primes and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and presented the Euclidean algorithm for finding the greatest common divisor of two numbers. In 240 BC, Eratosthenes used the Sieve of Eratosthenes to quickly isolate prime numbers. But most further development of the theory of primes in Europe dates to the Renaissance and later eras. In 1796, Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectured the prime number theorem, describing the asymptotic distribution of primes. Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes. Yet another conjecture related to the distribution of prime numbers is the Riemann hypothesis, formulated by Bernhard Riemann in 1859. The prime number theorem was finally proved by Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée-Poussin in 1896. The conjectures of Goldbach and Riemann yet remain to be proved or refuted. Word alternatives Some numbers traditionally have alternative words to express them, including the following: dozen: 12 Baker's dozen: 13 score: 20 gross: 144 See also Indian numerals Hebrew numerals Arabic numeral system Even and odd numbers Floating point representation in computers Large numbers List of numbers List of numbers in various languages Mathematical constants Mythical numbers Negative and non-negative numbers Orders of magnitude Physical constants Prime numbers Small numbers Subitizing and counting Number sign Numero sign Zero The Foundations of Arithmetic References Tobias Dantzig, Number, the language of science; a critical survey written for the cultured non-mathematician, New York, The Macmillan company, 1930. Erich Friedman, What's special about this number? Steven Galovich, Introduction to Mathematical Structures, Harcourt Brace Javanovich, 23 January 1989, ISBN 0-15-543468-3. Paul Halmos, Naive Set Theory, Springer, 1974, ISBN 0-387-90092-6. Morris Kline, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times, Oxford University Press, 1972. Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, Principia Mathematica to *56, Cambridge University Press, 1910. George I. Sanchez, Arithmetic in Maya,Austin-Texas, 1961. What's a Number? at cut-the-knot External links http://eom.springer.de/A/a013260.htm Mesopotamian and Germanic numbers BBC Radio 4, In Our Time: Negative Numbers '4000 Years of Numbers', lecture by Robin Wilson, 07/11/07, Gresham College (available for download as MP3 or MP4, and as a text file). http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/MayanMath2.html be-x-old:Лік	Number \|@lemmatized number:266 mathematical:11 object:2 use:55 counting:3 measuring:3 notational:1 symbol:17 represent:21 call:19 numeral:25 common:6 usage:1 word:8 abstract:6 well:3 addition:3 often:6 label:2 telephone:1 order:6 serial:1 code:1 isbns:1 mathematics:6 definition:3 extend:4 year:5 include:12 zero:30 negative:36 rational:18 irrational:16 complex:31 certain:4 procedure:1 take:7 one:21 input:3 produce:6 output:3 numerical:2 operation:9 unary:1 single:3 example:11 successor:3 add:4 integer:19 thus:7 binary:2 two:15 subtraction:1 multiplication:4 division:4 exponentiation:1 study:12 arithmetic:7 branch:2 structure:2 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1,167	George_Washington	George Washington (February 22, 1732 The birth and death of George Washington are given using the Gregorian calendar. However, he was born when Britain and her colonies still used the Julian calendar, so contemporary records record his birth as February 11, 1732. The provisions of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1. December 14, 1799) was the commander of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and served as the first President of the United States of America (1789–1797). Under the Articles of Confederation Congress called its presiding officer "President of the United States in Congress Assembled." He had no executive powers, but the similarity of titles has confused people into thinking there were other presidents before Washington. Merrill Jensen, The Articles of Confederation (1959), 178–9 The Continental Congress appointed Washington commander-in-chief of the American revolutionary forces in 1775. The following year, he forced the British out of Boston, lost New York City, and crossed the Delaware River in New Jersey, defeating the surprised enemy units later that year. As a result of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured the two main British combat armies at Saratoga and Yorktown. Negotiating with Congress, the colonial states, and French allies, he held together a tenuous army and a fragile nation amid the threats of disintegration and failure. Following the end of the war in 1783, Washington returned to private life and retired to his plantation at Mount Vernon, prompting an incredulous King George III to state, "If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world." He presided over the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the United States Constitution in 1787 because of general dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation. Washington became President of the United States in 1789 and established many of the customs and usages of the new government's executive department. He sought to create a nation capable of surviving in a world torn asunder by war between Britain and France. His unilateral Proclamation of Neutrality of 1793 provided a basis for avoiding any involvement in foreign conflicts. He supported plans to build a strong central government by funding the national debt, implementing an effective tax system, and creating a national bank. Washington avoided the temptation of war and began a decade of peace with Britain via the Jay Treaty in 1795; he used his prestige to get it ratified over intense opposition from the Jeffersonians. Although never officially joining the Federalist Party, he supported its programs and was its inspirational leader. Washington's farewell address was a primer on republican virtue and a stern warning against partisanship, sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars. Washington is seen as a symbol of the United States and republicanism in practice. His devotion to civic virtue made him an exemplary figure among early American politicians. Garrity, Patrick (Fall, 1996). "Warnings of a Parting Friend (US Foreign Policy Envisioned by George Washington in his Farewell Address)." The National Interest, No. 45. Retrieved on October 6, 2007. Washington was awarded the very first Congressional Gold Medal with the Thanks of Congress. Loubat, J. F. and Jacquemart, Jules, Illustrator, The Medallic History of the United States of America 1776-1876. Washington died in 1799, and the funeral oration delivered by Henry Lee stated that of all Americans, he was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." Henry Lee's eulogy to George Washington, December 26, 1799. Washington has been consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. Presidents. Early life and education Washington presents message at Fort Le Boeuf in 1753 George Washington was born on the first son of Augustine Washington and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington, on the family's Pope's Creek Estate near present-day Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. Moving to Ferry Farm in Stafford County at age six, George was educated in the home by his father and older brother. The growth of tobacco as a commodity in Virginia could be measured by the quantity of slaves imported to cultivate it. When Washington was born, the population of the colony was 50 percent black, mostly enslaved Africans and African Americans. "Slavery at Popes Creek Plantation", George Washington Birthplace National Monument, National Park Service, accessed 15 Apr 2009 In his youth, Washington worked as a surveyor, and acquired what would become invaluable knowledge of the terrain around his native Colony of Virginia. At the time Virginia included West Virginia and the upper Ohio Valley area around present day Pittsburgh. Career Washington embarked upon a career as a planter, which historians defined as those who held 20 or more slaves. In 1748 he was invited to help survey Lord Fairfax's lands west of the Blue Ridge. In 1749, he was appointed to his first public office, surveyor of newly created Culpeper County. "Washington As Public Land Surveyor: Boyhood and Beginnings" George Washington: Surveyor and Mapmaker. American Memory. Library of Congress. Retrieved on May 17, 2007. Through his half-brother, Lawrence Washington, he became interested in the Ohio Company, which aimed to exploit Western lands. In 1751, George and his half-brother traveled to Barbados, staying at Bush Hill House, Bush Hill House - Colonial Williamsburg Research Division hoping for an improvement in Lawrence's tuberculosis. This was the only time George Washington traveled outside what is now the United States. After Lawrence's death in 1752, George inherited part of his estate and took over some of Lawrence's duties as adjutant of the colony. "George Washington: Making of a Military Leader", American Memory, Library of Congress. Retrieved on May 17, 2007 Washington was appointed a district adjutant general in the Virginia militia in 1752, which appointed him Major Washington at the age of 20. He was charged with training the militia in the quarter assigned to him. Sparks, Jared (1839). The Life of George Washington, Boston: Ferdinand Andrews. p. 17. Digitized by Google. Retrieved on May 17, 2007. At age 21, in Fredericksburg, Washington became a Master Mason in the organization of Freemasons, a fraternal organization that was a lifelong influence. Tabbert, Mark A. (January 29, 2007). "A Masonic Memorial to a Virtuous Man". Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry. Retrieved on May 17, 2007. Washington Daylight Lodge #14 (2006). "Commemoration of George Washington’s Birthday". Retrieved on August 21, 2007. In December 1753, Washington was asked by Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia to carry a British ultimatum to the French on the Ohio frontier. Washington assessed French military strength and intentions, and delivered the message to the French at Fort Le Boeuf in present day Waterford, Pennsylvania. The message, which went unheeded, called for the French to abandon their development of the Ohio country. The two colonial powers were heading toward worldwide conflict. Washington's report on the affair was widely read on both sides of the Atlantic. French and Indian War (Seven Years War) The earliest known portrait of Washington, painted in 1772 by Charles Willson Peale, showing Washington in uniform as colonel of the Virginia Regiment. In 1754, Dinwiddie commissioned Washington a lieutenant colonel and ordered him to lead an expedition to Fort Duquesne to drive out the French. With his American Indian allies led by Tanacharison, Washington and his troops ambushed a French scouting party of some 30 men, led by Joseph Coulon de Jumonville. Fred Anderson, Crucible of War (Vintage Books, 2001), p. 6. Washington and his troops were overwhelmed at Fort Necessity by a larger and better positioned French and Indian force. The terms of surrender included a statement that Washington had assassinated Jumonville after the ambush. Washington could not read French, and, unaware of what it said, signed his name. Lengel p.48 Released by the French, Washington returned to Virginia, where he was cleared of blame for the defeat, but resigned because he did not like the new arrangement of the Virginia Militia. In 1755, Washington was an aide to British General Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Monongahela expedition. This was a major effort to retake the Ohio Country. While Braddock was killed and the expedition ended in disaster, Washington distinguished himself as the Hero of the Monongahela. On British attitudes see John Shy, Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence (1990) p. 39; Douglas Edward Leach. Roots of Conflict: British Armed Forces and Colonial Americans, 1677–1763 (1986) p. 106; and John Ferling. Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution (2002) p. 65 While Washington's role during the battle has been debated, biographer Joseph Ellis asserts that Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield, rallying the remnant of the British and Virginian forces to a retreat. Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. (2004) ISBN 1-4000-4031-0. Subsequent to this action, Washington was given a difficult frontier command in the Virginia mountains, and was rewarded by being promoted to colonel and named commander of all Virginia forces. In 1758, Washington participated as a brigadier general in the Forbes expedition that prompted French evacuation of Fort Duquesne, and British establishment of Pittsburgh. Later that year, Washington resigned from active military service and spent the next sixteen years as a Virginia planter and politician. For negative treatments of Washington's excessive ambition and military blunders, see Bernhard Knollenberg, George Washington: The Virginia Period, 1732–1775 (1964) and Thomas A. Lewis, For King and Country: The Maturing of George Washington, 1748–1760 (1992). Between the wars A mezzotint of Martha Dandridge Custis, based on a 1757 portrait by John Wollaston. On January 6, 1759, Washington married the widow Martha Dandridge Custis. Surviving letters suggest that he may have been in love at the time with Sally Fairfax, the wife of a friend. Some historians believe George and Martha were distantly related. Nevertheless, George and Martha made a good marriage, and together raised her two children from her previous marriage, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, affectionately called "Jackie" and "Patsy". Later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis. George and Martha never had any children together—his earlier bout with smallpox followed, possibly, by tuberculosis may have made him sterile. The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon, where he took up the life of a planter and political figure. John K. Amory, M.D., "George Washington’s infertility: Why was the father of our country never a father?", Fertility and Sterility, Vol. 81, No. 3, March 2004. (online, PDF format) Washington's marriage to Martha, a wealthy widow, greatly increased his property holdings and social standing. He acquired one-third of the 18,000 acre (73 km²) Custis estate upon his marriage, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha's children. He frequently purchased additional land in his own name. In addition, he was granted land in what is now West Virginia as a bounty for his service in the French and Indian War. By 1775, Washington had doubled the size of Mount Vernon to , and had increased the slave population there to more than 100 persons. As a respected military hero and large landowner, he held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the House of Burgesses, beginning in 1758. "Acreage, slaves, and social standing", Joseph Ellis, His Excellency, George Washington, pp. 41–42, 48. Washington enlarged the mansion at Mount Vernon after his marriage. Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle—fox hunting was a favorite leisure activity. Like most Virginia planters, he imported luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop. Extravagant spending and the unpredictability of the tobacco market meant that many Virginia planters of Washington's day were losing money. (Thomas Jefferson, for example, would die deeply in debt.) Washington began to pull himself out of debt by diversification. By 1766, he had switched Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat, a crop which could be sold in America, and diversified operations to include flour milling, fishing, horse breeding, spinning, and weaving. Patsy Custis's tragic death in 1773 from epilepsy enabled Washington to pay off his British creditors, since half of her inheritance passed to him. Fox hunting: Ellis p. 44. Mount Vernon economy: John Ferling, The First of Men, pp. 66–67; Ellis pp. 50–53; Bruce A. Ragsdale, "George Washington, the British Tobacco Trade, and Economic Opportunity in Pre-Revolutionary Virginia", in Don Higginbotham, ed., George Washington Reconsidered, pp. 67–93. During these years, Washington concentrated on his business activities and remained somewhat aloof from politics. Although he expressed opposition to the 1765 Stamp Act, the first direct tax on the colonies, he did not take a leading role in the growing colonial resistance until after protests of the Townshend Acts (enacted in 1767) had become widespread. In May 1769, Washington introduced a proposal drafted by his friend George Mason, which called for Virginia to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed. Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770, and, for Washington at least, the crisis had passed. However, Washington regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as "an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges". In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the "Fairfax Resolves" were adopted, which called for, among other things, the convening of a Continental Congress. In August, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress. Washington, quoted in Ferling, p. 99. American Revolution Portrait of George Washington in military uniform, painted by Rembrandt Peale. After fighting broke out in April 1775, Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war. Washington had the prestige, the military experience, the charisma and military bearing, the reputation of being a strong patriot, and he was supported by the South, especially Virginia. Although he did not explicitly seek the office of commander and even claimed that he was not equal to it, there was no serious competition. Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775; the next day, on the nomination of John Adams of Massachusetts, Washington was appointed Major General and elected by Congress to be Commander-in-chief. Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in the field at Cambridge, Massachusetts in July 1775, during the ongoing siege of Boston. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. British arsenals were raided (including some in the Caribbean) and some manufacturing was attempted; a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) was obtained by the end of 1776, mostly from France. Orlando W. Stephenson, "The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776," American Historical Review, Vol. 30, No. 2 (January 1925), pp. 271–281 in JSTOR Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city. The British evacuated Boston and Washington moved his army to New York City. Although negative toward the patriots in the Continental Congress, British newspapers routinely praised Washington's personal character and qualities as a military commander. Bickham, Troy O. "Sympathizing with Sedition? George Washington, the British Press, and British Attitudes During the American War of Independence." William and Mary Quarterly 2002 59(1): 101–122. ISSN 0043-5597 Fulltext online in History Cooperative Moreover, both sides of the aisle in Parliament found the American general's courage, endurance, and attentiveness to the welfare of his troops worthy of approbation and examples of the virtues they and most other Britons found wanting in their own commanders. Washington's refusal to become involved in politics buttressed his reputation as a man fully committed to the military mission at hand and above the factional fray. In August 1776, British General William Howe launched a massive naval and land campaign designed to seize New York and offer a negotiated settlement. The Continental Army under Washington engaged the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly declared independent United States at the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire war. This and several other British victories sent Washington scrambling out of New York and across New Jersey, leaving the future of the Continental Army in doubt. On the night of December 25, 1776, Washington staged a counterattack, leading the American forces across the Delaware River to capture nearly 1,000 Hessians in Trenton, New Jersey. Washington followed up his victory at Trenton with another one at Princeton in early January. These winter victories quickly raised the morale of the army, secured Washington's position as Commander, and inspired young men to join the army. British forces defeated Washington's troops in the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed on September 26. Washington's army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile, Burgoyne, out of reach from help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender his entire army at Saratoga, New York. France responded to Burgoyne's defeat by entering the war, openly allying with America and turning the Revolutionary War into a major worldwide war. Washington's loss of Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to discuss removing Washington from command. This attempt failed after Washington's supporters rallied behind him. Fleming, T: "Washington's Secret War: the Hidden History of Valley Forge.", Smithsonian Books, 2005 Washington's army camped at Valley Forge in December 1777, staying there for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men of the 10,000-strong force died from disease and exposure. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by Baron von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff. The British evacuated Philadelphia to New York in 1778 but Washington attacked them at Monmouth and drove them from the battlefield. Afterwards, the British continued to head towards New York. Washington moved his army outside of New York. In the summer of 1779 at Washington's direction, General John Sullivan carried out a decisive scorched earth campaign that destroyed at least forty Iroquois villages throughout present-day central and upstate New York in retaliation for Iroquois and Tory attacks against American settlements earlier in the war. Washington delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia. The surrender at Yorktown on October 17, 1781 marked the end of most fighting. Though known for his successes in the war and of his life that followed, Washington suffered many defeats before achieving victory. Depiction by John Trumbull of Washington resigning his commission as commander-in-chief. In March 1783, Washington used his influence to disperse a group of Army officers who had threatened to confront Congress regarding their back pay. By the Treaty of Paris (signed that September), Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers. George Washington Papers 1741–1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts, American Memory, Library of Congress, Accessed May 22, 2006. On November 25, the British evacuated New York City, and Washington and the governor took possession. At Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally bade his officers farewell and on December 23, 1783, he resigned his commission as commander-in-chief, emulating the Roman general Cincinnatus. He was an exemplar of the republican ideal of citizen leadership who rejected power. During this period, the United States was governed without a President under the Articles of Confederation, the forerunner to the Constitution. Washington's retirement to Mount Vernon was short-lived. He made an exploratory trip to the western frontier in 1784, was persuaded to attend the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, and was unanimously elected president of the Convention. He participated little in the debates involved (though he did vote for or against the various articles), but his high prestige maintained collegiality and kept the delegates at their labors. The delegates designed the presidency with Washington in mind, and allowed him to define the office once elected. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the Virginia legislature, to vote for ratification; the new Constitution was ratified by all 13 states. Presidency Portrait by Gilbert Stuart, 1795 The Electoral College elected Washington unanimously in 1789, and again in the 1792 election; he remains the only president to receive 100% of the electoral votes. At his inauguration, he insisted on having Barbados Rum served. Frost, Doug (January 6, 2005). "Rum makers distill unsavory history into fresh products". San Francisco Chronicle. John Adams was elected vice president. Washington took the oath of office as the first President under the Constitution for the United States of America on April 30, 1789 at Federal Hall in New York City although, at first, he had not wanted the position. The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789. Washington, already wealthy, declined the salary, since he valued his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary. Washington attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. To that end, he preferred the title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names suggested. My Crazy RevWar Life: George Washington - Part 5 of 5 Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he held regular cabinet meetings to debate issues before making a final decision. In handling routine tasks, he was "systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them." Leonard D. White, The Federalists: A Study in Administrative History (1948) Washington reluctantly served a second term as president. He refused to run for a third, establishing the customary policy of a maximum of two terms for a president which later became law by the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution. After Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected to an unprecedented four terms, the two-term limit was formally integrated into the Federal Constitution by the 22nd Amendment. Domestic issues Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that they would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation. His closest advisors formed two factions, setting the framework for the future First Party System. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, strenuously opposed Hamilton's agenda, but Washington favored Hamilton over Jefferson. The Residence Act of 1790, which Washington signed, authorized the President to select the specific location of the permanent seat of the government, which would be located along the Potomac River. The Act authorized the President to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for this seat. Washington personnally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office. In 1791, the commissioners named the permanent seat of government "The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia" to honor Washington. In 1800, the Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia when the federal government moved to the site in accordance with the provisions of the Residence Act. Crew, Harvey W., Webb, William Bensing, Wooldridge, John, Centennial History of the City of Washington, D.C., United Brethren Publishing House, Dayton, Ohio, 1892, Chapter IV. "Permanent Capital Site Selected", p. 87 in Google Books. Accessed May 7, 2009. Text of Residence Act in ""American Memory" in official website of the U.S. Library of Congress Accessed April 15, 2009. In 1791, Congress imposed an excise on distilled spirits, which led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into full-scale riots known as the Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and several other states. The governors sent the troops and Washington took command, marching into the rebellious districts. There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. It also was one of only two times that a sitting President would personally command the military in the field. These events marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens. Foreign affairs Statue of Washington in Paris, France In 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called "Citizen Genêt," to America. Genêt issued letters of marque and reprisal to American ships so they could capture British merchant ships. He attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the French war against Britain by creating a network of Democratic-Republican Societies in major cities. Washington rejected this interference in domestic affairs, demanded the French government recall Genêt, and denounced his societies. Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution. John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington and Hamilton, however, mobilized public opinion and won ratification by the Senate by emphasizing Washington's support. The British agreed to depart their forts around the Great Lakes, the Canadian-U.S. boundary was adjusted, numerous pre-Revolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty delayed war with Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with that country. This angered the French and became a central issue in political debates. Farewell Address Washington's Farewell Address (issued as a public letter in 1796) was one of the most influential statements of American political values.<ref> Matthew Spalding, The Command of its own Fortunes: Reconsidering Washington's Farewell address," in William D. Pederson, Mark J. Rozell, Ethan M. Fishman, eds. George Washington (2001) ch 2; Virginia Arbery, "Washington's Farewell Address and the Form of the American Regime." in Gary L. Gregg II and Matthew Spalding, eds. George Washington and the American Political Tradition. 1999 pp. 199–216.</ref> Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and importance of national union, the value of the Constitution and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the proper virtues of a republican people. While he declined suggested versions Library of Congress - see Farewell Address section that would have included statements that there could be no morality without religion, he called morality "a necessary spring of popular government". He said, "Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of religious principle." "Religion and the Federal Government". Religion and the Founding of the American Republic. Library of Congress Exhibition. Retrieved on May 17, 2007. Washington's public political address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. He warned against bitter partisanship in domestic politics and called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He warned against 'permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world' " "Washington's Farewell Address, 1796" , saying the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but warned against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term "entangling" alliances. The address quickly set American values regarding religion and foreign affairs. Retirement and death After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to farming. On July 4, 1798, Washington was commissioned by President John Adams to be Lieutenant General and Commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be raised for service in a prospective war with France. He served as the senior officer of the United States Army between July 13, 1798 and December 14, 1799. He participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet any emergency that might arise, but did not take the field. On December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his farms on horseback, in snow and later hail and freezing rain. He sat down to dine that evening without changing his wet clothes. The next morning, he awoke with a bad cold, fever, and a throat infection called quinsy that turned into acute laryngitis and pneumonia. Washington died on the evening of December 14, 1799, at his home aged 67, while attended by Dr. James Craik, one of his closest friends, Dr. Gustavus Richard Brown, Dr. Elisha C. Dick, and Tobias Lear V, Washington's personal secretary. Lear would record the account in his journal, writing that Washington's last words were "'Tis well.''" Modern doctors believe that Washington died largely because of his treatment, which included calomel and bloodletting, resulting in a combination of shock from the loss of five pints of blood, as well as asphyxia and dehydration. Washington's remains were buried at Mount Vernon. To protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and herself following his death. Only three letters between the couple have survived. Throughout the world men and women were saddened by Washington's death. Napoleon ordered ten days of mourning throughout France and in the United States thousands wore mourning clothes for months. http://www.washingtondaylight.org/news/GW-Birthday-Speech.pdf On December 18, 1799, a funeral was held at Mount Vernon. During the United States Bicentennial year, George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of The United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 of January 19, 1976, approved by President Gerald Ford on October 11, 1976, and formalized in Department of the Army Order Number 31-3 of March 13, 1978 with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976. This restored Washington's position as the highest ranking military officer in U.S. history. Administration, Cabinet and Supreme Court appointments Chief Justice John Jay - 1789 John Rutledge - 1795 William Cushing - 1796; declined Oliver Ellsworth - 1796 Associate Justice John Rutledge - 1789 William Cushing - 1789 James Wilson - 1789 Robert H. Harrison - 1789; declined John Blair - 1789 James Iredell - 1790 Thomas Johnson - 1792 William Paterson - 1793 Samuel Chase - 1796 During his tenure as President, Washington appointed more Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States than any other President succeeding him. States joining the Union:</u> North Carolina - 1789 Rhode Island - 1790 States admitted to the Union:</u> Vermont - 1791 Kentucky - 1792 Tennessee - 1796 Portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart Legacy Congressman Henry Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade and father of the Civil War general Robert E. Lee, famously eulogized Washington as follows: First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in humble and enduring scenes of private life. Pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding; his example was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting…Correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence and virtue always felt his fostering hand. The purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues…Such was the man for whom our nation mourns. Lee's words set the standard by which Washington's overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government and the presidency in particular. As early as 1778, Washington was lauded as the "Father of His Country." He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. Gordon Wood concludes that the greatest act in his life was his resignation as commander of the armies—an act that stunned aristocratic Europe. Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (1992), pp 105–6; Edmund Morgan, The Genius of George Washington (1980), pp 12–13; Sarah J. Purcell, Sealed With Blood: War, Sacrifice, and Memory in Revolutionary America (2002) p. 97; Don Higginbotham, George Washington (2004); Ellis, 2004. The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as such is on the cover of the circa 1778 Pennsylvania German almanac (Lancaster: Gedruckt bey Francis Bailey). Monuments and memorials Today, Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most prominent commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the one-dollar bill and the quarter-dollar coin. Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial. The Washington Monument, one of the most well-known American landmarks, was built in his honor. The George Washington Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia, constructed entirely with voluntary contributions from members of the Masonic Fraternity, was also built in his honor. Welcome to the George Washington Masonic Memorial Many things have been named in honor of Washington. Washington's name became that of the nation's capital, Washington, D.C., only one of two capitals across the globe to be named after an American president (the other is Monrovia, Liberia). The State of Washington is the only state to be named after an American (Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia are all named in honor of British monarchs). George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis were named for him, as was Washington and Lee University (once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington’s large endowment in 1796. Countless American cities and towns feature a Washington Street among their thoroughfares. The Confederate Seal prominently featured George Washington on horseback, in the same position as a statue of him in Richmond, Virginia. Washington and slavery The slave trade continued throughout George Washington’s life. On the death of his father in 1743, the 11-year-old inherited 10 slaves. At the time of his marriage to Martha Custis in 1759, he personally owned at least 36 (and the widow's third of her first husband's estate brought at least 85 "dower slaves" to Mount Vernon). Using his wife's great wealth he bought land, tripling the size of the plantation, and additional slaves to farm it. By 1774 he paid taxes on 135 slaves (this does not include the "dowers"). The last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772, although he later received some slaves in repayment of debts. Fritz Hirschfeld, George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal, University of Missouri, 1997, pp. 11-12 Before the American Revolution, Washington expressed no moral reservations about slavery, but in 1786, Washington wrote to Robert Morris that "there is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do, to see a plan adopted for the abolition of slavery." Letter of April 12, 1786, in W. B. Allen, ed., George Washington: A Collection (Indianapolis: Library Classics, 1989), 319. In 1778 he wrote to his manager at Mount Vernon that he wished "to get quit of negroes." Maintaining a large, and increasingly elderly, slave population at Mount Vernon was not economically profitable. Washington could not legally sell the "dower slaves", however, and because these slaves had long intermarried with his own slaves, he could not sell his slaves without breaking up families. Slave raffle linked to Washington's reassessment of slavery: Wiencek, pp. 135–36, 178–88. Washington's decision to stop selling slaves: Hirschfeld, p. 16. Influence of war and Wheatley: Wiencek, ch 6. Dilemma of selling slaves: Wiencek, p. 230; Ellis, pp. 164–7; Hirschfeld, pp. 27–29. As president, Washington brought seven slaves to New York City in 1789 to work in the first presidential household Oney Judge, Moll, Giles, Paris, Austin, Christopher Sheels, and William Lee. Following the transfer of the national capital to Philadelphia in 1790, he brought nine slaves to work in the President's House Oney Judge, Moll, Giles, Paris, Austin, Christopher Sheels, Hercules, Richmond, and Joe (Richardson). Biographical sketches of the 9 Oney Judge and Hercules escaped to freedom from Philadelphia, and there were foiled escape attempts from Mount Vernon by Richmond and Christopher Sheels. Pennsylvania had begun an abolition of slavery in 1780, and prohibited non-residents from holding slaves in the state longer than six months. If held beyond that period, the state's Gradual Abolition Law Pennsylvania's Gradual Abolition Law (1780) gave those slaves the power to free themselves. Washington argued (privately) that his presence in Pennsylvania was solely a consequence of Philadelphia's being the temporary seat of the federal government, and that the state law should not apply to him. On the advice of his attorney general, Edmund Randolph, he systematically rotated the President's House slaves in and out of the state to prevent their establishing a six-month continuous residency. This rotation was itself a violation of the Pennsylvania law, but the President's actions were not challenged. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 established the legal mechanism by which a slaveholder could recover his property, a right guaranteed by the Fugitive Slave Clause of the U.S. Constitution (Article IV, Section 2). Passed overwhelmingly by Congress and signed into law by Washington, the 1793 Act made assisting an escaped slave a federal crime, overruled all state and local laws giving escaped slaves sanctuary, and allowed slavecatchers into every U.S. state and territory. Washington was the only prominent, slaveholding Founding Father who succeeded in emancipating his slaves. His actions were influenced by his close relationship with Marquis de La Fayette. He did not free his slaves in his lifetime, however, but included a provision in his will to free his slaves upon the death of his wife. At the time of his death, there were 317 slaves at Mount Vernon 123 owned by Washington, 154 "dower slaves," and 40 rented from a neighbor. 1799 Mount Vernon Slave Census Martha Washington bequeathed the one slave she owned outright Elisha to her grandson George Washington Parke Custis. Following her death in 1802, the dower slaves were inherited by her grandchildren. It has been argued that Washington did not speak out publicly against slavery, because he did not wish to create a split in the new republic, with an issue that was sensitive and divisive. Twohig, "That Species of Property", pp. 127–28. Even if Washington had opposed the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, his veto probably would have been overridden. (The Senate vote was not recorded, but the House passed it overwhelmingly, 47 to 8.) Slavery by the Numbers Religious beliefs Washington was baptized into the Church of England. Family Bible entry http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/26/hh26f.htm Image of page from family Bible http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/project/faq/bible.html In 1765, when the Church of England was still the state religion, Colonial Williamsburg website has several articles on religion in colonial Virginia he served on the vestry (lay council) for his local church. Throughout his life, he spoke of the value of righteousness, and of seeking and offering thanks for the "blessings of Heaven." In a letter to George Mason in 1785, Washington wrote that he was not among those alarmed by a bill "making people pay towards the support of that [religion] which they profess," but felt that it was "impolitic" to pass such a measure, and wished it had never been proposed, believing that it would disturb public tranquility. His adopted daughter, Nelly Custis Lewis, stated: "I have heard her [Nelly's mother, Eleanor Calvert Custis, who resided in Mount Vernon for two years] say that General Washington always received the sacrament with my grandmother [Martha Washington] before the revolution." ushistory.org Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis' letter written to Jared Sparks, 1833 After the revolution, Washington frequently accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however, there is no record of his ever taking communion, and he would regularly leave services before communion—with the other non-communicants (as was the custom of the day), until, after being admonished by a rector, he ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Prior to communion, believers are admonished to take stock of their spiritual lives and not to participate in the ceremony unless he finds himself in the will of God. Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis' letter written to Jared Sparks, 1833 Historians and biographers continue to debate the degree to which he can be counted as a Christian, and the degree to which he was a deist. He was an early supporter of religious toleration and freedom of religion. In 1775, he ordered that his troops not show anti-Catholic sentiments by burning the pope in effigy on Guy Fawkes Night. When hiring workmen for Mount Vernon, he wrote to his agent, "If they be good workmen, they may be from Asia, Africa, or Europe; they may be Mohammedans, Jews, or Christians of any sect, or they may be Atheists." letter to Tench Tilghman asking him to secure a carpenter and a bricklayer for his Mount Vernon estate, March 24, 1784 In 1790, he wrote a response to a letter from the Touro Synagogue, in which he said that as long as people remain good citizens, their faith does not matter. This was a relief to the Jewish community of the United States, since the Jews had been either expelled or discriminated against in many European countries. ...the Government of the United States ... gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance. ... May the children of the Stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit in safety under his own vine and figtree, and there shall be none to make him afraid. May the father of all mercies scatter light and not darkness in our paths, and make us all in our several vocations useful here, and in his own due time and way everlastingly happy. The United States Bill of Rights was in the process of being ratified at the time. Personal life In addition to Martha's biological family noted above, George Washington had a close relationship with his nephew and heir Bushrod Washington, son of George's younger brother John Augustine Washington. Bushrod became an Associate Justice on the US Supreme Court after George's death. As a young man, Washington had red hair. A popular myth is that he wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. Washington did not wear a wig; instead he powdered his hair, as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished Gilbert Stuart depiction. Washington suffered from problems with his teeth throughout his life. He lost his first tooth when he was twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became President. Lloyd, J & Mitchinson, J: The Book of General Ignorance. Faber & Faber, 2006. According to John Adams, he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts. Modern historians suggest the mercury oxide which he was given to treat illnesses such as smallpox and malaria probably contributed to the loss. He had several sets of false teeth made, four of them by a dentist named John Greenwood. Contrary to popular belief, none of the sets were made from wood. The set made when he became President was carved from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with gold springs. The hippo ivory was used for the plate, into which real human teeth and also bits of horses' and donkeys' teeth were inserted. Dental problems left Washington in constant discomfort, for which he took laudanum. This distress may be apparent in many of the portraits painted while he was still in office, including the one still used on the $1 bill. One of the most enduring myths about George Washington involves his chopping down his father's cherry tree and, when asked about it, using the famous line "I cannot tell a lie, I did it with my little hatchet." In fact, there is no evidence that this ever occurred. It, along with the story of Washington throwing a silver dollar across the Potomac River, was part of a book of mythic stories authored by Mason Weems that made Washington a legendary figure beyond his wartime and presidential achievements. See also American Revolution List of judicial appointments made by George Washington Military career of George Washington Town Destroyer, a nickname given to Washington by the Iroquois Betty Washington Lewis, his sister References: biographies Buchanan, John. The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution (2004). 368 pp. Burns, James MacGregor and Dunn, Susan. George Washington. Times, 2004. 185 pp. explore leadership style Cunliffe, Marcus. George Washington: Man and Monument (1958), explores both the biography and the myth Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George! A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2. Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington. Hirschfeld, Fritz. George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal. University of Missouri Press, 1997. Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. (2004) ISBN 1-4000-4031-0. Acclaimed interpretation of Washington's career. Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism. (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s. Ferling, John E. The First of Men: A Life of George Washington (1989). Biography from a leading scholar. Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775–1776. Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. (1974). ISBN 0-316-28616-8 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography. Freeman, Douglas S. George Washington: A Biography. 7 volumes, 1948–1957. The standard scholarly biography, winner of the Pulitzer Prize. A single-volume abridgement by Richard Harwell appeared in 1968 Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. George Washington: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO, 2002. 436 pp. Comprehensive encyclopedia by leading scholar Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington. Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0. Higginbotham, Don, ed. George Washington Reconsidered. University Press of Virginia, (2001). 336 pp of essays by scholars Higginbotham, Don. George Washington: Uniting a Nation. Rowman & Littlefield, (2002). 175 pp. Hofstra, Warren R., ed. George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison House, 1998. Essays on Washington's formative years. Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6081-8. Lodge, Henry Cabot. George Washington, 2 vols. (1889), vol 1 at Gutenberg; vol 2 at Gutenberg McDonald, Forrest. The Presidency of George Washington. 1988. Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism. Smith, Richard Norton Patriarch: George Washington and the New American Nation Focuses on last 10 years of Washington's life. Spalding, Matthew. "George Washington's Farewell Address." The Wilson Quarterly v20#4 (Autumn 1996) pp: 65+. Stritof, Sheri and Bob. "George and Martha Washington" http://marriage.about.com/od/presidentialmarriages/p/gwashington.htm Wiencek, Henry. An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. (2003). Further reading Notes External links George Washington Resources from the University of Virginia George Washington's Mount Vernon Estate & Gardens George Washington from the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief from the Library of Congress George Washington Birthplace National Monument from the National Park Service be-x-old:Джордж Вашынгтон	George_Washington \|@lemmatized george:75 washington:252 february:2 birth:2 death:11 give:10 use:13 gregorian:2 calendar:4 however:8 bear:3 britain:7 colony:6 still:4 julian:1 contemporary:1 record:6 provision:3 new:25 style:2 act:17 implement:2 alter:1 official:2 british:30 date:2 method:1 start:1 year:13 january:7 december:11 commander:13 continental:10 army:29 american:39 revolutionary:9 war:29 serve:7 first:23 president:27 united:23 state:41 america:8 article:7 confederation:4 congress:24 call:9 preside:2 officer:5 assemble:1 executive:2 power:4 similarity:1 title:3 confuse:1 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1,168	Antiderivative	The slope field of ƒ(x) = (x3/3)-(x2/2)-x+c, showing three of the infinitely many solutions that can be produced by varying the arbitrary constant C. In calculus, an antiderivative, primitive or indefinite integral Antiderivatives are also called general integrals, and sometimes integrals. The latter term is generic, and refers not only to indefinite integrals (antiderivatives), but also to definite integrals. When the word integral is used without additional specification, the reader is supposed to deduce from the context whether it is referred to a definite or indefinite integral. Some authors define the indefinite integral of a function as the set of its infinitely many possible antiderivatives. Others define it as an arbitrarily selected element of that set. Wikipedia adopts the latter approach. of a function f is a function F whose derivative is equal to f, i.e., F ′ = f. The process of solving for antiderivatives is antidifferentiation (or indefinite integration). Antiderivatives are related to definite integrals through the fundamental theorem of calculus: the definite integral of a function over an interval is equal to the difference between the values of an antiderivative evaluated at the endpoints of the interval. Rules and Formula Antidifferentiation is the process of finding the set of all antiderivatives of a given function. The symbol denotes the operation of antidifferentiation, and we write where The expression F(x) + C is the general antiderivative of f. Because antidifferentiation is the inverse operation of the differentiation, antidifferentiation theorems and rules are obtained from those on differentiation. Thus the following theorems can be proven from the corresponding differentiation theorems: General antidifferentiation rule: The general antiderivative of a constant times a function is the constant multiplied by the general antiderivative of the function: If f and g are defined on the same interval, then: The general antiderivative of the sum or difference of two functions equals the sum or difference of the general antiderivatives of the functions. If are defined on the same interval, where are constants. If n is a real number, Forms containing Trigonometric Functions Forms containing Inverse Trigonometric Functions Forms containing Exponential and Logarithmic Functions Forms containing Hyperbolic Functions Example The function F(x) = x3/3 is an antiderivative of f(x) = x2. As the derivative of a constant is zero, x2 will have an infinite number of antiderivatives; such as (x3/3) + 0, (x3 / 3) + 7, (x3 / 3) − 42, etc. Thus, the entire antiderivative family of x2 can be obtained by changing the value of C in F(x) = (x3 / 3) + C; where C is an arbitrary constant known as the constant of integration. Essentially, the graphs of antiderivatives of a given function are vertical translations of each other; each graph's location depending upon the value of C. Uses and properties Antiderivatives are important because they can be used to compute definite integrals, using the fundamental theorem of calculus: if F is an antiderivative of the integrable function f, then: Because of this, each of the infinitely many antiderivatives of a given function f is sometimes called the "general integral" or "indefinite integral" of f and is written using the integral symbol with no bounds: If F is an antiderivative of f, and the function f is defined on some interval, then every other antiderivative G of f differs from F by a constant: there exists a number C such that G(x) = F(x) + C for all x. C is called the arbitrary constant of integration. If the domain of F is a disjoint union of two or more intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance is the most general antiderivative of on its natural domain Every continuous function f has an antiderivative, and one antiderivative F is given by the definite integral of f with variable upper boundary: Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives (but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives). This is another formulation of the fundamental theorem of calculus. There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions (like polynomials, exponential functions, logarithms, trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions and their combinations). Examples of these are See also differential Galois theory for a more detailed discussion. Techniques of integration Finding antiderivatives of elementary functions is often considerably harder than finding their derivatives. For some elementary functions, it is impossible to find an antiderivative in terms of other elementary functions. See the article on elementary functions for further information. We have various methods at our disposal: the linearity of integration allows us to break complicated integrals into simpler ones integration by substitution, often combined with trigonometric identities or the natural logarithm integration by parts to integrate products of functions the inverse chain rule method, a special case of integration by substitution the method of partial fractions in integration allows us to integrate all rational functions (fractions of two polynomials) the Risch algorithm integrals can also be looked up in a table of integrals when integrating multiple times, we can use certain additional techniques, see for instance double integrals and polar coordinates, the Jacobian and the Stokes' theorem computer algebra systems can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy if a function has no elementary antiderivative (for instance, exp(x2)), its definite integral can be approximated using numerical integration to calculate the ( times) repeated antiderivative of a function Cauchy's formula is useful (cf. Cauchy formula for repeated integration): Antiderivatives of non-continuous functions To illustrate some of the subtleties of the fundamental theorem of calculus, it is instructive to consider what kinds of non-continuous functions might have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that: Some highly pathological functions with large sets of discontinuities may nevertheless have antiderivatives. In some cases, the antiderivatives of such pathological functions may be found by Riemann integration, while in other cases these functions are not Riemann integrable. We first state some general facts and then provide some illustrative examples. Throughout, we assume that the domains of our functions are open intervals. A necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a function f to have an antiderivative is that f have the intermediate value property. That is, if [a,b] is a subinterval of the domain of f and d is any real number between f(a) and f(b), then f(c)=d for some c between a and b. To see this, let F be an antiderivative of f and consider the continuous function g(x)=F(x)-dx on the closed interval [a, b]. Then g must have either a maximum or minimum c in the open interval (a,b) and so 0=g′(c)=f(c)-d. The set of discontinuities of f must be a meagre set. This set must also be an F-sigma set (since the set of discontinuities of any function must be of this type). Moreover for any meagre F-sigma set, one can construct some function f having an antiderivative, which has the given set as its set of discontinuities. If f has an antiderivative, is bounded on closed finite subintervals of the domain and has a set of discontinuities of Lebesgue measure 0, then an antiderivative may be found by integration. If f has an antiderivative F on a closed interval [a,b], then for any choice of partition , if one chooses sample points as specified by the mean value theorem, then the corresponding Riemann sum telescopes to the value F(b)-F(a). However if f is unbounded, or if f is bounded but the set of discontinuities of f has positive Lebesgue measure, a different choice of sample points may give a significantly different value for the Riemann sum, no matter how fine the partition. See Example 4 below. Some examples The function with is not continuous at but has the antiderivative with . Since f is bounded on closed finite intervals and is only discontinuous at 0, the antiderivative F may be obtained by integration: . The function with is not continuous at but has the antiderivative with . Unlike Example 1, f(x) is unbounded in any interval containing 0, so the Riemann integral is undefined. If f(x) is the function in Example 1 and F is its antiderivative, and is a dense countable subset of the open interval , then the function has as antiderivative The set of discontinuities of g is precisely the set . Since g is bounded on closed finite intervals and the set of discontinuities has measure 0, the antiderivative G may be found by integration.Let be a dense countable subset of the open interval . Consider the everywhere continuous strictly increasing function It can be shown that Figure 1. Figure 2. for all values x where the series converges, and that the graph of F(x) has vertical tangent lines at all other values of x. In particular the graph has vertical tangent lines at all points in the set . Moreover for all x where the derivative is defined. It follows that the inverse function is differentiable everywhere and that for all x in the set which is dense in the interval . Thus g has an antiderivative G. On the other hand, it can not be true that since for any partition of , one can choose sample points for the Riemann sum from the set , giving a value of 0 for the sum. It follows that g has a set of discontinuities of positive Lebesgue measure. Figure 1 on the right shows an approximation to the graph of g(x) where and the series is truncated to 8 terms. Figure 2 shows the graph of an approximation to the antiderivative G(x), also truncated to 8 terms. On the other hand if the Riemann integral is replaced by the Lebesgue integral, then Fatou's lemma or the dominated convergence theorem shows that g does satisfy the fundamental theorem of calculus in that context. In Examples 3 and 4, the sets of discontinuities of the functions g are dense only in a finite open interval . However these examples can be easily modified so as to have sets of discontinuities which are dense on the entire real line . Let Then has a dense set of discontinuities on and has antiderivative Using a similar method as in Example 5, one can modify g in Example 4 so as to vanish at all rational numbers. If one uses a naive version of the Riemann integral defined as the limit of left-hand or right-hand Riemann sums over regular partitions, one will obtain that the integral of such a function g over an interval is 0 whenever a and b are both rational, instead of . Thus the fundamental theorem of calculus will fail spectacularly. See also Antiderivative (complex analysis) Notes References Introduction to Classical Real Analysis, by Karl R. Stromberg; Wadsworth, 1981 (see also) Historical Essay On Continuity Of Derivatives, by Dave L. Renfro; http://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/msg/814be41b1ea8c024	Antiderivative \|@lemmatized slope:1 field:1 ƒ:1 x:20 c:15 show:5 three:1 infinitely:3 many:4 solution:1 produce:2 vary:2 arbitrary:3 constant:10 calculus:7 antiderivative:33 primitive:1 indefinite:6 integral:25 antiderivatives:19 also:8 call:3 general:10 sometimes:2 latter:2 term:5 generic:1 refers:1 definite:7 word:1 use:9 without:1 additional:2 specification:1 reader:1 suppose:1 deduce:1 context:2 whether:1 refer:1 author:1 define:7 function:50 set:24 possible:2 others:1 arbitrarily:1 select:1 element:1 wikipedia:1 adopt:1 approach:1 f:53 whose:2 derivative:5 equal:3 e:1 process:2 solve:1 antidifferentiation:6 integration:16 relate:1 fundamental:6 theorem:12 interval:19 difference:3 value:10 evaluate:1 endpoint:1 rule:4 formula:3 find:7 give:7 symbol:2 denote:1 operation:2 write:2 expression:1 inverse:5 differentiation:3 obtain:4 thus:4 following:1 prove:1 corresponding:1 time:3 multiply:1 g:18 sum:7 two:3 n:1 real:4 number:5 form:4 contain:4 trigonometric:5 exponential:2 logarithmic:1 hyperbolic:1 example:10 zero:1 infinite:1 etc:1 entire:2 family:1 change:1 know:2 essentially:1 graph:6 vertical:3 translation:1 location:1 depend:1 upon:1 us:1 property:2 important:1 compute:1 integrable:2 bound:5 every:2 differs:1 exist:2 domain:5 disjoint:1 union:1 different:3 may:7 choose:3 instance:3 natural:2 continuous:7 one:8 variable:1 upper:1 boundary:2 low:1 necessarily:1 another:1 formulation:1 even:1 though:1 cannot:1 express:1 elementary:6 like:1 polynomial:2 logarithm:2 combination:1 see:7 differential:1 galois:1 theory:1 detailed:1 discussion:1 technique:3 often:2 considerably:1 hard:1 impossible:1 article:1 information:1 various:1 method:4 disposal:1 linearity:1 allow:2 u:2 break:1 complicated:1 simpler:1 substitution:2 combine:1 identity:1 part:1 integrate:3 product:1 chain:1 special:1 case:3 partial:1 fraction:2 rational:3 risch:1 algorithm:1 look:1 table:1 multiple:1 certain:1 double:1 polar:1 coordinate:1 jacobian:1 stokes:1 computer:1 algebra:1 system:1 automate:1 work:1 involve:2 symbolic:1 particularly:1 useful:2 algebraic:1 manipulation:1 complex:2 lengthy:1 exp:1 approximate:1 numerical:1 calculate:1 repeat:2 cauchy:2 cf:1 non:2 illustrate:1 subtlety:1 instructive:1 consider:3 kind:1 might:1 still:1 open:6 question:1 area:1 highly:1 pathological:2 large:1 discontinuity:12 nevertheless:1 riemann:9 first:1 state:1 fact:1 provide:1 illustrative:1 throughout:1 assume:1 necessary:1 sufficient:1 condition:1 intermediate:1 b:8 subinterval:1 let:3 dx:1 closed:5 must:4 either:1 maximum:1 minimum:1 meagre:2 sigma:2 since:4 type:1 moreover:2 construct:1 finite:4 subintervals:1 lebesgue:4 measure:4 choice:2 partition:4 sample:3 point:4 specify:1 mean:1 correspond:1 telescope:1 however:2 unbounded:2 positive:2 significantly:1 matter:1 fine:1 examples:1 discontinuous:1 unlike:1 containing:1 undefined:1 dense:6 countable:2 subset:2 precisely:1 everywhere:2 strictly:1 increase:1 figure:4 series:2 converges:1 tangent:2 line:3 particular:1 follow:2 differentiable:1 hand:4 true:1 right:2 approximation:2 truncate:2 replace:1 fatou:1 lemma:1 dominated:1 convergence:1 satisfy:1 easily:1 modify:2 similar:1 vanish:1 naive:1 version:1 limit:1 left:1 regular:1 whenever:1 instead:1 fail:1 spectacularly:1 analysis:2 note:1 reference:1 introduction:1 classical:1 karl:1 r:1 stromberg:1 wadsworth:1 historical:1 essay:1 continuity:1 dave:1 l:1 renfro:1 http:1 group:2 google:1 com:1 sci:1 math:1 msg:1 \|@bigram indefinite_integral:5 definite_integral:6 definite_indefinite:1 trigonometric_function:4 inverse_trigonometric:2 integrable_function:1 disjoint_union:1 exponential_function:1 logarithm_trigonometric:1 differential_galois:1 polar_coordinate:1 riemann_integrable:1 closed_interval:2 lebesgue_measure:3 riemann_sum:4 unbounded_interval:1 riemann_integral:3 lebesgue_integral:1
1,169	National_War_College	National War College shield The National War College (NWC) of the United States is a school in the National Defense University. It is housed in Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C., the third-oldest Army post still active. It was officially established on July 1, 1946 as an upgraded replacement for the Army-Navy Staff College, which operated from June 1943 to July 1946. According to Lt. Col. Leonard T. Gerow, President of the Board which recommended its formation, "The College is concerned with grand strategy and the utilization of the national resources necessary to implement that strategy... Its graduates will exercise a great influence on the formulation of national and foreign policy in both peace and war...." Mid-level and senior military officers who are likely to be promoted to the most senior ranks are selected to study at the War College in preparation for higher staff and command positions. About 75 percent of the student body is composed of equal representation from the land, air, and sea (including Marine and Coast Guard) Services. The remaining 25 percent are drawn from the Department of State and other federal departments and agencies. In addition, international fellows from a number of countries join the student body. One of the more notable graduates of the National War College was former U.S. Secretary of State and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Colin Powell. Roosevelt Hall Roosevelt Hall (built 1903-07) is an immense Beaux Arts-style building housing the NWC since its inception in 1946. Designed by the Boston architectural firm McKim, Mead and White, it is now designated a National Historical Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. See also Naval War College Army War College Air War College List of National Historic Landmarks in the District of Columbia National Register of Historic Places listings in the District of Columbia References External links National War College homepage	National_War_College \|@lemmatized national:11 war:9 college:10 shield:1 nwc:2 united:1 state:3 school:1 defense:1 university:1 house:1 roosevelt:3 hall:3 fort:1 lesley:1 j:1 mcnair:1 washington:1 c:1 third:1 old:1 army:3 post:1 still:1 active:1 officially:1 establish:1 july:2 upgraded:1 replacement:1 navy:1 staff:3 operate:1 june:1 accord:1 lt:1 col:1 leonard:1 gerow:1 president:1 board:1 recommend:1 formation:1 concern:1 grand:1 strategy:2 utilization:1 resource:1 necessary:1 implement:1 graduate:2 exercise:1 great:1 influence:1 formulation:1 foreign:1 policy:1 peace:1 mid:1 level:1 senior:2 military:1 officer:1 likely:1 promote:1 rank:1 select:1 study:1 preparation:1 high:1 command:1 position:1 percent:2 student:2 body:2 compose:1 equal:1 representation:1 land:1 air:2 sea:1 include:1 marine:1 coast:1 guard:1 service:1 remain:1 draw:1 department:2 federal:1 agency:1 addition:1 international:1 fellow:1 number:1 country:1 join:1 one:1 notable:1 former:1 u:1 secretary:1 chairman:1 joint:1 chief:1 colin:1 powell:1 built:1 immense:1 beau:1 art:1 style:1 building:1 housing:1 since:1 inception:1 design:1 boston:1 architectural:1 firm:1 mckim:1 mead:1 white:1 designate:1 historical:1 landmark:2 list:2 register:2 historic:3 place:2 see:1 also:1 naval:1 district:2 columbia:2 listing:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 \|@bigram lt_col:1 chief_staff:1 colin_powell:1 historic_landmark:1 external_link:1
1,170	League_of_Nations_mandate	Mandates in the Middle east and Africa. Mandates in the Pacific. A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League. These were of the nature of a treaty or convention and contained minority rights clauses that provided for the right of petition and adjudication by the International Court. The mandate system was established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, entered into on 28 June 1919. With the dissolution of the League of Nations after World War II, it was stipulated at the Yalta Conference that the remaining Mandates should be placed under the Trusteeship of the United Nations, subject to future discussions and formal agreements. Most of the remaining mandates of the League of Nations (with the exception of South-West Africa) eventually became United Nations Trust Territories. Generalities All the territories subject to League of Nations mandates were previously controlled by states defeated in World War I, principally Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire. The mandates were fundamentally different from the protectorates in that the Mandatory power undertook obligations to the inhabitants of the territory and to the League of Nations. The process of establishing the mandates consisted of two phases: the formal removal of sovereignty of the previously controlling states the transfer of mandatory powers to individual states among the Allied Powers. Treaties The divestiture of Germany's overseas territories was accomplished in the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, and the territories were allotted among the Allied Powers on May 7, 1919. Ottoman territorial claims were first addressed in the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920 and finalized in the Treaty of Lausanne of 1923. The Turkish territories were allotted among the Allied Powers in the Conference of Sanremo of 1920. Hidden Agendas and Objections Peace treaties have played an important role in the formation of the modern law of nations. Peace Treaties and International Law in European History, From the Late Middle Ages to World War One Many rules that govern the relations between states have been introduced and codified in the terms of peace treaties. See 'The Law of Nations or the Principles of Natural Law', Emmerich de Vattel, 1758, Book IV: Of The Restoration of Peace: And of Embassies, Chapter 2: Treaties of Peace. The first twenty-six articles of the Versailles Treaty of 28 June 1919 contained the Covenant of the League of Nations. It contained the international machinery for the enforcement of the terms of the treaty. Article 22 established a system of Mandates to administer former colonies and territories. Legitimacy of the Allocations Article 22 was written two months before the signing of the peace treaty, before it was known what "communities", "peoples", or "territories" were related to sub-paragraphs 4, 5, and 6. The treaty was signed, and the peace conference had been adjourned, before a formal decision was made. FRUS, The Paris Peace Conference, 1919, Volume XII Treaty Of Versailles, Annotations Of the Text. The mandates were arrangements guaranteed by, or arising out of the general treaty which stipulated that mandates were to be exercised on behalf of the League. The treaty contained no provision for the mandates to be allocated on the basis of decisions taken by four members of the League acting in the name of the so-called "Principal Allied and Associated Powers". The decisions taken at the conferences of the Council of Four were not made on the basis of consultation or League unanimity as stipulated by the Covenant. As a result, the actions of the conferees were viewed as having no legitimacy. see for example The Century, The San Remo Conference, By Herbert Gibbons In testimony before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations a former US State Department official who had been a member of the American Commission at Paris, testified that England and France had simply gone ahead and arranged the world to suit themselves. He pointed out that the League of Nations could do nothing to alter their arrangements, since the League could only act by unanimous consent of its members - including England and France. Project Gutenberg: The Peace Negotiations by Robert Lansing, Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1921, Chapter XIX. 'THE BULLITT AFFAIR' </blockquote> United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing, was a member of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace at Paris in 1919. He explained that the system of mandates was a device created by the Great Powers to conceal their division of the spoils of war under the color of international law. If the former German and Ottoman territories had been ceded to the victorious powers directly, their economic value would have been credited to offset the Allies' claims for war reparations. "Thus under the mandatory system Germany lost her territorial assets, which might have greatly reduced her financial debt to the Allies, while the latter obtained the German colonial possessions without the loss of any of their claims for indemnity. In actual operation the apparent altruism of the mandatory system worked in favor of the selfish and material interests of the Powers which accepted the mandates. And the same may be said of the dismemberment of Turkey....The truth of this was very apparent at Paris. In the tentative distribution of mandates among the Powers, which took place on the strong presumption that the mandatory system would be adopted, the principal European Powers appeared to be willing and even eager to become mandatories over territories possessing natural resources which could be profitably developed and showed an unwillingness to accept mandates for territories which, barren of mineral or agricultural wealth, would be continuing liabilities rather than assets. This is not stated by way of criticism, but only in explanation of what took place.Project Gutenberg: The Peace Negotiations by Robert Lansing, Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1921, Chapter XIII 'THE SYSTEM OF MANDATES' Article 243 of the treaty instructed the Reparations Commission that non-mandate areas of the Saar Valley and Alsace-Lorraine were to be reckoned as credits to Germany in respect of its reparation obligations. Peace Treaty of Versailles, Articles 231-247 and Annexes, Reparations Legitimacy of the Provisions Under the plan of the US Constitution the Congress was delegated the power to declare or define the Law of Nations in cases where its terms might be vague or indefinite. The US Senate refused to ratify the Covenant of the League of Nations. The legal issues surrounding the rule by force and the lack of self-determination under the system of mandates were cited by the Senators who withheld their consent. Senator Lodge, the Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, had attached a reservation which read: 'No mandate shall be accepted by the United States under Article 22, Part 1, or any other provision of the treaty of peace with Germany, except by action of the Congress of the United States.'Henry Cabot Lodge: Reservations with Regard to the Treaty and the League of Nations Senator Borah, speaking on behalf on the 'Irreconcilables' stated 'My reservations have not been answered.' He completely rejected the proposed system of Mandates as an illegitimate rule by brute force. Classic Senate Speeches and the Denunciation of the Mandate System, starting on page 7, col. 1 The US government subsequently entered into individual treaties to secure legal rights for its citizens, to protect property rights and businesses interests in the mandates, and to preclude the mandatory administration from altering the terms of the mandates without prior US approval. see for example DELAY IN EXCHANGE OF RATIFICATIONS OF THE PALESTINE MANDATE CONVENTION PENDING ADJUSTMENT OF CASES INVOLVING THE CAPITULATORY RIGHTS OF AMERICANS, 1925 The United States filed a formal protest because the preamble of the mandates indicated to the League that they had been approved by the Principal Allied and Associated Powers, when, in fact, that was not the case. see the text of the American note to the Council of the League of Nations, dated February 1, 1921 The Official Journal of the League of Nations, dated June 1922, contained an interview with Lord Balfour (UK) in which he explained that the League's authority was strictly limited. The article related that the 'Mandates were not the creation of the League, and they could not in substance be altered by the League. The League's duties were confined to seeing that the specific and detailed terms of the mandates were in accordance with the decisions taken by the Allied and Associated Powers, and that in carrying out these mandates the Mandatory Powers should be under the supervision--not under the control--of the League.' Excerpts from League of Nations Official Journal dated June 1922, pp. 546-549 Types of mandates The exact level of control by the Mandatory power over each mandate was decided on an individual basis by the League of Nations. However, in every case the Mandatory power was forbidden to construct fortifications or raise an army within the territory of the mandate and was required to present an annual report on the territory to the League of Nations. Despite this, mandates were generally seen as de facto colonies of the empires of the victor nations. The mandates were divided into three distinct groups based upon the level of development each population had achieved at that time. Class A mandates The first group or Class A mandates were areas formerly controlled by the Ottoman Empire that were deemed to "... have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory." The Class A mandates were: 'Mesopotamia' (United Kingdom), 10 August 1920–3 October 1932, which became the independent kingdom of Iraq. 'Palestine' (United Kingdom), from 25 April 1920 (effective 29 September 1923–15 May 1948). In April 1921, 'Transjordan' was incorporated as an autonomous area under the mandate. The Making of Jordan: Tribes, Colonialism and the Modern State, By Yoav Alon, Published by I.B.Tauris, 2007, ISBN 1845111389, page 21 Determining Boundaries in a Conflicted World: The Role of Uti Possidetis, By Suzanne Lalonde, Published by McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, 2002, ISBN 077352424X, page 89-100 It eventually became the independent Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan (later Jordan) on 22 March 1946. Following the termination of the remainder of the Palestine mandate, most of the territory became part of the State of Israel, other parts, until 1967, forming the West Bank of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip and small slivers of territory east and south of the Sea of Galilee held by Syria. 'Syria' (France), 29 September 1923–1 January 1944, including 'Lebanon'; Hatay (a former Ottoman Alexandretta sandjak) broke away from it and became a French protectorate, until it was ceded to the new Republic of Turkey. Following the termination of the French mandate, two separate independent republics were formed, Syria and Lebanon Class B mandates The second group or Class B mandates were all former Schutzgebiete (German territories) in the Sub-Saharan regions of West and Central Africa, which were deemed to require a greater level of control by the mandatory power: "...the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion." The mandatory power was forbidden to construct military or naval bases within the mandates. The Class B mandates were : Ruanda-Urundi (Belgium), formerly two separate German protectorates, joined as a single mandate from 20 July 1922, but 1 March 1926–30 June 1960 in administrative union with the colony Belgian Congo. After 13 December 1946, this was a United Nations Trust Territory (till the separate independence of Rwanda and Burundi on 1 July 1962) Tanganyika (United Kingdom) from 20 July 1922, 11 December 1946 made a United Nations trust territory; from 1 May 1961 enjoyed self-rule, on 9 December 1961 independence (as dominion), on 9 December 1962 a Republic, in 1964 federated with Zanzibar, and soon renamed together Tanzania and two former German territories, each split in a British and a French League of Nations mandated territory, according to earlier military occupation zones: Kamerun was split on 20 July 1922 into British Cameroons (under a Resident) and French Cameroun (under a Commissioner until 27 August 1940, then under a Governor), on 13 December 1946 transformed into United Nations Trust Territories, again a British (successively under senior district officers officiating as Resident, a Special Resident and Commissioners) and a French Trust (under a Haut Commissaire) the former German colony of Togoland was split in British Togoland (under an Administrator, a post filled by the colonial Governor of the British Gold Coast (present Ghana) except 30 September 1920–11 October 1923 Francis Walter Fillon Jackson) and French Togoland (under a Commissioner) (United Kingdom and France), 20 July 1922 separate Mandates, transformed on 13 December 1946 into United Nations trust territories, French Togo Associated Territory (under a Commissioner till 30 August 1956, then under a High Commissioner as Autonomous Republic of Togo) and British Togoland (as before; on 13 December 1956 it ceased to exist as it became part of Ghana) Class C mandates A final group, the Class C mandates, including South-West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands, were considered to be "best administered under the laws of the mandatory as integral portions of its territory" The Class C mandates were former German possessions: former German New Guinea (Australia) from 17 December 1920 under a (at first Military) Administrator; after (wartime) Japanese/U.S. military commands from 8 December 1946 under UN mandate as North East New Guinea (under Australia, as administrative unit), until it became part of present Papua New Guinea at independence in 1975. Nauru, formerly part of German New Guinea (Australia in effective control, formally together with United Kingdom and New Zealand) from 17 December 1920, 1 November 1947 made into a United Nations trust territory (same three powers) till its 31 January 1968 independence as a Republic - all that time under an Administrator former German Samoa (New Zealand) 17 December 1920 a League of Nations mandate, renamed Western Samoa (as opposed to American Samoa), from 25 January 1947 a United Nations trust territory till its 1 January 1962 independence South Pacific Mandate (Japan) South-West Africa (South Africa); from 1 October 1922 Walvisbaai's administration (still merely having a Magistrate until its 16 March 1931 Municipal status, thence a Mayor) was also assigned to South West Africa Mandate Rules of Establishment According to the Council of the League of Nations, meeting of August 1920 (p109–110) : "draft mandates adopted by the Allied and Associated Powers would not be definitive until they had been considered and approved by the League ... the legal title held by the mandatory Power must be a double one: one conferred by the Principal Powers and the other conferred by the League of Nations," Quincy Wright, Mandates under the League of Nations, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1930. Three steps were required to establish a Mandate under international law: (1) The Principal Allied and Associated Powers confer a mandate on one of their number or on a third power; (2) the principal powers officially notify the council of the League of Nations that a certain power has been appointed mandatory for such a certain defined territory; and (3) the council of the League of Nations takes official cognisance of the appointment of the mandatory power and informs the latter that it [the council] considers it as invested with the mandate, and at the same time notifies it of the terms of the mandate, after assertaining whether they are in conformance with the provisions of the covenant." See also: Temperley, History of the Paris Peace Conference, Vol VI, p505–506; League of Nations, The Mandates System (official publication of 1945); Hill, Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship, p133ff. Later history After the United Nations was founded in 1945 and the League of Nations was disbanded, all but one of the mandated territories that remained under the control of the mandatory power became United Nations trust territories, a roughly equivalent status. In each case, the colonial power that held the mandate on each territory became the administering power of the trusteeship, except that Japan, which had been defeated in World War II, lost its mandate over the South Pacific islands, which became a "strategic trust territory" known as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under United States administration. The sole exception to the transformation of League of Nations mandates into UN trusteeships was that South Africa refused to place South-West Africa under trusteeship. Instead, South Africa proposed that it be allowed to annex South-West Africa, a proposal rejected by the UN General Assembly. The International Court of Justice held that South Africa continued to have international obligations under the mandate for South-West Africa. The territory finally attained independence in 1990 as Namibia, after a long guerrilla war of independence against the apartheid regime. Nearly all the former League of Nations mandates had become sovereign states by 1990, including those which had become UN Trust territories except some successor entities of the gradually dismembered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (formerly Japan's South Pacific Trust Mandate) - notably the Northern Mariana Islands becoming a United States Commonwealth (still administered by a Governor, without their own Head of State, which remains the US President) - while remnant Micronesia and the Marshall islands, the heirs of the last territories of the Trust, attained on 22 December 1990 final independence (the UN Security Council ratified termination of trusteeship, effectively dissolved on 10 July 1987), and the Republic of Palau (split-off from the Federated States of Micronesia) became the last to get its independence effectively on 1 October 1994). Sources and References Anghie, Antony "Colonialism and the Birth of International Institutions: Sovereignty, Economy, and the Mandate System of the League of Nations" 34(3) New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 513 (2002) WorldStatesmen - links to each present nation References	League_of_Nations_mandate \|@lemmatized mandate:70 middle:2 east:3 africa:13 pacific:7 league:39 nation:43 refers:1 legal:5 status:3 certain:4 territory:39 transfer:2 control:9 one:6 country:1 another:1 following:1 world:7 war:8 instrument:1 contain:6 term:7 administer:5 behalf:3 nature:1 treaty:20 convention:2 minority:1 right:5 clauses:1 provide:1 petition:1 adjudication:1 international:9 court:2 system:12 establish:4 article:8 covenant:5 enter:2 june:5 dissolution:1 ii:2 stipulate:3 yalta:1 conference:7 remain:4 place:4 trusteeship:6 united:21 subject:3 future:1 discussion:1 formal:4 agreement:1 exception:2 south:16 west:9 eventually:2 become:15 trust:15 generality:1 previously:2 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1,171	Heavy_metal_music	This article is about the music genre. For other uses, see Heavy metal and Metal (disambiguation). Heavy metal (often referred to simply as metal) is a genre of rock music Du Noyer (2003), p. 96; Weinstein (2000), pp. 11–13 that developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, largely in England and the United States. Weinstein (2000), p. 14 With roots in blues-rock and psychedelic rock, the bands that created heavy metal developed a thick, massive sound, characterized by highly amplified distortion, extended guitar solos, emphatic beats, and overall loudness. Heavy metal lyrics and performance styles are generally associated with masculinity and machismo. Fast (2005), pp. 89–91; Weinstein (2000), pp. 7, 8, 23, 36, 103, 104 Early heavy metal bands such as Led Zeppelin, Black Sabbath, and Deep Purple attracted large audiences, though they were often critically reviled, a status common throughout the history of the genre. In the mid-1970s, Judas Priest helped spur the genre's evolution by discarding much of its blues influence; Motörhead introduced a punk rock sensibility and an increasing emphasis on speed. Bands in the New Wave of British Heavy Metal such as Iron Maiden followed in a similar vein. Before the end of the decade, heavy metal had attracted a worldwide following of fans known as "metalheads" or "headbangers". In the 1980s, glam metal became a major commercial force with groups like Mötley Crüe. Underground scenes produced an array of more extreme, aggressive styles: thrash metal broke into the mainstream with bands such as Metallica, while other styles like death metal and black metal remain subcultural phenomena. Since the mid-1990s, popular styles such as nu metal, which often incorporates elements of funk and hip hop; and metalcore, which blends extreme metal with hardcore punk, have further expanded the definition of the genre. Characteristics Heavy metal is traditionally characterized by loud distorted guitars, emphatic rhythms, dense bass-and-drum sound, and vigorous vocals. Metal subgenres variously emphasize, alter, or omit one or more of these attributes. The New York Times critic Jon Pareles writes, "In the taxonomy of popular music, heavy metal is a major subspecies of hard-rock—the breed with less syncopation, less blues, more showmanship and more brute force." Pareles, Jon. "Heavy Metal, Weighty Words" The New York Times, July 10, 1988. Retrieved on November 14, 2007. The typical band lineup includes a drummer, a bassist, a rhythm guitarist, a lead guitarist, and a singer, who may or may not be an instrumentalist. Keyboard instruments are sometimes used to enhance the fullness of the sound; Weinstein (2000), p. 25 early heavy metal bands typically used a Hammond organ, while synthesizers are now more common. Judas Priest, performing in 2005 The electric guitar and the sonic power that it projects through amplification has historically been the key element in heavy metal. Weinstein (2000), p. 23 Guitars are often played with distortion pedals through heavily overdriven tube amplifiers to create a thick, powerful, "heavy" sound. In the early 1970s, some popular metal groups began cofeaturing two guitarists. Leading bands such as Judas Priest and Iron Maiden followed this pattern of having two or three guitarists share the roles of both lead and rhythm guitar. A central element of much heavy metal is the guitar solo, a form of cadenza. As the genre developed, more intricate solos and riffs became an integral part of the style. Guitarists use sweep-picking, tapping, and other advanced techniques for rapid playing, and many styles of metal emphasize virtuosic displays. The lead role of the guitar in heavy metal often collides with the traditional "frontman" or bandleader role of the vocalist, creating a musical tension as the two "contend for dominance" in a spirit of "affectionate rivalry". Heavy metal "demands the subordination of the voice" to the overall sound of the band. Reflecting metal's roots in the 1960s counterculture, an "explicit display of emotion" is required from the vocals as a sign of authenticity. Weinstein (2000), p. 26 Critic Simon Frith claims that the metal singer's "tone of voice" is more important than the lyrics. Cited in Weinstein (2000), p. 26 Metal vocals vary widely in style, from the multioctave, theatrical approach of Judas Priest's Rob Halford and Iron Maiden's Bruce Dickinson, to the gruff style of Motörhead's Lemmy and Metallica's James Hetfield, to the growling of death metal performers. The prominent role of the bass is also key to the metal sound, and the interplay of bass and guitar is a central element. The bass guitar provides the low-end sound crucial to making the music "heavy". Weinstein (2000), p. 24 Metal basslines vary widely in complexity, from holding down a low pedal point as a foundation to doubling complex riffs and licks along with the lead and/or rhythm guitars. Some bands feature the bass as a lead instrument, an approach popularized by Metallica's Cliff Burton in the early 1980s. "Cliff Burton's Legendary Career: The King of Metal Bass" Bass Player, February 2005. Retrieved on November 13, 2007. Metallica, performing in 2003 The essence of metal drumming is creating a loud, constant beat for the band using the "trifecta of speed, power, and precision". Dawson, Michael. "Chris Adler: More Than Meets The Eye" Modern Drummer Online. Retrieved on November 13, 2007. Metal drumming "requires an exceptional amount of endurance", and drummers have to develop "considerable speed, coordination, and dexterity...to play the intricate patterns" used in metal. Berry and Gianni (2003), p. 85 A characteristic metal drumming technique is the cymbal choke, which consists of striking a cymbal and then immediately silencing it by grabbing it with the other hand (or, in some cases, the same striking hand), producing a burst of sound. The metal drum setup is generally much larger than those employed in other forms of rock music. In live performance, loudness—an "onslaught of sound," in sociologist Deena Weinstein's description—is considered vital. In his book Metalheads, psychologist Jeffrey Arnett refers to heavy metal concerts as "the sensory equivalent of war." Arnett (1996), p. 14 Following the lead set by Jimi Hendrix, Cream and The Who, early heavy metal acts such as Blue Cheer set new benchmarks for volume. As Blue Cheer's Dick Peterson puts it, "All we knew was we wanted more power." Walser (1993), p. 9 A 1977 review of a Motörhead concert noted how "excessive volume in particular figured into the band’s impact." Paul Sutcliffe quoted in Waksman, Steve. "Metal, Punk, and Motörhead: Generic Crossover in the Heart of the Punk Explosion". Echo: A Music-Centered Journal 6.2 (Fall 2004). Retrieved on November 15, 2007 Weinstein makes the case that in the same way that melody is the main element of pop and rhythm is the main focus of house music, powerful sound, timbre, and volume are the key elements of metal. She argues that the loudness is designed to "sweep the listener into the sound" and to provide a "shot of youthful vitality." Heavy metal's fixation on loudness was mocked in the rockumentary spoof This Is Spinal Tap, in which a metal guitarist claims to have modified his amplifiers to "go to eleven." Musical language Rhythm and tempo The rhythm in metal songs is emphatic, with deliberate stresses. Weinstein observes that the wide array of sonic effects available to metal drummers enables the "rhythmic pattern to take on a complexity within its elemental drive and insistency." In many heavy metal songs, the main groove is characterized by short, two-note or three-note rhythmic figures—generally made up of 8th or 16th notes. These rhythmic figures are usually performed with a staccato attack created by using a palm-muted technique on the rhythm guitar. "Master of Rhythm: The Importance of Tone and Right-hand Technique," Guitar Legends, April 1997, p. 99 An example of a rhythmic pattern used in heavy metal. Brief, abrupt, and detached rhythmic cells are joined into rhythmic phrases with a distinctive, often jerky texture. These phrases are used to create rhythmic accompaniment and melodic figures called riffs, which help to establish thematic hooks. Heavy metal songs also use longer rhythmic figures such as whole note- or dotted quarter note-length chords in slow-tempo power ballads. The tempos in early heavy metal music tended to be "slow, even ponderous." By the late 1970s, however, metal bands were employing a wide variety of tempos. In the 2000s, metal tempos range from slow ballad tempos (quarter note = 60 beats per minute) to extremely fast blast beat tempos (quarter note = 350 beats per minute). Harmony The main riff from Megadeth's "Addicted to Chaos" is an example of a heavy metal riff incorporating several types of power chords One of the signatures of the genre is the guitar power chord. Walser (1993), p. 2 In technical terms, the power chord is relatively simple: it involves just one main interval, generally the perfect fifth, though an octave may be added as a doubling of the root. Although the perfect fifth interval is the most common basis for the power chord, See, e.g., Glossary of Guitar Terms. Mel Bay Publications. Retrieved on November 15, 2007 power chords are also based on different intervals such as the minor third, major third, perfect fourth, diminished fifth, or minor sixth. "Shaping Up and Riffing Out: Using Major and Minor Power Chords to Add Colour to Your Parts," Guitar Legends, April 1997, p. 97 Since the power chord is based on a single interval, it enables guitarists to use a high level of distortion without unintended inharmonicity or intermodulation distortion. If a triad—a chord with a root, third, and fifth—is played on a heavily distorted guitar, intermodulation distortion may produce frequency components at the various sums and differences of the frequency components of the input signal which will be not be harmonically related to the input signal, leading to disarmonious sounds. A Musical Distortion Primer: "REALLLY clipping the sine wave gives a sound that's a high gain, hard edged metal kind of sound.... You eventually get to a true square wave. Some early fuzzboxes actually did this.... This can sound OK, even useful, unless you hit two notes at once, then makes an unpleasant harsh distortion from the two (intermodulation distortion)." Most power chords are also played with a consistent finger arrangement that can be slid easily up and down the fretboard. Schonbrun (2006), p. 22 Typical harmonic structures Heavy metal is usually based on riffs created with three main harmonic traits: modal scale progressions, tritone and chromatic progressions, and the use of pedal points. Modal harmony Example of a typical heavy metal Aeolian harmonic progression in I-VI-VII (Am-F-G): the main riff of Judas Priest's "Breaking the Law" Traditional heavy metal tends to employ modal scales, in particular the Aeolian and Phrygian modes. Walser (1993), p. 46 Harmonically speaking, this means the genre typically incorporates modal chord progressions such as the Aeolian progressions I-VI-VII, I-VII-(VI), or I-VI-IV-VII and Phrygian progressions implying the relation between I and ♭II (I-♭II-I, I-♭II-III, or I-♭II-VII for example). Aeolian harmony is used in songs such as Judas Priest's "Breaking the Law", Iron Maiden's "Hallowed Be Thy Name", and Accept's "Princess of the Dawn", each employing a I-VI-VII progression as its main riff. Phrygian harmony is used in songs such as Mercyful Fate's "Gypsy" (main riff I-♭II-I-VI-V), Megadeth's "Symphony of Destruction" (main riff built on the ♭II-I relation), and Sodom's "Remember the Fallen" (Introduction + main riff—the riff closing implies a Phrygian cadence: I-♭II-III). Tritone and chromatism Example of a harmonic progression with the tritone G-C#: the main riff of "Black Sabbath" Tense-sounding chromatic or tritone relationships are used in a number of metal chord progressions. Marshall, Wolf. "Power Lord—Climbing Chords, Evil Tritones, Giant Callouses," Guitar Legends, April 1997, p. 29 Dunn, Sam (2005). "Metal: A Headbanger's Journey". Warner Home Video (2006). Retrieved on March 19, 2007 The tritone, an interval spanning three whole tones—such as C and F#—was a forbidden dissonance in medieval ecclesiastical singing, which led monks to call it diabolus in musica—"the devil in music." The first explicit prohibition of that interval seems to occur with the "development of Guido of Arezzo's hexachordal system which made B flat a diatonic note, namely as the 4th degree of the hexachordal on F. From then until the end of Renaissance the tritone, nicknamed the 'diabolus in musica', was regarded as an unstable interval and rejected as a consonance" (Sadie, Stanley [1980]. "Tritone", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1st ed. MacMillan, pp. 154–5. ISBN 0-333-23111-2. See also Arnold, Denis [1983]. "Tritone", in The New Oxford Companion to Music, Volume 1: A-J. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311316-3). During the Baroque and Classical eras, the interval came to be accepted, though in a specific, controlled way. It is only during the Romantic era and in modern classical music that composers have used it freely, exploiting the evil connotations with which it is culturally associated. Because of that original symbolic association, it came to be heard in Western cultural convention as "evil". Heavy metal has made extensive use of the tritone in guitar solos and riffs, such as in the beginning of "Black Sabbath". Pedal point Heavy metal songs often make extensive use of pedal point as a harmonic basis. A pedal point is a sustained tone, typically in the bass range, during which at least one foreign (i.e., dissonant) harmony is sounded in the other parts. Kennedy (1985), "Pedal Point," p. 540 Heavy metal riffs are frequently constructed over a persistent repeating note played on the low strings of the bass or rhythmic guitar, most usually on the E, A, and D strings. In black metal, however, pedal point is seldom a component of the guitar riff itself, but is rather played in the background by the bass. In other words, a single bass note—most frequently low E or A—is persistently repeated while some different chords are successively played, including chords that do not normally incorporate that bass note, which creates a sense of tension. An example is the opening riff of Judas Priest's "You've Got Another Thing Comin'". In this case, one guitar plays the pedal point in F#, while the second guitar plays the chords. Relationship with classical music Yngwie Malmsteen in concert Robert Walser argues that, alongside blues and R&B, the "assemblage of disparate musical styles known...as 'classical music'" has been a major influence on heavy metal since the genre's earliest days. He claims that metal's "most influential musicians have been guitar players who have also studied classical music. Their appropriation and adaptation of classical models sparked the development of a new kind of guitar virtuosity [and] changes in the harmonic and melodic language of heavy metal." Walser (1993), p. 58 Although a number of metal musicians cite classical composers as inspiration, heavy metal cannot be regarded as the modern descendant of classical music. Historical classical music's true descendant is contemporary classical music. Classical and metal are rooted in different cultural traditions and practices—classical in the art music tradition, metal in the popular music tradition. As musicologists Nicolas Cook and Nicola Dibben note, "Analyses of popular music also sometimes reveal the influence of 'art traditions.' An example is Walser’s linkage of heavy metal music with the ideologies and even some of the performance practices of nineteenth-century Romanticism. However, it would be clearly wrong to claim that traditions such as blues, rock, heavy metal, rap or dance music derive primarily from 'art music.'" See Cook and Dibben (2001), p. 56 Lyrical themes Black Sabbath and the many metal bands they inspired have concentrated lyrically "on dark and depressing subject matter to an extent hitherto unprecedented in any form of pop music," according to scholars David Hatch and Stephen Millward. They take as an example Sabbath's 1970 album Paranoid, which "included songs dealing with personal trauma—'Paranoid' and 'Fairies Wear Boots' (which described the unsavoury side effects of drug-taking)—as well as those confronting wider issues, such as the self-explanatory 'War Pigs' and 'Hand of Doom.'" Hatch and Millward (1989), p. 167 Nuclear annihilation was addressed in later metal songs such as Iron Maiden's "2 Minutes to Midnight" and Ozzy Osbourne's "Killer of Giants". Death is a predominant theme in heavy metal, routinely featuring in the lyrics of bands as otherwise widely different as Slayer and W.A.S.P. The more extreme forms of death metal and grindcore tend to have aggressive and gory lyrics. Deriving from the genre's roots in blues music, sex is another important topic—a thread running from Led Zeppelin's suggestive lyrics to the more explicit references of glam and nu metal bands. Weinstein (1991), p. 36 Romantic tragedy is a standard theme of gothic and doom metal, as well as of nu metal, where teenage angst is another central topic. Heavy metal songs often feature outlandish, fantasy-inspired lyrics, lending them an escapist quality. Iron Maiden's songs, for instance, were frequently inspired by mythology, fiction, and poetry, such as "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," based on the Samuel Taylor Coleridge poem. Other examples include Black Sabbath's "The Wizard," Megadeth's "The Conjuring" and "Five Magics," and Judas Priest's "Dreamer Deceiver". Since the 1980s, with the rise of thrash metal and songs such as Metallica's "...And Justice for All" and Megadeth's "Peace Sells", more metal lyrics have included sociopolitical commentary. Genres such as melodic death metal, progressive metal, and black metal often explore philosophical themes. The thematic content of heavy metal has long been a target of criticism. According to Jon Pareles, "Heavy metal's main subject matter is simple and virtually universal. With grunts, moans and subliterary lyrics, it celebrates...a party without limits.... [T]he bulk of the music is stylized and formulaic." Music critics have often deemed metal lyrics juvenile and banal, and others have objected to what they see as advocacy of misogyny and the occult. During the 1980s, the Parents Music Resource Center petitioned the U.S. Congress to regulate the popular music industry due to what the group asserted were objectionable lyrics, particularly those in heavy metal songs. In 1990, Judas Priest was sued in American court by the parents of two young men who had shot themselves five years earlier, allegedly after hearing the subliminal statement "do it" in a Priest song. While the case attracted a great deal of media attention, it was ultimately dismissed. See, e.g., Ewing and McCann (2006), pp. 104–113 In some predominantly Muslim countries, heavy metal has been officially denounced as a threat to traditional values. In countries including Morocco, Egypt, Lebanon, and Malaysia, there have been incidents of heavy metal musicians and fans being arrested and incarcerated. Image and fashion Kiss performing in 2004, wearing their famous makeup As with much popular music, visual imagery plays a large role in heavy metal. In addition to its sound and lyrics, a heavy metal band's "image" is expressed in album sleeve art, logos, stage sets, clothing, and music videos. Weinstein (2000), p. 27 Some heavy metal acts such as Alice Cooper, Kiss, and Gwar have become known as much for their outrageous performance personas and stage shows as for their music. Down-the-back long hair, according to Weinstein, is the "most crucial distinguishing feature of metal fashion." Weinstein (2000), p. 129 Originally adopted from the hippie subculture, by the 1980s and 1990s heavy metal hair "symbolised the hate, angst and disenchantment of a generation that seemingly never felt at home," according to journalist Nader Rahman. Long hair gave members of the metal community "the power they needed to rebel against nothing in general." Rahman, Nader. "Hair Today Gone Tomorrow". Star Weekend Magazine, July 28, 2006. Retrieved on November 20, 2007. The classic uniform of heavy metal fans consists of "blue jeans, black T-shirts, boots and black leather or jeans jackets.... T-shirts are generally emblazoned with the logos or other visual representations of favorite metal bands." Weinstein (2000), p. 127 Metal fans also "appropriated elements from the S&M community (chains, metal studs, skulls, leather and crosses)." In the 1980s, a range of sources, from punk and goth music to horror films, influenced metal fashion. Pospiszyl, Tomáš. "Heavy Metal". Umelec, January 2001. Retrieved on November 20, 2007. Many metal performers of the 1970s and 1980s used radically shaped and brightly colored instruments to enhance their stage appearance. Fashion and personal style was especially important for glam metal bands of the era. Performers typically wore long, dyed, hairspray-teased hair (hence the nickname, "hair metal"); makeup such as lipstick and eyeliner; gaudy clothing, including leopard-skin-printed shirts or vests and tight denim, leather, or spandex pants; and accessories such as headbands and jewelry. Thompson (2007), p. 135; Blush, Steven. "American Hair Metal—Excerpts: Selected Images and Quotes". FeralHouse.com. Retrieved on November 25, 2007. Pioneered by the heavy metal act X Japan in the late 1980s, bands in the Japanese movement known as visual kei—which includes many nonmetal groups—emphasize elaborate costumes, hair, and makeup. Physical gestures Fans raise their fists and make the "devil horns" gesture at a concert by Estonian heavy metal group Metsatöll in 2006 Many metal musicians when performing live engage in headbanging, which involves rhythmically beating time with the head, often emphasized by long hair. The corna, or devil horns, hand gesture, also widespread, was popularized by vocalist Ronnie James Dio while with Black Sabbath and Dio. Gene Simmons of Kiss claims to have been the first to make the gesture in concert. Appleford, Steve. "Odyssey of the Devil Horns". MK Magazine, September 9, 2004. Retrieved on March 31, 2007. Attendees of metal concerts do not dance in the usual sense; Deena Weinstein has argued that this is due to the music's largely male audience and "extreme heterosexualist ideology." She identifies two primary body movements that substitute for dancing: headbanging and an arm thrust that is both a sign of appreciation and a rhythmic gesture. Weinstein, p. 130 The performance of air guitar is popular among metal fans both at concerts and listening to records at home. Weinstein, p. 95 Other concert audience activities include stage diving, crowd surfing, pushing and shoving in a chaotic mêlée called moshing, and displaying the corna hand symbol. Fan subculture Deena Weinstein argues that heavy metal has outlasted many other rock genres largely due to the emergence of an intense, exclusionary, strongly masculine subculture. Weinstein, pp. 103, 7, 8, 104 While the metal fanbase is largely young, white, male, and blue-collar, the group is "tolerant of those outside its core demographic base who follow its codes of dress, appearance, and behavior." Weinstein, pp. 102, 112 Identification with the subculture is strengthened not only by the shared experience of concert-going and shared elements of fashion, but also by contributing to metal magazines and, more recently, websites. Weinstein, pp. 181, 207, 294 The metal scene has been characterized as a "subculture of alienation", with its own code of authenticity. "Three profiles of heavy metal fans: A taste for sensation and a subculture of alienation." In Journal Qualitative Sociology. Publisher Springer Netherlands. ISSN 0162-0436 (Print) 1573-7837 (Online). Volume 16, Number 4 / December 1993. Pages 423-443 This code puts several demands on performers: they must appear both completely devoted to their music and loyal to the subculture that supports it; they must appear disinterested in mainstream appeal and radio hits; and they must never "sell out". Weinstein, pp. 46, 60, 154, 273 For the fans themselves, the code promotes "opposition to established authority, and separateness from the rest of society." Weinstein, pp. 166 Scholars of metal have noted the tendency of fans to classify and reject some performers (and some other fans) as "poseurs" "who pretended to be part of the subculture, but who were deemed to lack authenticity and sincerity." Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (1996). Metalheads: Heavy Metal Music and Adolescent Alienation Etymology The origin of the term heavy metal in a musical context is uncertain. The phrase has been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy. An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by countercultural writer William S. Burroughs. His 1962 novel The Soft Machine includes a character known as "Uranian Willy, the Heavy Metal Kid." Burroughs's next novel, Nova Express (1964), develops the theme, using heavy metal as a metaphor for addictive drugs: "With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms—Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes—And The Insect People of Minraud with metal music." Burroughs, William S. "Nova Express". New York: Grove Press, 1964. Pg. 112 Metal historian Ian Christe describes what the components of the term mean in "hippiespeak": "heavy" is roughly synonymous with "potent" or "profound," and "metal" designates a certain type of mood, grinding and weighted as with metal. Christe (2003), p. 10 The word "heavy" in this sense was a basic element of beatnik and later countercultural slang, and references to "heavy music"—typically slower, more amplified variations of standard pop fare—were already common by the mid-1960s. Iron Butterfly's debut album, released in early 1968, was titled Heavy. The first recorded use of heavy metal is a reference to a motorcycle in the Steppenwolf song "Born to Be Wild," also released that year: Walser (1993), p. 8 "I like smoke and lightning/Heavy metal thunder/Racin' with the wind/And the feelin' that I'm under." A late, and disputed, claim about the source of the term was made by "Chas" Chandler, former manager of the Jimi Hendrix Experience. In a 1995 interview on the PBS program Rock and Roll, he asserted that heavy metal "was a term originated in a New York Times article reviewing a Jimi Hendrix performance," in which the author likened the event to "listening to heavy metal falling from the sky." A source for Chandler's claim has never been found. The first documented uses of the phrase to describe a type of rock music are from reviews by critic Mike Saunders. In the November 12, 1970, issue of Rolling Stone, he commented on an album put out the previous year by the British band Humble Pie: "Safe As Yesterday Is, their first American release, proved that Humble Pie could be boring in lots of different ways. Here they were a noisy, unmelodic, heavy metal-leaden shit-rock band with the loud and noisy parts beyond doubt. There were a couple of nice songs...and one monumental pile of refuse." He described the band's latest, self-titled release as "more of the same 27th-rate heavy metal crap." In a review of Sir Lord Baltimore's Kingdom Come in the May 1971 Creem, Saunders wrote, "Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book." Creem critic Lester Bangs is credited with popularizing the term via his early 1970s essays on bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath. Weinstein (1991), p. 19 Through the decade, heavy metal was used by certain critics as a virtually automatic putdown. In 1979, lead New York Times popular music critic John Rockwell described what he called "heavy-metal rock" as "brutally aggressive music played mostly for minds clouded by drugs," Rockwell, John. New York Times, February 4, 1979, p. D22 and, in a different article, as "a crude exaggeration of rock basics that appeals to white teenagers." Rockwell, John. New York Times, August 13, 1979, p. C16 The terms "heavy metal" and "hard rock" have often been used interchangeably, particularly in discussing bands of the 1970s, a period when the terms were largely synonymous. Du Noyer (2003), pp. 96, 78 For example, the 1983 Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll includes this passage: "known for its aggressive blues-based hard-rock style, Aerosmith was the top American heavy-metal band of the mid-Seventies." Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 4 Few would now characterize Aerosmith's classic sound, with its clear links to traditional rock and roll, as "heavy metal." History Antecedents: mid-1960s While heavy metal's quintessential guitar style, built around distortion-heavy riffs and power chords, traces its roots to the late 1950s instrumentals of American Link Wray, Strong (2004), p. 1693; Buckley (2003), p. 1187 the genre's direct lineage begins in the mid-1960s. American blues music was a major influence on the early British rockers of the era. Bands like The Rolling Stones and The Yardbirds developed blues-rock by recording covers of many classic blues songs, often speeding up the tempos. As they experimented with the music, the UK blues-based bands—and the U.S. acts they influenced in turn—developed what would become the hallmarks of heavy metal, in particular, the loud, distorted guitar sound. The Kinks played a major role in popularizing this sound with their 1964 hit "You Really Got Me." Weinstein (1991), p. 18; Walser (1993), p. 9 A significant contributor to the emerging guitar sound was the feedback facilitated by the new generation of amplifiers. In addition to The Kinks' Dave Davies, other guitarists such as The Who's Pete Townshend and the Tridents' Jeff Beck were experimenting with feedback. Wilkerson (2006), p. 19. Where the blues-rock drumming style started out largely as simple shuffle beats on small kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex, and amplified approach to match and be heard against the increasingly loud guitar. Walser (1993), p. 10 Vocalists similarly modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylized and dramatic. In terms of sheer volume, especially in live performance, The Who's "bigger-louder-wall-of-Marshalls" approach was seminal. McMichael (2004), p. 112 Simultaneous advances in amplification and recording technology made it possible to successfully capture the power of this heavier approach on record. The combination of blues-rock with psychedelic rock formed much of the original basis for heavy metal. Weinstein (1991), p. 16 One of the most influential bands in forging the merger of genres was the power trio Cream, who derived a massive, heavy sound from unison riffing between guitarist Eric Clapton and bassist Jack Bruce, as well as Ginger Baker's double bass drumming. Charlton (2003), pp. 232–33 Their first two LPs, Fresh Cream (1966) and Disraeli Gears (1967), are regarded as essential prototypes for the future style. The Jimi Hendrix Experience's debut album, Are You Experienced (1967), was also highly influential. Hendrix's virtuosic technique would be emulated by many metal guitarists and the album's most successful single, "Purple Haze," is identified by some as the first heavy metal hit. Origins: late 1960s and early 1970s In 1968, the sound that would become known as heavy metal began to coalesce. That January, the San Francisco band Blue Cheer released a cover of Eddie Cochran's classic "Summertime Blues," from their debut album Vincebus Eruptum, that many consider the first true heavy metal recording. McCleary (2004), pp. 240, 506. The same month, Steppenwolf released its self-titled debut album, including "Born to Be Wild," with its "heavy metal" lyric. In July, another two epochal records came out: The Yardbirds' "Think About It"—B-side of the band's last single—with a performance by guitarist Jimmy Page anticipating the metal sound he would soon make famous; and Iron Butterfly's In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida, with its 17-minute-long title track, a prime candidate for first-ever heavy metal album. In August, The Beatles' single version of "Revolution," with its redlined guitar and drum sound, set new standards for distortion in a top-selling context. The Jeff Beck Group, whose leader had preceded Page as The Yardbirds' guitarist, released its debut record that same month: Truth featured some of the "most molten, barbed, downright funny noises of all time," breaking ground for generations of metal ax-slingers. Gene Santoro, quoted in Carson (2001), p. 86. In October, Page's new band, Led Zeppelin, made its live debut. In November, Love Sculpture, with guitarist Dave Edmunds, put out Blues Helping, featuring a pounding, aggressive version of Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance." The Beatles' so-called White Album, which also came out that month, included "Helter Skelter," then one of the heaviest-sounding songs ever released by a major band. Blake (1997), p. 143 The Pretty Things' rock opera S.F. Sorrow, released in December, featured "proto heavy metal" songs such as "Old Man Going." Led Zeppelin performing in June 1969 for the French TV show Tous en scène In January 1969, Led Zeppelin's self-titled debut album was released and reached number 10 on the Billboard album chart. In July, Zeppelin and a power trio with a Cream-inspired, but cruder sound, Grand Funk Railroad, played the Atlanta Pop Festival. That same month, another Cream-rooted trio led by Leslie West released Mountain, an album filled with heavy blues-rock guitar and roaring vocals. In August, the group—now itself dubbed Mountain—played an hour-long set at the Woodstock Festival. Though often identified now as "hard rock," the band's official debut album, Mountain Climbing (1970), placed 85th on the list of "Top 100 Metal Albums" compiled by Hit Parader in 1989. Grand Funk Railroad's Survival (1971) placed 72nd (Walser [1993], p. 174). Grand Funk's debut album, On Time, also came out that month. In the fall, Led Zeppelin II went to number 1 and the album's single "Whole Lotta Love" hit number 4 on the Billboard pop chart. The metal revolution was under way. Led Zeppelin defined central aspects of the emerging genre, with Page's highly distorted guitar style and singer Robert Plant's dramatic, wailing vocals. Charlton (2003), p. 239 Other bands, with a more consistently heavy, "purely" metal sound, would prove equally important in codifying the genre. The 1970 releases by Black Sabbath (Black Sabbath and Paranoid) and Deep Purple (In Rock) were crucial in this regard. Black Sabbath had developed a particularly heavy sound in part due to an industrial accident guitarist Tony Iommi suffered before cofounding the band. Unable to play normally, Iommi had to tune his guitar down for easier fretting and rely on power chords with their relatively simple fingering. di Perna, Alan. "The History of Hard Rock: The 70's." Guitar World. March 2001. Deep Purple had fluctuated between styles in its early years, but by 1969 vocalist Ian Gillan and guitarist Ritchie Blackmore had led the band toward the developing heavy metal style. Charlton (2003), p. 241 In 1970, Black Sabbath and Deep Purple scored major UK chart hits with "Paranoid" and "Black Night," respectively. That same year, three other British bands released debut albums in a heavy metal mode: Uriah Heep with Very 'eavy... Very 'umble, UFO with UFO 1, and Black Widow with Sacrifice. Wishbone Ash, though not commonly identified as metal, introduced a dual-lead/rhythm-guitar style that many metal bands of the following generation would adopt. Budgie brought the new metal sound into a power trio context. The occult lyrics and imagery employed by Black Sabbath, Uriah Heep, and Black Widow would prove particularly influential; Led Zeppelin also began foregrounding such elements with its fourth album, released in 1971. Tony Iommi and Ozzy Osbourne of Black Sabbath onstage in January 1973 On the other side of the Atlantic, the trend-setting group was Grand Funk Railroad, "the most commercially successful American heavy-metal band from 1970 until they disbanded in 1976, [they] established the Seventies success formula: continuous touring." Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 225 Other bands identified with metal emerged in the U.S., such as Dust (first LP in 1971), Blue Öyster Cult (1972), and Kiss (1974). In Germany, the Scorpions debuted with Lonesome Crow in 1972. Blackmore, who had emerged as a virtuoso soloist with Deep Purple's Machine Head (1972), quit the group in 1975 to form Rainbow. These bands also built audiences via constant touring and increasingly elaborate stage shows. As described above, there are arguments about whether these and other early bands truly qualify as "heavy metal" or simply as "hard rock." Those closer to the music's blues roots or placing greater emphasis on melody are now commonly ascribed the latter label. AC/DC, which debuted with High Voltage in 1975, is a prime example. The 1983 Rolling Stone encyclopedia entry begins, "Australian heavy-metal band AC/DC..." Pareles and Romanowski (1983), p. 1 Rock historian Clinton Walker writes, "Calling AC/DC a heavy metal band in the seventies was as inaccurate as it is today.... [They] were a rock'n'roll band that just happened to be heavy enough for metal." Walker (2001), p. 297 The issue is not only one of shifting definitions, but also a persistent distinction between musical style and audience identification: Ian Christe describes how the band "became the stepping-stone that led huge numbers of hard rock fans into heavy metal perdition." Christe (2003), p. 54 In certain cases, there is little debate. After Black Sabbath, the next major example is Britain's Judas Priest, which debuted with Rocka Rolla in 1974. In Christe's description, Black Sabbath's audience was...left to scavenge for sounds with similar impact. By the mid-1970s, heavy metal aesthetic could be spotted, like a mythical beast, in the moody bass and complex dual guitars of Thin Lizzy, in the stagecraft of Alice Cooper, in the sizzling guitar and showy vocals of Queen, and in the thundering medieval questions of Rainbow.... Judas Priest arrived to unify and amplify these diverse highlights from hard rock's sonic palette. For the first time, heavy metal became a true genre unto itself. Christe (2003), pp. 19–20 Though Judas Priest did not have a top 40 album in the U.S. until 1980, for many it was the definitive post-Sabbath heavy metal band; its twin-guitar attack, featuring rapid tempos and a nonbluesy, more cleanly metallic sound, was a major influence on later acts. Walser (1993), p. 6 While heavy metal was growing in popularity, most critics were not enamored of the music. Objections were raised to metal's adoption of visual spectacle and other trappings of commercial artifice, Walser (1993), p. 11 but the main offense was its perceived musical and lyrical vacuity: reviewing a Black Sabbath album in the early 1970s, leading critic Robert Christgau described it as "dull and decadent...dim-witted, amoral exploitation." Christgau (1981), p. 49 Mainstream: late 1970s and 1980s Iron Maiden, one of the central bands in the New Wave of British Heavy Metal Punk rock emerged in the mid-1970s as a reaction against contemporary social conditions as well as what was perceived as the overindulgent, overproduced rock music of the time, including heavy metal. Sales of heavy metal records declined sharply in the late 1970s in the face of punk, disco, and more mainstream rock. With the major labels fixated on punk, many newer British heavy metal bands were inspired by the movement's aggressive, high-energy sound and "lo-fi", do it yourself ethos. Underground metal bands began putting out cheaply recorded releases independently to small, devoted audiences. Christe (2003), pp. 30, 33 Motörhead, founded in 1975, was the first important band to straddle the punk/metal divide. With the explosion of punk in 1977, others followed. British music papers such as the NME and Sounds took notice, with Sounds writer Geoff Barton christening the movement the "New Wave of British Heavy Metal." Christe (2003), p. 33 NWOBHM bands including Iron Maiden, Saxon, and Def Leppard reenergized the heavy metal genre. Following the lead set by Judas Priest and Motörhead, they toughened up the sound, reduced its blues elements, and emphasized increasingly fast tempos. In 1980, NWOBHM broke into the mainstream, as albums by Iron Maiden and Saxon, as well as Motörhead, reached the British top 10. Though less commercially successful, other NWOBHM bands such as Venom and Diamond Head would have a significant influence on metal's development. Weinstein (1991), p. 44 In 1981, Motörhead became the first of this new breed of metal bands to top the UK charts with No Sleep 'til Hammersmith. The first generation of metal bands was ceding the limelight. Deep Purple had broken up soon after Blackmore's departure in 1975, and Led Zeppelin broke up following drummer John Bonham's death in 1980. Black Sabbath was routinely upstaged in concert by its opening act, the Los Angeles band Van Halen. Christe (2003), p. 25 Eddie Van Halen established himself as one of the leading metal guitar virtuosos of the era—his solo on "Eruption," from the band's self-titled 1978 album, is considered a milestone. Christe (2003), p. 51 Randy Rhoads and Yngwie Malmsteen also became famed virtuosos, associated with what would be known as the neoclassical metal style. The adoption of classical elements had been spearheaded by Blackmore and the Scorpions' Uli Jon Roth; this next generation progressed to occasionally using classical nylon-stringed guitars, as Rhoads does on "Dee" from former Sabbath lead singer Ozzy Osbourne's first solo album, Blizzard of Ozz (1980). Inspired by Van Halen's success, a metal scene began to develop in Southern California during the late 1970s. Based around the clubs of L.A.'s Sunset Strip, bands such as Quiet Riot, Ratt, Mötley Crüe, and W.A.S.P. were influenced by traditional heavy metal of the earlier 1970s Rivadavia, Eduardo. "Quiet Riot". Allmusic. Retrieved on March 25, 2007; Neely, Kim "Ratt". Rolling Stone. Retrieved on April 3, 2007; Barry Weber & Greg Prato. "Mötley Crüe". Allmusic. Retrieved on April 3, 2007; Dolas, Yiannis. "Blackie Lawless Interview" Rockpages. Retrieved on April 3, 2007 and incorporated the theatrics (and sometimes makeup) of glam rock acts such as Alice Cooper and Kiss. Christe (2003), pp. 55–57 The lyrics of these glam metal bands characteristically emphasized hedonism and wild behavior. Musically, the style was distinguished by rapid-fire shred guitar solos, anthemic choruses, and a relatively pop-oriented melodic approach. The glam metal movement—along with similarly styled acts such as New York's Twisted Sister—became a major force in metal and the wider spectrum of rock music. In the wake of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal and Judas Priest's breakthrough British Steel (1980), heavy metal became increasingly popular in the early 1980s. Many metal artists benefited from the exposure they received on MTV, which began airing in 1981—sales often soared if a band's videos screened on the channel. Christe (2003), p. 79 Def Leppard's videos for Pyromania (1983) made them superstars in America and Quiet Riot became the first domestic heavy metal band to top the Billboard chart with Metal Health (1983). One of the seminal events in metal's growing popularity was the 1983 US Festival in California, where the "heavy metal day" featuring Ozzy Osbourne, Van Halen, Scorpions, Mötley Crüe, Judas Priest, and others drew the largest audiences of the three-day event. Weinstein (1991), p. 45 Between 1983 and 1984, heavy metal went from an 8 percent to a 20 percent share of all recordings sold in the U.S. Walser (1993), p. 12 Several major professional magazines devoted to the genre were launched, including Kerrang! (in 1981) and Metal Hammer (in 1984), as well as a host of fan journals. In 1985, Billboard declared, "Metal has broadened its audience base. Metal music is no longer the exclusive domain of male teenagers. The metal audience has become older (college-aged), younger (pre-teen), and more female." Walser (1993), pp. 12–13, 182 n. 35 By the mid-1980s, glam metal was a dominant presence on the U.S. charts, music television, and the arena concert circuit. New bands such as L.A.'s Warrant and acts from the East Coast like Poison and Cinderella became major draws, while Mötley Crüe and Ratt remained very popular. Bridging the stylistic gap between hard rock and glam metal, New Jersey's Bon Jovi became enormously successful with its third album, Slippery When Wet (1986). The similarly styled Swedish band Europe became international stars with the The Final Countdown (1986). Its title track hit number 1 in 25 countries. In 1987, MTV launched a show, Headbanger's Ball, devoted exclusively to heavy metal videos. However, the metal audience had begun to factionalize, with those in many underground metal scenes favoring more extreme sounds and disparaging the popular style as "lite metal" or "hair metal." Walser (1993), p. 14; Christe (2003), p. 170 One band that reached diverse audiences was Guns N' Roses. In contrast to their glam metal contemporaries in L.A., they were seen as much rawer and more dangerous. With the release of their chart-topping Appetite for Destruction (1987), they "recharged and almost single-handedly sustained the Sunset Strip sleaze system for several years." Christe (2003), p. 165 The following year, Jane's Addiction emerged from the same L.A. hard-rock club scene with its major label debut, Nothing's Shocking. Reviewing the album, Rolling Stone declared, "as much as any band in existence, Jane's Addiction is the true heir to Led Zeppelin." The group was one of the first to be identified with the "alternative metal" trend that would come to the fore in the next decade. Meanwhile, new bands such as New York's Winger and New Jersey's Skid Row sustained the popularity of the glam metal style. Covach, John. "Heavy Metal, Rap, and the Rise of Alternative Rock (1982–1992)" What's That Sound? An Introduction to Rock and its History (W. W. Norton). Retrieved on November 16, 2007. Underground metal: 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s Many subgenres of heavy metal developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s. Weinstein (1991), p. 21 Several attempts have been made to map the complex world of underground metal, most notably by the editors of Allmusic, as well as critic Garry Sharpe-Young. Sharpe-Young's multivolume metal encyclopedia separates the underground into five major categories: thrash metal, death metal, black metal, power metal, and the related subgenres of doom and gothic metal. Thrash metal Thrash metal band Slayer performing in 2007 Thrash metal emerged in the early 1980s under the influence of hardcore punk and the New Wave of British Heavy Metal, "Genre—Thrash Metal". Allmusic. Retrieved on March 3, 2007. particularly songs in the revved-up style known as speed metal. The movement began in the United States, with the leading scene in the San Francisco Bay Area. The sound developed by thrash groups was faster and more aggressive than that of the original metal bands and their glam metal successors. Low-register guitar riffs are typically overlaid with shredding leads. Lyrics often express nihilistic views or deal with social issues using visceral, gory language. Thrash has been described as a form of "urban blight music" and "a palefaced cousin of rap." Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 26 The subgenre was popularized by the "Big Four of Thrash": Metallica, Anthrax, Megadeth, and Slayer. Walser (1993), p.14 Three German bands, Kreator, Sodom, and Destruction, played a central role in bringing the style to Europe. Others, including San Francisco's Testament and Exodus, New Jersey's Overkill, and Brazil's Sepultura, also had a significant impact. While thrash began as an underground scene, and remained largely that for almost a decade, the leading bands in the movement began to reach a wider audience. Metallica brought the sound into the top 40 of the Billboard album chart in 1986 with Master of Puppets; two years later, the band's ...And Justice for All hit number 6, while Megadeth and Anthrax had top 40 records. "Metallica—Artist Chart History"; "Megadeth—Artist Chart History"; "Anthrax—Artist Chart History". Billboard.com. Retrieved on April 7, 2007. Though less commercially successful than the rest of the Big Four, Slayer released one of the genre's definitive records: Reign in Blood (1986) was described by Kerrang! as the "heaviest album of all time." Two decades later, Metal Hammer named it the best album of the preceding twenty years. Slayer attracted a following among far-right skinheads, and accusations of promoting violence and Nazi themes have dogged the band. Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 30; O'Neil (2001), p. 164 In the early 1990s, thrash achieved breakout success, challenging and redefining the metal mainstream. Walser (1993), p. 15 Metallica's self-titled 1991 album topped the Billboard chart, Megadeth's Countdown to Extinction (1992) hit number 2, Anthrax and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100. Death metal Death's Chuck Schuldiner, "widely recognized as the father of death metal" Rivadavia, Eduardo. "Death—Biography". Allmusic. Retrieved on November 23, 2007. Thrash soon began to evolve and split into more extreme metal genres. "Slayer's music was directly responsible for the rise of death metal," according to MTV News. The Greatest Metal Bands of All Time—Slayer. MTVNews.com. Retrieved on February 27, 2008. The NWOBHM band Venom was also an important progenitor. The death metal movement in both North America and Europe adopted and emphasized the elements of blasphemy and diabolism employed by such acts. Florida's Death and the Bay Area's Possessed are recognized as seminal bands in the style. Both groups have been credited with inspiring the subgenre's name, the latter via its 1984 demo Death Metal and the song "Death Metal," from its 1985 debut album Seven Churches (1985). Death metal utilizes the speed and aggression of both thrash and hardcore, fused with lyrics preoccupied with Z-grade slasher movie violence and Satanism. Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 27 Death metal vocals are typically bleak, involving guttural "death growls," high-pitched screaming, the "death rasp," Van Schaik, Mark. "Extreme Metal Drumming" Slagwerkkrant, March/April 2000. Retrieved on November 15, 2007. and other uncommon techniques. "Genre—Death Metal/Black Metal". Allmusic. Retrieved on February 27, 2007. Complementing the deep, aggressive vocal style are downtuned, highly distorted guitars and extremely fast percussion, often with rapid double bass drumming and "wall of sound"–style blast beats. Frequent tempo and time signature changes and syncopation are also typical. Death metal, like thrash metal, generally rejects the theatrics of earlier metal styles, opting instead for an everyday look of ripped jeans and plain leather jackets. Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 28 One major exception to this rule was Deicide's Glen Benton, who branded an inverted cross on his forehead and wore armor on stage. Morbid Angel adopted neo-fascist imagery. These two bands, along with Death and Obituary, were leaders of the major death metal scene that emerged in Florida in the mid-1980s. In the UK, the related style of grindcore, led by bands such as Napalm Death and Extreme Noise Terror, emerged out of the anarcho-punk movement. A large Scandinavian death metal scene, with bands such as Sweden's Entombed and Dismember, began to develop as well. Out of this evolved a melodic death metal sound, typified by Swedish bands such as In Flames and Dark Tranquillity and Finland's Children of Bodom and Kalmah. Black metal Photo of the burned ruins of Fantoft stave church depicted on Burzum's 1992 EP Aske The first wave of black metal emerged in Europe in the early and mid-1980s, led by Britain's Venom, Denmark's Mercyful Fate, Switzerland's Hellhammer and Celtic Frost, and Sweden's Bathory. By the late 1980s, Norwegian bands such as Mayhem and Burzum were heading a second wave. Christe (2003), p. 270 Black metal varies considerably in style and production quality, although most bands emphasize shrieked and growled vocals, highly distorted guitars frequently played with rapid tremolo picking, a "dark" atmosphere and intentionally lo-fi production, with ambient noise and background hiss. Jurek, Thom. "Striborg: Nefaria". Allmusic. Retrieved on November 15, 2007 Satanic themes are common in black metal, though many bands take inspiration from ancient paganism, promoting a return to pre-Christian values. Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), p. 212 Numerous black metal bands also "experiment with sounds from all possible forms of metal, folk, classical music, electronica and avant-garde." Darkthrone drummer Fenriz explains, "It had something to do with production, lyrics, the way they dressed and a commitment to making ugly, raw, grim stuff. There wasn't a generic sound." Campion, Chris. "In the Face of Death". The Observer (UK), February 20, 2005. Retrieved on April 4, 2007. By 1990, Mayhem was regularly wearing corpsepaint; many other black metal acts also adopted the look. Bathory inspired the Viking metal and folk metal movements and Immortal brought blast beats to the fore. Some bands in the Scandinavian black metal scene became associated with considerable violence in the early 1990s, Christe (2003), p. 276 with Mayhem and Burzum linked to church burnings. Growing commercial hype around death metal generated a backlash; beginning in Norway, much of the Scandinavian metal underground shifted to support a black metal scene that resisted being co-opted by the commercial metal industry. Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), pp. 31–32 According to former Gorgoroth vocalist Gaahl, "Black Metal was never meant to reach an audience.... [We] had a common enemy which was, of course, Christianity, socialism and everything that democracy stands for." By 1992, black metal scenes had begun to emerge in areas outside Scandinavia, including Germany, France, and Poland. Moynihan, Søderlind (1998), pp. 271, 321, 326 The 1993 murder of Mayhem's Euronymous by Burzum's Varg Vikernes provoked intensive media coverage. Around 1996, when many in the scene felt the genre was stagnating, Vikernes, Varg. "A Burzum Story: Part VI—The Music". Burzum.org, July 2005; "Is Black Metal Dead?". Dark Legions Archive. Both retrieved on April 4, 2007. several key bands, including Burzum and Finland's Beherit, moved toward an ambient style, while symphonic black metal was explored by Sweden's Tiamat and Switzerland's Samael. Genre—Symphonic Black Metal. Allmusic. Retrieved on April 9, 2007. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Norway's Dimmu Borgir brought black metal closer to the mainstream, Tepedelen, Adam. "Dimmu Borgir's 'Death Cult'". Rolling Stone, November 7, 2003. Retrieved on September 10, 2007. as did Cradle of Filth, which Metal Hammer calls England's most successful metal band since Iron Maiden. Bennett, J. "Dimmu Borgir". Decibel, June 2007. Retrieved on September 10, 2007. Critically lauded contemporary acts include Sweden's traditionalist Watain, Begrand, Adrien. "Watain: Sworn to the Dark". PopMatters, June 19, 2007; Harris, Chris, and Jon Wiederhorn. "Metal File: Watain, Shadows Fall, Furze & More News That Rules". MTV.com, January 26, 2007. Both retrieved on September 10, 2007. France's more experimental Deathspell Omega, Freeman, Phil. "Deathspell Omega's Fas—Ite, Maledicti, In Ignem Aeternum". Village Voice, September 4, 2007; Jurek, Thom. "Deathspell Omega: Fas—Ite, Maledicti, In Ignem Aeternum". Allmusic. Both retrieved on September 10, 2007 and America's one-man Xasthur. Stosuy, Brandon. "Xasthur: Subliminal Genocide". Pitchfork, October 10, 2006; Rivadavia, Eduardo. "Xasthur: Subliminal Genocide". Allmusic. Both retrieved on September 10, 2007 Power metal Swedish power metal band HammerFall after a concert in Milan, Italy, in 2005 During the late 1980s, the power metal scene came together largely in reaction to the harshness of death and black metal. "Genre - Power Metal". Allmusic. Retrieved on March 20, 2007. Though a relatively underground style in North America, it enjoys wide popularity in Europe, Japan, and South America. Power metal focuses on upbeat, epic melodies and themes that "appeal to the listener's sense of valor and loveliness." Christe (2003), p. 372 The prototype for the sound was established in the mid- to late 1980s by Germany's Helloween, which combined the power riffs, melodic approach, and high-pitched, "clean" singing style of bands like Judas Priest and Iron Maiden with thrash's speed and energy, "crystalliz[ing] the sonic ingredients of what is now known as power metal." "Helloween - Biography". Allmusic. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. New York's Manowar and Virgin Steele were pioneering American bands. Yngwie J. Malmsteen's Rising Force (1984) was crucial in popularizing the ultrafast electric guitar style known as "shredding" as well as the merger of metal with classical music elements, developments that have strongly influenced power metal. Traditional power metal bands like Sweden's HammerFall, England's DragonForce, and Florida's Iced Earth have a sound clearly indebted to the classic NWOBHM style. See, e.g., Reesman, Bryan. "HammerFall: Glory to the Brave". Allmusic; Henderson, Alex. "DragonForce: Sonic Firestorm". Allmusic. Both retrieved on November 11, 2007 Many power metal bands such as Florida's Kamelot, Finland's Nightwish, Italy's Rhapsody of Fire, and Russia's Catharsis feature a keyboard-based "symphonic" sound, sometimes employing orchestras and opera singers. Power metal has built a strong fanbase in Japan and South America, where bands like Brazil's Angra and Argentina's Rata Blanca are popular. Closely related to power metal is progressive metal, which adopts the complex compositional approach of bands like Rush and King Crimson. This style emerged in the United States in the early and mid-1980s, with innovators such as Queensrÿche, Fates Warning, and Dream Theater. The mix of the progressive and power metal sounds is typified by New Jersey's Symphony X, whose guitarist Michael Romeo is among the most recognized of latter-day shredders. "Genre - Progressive Metal". Allmusic. Retrieved on March 20, 2007. Bands such as Sweden's Meshuggah have taken progressive in even more experimental directions as part of the avant-garde metal movement. Doom and gothic metal Emerging in the mid-1980s with such bands as California's Saint Vitus, Maryland's The Obsessed, Chicago's Trouble, and Sweden's Candlemass, the doom metal movement rejected other metal styles' emphasis on speed, slowing its music to a crawl. Doom metal traces its roots to the lyrical themes and musical approach of early Black Sabbath Christe (2003), p. 345 and Sabbath contemporaries such as Blue Cheer, Pentagram, and Black Widow. "The History of Doom metal". doom-metal.com. Retrieved on March 21, 2007. The Melvins have also been a significant influence on doom metal and a number of its subgenres. Begrand, Adrien. "Blood and Thunder: The Profits of Doom". February 15, 2006. PopMatters.com. Retrieved on April 8, 2007. Doom emphasizes melody, melancholy tempos, and a sepulchral mood relative to many other varieties of metal. Wray, John. "Heady Metal". New York Times, May 28, 2006. Retrieved on March 21, 2007. The 1991 release of Forest of Equilibrium, the debut album by UK band Cathedral, helped spark a new wave of doom metal. During the same period, the doom-death fusion style of British bands Paradise Lost, My Dying Bride, and Anathema gave rise to European gothic metal, Sharpe-Young (2007), pp. 246, 275; see also Stéphane Leguay, "Metal Gothique" in Carnets Noirs, éditions E-dite, 3e édition, 2006, ISBN 2-84608-176-X with its signature dual-vocalist arrangements, exemplified by Norway's Theatre of Tragedy and Tristania. New York's Type O Negative introduced an American take on the style. Sharpe-Young (2007), p. 275 Led by the Swedish band Therion's incorporation of classical elements, gothic metal in turn spawned a symphonic metal movement including Australia's Virgin Black, Finland's Nightwish, and the Netherlands' Within Temptation and After Forever. In the United States, sludge metal, mixing doom and hardcore, emerged in the late 1980s—Eyehategod and Crowbar were leaders in a major Louisiana sludge scene. Early in the next decade, California's Kyuss and Sleep, inspired by the earlier doom metal bands, spearheaded the rise of stoner metal, Christe (2003), p. 347 while Seattle's Earth helped develop the drone metal subgenre. Jackowiak, Jason. "Hex: Or Printing in the Infernal Method". Splendid Magazine, September, 2005. Retrieved on March 21, 2007. The late 1990s saw new bands form such as the Los Angeles–based Goatsnake, with a classic stoner/doom sound, and Sunn O))), which crosses lines between doom, drone, and dark ambient metal—the New York Times has compared their sound to an "Indian raga in the middle of an earthquake". New fusions: 1990s and early 2000s The era of metal's mainstream dominance in North America came to an end in the early 1990s with the emergence of Nirvana and other grunge bands, signaling the popular breakthrough of alternative rock. Christe (2003), pp. 304–6; Weinstein (1991), p. 278 Grunge acts were influenced by the heavy metal sound, but rejected the excesses of the more popular metal bands, such as their "flashy and virtuosic solos" and "appearance-driven" MTV orientation. Glam metal fell out of favor due not only to the success of grunge, Christe (2003), p. 231 but also because of the growing popularity of the more aggressive sound typified by Metallica and the post-thrash groove metal of Pantera and White Zombie. Birchmeier, Jason. "Pantera". Allmusic.com. Retrieved on March 19, 2007. A few new, unambiguously metal bands had commercial success during the first half of the decade—Pantera's Far Beyond Driven topped the Billboard chart in 1994—but, "In the dull eyes of the mainstream, metal was dead." Christe (2003), p. 305 Some bands tried to adapt to the new musical landscape. Metallica revamped its image: the band members cut their hair and, in 1996, headlined the alternative musical festival Lollapalooza founded by Jane's Addiction singer Perry Farrell. While this prompted a backlash among some long-time fans, Christe (2003), p. 312 Metallica remained one of the most successful bands in the world into the new century. Christe (2003), p. 322 Layne Staley of Alice in Chains, one of the most popular acts identified with alternative metal, performing in 1992 Like Jane's Addiction, many of the most popular early 1990s groups with roots in heavy metal fall under the umbrella term "alternative metal." The label was applied to a wide spectrum of acts that fused metal with different styles, not all associated with alternative rock. Acts labeled alternative metal included the Seattle grunge scene's Alice in Chains and groups drawing on multiple styles: Faith No More combined their alternative rock sound with punk, funk, metal, and hip hop; Primus joined elements of funk, punk, thrash metal, and experimental music. Tool mixed metal and progressive rock; Ministry began incorporating metal into its industrial sound; and Marilyn Manson went down a similar route, while also employing shock effects of the sort popularized by Alice Cooper. Alternative metal artists, though they did not represent a cohesive scene, were united by their willingness to experiment with the metal genre and their rejection of glam metal aesthetics (with the stagecraft of Marilyn Manson and White Zombie—also identified with alt-metal—significant, if partial, exceptions). Alternative metal's mix of styles and sounds represented "the colorful results of metal opening up to face the outside world." Christe (2003), p. 224 In the mid- and late 1990s came a new wave of U.S. metal groups inspired by the alternative metal bands and their mix of genres. Christe (2003), pp. 324–25 Dubbed "nu metal", bands such as P.O.D., Korn, Papa Roach, Limp Bizkit, Flaw, Slipknot, and Linkin Park incorporated elements ranging from death metal to hip hop, often including DJs and rap-style vocals. The mix demonstrated that "pancultural metal could pay off." Christe (2003), p. 329 Nu metal gained mainstream success through heavy MTV rotation and Ozzy Osbourne's 1996 introduction of Ozzfest, which led the media to talk of a resurgence of heavy metal. Christe (2003), p. 324 That year, Korn released Life Is Peachy, the first nu metal album to reach the top 10; two years later, the band's Follow the Leader hit number 1. In 1999, Billboard noted that there were more than 500 specialty metal radio shows in the U.S., nearly three times as many as ten years before. Christe (2003), p. 344 While nu metal was widely popular early in the 2000s, traditional metal fans did not fully embrace the style. Christe (2003), p. 328 By early 2003, the movement had clearly passed its peak, though several nu metal acts, as well as bands with related styles, such as System of a Down, retained substantial followings. Recent trends: mid–late 2000s Metalcore, an originally American hybrid of thrash metal and hardcore punk, Weinstein (2000), p. 288; Christe (2003), p. 372 emerged as a commercial force in the mid-2000s. It is rooted in the crossover thrash style developed two decades earlier by bands such as Suicidal Tendencies, Dirty Rotten Imbeciles, and Stormtroopers of Death. Christe (2003), p. 184 Through the 1990s, metalcore was mostly an underground phenomenon. By 2004, melodic metalcore—influenced as well by melodic death metal—was popular enough that Killswitch Engage's The End of Heartache and Shadows Fall's The War Within debuted at numbers 21 and 20, respectively, on the Billboard album chart. Bullet for My Valentine, from Wales, broke into the top 5 in both the U.S. and British charts with Scream Aim Fire (2008). In recent years, metalcore bands have received prominent slots at Ozzfest and the Download Festival. Lamb of God, with a related blend of metal styles, hit the Billboard top 10 in 2006 with Sacrament. The success of these bands and others such as Trivium, which has released both metalcore and straight-ahead thrash albums, and Mastodon, which plays in a progressive/sludge style, has inspired claims of a metal revival in the United States, dubbed by some critics the "New Wave of American Heavy Metal." Sharpe-Young, Garry, New Wave of American Heavy Metal (link). Children of Bodom, performing at the 2007 Masters of Rock festival The term "retro-metal" has been applied to such bands as England's The Darkness The Darkness. Allmusic. Retrieved on June 11, 2007. and Australia's Wolfmother. Wolfmother. Rolling Stone, April 18, 2006. Retrieved on March 31, 2007. The Darkness's Permission to Land (2003), described as an "eerily realistic simulation of '80s metal and '70s glam," topped the UK charts, going quintuple platinum. One Way Ticket to Hell... and Back (2005) reached number 11. Wolfmother's self-titled 2005 debut album had "Deep Purple-ish organs," "Jimmy Page-worthy chordal riffing," and lead singer Andrew Stockdale howling "notes that Robert Plant can't reach anymore." "Woman," a track from the album, won for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 2007 Grammy Awards. Slayer's "Eyes of the Insane" won for Best Metal Performance in 2007; their "Final Six" won the same award in 2008. Metallica took the honor in 2009 for "My Apocalypse". In continental Europe, especially Germany and Scandinavia, metal continues to be broadly popular. Well-established British acts such as Judas Priest and Iron Maiden continue to have chart success on the continent, as do a range of local groups. In Germany, Western Europe's largest music market, several continental metal bands placed multiple albums in the top 20 of the charts between 2003 and 2008, including Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom, Norwegian symphonic extreme metal act Dimmu Borgir, and two power metal groups, Germany's Blind Guardian and Sweden's HammerFall. (In German). The Swedish melodic death metal act In Flames took both Come Clarity (2006) and A Sense of Purpose (2008) to number 6 in Germany; each album topped the Swedish charts. (In Swedish). See also Heavy metal subgenres List of heavy metal bands List of metal festivals References Sources Arnold, Denis (1983). "Consecutive Intervals," in The New Oxford Companion to Music, Volume 1: A-J. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311316-3 Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen (1996). Metalheads: Heavy Metal Music and Adolescent Alienation. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-2813-6 Berelian, Essi (2005). Rough Guide to Heavy Metal. Rough Guides. Foreword by Bruce Dickinson of Iron Maiden. ISBN 1-84353-415-0 Berry, Mick and Jason Gianni (2003). The Drummer's Bible: How to Play Every Drum Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco. See Sharp Press. ISBN 1-884365-32-9 Blake, Andrew (1997). The Land Without Music: Music, Culture and Society in Twentieth-century Britain. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4299-2 Buckley, Peter (2003). The Rough Guide to Rock. Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-105-4 Carson, Annette (2001). Jeff Beck: Crazy Fingers. Backbeat Books. ISBN 0-87930-632-7 Charlton, Katherine (2003). Rock Music Styles: A History. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-249555-3 Christe, Ian (2003). Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-380-81127-8 Christgau, Robert (1981). "Master of Reality (1971) [review]," in Christgau's Record Guide. Ticknor & Fields. ISBN 0-89919-026-X Cook, Nicholas, and Nicola Dibben (2001). "Musicological Approaches to Emotion," in Music and Emotion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1926-3188-8 Du Noyer, Paul (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music. Flame Tree. ISBN 1-9040-4170-1 Ewing, Charles Patrick, and Joseph T. McCann (2006). Minds on Trial: Great Cases in Law and Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1951-8176-X Fast, Susan (2005). "Led Zeppelin and the Construction of Masculinity," in Music Cultures in the United States, ed. Ellen Koskoff. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-96588-8 Hatch, David, and Stephen Millward (1989). From Blues to Rock: An Analytical History of Pop Music. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-2349-1 Kennedy, Michael (1985). The Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1931-1333-3 Leguay, Stéphane (2006). "Metal Gothique," in Carnets Noirs, éditions E-dite, 3rd edition, ISBN 2-84608-176-X McCleary, John Bassett (2004). The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-547-4 McMichael, Joe (2004). The Who Concert File. Omnibus Press. ISBN 1-84449-009-2 Moynihan, Michael, and Dirik Søderlind (1998). Lords of Chaos (2nd ed.). Feral House. ISBN 0-922915-94-6 O'Neil, Robert M. (2001). The First Amendment and Civil Liability. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34033-0 Pareles, Jon, and Patricia Romanowski (eds.) (1983). The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock & Roll. Rolling Stone Press/Summit Books. ISBN 0-671-44071-3 Sadie, Stanley (1980). "Consecutive Fifth, Consecutive Octaves," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1st ed.). MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-23111-2 Schonbrun, Marc (2006). The Everything Guitar Chords Book. Adams Media. ISBN 1-59337-529-8 Sharpe-Young, Garry (2007). Metal: The Definitive Guide. Jawbone Press. ISBN 9781906002015 Strong, Martin C. (2004). The Great Rock Discography. Canongate. ISBN 1841956155 Thompson, Graham (2007). American Culture in the 1980s. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1910-0 Van Zoonen, Liesbet (2005). Entertaining The Citizen: When Politics and Popular Culture Converge. Rowan & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2906-1 Walser, Robert (1993). Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6260-2 Weinstein, Deena (1991). Heavy Metal: A Cultural Sociology. Lexington. ISBN 0-669-21837-5. Revised edition: (2000). Heavy Metal: The Music and its Culture. Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80970-2 Wilkerson, Mark Ian (2006). Amazing Journey: The Life of Pete Townshend. Bad News Press. 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1,172	Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill	During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil, such as the sheen visible in this photograph, covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound. The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in the Prince William Sound, Alaska, on March 24, 1989. It is considered one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters ever to occur at sea. As significant as the Exxon Valdez spill was, it ranks well down on the list of the world's largest oil spills in terms of volume released. However, Prince William Sound's remote location (accessible only by helicopter and boat) made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region was a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The vessel spilled 10.8 million U.S. gallons (about 40 million litres) of Prudhoe Bay crude oil into the sea, and the oil eventually covered of ocean. Timeline of events Exxon Valdez left the Valdez oil terminal in Alaska at 9:12 pm on March 23, 1989 bound for Long Beach, California. A harbor pilot guided the ship through the Valdez Narrows before leaving the ship and returning control to Joseph Jeffrey Hazelwood, the ship's master. The ship maneuvered out of the shipping lane to avoid icebergs. Following the maneuver and sometime after 11 pm, Hazelwood departed the wheel house. He left Third Mate Gregory Cousins in charge of the wheel house and Able Seaman Robert Kagan at the helm, both of whom were not given their mandatory 6 hours off duty before their 12-hour duty began. The ship was on autopilot, using the navigation system installed by the company that constructed the ship. The outbound shipping lane was covered with icebergs so the ship's captain, Hazelwood, got permission from the Coast guard to go out through the inbound lane. The ship struck Bligh Reef at around 12:04 am March 24, 1989. Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain. In this photograph, pooled oil is shown stranded in the rocks. According to official reports, the ship was carrying 53.1 million U.S. gallons (about 200 million litres) of oil, of which 10.8 million U.S.gallons were spilled into the Prince William Sound. This figure has become the consensus estimate of the spill's volume, as it has been accepted by the State of Alaska's Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and environmental groups such as Greenpeace and the Sierra Club. Some groups, such as Defenders of Wildlife, dispute the official estimates, maintaining that the volume of the spill has been underreported. Cleanup measures and environmental consequences Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shoreline The first cleanup response was through the use of a dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture. A private company applied dispersant on March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant was discontinued. One trial explosion was also conducted during the early stages of the spill, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by another explosion. The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 litres of removable residue, http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/26_spilldb.pdf but because of unfavorable weather no additional burning was attempted in this cleanup effort. Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and kelp tended to clog the equipment. Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of Valdez, has said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis. Working with the United States Coast Guard, which officially led the response, Exxon mounted a cleanup effort that exceeded in cost any previous oil spill cleanup. More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment. Clean-up efforts after the Exxon Valdez oil spill Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. plankton) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g. certain bacteria and fungi) are capable of facilitating the biodegradation of oil. At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of natural and facilitated remediation processes has developed, due somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study by the Exxon Valdez spill. Despite the extensive cleanup attempts, a study conducted by NOAA determined that as of early 2007 more than of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year. In 1992, Exxon released a video titled Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill. It was provided to schools with the label "A Video for Students". Critics say this video is reputed to misrepresent the clean-up process. Wildlife was severely affected by the oil spill. Both the long- and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied comprehensively. Thousands of animals died immediately; the best estimates include 250,000 to as many as 500,000 seabirds, at least 1,000 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300 harbour seals, 250 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, as well as the destruction of billions of salmon and herring eggs. Due to a thorough cleanup, little visual evidence of the event remained in areas frequented by humans just 1 year later. However, the effects of the spill continue to be felt today. Overall reductions in population have been seen in various ocean animals, including stunted growth in pink salmon populations. Sea otters and ducks also showed higher death rates in following years, partially because they ingested prey from contaminated soil and from ingestion of oil residues on hair due to grooming. Almost 20 years after the spill, a team of scientists at the University of North Carolina found that the effects are lasting far longer than expected. The team estimates some shoreline Arctic habitats may take up to 30 years to recover. Exxon Mobil denies any concerns over this, stating that they anticipated a remaining fraction that they assert will not cause any long-term ecological impacts, according to the conclusions of 350 peer-reviewed studies. However, a study from scientists from NOAA concluded that this contamination can produce chronic low-level exposure, discourage subsistence where the contamination is heavy, and decrease the "wilderness character" of the area. Litigation In the case of Baker v. Exxon, an Anchorage jury awarded $287 million for actual damages and $5 billion for punitive damages. The punitive damages amount was equal to a single year's profit by Exxon at that time. Exxon appealed the ruling, and the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ordered the original judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, the judge announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive. Exxon appealed again and the case returned to court to be considered in light of a recent Supreme Court ruling in a similar case, which caused Judge Holland to increase the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest. After more appeals, and oral arguments heard by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals on January 27, 2006, the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion on December 22, 2006. The court cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages. Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owes $2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case. On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments for 90 minutes. Justice Samuel Alito, who at the time, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from the case. In a decision issued June 25, 2008, Justice David Souter issued the judgment of the court, vacating the $2.5 billion award and remanding the case back to a lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to maritime common law. Exxon's actions were deemed "worse than negligent but less than malicious." The judgment limits punitive damages to the compensatory damages, which for this case were calculated as $507.5 million. Some lawmakers, such as Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Patrick J. Leahy, have decried the ruling as "another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations." Exxon's official position is that punitive damages greater than $25 million are not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company "put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound." Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of the Exxon Valdez. Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the Seattle Seven for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $750 million if the damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement, and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay. Exxon v. Baker, CV-89-00095-HRH (9th Cir. 2006). The aftermath The cause of the incident was investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board, which identified the four following factors as contributing to the grounding of the vessel: The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue and excessive workload. The master failed to provide navigation watch, possibly due to impairment under the influence of alcohol. Exxon Shipping Company failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for the Exxon Valdez. The United States Coast Guard failed to provide an effective vessel traffic system. The Board made a number of recommendations, such as changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in order to address the causes of the accident. The economy of the city of Cordova, Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of salmon and herring in the area. One former mayor committed suicide, in addition to several other residents, after the spill. Suzuki, David. "The Nature of Things", Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on May 16, 2009. In response to the spill, the United States Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than one million U.S. gallons (3,800 m³) in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound. In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against the Federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a bill of attainder, a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone. In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound. OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of a double hull design, providing an additional layer between the oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would likely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent. The Exxon Valdez supertanker was towed to San Diego, arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately of steel were removed and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, renamed S/R Mediterranean, left harbor after $30 million of repairs. It was still sailing as of January 2009, registered in Marshall Islands. The vessel is currently owned by Sea River Maritime, a wholly owned subsidiary of ExxonMobil. In 2009, Exxon Valdez Captain Joseph Hazelwood somewhat belatedly offered a "heartfelt apology" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: "The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story," he said. Loy, Wesley. “Captain of Exxon Valdez offers ‘heartfelt apology' for oil spill.” Miami Herald. March 5, 2009. Accessed 3-5-09. Yet Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake. The apology appears in a new book, The Spill: Personal Stories from the Exxon Valdez Disaster by Sharon Bushell. Bushell, Sharon. 2009. The Spill: Personal Stories from the Exxon Valdez Disaster. Kenmore, WA: Epicenter Press. Other consequences The Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union, representing approximately 40,000 workers nationwide, announced opposition to drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) until Congress enacted a comprehensive national energy policy. In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor Steve Cowper issued an executive order requiring two tugboats to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle (ERV). The majority of tankers at Valdez are still single-hulled, but Congress has enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be double-hulled by 2015. In 1991, following the collapse of the local marine population (particularly clams, herring, and seals) the Chugach Alaska Corporation, an Alaska Native Corporation, went bankrupt. According to several studies funded by the state of Alaska, the spill had both short- and long-term economic effects. These included the loss of recreational sports, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call "existence value," which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound. See also Mytilus trossulus External links Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council ExxonMobil updates and news on Valdez Exxon Valdez oil spill at National Ocean Service EVOS Damage Assessment and Restoration at National Marine Fisheries Service Exxon Valdez at United States Environmental Protection Agency Exxon Valdez oil spill at Encyclopedia of Earth The story behind the oil spill verdict – originally published in San Diego Union-Tribune Black Wave - The legacy of the Exxon Valdez, a canadian 2008 documentary Exxon Oil Spill's Cleanup Crews Share Years of Illness – originally published in Los Angeles Times Alaskan Regional Response Team report on the Exxon Valdez disaster. Greg Palast Report 20th Birthday of the Exxon Valdez Lie with more details. References External links Exxon Mobil breaks another earnings record	Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill \|@lemmatized first:3 day:2 spill:37 heavy:2 sheen:2 oil:33 visible:1 photograph:2 cover:3 large:4 area:5 surface:1 prince:10 william:10 sound:10 exxon:50 valdez:27 occur:2 alaska:11 march:6 consider:2 one:5 devastating:1 human:2 cause:6 environmental:4 disaster:8 ever:1 sea:6 significant:2 rank:1 well:2 list:1 world:1 term:4 volume:3 release:2 however:4 remote:1 location:1 accessible:1 helicopter:2 boat:1 make:5 government:2 industry:2 response:10 effort:4 difficult:1 severely:2 tax:1 exist:1 plan:2 region:3 habitat:2 salmon:4 otter:4 seal:3 seabird:2 vessel:7 million:12 u:5 gallon:4 litre:3 prudhoe:1 bay:1 crude:1 eventually:1 ocean:4 timeline:1 event:2 leave:4 terminal:1 pm:2 bound:1 long:5 beach:2 california:1 harbor:2 pilot:1 guide:1 ship:13 narrow:1 return:2 control:1 joseph:2 jeffrey:1 hazelwood:5 master:3 maneuver:3 shipping:1 lane:3 avoid:1 iceberg:2 follow:5 sometime:1 depart:1 wheel:2 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1,173	Coffea	Coffea (coffee) is a large genus (containing more than 90 species) 337_346.pdf of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. They are shrubs or small trees, native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. Seeds of several species are the source of the popular beverage coffee. After their outer hull is removed, the seeds are commonly called "beans". Coffee beans are widely cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries on plantations, for both local consumption and export to probably every other country in the world. Coffee ranks as one of the world's most valuable and widely traded commodity crops and is an important export of a number of countries. Botany Coffea robusta When grown in the tropics, coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree which usually grow to a height of 3–3.5 m (10–12 feet). Most commonly cultivated coffee species grow best at high elevations. Although they are hardy and capable of withstanding severe pruning, they are nevertheless not very tolerant of sub-freezing temperatures, hence cannot be grown in temperate climate zones. To produce a maximum yield of coffee berries (800-1400 kg per hectare), the plants need substantial amounts of water and fertilizer. Since they grow best in alkaline soils, calcium carbonate and other lime minerals are sometimes used to reduce acidity in the soil, which can occur due to run off of minerals from the soil in mountainous areas. Significance of Lime Application in Coffee Plantations INeedCoffee. (Accessed 23 July 2006) The caffeine in coffee "beans" is a natural defense: a toxic substance which repels many creatures that would otherwise eat the seeds - as with the nicotine in tobacco leaves. There are several species of Coffee that may be grown for the beans, but Coffea arabica is considered by many, to have the best overall flavor and quality. The other species (especially Coffea canephora (var. robusta)) are usually grown on land unsuitable for Coffea arabica. The tree produces red or purple fruits (drupes), which contain two seeds (the "coffee beans", which — despite their name — are not true beans, which are the seeds of the legume family). In about 5-10% of any crop of coffee cherries, the cherry will contain only a single bean, rather than the two usually found. This is called a 'peaberry', which is smaller and rounder than a normal coffee bean. It is often removed from the yield and either sold separately, (as in New Guinea Peaberry) or discarded. The tree of Coffea arabica will grow fruits after 3 5 years and will produce for about 50 60 years (although up to 100 years is possible). The blossom of the coffee tree is similar to jasmine in color and smell. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen. Worldwide, an estimated 15 billion coffee trees are grown on of land. Coffee is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including Dalcera abrasa, Turnip Moth and some members of the genus Endoclita, including E. damor and E. malabaricus. Shade-grown coffee Coffee farmer in Ethiopia. In its natural environment, coffea most often grows in the shade. However, most cultivated coffee is produced on full-sun, monocropping plantations, as are most commercial crops, in order to maximize production per unit of land. This practice is, however, detrimental to the natural environment since the natural habitats which existed prior to the establishment of the plantations are destroyed, and all non-Coffea flora and fauna are suppressed - often with chemical pesticides and herbicides. Shade-grown coffee is favored by conservationists, since it permits a much more natural, complex ecosystem to survive on the land occupied by the plantation. Also, it naturally mulches the soil it grows in, lives twice as long as sun-grown varieties, and depletes less of the soil's resources - hence less fertilizer is needed. In addition, shade-grown coffee is considered by some to be of higher quality than sun-grown varieties, as the cherries produced by the Coffea plants in the shade are not as large as commercial varieties; some believe that this smaller cherry concentrates the flavors of the cherry into the seed (bean) itself. Shade-grown coffee is also associated with environmentally friendly ecosystems that provide a wider variety and number of migratory birds than those of sun-grown coffea farms. Chemistry of Green Coffee Beans Coffea arabica branch with immature fruit - Brazil The term “green coffee bean” refers to un-roasted mature or immature coffee beans. These have been processed by wet or dry method for removing the outer pulp and mucilage, and have an intact wax layer on the outer surface. When immature, they are green. When mature, they have a brown to yellow or reddish colour, and typically weigh 300 to 330 mg per dried coffee bean. Non-volatile and volatile compounds in green coffee beans, such as caffeine, deter many insects and animals from eating them. Further, both non-volatile and volatile compounds contribute to the flavor of the coffee bean when it is roasted. Non-volatile nitrogenous compounds (including alkaloids, trigonelline, proteins and free amino acids) and carbohydrates are of major importance in producing the full aroma of roasted coffee, and for its biological action. Non-volatile Alkaloids Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine) is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1% and 2,5% w/w, of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans. CLIFFORD, MN, and KAZI, M, 1987, The influence of coffee bean maturity on the content of chlorogenic acids, caffeine, and trigonelline, Food Chemistry, Vol 26, p 59-69 Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine, liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process (usually about 15 minutes at 230 degrees Celsius), whereas the concentration of most other alkaloids are not changed. WEIDNER, M, and MAIER, HG; 1999, Seltene Purinalkaloide in Roestkaffee, Lebensmittelchemie, Vol 53, 3, p.58 The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, tartaric acid, all of which are present in green coffee beans (e.g. 1 g caffeine dissolves in 46 mL of water at room temperature, and 5,5 mL at 80 degrees Celsius). The Merck Index, 13th Edition The xanthine alkaloids are odorless but have a bitter taste in water, which however is masked by organic acids present in green coffee. Trigonelline (N-methyl-nicotinate) is a derivative of vitamin B6, not as bitter as caffeine. In green coffee beans, the content is between 0,6% (w/w) and 1% (w/w). At roasting temperature (230 degrees Celsius), 85% of the trigonelline is degraded to nicotinic acid, leaving small amounts of the unchanged molecule in the roasted beans. In green coffee beans, trigonelline is synthesized from nicotinic acid (pyridinium-3-carboxylic acid) by methylation from methionine, a sulfur-containing amino acid. POISSON, J, 1979, Aspects chimiques et biologiquesde la composition du café vert; 8th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Abidjan, 28. Nov to 3. December 1988, published by ASIC 1979, p 33-37; http://www.asic-cafe.org Mutagenic activity of trigonelline has been reported. Proteins and amino acids Proteins account for 8% (w/w) to 12% (w/w) of dried green coffee beans. Major part of the proteins are of the of 11-S-storage kind(alpha - component of 32 kDa, beta – component of 22 kDa), most of which are degraded to free amino acids during maturation of green coffee beans. Further, 11-S-storage proteins are degraded to their individual amino acids under roasting temperature and are thus an additional source of bitter components due to generation of Maillard products. High temperature, oxygen concentration and low pH degrade 11-S-storage–proteins of green coffee beans to low molecular weight peptides and amino acids. The degradation is accelerated in the presence of organic acids such as chlorogenic acids and their derivatives. Other proteins include enzymes, such as catalase and polyphenol oxidase, which are important for the maturation of green coffee beans. Mature coffee contains free amino acids (4.0 mg amino acid / g robusta coffee and up to 4 .5 mg amino acid /g arabica coffee). In Coffea arabica, alanine is the amino acid with the highest concentration, i.e. 1.2 mg / g followed by asparagine of 0.66 mg/g, whereas in C. robusta, alanine is present at a concentration of 0.8 mg/g and asparagine at 0.36 mg/g. ARNOLD, U., LUDWIG, E., KÜHN, R., MÖSCHWITZER, U., 1994, Analysis of free amino acids in green coffee beans; Z. Lebensm Unters Forsch, Vol 199, p 22-25 The free hydrophobic amino acids in fresh green coffee beans contribute to the unpleasant taste making it impossible to prepare a beverage with such compounds. In fresh green coffee from Peru, these concentrations have been determined as follows: isoleucine 81 mg /kg, leucine 100 mg/kg, valine 93 mg/kg, tyrosine 81 mg/kg, phenylalanine 133 mg /kg. The concentration of gamma-aminobutyric acid (a neurotransmitter) has been determined between 143 mg/ kg and 703 mg/kg in green coffee beans from Tanzania. TEUTSCH, IA, 2004, Einfluss der Rohkaffeeverarbeitung auf Aromastoffveränderungen in gerösteten Kaffeebohnen sowie im Kaffeebetränk, PhD Thesis, Department of Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Germany; www.deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=97339305x& dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=97339305x.pdf Roasted coffee beans do not contain any free amino acids, the amino acids in green coffee beans are degraded under roasting temperature to Maillard products (reaction products between the aldehyde group of sugar and the alpha-amino-group of the amino acids). Further, diketopiperazines, e.g. cyclo(proline-proline), cyclo(proline-leucine), cyclo(proline-isoleucine), are generated from the corresponding amino acids, and are the major source of the bitter taste of roasted coffee. GINZ, M, 2001, Bittere Diketopiperazine und chlorogensäurederivate in Roestkaffee, PhD-thesis, Technical University Carolo-Wilhelminia, Brunswig, Germany, www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001257 - 17k The bitter flavor of diketopiperazines is perceptible at around 20 mg/ 1 liter water. The content of diketopiperazines in espresso is about 20 mg to 30 mg which is responsible for its bitterness. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates make up about 50% of the dry weight of green coffee beans. The carbohydrate fraction of green coffee is dominated by polysaccharides, such as arabinogalactan, galactomannan and cellulose, contributing to the tasteless flavor of green coffee. Arabinogalactan makes up to 17% of dry weight of green coffee beans with a molecular weight of 90 kDa to 200 kDa. It is composed of beta-1-3-linked galactan main chain with frequent members of arabinose (pentose) and galactose (hexose) residues at the side chains comprising immunomodulating properties by stimulating the cellular defense system (Th-1 response) of the body. Mature brown to yellow coffee beans contain fewer residues of galactose and arabinose at the side chain of the polysaccharides, making the green coffee bean more resistant to physical breakdown and less soluble in water. The molecular weight of the arabiniogalactan in coffee is higher than in most other plants, improving the cellular defense system of the digestive tract compared to arabinogalactan with lower molecular weight. GOTODA, N, IWAI, K, Arabinogalactan isolated from coffee beans indicates immunomodulating properties, p. 116-120; In: Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11 – 15 September 2006, Montpellier, France Free monosaccharides are present in mature brown to yellow-green coffee beans. The free part of monosaccharides contains sucrose (gluco-fructose) up to 9000 mg/ 100g of arabica green coffee bean, a lower amount in robustas, i.e. 4500 mg/100g. In arabica green coffee beans the content of free glucose was 30 mg to 38 mg / 100 g, free fructose 23 mg to 30 mg/ 100 g; free galactose 35 mg/ 100g and mannitol 50 mg/100g dried coffee beans, respectively. Mannitol is a powerful scavenger for hydroxyl radicals, which are generated during the peroxidation of lipids in biological membranes. TRESSEL, R, HOLZER, M and KAMPERSCHROER, H, 1983, Bildung von Aromastoffenin Roestkaffee in Abhaengigkeit vom Gehalt an freien Aminosaeren und reduzierenden Zuckern; 10th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Salvador, Bahia 11 October to 14 Oct; ASIC publication 1983, p279-292 Lipids The lipids found in green coffee include: linoleic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, arachidic acid, diterpenes, triglycerides, unsaturated long-chain fatty acids, esters and amides. The total content of lipids in dried green coffee is between 11.7 g and 14 g / 100 g. ROFFI, J, CORTE DOS SANTOS, A, MEXIA, JT, BUSSON, F, and MIAGROT, M, 1973, Café verts et torrefiesde l Angola. Etude chimique, 5th International Colloquium Chemicum Coffee, Lisboa, 14 June to 19 June, 1971; published by ASIC 1973, pp 179-200 Lipids are present on the surface and in the interior matrix of green coffee beans. On the surface they include derivatives of carboxylic acid-5-hydroxytryptamides with an amide bond to fatty acids (unsaturated C6 to C24) making up to 3% (w/w) of total lipid content or 1200 to 1400 microgram / g dried green coffee bean. Such compounds form a wax cover on the surface of the coffee bean (200 mg to 300 mg lipids / 100 g dried green coffee beans) protecting the interior matrix against oxidation and insects. Further, such molecules have anti-oxidative activity due to their chemical structure. Lipids of the interior tissue are triglycerides, linoleic acid (46% of total free lipids), palmitic acid (30% to 35% of total free lipids), and esters. Arabica have a higher content of lipids (13,5 g to 17,4 g lipids/100 g dried green coffee beans) than robustas (9,8 g to 10,7 g lipids / 100 g dried green coffee beans). The content of diterpenes is about 20% of the lipid fraction. The diterpenes found in green coffee include cafestol, kahweol, 16-O-methyl-kafestol, cafestal, kahweal. Diterpenes are known for their in-vitro protection of liver tissue against chemical oxidation. In coffee oil from green coffee beans the diterpenes are esterified with saturated long chain fatty acids. Non-volatine Chlorogenic acids Chlorogenic acids belong to a group consisting of compounds which are known as polyphenols, which are antioxidants. The content of chlorogeneic acid in dried green coffee beans of robusta is 65 mg/ g and of arabica 140 mg / g, depending on the timing of harvesting. At roasting temperature, more than 70% of chlorogenic acids are destroyed, leaving a residue of less than 30 mg/g in the roasted coffee bean. In contrast to green coffee, green tea contains an average of 85 mg polyphenols/g. These chlorogenic acids could be a valuable inexpensive source of antioxydants. Chlorogenic acids are homologous compounds comprising caffeic acid, ferulic acid and 3,4 dimethoxycinnamic acid which are connected by an ester-bond to the hydroxy groups of quinic acid (1alpha, 3R, 4 alpha, 5R-tetrahydroxy-cyclohexane carboxylic acid) CLIFFORD, M.N, 2006, Chlorogenic acids – their characterisation, transformation during roasting, and potential diatary significance, In: Association for Science and Information on Coffee, (ASIC) 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11 – 15 September 2006, Montpellier, France, p 36-49 The anti-oxydation capacity of Chlorogenic acid is more potent than of ascorbic acid (vitamine-C) or mannitol, which is a selective hydroxy-radical scavenger. MORISHITA, H., KIDO, R., 1995; Anti-oxydant activities of chlorogenic acid; 16th international colloqu. Chem. Coffee, Kyoto 9-14, April 1995, ASIC-1995 Chlorgenic acids have a bitter taste in low concentrations such as 50 mg / 1 L water. At higher concentrations of 1 g/ 1 L water they have a sour taste. Chlorogenic acid increase the solubility of caffeine and are important modulaters of taste. Volatile compounds in Green Coffee Volatile compounds of green coffee beans include short chain fatty acids, aldehydes, and nitrogen containing aromatic molecules, such as derivatives of pyrazines green-herbeaceous-earthy odor. Briefly, such volatile compounds are responsible for the unpleasant odor and taste of green coffee being capable of causing nausea and vomiting upon inhaling of the odor of ground green coffee beans or ingestion of a beverage made by pulverised green coffee beans. Due to this nauseating odor, green coffee beens have never been used by themselves for the preparation of a refreshing beverage; such a beverage would cause vomiting, although green coffee beans contain the same amount of caffeine as rosted coffee. When green coffee beans are roasted, other molecules with the typical pleasant aroma of coffee are generated, which are not present in fresh green coffee. Some have tried to neutralise or transform the nauseating odor-molecules of green coffee beans, producing an innovative flavor by fermentation of the intact mature brown to yellow coffee bean similar to the wet processing of the mature coffee fruit. US patent application No 20070190207; Method of processing green coffee beans, http://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PG01&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=%2220070190207%22.PGNR.&OS=DN/20070190207&RS=DN/20070190207 However, fermented green coffee beans must be further roasted in order to obtain an organoleptic accepted beverage based on coffee. During roasting, the major part of the unpleasant tasting volatile compounds are neutralised. Unfortunately, other important molecules such as antioxydants and vitamines present in green coffee are destroyed. Volatile compounds with nauseating odor for humans have been identified include acetic acid (pungent, unpleasant odor); propionic acid (odor of sour milk, or butter); butanoic acid (odor of rancid butter, present in green coffee with 2 mg/100 g coffee beans); pentanoic acid (unpleasant fruity flavor, present in green coffee at 40 mg/100 g in coffee beans); hexanoic acid (fatty-rancid odor), heptanoic acid (fatty odor); octanoic acid (repulsive oily rancid odor); nonanoic acid (mild nut-like fatty odor); decanoic acid (sour repulsive odor); and derivatives of such fatty acids. 3-methyl-valericacid (sour, green-herbaceous, unpleasant odor); acetaldehyde (pungent-nauseating odor, even when highly diluted; present in dried green coffee beans at concentrations of about 5 mg/1 kg); propanal (chocking effect on respiratory system, penetrating-nauseating), butanal (nauseating effect; present in dried green coffee beans at 2 to 7 mg /1 kg); pentanal or valerianic aldehyde very repulsive nauseating effect. Health properties of Green Coffee Green coffee beans are a rich source of antioxidants, such as polyphenols and mannitol producing good protection against chemical oxydation. The high content of arabinogalactans can stimulate the immune system (e.g. the macrophages) of the gastrointestinal tract and might help to overcome problems of irritabile colin or inflammable bowel diseases. Extracts of green coffee have been shown to improve vasoactivity (the ability of the blood vessels to contract or expand freely) in humans. OCHIAL, R, JOKURA, H, et al., Green coffee bean extract improves human vasoactivity, Association for Science and Information on Coffee, p731–736; ASIC – 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, 11–15 September 2006, Montpellier, France Green coffee is most often consumed by humans in capsules because of the nauseating odor of the volatile compounds of the green coffee beans. New coffee-species Recently, two new species of coffee plants have been discovered in Cameroon: Coffea charrieriana and Coffea anthonyi. These species could introduce two new features to cultivated coffee plants: 1) beans without caffeine and 2) self-pollination. By crossing the new species with other known coffees (e.g., C. arabica and C. robusta), new coffee hybrids might allow these new improvements at regular coffee plantations (e.g. in Kenya, since C. arabica and C. robusta are accustomed to these growing conditions). Science Connection 22 (July 2008) See also Coffee Coffee production in Colombia Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee Kopi Luwak List of coffee companies References External links Coffea arabica by James A. Duke — detailed information about this species. Article about the nutritional needs of coffee plants. University of Hawaii spreadsheets dealing with costs of production including those of coffee growing in Hawaii. Farmers Bookshelf guide to coffee growing and processing in Hawaii. United States Department of Agriculture — Foreign Agriculture Service (Source of coffee (and other commodities) production and consumption data). Coffee & Conservation - Many resources on sustainable coffee, including reviews, especially shade coffee and biodiversity	Coffea \|@lemmatized coffea:15 coffee:134 large:2 genus:2 contain:9 specie:10 pdf:3 flower:1 plant:8 family:2 rubiaceae:1 shrubs:1 small:5 tree:6 native:1 subtropical:1 africa:1 southern:1 asia:1 seed:6 several:2 source:6 popular:1 beverage:6 outer:3 hull:1 remove:3 commonly:2 call:2 bean:67 widely:2 cultivate:1 tropical:2 sub:2 country:3 plantation:6 local:1 consumption:2 export:2 probably:1 every:1 world:2 rank:1 one:1 valuable:2 trade:1 commodity:2 crop:3 important:4 number:2 botany:1 robusta:7 grown:8 tropic:1 vigorous:1 bush:1 usually:4 grow:13 height:1 foot:1 cultivated:3 best:3 high:8 elevation:1 although:3 hardy:1 capable:2 withstand:1 severe:1 pruning:1 nevertheless:1 tolerant:1 freezing:1 temperature:8 hence:2 cannot:1 temperate:1 climate:1 zone:1 produce:8 maximum:1 yield:2 berry:1 kg:10 per:3 hectare:1 need:3 substantial:1 amount:4 water:8 fertilizer:2 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1,174	Edward_Bellamy	Edward Bellamy (18501898) was an American author and socialist, most famous for his utopian novel, Looking Backward, set in the year 2000. Edward Bellamy, circa 1889. Biography Early life Edward Bellamy was born March 26, 1850 in Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts. His father was Rufus King Bellamy (1816-1886), a Baptist minister and a descendant of Joseph Bellamy. His mother was Maria Louisa (Putnam) Bellamy, a Calvinist. Her father, Benjamin Putnam, had also been a Baptist minister, but had to withdraw from the ministry in Salem, Massachusetts, following objections to him becoming a Freemason. 'Edward Bellamy's Religious Thought', by Joseph Schiffman, Transactions and Proceedings of the Modern Language Association of America), Vol. 68, No. 4 (Sep., 1953), p 716 He had two older brothers, Frederick and Charles. He attended Union College, but did not graduate. While there, he joined the Theta Chi Chapter of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity. He studied law, but left the practice and worked briefly in the newspaper industry in New York and in Springfield, Massachusetts. He left journalism and devoted himself to literature, writing both short stories and novels. He married Emma Augusta Sanderson in 1882. The couple had two children, Paul (b. 1884) and Marion (b. 1886). He was the cousin of Francis Bellamy, most famous for creating the Pledge of Allegiance. His books include Dr. Heidenhoff's Process (1880), Miss Ludington's Sister (1884), The Duke of Stockbridge (1900), and the utopian novels Looking Backward: 2000—1887 (1888), and its sequel, Equality (1897). As a writer According to Erich Fromm, Bellamy's novel Looking Backward is "one of the most remarkable books ever published in America." Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward 2000-1887. Introduction by Eric Fromm. New York: Signet, 1960. ISBN 0-451-52412-8 It was the third largest bestseller of its time, after Uncle Tom's Cabin and Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ. In the book, Julian West, an upper class man from 1887, awakes in 2000 from a hypnotic trance to find himself in a socialist utopia. The book influenced a large number of intellectuals, and appears by title in many of the major Marxist writings of the day. "It is one of the few books ever published that created almost immediately on its appearance a political mass movement." (Fromm, p vi). 165 "Bellamy Clubs" sprang up all over the United States for discussing and propagating the book's ideas. This political movement came to be known as Nationalism. See, for example, Edward Bellamy. "What 'Nationalism' Means." The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Sept. 1890), pg. 289. His novel also inspired several utopian communities. Although Looking Backward is unique, Bellamy owes many aspects of his philosophy to a previous reformer and author, Laurence Gronlund, who published his treatise "The Cooperative Commonwealth: An Exposition of Modern Socialism" in 1884. Bellamy's second utopian novel, Equality (book)\|Equality, published in 1897, continues the story of Julian West as he adjusts to life in the future. Although Equity was less successful commercially or culturally than its prequel, a short story "The Parable of the Water-Tank" from Equality, was popular with a number of early American socialists, reprinted in various editions as a propaganda pamphlet. Several hundred additional utopian novels were published in the US from 1889 to 1900, due in part to the popularity of Looking Backward. Bowman, Sylvia E. The Year 2000: A Critical Biography of Edward Bellamy. New York: Bookman Associates, 1958; page 107. Bellamy died May 22, 1898 (aged 48 years) from tuberculosis at his childhood home in Chicopee Falls. Key excerpts from Looking Backward, Chapter 26 "My friends, if you would see men again the beasts of prey they seemed in the nineteenth century, all you have to do is to restore the old social and industrial system, which taught them to view their natural prey in their fellow men, and to find their gain in the loss of others." "It was the sincere belief of even the best of men at that epoch that the only stable elements in human nature, on which a social system could be safely founded, were its worst propensities.... In a word, they believed – even those who longed to believe otherwise – the exact reverse of what to us seems self-evident; they believed, that is, that the antisocial qualities of men, and not their social qualities, were what furnished the cohesive force of society.... It seems absurd to expect anyone to believe that convictions like these were ever seriously entertained by men...." "The enfranchisement of humanity… may be regarded as a species of second birth of the race...." "With a tear for the dark past, turn we then to the dazzling future, and, veiling our eyes, press forward. The long and weary winter of the race is ended. Its summer has begun. Humanity has burst the chrysalis. The heavens are before it." See also Dutch Bellamy Party Footnotes Further reading Bellamy, Edward. Looking Backward: 2000–1887 with a foreword by Erich Fromm, Signet, 1960. Bellamy, Edward. The Religion of Solidarity, Arthur E. Morgan, ed., Antioch Bookplate Company, 1940. Published posthumously; concerns the idea of love of man and human solidarity. Bellamy, Edward. Apparitions of Things to Come: Edward Bellamy's Tales of Mystery & Imagination, collection of short stories, ISBN 0-88286-165-4. Franklin, John Hope. "Edward Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement," The New England Quarterly, Vol. 11, December 1938, 739-772. Goldbach, Karl Traugott. "Utopian Music: Music History of the Future in Novels by Bellamy, Callenbach and Huxley," in Utopia Matters. Theory, Politics, Literature and the Arts, Fátima Viera and Marinela Freitas, eds. Editora da Universidade do Porto, 2005, pp. 237-243. Kapell, Matthew. "Mack Reynolds' Avoidance of his own Eighteenth Brumaire: A Note of Caution for Would-Be Utopians." Extrapolation, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Summer): 201-208. Morgan, Arthur E. The Philosophy of Edward Bellamy, King's Crown Press, 1945. Sadler, Elizabeth, "One Book's Influence: Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward" The New England Quarterly, Vol. 17, December 1944, 530–555. External links Edward Bellamy, Francis Bellamy and the Pledge of Allegiance	Edward_Bellamy \|@lemmatized edward:15 bellamy:27 american:2 author:2 socialist:3 famous:2 utopian:6 novel:8 look:9 backward:9 set:1 year:3 circa:1 biography:2 early:2 life:2 bear:1 march:1 chicopee:2 fall:2 massachusetts:3 father:2 rufus:1 king:2 baptist:2 minister:2 descendant:1 joseph:2 mother:1 maria:1 louisa:1 putnam:2 calvinist:1 benjamin:1 also:3 withdraw:1 ministry:1 salem:1 follow:1 objection:1 become:1 freemason:1 religious:1 think:1 schiffman:1 transaction:1 proceeding:1 modern:2 language:1 association:1 america:2 vol:5 sep:1 p:2 two:2 old:2 brother:1 frederick:1 charles:1 attend:1 union:1 college:1 graduate:1 join:1 theta:1 chi:1 chapter:2 delta:1 kappa:1 epsilon:1 fraternity:1 study:1 law:1 leave:2 practice:1 work:1 briefly:1 newspaper:1 industry:1 new:5 york:3 springfield:1 journalism:1 devote:1 literature:3 write:1 short:3 story:4 marry:1 emma:1 augusta:1 sanderson:1 couple:1 child:1 paul:1 b:2 marion:1 cousin:1 francis:2 create:2 pledge:2 allegiance:2 book:8 include:1 dr:1 heidenhoff:1 process:1 miss:1 ludington:1 sister:1 duke:1 stockbridge:1 sequel:1 equality:4 writer:1 accord:1 erich:2 fromm:4 one:3 remarkable:1 ever:3 publish:6 introduction:1 eric:1 signet:2 isbn:2 third:1 large:2 bestseller:1 time:1 uncle:1 tom:1 cabin:1 ben:1 hur:1 tale:2 christ:1 julian:2 west:2 upper:1 class:1 man:2 awakes:1 hypnotic:1 trance:1 find:2 utopia:2 influence:2 number:2 intellectual:1 appear:1 title:1 many:2 major:1 marxist:1 writing:1 day:1 almost:1 immediately:1 appearance:1 political:2 mass:1 movement:3 vi:1 club:1 spring:1 united:1 state:1 discuss:1 propagate:1 idea:2 come:2 know:1 nationalism:2 see:3 example:1 mean:1 eclectic:1 magazine:1 foreign:1 sept:1 pg:1 inspire:1 several:2 community:1 although:2 unique:1 owes:1 aspect:1 philosophy:2 previous:1 reformer:1 laurence:1 gronlund:1 treatise:1 cooperative:1 commonwealth:1 exposition:1 socialism:1 second:2 continue:1 adjust:1 future:3 equity:1 less:1 successful:1 commercially:1 culturally:1 prequel:1 parable:1 water:1 tank:1 popular:1 reprint:1 various:1 edition:1 propaganda:1 pamphlet:1 hundred:1 additional:1 u:2 due:1 part:1 popularity:1 bowman:1 sylvia:1 e:3 critical:1 bookman:1 associate:1 page:1 die:1 may:2 age:1 tuberculosis:1 childhood:1 home:1 key:1 excerpt:1 friend:1 would:2 men:5 beast:1 prey:2 seem:3 nineteenth:1 century:1 restore:1 social:3 industrial:1 system:2 teach:1 view:1 natural:1 fellow:1 gain:1 loss:1 others:1 sincere:1 belief:1 even:2 best:1 epoch:1 stable:1 element:1 human:2 nature:1 could:1 safely:1 found:1 bad:1 propensity:1 word:1 believe:4 long:2 otherwise:1 exact:1 reverse:1 self:1 evident:1 antisocial:1 quality:2 furnish:1 cohesive:1 force:1 society:1 absurd:1 expect:1 anyone:1 conviction:1 like:1 seriously:1 entertain:1 enfranchisement:1 humanity:2 regard:1 specie:1 birth:1 race:2 tear:1 dark:1 past:1 turn:1 dazzling:1 veil:1 eye:1 press:2 forward:1 weary:1 winter:1 end:1 summer:2 begin:1 burst:1 chrysalis:1 heaven:1 dutch:1 party:1 footnote:1 reading:1 foreword:1 religion:1 solidarity:2 arthur:2 morgan:2 ed:2 antioch:1 bookplate:1 company:1 posthumously:1 concern:1 love:1 apparition:1 thing:1 mystery:1 imagination:1 collection:1 franklin:1 john:1 hope:1 nationalist:1 england:2 quarterly:2 december:2 goldbach:1 karl:1 traugott:1 music:2 history:1 callenbach:1 huxley:1 matter:1 theory:1 politics:1 art:1 fátima:1 viera:1 marinela:1 freitas:1 editora:1 da:1 universidade:1 porto:1 pp:1 kapell:1 matthew:1 mack:1 reynolds:1 avoidance:1 eighteenth:1 brumaire:1 note:1 caution:1 utopians:1 extrapolation:1 crown:1 sadler:1 elizabeth:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram edward_bellamy:12 salem_massachusetts:1 delta_kappa:1 springfield_massachusetts:1 pledge_allegiance:2 hypnotic_trance:1 nineteenth_century:1 publish_posthumously:1 external_link:1
1,175	Dandy	Sporty Parisian dandies of the 1830s: a girdle helped one achieve this silhouette. The man on the left wears a frock coat, the man on the right wears a morning coat A dandy "One who studies ostentatiously to dress fashionably and elegantly; a fop, an exquisite." (OED). (also known as a beau, gallant or flamboyant person ) is a man who places particular importance upon physical appearance, refined language, and leisurely hobbies. Historically, especially in late 18th- and early 19th-century Britain, a dandy, who was self-made, often strove to imitate an aristocratic style of life despite coming from a middle-class background. Given these connotations, dandyism can be seen as a political protestation against the rise of egalitarian principles — often including nostalgic adherence to feudal or pre-industrial values, such as the ideals of "the perfect gentleman" or "the autonomous aristocrat". Though previous manifestations, of Alcibiades, and of the petit-maître and the muscadin have been noted by John C. Prevost, Le Dandysme en France (1817-1839) (Geneva and Paris) 1957. the modern practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary 1790s, both in London and in Paris. The dandy cultivated skeptical reserve, yet to such extremes that the novelist George Meredith, himself no dandy, once defined "cynicism" as "intellectual dandyism"; nevertheless, the Scarlet Pimpernel is one of the great dandies of literature. Some took a more benign view; Thomas Carlyle in his book Sartor Resartus, wrote that a dandy was no more than "a clothes-wearing man". Charles Baudelaire, in the later, "metaphysical," phase of dandyism See Prevost 1957. defined the dandy as one who elevates æsthetics to a living religion, Baudelaire, in his essay about painter Constantin Guys, "The Painter of Modern Life". that the dandy's mere existence reproaches the responsible citizen of the middle class: "Dandyism in certain respects comes close to spirituality and to stoicism" and "These beings have no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons, of satisfying their passions, of feeling and thinking .... Contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance. For the perfect dandy, these things are no more than the symbol of the aristocratic superiority of his mind." Etymology The word dandy first appears in a Scottish border ballad, circa 1780, but probably without its more recent meaning. The original, full form of 'dandy' may have been jack-a-dandy. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911] It was a vogue word during the Napoleonic Wars. In that contemporary slang, a "dandy" was differentiated from a "fop" in that the dandy's dress was more refined and sober than the fop's. In the 21st century, the word dandy is a jocular, often sarcastic adjective meaning "fine" or "great"; when used in the form of a noun, it refers to a well-groomed and well-dressed man, but often to one who is also self-absorbed. Beau Brummell and early British dandyism Caricature of Beau Brummell by Richard Dighton (1805). Joachim Murat – the French King of Naples, is dubbed the "Dandy King" because of his flawless appearance. 10,000 Famous Freemasons from K to Z The model dandy in British society was George Bryan "Beau" Brummell (1778-1840), an undergraduate student at Oriel College, Oxford, and an associate of the Prince Regent: ever unpowdered, unperfumed, immaculately bathed and shaved, and dressed in a plain, dark blue coat, perfectly brushed, perfectly fitted, showing much perfectly starched linen, all freshly laundered, and composed with an elaborately knotted cravat. From the mid 1790s, Beau Brummell was the early incarnation of "the celebrity," a man chiefly famous for being famous--in his case, as a laconically witty clothes-horse. By the time Pitt taxed hair powder in 1795 to help pay for the war against France, Brummell had already abandoned wearing a wig, and had his hair cut in the Roman fashion, "à la Brutus". Moreover, he led the transition from breeches to snugly tailored dark "pantaloons," which directly led to contemporary trousers, the sartorial mainstay of men's clothes in the Western world for the past two centuries. In 1799, upon coming of age, Beau Brummell inherited from his father a fortune of thirty thousand pounds, which he spent mostly on costume, gambling, and high living. In 1816 he suffered bankruptcy, the dandy's stereotyped fate; he fled his creditors to France, quietly dying in 1840, in a lunatic asylum in Caen, just before age 62. Men of more notable accomplishment than Beau Brummell also adopted the dandiacal pose: George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron occasionally dressed the part, helping re-introduce the frilled, lace-cuffed and lace-collared "poet shirt." In that spirit, he had his portrait painted in Albanian costume. Another prominent dandy of the period was Alfred Guillaume Gabriel d'Orsay, the Count d'Orsay, who had been friends with Byron and moved in the highest social circles of London. Dandyism in France The beginnings of dandyism in France were bound up with the politics of the French revolution; the initial stage of dandyism, the gilded youth, was a political statement of dressing in an aristocratic style in order to distinguish its members from the sans-culottes. During his heyday, Beau Brummell's dictat on both fashion and etiquette reigned supreme. His habits of dress and fashion were much imitated, especially in France, where, in a curious development, they became the rage, especially in bohemian quarters. There, dandies sometimes were celebrated in revolutionary terms: self-created men of consciously designed personality, radically breaking with past traditions. With elaborate dress and idle, decadent styles of life, French bohemian dandies sought to convey contempt for and superiority to bourgeois society. In the latter 19th century, this fancy-dress bohemianism was a major influence on the Symbolist movement in French literature. Baudelaire was deeply interested in dandyism, and memorably wrote that a dandy aspirant must have "no profession other than elegance ... no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons ... The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror." Other French intellectuals also were interested in the dandies strolling the streets and boulevards of Paris. Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly wrote The Anatomy of Dandyism, an essay devoted, in great measure, to examining the career of Beau Brummell. Later dandyism The gilded 1890s provided many suitably sheltered settings for dandyism. The poets Algernon Swinburne and Oscar Wilde, Walter Pater, the American artist James McNeill Whistler, Joris-Karl Huysmans, and Max Beerbohm were dandies of the period, as was Robert de Montesquiou — Marcel Proust's inspiration for the Baron de Charlus; in Italy, Gabriele d'Annunzio and Carlo Bugatti exemplified the artistic bohemian dandyism of the fin de siecle. George Walden, in the essay Who's a Dandy?, identifies Noël Coward, Andy Warhol, and Quentin Crisp as modern dandies. The character Psmith in the novels of P. G. Wodehouse is regarded to be a dandy, both physically and intellectually; Bertie Wooster, narrator of Wodehouse's Jeeves novels, does his most to be a dandy, only to have Jeeves undermine all his plans to this end. In Japan, dandyism became a fashion subculture during the late 1990s. The artist, writer, and hedonist Sebastian Horsley identifies himself as a dandy, and discusses the subject at length in his biography. Female dandies The female counterpart is a quaintrelle. In the 1810s, when dandy had a more immature definition of "fop" or "over-the-top fellow", the female equivalents were dandyess or dandizette. Charles Dickens, in All the Year Around (1869) comments, "The dandies and dandizettes of 1819-1820 must have been a strange race. Dandizette was a term applied to feminine devotees to dress and their absurdities were fully equal to those of the dandy." In 1819, the novel Charms of Dandyism was published "by Olivia Moreland, chief of the female dandies"; although probably written by Thomas Ashe, "Olivia Moreland" may have existed, as Ashe did write several novels about living persons. Throughout the novel, dandyism is associated with "living in style". Later, as the word dandy evolved to denote refinement, it became applied solely to men. Popular Culture and Performance in the Victorian City (2003) notes this evolution in the latter 1800s: "...or dandizette, although the term was increasingly reserved for men." Female dandies became extinct and then went on to develop their own distinct philosophy, quaintrellism, apart from male influences. Possible 19th century quaintrelles could be found in the demimonde, in such extravagant women as the courtesan Cora Pearl, while the Marchesa Luisa Casati lived a dandy's career in post–World War I Venice. Analogously, the artistic diva might be considered a quaintrelle. Quotations {{quotation\|One should either be a work of Art, or wear a work of Art\|Oscar Wilde}} Famous dandies See also Bourgeois personality Flâneur Incroyables Maccaroni Metrosexual Popinjay Toff Yankee Doodle Dandy References Further reading Barbey d'Aurevilly, Jules. Of Dandyism and of George Brummell. Translated by Douglas Ainslie. New York: PAJ Publications, 1988. Carassus, Émile. Le Mythe du Dandy 1971. Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus. In A Carlyle Reader: Selections from the Writings of Thomas Carlyle. Edited by G.B. Tennyson. London: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Jesse, Captain William. The Life of Beau Brummell. London: The Navarre Society Limited, 1927. Lytton, Edward Bulwer, Lord Lytton. Pelham or the Adventures of a Gentleman. Edited by Jerome McGann. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972. Moers, Ellen. The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm. London: Secker and Warburg, 1960. Murray, Venetia. An Elegant Madness: High Society in Regency England. New York: Viking, 1998. Nicolay, Claire. Origins and Reception of Regency Dandyism: Brummell to Baudelaire. Ph. D. diss., Loyola U of Chicago, 1998. Prevost , John C., Le Dandysme en France (1817-1839) (Geneva and Paris) 1957. Stanton, Domna. The Aristoicrat as Art 1980. Wharton, Grace and Philip. Wits and Beaux of Society. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1861. External links "Bohemianism and Counter-Culture": The Dandy The Flâneur Blog: 'modern hypertext, fin de siècle flair' Dandyism.net "The Dandy" Dandies and Dandies by Max Beerbohm "Duchamp is Dandy" by Michael Beyer Shubow, Justin. "The Prince and the Dandy": a review of Nicholas Antongiavanni's The Suit: A Machiavellian Approach to Men's Style. The Claremont Review of Books'', Fall 2006.	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1,176	Gustav_Radbruch	Gustav Radbruch (November 21, 1878 - November 23, 1949) was a German law professor and political figure. Life Born at Lübeck, Radbruch studied law in Munich, Leipzig and Berlin. He passed his first bar exam ("Staatsexamen") in Berlin in 1901, and the following year he received his doctorate with a dissertation on "The Theory of adequate Causation." This was followed in 1903 by his qualification to teach criminal law in Heidelberg. In 1904, he was appointed Professor of Criminal and Trial Law and Legal Philosophy in Heidelberg. In 1914 he accepted a call to a professorship in Königsberg, and in 1914 he accepted one at Kiel. Radbruch was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), and held a seat in the Reichstag from 1920 to 1924. In 1921-22 and throughout 1923, he was Justice Minister in the cabinets of Joseph Wirth and Gustav Stresemann. During his time in office, a number of important laws were implemented, such as those giving women access to the justice system, and, after the assassination of Walter Rathenau, the Law for the Protection of the Republic. In 1926, Radbruch accepted a renewed call to lecture at Heidelberg. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Radbruch was dismissed from his civil service post, as the universities were public entities. During the Nazi period, he devoted himself primarily to cultural-historical work. Immediately after the end of the Second World War in 1945, he resumed his teaching activities, but died at Heidelberg in 1949 without being able to complete his planned updated edition of his textbook on legal philosophy. Work Title page "Rechtsphilosophie" (1932) Radbruch's legal philosophy derived from Neokantianism, which assumes that a categorical cleavage exists between "is" (Sein) and "ought" (Sollen). According to this view, "Should" can never be derived from "Being." Indicative of the Heidelberg school of Neokantianism to which Radbruch subscribed was that it interpolated the value-related cultural studies between the explanatory sciences (Being) and philosophical teachings of values (Should). In relation to the law, this triadism shows itself in the subfields of legal sociology, legal philosophy and legal dogma. Legal dogma assumes a place in between. It posits itself in opposition to positive law, as the latter depicts itself in social reality and methodologically in the objective "should-have" sense of law, which reveals itself through value-related interpretation. The core of Radbruch's legal philosophy consists of his tenets the concept of law and the idea of law. The idea of law is defined through a triad of justice, utility and security. Radbruch thereby had the idea of utility or usefuleness spring forth from an analysis of the idea of justice. Upon this notion was based the Radsbrucian formula, which is still vigorously debated today. The concept of law, for Radbruch, is "nothing other than the given fact, which has the sense to serve the idea of law." Hotly disputed is the question whether Radbruch was a legal positivist before 1933 and executed an about-face in his thinking due to the advent of Nazism, or whether he continued to develop, under the impression of Nazi crimes, the relativistic values-teaching he had already been advocating before 1933. The problem of the controversy between the spirit and the letter of the law, in Germany, has been brought back to public attention due to the trials of former East German soldiers who guarded the Berlin Wall--the so-called necessity of following orders. Radbruch's theories are posited against the positivist "pure legal tenets" represented by Hans Kelsen and, to some extent, also from Georg Jellinek. In sum, Radbruch's formula argues that where statutory law is incompatible with the requirements of justice "to an intolerable degree", or where statutory law was obviously designed in a way that deliberately negates "the equality that is the core of all justice", statutory law must be disregarded by a judge in favour of the justice principle. Since its first publication in 1946 the principle has been accepted by Germany's Federal Constitutional Court in a variety of cases. Many people partially blame the older German legal tradition of legal positivism for the ease with which Hitler obtain power in an outwardly "legal" manner, rather than by means of a coup. Arguably, the shift to a concept of natural law ought to act as a safeguard against dictatorship, an untrammeled State power and the abrogation of civil rights.	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1,177	Doctrine_and_Covenants	The Doctrine and Covenants (sometimes abbreviated and cited as D&C) is a part of the open scriptural canon of several denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. Originally published in 1835 as Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God, editions of the book continue to be printed mainly by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church)). The book originally contained two parts: a sequence of lectures setting forth basic church doctrine, followed by a compilation of important revelations, or "covenants" of the church: thus the name Doctrine and Covenants. The "doctrine" portion of the book, however, has been removed by both the LDS Church and the Community of Christ. The remaining portion of the book contains many revelations on numerous topics, most of which were dictated by the movement's founder Joseph Smith, Jr., supplemented by materials periodically added by each denomination. Controversy has existed between the two largest denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement over some sections added to the 1876 LDS edition, attributed to founder Smith. Whereas the LDS Church believes these sections to have been revelations to Smith, Section 132, scriptures.lds.org, accessed December 26, 2008 the RLDS Church traditionally disputed their authenticity. Differences between the RLDS and LDS Doctrine and Covenants on the subject of Marriage, accessed December 26, 2008 History The Doctrine and Covenants was first published in 1835 as a later version of the Book of Commandments, which had been partially printed in 1833. This earlier book contained 65 early revelations to church leaders including Joseph Smith, Jr. and Oliver Cowdery. Before many copies of the book could be printed, however, the printing press and most of the printed copies were destroyed by a mob in Missouri. On September 24, 1834 a committee was appointed by the general assembly of the church to organize a new volume containing the most significant Latter Day Saint revelations. This committee of Presiding Elders, consisting of Joseph Smith, Jr., Oliver Cowdery, Sidney Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams, began to review and revise numerous revelations for inclusion in the new work. The committee eventually organized the book into two parts: a "Doctrine" part followed by a "Covenants" part. The "Doctrine" part of the book consisted of a theological course now called the "Lectures on Faith". The Lectures were a series of doctrinal courses used in the School of the Prophets which had recently been completed in Kirtland, Ohio. According to the committee, these Lectures were included in the compilation "in consequence of their embracing the important doctrine of salvation." See 1835 D&C, Preface. The "Covenants" part of the book, labeled "Covenants and Commandments of the Lord, to his servants of the church of the Latter Day Saints", contained a total of 103 revelations on church governance. These 103 revelations were said to "contain items or principles for the regulation of the church, as taken from the revelations which have been given since its organization, as well as from former ones." See id. Each of the 103 revelations was assigned a "section number"; however, section 66 was used twice. Thus, the sections of the original work numbered only to 102. On February 17, 1835, after the committee had selected the book's contents, the committee wrote that the resulting work represents "our belief, and when we say this, humbly trust, the faith and principles of this society as a body." The book was first introduced to the church body in a general conference on August 17, 1835. Joseph Smith, Jr. and Frederick G. Williams, two of the Presiding Elders on the committee, were absent, but Oliver Cowdery and Sidney Rigdon were present. The church membership at the time had not yet seen the Doctrine and Covenants manuscript as it had been compiled and revised solely by the committee; however, various church members who were familiar with the work "bore record" of the book's truth. At the end of the conference, the church "by a unanimous vote" agreed to accept the compilation as "the doctrine and covenants of their faith" and to make arrangements for its printing. Joseph Smith, B.F. Roberts (ed.) (1902). History of the Church, 2:243-46. In 1835, the book was printed and published under the title Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints editions In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints stands alongside the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and The Pearl of Great Price as holy scripture. Together they are referred to as the "Standard Works." The LDS Church's version of the Doctrine and Covenants is officially described by the church as "containing revelations given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with some additions by his successors in the Presidency of the Church." LDS 1981 D&C Title Page Sections added to LDS edition The 138 Sections in LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–134, 137 — From the presidency of Joseph Smith, Jr. (1828–1844) Sections 135–136 — During the administration of the Twelve (1844–1847) Official Declaration—1 — From the presidency of Wilford Woodruff (1889–1898) Section 138 — From the presidency of Joseph F. Smith (1901–1918) Official Declaration—2 — From the presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (1973–1985) The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and so forth: 102, 123, 127–131, 134, and 135 In 1844, the church added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition. In the current edition, these added sections are numbered 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135. In 1876, a new LDS Church edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included twenty-six revelations not included in previous editions, now numbered as Sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108–111, 113–118, 120–123, 125, 126, 129–132, and 136. Previous editions had been divided into verses, however, the early versifications generally followed the paragraph structure of the original text. It was with the 1876 edition that the currently used versification was first employed. During the 1880s, five foreign editions contained two revelations to John Taylor that were received in 1882 and 1883; these revelations "set in order" the priesthood, gave more clarification about the roles of priesthood offices—especially the Seventy—and required Priesthood leaders to live plural marriage in order to qualify to hold their church positions. Probably due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to polygamy in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions of the Doctrine and Covenants. In 1930, a small volume edited by Apostle James E. Talmage titled Latter-day Revelations was published, which was a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants. Some believe it was intended to replace the Doctrine and Covenants, but that due to the controversy that arose this plan was dropped. Talmage's work did not contain the section on plural marriage. Sections 137 and 138 were added to the LDS Church's 1981 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, which is the edition currently in use by the church. These were accounts of two visions, one from Joseph Smith and the other from his nephew, Joseph F. Smith in 1918. The revelations were earlier accepted as scripture when added to The Pearl of Great Price in April 1976. No new revelatory sections have been added since 1981. The LDS Church's 1981 edition also contains two "Official Declarations" at the book's conclusion, the first renouncing polygamy in 1890, and the second in 1978 announcing the opening of priesthood ordination to all worthy male members including previously restricted members of African descent. These two "Official Declarations" are not revelations, but they serve as the formal announcements that a revelation was received. In neither case is the entire revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants, and it is possible that these two revelations were not of the nature of a writable piece of text. The text of Official Declaration—1 has been included in every LDS Church printing of the Doctrine and Covenants since 1908. Portions removed from the LDS edition In 1876, Sections 101 from the 1835 Edition (and subsequent printings) was removed. Section 101 was a Statement on Marriage as adopted by a conference of the church, History of the Church, vol. 2, at 247 (August 1835) Messenger and Advocate (Aug 1835), at 163 and contained the following text: It was superseded by section 132 of the modern LDS edition, which contains a revelation received by Joseph Smith on eternal marriage and teaches the doctrine of plural marriage. In 1921, the LDS Church removed the "Lectures on Faith" portion of the book, with an explanation that the Lectures "were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons". See Introduction, 1921 edition. The Lectures contain theology concerning the Godhead and emphasize the importance of faith and works. Until 1981, editions of the book used code names for certain people and places in those sections that dealt with the United Order. The 1981 LDS edition replaced these with the real names, relegating the code names to footnotes. The Community of Christ edition still uses the code names. See List of code names in the Doctrine and Covenants. Community of Christ editions Officials of Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) first published an edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition. A General Conference of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet–President Joseph Smith III had equal standing to those previously included in the work. Since that time, the church has continually added sections to its edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents. (The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration). Sections added to Community of Christ edition The 165 Sections of the Community of Christ's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows: Sections 1–113 (includes 108A) — From the presidency of Joseph Smith, Jr. (1828–1844) Sections 114–131 — From the presidency of Joseph Smith III (1860–1914) Sections 132–138 — From the presidency of Frederick M. Smith (1914–1946) Sections 139–144 — From the presidency of Israel A. Smith (1946–1958) Sections 145–152 (includes 149A) — From the presidency of W. Wallace Smith (1958–1978) Sections 153–160 — From the presidency of Wallace B. Smith (1978–1996) Sections 161–162 — From the presidency of W. Grant McMurray (1996–2004) Section 163 — From the presidency of Stephen M. Veazey (2005– ) The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and so forth: 99, 108A, 109–113, and 123. Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition Community of Christ removed the "Lectures on Faith" ("Doctrine" portion of the work) in 1897. The 1970 World Conference concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions—mainly dealing with the subjects of temple worship and baptism for the dead—had been published without proper approval of a church conference. The World Conference removed Sections 107, 109, 110, 113 and 123 to a historical appendix (which also included documents that were never published as sections). Of these, only Section 107 was a revelation. The World Conference of 1990 subsequently removed the entire appendix from the Doctrine and Covenants. Section 108A contained the minutes of a business meeting, which, because of its historical nature, was moved to the Introduction in the 1970s. After 1990, the Introduction was updated, and what was section 108A was removed entirely. Doctrinal Developments in the Community of Christ edition The ongoing additions to the Community of Christ edition provide a record of the leadership changes and doctrinal developments within the denomination. When W. Grant McMurray became Prophet–President, he declared that instruction specific to leadership changes would no longer be included, so that the focus of the work could be more doctrinal in nature, and less administrative. The record of these leadership changes are still maintained in the form of published letters of counsel. Prophet–President Stephen M. Veazey has conformed to this pattern. Although these letters are not formally published in the Doctrine and Covenants, they are still deemed to be inspired, and are dealt with in the same manner that revelations are (i.e., they must be deliberated and approved by the voting members of a World Conference). A modern revelation that resulted in some "disaffection" and "led to intense conflict in scattered areas of the RLDS Church" Howard, R.P. (1992) Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (RLDS Church), Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Macmillan, 1:1211 is contained in the Community of Christ version's Section 156, D&C Section 156 presented by Prophet-President Wallace B. Smith and added in 1984, which called for construction of the Independence Temple and the ordination of women to the priesthood, among other changes. While some of the prose in the new revelations seems designed to guide the denomination on matters of church governance and doctrine, others are seen as inspirational. One such example can be cited from Section 161, presented as counsel to the church by W. Grant McMurray in 1996: "Become a people of the Temple—those who see violence but proclaim peace, who feel conflict yet extend the hand of reconciliation, who encounter broken spirits and find pathways for healing." Editions used by other denominations The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) uses the 1846 edition that was published in Nauvoo, Illinois; this version is virtually identical to the 1844 edition. Most recently a facsimile reprint was produced for the church at Voree, Wisconsin by Richard Drew in 1993. The Church of Christ (Temple Lot) contends that the thousands of changes made to the original revelations as published in the Book of Commandments (including the change of the church's name) are not doctrinal and result from Joseph Smith's fall from his original calling. As a result, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) prefers to use reprints of the Book of Commandments text. The Restoration Branches generally use the older RLDS Church Doctrine and Covenants, typically sections 1–144. The Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints also uses the older RLDS Church version of the Doctrine and Covenants up to section 144, and also contains new revelations from their prophet–president Frederick Niels Larsen. These new sections are R 145–R 153. Chart comparison of editions The following chart compares the current editions of the Doctrine and Covenants used by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS ed.) and the Community of Christ (CofC ed.) with the 1833 Book of Commandments (BofC), the 1835 edition published in Kirtland, and the 1844 edition published in Nauvoo. Unless otherwise specified, the document is styled a "revelation" of the person delivering it. LDS ed. CofC ed. BofC(1833) Kirtland ed.(1835) Nauvoo ed.(1844) Date Delivered by Description 1 1 1 1 1 November 1, 1831 Joseph Smith Lord’s 'Preface' 2 September 21, 1823 Joseph Smith (angelic visitation) Moroni’s visit to Joseph Smith 3 2 2 30 30 July 1828 Joseph Smith lost 116 pages 4 4 3 31 31 February 1829 Joseph Smith To Joseph Smith, Sr. 5 5 4 32 32 March 1829 Joseph Smith To Martin Harris; golden plates 6 6 5 8 8 April 1829 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery To Oliver Cowdery 7 7 6 33 33 April 1829 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery To Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery; John the Apostle 8 8 7 34 34 April 1829 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery; Book of Mormon translation 9 9 8 35 35 April 1829 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery; Book of Mormon translation 10 3 9 36 36 Summer 1828 Joseph Smith lost 116 pages 11 10 10 37 37 May 1829 Joseph Smith To Hyrum Smith 12 11 11 38 38 May 1829 Joseph Smith To Joseph Knight, Sr. 13 May 15, 1829 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (angelic visitation) Conferral of Aaronic priesthood by John the Baptist 14 12 12 39 39 June 1829 Joseph Smith To David Whitmer 15 13 13 40 40 June 1829 Joseph Smith To John Whitmer 16 14 14 41 41 June 1829 Joseph Smith To Peter Whitmer, Jr. 17 15 42 42 June 1829 Joseph Smith To Three Witnesses 18 16 15 43 43 June 1829 Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer selection of Twelve Apostles 19 18 16 44 44 March 1830 Joseph Smith To Martin Harris 20 17 24 2 2 April 1830 Joseph Smith Church organization and government 21 19 22 46 46 April 6, 1830 Joseph Smith Joseph Smith’s calling 22 20 23 47 47 April 1830 Joseph Smith baptism 23 21 17-21 45 45 April 1830 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery, Hyrum Smith, Samuel H. Smith, Joseph Smith, Sr., Joseph Knight, Sr. 24 23 25 9 9 July 1830 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery Callings of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery 25 24 26 48 48 July 1830 Joseph Smith To Emma Smith 26 25 27 49 49 July 1830 Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and John Whitmer Common consent 27 26 28 50 50 August 1830 Joseph Smith Sacrament and priesthood ordinations 28 27 30 51 51 September 1830 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery; Joseph Smith to receive revelations until another appointed 29 28 29 10 10 September 1830 Joseph Smith To six elders; Second Coming; origin of Satan; redemption of children 30 29 31-33 52 52 September 1830 Joseph Smith To David Whitmer, Peter Whitmer, Jr., John Whitmer 31 30 34 53 53 September 1830 Joseph Smith To Thomas B. Marsh 32 31 54 54 October 1830 Joseph Smith To Parley P. Pratt and Ziba Peterson 33 32 35 55 55 October 1830 Joseph Smith To Ezra Thayre and Northrop Sweet 34 33 36 56 56 November 4, 1830 Joseph Smith To Orson Pratt 35 34 37 11 11 December 1830 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Callings Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon; signs and miracles; the elect 36 35 38 57 57 December 1830 Joseph Smith To Edward Partridge 37 37 39 58 58 December 1830 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Saints to gather in Ohio 38 38 40 12 12 January 2, 1831 Joseph Smith equality; wars 39 39 41 59 59 January 5, 1831 Joseph Smith To James Covill 40 40 42 60 60 January 1831 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon concerning James Covill 41 41 43 61 61 February 4, 1831 Joseph Smith To the church; Edward Partridge called as bishop 42 42 44, 47 13 13 February 9, 1831 Joseph Smith "the law" of the church 43 43 45 14 14 February 1831 Joseph Smith Role of President of the Church; missionary work; forces of nature 44 44 46 62 62 late February 1831 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Church conference called 45 45 48 15 15 March 7, 1831 Joseph Smith Matthew chapter 24 explained; missionary work; Christ as advocate 46 46 49 16 16 March 8, 1831 Joseph Smith sacrament meeting, gifts of the Spirit 47 47 50 63 63 March 8, 1831 Joseph Smith John Whitmer to keep history of church 48 48 51 64 64 March 1831 Joseph Smith purchase of lands 49 49 52 65 65 March 1831 Joseph Smith To Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, Parley P. Pratt and Leman Copley; Shaker beliefs 50 50 53 17 17 May 1831 Joseph Smith Recognizing the Spirit 51 51 23 23 May 1831 Joseph Smith property division 52 52 54 66 66 June 7, 1831 Joseph Smith sending elders to Missouri 53 53 55 66 This section was mistakenly numbered LXVI, the same as the previous section. This numbering error was corrected in the Nauvoo edition, thus changing the number of all subsequent sections. 67 June 1831 Joseph Smith To A. Sidney Gilbert 54 54 56 67 68 June 1831 Joseph Smith To Newel Knight 55 55 57 68 69 June 1831 Joseph Smith To W.W. Phelps 56 56 58 69 70 June 1831 Joseph Smith the rebellious; the rich and the poor 57 57 27 27 July 20, 1831 Joseph Smith location of Zion at Jackson County, Missouri 58 58 59 18 28 August 1, 1831 Joseph Smith tribulations; gather to Zion 59 59 60 19 19 August 7, 1831 Joseph Smith the sabbath; reward for the righteous 60 60 61 70 71 August 8, 1831 Joseph Smith elders to travel to Cincinnati; missionary work 61 61 62 71 72 August 12, 1831 Joseph Smith "destruction upon the waters" 62 62 63 72 73 August 13, 1831 Joseph Smith missionary work 63 63 64 20 20 late August 1831 Joseph Smith signs; mysteries; impending war and woe; gather to Zion; authority to use Lord's name 64 64 65 Incomplete; due to the loss of printed pages, all copies of the Book of Commandments end in the middle of this revelation. 21 21 September 11, 1831 Joseph Smith forgiveness; financial debt; tithing; Zion to flourish 65 65 24 24 October 1831 Joseph Smith (prayer) Prayer of Joseph Smith; keys of the kingdom 66 66 74 75 October 25, 1831 Joseph Smith To William E. M’Lellin 67 67 25 25 November 1831 Joseph Smith testimony of the Book of Commandments 68 68 22 22 November 1831 Joseph Smith To Orson Hyde, Luke S. Johnson, Lyman E. Johnson and William E. M’Lellin; ; bishops; parents 69 69 28 28 November 1831 Joseph Smith Assignments for John Whitmer 70 70 26 26 November 12, 1831 Joseph Smith stewardship; equality 71 71 90 91 December 1, 1831 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon called to preach 72 72 89 90 December 4, 1831 Joseph Smith bishops 73 73 29 29 January 10, 1832 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible 74 74 73 74 late January 1832 Joseph Smith Explanation of 1 Corinthians 7:14; salvation of children 75 75 87 88 January 25, 1832 Joseph Smith missionary work; families of missionaries 76 76 91 92 February 16, 1832 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon (vision) Jesus Christ; resurrection; degrees of glory; origin of Satan 77 March 1832 Joseph Smith certain verses from Revelation explained 78 77 75 76 March 1832 Joseph Smith United Order; equality 79 78 76 77 March 1832 Joseph Smith To Jared Carter 80 79 77 78 March 1832 Joseph Smith To Stephen Burnett and Eden Smith 81 80 79 80 March 1832 Joseph Smith To Jesse Gause; on March 18, 1833 application transferred to Frederick G. Williams 82 81 86 87 April 26, 1832 Joseph Smith obedience; United Order; equality 83 82 88 89 April 26, 1832 Joseph Smith husbands and fathers; widows and orphans 84 83 4 4 September 22-23, 1832 Joseph Smith priesthood 85 November 17, 1832 Joseph Smith (letter) Letter from Joseph Smith to W.W. Phelps; United Order; One Mighty and Strong; equality 86 84 6 6 December 6, 1832 Joseph Smith Parable of the Tares explained 87 December 25, 1832 Joseph Smith prophecy of war, calamity 88 85 7 7 December 27-28, 1832; January 3, 1833 Joseph Smith the "olive leaf"; "Lord's message of peace" 89 86 80 81 February 27, 1833 Joseph Smith A word of wisdom 90 87 84 85 March 8, 1833 Joseph Smith keys of the kingdom; First Presidency 91 88 92 93 March 9, 1833 Joseph Smith the Apocrypha 92 89 93 94 March 15, 1833 Joseph Smith To Frederick G. Williams 93 90 82 83 May 6, 1833 Joseph Smith John’s record of Christ; intelligence; innocence of children 94 91 83 84 May 6, 1833 Joseph Smith To Hyrum Smith, Reynolds Cahoon and Jared Carter; construction of various buildings commanded 95 92 95 96 June 1, 1833 Joseph Smith temple to be built; purpose of temples 96 93 96 97 June 4, 1833 Joseph Smith division of property 97 94 81 82 August 2, 1833 Joseph Smith Saints in Jackson County, Missouri; temple to be built in Jackson County, Missouri 98 95 85 86 August 6, 1833 Joseph Smith promises and warnings; martyrs; when war is justified; forgiving enemies 99 96 78 79 August 1832 Some older LDS and RLDS editions mistakenly date this revelation to August 1833. Joseph Smith To John Murdock 100 97 94 95 October 12, 1833 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon to preach gospel; Rigdon to be Smith's spokesman; welfare of Orson Hyde and John Gould 101 98 97 98 December 16. 1833 Joseph Smith redemption of Zion; parables; United States and U.S. Constitution; Saints to seek redress 102 99 5 5 February 17, 1834 Oliver Cowdery and Orson Hyde (minutes of meeting) Minutes for first high council meeting 103 100 101 February 24, 1834 Joseph Smith redemption of Zion; organization of Zion’s Camp 104 101 98 99 April 24, 1834 Joseph Smith United Order 105 102 102 June 22, 1834 Joseph Smith redemption of Zion; purpose of Kirtland Temple; peace 106 103 99 100 November 25, 1834 Joseph Smith To Warren A. Cowdery; Second Coming 107 104 3 3 various times; completed March 28, 1835 Joseph Smith priesthood; quorums 108 December 26, 1835 Joseph Smith To Lyman Sherman 109 March 27, 1836 Joseph Smith (prayer) Dedicatory prayer for Kirtland Temple 110 April 3, 1836 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (vision and angelic visitations) Visitation of Jesus Christ to accept Kirtland Temple; conferral of priesthood keys; coming of Elijah 111 August 6, 1836 Joseph Smith temporal needs of the church 112 105 104 July 23, 1837 Joseph Smith To Thomas B. Marsh; Quorum of the Twelve Apostles; First Presidency 113 March 1838 Joseph Smith (answers to questions) Answers to questions on the Book of Isaiah provided by Joseph Smith 114 April 17, 1838 Joseph Smith concerning David W. Patten 115 April 17, 1838 Joseph Smith name of the church; stakes; temple to be built at Far West, Missouri 116 May 19, 1838 Joseph Smith Adam-ondi-Ahman 117 July 8, 1838 Joseph Smith concerning William Marks, Newel K. Whitney and Oliver Granger; property; sacrifice 118 July 8, 1838 Joseph Smith vacancies in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles filled 119 106 107 July 8, 1838 Joseph Smith tithing 120 July 8, 1838 Joseph Smith Council on the Disposition of the Tithes 121 March 20, 1839 Joseph Smith (prayer and prophecies) Prayer and prophecies of Joseph Smith; why many are called but few chosen 122 March 1839 Joseph Smith destiny of Joseph Smith 123 March 1839 Joseph Smith (letter) Letter to church; duty in relation to their persecutors 124 107 Placed in the Appendix at the 1970 World Conference; the Appendix was removed completely by the 1990 World Conference. 103 January 19, 1841 Joseph Smith Nauvoo Temple and Nauvoo House to be built; baptism for the dead 125 March 1841 Joseph Smith Saints in Iowa 126 July 9, 1841 Joseph Smith To Brigham Young 127 109 Placed in the Appendix at the 1970 World Conference; the Appendix was removed completely by the 1990 World Conference. 105 September 1, 1842 Joseph Smith (letter) Letter to church; baptism for the dead 128 110 Placed in the Appendix at the 1970 World Conference; the Appendix was removed completely by the 1990 World Conference. 106 September 6, 1842 Joseph Smith (letter) Letter to church; baptism for the dead 129 February 9, 1843 Joseph Smith (instructions) distinguishing the nature of angels and disembodied spirits 130 April 2, 1843 Joseph Smith (instruction) Various items of instruction; corporeal nature of God and Jesus Christ; intelligence; seer stones 131 May 16 - May 17, 1843 Joseph Smith (instruction) Various items of instruction; celestial marriage; eternal life 132 July 12, 1843 Joseph Smith plural marriage; celestial marriage; sealing power; exaltation 133 108 100 108 November 3, 1831 Joseph Smith original "Appendix"; Second Coming; missionary work 134 112 102 110 August 15, 1835 Church (declaration) secular governments and laws in general 135 113 Placed in the Appendix at the 1970 World Conference; the Appendix was removed completely by the 1990 World Conference. 111 June 27, 1844 John Taylor (eulogy) Martyrdom of Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith 136 January 14, 1847 Brigham Young Organization of Mormon pioneer westward journey 137 Originally included in the LDS Church’s Pearl of Great Price. January 21, 1836 Joseph Smith (vision) salvation for the dead; salvation of little children 138 Originally included in the LDS Church’s Pearl of Great Price. October 3, 1918 Joseph F. Smith (vision) Jesus Christ preached to spirits in prison; salvation for the dead OD—1 September 24, 1890 Wilford Woodruff (declaration) cessation of plural marriage OD—2 June 8, 1978 Spencer W. Kimball, N. Eldon Tanner, Marion G. Romney (declaration) cessation of priesthood restrictions based on race Included in the LDS Pearl of Great Price as Moses 1:1-42. 22 Approved by the 1970 World Conference. June 1830 Joseph Smith God’s words to Moses Included in the LDS Pearl of Great Price as Moses 7:1-69. 36 Approved by the 1970 World Conference; Genesis 7:1-78 in the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible. December 1830 Joseph Smith Prophecy of Enoch 111 101 109 August 17, 1835 Church (declaration) Declaration on marriage; one spouse only 114 October 7, 1861 Joseph Smith III (letter) Tithing 115 March 1863 Joseph Smith III Calling of William Marks 116 May 4, 1865 Joseph Smith III Priesthood ordination of other races 117 April 10, 1873 Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions 118 September 28, 1882 Joseph Smith III Foreign missions 119 April 11, 1887 Joseph Smith III Instructions to the elders 120 April 8, 1890 Joseph Smith III Branch and district presidents 121 April 11, 1885 Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions 122 April 15, 1894 Joseph Smith III Duties of quorums 123 Placed in the Appendix at the 1970 World Conference; the Appendix was removed completely by the 1990 World Conference. April 20, 1894 Joint council of the First Presidency, Council of Twelve Apostles, and Presiding Bishopric (report) Lamoni College; church publications; relations with LDS Church; doctrinal tracts; interpretation of various scriptures; gospel boat; branch in Detroit 124 April 1894 Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions 125 April 15, 1901 Joseph Smith III patriarchs; foreign missions 126 April 16, 1902 Joseph Smith III (vision) quorums 127 April 14, 1906 Joseph Smith III Sanitarium 128 April 18, 1909 Joseph Smith III Organization and colonization 129 April 18, 1909 Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions 130 April 14, 1913 Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions 131 April 14, 1914 Joseph Smith III Presiding Bishopric 132 April 5, 1916 Frederick M. Smith Presiding Bishop 133 April 7, 1920 Frederick M. Smith Missionary work 134 October 2, 1922 Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions 135 April 18, 1925 Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions 136 April 14, 1932 Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions; unity 137 April 7, 1938 Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions 138 April 10, 1940 Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions; work toward Zion 139 April 9, 1946 Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions 140 April 7, 1947 Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions; Zion 141 October 2, 1948 Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel 142 April 2, 1950 Israel A. Smith Commendation; urge to work 143 April 7, 1954 Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel 144 April 7, 1954 Israel A. Smith (letter) New Church President named 145 October 8, 1958 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions 146 April 2, 1960 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; unity commended 147 March 11, 1964 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; stewardship 148 April 18, 1966 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel 149 April 1, 1968 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; relationship between ministerial programs; prepare to build temple at Independence 149A April 5, 1968 W. Wallace Smith Clarification of 149 150 April 14, 1972 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel on culture; temple preparation; ecology 151 April 1, 1974 W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; reconciliation 152 March 29, 1976 W. Wallace Smith New precedent on Presidential succession; Presidential successor named; changes in leadership positions; reconciliation 153 April 6, 1978 Wallace B. Smith New Church President; changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach 154 April 8, 1980 Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach 155 March 29, 1982 Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel on witness 156 April 3, 1984 Wallace B. Smith Purpose of Independence Temple; priesthood opened to women; changes in leadership positions 157 April 12, 1988 Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; unity; humility 158 April 5, 1992 Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; the spiritual life 159 April 10, 1994 Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; trusting the Spirit; Independence Temple accepted 160 April 14, 1996 Wallace B. Smith New Church President named 161 April 4, 2000 W. Grant McMurray Proclaim peace; reach out; patience; embrace differences; respect tradition 162 March 29, 2004 W. Grant McMurray Be a prophetic people; diversity; tithing 163 March 29, 2007 Stephen M. Veazey Strive for peace; missionary work; use and misuse of scripture; equality; generosity References Sources The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Containing Revelations Given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with Some Additions by his Successors in the Presidency of the Church, Intellectual Reserve: Salt Lake City, UT, 1981. Book of Doctrine and Covenants: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God and Given in the Order of their Dates, Herald Publishing House: Independence, MO, 2000. Joseph Smith, The Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God, photo enlarged and reprinted from the 1846 Nauvoo edition by Richard Drew, Burlington (Voree), Wisconsin, 1993, for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite). Peter Judd, Journey in Trust: A Study Resource for D&C 161, Herald House, 2004. ISBN 0-8309-1122-7 Book of Commandments: Herald Heritage Reprint, Herald House, 1833 (reprint). ISBN 0-8309-0066-7 F. Henry Edwards, The Edwards Commentary on the Doctrine & Covenants, Herald House, 1986. ISBN 0-8309-0187-6 Robert J. Woodford, "Doctrine and Covenants Editions", Encyclopedia of Mormonism 1:425–427 External links at Wikisource (LDS Church version). Doctrine and Covenants - Complete official 1981 LDS Church edition Community of Christ Edition (Sections 1-144; unofficial HTML version) Community of Christ Edition (Sections 145-159; unofficial HTML version) Community of Christ Edition (Section 161; official HTML version) Community of Christ Edition (Section 162; official HTML version) Community of Christ Edition (Section 163; official HTML version) Scanned images of complete 1833 Book of Commandments, 1835 Doctrine and Covenants, and 1971 LDS Church Doctrine and Covenants SaintsWithoutHalos.com: Doctrine and Covenants - Mormon historical revisionist site with thoroughly annotated D&C showing changes from various editions.	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1,178	Antonio_Canova	Self-portrait by Canova, 1792. Antonio Canova (November 1, 1757 - October 13, 1822) was an Italian sculptor who became famous for his marble sculptures that delicately rendered nude flesh. The epitome of the neoclassical style, his work marked a return to classical refinement after the theatrical excesses of Baroque sculpture. Early life in Possagno and Venice Antonio Canova was born in Possagno, a village of the Republic of Venice situated amid the recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these form the last undulations of the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains of Treviso. At three years of age Canova was deprived of both parents, his father dying and his mother remarrying. Their loss, however, was compensated by the tender solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother, the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest personal attention from her grandson, who, when he had the means, gave her an asylum in his house at Rome. The Museo Canoviano located in Possagno near Asolo His father and grandfather followed the occupation of stone-cutters or minor statuaries; and it is said that their family had for several ages supplied Possagno with members of that calling. As soon as Canova's hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated into the principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, designed well, and showed considerable taste in the execution of ornamental works. He was greatly attached to his art; and upon his young charge he looked as one who was to perpetuate, not only the family name, but also the family profession. The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of his mind was to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the gratification of this predilection in the workshop of his grandfather were eagerly improved. In his ninth year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant. Soon after this period he appears to have been constantly employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by this means young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that name, who afterwards became his most zealous patron. Between the younger son, Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a friendship commenced which terminated only with life. The senator Falier was induced to receive him under his immediate protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to a trivial circumstance - the moulding of a lion in butter - for the warm interest which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote may or may not be true. By his patron Canova was placed under Bernardi, or, as he is generally called by filiation, Giuseppe Torretto, a sculptor of considerable eminence, who had taken up a temporary residence at Pagnano, one of Asolo's boroughs in the vicinity of the senator's mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two years, making in many respects considerable progress. This master returned to Venice, where he soon afterwards died; but by the high terms in which he spoke of his pupil to Falier, the latter was induced to bring the young artist to Venice, whither he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of Torretto. With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement he began to work on his own account, and received from his patron an order for a group, Orpheus and Eurydice. The first figure, which represents Eurydice in flames and smoke, in the act of leaving Hades, was completed towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his patron and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to appear before a public tribunal. Psyche Revived by Love's Kiss, Louvre. The kindness of some monks supplied him with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery. Here for nearly four years he labored with the greatest perseverance and industry. He was also regular in his attendance at the academy, where he carried off several prizes. But he relied far more on the study and imitation of nature. A large portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which science was regarded by him as the secret of the art. He likewise frequented places of public amusement, where he carefully studied the expressions and attitudes of the performers. He formed a resolution, which was faithfully adhered to for several years, never to close his eyes at night without having produced some design. Whatever was likely to forward his advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On archaeological pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With ancient and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted and he also began to acquire some of the continental languages. Three years had now elapsed without any production coming from his chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for his patron, and the Orpheus which followed evinced the great advance he had made. The work was universally applauded, and laid the foundation of his fame. Several groups succeeded this performance, amongst which was that of Daedalus and Icarus, the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The terseness of style and the faithful imitation of nature which characterized them called forth the warmest admiration. His merits and reputation being now generally recognized, his thoughts began to turn from the shores of the Adriatic to the banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the commencement of his twenty-fourth year. Career in Rome Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the Venetian senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies without embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. The stipend amounted to three hundred ducats (about 60 pounds per annum), and was limited to three years. Canova had obtained letters of introduction to the Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous protector of the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner. Theseus and the Minotaur, V&A, London His arrival in Rome, on 28 December, 1780, marks a new era in his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the most splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the severest test by a competition with the living masters of the art. The result was equal to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his friends. The work which first established his fame at Rome was Theseus Vanquishing the Minotaur, now in the collections of the Victoria & Albert Museum, in London. The figures are of the heroic size. The victorious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body of the monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves the terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged. Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized Canova's style; with these were now united more exalted conceptions of grandeur and of truth. The Theseus was regarded with fervent admiration. Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honor of Clement XIV; but before he proceeded with it he deemed it necessary to request permission from the Venetian senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in consideration of the pension. This he solicited, in person, and it was granted. He returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years of unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the models for the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, other two years were employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally opened to public inspection in 1787. The work, in the opinion of enthusiastic dilettanti, stamped the author as the first artist of modern times. The Three Graces, Hermitage After five years of incessant labor, he completed another cenotaph, to the memory of Clement XIII, which raised his fame still higher. Works now came rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a butterfly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of man's immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect the most faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two different groups, and with opposite expression, the sculptor has represented Cupid with his bride; in the one they are standing, in the other recumbent. These and other works raised his reputation so high that the most flattering offers were sent to him from the Russian court to induce him to remove to St Petersburg, but these were declined, although many of his finest works made their way to the Hermitage Museum. "Italy", says he, in writing of the occurrence to a friend, "Italy is my country - is the country and native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was nurtured here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other land, they must be of some utility to Italy; and ought not her claim to be preferred to all others?" Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of which several were repetitions of previous productions. One was the celebrated group representing the Parting of Venus and Adonis. This famous production was sent to Naples. The French Revolution was now extending its shocks over Italy; and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native Possagno. Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had some knowledge. Events in the political world having come to a temporary lull, he returned to Rome; but his health being impaired from arduous application, he took a journey through a part of Germany, in company with his friend Prince Rezzonico. He returned from his travels much improved, and again commenced his labors with vigour and enthusiasm. Trips to France and England Magdalen, Hermitage. The events which marked the life of the artist during the first fifteen years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned works scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely absorbed in the labors of his studio, and, with the exception of his journeys to Paris, one to Vienna, and a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts of Italy, he never quit Rome. In his own words, "his statues were the sole proofs of his civil existence." Canova in 1817 by George Hayter (British Embassy, Paris) There was, however, another proof, which modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence, especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to superintend the transmission from Paris of those works of art which had formerly been conveyed thither under the direction of Napoleon. By his zeal and exertions - for there were many conflicting interests to reconcile - he adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his judgment and fortunate for his country. In the autumn of this year he gratified a wish he had long entertained of visiting London, where he received the highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed particular sympathy and regard in London was Benjamin Haydon, who might at the time be counted the sole representative of historical painting there, and whom he especially honored for his championship of the Elgin marbles, then recently transported to England, and ignorantly depreciated by polite connoisseurs. Among Canova's English pupils were sculptors Sir Richard Westmacott and John Gibson. Canova returned to Rome in the beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his country's genius. Immediately after, he received several marks of distinction: he was made President of the Accademia di San Luca, the main artistic institution in Rome, and by the hand of the Pope himself his name was inscribed in "the Golden Volume of the Capitol", and he received the title of Marquis of Ischia, with an annual pension of 3000 crowns. Last projects Monument to Canova in the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, designed by Canova as a mausoleum for the painter Titian. He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of Religion. The model filled Italy with admiration; the marble was procured, and the chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied to it, when the jealousy of churchmen as to the site, or some other cause, deprived the country of the projected work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warmest sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance he resolved to consecrate a shrine to the cause. In his native village he began to make preparations for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the above statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were to repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired to Possagno in 1819. After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit Possagno, in order to direct the workmen, and encourage them with pecuniary rewards and medals. In the meantime the vast expenditure exhausted his resources, and compelled him to labor with unceasing assiduity notwithstanding age and disease. During the period which intervened between commencing operations at Possagno and his decease, he executed or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were the group Mars and Venus, the colossal figure of Pius VI, the Pietà, the St John, the recumbent Magdalen. The last performance which issued from his hand was a colossal bust of his friend, the Count Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of the perjured Bourbon king Ferdinand VII. This journey materially injured his health, but he rallied again on his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the year he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease was one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the continual use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. The most distinguished funeral honors were paid to his remains, which were deposited in the temple at Possagno on 25 October, 1822. His heart was interred in a marble pyramid he designed as a mausoleum for the painter Titian in the church of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice, now a monument to the sculptor. Notable works Perseus and the head of Medusa, by Antonio Canova. Among Canova's heroic compositions, his Perseus with the Head of Medusa (photo, right) appeared soon after his return from Germany. The moment of representation is when the hero, flushed with conquest, displays the head of the "snaky Gorgon", whilst the right hand grasps a sword of singular device. By a public decree, this fine work was placed in one of the stanze of the Vatican hitherto reserved for the most precious works of antiquity. Napoleon by Antonio Canova, Apsley House, London In 1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova returned to Paris to model a bust of the first consul. The artist was entertained with munificence, and various honors were conferred upon him. The statue, which is colossal and entitled Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker, was not finished till six years after. On the fall of the great emperor, Louis XVIII presented this statue to the British government, by whom it was afterwards given to the Duke of Wellington. Palamedes, Creugas and Damoxenus, the Combat of Theseus and the Centaur, and Hercules and Lichas may close the class of heroic compositions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the enumeration of various others, such as Hector and Ajax, and the statues of George Washington (commissioned by the State of North Carolina to be displayed in its Capitol Building), King Ferdinand of Naples, and others. Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the statue of Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times has the artist embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each time with some variation. The last one is in the Museum of Forlì, in Italy. The only material improvement, however, is the substitution of a support more suitable to the simplicity of the art. Each of the statues is, in all its details, in expression, attitude and delicacy of finish, strikingly elegant. Pauline Bonaparte as Venus Victrix, now at the Galleria Borghese. The Dancing Nymphs maintain a character similar to that of the Hebe. The Three Graces and the Venus are more elevated. The Awakened Nymph is another work of uncommon beauty. The mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louise (as Concord), to model whom the author made a further journey to Paris in 1810, the princess Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia (Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in this class, as do the ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, Beatrice and Helen of Troy. Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid is the monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, consisting of nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman Pontiffs already mentioned, there is one for Alfieri, another for Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a small model of a cenotaph for Horatio Nelson, besides a great variety of monumental relieves. References External links Catholic Encyclopedia entry for Antonio Canova French page on Louvre site lnking to three sculptures by Canova and two portraits of the artist Insecula.com: French language biography and links to pages on works Canova's Three Graces (first version) in the Hermitage museum, St. Petersburg Webshots Community picture of Canova's 'Three Graces (second version) in the V&A (links to bigger image) Perseus and Medusa at Webshots Community (links to bigger image) Another view on Webshots (links to bigger image) Waist up, another Webshots photo Perseus back view from Webshots Antonio Canova: Photo Gallery Canova's death mask at Princeton Canova museum and plaster cast gallery Canova 2009 Exhibition in Forlì, Italy	Antonio_Canova \|@lemmatized self:1 portrait:2 canova:34 antonio:6 november:1 october:2 italian:2 sculptor:6 become:2 famous:2 marble:5 sculpture:5 delicately:1 render:2 nude:1 flesh:1 epitome:1 neoclassical:1 style:3 work:23 mark:4 return:10 classical:2 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1,179	IKEA	World Map showing locations of IKEA stores in 2007. Green represents countries with stores in operation and blue shows proposed locations. IKEA is a privately-held, international home products retailer that sells flat pack furniture, accessories, and bathroom and kitchen items in their retail stores around the world. The company, which pioneered flat-pack design furniture at affordable prices, is now the world's largest furniture manufacturer. Reuters (January 8, 2008) IKEA mulls joint venture with Bosnia furniture maker. IKEA was founded in 1943 by Ingvar Kamprad in Sweden and it is owned by a Dutch-registered foundation controlled by the Kamprad family. IKEA is an acronym comprising the initials of the founder's name (Ingvar Kamprad), the farm where he grew up (Elmtaryd), and his home parish (Agunnaryd, in Småland, South Sweden). "Ingvar Kamprad and IKEA". Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA, 02163. 1996 INGKA Holding B.V. is the parent company for all IKEA Group companies, including the industrial group Swedwood, which commissions the manufacturing of IKEA furniture coming from any manufacturer worldwide (outsourcing), the sales companies that run IKEA stores, as well as purchasing and supply functions, and IKEA of Sweden, which is responsible for the design and development of products in the IKEA range. INGKA Holding B.V. is wholly owned by Stichting INGKA Foundation, which is a non-profit foundation registered in Leiden in the Netherlands. Inter IKEA Systems B.V. in Delft, also in the Netherlands, owns the IKEA concept and trademark, and there is a franchising agreement with every IKEA store in the world. The IKEA Group is the biggest franchisee of Inter IKEA Systems B.V. Inter IKEA Systems B.V. is not owned by INGKA Holding B.V., but by Inter IKEA Holding S.A. registered in Luxemburg, which in turn is part of Inter IKEA Holding registered in the Netherlands Antilles. The ownership of the holding companies has not been disclosed. Economist, May 11, 2006 In August 2008, IKEA also announced that it had created IKEA GreenTech, a €50 million venture capital fund. Located in Lund (a university town in Sweden), it will invest in 8-10 companies in the coming five years with focus on solar panels, alternative light sources, product materials, energy efficiency, and water saving and purification. The aim is to commercialise green technologies for sale in IKEA stores within 3–4 years. General overview Flags at the store in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania The company distributes its products through its retail outlets. As of March 2009, the chain has 296 stores in 36 countries, most of them in Europe, the United States, Canada, Asia and Australia. 2006 saw the opening of 16 new stores. A total of at least 12 openings or relocations are planned for 2009. IKEA is one of the few store chains to have locations both in Israel and in other Middle Eastern nations. In most languages, "IKEA" is pronounced something like , but in English it is , similar to the word "idea." As such, IKEA brought action in the Supreme Court of British Columbia successfully preventing a competitor in Victoria from using the name "Idea." Its Chinese name is "yíjiā" (), which literally means "fit for home" in written Chinese and sounds like the phrase "right now" in Cantonese pronunciation. The IKEA Website contains about 12,000 products and is the closest representation of the entire IKEA range. There were over 470 million visitors to the IKEA websites in the year from Sep. 2007-Sep. 2008 Inter IKEA Systems B.V. November 2008 . IKEA has shown leadership in adopting more environmentally friendly measures in its manufacturing processes. In 1990, IKEA adopted The Natural Step framework as the basis for its environmental plan (see "Environmental performance," below). Owens,Heidi (1998) IKEA: A Natural Step Case Study. Oregon Natural Step Network. Retrieved on: April 6, 2008. IKEA has been an inspiration to MEDes . IKEA stores The first IKEA store was opened in Sweden in 1958. The first stores outside Sweden were opened in Slependen Norway (1963) and Denmark (1969). The 1970s saw the spread of stores to other parts of Europe, with the first store outside Scandinavia opening in Switzerland (1973), followed by Germany (1974). During the same decade, stores were opened in other parts of the world, including Japan (1974), Australia and Hong Kong (1975), Canada (1976) and Singapore (1978). Germany, with 44 stores, is IKEA's biggest market, followed by the United States, with 36. IKEA now has 296 stores in 36 countries. The first IKEA store in Latin America is set to open in late 2009 in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. http://www.ikeasantodomingo.com/ However, the company has thus far not shown much of a presence in the developing countries. Inter IKEA Systems B.V. Facts and Figures. Store format An IKEA Store along Alexandra Road in Queenstown, Singapore. Inside IKEA Store to the left Burger King. Newer IKEA stores are usually very large blue buildings with few windows and yellow accents (the company's colors are also the national colors of Sweden). They are often designed around a "one-way" layout which leads customers along "the long natural way.". This layout is designed to encourage the customer to see the store in its entirety (as opposed to a traditional retail store, which allows a consumer to go right to the section where the goods and services needed are displayed) although there are often shortcuts to other parts of the showroom. The sequence first involves going through furniture showrooms making note of selected items. Then the customer collects a trolley and proceeds to a open-shelf warehouse for smaller items (Market Hall). Then the customer visits the furniture warehouse (Self Serve) where they collect previously noted showroom products in flat pack form. Sometimes they are directed to collect products from an external warehouse on the same site or at a site nearby. Finally they take their products to the cashier's station to make payment. Newer IKEA stores, like the one in Koblenz, Germany, make more use of glass, both for aesthetic and functional reasons. Skylights are also now common in the Self-serve warehouses. More natural light reduces energy costs, improves worker morale and gives a better impression of the product. Whilst the original design involved the warehouse on the lower level and the showroom and marketplace on the upper, today most stores globally have the Showroom upstairs with the marketplace and warehouse downstairs. Additionally, some stores are single level. Some stores maintain separate warehouses to allow more stock to be kept on-site at any given time, although this occasionally results in challenges in finding the items, as well as a perception of having to queue in line twice. Single-level stores are found predominantly in areas where the cost of land would be less than the cost of building a 2-level store – examples include the store in Saarlouis, Germany and Haparanda, Sweden. Most IKEA stores offer an "as-is" area at the end of the warehouse just prior to the cashiers. Returned, damaged and formerly showcased products which are not in new condition or taken out of the IKEA product range are displayed here, and sold with a significant discount, but also with a "no-returns" policy. Most IKEA stores communicate the IKEA policy on environmental issues in the "as-is." In the United Kingdom, this is referred to as "Bargain Corner." In Hong Kong, where shop space is limited and costly, IKEA has opened three outlets across the city, which are actually part of shopping malls. They are tiny compared to common "large blue box" store design, but are huge by Hong Kong standard. Most of the outlets still have a "one-way" layout. An exception is the newest outlet in Telford Plaza, where the three independent floors can be accessed freely from each. Following IKEA tradition, though, the only cashier is located on the lowest floor. The vast majority of IKEA stores are located outside of city centres, primarily because of land cost and traffic access. Several smaller store formats have been unsuccessfully tested in the past (the "midi" concept in the early 90s, which was tested in Ottawa and Heerlen with 9,300 m2, or a "boutique" shop in Manhattan). A new format for a full-size, city centre store was introduced with the opening of the Coventry (UK) store in December 2007. This is in response to UK government restrictions blocking retail establishment outside city centres, and the format is expected to be used for future IKEA stores in the UK. The Coventry store has 7 levels and therefore has a flow different from other IKEA stores. Restaurants and food markets The cafeteria of the Red Hook, Brooklyn IKEA in New York City. Many stores include restaurants serving typical Swedish food such as potatoes with Swedish meatballs, cream sauce and lingonberry jam, hot dogs and drinks for around 5 SEK (approx $1 USD), a few varieties of the local cuisine, and beverages such as lingonberry juice. In many locations the IKEA restaurants open daily before the rest of the store and serve a cheap breakfast. In Canada, this breakfast costs $1 and has eggs, sausage, and home fries. In the United States, the local variation serves scrambled eggs, bacon, country potatoes and choice of swedish pancakes or french toast sticks. In the Netherlands it costs €1 and consists of a croissant, a small bread roll, butter or margarine, , a slice of cheese, a boiled egg, and coffee or tea. In Australia it costs AUD$2.50 and consists of hash browns, bacon, scrambled eggs, a sausage and tomato, with a $2 vegetarian option with baked beans which omits the sausage and bacon. Refills of coffee, tea, and softdrinks are free of charge, even in countries where this is uncommon in other restaurants. Many stores also have a mini-shop selling Swedish-made, Swedish-style groceries, such as Swedish meatballs, packages of gravy, and various Scandinavian cookies and crackers, as well as salmon and salmon roe. IKEA also sells lingonberry jam in a wide array of sizes, including buckets. Småland Many stores have a play area, named Småland, for children aged 3 to 10 years (there is a height range requirement). The service is offered completely free of charge. Parents drop off their children at a gate to the playground, and pick them up after they arrive at another entrance. Parents are also given free pagers by the on-site staff; the staff will set off these pagers should a child need his/her parents sooner than expected. The area mostly features things such as slides, seesaws, cartoons, a ball pit, etc. Småland is also the province in Sweden where Ingvar Kamprad was born (translated from Swedish to English: Små = little (plural) and land = land, "littleland"). Products Furniture \|A completed IKEA flat pack bookshelf Much of IKEA's furniture is designed to be assembled by the consumer rather than being sold pre-assembled. IKEA claims this permits them to reduce costs and use of packaging by not shipping air; the volume of a bookcase, for example, is considerably less if it is shipped unassembled rather than assembled. This is also a practical point for many of the chain's European customers, where public transport is commonly used; the flat-pack distribution methods allow for easier transport via public transport from the store to a customer's home for assembly. An IKEA "PUGG" clock. IKEA contends that it has been a pioneering force in sustainable approaches to mass consumer culture. Kamprad refers to the concept as "democratic design," meaning that the company applies an integrated approach to manufacturing and design (see also environmental design). In response to the explosion of human population and material expectations in the 20th and 21st century, the company implements economies of scale, capturing material streams and creating manufacturing processes that hold costs and resource use down, such as the extensive use of particle board. The intended result is flexible, adaptable home furnishings, scalable both to smaller homes and dwellings as well as large houses. Not all furniture is stocked at the store level. For example, while a particular color of sofa model may be stocked and can be picked up at the store, another color of the same model that is not available in the store will instead have to be shipped from a warehouse to the customer's home for an additional delivery charge. Unlike with other retail stores, any requests for a model to be shipped from the warehouse to the store for pickup would also incur the same delivery charge to the customer. Delivery charges can easily add another 10% to 25% to the purchase price. Houses, flats IKEA has also expanded their product base to include flat-pack houses, in an effort to cut prices involved in a first-time buyer's home. The product, named BoKlok was launched in Sweden in 1996 in a joint venture with Skanska. Now working in the Nordic countries and in UK, sites confirmed in England include London, Manchester, Leeds, Gateshead and Liverpool. Family Mobile On 8 August 2008, IKEA UK launched Family Mobile – a virtual mobile phone network which uses the T-mobile network. Press release of 3 August 08: T-Mobile – the network behind IKEA Family Mobile, the UK’s newest mobile service T-Mobile signs Ikea MVNO – Ikea claims its prepay service is 25 per cent cheaper than any rival offering, Mobile News, 4 August 08 Family Mobile is available to all UK IKEA Family members and offers UK calls for 9p per min and UK text messages for 6p each, with a minimum initial top up of £10. According to IKEA this made the network the cheapest pay as you go operator in the UK at time of launch – "at least 25 per cent cheaper than any other comparable prepay offer." The service targets families and allows customers a number of SIM cards per account, so credit is shared among the different lines. Customers can order a free SIM at the Family Mobile website familymobile.co.uk. As part of the launch for the service all 9500 UK employees were given a free mobile phone along with a free Family Mobile SIM card with £5 credit pre-loaded on 5 August 2008. Manufacturing Although IKEA household products and furniture are designed in Sweden, they are largely manufactured in developing countries to keep down costs. With suppliers in 50 countries, roughly 2/3 of purchasing is from Europe with about 1/3 from Asia. A small amount of products are produced in North America. Comparatively little production actually takes place in Sweden, though it still remains the fourth-largest supplier country (behind China, Poland and Italy). China accounts for about 2.5 times as much supply as Sweden. For most of its products, the final assembly is performed by the end-user (consumer). Product names IKEA products are identified by single word names. Most of the names are Swedish in origin. Although there are some notable exceptions, most product names are based on a special naming system developed by IKEA. Upholstered furniture, coffee tables, rattan furniture, bookshelves, media storage, doorknobs: Swedish placenames (for example: Klippan) Beds, wardrobes, hall furniture: Norwegian place names Dining tables and chairs: Finnish place names Bookcase ranges: Occupations Bathroom articles: Scandinavian lakes, rivers and bays Kitchens: grammatical terms, sometimes also other names Chairs, desks: men's names Materials, curtains: women's names Blinds: names follow abecedarian norms of both Irish and Lebanese descent. Notable examples: SAMI (meaning: easy to pull), HADDAD (meaning: decorative, a little bit cheeky) Garden furniture: Swedish islands Carpets: Danish place names Lighting: terms from music, chemistry, meteorology, measures, weights, seasons, months, days, boats, nautical terms Bedlinen, bed covers, pillows/cushions: flowers, plants, precious stones; words related to sleep, comfort, and cuddling Children's items: mammals, birds, adjectives Curtain accessories: mathematical and geometrical terms Kitchen utensils: foreign words, spices, herbs, fish, mushrooms, fruits or berries, functional descriptions Boxes, wall decoration, pictures and frames, clocks: colloquial expressions, also Swedish place names For example, DUKTIG (meaning: good, well-behaved) is a line of children's toys, OSLO is a name of a bed, BILLY (a Swedish masculine name) is a popular shelf, DINERA (meaning: (to) dine) for tableware, KASSETT (meaning: cassette) for media storage. One range of office furniture is named EFFEKTIV (meaning: efficient), SKÄRPT (meaning: sharp or clever) is a line of kitchen knives. A notable exception is the IVAR shelving system, which dates back to the early 1970s. This item is named after the item's designer. Because IKEA is a worldwide company working in several countries with several different languages, sometimes the Nordic naming leads to problems where the word means something completely different to the product. While exotic-sounding names draw an attention, e.g., in anglophone countries, a number of them call for a snicker. Notable examples are "Jerker" desk, "Fartfull" workbench, or "Lessebo" sofa. 'Fartfull' workbench, 'Jerker' desk: Is Ikea hiding a grin?, Chicago Sun-Times, August 17, 2004 The products are withdrawn, probably after someone pointed at blunders, but not before generating some news. Similar blunders happen with other companies as well. 'Lolita' bed set for girls withdrawn Company founder Ingvar Kamprad, who is dyslexic, found that naming the furniture with proper names and words, rather than a product code, made the names easier to remember . Catalogue Cover of the 2009 edition US Catalogue IKEA publishes an annual catalogue. First published in Swedish in 1951, the catalogue is now published in 55 editions, in 27 languages for 36 countries, and is considered to be the main marketing tool of the retail giant, consuming 70% of the company's annual marketing budget. The catalogue is distributed both in stores and by mail. Most of the catalogue is produced by IKEA Communications AB in IKEA's hometown of Älmhult, Sweden where IKEA operates the largest photo studio in northern Europe at 8,000 square metres in size. The catalogue itself is printed on chlorine-free paper of 10-15% post-consumer waste. According to Canadian broadcaster, CTV, "IKEA's publications have developed an almost cult-like following online. Readers have found all kinds of strange tidbits, including mysterious cat pictures, apparent Mickey Mouse references and weird books wedged into the many shelves that clutter the catalogues." IKEA Family In common with some other retailers, IKEA has launched a loyalty card in its stores in Sweden, Denmark, Finland, the UK, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Russia, China, Japan, Switzerland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland, Italy, France, Portugal and Spain called "IKEA Family." The distinctive orange card is free of charge and can be used to obtain discounts on a special range of products found in each IKEA store. In particular, it gives 25% off the price of commissioned ranges of IKEA products on presentation of the card. The card also gives discounts on food purchased in the restaurant and the Swedish Food Market. In the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Russia, Japan, UK, Switzerland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Italy and Poland it also entitles the holder to free coffee in the restaurant. In Spain this offer is only available in working days. In conjunction with the card, IKEA also publishes and sells a printed quarterly magazine titled IKEA Family Live which supplements the card and catalogue. The magazine is already printed in thirteen languages and an English edition for the United Kingdom was launched in February 2007. It is expected to have a subscription of over 500,000. Corporate structure IKEA in Rome, Italy IKEA in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia Despite its Swedish roots, IKEA is owned and operated by a complicated array of not-for-profit and for-profit corporations. The IKEA corporate structure is divided into two main parts: operations and franchising. Most of IKEA's operations, including the management of the majority of its stores, the design and manufacture of its furniture, and purchasing and supply functions are overseen by Ingka Holding, a private, for-profit Dutch company. Of the IKEA stores in 36 countries, 235 are run by the INGKA Holding. The remaining 30 stores are run by franchisees outside of the INGKA Holding. INGKA Holding is not an independent company, but is wholly owned by the Stichting Ingka Foundation, which Kamprad established in 1982 in the Netherlands as a tax-exempt, not-for-profit foundation. The Ingka Foundation is controlled by a five-member executive committee that is chaired by Kamprad and includes his wife and attorney. The Economist, May 11, 2006. While most IKEA stores operate under the direct purview of Ingka Holding and the Ingka Foundation, the IKEA trademark and concept is owned by an entirely separate Dutch company, Inter IKEA Systems. Every IKEA store, including those run by Ingka Holding, pays a franchise fee of 3% of the revenue to Inter IKEA Systems. The ownership of Inter IKEA Systems is exceedingly complicated and, ultimately, uncertain. Inter IKEA Systems is owned by Inter IKEA Holding, a company registered in Luxembourg. Inter IKEA Holding, in turn, belongs to an identically named company in the Netherlands Antilles that is run by a trust company based in Curaçao. The owners of this trust company are unknown (IKEA refuses to identify them) but are assumed to be members of the Kamprad family. In Australia, IKEA is operated by two companies. Stores located on the East Coast including Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria are owned by INGKA Holding. Stores elsewhere in the country including South Australia and Western Australia are owned by Cebas Pty Ltd. Like elsewhere, all stores are operated under a franchise agreement with Inter IKEA Systems. Non-taxable profit In 2004, the last year that the INGKA Holding group filed accounts, the company reported profits of €1.4 billion on sales of €12.8 billion, a margin of nearly 11 percent. Because INGKA Holding is owned by the nonprofit INGKA Foundation, none of this profit is taxed. The foundation's nonprofit status also means that the Kamprad family cannot reap these profits directly, but the Kamprads do collect a portion of IKEA sales profits through the franchising relationship between INGKA Holding and Inter IKEA Systems. Inter IKEA Systems collected €631 million of franchise fees in 2004, but reported pre-tax profits of only €225 million in 2004. One of the major pre-tax expenses that Inter IKEA systems reported was €590 million of “other operating charges.” IKEA has refused to explain these charges, but Inter IKEA Systems appears to make large payments to I.I. Holding, another Luxembourg-registered group that, according to The Economist, “is almost certain to be controlled by the Kamprad family.” I.I. Holding made a profit of €328 million in 2004. In 2004, the Inter IKEA group of companies and I.I. Holding reported combined profits of €553m and paid €19m in taxes, or approximately 3.5 percent.. The Berne Declaration, a non-profit organization in Switzerland that promotes corporate responsibility, has formally criticized IKEA for its tax avoidance strategies. In 2007, the Berne Declaration nominated IKEA for one of its Public Eye “awards,” which highlight corporate irresponsibility and are announced during the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. www.evb.ch/en/index.cfm Control by Kamprad Along with helping IKEA make non-taxable profit, IKEA's complicated corporate structure allows Kamprad to maintain tight control over the operations of Ingka Holding, and thus the operation of most IKEA stores. The Ingka Foundation’s five-person executive committee is chaired by Kamprad. It appoints the board of Ingka Holding, approves any changes to Ingka Holding’s bylaws, and has the right to preempt new share issues. If a member of the executive committee quits or dies, the other four members appoint his or her replacement. In Kamprad's absence the foundation's bylaws include specific provisions requiring it to continue operating the Ingka Holding group and specifying that shares can be sold only to another foundation with the same objectives as the Ingka Foundation. Charitable giving The INGKA Foundation is officially dedicated to promoting “innovations in architecture and interior design.” With an estimated net worth of $36 billion, the foundation is unofficially the world’s largest charitable organization, beating out the much better known Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which has a net worth of approximately $33 billion. Despite its enormous wealth, the Ingka Foundation does very little charitable giving. Detailed information about its grantmaking is unavailable, as foundations in the Netherlands are not required to publish their records. But IKEA has reported that in 2004-2005, the Ingka Foundation's donations were concentrated on the Lund Institute of Technology in Sweden, and the Lund Institute reported the receipt of $1.7 million grants from the foundation during both of those years. By way of comparison, the Gates Foundation made gifts of more than $1.5 billion in 2005. Notwithstanding the Ingka Foundation's lack of concerted philanthropic activity, IKEA is involved in several international charitable causes, particularly in partnership with UNICEF. These include: IKEA contributed 1 euro to UNICEF from each soft toy sold during the 2006 holiday season, raising a total of €1.75 million. In the wake of the 2005 Boxing Day Tsunami, IKEA Australia agreed to match dollar for dollar co-workers donations and donated all sales of the IKEA Blue Bag to the cause. After the Pakistan earthquake of 2006, IKEA gave 500,000 blankets to the relief effort in the region IKEA has provided furniture for over 100 "bridge schools" in Liberia. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/liberia_27130.html In the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China, IKEA Beijing sold an alligator toy for 40 yuan (US$5.83, €3.70) with all income going to the children in the earthquake struck area IKEA also supports American Forests to restore forests and reduce pollution. IKEA \| Plant Trees American Forests Links with Education In 2008 Ikea was a supporter of the Design Wales Ffres Awards, providing a creative brief for undergraduate design competition. Environmental performance In 1990, IKEA invited Karl-Henrik Robèrt, founder of The Natural Step, to address its board of directors. Robert's system conditions for sustainability provided a strategic approach to improving the company's environmental performance. This led to the development of an Environmental Action Plan, which was adopted in 1992. The plan focused on structural change, allowing IKEA to "maximize the impact of resources invested and reduce the energy necessary to address isolated issues." The environmental measures taken, include the following: Replacing polyvinylchloride (PVC) in wallpapers, home textiles, shower curtains, lampshades, and furniture—PVC has been eliminated from packaging and is being phased out in electric cables; minimizing the use of formaldehyde in its products, including textiles; eliminating acid-curing lacquers; producing a model of chair (OGLA) made from 100% post-consumer plastic waste; introducing a series of air-inflatable furniture products into the product line. Such products reduce the use of raw materials for framing and stuffing and reduce transportation weight and volume to about 15% of that of conventional furniture; reducing the use of chromium for metal surface treatment; limiting the use of substances such as cadmium, lead, PCB, PCP, and AZO pigments; using wood from responsibly-managed forests that replant and maintain biological diversity; using only recyclable materials for flat packaging and "pure" (non-mixed) materials for packaging to assist in recycling. introducing rental bicycles with trailers for customers in Denmark. More recently, IKEA has begun charging for each plastic bag, while offering a paper bag for no extra cost. The IKEA restaurants also only offer reusable plates, knives, forks, spoons, etc. Toilets in some IKEA restrooms have been outfitted with dual-function flushers. Most stores only offer paper plates and plastic knives, forks, and spoons. Community impact IKEA's goals of sustainability and environmental design in their merchandise have sometimes been at odds with the impact a new IKEA store can have on a community. In September 2004, when IKEA offered a limited number of free $150 vouchers at the opening of a new store in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, three people were crushed to death in a stampede that followed the store's opening. BBC NEWS \| World \| Middle East \| Three die in Saudi shop stampede IKEA at Atlantic Station in Atlanta, GA. IKEA has demolished historic buildings in at least one case for a parking area. (At the College Park, Maryland, USA, store there is an interactive digital display which tells the history of a tavern which used to exist where the store is currently located.) IKEA was refused planning permission for a future store in the United Kingdom in 2004 (to be based in Stockport, Greater Manchester) by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. It applied for judicial review but lost in 2005. However, they later received permission to build a store within Greater Manchester a few miles from the originally planned site in Ashton-Under-Lyne. An estimated £10,000 was spent on traffic policing, and even more on rerouting traffic from the M60 motorway around Ashton. After viewing the 100-foot tall sign of an IKEA under construction near Portland International Airport, Randy Leonard, the city commissioner in charge of sign permits in Portland, Oregon, placed a moratorium on all pending and future sign permits in the area. Business \| kgw.com \| News for Oregon and SW Washington Criticisms Paris Nord 2, Roissy, France Some criticisms of IKEA: In the 1990s, there were several complaints arising from IKEA's British television advertising campaigns: “Stop being so English:” In which a “Swedish psychologist” claims the British are uptight due to their taste in “English” furniture (complaints were dismissed). An advertisement where a management consultant suggests how much more furniture a company could buy if it fired an office worker (complaints were dismissed but IKEA voluntarily withdrew the advert). A campaign under the slogan, "Just pack up, ship out, find a place of your own. And for all your new things, you know where to come. Make a fresh start," got complaints that it was trivializing marriage breakups (complaints were dismissed). IKEA founder Ingvar Kamprad was, as a teen, directly involved in the pro-Nazi New Swedish Movement (Nysvenska Rörelsen) until at least 1945, causing tensions when IKEA began opening stores in Israel. Kamprad devotes two chapters to his time in Nysvenska Rörelsen in his book, Leading By Design: The IKEA Story and, in a 1994 letter to IKEA employees, called his affiliation with the organization the "greatest mistake of his life." Former Norwegian prime minister Kjell Magne Bondevik has criticized IKEA for not depicting women assembling furniture in its instruction booklets, despite the fact that many sets of instructions do, in fact, show women - though not often. Ironically, Kjell and Magne respectively translate in the IKEA product code list to 'Bar stool' and 'Outer pillow pocket with filling'. In 2004 there was controversy about an Irish law restricting the maximum size of a retail outlet to 6,000 m2. IKEA's plan to build a much larger store in Dublin caused the law to be put up for debate. The law was changed to remove the size limit for retail outlets selling durable goods in designated areas. RTÉ report on the loosening of shop planning laws The Minister for the Environment was criticized for allegedly changing the law to suit one company and other agencies protested the law change as damaging to small businesses while the government defended their decision stating that the move was a positive one for Irish consumers. IKEA have continued with their development of the Dublin store without comment. June 2007: the designated nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party complained about an artist's rendering of IKEA Belfast that included both the Union Flag and the Ulster Banner flag as two of the three flags in front of the store. After being labelled "an upmarket Orange hall" by the party, IKEA assured customers and coworkers that only the Swedish flag would be seen outside the actual store. June 2007: some prospective customers took offense at an email newsletter with questionable advertising copy. To wit, the BRUNKRISSLA bedding notes said, "Brightens up your grad's dorm. Unlike a creepy gothic roommate, who can be a bad influence." Members of the goth subculture took offense at the stereotype. Wired A researcher from the University of Copenhagen discovered that for years, IKEA has named their cheap rugs after Danish places, while the more expensive and luxurious furniture was named after Swedish places. The researcher, Klaus Kjøller, who is well-known for tongue-in-cheek statements, accused IKEA of imperialism. People in Canada became upset with IKEA when a TV station discovered that IKEA charged as much as twice the price in their Canadian stores for the same items sold in their American stores, this despite the Canadian dollar reaching parity with the U.S. dollar. Advertising IKEA ran a commercial widely thought to be the first commercial featuring a homosexual couple. It aired only once, in 1994. Commercial Closet IKEA has run other commercials targeting the gay community as well as a commercial featuring a transgender woman. Commercial Closet IKEA launched a UK wide advertising campaign in September 2007 titled 'Home is the Most Important Place in the World' using estate agent signs with the term 'Not For Sale' written on them as part of the wider campaign. However, after the campaign appeared in the Metro newspaper London the business news website www.mad.co.uk remarked that the IKEA campaign had amazing similarities with the marketing activity of UK home refurbishment company Onis who had launched their own Not For Sale advertising campaign http://www.onisliving.co.uk/about-onis/not-for-sale.html 2 years previously and in November 2006 had been awarded the Interbuild 2006 Construction Marketing Award for best campaign under £25,000. http://www.constructionmarketingawards.com/testimonials.html Onis' Not For Sale sign. A debate ensued between Fraser Patterson, Chief Executive of Onis and Andrew McGuinness, partner at Beattie McGuinness Bungay (BMB), the advertising and PR agency awarded the £12m IKEA account. http://www.mad.co.uk/BreakingNews/BreakingNews/Articles/bd5d7deae8ff43a0bbd83f8a9dc15ff3/Ikea-campaign-attracts-copycat-claims.html Ikea’s new marketing campaign ‘remarkably similar’ to strategy used by Scots-led firm The essence of the debate was that BMB claimed to be unaware of Onis' campaign as Onis were not an advertising agency. Onis' argument was that they had already been accredited for their Not For Sale campaign and that their advertising could be seen in prominent landmarks throughout London, they were concerned about the impact IKEA's campaign would have on the originality of their own. After some negotiations BMB and IKEA agreed to provide Onis with a feature page on the IKEA campaign site (www.notgoinganywhere.co.uk) linking through to Onis' site (www.onisliving.co.uk), for a period of 1 year. Onis is possibly the only company to have ever been advertised by IKEA in such a fashion. IKEA recently paired up with the makers of popular video game The Sims 2 to make a stuff pack called The Sims 2 IKEA Home Stuff. The game features many items that you could find in IKEA and was released on June 24, 2008 in North America and June 26, 2008 in Europe. It is the second stuff pack with a major brand, the first being The Sims 2 H&M Fashion Stuff, which are both coincidentally companies of Swedish origin. IKEA has taken over title sponsorship of Philadelphia's annual Thanksgiving Day parade in 2008, replacing Boscov's, who filed for bankruptcy in August 2008. In November 2008 a subway train decorated in IKEA style was introduced in Novosibirsk, Russia. Four cars were turned into a mobile showroom of the Swedish design. The redesigned train, which features colourful seats and fancy curtains, will carry passengers until June 6, 2009. In January 2009, just before the new store opened in Southampton, England, the MV Red Osprey of Red Funnel was re-painted in an entirely yellow and blue livery to celebrate the opening of the new IKEA store in Southampton. This is the first time a Red Funnel ferry has been re-painted out of its own red and white colour scheme. It is expected to stay in these colours for 12 months as part of a deal between Red Funnel and IKEA to provide home delivery services to the Isle of Wight. Awards IKEA was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 and 2005 by Working Mothers magazine. It ranked 96 in Fortune's 100 Best Companies to Work For in 2006 and in October 2008, IKEA Canada LP was named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean's newsmagazine. References External links IKEA - Official site News coverage IKEA to cut 300 managerial jobs Ikea opens overnight stay stores Ikea destroyed ten ancient tombs during new store construction in China (Chinese) "The miracle of Älmhult" by Oliver Burkeman from the Guardian newspaper. The writer talks about his visit to IKEA's HQ in Älmhult LEKO, New eco-friendly car coming from IKEA.	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1,180	Mean_Streets	Mean Streets (1973) is an early Martin Scorsese film starring Harvey Keitel, Robert De Niro and David Proval , released by Warner Bros. on October 2, 1973. De Niro won the National Society of Film Critics award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as John "Johnny Boy" Civello. In 1997, Mean Streets was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Plot Charlie (Keitel) is an Italian-American man who is trying to move up in the local Mafia and who is hampered by his feeling of responsibility towards his childish and destructive friend Johnny Boy (De Niro). Charlie works for his uncle Giovanni (who is the local mafia caporegime), mostly collecting debts. He is also having a hidden affair with Johnny Boy's cousin, Teresa, who has epilepsy and is ostracized because of her condition - especially by Charlie's uncle. Charlie is torn between his devout Catholicism and his Mafia ambitions. As the film progresses, Johnny becomes increasingly self-destructive, growing continually more disrespectful of his creditors. Failing to receive redemption in the church, Charlie seeks it through sacrificing himself on Johnny's behalf. Production Aside from his student film project Who's That Knocking at My Door and Boxcar Bertha, a directing project given him by early independent maverick Roger Corman, this was Scorsese's first feature film of his own design. Director John Cassavetes told him after he completed Boxcar Bertha, to make films he wanted to make, about things he knew. Mean Streets was based on actual events Scorsese saw almost regularly while growing up in Little Italy. The screenplay for the movie initially began as a continuation of the characters in Who's That Knocking. Scorsese changed the title from Season of the Witch to Mean Streets, a reference to Raymond Chandler's essay "The Simple Art of Murder," where he writes, "But down these mean streets a man must go who is not himself mean, who is neither tarnished nor afraid." Scorsese sent the script to Corman, who agreed to back the film if all the characters were black. Scorsese was anxious to make the film so he considered this option, but actress Verna Bloom arranged a meeting with potential financial backer, Jonathan Taplin, who was the road manager for the musical group, The Band. Taplin liked the script and was willing to raise the $300,000 budget that Scorsese wanted if Corman promised, in writing, to distribute the film. According to Scorsese, the first draft of Mean Streets focused on Charlie's religious conflict and its effect on his worldview. Along with fellow writer Mardik Martin, Scorsese wrote the whole script while driving around Little Italy in Martin's car. They would find a spot in the neighborhood to park and begin writing, all the while immersed in the sights, and sounds of what would eventually appear on-screen. Once the financing was in place, Scorsese began to recruit his cast. De Niro had met the director in 1972 and liked what he had seen in Who's That Knocking at My Door. De Niro was impressed with how the film had so accurately captured life in Little Italy; De Niro had grown up in a similar area, Hell's Kitchen. Scorsese offered the actor four different roles, but he could not decide which one he wanted to portray. After another actor dropped out of the project, Scorsese cast Harvey Keitel in the pivotal role of Charlie. Keitel was also responsible for convincing De Niro to play Johnny Boy . Reception The film was well received by most critics; some even hailed it as one of the most original American films of all time. Pauline Kael was among the most enthusiastic critics; she called it "a true original, and a triumph of personal filmmaking" and "dizzyingly sensual". Other critics like Dave Kehr of the Chicago Reader said "the acting and editing have such original, tumultuous force that the picture is completely gripping". Rottentomatoes. Mean Streets Vincent Canby of the New York Times reflected that "no matter how bleak the milieu, no matter how heartbreaking the narrative, some films are so thoroughly, beautifully realized they have a kind of tonic effect that has no relation to the subject matter". One of Scorsese's most consistent supporters, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, wrote that "In countless ways, right down to the detail of modern TV crime shows, Mean Streets is one of the source points of modern movies." Time Out magazine called it "One of the best American films of the decade". Currently the movie has a 98% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 43 reviews. Trivia On DVD, Mean Streets preserves the original 1972 Warner Bros. logo. Martin Scorsese has a cameo appearance toward the end of the film. Given his bad experience directing The Godfather, and after seeing Mean Streets, Francis Ford Coppola chose Scorsese to direct the sequel. The opposition of film executives convinced Coppola to direct the film, with a few conditions. Charlie's voice-over narration is actually spoken by Martin Scorsese, not Harvey Keitel. In fact no one in Europe wanted to touch the project; the press slammed it and the distributors were naturally dubious to the film's merits. It was Peter Hayden who rescued the project. New to the business, he went to America with a film crew and recorded his early meeting with Marty and the cast which later appeared in the documentary attributed to him, " Martin Scorsese - My Life in Films" which won the Best Documentary at Cannes Film Festival the following year. The story goes that Peter arrived in the middle of industrial action on the film set and Marty and he struck the distribution deal in a cupboard hiding from the shop stewards ! The net result was that Peter Hayden became the first independent film distributor in the UK since Gaumont and released Mean Streets and his accompanying documentary as a double bill. If others had helped to make Scorsese's film, it was Hayden's tireless work that secured its fame, forcing many critics to review the film for a second time and pressing for its exposure which he undertook himself. References External links	Mean_Streets \|@lemmatized mean:12 street:11 early:3 martin:6 scorsese:18 film:26 star:1 harvey:3 keitel:5 robert:1 de:7 niro:7 david:1 proval:1 release:2 warner:2 bros:2 october:1 win:2 national:2 society:1 critic:5 award:1 best:3 support:1 actor:3 role:3 john:2 johnny:6 boy:4 civello:1 select:1 preservation:1 united:1 state:1 registry:1 library:1 congress:1 culturally:1 historically:1 aesthetically:1 significant:1 plot:1 charlie:8 italian:1 american:3 man:2 try:1 move:1 local:2 mafia:3 hamper:1 feeling:1 responsibility:1 towards:1 childish:1 destructive:2 friend:1 work:2 uncle:2 giovanni:1 caporegime:1 mostly:1 collect:1 debt:1 also:2 hidden:1 affair:1 cousin:1 teresa:1 epilepsy:1 ostracize:1 condition:2 especially:1 tear:1 devout:1 catholicism:1 ambition:1 progress:1 becomes:1 increasingly:1 self:1 grow:3 continually:1 disrespectful:1 creditor:1 fail:1 receive:2 redemption:1 church:1 seek:1 sacrifice:1 behalf:1 production:1 aside:1 student:1 project:5 knock:3 door:2 boxcar:2 bertha:2 directing:1 give:2 independent:2 maverick:1 roger:2 corman:3 first:3 feature:1 design:1 director:2 cassavetes:1 tell:1 complete:1 make:4 want:4 thing:1 know:1 base:2 actual:1 event:1 saw:1 almost:1 regularly:1 little:3 italy:3 screenplay:1 movie:3 initially:1 begin:3 continuation:1 character:2 change:1 title:1 season:1 witch:1 reference:2 raymond:1 chandler:1 essay:1 simple:1 art:1 murder:1 write:4 must:1 go:3 neither:1 tarnished:1 afraid:1 send:1 script:3 agree:1 back:1 black:1 anxious:1 consider:1 option:1 actress:1 verna:1 bloom:1 arrange:1 meeting:2 potential:1 financial:1 backer:1 jonathan:1 taplin:2 road:1 manager:1 musical:1 group:1 band:1 like:3 willing:1 raise:1 budget:1 promise:1 writing:1 distribute:1 accord:1 draft:1 focus:1 religious:1 conflict:1 effect:2 worldview:1 along:1 fellow:1 writer:1 mardik:1 whole:1 drive:1 around:1 car:1 would:2 find:1 spot:1 neighborhood:1 park:1 immerse:1 sight:1 sound:1 eventually:1 appear:2 screen:1 financing:1 place:1 recruit:1 cast:3 meet:1 see:2 impress:1 accurately:1 captured:1 life:2 similar:1 area:1 hell:1 kitchen:1 offer:1 four:1 different:1 could:1 decide:1 one:6 portray:1 another:1 drop:1 pivotal:1 responsible:1 convince:2 play:1 reception:1 well:1 even:1 hail:1 original:4 time:5 pauline:1 kael:1 among:1 enthusiastic:1 call:2 true:1 triumph:1 personal:1 filmmaking:1 dizzyingly:1 sensual:1 dave:1 kehr:1 chicago:2 reader:1 say:1 acting:1 edit:1 tumultuous:1 force:2 picture:1 completely:1 gripping:1 rottentomatoes:1 vincent:1 canby:1 new:2 york:1 reflect:1 matter:3 bleak:1 milieu:1 heartbreaking:1 narrative:1 thoroughly:1 beautifully:1 realize:1 kind:1 tonic:1 relation:1 subject:1 consistent:1 supporter:1 ebert:1 sun:1 countless:1 way:1 right:1 detail:1 modern:2 tv:1 crime:1 show:1 source:1 point:1 magazine:1 decade:1 currently:1 approval:1 rating:1 rotten:1 tomato:1 review:2 trivia:1 dvd:1 preserve:1 logo:1 cameo:1 appearance:1 toward:1 end:1 bad:1 experience:1 direct:3 godfather:1 francis:1 ford:1 coppola:2 choose:1 sequel:1 opposition:1 executive:1 voice:1 narration:1 actually:1 speak:1 fact:1 europe:1 touch:1 press:2 slam:1 distributor:2 naturally:1 dubious:1 merit:1 peter:3 hayden:3 rescue:1 business:1 america:1 crew:1 record:1 marty:2 later:1 documentary:3 attribute:1 cannes:1 festival:1 following:1 year:1 story:1 arrive:1 middle:1 industrial:1 action:1 set:1 strike:1 distribution:1 deal:1 cupboard:1 hiding:1 shop:1 stewards:1 net:1 result:1 become:1 uk:1 since:1 gaumont:1 accompany:1 double:1 bill:1 others:1 help:1 tireless:1 secure:1 fame:1 many:1 second:1 exposure:1 undertake:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram martin_scorsese:5 harvey_keitel:3 de_niro:7 warner_bros:2 culturally_historically:1 historically_aesthetically:1 aesthetically_significant:1 boxcar_bertha:2 roger_corman:1 john_cassavetes:1 raymond_chandler:1 financial_backer:1 pauline_kael:1 dave_kehr:1 vincent_canby:1 roger_ebert:1 approval_rating:1 rating_rotten:1 rotten_tomato:1 cameo_appearance:1 ford_coppola:1 cannes_film:1 external_link:1
1,181	Mary_II_of_England	Mary II (30 April 1662 – 28 December 1694) reigned as Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1689 until her death. Mary, a Protestant, came to the thrones following the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the deposition of her Roman Catholic father, James II and VII. Mary reigned jointly with her husband and first cousin, William III and II, who became the sole ruler of both countries upon her death in 1694. Popular histories usually refer to the joint reigns as those of "William and Mary". Mary, the blood sovereign, wielded less power than William during the parts of her reign when William remained in England, ceding most of her authority to her husband, though he heavily relied on her. She did, however, govern the realms alone when William was engaged in military campaigns abroad, proving herself to be a powerful, firm, and effective ruler. She was very active in the Church of England, which she ruled as its Supreme Governor. Though she shared the post with her husband, she largely exercised its power alone. Early life Mary, born at St. James Palace in London on 30 April 1662, was the eldest daughter of James, Duke of York (the future James II of England) and of his first wife, Lady Anne Hyde. Mary's uncle was Charles II; her maternal grandfather, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon, served for a lengthy period as Charles's chief advisor. Although her mother bore eight children, only Mary and her younger sister Anne survived into adulthood. The Duke of York converted to Roman Catholicism in 1668 or 1669, but Mary and Anne had a Protestant upbringing, pursuant to the command of Charles II. Mary's mother died in 1671; her father remarried in 1673, taking as his second wife the Catholic Mary of Modena, also known as Mary Beatrice d'Este. Before her marriage, Mary wrote a great many passionate letters to Frances Apsley, the daughter of James II's hawks keeper, though her interest was not returned. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.20. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. At the age of fifteen, Lady Mary became betrothed to the Protestant Stadtholder, William, Prince of Orange. William was the son of her aunt, Mary, Princess Royal, and Prince William II of Nassau. At first, Charles II opposed the alliance with a Dutch ruler — he preferred that Mary marry the heir to the French Throne, the Dauphin Louis — but later, under pressure from Parliament and with a coalition with the Catholic French no longer politically favourable, he approved the union. Pressured by Parliament, the Duke of York agreed to the marriage, falsely assuming that it would improve his popularity amongst Protestants. The first cousins Mary and William married in London on 4 November 1677; Mary reportedly wept throughout the ceremony. Mary went to the Netherlands, where she lived as William's consort. Although she was devoted to her husband, the marriage was often unhappy; her three pregnancies ended in miscarriage or stillbirth, and her childlessness would be the greatest source of unhappiness in Mary's life. Her animated and personable nature made her popular with the Dutch people, but her husband was often cold and neglectful, and long maintained an affair with Elizabeth Villiers, one of Mary's ladies-in-waiting, though over time he became more relaxed in Mary's company. The Glorious Revolution Upon the death of Charles II without legitimate issue in 1685, the Duke of York became King as James II in England and Ireland (and as James VII in Scotland). He had a controversial religious policy; his attempt to grant freedom of religion to non-Anglicans was not well-received, as the technique he chose was to annul acts of Parliament by Royal Decree. Several Protestant politicians and noblemen entered into negotiations with Mary's husband as early as 1687. After James took the step of forcing Anglican clergymen to read the Declaration of Indulgence—the proclamation granting religious liberty to dissenters—from their churches in May 1688, his popularity plunged. Alarm amongst Protestants increased when his wife, Mary of Modena, gave birth to a son—James Francis Edward—in June 1688, for the son would, unlike Mary and Anne, be raised a Roman Catholic. Some charged that the boy was "supposititious", having been secretly smuggled in to the Queen's room in a bed-warming pan as a substitute for her stillborn baby. Although there was no evidence to support the allegation, Mary publicly challenged the boy's legitimacy, sending a pointed list of questions to her sister, Anne, regarding the circumstances of the birth. On 30 June, the Immortal Seven secretly requested William—then in the Netherlands with Mary—to come to England with an army. At first, William was reluctant; he was jealous of his wife's position as the heiress to the English Crown and feared that she would become more powerful than he was. Mary, however, convinced her husband that she did not care for political power, telling him "she would be no more but his wife, and that she would do all that lay in her power to make him King for life". William agreed to invade and issued a declaration which referred to James' newborn son as the "pretended Prince of Wales". He also gave a list of grievances of the English people and stated that his proposed expedition was for the sole purpose of having "a free and lawful Parliament assembled". The Dutch army finally landed on 5 November, having been turned back by a storm in October. The disaffected English Army and Navy went over to William, and English people's confidence in James stood so low that they did not attempt to save their King. On 11 December, the defeated King attempted to flee, but was intercepted. A second attempt at flight, on 23 December, was successful: James escaped to France where he lived in exile until his death. Mary was upset by the circumstances surrounding the deposition of her father, but William ordered her to appear cheerful on their triumphant arrival in London. As a result, she was criticised for appearing cold to her father's plight. James, too, wrote a diatribe against her criticising her disloyalty, an action which deeply affected the pious Mary. In 1689, a Convention Parliament summoned by the Prince of Orange assembled, and much discussion relating to the appropriate course of action ensued. William of Orange felt insecure about his position; he wished to reign as a King, rather than function as a mere consort of a Queen. The only precedent for a joint monarchy dated from the sixteenth century: when Queen Mary I married the Spanish Prince Philip, it was agreed that the latter would take the title of King. But Philip II remained King only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, however, demanded that he remain King even after his wife's death. Although some prominent statesmen proposed to make her the sole ruler, Mary, remaining loyal to her husband, refused. On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee on 11 December 1688, had abdicated the government of the realm, and that the Throne had thereby become vacant. Parliament offered the Crown not to James's eldest son, James Francis Edward (who would have been the heir-apparent under normal circumstances), but to William and Mary as joint Sovereigns. It was, however, provided that "the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives." The declaration was later extended to exclude not only James and his heirs from the throne, but all Catholics, since "it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince". The Bishop of London, Henry Compton, crowned William and Mary together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689. Normally, the Archbishop of Canterbury performs coronations, but the Archbishop at the time, William Sancroft, although an Anglican, refused to recognise the validity of James II's removal. On the day of the Coronation, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland — which was much more divided than the English Parliament — finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland. William and Mary were offered the separate Scottish Crown (the two kingdoms were not united until the Acts of Union in 1707); they accepted on 11 May. Even after the declaration, there was still substantial support for James in Scotland . The Viscount of Dundee raised an army, and won a convincing victory at Killiecrankie on 27 July. The huge losses suffered by Dundee's troops, coupled with his fatal wounding at the start of the battle, served to remove the only effective resistance to William and the uprising was quickly crushed, suffering a resounding defeat the next month at the Battle of Dunkeld. Reign In December 1689 Parliament passed one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights. This measure — which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right — established restrictions on the royal prerogative; it declared, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with Parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel or unusual punishments. The Bill of Rights also addressed the question of succession to the Throne. Following the death of either William III or Mary II, the other was to continue to reign. Next in the line of succession would be any children of the couple, to be followed by Mary's sister Anne and her children. Last in the line of succession stood any children William III might have had from any subsequent marriage. From 1690 onwards, William often remained absent from England, at first fighting Jacobites in Ireland. Whilst her husband was away, Mary administered the government of the realm. She proved a firm ruler, ordering the arrest of her own uncle, Henry Hyde, 2nd Earl of Clarendon, for plotting to restore James II to the throne. In 1692, she dismissed and imprisoned the influential John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough on similar charges; the dismissal somewhat diminished her popularity and harmed her relationship with her sister Anne (who was strongly influenced by Churchill's wife, Sarah). Anne appeared at court with Sarah, obviously supporting the disgraced Churchill, which led to Mary angrily demanding that Anne dismiss Sarah and vacate her lodgings. Mary later failed to visit Anne during her pregnancy. After the baby was born, Mary did visit, but spent their time together berating Anne for her friendship with Sarah. The sisters never saw each other again. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.150. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. William had crushed the Irish Jacobites by 1692, but he continued with campaigns abroad in order to wage war against France in the Netherlands. When her husband was away, Mary acted in her own name but on his advice; whilst he was in England, Mary completely refrained from interfering in political matters, as had been agreed in the Bill of Rights. She did, however, participate in the affairs of the Church - all matters of ecclesiastical patronage passed through her hands. She died of smallpox at Kensington Palace on 28 December 1694 and was buried at Westminster Abbey. Upon her death, baroque composer Henry Purcell of England was commissioned to write her funeral music, entitled Music for the Funeral of Queen Mary. The ominous March (catalogued as Z860 A) has subsequently been used in other media, such as the title theme in the movie A Clockwork Orange. William, who had grown increasingly to rely on Mary, was devastated by her death, reportedly said that "from being the happiest" he was "now going to be the miserablest creature on earth". Legacy After Mary II's death, William III continued to rule as King. Princess Anne's last surviving child, William, Duke of Gloucester, died in July 1700, and, as it was clear that William III would have no more children, Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701, which provided that the Crown would go to the nearest Protestant relative, Sophia, Electress of Hanover and her Protestant heirs. When William III died in 1702, he was succeeded by Anne, and she in turn was succeeded by the son of the deceased Electress Sophia, George I. Mary endowed the College of William and Mary (in the present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693. She also founded the Royal Hospital for Seamen, Greenwich and which spawned The Royal Hospital School. In popular culture Mary's life from her childhood to her death forms part of the BBC drama series The First Churchills (1969), in which she was played by the actress Lisa Daniely. She has also been played by Sarah Crowden in the film Orlando (1992), based on the novel by Virginia Woolf, and by Rebecca Front in the film England, My England (1995), the story of the composer Henry Purcell. Ancestors Title, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 30 April 1662 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Lady Mary The London Gazette, 5 November 1677 4 November 1677 – 13 February 1689: Her Highness The Princess of Orange 13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694: Her Majesty The Queen The joint style of William III and Mary II was "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc." when they ascended the Throne. (The claim to France was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since Edward III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) From 11 April 1689 — when the Estates of Scotland recognised them as Sovereigns — the royal couple used the style "William and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc.". Arms The arms used by the King and Queen were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty and a lion rampant Or (for the House of Orange-Nassau). References Waller, Maureen, "Sovereign Ladies: Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England." St. Martin's Press, New York, 2006. 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1,182	Timeline_of_evolutionary_history_of_life	This timeline of the evolution of life outlines the major events in the development of life on the planet Earth (See Organism). For a thorough explanatory context, see the history of Earth, and geologic time scale. The dates given in this article are estimates based on scientific evidence. In biology, evolution is the process by which populations of organisms acquire and pass on novel traits from generation to generation. Its occurrence over large stretches of time explains the origin of new species and ultimately the vast diversity of the biological world. Contemporary species are related to each other through common descent, products of evolution and speciation over billions of years. Basic timeline The basic timeline is a 4.5 billion year old Earth, with (very approximate) dates: 3.8 billion years of simple cells (prokaryotes), 3 billion years of photosynthesis, 2 billion years of complex cells (eukaryotes), 1 billion years of multicellular life, 600 million years of simple animals, 570 million years of arthropods (ancestors of insects, arachnids and crustaceans), 550 million years of complex animals, 500 million years of fish and proto-amphibians, 475 million years of land plants, 400 million years of insects and seeds, 360 million years of amphibians, 300 million years of reptiles, 200 million years of mammals, 150 million years of birds, 130 million years of flowers, 65 million years since the non-avian dinosaurs died out, 2.5 million years since the appearance of the genus Homo, 200,000 years since humans started looking like they do today, 25,000 years since Neanderthals died out. Detailed timeline Note that Ma, megaannum, means "million years ago". Hadean eon 3800 Ma and earlier. Date Event 4600 Ma The planet Earth forms from the accretion disc revolving around the young Sun. 4533 Ma According to one plausible theory, the planet Earth and the planet Theia collide, sending countless moonlets into orbit around the young Earth. These moonlets eventually coalesce to form the Moon. The gravitational pull of the new Moon stabilises the Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation and sets up the conditions for the formation of life. Planetary Science Institute page on the Giant Impact Hypothesis. Hartmann and Davis belonged to the PSI. This page also contains several paintings of the impact by Hartmann himself. 4100 Ma The surface of the Earth cools enough for the crust to solidify. The atmosphere and the oceans form. "However, once the Earth cooled sufficiently, sometime in the first 700 million years of its existence, clouds began to form in the atmosphere, and the Earth entered a new phase of development." How the Oceans Formed (URL accessed on January 9, 2005) PAH infall, and Iron-Sulfide synthesis along deep ocean platelet boundaries, may have led to the RNA world of competing metabolising organic compounds. Between 4500 and 2500 Ma The earliest life appears, possibly derived from self-reproducing RNA molecules. The replication of these organisms requires resources like energy, space, and smaller building blocks, which soon become limited, resulting in competition. Natural selection favours those molecules which are more efficient at replication. DNA molecules then take over as the main replicators. They soon develop inside enclosing membranes which provide a stable physical and chemical environment conducive to their replication: proto-cells. 3900 Ma Late Heavy Bombardment: peak rate of impact events upon the inner planets by meteors. This constant disturbance probably obliterated any life that had already evolved, as the oceans boiled away completely; conversely, life may have been transported to Earth by a meteor. " Between about 3.8 billion and 4.5 billion years ago, no place in the solar system was safe from the huge arsenal of asteroids and comets left over from the formation of the planets. Sleep and Zahnle calculate that Earth was probably hit repeatedly by objects up to 500 kilometers across" Geophysicist Sleep: Martian underground may have harbored early life (URL accessed on January 9, 2005) Somewhere between 3900 - 2500 Ma Cells resembling prokaryotes appear. These first organisms are chemoautotrophs: they use carbon dioxide as a carbon source and oxidize inorganic materials to extract energy. Later, prokaryotes evolve glycolysis, a set of chemical reactions that free the energy of organic molecules such as glucose. Glycolysis generates ATP molecules as short-term energy currency, and ATP continue to be used in almost all organisms, unchanged, to this day. Archean eon 3800 Ma – 2500 Ma Date Event 3500 Ma Lifetime of the last universal ancestor; the split between the bacteria and the Archaea occurs. Bacteria develop primitive forms of photosynthesis which at first do not produce oxygen. These organisms generate ATP by exploiting a proton gradient, a mechanism still used in virtually all organisms. 3000 Ma Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolve; they use water as a reducing agent, thereby producing oxygen as waste product. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore. The oxygen concentration in the atmosphere subsequently rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria. The moon is still very close to the earth and causes tides 1000 feet high. The earth is continually wracked by hurricane force winds. These extreme mixing influences are thought to stimulate evolutionary processes. (See Oxygen Catastrophe) Proterozoic eon 2500 Ma – 542 Ma Date Event By 2100 Ma Eukaryotic cells appear. Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles with diverse functions, probably derived from prokaryotes engulfing each other via phagocytosis. By 1200 Ma Sexual reproduction evolves, increasing the rate of evolution. "'Experiments with sex have been very hard to conduct,' Goddard said. 'In an experiment, one needs to hold all else constant, apart from the aspect of interest. This means that no higher organisms can be used, since they have to have sex to reproduce and therefore provide no asexual control.' Goddard and colleagues instead turned to a single-celled organism, yeast, to test the idea that sex allows populations to adapt to new conditions more rapidly than asexual populations." Sex Speeds Up Evolution, Study Finds (URL accessed on January 9, 2005) 1200 Ma Simple multicellular organisms evolve, mostly consisting of cell colonies of limited complexity. 850–630 Ma A global glaciation may have reduced the diversity of life. Opinion is divided on whether it increased or decreased the rate of evolution. 580–542 Ma The Ediacaran biota represent the first large, complex multicellular organisms - although their affinities remain a subject of debate. 580–500 Ma Most modern phyla of animals begin to appear in the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion. Around 540 Ma The accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows the formation of an ozone layer. This blocks ultraviolet radiation, permitting the colonisation of the land. Phanerozoic eon 542 Ma – present The Phanerozoic eon, literally the "period of well-displayed life", marks the appearance in the fossil record of abundant, shell-forming and/or trace-making organisms. It is subdivided into three eras, the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, which are divided by major mass extinctions. Paleozoic era 542 Ma – 251.0 Ma Date Event 530 Ma The first known footprints on land date to 530 Ma, indicating that early animal explorations may have predated the development of terrestrial plants. "The oldest fossils of footprints ever found on land hint that animals may have beaten plants out of the primordial seas. Lobster-sized, centipede-like or slug like animals such as Protichnites and Climactichnites made the prints wading out of the ocean and scuttling over sand dunes about 530 million years ago. Previous fossils indicated that animals didn't take this step until 40 million years later." Oldest fossil footprints on land 434 Ma The first primitive plants move onto land, "The oldest fossils reveal evolution of non-vascular plants by the middle to late Ordovician Period (~450&ndash440 Ma) on the basis of fossil spores" Transition of plants to land having evolved from green algae living along the edges of lakes. "The land plants evolved from the algae, more specifically green algae, as suggested by certain common biochemical traits" The first land plants They are accompanied by fungi, which may have aided the colonisation of land through symbiosis. 363 Ma By the start of the Carboniferous period, the Earth begins to be recognisable. Insects roamed the land and would soon take to the skies; sharks swam the oceans as top predators, "The ancestry of sharks dates back more than 200 million years before the earliest known dinosaur. Introduction to shark evolution, geologic time and age determination and vegetation covered the land, with seed-bearing plants and forests soon to flourish. Four-limbed tetrapods gradually gain adaptations which will help them occupy a terrestrial life-habit. 251.4 Ma The Permian-Triassic extinction event eliminates over 95% of species. This "clearing of the slate" may have led to an ensuing diversification. Mesozoic era Date Event From 251.4 Ma The Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins: increasingly well-adapted and diverse predators pressurise sessile marine groups; the "balance of power" in the oceans shifts dramatically as some groups of prey adapt more rapidly and effectively than others. 220 Ma Eoraptor, an early dinosaur. Gymnosperm forests dominate the land; herbivores grow to huge sizes in order to accommodate the large guts necessary to digest the nutrient-poor plants. 200 Ma The first accepted evidence for viruses (at least, the group Geminiviridae) exists. "Viruses of nearly all the major classes of organisms—animals, plants, fungi and bacteria/archaea—probably evolved with their hosts in the seas, given that most of the evolution of life on this planet has occurred there. This means that viruses also probably emerged from the waters with their different hosts, during the successive waves of colonisation of the terrestrial environment." Origins of Viruses (URL accessed on January 9, 2005) Viruses are still poorly understood and may have arisen before "life" itself, or may be a more recent phenomenon. 130 Ma The rise of the Angiosperms: These flowering plants boast structures that attract insects and other animals to spread pollen. This innovation causes a major burst of animal evolution through co-evolution. Cenozoic era 65.5 Ma – present Date Event 65.5 Ma An asteroid impact probably wiped out half of all animals species 65½ million years ago. Other life forms became extinct as well. The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event eradicates about half of all animal species, including all dinosaurs except the ancestors of modern birds . 35 Ma Grasses evolve from among the angiosperms; grassland dominates many terrestrial ecosystems. 200 ka(200,000 years ago) Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa. Around 50,000 years before present they start colonising the other continents, replacing the Neanderthals in Europe and other hominins in Asia. The Holocene epoch starts 10,000 years ago after the Last Glacial Maximum, with continuing impact from human activity. Present day With a human population approaching 6.76 billion, An United States Census Bureau estimate of the number of people alive on Earth at any given moment. United States census bureau the impact of humanity is felt in all corners of the globe. Overfishing, anthropogenic climate change, industrialization, intensive agriculture, clearance of rain forests and other activities contribute to a dramatically rising extinction rate. The American Museum of Natural History National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis (URL accessed on February 23, 2006) If current rates continue, humanity will have seen the eradication of one-half of Earth's biodiversity over the next hundred years. E. O. Wilson, Harvard University, The Future of Life (2002) See also Evolutionary history of life Evolutionary history of plants Extinction events Geologic time scale History of Earth Natural history Sociocultural evolution Timeline of human evolution Timeline of plant evolution Further reading The Ancestor's Tale by Richard Dawkins, for a list of ancestors common to humans and other living species References External links Berkeley Evolution Tree of Life Web Project - explore complete phylogenetic tree interactively A more compact timeline at the TalkOrigins Archive Palaeos - The Trace of Life on Earth University of Waikato - Sequence of Plant Evolution University of Waikato - Sequence of Animal Evolution Graphical Timeline of evolution History of Life on Earth Exploring Time from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe Interactive Plant Evolution Timeline - from the University of Cambridge Ensemble Project	Timeline_of_evolutionary_history_of_life \|@lemmatized timeline:9 evolution:19 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1,183	Kenneth_MacAlpin	Cináed mac Ailpín (Modern Gaelic: Coinneach mac Ailpein) Cináed mac Ailpín is the Mediaeval Gaelic form. A more accurate rendering in modern Gaelic would be Cionaodh mac Ailpein, since Coinneach is historically a separate name. However, in the modern language, both names have converged. , commonly Anglicised as Kenneth MacAlpin and known in most modern regnal lists as Kenneth I (born 810 died 13 February 858) was king of the Picts and, according to national myth, first king of Scots, earning him the posthumous nickname of An Ferbasach, "The Conqueror". Skene, Chronicles, p. 83. Kenneth's undisputed legacy was to produce a dynasty of rulers who claimed descent from him. Even though he cannot be regarded as the father of Scotland, he was the founder of the dynasty which ruled that country for much of the medieval period. King of Scots? The Kenneth of myth, conqueror of the Picts and founder of the Kingdom of Alba, was born in the centuries after the real Kenneth died. In the reign of Kenneth II (Cináed mac Maíl Coluim), when the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba was compiled, the annalist wrote: In the 15th century Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, a history in verse, added little to the account in the Chronicle: When humanist scholar George Buchanan wrote his history Rerum Scoticarum Historia in the 1570s, a great deal of lurid detail had been added to the story. Buchanan included an account of how Kenneth's father had been murdered by the Picts, and a detailed, and entirely unsupported, account of how Kenneth avenged him and conquered the Picts. Buchanan was not as credulous as many, and he did not include the tale of MacAlpin's Treason, a story from Giraldus Cambrensis, who reused a tale of Saxon treachery at a feast in Geoffrey of Monmouth's inventive Historia Regum Britanniae. Later 19th century historians such as William Forbes Skene brought new standards of accuracy to early Scottish history, while Celticists such as Whitley Stokes and Kuno Meyer cast a critical eye over Welsh and Irish sources. As a result, much of the misleading and vivid detail was removed from the scholarly series of events, even if it remained in the popular accounts. Rather than a conquest of the Picts, instead the idea of Pictish matrilineal succession, mentioned by Bede and apparently the only way to make sense of the list of Kings of the Picts found in the Pictish Chronicle, advanced the idea that Kenneth was a Gael, and a king of Dál Riata, who had inherited the throne of Pictland through a Pictish mother. Other Gaels, such as Caustantín and Óengus, the sons of Fergus, were identified among the Pictish king lists, as were Angles such as Talorcen son of Eanfrith, and Britons such as Bridei son of Beli. That the Pictish succession was matrilineal is doubted. Bede in the Ecclesiastical History, I, i, writes: "when any question should arise, they should choose a king from the female royal race, rather than the male: which custom, as is well known, has been observed among the Picts to this day." Bridei and Nechtan, the sons of Der-Ilei, were the Pictish kings in Bede's time, and are presumed to have claimed the throne through maternal descent. Maternal descent, "when any question should arise" brought several kings of Alba and the Scots to the throne, including John Balliol, Robert Bruce and Robert II, the first of the Stewart kings. Modern historians would reject parts of the Kenneth produced by Skene and subsequent historians, while accepting others. Medievalist Alex Woolf, interviewed by The Scotsman in 2004, is quoted as saying: Many other historians could be quoted in terms similar to Woolf. For example, Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots, pp. 107–108; Broun, "Kenneth mac Alpin"; Forsyth, "Scotland to 1100", pp. 28–32; Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, pp. 8–10. Woolf was selected to write the relevant volume of the new Edinburgh History of Scotland, to replace that written by Duncan in 1975. A feasible synopsis of the emerging consensus, may be put forward, namely, that the kingships of Gaels and Picts underwent a process of gradual fusion<ref>After Herbert, Rí Éirenn, Rí Alban, kingship and identity in the ninth and tenth centuries, p. 71.</ref>, starting with Kenneth, and rounded off in the reign of Constantine II. The Pictish institution of kingship provided the basis for merger with the Gaelic Alpin dynasty. The meeting of King Constantine and Bishop Cellach at the Hill of Belief near the (formerly Pictish) royal city of Scone in 906 cemented the rights and duties of Picts on an equal basis with those of Gaels (pariter cum Scottis). Hence the change in styling from King of the Picts to King of Alba. The legacy of Gaelic as the first national language of Scotland does not obscure the foundational process in the establishment of the Scottish kingdom of Alba. Background Kenneth's origins are uncertain, as are his ties, if any, to previous kings of the Picts or Dál Riata. Among the genealogies contained in the Middle Irish Rawlinson B.502 manuscript, dating from around 1130, is the supposed descent of Malcolm II of Scotland. Medieval genealogies are unreliable sources, but some historians accept Kenneth's descent from the Cenél nGabrain of Dál Riata. The manuscript provides the following ancestry for Kenneth:... Cináed mac Ailpín son of Eochaid son of Áed Find son of Domangart son of Domnall Brecc son of Eochaid Buide son of Áedán son of Gabrán son of Domangart son of Fergus Mór ... Rawlinson B.502 ¶1696 Genelach Ríg n-Alban. Leaving aside the shadowy kings before Áedán son of Gabrán, the genealogy is certainly flawed insofar as Áed Find, who died c. 778, could not reasonably be the son of Domangart, who was killed c. 673. The conventional account would insert two generations between Áed Find and Domangart: Eochaid mac Echdach, father of Áed Find, who died c. 733, and his father Eochaid. Although later traditions provided details of his reign and death, Kenneth's father Alpin is not listed as among the kings in the Duan Albanach, which provides the following sequence of kings leading up to Kenneth: Naoi m-bliadhna Cusaintin chain, The nine years of Causantín the fair;, a naoi Aongusa ar Albain, The nine of Aongus over Alba; cethre bliadhna Aodha áin, The four years of Aodh the noble; is a tri déug Eoghanáin. And the thirteen of Eoghanán. Tríocha bliadhain Cionaoith chruaidh, The thirty years of Cionaoth the hardy, It is supposed that these kings are the Constantine son of Fergus and his brother Óengus II (Angus II), who have already been mentioned, Óengus's son Uen (Eóganán), as well as the obscure Áed mac Boanta, but this sequence is considered doubtful if the list is intended to represent kings of Dál Riata, as it should if Kenneth were king there. See Broun, Pictish Kings, for a discussion of this question. The idea that Kenneth was a Gael is not entirely rejected, but modern historiography distinguishes between Kenneth as a Gael by culture, and perhaps in ancestry, and Kenneth as a king of Gaelic Dál Riata. Kenneth could well have been the first sort of Gael. Kings of the Picts before him, from Bridei son of Der-Ilei, his brother Nechtan as well as Óengus I (Angus I) son of Fergus and his presumed descendants were all at least partly Gaelicised. For the descendants of the first Óengus son of Fergus, again see Broun, Pictish Kings. The idea that the Gaelic names of Pictish kings in Irish annals represented translations of Pictish ones was challenged by the discovery of the inscription Custantin filius Fircus(sa), the latinised name of the Pictish king Caustantín son of Fergus, on the Dupplin Cross. Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots, pp.95–96; Fergus would appear as Uurgu(i)st in a Pictish form. Other evidence, such as that furnished by place-names, suggests the spread of Gaelic culture through western Pictland in the centuries before Kenneth. For example, Atholl, a name used in the Annals of Ulster for the year 739, has been thought to be "New Ireland", and Argyll derives from Oir-Ghàidheal, the land of the "eastern Gaels". Reign Compared with the many questions on his origins, Kenneth's ascent to power and subsequent reign can be dealt with simply. Kenneth's rise can be placed in the context of the recent end of the previous dynasty, which had dominated Fortriu for two or four generations. This followed the death of king Uen son of Óengus of Fortriu, his brother Bran, Áed mac Boanta "and others almost innumerable" in battle against the Vikings in 839. The resulting succession crisis seems, if the Pictish Chronicle king-lists have any validity, to have resulted in at least four would-be kings warring for supreme power. Kenneth's reign is dated from 843, it was probably not until 848 that he defeated the last of his rivals for power. The Pictish Chronicle claims that he was king in Dál Riata for two years before becoming Pictish king in 843, but this is not generally accepted. In 849, Kenneth had relics of Columba, which may have included the Monymusk Reliquary, transferred from Iona to Dunkeld. Other that these bare facts, the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba reports that he invaded Saxonia six times, captured Melrose and burnt Dunbar, and also that Vikings laid waste to Pictland, reaching far into the interior. Regarding Dál Riata, see Broun, "Kenneth mac Alpin"; Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots, pp. 111–112. The Annals of the Four Masters, not generally a good source on Scottish matters, do make mention of Kenneth, although what should be made of the report is unclear:Gofraid mac Fergusa, chief of Airgíalla, went to Alba, to strengthen the Dal Riata, at the request of Kenneth MacAlpin. Annals of the Four Master, for the year 835 (probably c. 839). The history of Dál Riata in this period is simply not known, or even if there was any sort of Dál Riata to have a history. Ó Corráin's "Vikings in Ireland and Scotland", available as etext, and Woolf, "Kingdom of the Isles", may be helpful. The reign of Kenneth also saw an increased degree of Norse settlement in the outlying areas of modern Scotland. Shetland,the Orkneys, Caithness, Sutherland, the Western Isles and the Isle of Man, and part of Ross were settled; the links between Kenneth's kingdom and Ireland were weakened, those with southern England and the continent almost broken. In the face of this, Kenneth and his successors were forced to consolidate their position in their kingdom, and the union between the Picts and the Gaels, already progressing for several centuries, began to strengthen. By the time of Donald II, the kings would be called kings neither of the Gaels or the Scots but of Alba. Lynch, Michael, A New History of Scotland Kenneth died from a tumour on 13 February, 858 at the palace of Cinnbelachoir, perhaps near Scone. The annals report the death as that of the "king of the Picts", not the "king of Alba". The title "king of Alba" is not used until the time of Kenneth's grandsons, Donald II (Domnall mac Causantín) and Constantine II (Constantín mac Áeda). The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland quote a verse lamenting Kenneth's death:Because Cináed with many troops lives no longerthere is weeping in every house;there is no king of his worth under heavenas far as the borders of Rome. Fragmentary Annals, FA 285. Kenneth left at least two sons, Constantine and Áed, who were later kings, and at least two daughters. One daughter married Run, king of Strathclyde, Eochaid being the result of this marriage. Kenneth's daughter Máel Muire married two important Irish kings of the Uí Néill. Her first husband was Aed Finliath of the Cenél nEógain. Niall Glúndub, ancestor of the O'Neill, was the son of this marriage. Her second husband was Flann Sinna of Clann Cholmáin. As the wife and mother of kings, when Máel Muire died in 913, her death was reported by the Annals of Ulster, an unusual thing for the misogynistic chronicles of the age. Notes ReferencesFor primary sources see under External links below. John Bannerman, "The Scottish Takeover of Pictland" in Dauvit Broun & Thomas Owen Clancy (eds.) Spes Scotorum: Hope of Scots. Saint Columba, Iona and Scotland. T & T Clark, Edinburgh, 1999. ISBN 0-567-08682-8 Dauvit Broun, "Kenneth mac Alpin" in Michael Lynch (ed.) The Oxford Companion to Scottish History. Oxford: Oxford UP, ISBN 0-19-211696-7 Dauvit Broun, "Pictish Kings 761-839: Integration with Dál Riata or Separate Development" in Sally Foster (ed.) The St Andrews Sarcophagus Dublin: Four Courts Press, ISBN 1-85182-414-6 Dauvit Broun, "Dunkeld and the origins of Scottish Identity" in Dauvit Broun and Thomas Owen Clancy (eds), op. cit. Thomas Owen Clancy, "Caustantín son of Fergus" in Lynch (ed.), op. cit. A.A.M. Duncan,The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-7486-1626-8 Katherine Forsyth, "Scotland to 1100" in Jenny Wormald (ed.) Scotland: A History. Oxford: Oxford UP, ISBN 0-19-820615-1 Sally Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots: Early Historic Scotland. London: Batsford, ISBN 0-7134-8874-3 Máire Herbert, "Ri Éirenn, Ri Alban: kingship and identity in the ninth and tenth centuries" in Simon Taylor (ed.), Kings, clerics and chronicles in Scotland 500–1297. Dublin: Fourt Courts Press, ISBN 1-85182-516-9 Donnchadh Ó Corráin, "Vikings in Ireland and Scotland in the ninth century" in Peritia 12 (1998), pp. 296–339. Etext (pdf) Alex Woolf, "Constantine II" in Lynch (ed.), op. cit. Alex Woolf, "Kingdom of the Isles" in Lynch (ed.), op. cit. External links Annals of Ulster, part 1, at CELT (translated) Annals of Tigernach, at CELT (no translation presently available) Annals of the Four Masters, part 1, at CELT (translated) Duan Albanach, at CELT (translated) Genealogies from Rawlinson B.502, at CELT (no translation presently available) The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba The Pictish Chronicle Scotland Royalty Further reading For background on Early Historic Scotland, Sally Foster's, Picts, Gaels and Scots (revised edition, 2005) offers a broad and accessible introduction, while Leslie Alcock's Society of Antiquaries of Scotland monograph Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain AD 550–750 (2003) offers more detail. Alex Woolf's Pictland to Alba: Scotland, 789–1070, in the New Edinburgh History of Scotland series, was published in 2007. The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (2001) contains valuable articles by expert contributors, but is very poorly organised. For a well-researched, fictional interpretation of Kenneth's life, see the book Kenneth'' by Nigel Tranter. 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1,184	Eve_Arden	Eve Arden (April 30, 1908 – November 12, 1990) was an American actress. Her almost 60-year career crossed most media frontiers with supporting and leading roles, but she is perhaps best remembered for playing the sardonic but engaging high school teacher in the classic Our Miss Brooks (radio and television), and as the Rydell High School principal in the films Grease and Grease 2. Early life Arden was born Eunice M. Quedens in Mill Valley, California, to Lucille and Charles Peter Quedens. Her parents divorced when she was a child. Arden said she was an insecure child, declaring later in life that she needed therapy because her mother was so much more beautiful than she. At 16, Arden left Tamalpais High School and joined a stock theater company. Tamalpais High School Alumni Directory. 2002. Harris Publishing Co., p 237. Lists "Quedens, Eunice M." in the Class of 1926. She made her film debut, under her real name, in the backstage musical Song of Love (1929). She played a wisecracking showgirl who becomes a rival to the film's star, singer Belle Baker. The film was one of Columbia Pictures' earliest successes. Eve Arden's Broadway debut came in 1934, when she was cast in that year's Ziegfeld Follies revue. Career Film from Whiplash (1948) Her film career began in earnest in 1937 when she appeared in the films Oh Doctor and Stage Door. Her Stage Door portrayal of a fast-talking, witty supporting character, gained Arden considerable notice and was to be a template for many of Arden's future roles. Her many memorable screen roles include a supporting role as Joan Crawford's wise-cracking friend, Ida, in 1945's Mildred Pierce (for which she received an Academy Award nomination as Best Supporting Actress), and James Stewart's wistful secretary in Otto Preminger's then-explicit murder mystery, Anatomy of a Murder (1959). (One of her co-stars in that film was husband Brooks West.) She also performed some acrobatics while trying to steal a wallet from Groucho Marx in the Marx Brothers film At the Circus (1939). Radio and television Arden's quick wit made her a natural talent for radio; she became a regular on Danny Kaye's short-lived but memorably zany comedy-variety show in 1946, which also featured swing bandleader Harry James and gravel-voiced character actor-comedian Lionel Stander. Kaye's show lasted one season, but Arden's display of comic talent and timing set the stage for her to be cast in her most well-known role, Madison High School English teacher Connie Brooks in Our Miss Brooks. Arden portrayed the character on radio from 1948 to 1957, in a television version of the program from 1952 to 1956, and in a 1956 feature film. Arden's character clashed with the school's principal, Osgood Conklin (played by Gale Gordon), and nursed an unrequited crush on fellow teacher Philip Boynton (played originally by future film star Jeff Chandler and later in the series by Robert Rockwell). Arden's portrayal of the character was so popular that she was made an honorary member of the National Education Association, received a 1952 award from the Teachers College of Connecticut's Alumni Association "for humanizing the American teacher", and even received teaching job offers. Arden won a radio listeners' poll by Radio Mirror magazine as the top ranking comedienne of 1948-1949, receiving her award at the end of an Our Miss Brooks broadcast that March. "I'm certainly going to try in the coming months to merit the honor you've bestowed upon me, because I understand that if I win this (award) two years in a row, I get to keep Mr. Boynton," she joked. But she was also a hit with the critics; a winter 1949 poll of newspaper and magazine radio editors taken by Motion Picture Daily named her the year's best radio comedienne. Arden had an approximately 30 second guest role in a 1955 I Love Lucy episode entitled "L.A. at Last" in which she played herself. While awaiting their food at The Brown Derby, a Hollywood restaurant, Lucy (Lucille Ball) and Ethel (Vivian Vance) argue over whether a certain portrait on the wall of a Hollywood actress is of Shelley Winters or Judy Holliday. Ethel decides to ask a lady sitting in the booth next to them, who replies, "Neither. That's Eve Arden." Ethel suddenly realizes she'd just been talking to Arden herself, who is then treated to a pair of gawking eyes when she passes their table to leave the restaurant. This same episode also guest starred William Holden. Desilu Productions, jointly owned by Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball, was the production company for the Our Miss Brooks television show, which was filming during the same period as I Love Lucy. Ms. Ball and Ms. Arden became acquaintances when they co-starred together in Stage Door in 1937. Arden tried another series in 1957, The Eve Arden Show, but it was cancelled after only a few episodes. Arden also co-starred with Kaye Ballard in the 1967–69 situation comedy The Mothers-in-Law, which was produced by her old friend Desi Arnaz after the dissolution of Desilu. A few years afterward, she made a new sitcom pilot co-starring Don Knotts, but it failed to attract a network buyer. Other credits Arden was one of many stars to take on the title roles in Hello, Dolly! and Auntie Mame in the 1960s; in 1967, she won the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theatre. She became familiar to a new generation of film-goers when she played the harassed Principal McGee in both 1978's Grease and 1982's Grease 2, as well as making appearances on such television shows as Alice and Falcon Crest. In 1985 she appeared as the wicked stepmother in the Faerie Tale Theatre production of Cinderella. Arden published her biography, The Three Phases of Eve, in 1985. It is notable for its discretion in regard to Arden's many co-stars, and her loyalty to the Hollywood studio system that nurtured her career. In addition to her Academy Award nomination, Arden also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6714 Hollywood Boulevard. She was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame in 1995. Personal life and death Arden was married to Ned Bergen from 1939 to 1947, and to actor Brooks West from 1952 until his death in 1984 from a heart ailment. She and West had four children, three of whom were adopted. According to some sources, she had an affair with Danny Kaye in the 1940s. Arden died of advanced colorectal cancer and heart disease at her home in Los Angeles, California at the age of 82 and is interred in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Westwood, California. Filmography Features: Song of Love (1929) Dancing Lady (1933) (cameo) Oh Doctor (1937) Stage Door (1937) Cocoanut Grove (1938) Having Wonderful Time (1938) Letter of Introduction (1938) Women in the Wind (1939) Big Town Czar (1939) The Forgotten Woman (1939) Eternally Yours (1939) At the Circus (1939) A Child Is Born (1939) Slightly Honorable (1940) She Couldn't Say No (1940) No, No, Nanette (1940) Comrade X (1940) That Uncertain Feeling (1941) Ziegfeld Girl (1941) She Knew All the Answers (1941) San Antonio Rose (1941) Whistling in the Dark (1941) Manpower (1941) Last of the Duanes (1941) Sing for Your Supper (1941) Bedtime Story (1941) Obliging Young Lady (1942) Hit Parade of 1943 (1943) Let's Face It! (1943) Cover Girl (1944) The Doughgirls (1944) Pan-Americana (1945) Earl Carroll Vanities (1945) Patrick the Great (1945) Mildred Pierce (1945) My Reputation (1946) The Kid from Brooklyn (1946) Night and Day (1946) Song of Scheherazade (1947) The Arnelo Affair (1947) The Unfaithful (1947) The Voice of the Turtle/One for the Book (1947) One Touch of Venus (1948) Whiplash (1948) My Dream Is Yours (1949) The Lady Takes a Sailor (1949) Paid in Full (1950) Curtain Call at Cactus Creek (1950) Tea for Two (1950) Three Husbands (1951) Goodbye, My Fancy (1951) We're Not Married! (1952) The Lady Wants Mink (1953) Our Miss Brooks (1956) Anatomy of a Murder (1959) The Dark at the Top of the Stairs (1960) BUtterfield 8 (1960) Sergeant Dead Head (1965) The Strongest Man in the World (1975) Grease (1978) Under the Rainbow (1981) Pandemonium (1982) Grease 2 (1982) Short subjects: Screen Snapshots: Off the Air (1947) Screen Snaphots: Hollywood Life (1954) Television credits Our Miss Brooks (1952-1956) The Eve Arden Show (1957-1958) Bewitched (1966 in television. Episode: And Then There Were Three as Head Nurse) The Mothers-in-Law (1967-1969) In Name Only (1969) A Very Missing Person (1972) All My Darling Daughters (1972) Harry and Maggie (1975) (unsold pilot) A Guide for the Married Woman (1978) The Dream Merchants (1980) (miniseries) ''I Love Lucy (Guest Appearance) References Further reading External links	Eve_Arden \|@lemmatized eve:6 arden:27 april:1 november:1 american:2 actress:3 almost:1 year:5 career:4 cross:1 medium:1 frontier:1 support:3 lead:1 role:7 perhaps:1 best:3 remember:1 play:6 sardonic:1 engage:1 high:5 school:6 teacher:5 classic:1 miss:7 brook:8 radio:9 television:7 rydell:1 principal:3 film:13 grease:6 early:2 life:4 bear:2 eunice:2 quedens:3 mill:1 valley:1 california:3 lucille:3 charles:1 peter:1 parent:1 divorce:1 child:4 say:2 insecure:1 declare:1 later:2 need:1 therapy:1 mother:3 much:1 beautiful:1 leave:2 tamalpais:2 join:1 stock:1 theater:1 company:2 alumnus:2 directory:1 harris:1 publish:2 co:6 p:1 list:1 class:1 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eye:1 pass:1 table:1 william:1 holden:1 desilu:2 production:3 jointly:1 desi:2 arnaz:2 period:1 acquaintance:1 together:1 tried:1 another:1 cancel:1 ballard:1 situation:1 law:2 produce:1 old:1 dissolution:1 afterward:1 new:2 sitcom:1 pilot:2 knotts:1 fail:1 attract:1 network:1 buyer:1 credit:2 title:1 hello:1 dolly:1 auntie:1 mame:1 sarah:1 siddons:1 work:1 chicago:1 theatre:2 familiar:1 generation:1 goer:1 harassed:1 mcgee:1 appearance:2 alice:1 falcon:1 crest:1 wicked:1 stepmother:1 faerie:1 tale:1 cinderella:1 biography:1 three:4 phase:1 notable:1 discretion:1 regard:1 loyalty:1 studio:1 system:1 nurture:1 addition:1 walk:1 fame:2 boulevard:1 induct:1 hall:1 personal:1 death:2 marry:2 ned:1 bergen:1 brooks:1 heart:2 ailment:1 four:1 adopt:1 accord:1 source:1 affair:2 die:1 advanced:1 colorectal:1 cancer:1 disease:1 home:1 los:1 angeles:1 age:1 inter:1 westwood:2 village:1 memorial:1 park:1 cemetery:1 filmography:1 dance:1 cameo:1 cocoanut:1 grove:1 wonderful:1 time:1 letter:1 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1,185	Chris_Morris_(satirist)	Christopher Morris (born 5 September 1962 in Bristol) is an English comedian, writer, director, actor and former radio DJ. Morris began his career in radio before moving into television. He found fame in the nineties fronting the spoof current affairs shows The Day Today and Brass Eye and became known for his intelligent yet often highly-controversial brand of comedy. Morris tends to stay out of the public eye and has become one of the more enigmatic figures in British comedy. Biography Early life Morris grew up in Cambridgeshire; his parents were doctors. He was educated at Stonyhurst College, a Jesuit boys' boarding school in Lancashire, and studied zoology at the University of Bristol. Radio career On graduating, Morris took up a traineeship with BBC Radio Cambridgeshire, where he took advantage of access to editing and recording equipment to create elaborate spoofs and parodies. He also spent time in early 1987 hosting a 2–4pm afternoon show and finally ended up presenting Saturday morning show I.T.. In July 1987, he moved on to BBC Radio Bristol to present his own show "No Known Cure", and later joined, from its launch, Greater London Radio (GLR). Until 1990, he was presenting Friday night and Saturday morning shows on Radio Bristol and a Sunday morning show on GLR. In 1991, Morris reduced his work as a mainstream disc jockey and devoted himself to comedy with his radio project On the Hour. Working with Armando Iannucci, Patrick Marber, Richard Herring, Stewart Lee, Steve Coogan and others, he created a spoof news show on BBC Radio 4. In 1994, Morris began a weekly evening show on BBC Radio 1 alongside Peter Baynham. In the shows, Morris perfected the spoof interview style that would became a central component of his Brass Eye programme. The show's pranks left BBC bosses nonplussed, and a profanity-laden mid-afternoon show on Boxing Day would be his last. In the same year, Morris teamed up with Peter Cook, as Sir Arthur Streeb-Greebling, in a series of improvised conversations for BBC Radio 3, entitled Why Bother?. Morris followed this with Blue Jam, a late-night ambient music and sketch show on Radio 1, which was later reworked for television as Channel 4's Jam. Move into television In 1994, a BBC 2 television series based on On the Hour was broadcast under the name The Day Today. The Day Today made a star of Morris, and helped to launch the careers of Patrick Marber and Steve Coogan. The black humour which had featured in On the Hour and The Day Today became more prominent in Brass Eye, another spoof current affairs television documentary, shown on Channel 4. Brass Eye became known for tricking celebrities and politicians into throwing support behind public awareness campaigns for made-up issues that were often absurd or surreal (such as a drug called cake and an elephant with its trunk stuck up its anus). In 2001, a reprise of Brass Eye on the moral panic that surrounds paedophilia led to a record-breaking number of complaints – it still remains the third highest on UK television after Celebrity Big Brother 2007 and Jerry Springer: The Opera – as well as heated discussion in the press. Many complainants, some of whom later admitted to not having seen the programme (notably Beverley Hughes, a government minister) , felt the satire was directed at the victims of paedophilia, which Morris denies. Channel 4 defended the show, insisting the target was the media and its hysterical treatment of paedophilia, and not victims of crime. Morris also wrote and directed Jam, a television reworking of his radio show Blue Jam. Darker and more unsettling than his previous work, the show explored such taboos as infant mortality, incest, anal sex, rape, suicide and sadomasochism through a series of unsettling, dreamlike sketches with a soundtrack of ambient music. This was followed by a 'remix' version, Jaaaaam. Controversy Morris has covered other controversial subjects. He once falsely suggested on the radio that Jimmy Savile and Conservative MP Michael Heseltine had died; had a show faded mid-broadcast when he played an iconoclastic cut-up of the Archbishop of Canterbury's funeral oration for Diana, Princess of Wales, although Radio 1 had previously cleared this for broadcast, claiming an error on their part as they mistook it for another censored sketch on a similar theme; and performed a song in the style of Pulp lead singer Jarvis Cocker about child-murderer Myra Hindley with the lyrics: "Every time I see your picture, Myra/I have to phone my latest girlfriend and fire her/And find a prostitute who looks like you and hire her/Oh, me oh Myra." In 1994, Morris portrayed a fictional rapper, Fur-Q, for a sketch satirising hip hop's glamorisation of guns and violence promoting his song "Uzi Lover" (a parody of Phillip Bailey's song "Easy Lover") featuring lyrics such as "Uzi like a metal dick in my hand, magazine like a big testicle gland, bitch wanna try it, I said keep it quiet.. shove it up your mother[(musical note)] ass and fry it" and "Cop! Bitch! Cop bitch mother[(musical note)]!" (other random words were censored for comedic effect). He would visit similar territory in Brass Eye Special, with JLB-8 (Jailbait), an Eminem clone (though in appearance and attire he more closely resembled Fred Durst) who openly worked paedophile themes into his music and had a huge following of pre-teen girls. In 1999, a regular feature appeared in The Observer newspaper documenting the impending suicide of columnist Richard Geefe entitled Second Class Male/Time To Go. After protest, it was revealed that the column was a spoof written by Morris. In 2002, Morris ventured into film, directing the short My Wrongs #8245–8249 & 117, adapted from a Blue Jam monologue about a man led astray by a sinister talking dog. It was the first film project of Warp Films, a branch of Warp Records. In 2002 this won the BAFTA for best short film. In 2005 Morris worked on a sitcom entitled Nathan Barley, based on the character created by Charlie Brooker for his website TVGoHome. Co-written by Brooker and Morris, the series was broadcast on Channel 4 in early 2005. Recent work Morris was a cast member in The IT Crowd, a Channel 4 sitcom focusing on the office and home lives of two ‘geeks’ who work in the information technology department of the fictional company Reynholm Industries. The series is written and directed by Graham Linehan (writer of Father Ted and Black Books, with whom Morris collaborated on The Day Today, Brass Eye and Jam) and produced by Ash Atalla (The Office). Morris played Denholm Reynholm, the eccentric managing director of the company. This marked the first time Morris has acted in a substantial role in a project which he hasn't developed himself and is more mainstream than his earlier work. Morris's character appeared to leave the series during episode two of the second series. His character made a brief return in the first episode of the third series. The Guardian reported that Morris is working on a film satirising terrorism and suicide bombers for Channel 4. The project, titled Four Lions was turned down by both the BBC and Channel 4 for its controversial subject matter, but has been picked up by Film Four. Morris told The Sunday Times that the film will seek to do for Islamic terrorism what Dad's Army, the classic BBC comedy, did for the Nazis by showing them as "scary but also ridiculous". In November 2007, Morris wrote an article for The Observer in response to Ronan Bennett's article published six days earlier in The Guardian. Bennett's article, "Shame on us'", accused the novelist Martin Amis of racism. Morris's response, "The absurd world of Martin Amis", was also highly critical of Amis; although he didn't accede to Bennett's accusation of racism, Morris likened Amis to the Muslim cleric Abu Hamza (who was jailed for inciting racial hatred in 2006), suggesting that both men employ "mock erudition, vitriol and decontextualised quotes from the Koran" to incite hatred. Morris served as script editor for the 2009 series Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle, working with former colleagues Stewart Lee, the actor Kevin Eldon and Armando Iannucci. Music Morris often co-writes and performs incidental music for his television shows, notably with Jam and the 'extended remix' version, Jaaaaam. Morris supplied sketches for British band Saint Etienne's 1993 single "You're in a Bad Way" (the sketch 'Spongbake' appears at the end of the 4th track on the CD single). In 2000, he collaborated by mail with Amon Tobin to create the track "Bad Sex", which was released as a B-side on the Tobin single "Slowly". Amon Tobin (feat Chris Morris at Discogs British band Stereolab's song "Nothing to Do with Me" from their 2001 album Sound-Dust featured various lines from Chris Morris sketches as lyrics. Recognition In 2003, Morris was listed in The Observer as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In 2005, Channel 4 aired a show called The Comedian's Comedian in which foremost writers and performers of comedy ranked their 50 favourite acts. Morris was at number eleven. An influential figure, he is frequently mentioned outside of his work by several colleagues including Graham Linehan, Noel Fielding and Julian Barratt. Personal life Morris lives in Brixton, with literary agent Jo Unwin, and has two sons, both of whom were born in Lambeth, London: Charles Peter (born 1996) and Frederick Rudolf (born 1999). Births England and Wales 1984-2006 Not much is known about Morris's personal life, as he has given very few interviews. Morris can be heard as himself in a podcast for CERN. He is brother to National Theatre associate director Tom Morris and television director Ben Morris. Works Various works at BBC Radio Cambridgeshire (1986–1987) (presenter) It's Only TV (198?) No Known Cure (July 1987 – March 1990, BBC Radio Bristol) (presenter) Chris Morris (1988–1993, BBC GLR) (presenter) Loose Ends (1989, BBC Radio 4) Up Yer News (1990, BSB) The Chris Morris Christmas Show (25 December 1990, BBC Radio 1) On The Hour (1991–1992, BBC Radio 4) (co-writer, performer) Why Bother? (1994, BBC Radio 3) (performer, editor) The Day Today (1994, BBC 2) (co-writer, performer) The Chris Morris Music Show (1994, BBC Radio 1) (presenter) Brass Eye (1997, Channel 4) (writer, performer) I'm Alan Partridge (1997, BBC 2) (performer, 1 episode) Blue Jam (1997–1999, BBC Radio 1) (writer, director, performer, editor) Big Train (1999, BBC 2) various sketches. (additional director, voice actor (1 sketch)) Second Class Male/Time To Go (1999, newspaper column for The Observer) Jam/Jaaaaam (2000, Channel 4) (main writer, director, performer) Brass Eye Special (2001, Channel 4) (writer, performer) The Smokehammer (2002, website) Absolute Atrocity Special (2002, newspaper pullout for The Observer) Bushwhacked (2002) My Wrongs #8245–8249 & 117 (2002, short film) (writer, director, voice of Rothko) Nathan Barley (2005, Channel 4) (writer, director) The IT Crowd (2006–2008, Channel 4) (performer) Stewart Lee's Comedy Vehicle (2009, BBC 2) (script editor) Four Lions (2009, film) (writer, director) References External links The Smokehammer, a site by Chris Morris BESTBAR(NONE), a spoof bar guide compiled by Chris Morris for Warp Records trashbat.co.ck, a website referred to throughout Nathan Barley which, notionally, is the creation of the titular character (who vocalises it “trash bat dot cock”). The .co.ck domain is as a result of the second level domain for company and the top level domain for the Cook Islands Cook'd and Bomb'd, a site devoted to the work of Chris Morris and his collaborators Chris Morris: Brass Neck BBC Profile of Morris	Chris_Morris_(satirist) \|@lemmatized christopher:1 morris:49 born:3 september:1 bristol:5 english:1 comedian:3 writer:12 director:10 actor:3 former:2 radio:23 dj:1 begin:2 career:3 move:3 television:9 find:2 fame:1 ninety:1 front:1 spoof:7 current:2 affair:2 show:22 day:8 today:6 brass:10 eye:10 become:5 know:3 intelligent:1 yet:1 often:3 highly:2 controversial:3 brand:1 comedy:8 tend:1 stay:1 public:2 one:2 enigmatic:1 figure:2 british:4 biography:1 early:4 life:5 grow:1 cambridgeshire:3 parent:1 doctor:1 educate:1 stonyhurst:1 college:1 jesuit:1 boys:1 board:1 school:1 lancashire:1 study:1 zoology:1 university:1 graduating:1 take:2 traineeship:1 bbc:23 advantage:1 access:1 edit:1 record:4 equipment:1 create:4 elaborate:1 parody:2 also:4 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1,186	Baltic_Sea	Map of the Baltic Sea. Baltic Sea The Baltic Sea is a brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and the Little Belt. The Kattegat continues through Skagerrak into the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The Baltic Sea is artificially linked to the White Sea by the White Sea Canal and to the North Sea by the Kiel Canal. The Baltic is bordered on its northern edge by the Gulf of Bothnia, its northeastern edge by the Gulf of Finland, and on its eastern edge by the Gulf of Riga. Etymology While Tacitus called it Mare Suebicum Tacitus, Germania (book): Ergo iam dextro Suebici maris litore Aestiorum gentes adluuntur, quibus ritus habitusque Sueborum, lingua Britannicae propior. - Upon the right of the Suevian Sea the AEstyan nations reside, who use the same customs and attire with the Suevians; their language more resembles that of Britain. after the Germanic people of the Suebi, the first to name it also as the Baltic Sea (Mare Balticum) was eleventh century German chronicler Adam of Bremen. The origin of the latter name is speculative. It might be connected to the Germanic word belt, a name used for two of the Danish straits, the Belts, while others claim it to be derived from Latin balteus (belt). Project Runeberg. However it should be noted that the name of the Belts might be connected to Danish bælte, which also means belt. Furthermore Adam of Bremen himself compared the Sea with a belt stating that the Sea is named so because it stretches through the land as a belt (Balticus, eo quod in modum baltei longo tractu per Scithicas regiones tendatur usque in Greciam). He might also have been influenced by name of legendary island mentioned in The Natural History by Pliny the Elder. Pliny mentions an island named Baltia (or Balcia) with reference to accounts of Pytheas and Xenophon. It is possible that Pliny refers to island named Basilia ("kingdom" or "royal") in On the Ocean by Pytheas. Baltia also might be derived from "belt" and means "near belt of sea (strait)". Meanwhile others have concluded that the name of the island originates from the Indo-European root *bhel meaning white, fair. Yet another explanation is that, while derived from the afore mentioned root, the name of the sea is related to naming for various forms of water and related substances in several European languages, that might have been originally associated colors found in swamps. Another explanation is that the name was related to swamp and originally meant "enclosed sea, bay" as opposed to open sea. In the Middle Ages the sea was known by variety of names, the name Baltic Sea started to dominate only after 16th century. Usage of Baltic and similar terms to denote the region east from the sea started only in 19th century. Name in other languages The Baltic Sea, in ancient sources known as Mare Suebicum (also known as Mare Germanicum Hartmann Schedel 1493 map ), is also known by the equivalents of "East Sea", "West Sea", or "Baltic Sea" in different languages: In Germanic languages, except English, East Sea is used: Afrikaans (Oossee), Danish (Østersøen), Dutch (Oostzee), German (Ostsee), Icelandic and Faroese (Eystrasalt), Norwegian (Østersjøen), and Swedish (Östersjön). In Old English it was known as Ostsæ. In addition, Finnish, a Baltic-Finnic language has calqued the Swedish term as Itämeri "East Sea", disregarding the geography (the sea is west of Finland), though understandably since Finns were under Swedish rule from Middle Ages until 1809. In another Baltic-Finnic language, Estonian, it is called the West Sea (Läänemeri), with the correct geography (the sea is west of Estonia). Baltic Sea is used in English; in the Baltic languages Latvian (Baltijas jūra) and Lithuanian (Baltijos jūra); in Latin (Mare Balticum) and the Romance languages French (Mer Baltique), Italian (Mar Baltico), Portuguese (Mar Báltico), Romanian (Marea Baltică) and Spanish (Mar Báltico); in the Slavic languages Polish (Morze Bałtyckie or Bałtyk), Czech (Baltské moře), Croatian (Baltičko more), Bulgarian (Baltijsko More (Балтийско море)), Kashubian (Bôłt), and Russian (Baltiyskoye Morye (Балтийское море)); and also in the Hungarian language (Balti-tenger). Geophysical data Baltic Sea in winter The Baltic Sea is a brackish inland sea, alleged to be the largest body of brackish water in the world (other possibilities include the Black Sea). It occupies a basin formed by glacial erosion. Dimensions The Baltic sea is about 1600 km (1000 mi) long, an average of 193 km (120 mi) wide, and an average of 55 m (180 ft, 30 fathoms) deep. The maximum depth is 459 m (1506 ft), on the Swedish side of the center. The surface area is about 377,000 km² (145,522 sq mi) and the volume is about 20,000 km³ (5040 cubic miles). The periphery amounts to about 8000 km (4968 mi) of coastline. Sea ice As a long-term average the Baltic Sea is ice covered for about 45% of its surface area at maximum annually. The ice-covered area during such a typical winter includes the Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, Gulf of Riga and Väinameri in the Estonian archipelago. The remainder of the Baltic itself does not freeze during a normal winter, with the exception of sheltered bays and shallow lagoons such as the Curonian Lagoon. The ice reaches its maximum extent in February or March; typical ice thickness in the northernmost areas in the Bothnian Bay, the northern basin of the Gulf of Bothnia, is about 70 cm for landfast sea ice. The thickness decreases further south. Freezing begins in the northern coast of Gulf of Bothnia typically in middle of November, reaching the open waters of Bothnian Bay in early January. The Bothnian Sea, the basin south of it, freezes on average in late February. The Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Riga freeze typically in late January. The ice extent depends on whether the winter is mild, moderate or severe. Severe winters can lead to ice formation around Denmark and southern Sweden. According to William Derham during severe winters in 1703 and 1708 only Danish straits were frozen; only restricted parts of the Bay of Bothnia and Gulf of Finland are ice covered, in addition to coastal fringes in more southerly locations such as the Gulf of Riga. In recent years a typical winter produces only ice in the northern and eastern extremities of the Sea. In 2007 there was almost no ice formation except for a short period in March. Sea Ice survey, Space Science and Engineering Centre, University of Wisconsin, http://www.ssec.wisc.edu In spring, the Gulf of Finland and of Bothnia normally thaw during late April, with some ice ridges persisting until May in the eastern Gulf of Finland. In the northernmost reaches of the Bothnian Bay ice usually stays until late May; by early June it is practically always gone. During winter, fast ice, which is attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering the ports unusable without the services of icebreakers. Level ice, ice sludge, pancake ice or rafter ice form in the more open regions. The gleaming expanse of ice is similar to the Arctic, with wind-driven pack ice and ridges up to 15 m, and was noted by the ancients. Offshore of the landfast ice the ice remains very dynamic all year, because of its thickness it is relatively easily moved around by winds and therefore makes up large ridges and piles up against the landfast ice and shores. The ice cover is the main habitat only for a few larger species. The largest of them are the seals that both feed and breed on the ice, although the sea ice also harbors several species of algae that live in the bottom and inside brine pockets in the ice. Hydrography The Baltic Sea flows out through the Danish straits; however, the flow is complex. A surface layer of brackish water discharges 940 km³ per year into the North Sea. Due to the difference in salinity, a sub-surface layer of more saline water moving in the opposite direction brings in 475 km³ per year. It mixes very slowly with the upper waters, resulting in a salinity gradient from top to bottom, with most of the salt water remaining below 40 to 70 m deep. The general circulation is counter-clockwise: northwards along its eastern boundary, and south along the western one (Alhonen 88). The difference between the outflow and the inflow comes entirely from fresh water. More than 250 streams drain a basin of about 1.6 million km², contributing a volume of 660 km³ per year to the Baltic. They include the major rivers of north Europe, such as the Oder, the Vistula, the Neman, the Daugava and the Neva. Additional fresh water comes from the difference of precipitation less evaporation, which is positive. An important source of salty water are infrequent inflows of North Sea water into the Baltic. Such inflows, important to the Baltic ecosystem because of the oxygen they transport into the Baltic deeps, used to happen on average every four to five years until the 1980s. In recent decades they have become less frequent. The latest three occurred in 1983, 1993 and 2003 suggesting a new inter-inflow period of about ten years. The water level is generally far more dependent on the regional wind situation than on tidal effects. However, tidal currents occur in narrow passages in the western parts of the Baltic Sea. The significant wave height is generally much lower than that of the North Sea. Violent and sudden storms often sweep the surface, due to large transient temperature differences and a long reach of wind. Seasonal winds also cause small changes in sea level, of the order of 0.5 m (Alhonen 88). Salinity The Baltic Sea's salinity is much lower than that of ocean water (which averages 3.5%, or 35‰), as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land; indeed, runoff contributes roughly one-fortieth its total volume per year, as the volume of the basin is about 21,000 km³ and yearly runoff is about 500 km³. The open surface waters of the central basin have salinity of 6 to 8 ‰. At the semienclosed bays with major freshwater inflows, such as head of Finnish Gulf with Neva mouth and head of Bothnian gulf with close mouths of Lule, Tornio and Kemi, the salinity is considerably lower. Below 40 to 70 m, the salinity is between 10 and 15 ‰ in the open Baltic Sea, and more than this near Danish Straits. The flow of fresh water into the sea from approximately two-hundred rivers and the introduction of salt from the South builds up a gradient of salinity in the Baltic Sea. Near the Danish straits the salinity is close to that of the Kattegat, but still not fully oceanic, because the saltiest water that passes the straits is still already mixed with considerable amounts of outflow water. The salinity steadily decreases towards North and East. At the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia the water is no longer salty and many fresh water species live in the sea. The salinity gradient is paralleled by a temperature gradient. These two factors limit many species of animals and plants to a relatively narrow region of Baltic Sea. The most saline water is vertically stratified in the water column to the north, creating a barrier to the exchange of oxygen and nutrients, and fostering completely separate maritime environments. , Jan Thulin and Andris Andrushaitis, Religion, Science and the Environment Symposium V on the Baltic Sea (2003). Regional emergence Much of modern Finland is former seabed or archipelago: illustrated are sea levels immediately after the last ice age. The land is still emerging isostatically from its subsident state, which was caused by the weight of the last glaciation. The phenomenon is known as post-glacial rebound. Consequently, the surface area and the depth of the sea are diminishing. The uplift is about eight millimetres per year on the Finnish coast of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia. In the area, the former seabed is only gently sloped, leading to large areas of land being reclaimed in, geologically speaking, relatively short periods (decades and centuries). Geographic data Subdivisions The northern part of the Baltic Sea is known as the Gulf of Bothnia, of which the northernmost part is the Bay of Bothnia or Bothnian Bay. The more rounded southern basin of the gulf is called Bothnian Sea and immediately to the south of it lies the Sea of Åland. The Gulf of Finland connects the Baltic Sea with Saint Petersburg. The Gulf of Riga lies between the Latvian capital city of Riga and the Estonian island of Saaremaa. The Northern Baltic Sea lies between the Stockholm area, southwestern Finland and Estonia. The Western and Eastern Gotland Basins form the major parts of the Central Baltic Sea or Baltic proper. The Bornholm Basin is the area east of Bornholm, and the shallower Arkona Basin extends from Bornholm to the Danish isles of Falster and Zealand. In the south, the Bay of Gdańsk lies east of the Hel peninsula on the Polish coast and west of Sambia in Kaliningrad Oblast. The Bay of Pomerania lies north of the islands of Usedom and Wolin, east of Rügen. Between Falster and the German coast lie the Bay of Mecklenburg and Bay of Lübeck. The westernmost part of the Baltic Sea is the Bay of Kiel. The three Danish straits, the Great Belt, the Little Belt and The Sound (Ö/Øresund), connect the Baltic Sea with the Kattegat bay and Skagerrak strait in the North Sea. The confluence of these two seas at Skagen on the northern tip of Denmark is a visual spectacle visited by many tourists each year. Land use Polish coast dunes. The Baltic sea drainage basin is roughly four times the surface area of the sea itself. About 48% of the region is forested, with Sweden and Finland containing the majority of the forest, especially around the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. About 20% of the land is used for agriculture and pasture, mainly in Poland and around the edge of the Baltic Proper, in Germany, Denmark and Sweden. About 17% of the basin is unused open land with another 8% of wetlands. Most of the latter are in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. The rest of the land is heavily populated. Demographics About 85 million people live in the Baltic drainage basin, 15 million within 10 km of the coast and 29 million within 50 km of the coast. Around 22 million live in population centers of over 250,000. 90% of these are concentrated in the 10 km band around the coast. Of the nations containing all or part of the basin, Poland includes 45% of the 85 million, Russia 12%, Sweden 10% and the others (see below) less than 6% each. Geologic history The Baltic Sea somewhat resembles a riverbed, with two tributaries, the Gulf of Finland and Gulf of Bothnia. Geological surveys show that before the Pleistocene instead of the Baltic Sea, there was a wide plain around a big river called the Eridanos. Several glaciation episodes during the Pleistocene scooped out the river bed into the sea basin. By the time of the last, or Eemian Stage (MIS 5e), the Eemian sea was in place. From that time the waters underwent a geologic history summarized under the names listed below. Many of the stages are named after marine animals (e.g. the Littorina mollusk) that are clear markers of changing water temperatures and salinity. The factors that determined the sea’s characteristics were the submergence or emergence of the region due to the weight of ice and subsequent isostatic readjustment, and the connecting channels it found to the North Sea-Atlantic, either through the straits of Denmark or at what are now the large lakes of Sweden, and the White Sea-Arctic Sea. Eemian Sea, 130,000–115,000 (years ago) Baltic ice lake, 12,600–10,300 Yoldia Sea, 10,300–9500 Ancylus Lake, 9,500–8,000 Mastogloia Sea 8,000–7,500 Littorina Sea, 7,500–4,000 Post-littorina Sea 4,000–present History At the time of the Roman Empire, the Baltic Sea was known as the Mare Suebicum or Mare Sarmaticum. Tacitus in his AD 98 Agricola and Germania described the Mare Suebicum, named for the Suebi tribe, during the spring months, as a brackish sea when the ice on the Baltic Sea broke apart and chunks floated about. The Suebi eventually migrated south west to reside for a while in the Rhineland area of modern Germany, where their name survives in the historic region known as Swabia. The Sarmatian tribes inhabited Eastern Europe and southern Russia. Jordanes called it the Germanic Sea in his work the Getica. Since the Viking age, the Scandinavians have called it "the Eastern Lake" (Austmarr, "Eastern Sea", appears in the Heimskringla and Eystra salt appears in Sörla þáttr), but Saxo Grammaticus recorded in Gesta Danorum an older name Gandvik, "-vik" being Old Norse for "bay", which implies that the Vikings correctly regarded it as an inlet of the sea. (Another form of the name, "Grandvik", attested in at least one English translation of Gesta Danorum, is likely to be a misspelling.) In addition to fish the sea also provides amber, especially from its southern shores. The bordering countries have traditionally provided lumber, wood tar, flax, hemp, and s. Sweden had from early medieval times also a flourishing mining industry, especially on iron ore and silver. Poland had and still has extensive salt mines. All this has provided for rich trading since the Roman times. In the early Middle Ages, Vikings of Scandinavia built their trade emporia all around the Baltic. Later, there were fights for control over the sea with Wendish tribes dwelling on the southern shore. The Vikings also used the rivers of Russia for trade routes, finding their way eventually to the Black Sea and southern Russia. This Viking-dominated period is also referred to as Viking Age. Lands next to the sea's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted into Christianity in the Northern Crusades: Finland in the twelfth century by the Swedes, and what are now Estonia and Latvia in the early thirteenth century by the Danes and the Germans (Livonian Brothers of the Sword). The Teutonic Knights gained control over parts of the southern and eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, where they set up their monastic state while fighting the Poles, the Danes, the Swedes, the Russians of ancient Novgorod, and the Lithuanians (the last Europeans to convert to Christianity). In the 12th century, there was intensification of Slavic piracy. Starting in the 11th century, the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic were settled by Germans (and to a lesser extent by Dutch, Danes and Scots) in the course of the Ostsiedlung. The Polabian Slavs were gradually assimilated by the Germans. Wend -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia Denmark gradually gained control over most of the Baltic coast, until she lost much of her possessions after being defeated in the 1227 Battle of Bornhöved. In the 13th to 17th centuries, the strongest economic force in Northern Europe became the Hanseatic league, which used the Baltic Sea to establish trade routes between its member cities. In the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Denmark and Sweden fought wars for Dominium Maris Baltici ("Ruling over the Baltic Sea"). Eventually, it was the Swedish Empire that virtually encompassed the Baltic Sea. In Sweden the sea was then referred to as Mare Nostrum Balticum ("Our Baltic Sea"). In the eighteenth century, Russia and Prussia became the leading powers over the sea. The Great Northern War, ending with Sweden's defeat, brought Russia to the eastern coast. Since then, Russia was a dominating power in the Baltic. Russia's Peter the Great saw the strategic importance of the Baltic and decided to found his new capital, Saint Petersburg at the mouth of the Neva river at the east end of the Gulf of Finland. There was much trading not just within the Baltic region but also with the North Sea region, especially eastern England and the Netherlands: their fleets needed the Baltic timber, tar, flax and hemp. During the Crimean War, a joint British and French fleet attacked the Russian fortresses by bombarding Sveaborg, which guards Helsinki; Kronstadt, which guards Saint Petersburg; and by destroying Bomarsund in the Åland Islands. After the unification of Germany in 1871, the whole southern coast became German. The First World War was partly fought in the Baltic Sea. After 1920 Poland was connected to the Baltic Sea by the Polish Corridor and enlarged the port of Gdynia in rivalry with the port of the Free City of Danzig. During the Second World War, Germany reclaimed all of the southern shore and much of the eastern by occupying Poland and the Baltic states. In 1945, the Baltic Sea became a mass grave for drowned people on torpedoed refugee ships. As of 2004, the sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff remains the worst maritime disaster, killing (very roughly) 9,000 people. In 2005, a Russian group of scientists found over five thousand airplane wrecks, sunken warships, and other material mainly from the Second World War, lying at the bottom of the sea. After 1945, the German population was expelled from all areas east of the Oder-Neisse line, making room for Polish and Russian settlers. Poland gained a vast stretch of the southern shore, Russia gained another access to the Baltic with the Kaliningrad oblast. The Baltic states on the eastern shore were again incorporated in the Soviet Union, Poland and East Germany became communist states. The sea then was a border between opposing military blocks: in the case of military conflict, in parallel with a Soviet offensive towards the Atlantic Ocean, communist Poland's fleet was prepared to invade the Danish isles. This border status also impacted trade and travel, and came to an end only after the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern and Central Europe in the late 1980s. Since May 2004, on the accession of the Baltic states and Poland, the Baltic Sea has been almost entirely surrounded by countries of the European Union (EU). The only remaining non-EU areas are the Russian metropolis of Saint Petersburg and the Kaliningrad Oblast exclave. Winter storms begin arriving in the region during October. These have caused numerous shipwrecks, such as the sinking of the ferry M/S Estonia en route from Tallinn, Estonia, to Stockholm, Sweden, in 1994, which claimed the lives of hundreds. Older, wood-based shipwrecks such as the Vasa tend to remain well-preserved, as the Baltic's cold and brackish water does not suit the shipworm. Biology Phytoplankton bloom in the Baltic Proper, July 3 2001. Approximately 100,000 km² of the Baltic's seafloor (a quarter of its total area) is a variable dead zone. The more saline (and therefore denser) water remains on the bottom, isolating it from surface waters and the atmosphere. This leads to decreased oxygen concentrations within the zone. It is mainly bacteria that grow in it, digesting organic material and releasing hydrogen sulfide. Because of this large anaerobic zone, the seafloor ecology differs from that of the neighbouring Atlantic. The low salinity of the Baltic sea has led to the evolution of many slightly divergent species, such as the Baltic Sea herring, which is a smaller variant of the Atlantic herring. The benthic fauna consists mainly of Monoporeia affinis'', which is originally a freshwater species. The lack of tides has affected the marine species as compared with the Atlantic. The most common fish species you can find in the Baltic Sea are codfish, herring, hake, plaice, flounder, sea trout, eel and turbot. Economy Bridge into the sea in Palanga, the most popular sea resort in Lithuania Construction of the Great Belt Bridge (1997) and Oresund Bridge (1999) over the international waterway of the Danish Straits has limited the Baltic Sea to medium-sized vessels . The Baltic Sea is the main trade route for export of Russian oil. Many of the neighboring countries are concerned about this, since a major oil leak would be disastrous in the Baltic given the slow exchange of water and the many unique species. The tourism industries, especially in economies dependent on tourism like northeastern Germany, are naturally very concerned. Shipbuilding is practiced in many shipyards around the Baltic. The largest are Gdańsk and Szczecin (Poland), HDW in Kiel (Germany), Karlskrona (Sweden), Kockums in Malmö (Sweden), Rauma, Turku, and Helsinki (Finland), Riga, Ventspils and Liepāja (Latvia), and Klaipėda (Lithuania). There are several cargo and passenger ferry operators on the Baltic Sea, such as Scandlines, Silja Line, Polferries, Viking Line, Tallink and Superfast Ferries. Tourism around the sea European Route of Brick Gothic European Route of Brick Gothic is a touristic route connecting cities with Brick Gothic architecture in seven countries along the Baltic Sea: Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. Interesting towns and cities Anklam (area), Germany Copenhagen, Denmark Darłowo, Poland Elbląg (area), Poland Frombork (area), Poland Gdańsk, Poland Gdynia, Poland Greifswald, Germany Haapsalu, Estonia Kalmar, Sweden Hanko, Finland Helsingborg, Sweden Helsingør, Denmark Helsinki, Finland Jūrmala, Latvia Kaliningrad (area), Russia Kamień Pomorski (area), Poland Kappeln, Germany Karlskrona, Sweden Kiel, Germany Klaipėda, Lithuania Køge, Denmark Kołobrzeg, Poland Kotka, Finland Liepāja, Latvia Lübeck, Germany Lund (area), Sweden Łeba, Poland Malbork (area), Poland Malmö, Sweden Międzyzdroje, Poland Norrköping, Sweden Nowe Warpno (area), Poland Nyköping, Sweden Nykøbing Falster, Denmark Næstved (area), Denmark Palanga, Lithuania Riga, Latvia Rostock, Germany Rønne, Denmark Saint Petersburg, Russia Sassnitz, Germany Słupsk (area), Poland Sopot, Poland Stockholm, Sweden Stralsund, Germany Szczecin (area), Poland Świnoujście, Poland Tallinn, Estonia Trzebiatów (area), Poland Ueckermünde (area), Germany Usedom (area), Germany Ustka, Poland Vaasa, Finland Ventspils, Latvia Visby, Sweden Wismar, Germany Wolgast (area), Germany Wolin (area), Poland Ystad, Sweden Piers Sopot, Poland Międzyzdroje, Poland Kołobrzeg, Poland Palanga, Lithuania Resort towns Examples: Świnoujście, Poland Kamień Pomorski, Poland Kołobrzeg, Poland Pärnu, Estonia Sopot, Poland Ueckermünde, Germany Ustka, Poland The Helsinki Convention 1974 Convention For the first time ever, all the sources of pollution around an entire sea were made subject to a single convention, signed in 1974 by the then seven Baltic coastal states. The 1974 Convention entered into force on 3 May 1980. 1992 Convention In the light of political changes and developments in international environmental and maritime law, a new convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community. After ratification the Convention entered into force on 17 January 2000. The Convention covers the whole of the Baltic Sea area, including inland waters and the water of the sea itself, as well as the seabed. Measures are also taken in the whole catchment area of the Baltic Sea to reduce land-based pollution. The Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, 1992, entered into force on 17 January 2000. The governing body of the Convention is the Helsinki Commission Helcom : Welcome , also known as HELCOM, or Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission. The present contracting parties are Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden. The ratification instruments were deposited by the European Community, Germany, Latvia and Sweden in 1994, by Estonia and Finland in 1995, by Denmark in 1996, by Lithuania in 1997 and by Poland and Russia in November 1999. Countries Countries that border on the sea: Denmark Estonia Finland Germany Latvia Lithuania Poland Russia Sweden Countries that are in the drainage basin but do not border on the sea: Belarus Czech Republic Norway Slovakia Ukraine Islands and archipelagoes Åland Islands (Ahvenanmaa) (Finland, autonomous) Archipelago Sea (Finland) Pargas Nagu Korpo Houtskär Kustavi Bornholm (Denmark) Gotland (Sweden) Hailuoto (Finland) Hiiumaa (Estonia) Kotlin (Russia) Muhu (Estonia) Öland (Sweden) Rügen (Germany) Saaremaa (Estonia) Stockholm archipelago (Sweden) Värmdön (Sweden) Usedom or Uznam (split between Germany and Poland) Kvarken archipelago, including Valassaaret/Valsörarna (Finland) Wolin (Poland) Cities The biggest coastal cities (by population): Saint Petersburg (Russia) 4,700,000 (metropolitan area 6,000,000) Stockholm (Sweden) 798,898 (metropolitan area 1,927,128) Copenhagen (Denmark) 502,204 (metropolitan area 1,823,109) (facing the Sound) Helsinki (Finland) 559,716 (metropolitan area 1,200,000) Gdańsk (Poland) 462,700 (metropolitan area 1,041,000) Riga (Latvia) 717,371 (metropolitan area 885,000) Szczecin (Poland) 413,600 (metropolitan area 674,000) Tallinn (Estonia) 401,774 Kaliningrad (Russia) 400,000 Malmö (Sweden) 259,579 (facing the Sound) Gdynia (Poland) 255,600 Kiel (Germany) 250,000 Espoo (Finland) 234,400 (part of Helsinki metropolitan area) Lübeck (Germany) 216,100 Rostock (Germany) 212,700 Klaipėda (Lithuania) 194,400 Turku (Finland) 175,000 Oulu (Finland) 130,000 Important ports (though not big cities): Liepāja (Latvia) 85,000 Pori (Finland) 76,000 Kotka (Finland) 55,000 Świnoujście (Poland) 50,000 Pärnu (Estonia) 44,568 Ventspils (Latvia) 44,000 Port of Police (The Seaport on The Oder River) in Police, Poland (34,319) Baltiysk (Russia) 20,000 Maardu (Estonia) 16,570 Władysławowo (Poland) 15,000 Mariehamn (Finland) 11,000 Hanko (Finland) 10,000 Sassnitz (Germany) (ferry terminal) See also Baltic Baltic region Baltic states Council of the Baltic Sea States List of rivers of the Baltic Sea Nord Stream Northern Europe Ports of the Baltic Sea Scandinavia References Fairbridge, Rhodes. The Encyclopedia of Oceanography. Pentti Alhonen, "Baltic Sea", pp. 87–91. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1966. External links Baltic Sea clickable map and details. Protect the Baltic Sea while its still not too late. The Baltic Sea Portal - a site maintained by the Finnish Institute of Marine Research (FIMR) (in English, Finnish, Swedish and Estonian) Encyclopedia of Baltic History Old shipwrecks in the Baltic How the Baltic Sea was changing - Prehistory of the Baltic from the Polish Geological Institute Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland - more prehistory of the Baltic from the Department of Geography of the University of Helsinki Baltic Environmental Atlas: Interactive map of the Baltic Sea region Can a New Cleanup Plan Save the Sea? - spiegel.de List of all ferry lines in the Baltic Sea The Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) HELCOM is the governing body of the "Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area" Baltice.org - information related to winter navigation in the Baltic Sea. 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1,187	Giulio_Alberoni	Cardinal Alberoni Giulio Alberoni (May 30, 1664 OS - June 26 NS, 1752) was an Italian cardinal and statesman in the service of Philip V of Spain. Early years He was born near Piacenza, probably at the village of Fiorenzuola d'Arda in the Duchy of Parma. His father was a gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church in the humble position of a bellringer and verger in the Duomo of Piacenza; he was twenty-one when the judge Ignazio Gardini, of Ravenna, was banished, and he followed Gardini to Ravenna where he met the vice-legate Giorgio Barni, who was made bishop of Piacenza in 1688 and appointed Alberoni chamberlain of his household. Alberoni took priest's orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to Rome. During the War of the Spanish Succession Alberoni laid the foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to Louis-Joseph, duc de Vendôme, commander of the French forces in Italy, to whom the duke of Parma had sent him; and when these forces were recalled in 1706 he accompanied the duke to Paris, where he was favourably received by Louis XIV. That a low-ranking priest was used as envoy was due to the duke's rude manners: the previous envoy, the bishop of Parma, had quit because the duke had wiped his buttocks in front of him: Saint-Simon in his Mémoires relates that Alberoni gained Vendôme's favor when he was received in the same way, but reacted adroitly by kissing the duke's buttocks and crying "O culo di angelo!". The duke was amused, and this joke started Alberoni's brilliant career. Middle years In 1711 he followed Vendôme into Spain as his secretary. He was very active in furthering the accession of the French candidate for the throne of Spain, Philip V. Two years later, Vendôme having died in the interval, Alberoni was appointed consular agent for Parma at Philip's court, where he was the royal favourite, being raised at the same time to the dignity of count. On his arrival at Madrid he found the princesse des Ursins (Orsini, born de la Trémoille) all but omnipotent with the king, and for a time he judged it expedient to use her influence in carrying out his plans. Upon the death of the Queen (Maria Luisa of Savoy), Alberoni in concert with La Trémoille arranged for a marriage in 1714 between the widowed King and Elisabetta Farnese, daughter of the Duke of Parma. The influence of the new queen being actively exerted on Alberoni's behalf (the princesse des Ursins had been chased out by the new queen), within not much more than a year he was made a duke and grandee of Spain, a member of the king's council, appointed bishop of Málaga, and in 1715 prime minister, and was made cardinal by Pope Clement XI, under pressure from the court of Spain, in July 1717. His vigorous internal policy mixed the economic reforms of Colbert for Louis XIV with some conservative Spanish aspects: a regular mail service to the Americas was instituted, yet the school of navigation he founded was reserved for the sons of the nobility. By a series of decrees in 1717, Alberoni reduced the powers of the grandees in royal councils. His main purpose was to produce an economic revival in Spain by abolishing internal custom-houses, throwing open the trade of the Indies and reorganizing the finances along lines that had been established by the French economist Jean Orry. With the resources thus gained he undertook to enable Philip V to carry out an ambitious foreign policy to undo the Treaty of Utrecht, with the aim of countering the Habsburgs and recovering Spanish possessions in Italy, where he was responsible for unwarranted invasions of Sardinia (November 1717) and Sicily (July 1718), in spite of promises made to the Pope, while pressing Spanish causes in France with the Cellamare conspiracy. Another extravagant scheme of Alberoni's was the plotted restoration of the Stuarts to the British throne in two Jacobite expeditions to Scotland in the spring of 1719. By provoking Britain, France, the Netherlands and the Empire to form the Quadruple Alliance, his hasty and ambitious plans brought a flood of disaster to Spain, for which Alberoni was held responsible. On December 5, 1719, with Philip V fast becoming the common enemy of all Europe, Alberoni was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having taken an active part in procuring the decree of banishment. Later years He went to Italy, escaped from arrest at Genoa, and had to take refuge among the Apennines, Pope Clement XI, who was his bitter enemy, having given strict orders for his arrest. On the death of Clement in 1721, Alberoni boldly appeared at the conclave, and took part in the election of Innocent XIII, after which he was for a short time imprisoned by the new pontiff on the demand of Spain, but was cleared of all charges by a commission of his fellow Cardinals. At the next election (1724) he was himself proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten votes at the conclave that elected Benedict XIII. Benedict's successor, Clement XII (elected 1730), named him legate of Ravenna, where he erected the Porta Alberoni (1739), a magnificent gateway that formerly provided access to the city's dockyards, and has since been moved to the entrance of the Teatro Rasi). http://www.racine.ra.it/ravenna/english/keys/historical/porta_alberoni_uk.htm That same year, the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted to subject the puny republic of San Marino to the papal states incurred the pope's displeasure, and left a historical scar in that place's memory. San Marino subjugation He was soon replaced by another legate in 1740, and he retired to Piacenza, where in 1730 Clement XII appointed him administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro, a medieval foundation for the benefit of lepers. Since leprosy had nearly disappeared in Italy, Alberoni obtained the consent of the pope to suppress of the hospital, which had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it with a seminary for the priestly education of seventy poor boys, under the name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. The Cardinal's collections of art gathered in Rome and Piacenza, housed in his richly appointed private apartments, have been augmented by the Collegio. There are remarkable suites of Flemish tapestries, and paintings, among which the most famous is the Ecce Homo by Antonello da Messina (1473), but which also include panels by Jan Provoost and other Flemish artists, oil paintings by Domenico Maria Viani and Francesco Solimena. Alberoni was a gourmet. Interspersed in his official correspondence with Parma are requests for local delicacies triffole (truffles), salame, robiola cheeses, and agnolini (kind of pasta). http://www.comune.piacenza.it/english/localcusine.htm The pork dish "Coppa del Cardinale", a specialty of Piacenza, is named for him. A "Timballo Alberoni" combines maccaroni, shrimp sauce, mushrooms, butter and cheese. Death and legacy He died leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded, and the residue of the immense wealth he had acquired in Spain to his nephew. Alberoni left a large quantity of manuscripts. The genuineness of the Political Testament, published in his name at Lausanne in 1753, has been questioned. Sources Catholic Encyclopedia: Giulio Alberoni Catholic Hierarchy: Giulio Cardinal Alberoni Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church:Conclave of March 31 - May 8, 1724 Collegio Alberoni, Piacenza The San Marino event of 1739-40 References	Giulio_Alberoni \|@lemmatized cardinal:7 alberoni:24 giulio:3 may:2 june:1 n:1 italian:1 statesman:1 service:3 philip:5 v:4 spain:10 early:1 year:6 bear:2 near:1 piacenza:8 probably:1 village:1 fiorenzuola:1 arda:1 duchy:1 parma:6 father:1 gardener:1 become:2 first:1 connect:1 church:2 humble:1 position:1 bellringer:1 verger:1 duomo:1 twenty:1 one:1 judge:2 ignazio:1 gardini:2 ravenna:4 banish:1 follow:2 meet:1 vice:1 legate:3 giorgio:1 barni:1 make:4 bishop:3 appoint:5 chamberlain:1 household:1 take:4 priest:2 order:3 afterwards:1 accompany:2 son:2 patron:1 rome:2 war:1 spanish:4 succession:1 lay:1 foundation:2 political:2 success:1 render:1 louis:3 joseph:1 duc:1 de:2 vendôme:4 commander:1 french:3 force:2 italy:4 duke:8 send:1 recall:1 paris:1 favourably:1 receive:2 xiv:2 low:1 ranking:1 use:2 envoy:2 due:1 rude:1 manner:1 previous:1 quit:1 wipe:1 buttock:2 front:1 saint:1 simon:1 mémoires:1 relate:1 gain:2 favor:1 way:1 react:1 adroitly:1 kiss:1 cry:1 culo:1 di:1 angelo:1 amuse:1 joke:1 start:1 brilliant:1 career:1 middle:1 secretary:1 active:2 accession:1 candidate:1 throne:2 two:2 later:2 die:2 interval:1 consular:1 agent:1 court:2 royal:2 favourite:1 raise:1 time:3 dignity:1 count:1 arrival:1 madrid:1 find:1 princesse:2 des:2 ursins:2 orsini:1 born:1 la:2 trémoille:2 omnipotent:1 king:3 expedient:1 influence:2 carry:2 plan:2 upon:1 death:3 queen:3 maria:2 luisa:1 savoy:1 concert:1 arrange:1 marriage:1 widowed:1 elisabetta:1 farnese:1 daughter:1 new:3 actively:1 exert:1 behalf:1 chase:1 within:1 much:1 grandee:2 member:1 council:2 málaga:1 prime:1 minister:1 pope:5 clement:5 xi:2 pressure:1 july:2 vigorous:1 internal:2 policy:2 mix:1 economic:2 reform:1 colbert:1 conservative:1 aspect:1 regular:1 mail:1 america:1 institute:1 yet:1 school:1 navigation:1 found:2 reserve:1 nobility:1 series:1 decree:2 reduce:1 power:1 main:1 purpose:1 produce:1 revival:1 abolish:1 custom:1 house:2 throw:1 open:1 trade:1 indie:1 reorganize:1 finance:1 along:1 line:1 establish:1 economist:1 jean:1 orry:1 resource:1 thus:1 undertake:1 enable:1 ambitious:2 foreign:1 undo:1 treaty:1 utrecht:1 aim:1 counter:1 habsburg:1 recover:1 possession:1 responsible:2 unwarranted:1 invasion:1 sardinia:1 november:1 sicily:1 spite:1 promise:1 press:1 cause:1 france:2 cellamare:1 conspiracy:1 another:2 extravagant:1 scheme:1 plotted:1 restoration:1 stuart:1 british:1 jacobite:1 expedition:1 scotland:1 spring:1 provoke:1 britain:1 netherlands:1 empire:1 form:1 quadruple:1 alliance:1 hasty:1 bring:1 flood:1 disaster:1 hold:1 december:1 fast:1 common:1 enemy:2 europe:1 leave:4 elizabeth:1 part:2 procure:1 banishment:1 go:1 escape:1 arrest:2 genoa:1 refuge:1 among:2 apennines:1 bitter:1 give:1 strict:1 boldly:1 appear:1 conclave:3 election:2 innocent:1 xiii:2 short:1 imprison:1 pontiff:1 demand:1 clear:1 charge:1 commission:1 fellow:1 next:1 propose:1 papal:2 chair:1 secure:1 ten:1 vote:1 elect:1 benedict:2 successor:1 xii:2 elected:1 name:4 erect:1 porta:1 magnificent:1 gateway:1 formerly:1 provide:1 access:1 city:1 dockyard:1 since:2 move:1 entrance:1 teatro:1 rasi:1 http:2 www:2 racine:1 ra:1 english:2 key:1 historical:2 htm:2 strong:1 unwarrantable:1 measure:1 adopt:1 subject:1 puny:1 republic:1 san:4 marino:3 state:1 incur:1 displeasure:1 scar:1 place:1 memory:1 subjugation:1 soon:1 replace:2 retire:1 administrator:1 hospital:2 lazzaro:1 medieval:1 benefit:1 leper:1 leprosy:1 nearly:1 disappear:1 obtain:1 consent:1 suppress:1 fall:1 great:1 disorder:1 seminary:2 priestly:1 education:1 seventy:1 poor:1 boy:1 collegio:3 still:1 collection:1 art:1 gather:1 richly:1 private:1 apartment:1 augment:1 remarkable:1 suite:1 flemish:2 tapestry:1 painting:2 famous:1 ecce:1 homo:1 antonello:1 da:1 messina:1 also:1 include:1 panel:1 jan:1 provoost:1 artist:1 oil:1 domenico:1 viani:1 francesco:1 solimena:1 gourmet:1 intersperse:1 official:1 correspondence:1 request:1 local:1 delicacy:1 triffole:1 truffle:1 salame:1 robiola:1 cheese:2 agnolini:1 kind:1 pasta:1 comune:1 localcusine:1 pork:1 dish:1 coppa:1 del:1 cardinale:1 specialty:1 timballo:1 combine:1 maccaroni:1 shrimp:1 sauce:1 mushroom:1 butter:1 legacy:1 sum:1 ducat:1 endow:1 residue:1 immense:1 wealth:1 acquire:1 nephew:1 large:1 quantity:1 manuscript:1 genuineness:1 testament:1 publish:1 lausanne:1 question:1 source:1 catholic:2 encyclopedia:1 hierarchy:1 holy:1 roman:1 march:1 event:1 reference:1 \|@bigram duchy_parma:1 duke_parma:2 louis_xiv:2 maria_luisa:1 prime_minister:1 pope_clement:2 clement_xi:2 treaty_utrecht:1 quadruple_alliance:1 benedict_xiii:1 http_www:2 san_marino:3 butter_cheese:1
1,188	Heart_of_Oak	"Heart of Oak" is the official march of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom. It is also the official march of the Canadian Navy, as well as the Canadian Forces' Naval Operations Branch. The music was composed by Dr William Boyce and the words were written by the 18th Century English actor David Garrick. Heart of Oak was originally written as an opera. The "wonderful year" referenced in the first verse is 1759-60, during which British forces were victorious in several significant battles: the Battle of Lagos on August 19, 1759, the battle of Quebec City on September 13, 1759 and the battle of Quiberon Bay on 20 November 1759. These were followed a few months later by the Battle of Wandiwash in India on 22 January 1760. Lyrics Come, cheer up, my lads, 'tis to glory we steer, To add something more to this wonderful year; To honour we call you, as freemen not slaves, For who are so free as the sons of the waves? (Chorus sung once...) Heart of oak are our ships, jolly tars are our men, we always are ready; Steady, boys, steady! We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again. We never see the French but we wish them to stay, They always see us and they wish us away; If they run, we will follow, we will drive them ashore, And if they won't fight, we can do no more. (Chorus sung once...) They swear they'll invade us, these terrible foes, They frighten our women, our children and beaus, But should their flat bottoms in darkness get o'er, Still Britons they'll find to receive them on shore. (Chorus sung once...) [Verse sometimes omitted] Britannia triumphant, her ships sweep the sea, Her standard is Justice -- her watchword, 'be free.' Then cheer up, my lads, with one heart let us sing, Our soldiers, our sailors, our statesmen, and king. (Final Chorus sung twice...) </center> Canadian Version English Come cheer up my lads, tis to glory we steer, To add something new to this wonderful year; Tis to honour we call you, as free men not slaves, For who are so free as the sons of the waves? (Chorus) Heart of oak our ships, jolly tars our men, We always are ready, steady boys, steady. We'll fight and we'll conquer again, and again. We ne'er see our foes, but we wish them to stay; They always see us and they wish us away; If they run we will follow, we will drive them ashore; For if they won't fight we can do no more. (Chorus) They say they'll invade us, these terrible foes; Frighten our women, our children, our beaus; But should their flat-bottoms, in darkness get o'er, Stout Britons they'll find to defeat them ashore. (Chorus) Britannia triumphant, her ships rule the seas, Her watchword is justice, her password is free. So come cheer up my lads, with one heart let us sing, Our soldiers, our sailors, our statesmen, our Queen. (Chorus sung twice...) </center> French Debout mes gaillards, pointons-nous vers la gloire, Fleurons ajoutons à ces heures sans déboire, Sans carcan et sans joug, tout l'honneur nous attend, Pour nous qui sommes les fils libres de l'océan! Coeur de chêne nos navires, gais lurons nos marins, toujours fidèles au poste, hardis, gars, hardis. L'avenir est à nous les vrais... Coeur de chêne nos navires, gais lurons nos marins, toujours fidèles au poste, hardis, gars, hardis. L'avenir est à nous les vrais... Conquérants!!! </center> In popular culture In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Allegiance," an alien double of Capt. Jean-Luc Picard leads his crew in singing this song, much to their surprise. Sung by Peter Ustinov, Dean Jones and Suzanne Pleshette in the 1968 Disney film Blackbeard's Ghost. In the TV movies Sharpe's Company and Sharpe's Challenge, Heart of Oak is sung as encouragement by an officer as the men prepare to launch a Forlorn Hope against the breach in a fortress wall. External links Heart of Oak (MP3) at Sounds of the Stadacona Band Heart of Oak (MP3) at Canadian Historical Sound Recordings	Heart_of_Oak \|@lemmatized heart:9 oak:7 official:2 march:2 royal:1 navy:2 united:1 kingdom:1 also:1 canadian:4 well:1 force:2 naval:1 operation:1 branch:1 music:1 compose:1 dr:1 william:1 boyce:1 word:1 write:2 century:1 english:2 actor:1 david:1 garrick:1 originally:1 opera:1 wonderful:3 year:3 reference:1 first:1 verse:2 british:1 victorious:1 several:1 significant:1 battle:5 lagos:1 august:1 quebec:1 city:1 september:1 quiberon:1 bay:1 november:1 follow:3 month:1 later:1 wandiwash:1 india:1 january:1 lyric:1 come:3 cheer:4 lad:4 ti:3 glory:2 steer:2 add:2 something:2 honour:2 call:2 freeman:1 slave:2 free:5 son:2 wave:2 chorus:8 sung:6 ship:4 jolly:2 tar:2 men:4 always:4 ready:2 steady:4 boy:2 fight:4 conquer:2 never:1 see:4 french:2 wish:4 stay:2 u:8 away:2 run:2 drive:2 ashore:3 win:2 swear:1 invade:2 terrible:2 foe:3 frighten:2 woman:2 child:2 beau:2 flat:2 bottom:2 darkness:2 get:2 er:3 still:1 britons:1 find:2 receive:1 shore:1 sometimes:1 omit:1 britannia:2 triumphant:2 sweep:1 sea:2 standard:1 justice:2 watchword:2 one:2 let:2 sing:4 soldier:2 sailor:2 statesman:2 king:1 final:1 twice:2 center:3 version:1 new:1 ne:1 say:1 stout:1 briton:1 defeat:1 rule:1 password:1 queen:1 debout:1 gaillards:1 pointons:1 nous:5 vers:1 la:1 gloire:1 fleurons:1 ajoutons:1 à:3 ce:1 heures:1 sans:3 déboire:1 carcan:1 et:1 joug:1 tout:1 l:4 honneur:1 attend:1 pour:1 qui:1 somme:1 les:1 fils:1 libres:1 de:3 océan:1 coeur:2 chêne:2 nos:4 navires:2 gais:2 lurons:2 marins:2 toujours:2 fidèles:2 au:2 poste:2 hardis:4 gar:2 avenir:2 est:2 le:2 vrais:2 conquérants:1 popular:1 culture:1 star:1 trek:1 next:1 generation:1 episode:1 allegiance:1 alien:1 double:1 capt:1 jean:1 luc:1 picard:1 lead:1 crew:1 song:1 much:1 surprise:1 peter:1 ustinov:1 dean:1 jones:1 suzanne:1 pleshette:1 disney:1 film:1 blackbeard:1 ghost:1 tv:1 movie:1 sharpe:2 company:1 challenge:1 encouragement:1 officer:1 prepare:1 launch:1 forlorn:1 hope:1 breach:1 fortress:1 wall:1 external:1 link:1 sound:2 stadacona:1 band:1 historical:1 recording:1 \|@bigram david_garrick:1 chorus_sung:5 ne_er:1 la_gloire:1 l_avenir:2 star_trek:1 jean_luc:1 peter_ustinov:1 external_link:1
1,189	Manga	The kanji for "manga" from Seasonal Passersby (Shiki no Yukikai), 1798, by Santō Kyōden and Kitao Shigemasa. () are comics and print cartoons (sometimes also called komikku ), in the Japanese language and conforming to the style developed in Japan in the late 20th century. Lent, John A. 2001. "Introduction." In John A. Lent, editor. Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 3-4. ISBN 0-8248-2471-7. Gravett, Paul. 2004. Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. NY: Harper Design. ISBN 1-85669-391-0. p. 8. In their modern form, manga date from shortly after World War II, Kinsella, Sharon 2000. Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0824823184. but they have a long, complex pre-history in earlier Japanese art. Kern, Adam. 2006. Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyōshi of Edo Japan Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674022669. Schodt, Frederik L. 1986. Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527. In Japan, people of all ages read manga widely. The genre includes a broad range of subjects: action-adventure, romance, sports and games, historical drama, comedy, science fiction and fantasy, mystery, horror, sexuality, and business and commerce, among others. Since the 1950s, manga have steadily become a major part of the Japanese publishing industry, Schodt, Frederik L. 1996. Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656235. representing a 481 billion yen market in Japan in 2006 (approximately $4.4 billion dollars). Manga have also become increasingly popular worldwide. Wong, Wendy Siuyi. 2006. "Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond." Mechademia: an Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:23-45. Patten, Fred. 2004. Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656921. In 2006, the United States manga market was $175–200 million. Manga are typically printed in black-and-white, Katzenstein, Peter. J. & Takashi Shiraishi 1997. Network Power: Japan in Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801483738. although some full-color manga exist (e.g. Colorful manga, not the anime series). Kishi, Torajiro. 1998. Colorful. Tokyo: Shueisha. ISBN 4-08-782556-6. In Japan, manga are usually serialized in telephone book-size manga magazines, often containing many stories, each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue. If the series is successful, collected chapters may be republished in paperback books called tankōbon. A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company. If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or even during its run, Kittelson, Mary Lynn. 1998. The Soul of Popular Culture: Looking at Contemporary Heroes, Myths, and Monsters. Chicago: Open Court. ISBN 978-0812693638. although sometimes manga are drawn centering on previously existing live-action or animated films (e.g. Star Wars). "Manga" as a term outside of Japan refers specifically to comics originally published in Japan. Definition of manga from Merriam-Webster Online at http://m-w.com/dictionary/manga. Accessed 2007-12-07. However, manga and manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in Taiwan ("manhua"), South Korea ("manhwa"), and the People's Republic of China, notably Hong Kong ("manhua"). Wong, Wendy Siuyi. 2002. Hong Kong Comics: A History of Manhua. NY: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1568982694 In France, "la nouvelle manga" has developed as a form of bande dessinée drawn in styles influenced by Japanese manga. Vollmar, Rob. 2007. "Frederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga revolution." World Literature Today, Accessed 2007-09-14. In the U.S., people refer to manga-like comics as Amerimanga, world manga, or original English-language manga (OEL manga). Etymology The Japanese word manga, literally translated, means "whimsical pictures". The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook "Shiji no yukikai" (1798), and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's "Manga hyakujo" (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai manga containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai. Rakuten Kitazawa (1876-1955) first used the word "manga" in the modern sense. History and characteristics Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-War, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art. The third view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U.S. Occupation of Japan (1945–1952), and stresses that manga strongly reflect U.S. cultural influences, including U.S. comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney). Alternately, other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt, Kinko Ito, Ito, Kinko. 2004. "Growing up Japanese reading manga." International Journal of Comic Art, 6:392-401. and Adam L. Kern Kern, Adam. 2006. Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyōshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674022661. Kern, Adam. 2007. "Symposium: Kibyoshi: The World's First Comicbook?" International Journal of Comic Art, 9:1-486. stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. Modern manga originated in the Occupation (1945–1952) and post-Occupation years (1952–early 1960s), while a previously militaristic and ultra-nationalist Japan rebuilt its political and economic infrastructure. This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history appear in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998. There was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period from manga artists such as Osamu Tezuka (Astro Boy) and Machiko Hasegawa (Sazae-san). A kami-shibai story teller from Sazae-san by Machiko Hasegawa. Sazae is the woman with her hair in a bun. Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere, The Japanese constitution is in the Kodansha encyclopedia "Japan: Profile of a Nation, Revised Edition" (1999, Tokyo: Kodansha) on pp. 692-715. Article 9: page 695; article 21: page 697. ISBN 4-7700-2384-7. and Sazae-san still runs . Tezuka and Hasegawa were both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots. This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists. Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shōjo manga. Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610. Sanchez, Frank (1997-2003). "Hist 102: History of Manga." AnimeInfo. Accessed on 2007-09-11. Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls. In 1969, a group of female manga artists later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, the birth-year of many of these artists). Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp.78-80. Lent, 2001, op. cit., pp. 9-10. The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga. Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women. In the following decades (1975-present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres. Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shōjo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): shōjo in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803. Major subgenres include romance, superheroines, and "Ladies Comics" (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レディコミ, and josei 女性). Modern shōjo manga romance features love as a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization. Drazen, Patrick 2003. Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. With the superheroines, shōjo manga saw releases such as Naoko Takeuchi's Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon, which became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats. Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0765605610. Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p 92. Groups (or sentais) of girls working together have also been popular within this genre. Poitras, Gilles 2001. Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1880656531. Manga for male readers sub-divides according to the age of its intended audience: boys up to 18 years old (shōnen manga) and young men 18- to 30-years old (seinen manga); Thompson, 2007, op. cit., pp. xxiii-xxiv. See also as well as by content, including action-adventure often involving male heroes, slapstick humor, themes of honor, and sometimes explicit sexuality. Brenner, Robin E. 2007. Understanding Manga and Anime. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood. pp. 31-34. The Japanese use different kanji for two closely allied meanings of "seinen"—青年 for "youth, young man" and 成年 for "adult, majority"—the second referring to sexually overt manga aimed at grown men and also called seijin ("adult," 成人) manga. Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 95. The French Wikipedia manga article uses the terms seinen and seijin to denote manga for adult men. Accessed 2007-12-28. Perper, Timothy and Martha Cornog 2002. "Eroticism for the masses: Japanese manga comics and their assimilation into the U.S." Sexuality & Culture, volume 6, number 1, pages 3-126 (special issue). Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga share many features in common. Boys and young men became some of the earliest readers of manga after World War II. Schodt, 1986, op. cit., chapter 3, pp. 68-87. From the 1950s on, shōnen manga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypal boy, including subjects like robots and space travel, and heroic action-adventure. Schodt, 1986, op. cit., chapter 3; Gravett, 2004, op. cit., chapter. 5, pp. 52-73. Popular themes include science fiction, technology, sports, and supernatural settings. Manga with solitary costumed superheroes like Superman, Batman, and Spider-Man generally did not become as popular. The role of girls and women in manga for male readers has evolved considerably over time to include those featuring single pretty girls (bishōjo) For multiple meanings of bishōjo, see Perper & Cornog, 2002, op. cit., pp. 60-63. such as Belldandy from Oh My Goddess!, stories where the hero is surrounded by such girls and women, as in Negima and Hanaukyo Maid Team, Negima, by Ken Akamatsu. Del Rey/Random House, Vols. 1-15, 2004-2007; Hanaukyo Maid Team, by Morishige. Studio Ironcat, Vols. 1-3, 2003-2004. Accessed 2007-12-28. or groups of heavily armed female warriors (sentō bishōjo) For the sentō bishōjo, translated as "battling beauty," see Kotani, Mari. 2006. "Metamorphosis of the Japanese girl: The girl, the hyper-girl, and the battling beauty." Mechademia: an Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:162-170. See also With the relaxation of censorship in Japan after the early 1990s, a wide variety of explicitly-drawn sexual themes appeared in manga intended for male readers that correspondingly occur in English translations. These depictions range from mild partial nudity through implied and explicit sexual intercourse through bondage and sadomasochism (SM), zoophilia (bestiality), incest, and rape. Perper, Timothy and Martha Cornog 2003 "Sex, love, and women in Japanese comics." In Robert T. Francoeur and Raymond Noonan, editors. The Comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Sexuality. New York: Continuum. pages 663-671. Section 8D in http://kinseyinstitute.org/ccies/jp.php. Accessed 2007-12-28. The Gekiga style of drawing — emotionally dark, often starkly realistic, sometimes very violent — focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in gritty and unpretty fashions. Gekiga such as Sampei Shirato's 1959-1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō) arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism Schodt, 1986, op. cit., pp. 68-73. Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp. 38-42. and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Yoshihiro Tatsumi with existing manga. Isao, 2001, op. cit., pp. 147-149. Publications In Japan, manga constituted an annual 406.7 billion yen (3.707 billion USD) publication-industry by 2007. Recently, the manga industry has expanded worldwide with distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages. After a series has run for a while, publishers often collect the stories together and print them in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These are the equivalent of U.S. trade paperbacks or graphic novels. These volumes use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. Recently, "deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have got older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market. Marketeers primarily classify manga by the age and gender of the target audience. In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers subscribing to a series intended for girls and so on. Japan also has manga cafés, or manga kissa (kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten). At a manga kissa, people drink coffee and read manga, and sometimes stay there overnight. There has been an increase in the amount of publications of original webmanga. It is internationally drawn by enthusiasts of all levels of experience, and is intended for online viewing. It can be ordered in graphic novel form if available in print. The Kyoto International Manga Museum maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese. Kyoto Manga Museum. Magazines Manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. Other magazines such as the anime fandom magazine Newtype features single chapters within their monthly periodicals. These manga magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages long. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued. History Kanagaki Robun and Kawanabe Kyosai created the first manga magazine in 1874: Eshinbun Nipponchi. A British man named Charles Wargman founded the Japan Punch, the influence of the magazine. Eshinbun Nipponchi had a very simple style of drawings and did not become popular with many people. Eshinbun Nipponchi ended after three issues. The magazine Kisho Shimbun in 1875 was inspired by Eshinbun Nipponchi, this was followed by Marumaru Chinbun in 1877, and then Garakuta Chinpo in 1879. Shōnen Sekai was the first shōnen magazine created in 1895 by Iwaya Sazanami, a famous writer of Japanese children's literature back then. Shōnen Sekai had a strong focus on the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1905 the manga magazine publishing boom started with the Russo-Japanese War , Tokyo Pakku was created and became a huge hit. After Tokyo Pakku in 1905, a female version of Shōnen Sekai was created and named Shōjo Sekai, considered the first shōjo magazine. Shōnen Pakku was made and is considered the first kodomo magazine. The kodomo demographic was in an early stage of development of Meiji period. Shōnen Pakku was influenced from foreign children's magazines such as Puck which an employee of Jitsugyō no Nihon (publisher of the magazine) saw and decided to Shōnen Pakku. In 1924, Kodomo Pakku was launched as another kodomo magazine after Shōnen Pakku. In the boom, Poten was published in 1908 which comes from the french "potin". All the pages were full color influenced from Tokyo Pakku and Osaka Pakku. It is unknown if there was any other issues than the first. Kodomo Pakku was launched May 1924 by Tokyosha and featured high-quality art of many members of the manga society like Takei Takeo, Takehisa Yumeji and Aso Yutaka. On some of the manga it used speech balloons for representation, other manga from the previous eras did not use speech balloons and were silent. Published from May 1935 to January 1941 was Manga no Kuni which was published around the Second Sino-Japanese War. Manga no Kuni featured information on becoming a mangaka and on other comics industries around the world. Manga no Kuni hanged its title to Sashie Manga Kenkyū in August 1940. Dōjinshi Dōjinshi are produced by small amateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with over 510,000 gathering in 3 days, is devoted to dōjinshi. While they are many times original stories, many are parodies of or include fictional characters from popular manga and anime series. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction. In 2007, dōjinshi sold for 27.73 billion yen (245 million USD). International markets The influence of manga on international cartooning has grown considerably in the last two decades. Pink, Daniel H. 2007. "Japan, Ink: Inside the Manga Industrial Complex." Wired Magazine, Issue 15.11, October 22. "Japanese comics have gripped the global imagination," first page. Accessed 2007-12-19. Wong, Wendy. (No Date.) "The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America." Accessed 2007-12-19. Influence refers to effects on comics markets outside of Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally. The reading direction in a traditional manga. Traditionally, manga are written from top to bottom and right to left, as this is the traditional reading pattern of the Japanese written language. Some publishers of translated manga keep this format, but other publishers flip the pages horizontally, changing the reading direction to left to right, so as not to confuse foreign audiences or traditional comics consumers. This practice is known as "flipping". For the most part, the criticisms suggest that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"). Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right, or a shirt with the buttons on the wrong side. United States Manga were introduced only gradually into U.S. markets, first in association with anime and then independently. Some U.S. fans were aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s. In 1987, "...Japanese comics were more legendary than accessible to American readers", Patten, 2004, op. cit., p. 259. However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to U.S. fans, For video-centered fan culture, see Susan J. Napier 2000 "Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke." NY:Palgrave. Appendix, pp. 239-256 (ISBN 0-312-23863-0) and Jonathan Clements & Helen McCarthy 2006 "The Anime Encyclopedia: A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917, Revised and Expanded Edition." Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, pp. 475-476 (ISBN 1-933330-10-4). many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle, and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distribute tankōbon-style manga books. Schodt, 1996, op. cit., chapter 7, pp. 305-340. Leonard, Sean. 2003. "Progress Against the Law: Fan Distribution, Copyright, and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation." Accessed 2007-12-19. One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the U.S. was Keiji Nakazawa's Barefoot Gen, an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980-1982). Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 309. Rifas, Leonard. 2004. "Globalizing Comic Books from Below: How Manga Came to America." International Journal of Comic Art, 6(2):138-171. Rifas adds that the original EduComics titles were Gen of Hiroshima and I SAW IT [sic]. More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including Golgo 13 in 1986, Lone Wolf and Cub from First Comics in 1987, and Kamui, Area 88, and Mai the Psychic Girl, also in 1987 and all from Viz Media-Eclipse Comics. Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 37, 259-260. Thompson, Jason. 2007. "Manga: The Complete Guide." NY: Ballantine Books. p. xv. Others soon followed, including Akira from Marvel Comics-Epic Comics and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later Iczer-1 (Antarctic Press, 1994) Iczer: http://www.animanga.com/Iczer/golden-warrior.html Accessed 2007-12-19. and Ippongi Bang's F-111 Bandit (Antarctic Press, 1995). Bang, Ippongi. 1995. "F-III Bandit." San Antonio, TX:Antarctic Press. In the 1980s to the mid-1990s, Japanese animation, like Akira, Dragon Ball, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Pokémon, dominated the fan experience and the market compared to manga. Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 52-73. Matters changed when translator-entrepreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's Appleseed and Kōsuke Fujishima's Oh My Goddess!, for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan. Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 318-321. Gilman, Michael. (No Date.) "Interview: Toren Smith." (Dark Horse Comics) Accessed 2007-12-19. Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a U.S. market initiative with their U.S. subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills. http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=697&Itemid=70 Accessed 2007-12-19. A young boy reading Black Cat in a U.S. bookstore The U.S. manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow's Ghost in the Shell, translated by Frederik L. Schodt and Toren Smith and becoming very popular among fans. Of 2918 respondents, 2008 ranked the anime as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (Anime News Network). Of 178 respondents, 142 ranked the manga as either Masterpiece, Excellent, or Very Good (Anime News Network). See also Mays, Jonathan. February 21, 2003. Review: Ghost in the Shell. Accessed 2007-12-16. Another success of the mid-1990s was Sailor Moon. Patten, 2004, op. cit., pp. 50, 110, 124, 128, 135. Arnold, Adam. 2000. "Full Circle: The Unofficial History of MixxZine." Accessed 2007-12-19. By 1995–1998, the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, most of Europe and North America. Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 95. In 1998, Mixx Entertainment-TokyoPop issued U.S. manga book versions of Sailor Moon and CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth. For the date and identification of the publisher as Mixx, see library records. Accessed 2007-12-19. In 1996, Mixx Entertainment founded TokyoPop to publish manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics. In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues. Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 308-319. , at least 15 U.S. manga publishers have released 1300 to 1400 titles. The 1300-1400 number is an actual count from two different sources on the web. One is the web manga vendor Anime Castle, which, by actual count, lists 1315 different manga graphic novel titles (a title may have multiple volumes, like the 28 volumes of Lone Wolf and Cub). This list contains some Korean manga and some OEL manga. The second source is Anime News Network, which lists manga publishers plus titles they have published. The total for U.S. manga publishers comes to 1290 by actual count, including some Korean and OEL manga. Anime Castle lists another 91 adult graphic novel manga titles. Simultaneously, mainstream U.S. media began to discuss manga, with articles in the New York Times, Time magazine, Masters, Coco. 2006. "America is Drawn to Manga." Time Magazine, Thursday, August 10. the Wall Street Journal, and Wired magazine. Europe The influence of manga on European cartooning is somewhat different than U.S. experience. Manga was opened to the European market during the 1970s when Italy and France broadcast anime. Fishbein, Jennifer. 2007. "Europe's Manga Mania." Europe's Manga Mania. Accessed 2007-12-29. French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century (Japonisme), Berger, Klaus. 1992. Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521373212 and has its own highly developed tradition of bande dessinée cartooning. Bande Dessinee: http://www.bande-dessinee.org/ Accessed 2007-12-19 In France, imported manga has easily been assimilated into high art traditions. For example, Volumes 6 and 7 of Yu Aida's Gunslinger Girl center on a cyborg girl, a former ballet dancer named Petruchka. The Asuka edition of volume 7 contains an essay about the ballet Petruchka by Russian composer Igor Stravinsky and first performed in Paris in 1911. Massé, Rodolphe. 2006. "La musique dans Gunslinger Girl." In Gunslinger Girl, volume 7, pp. 178-179. Paris: Asuka Éditions. However, Francophone readership of manga is not limited to an artistic elite. Instead, beginning in the mid-1990s, "Les editeurs des mangas." http://home.comcast.net/~mahousu/editeurs.html Accessed 2007-12-19. manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004. "Manga-mania-in-france" Accessed 2007-12-19. According to the Japan External Trade Organization, sales of manga reached $212.6 million within France and Germany alone in 2006. European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Glénat, Asuka, Casterman, Kana, and Pika, among others. French manga translators: http://www.protoculture.ca/Catalog/mangaf.htm Accessed 2007-12-19 (see French Manga publishers) European publishers also translate manga into German, Carlsen German manga translations: http://www.carlsen.de/web/manga/index Accessed 2007-12-19. Egmont German manga translations: http://www.manganet.de/ Accessed 2007-12-19. Italian, Italian manga translations: Planet Manga, an imprint of Panini; http://www.paninicomics.it/Titolo.jsp Accessed 2007-12-19. Star Italian manga translations: http://www.starcomics.com/uscite.php?tipo=manga Accessed 2007-12-19. Spanish, Ponent Mon Spanish manga translations: http://www.ponentmon.com/new_pages/english/princ.html Accessed 2007-12-19. Dutch, and other languages. For example, Danish: http://www.mangismo.com/dk/default.asp?page=serier Accessed 2007-12-19. Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Orionbooks/Gollancz Orionbooks, UK manga marketer: orionbooks.com Accessed 2007-12-19. and Titan Books. U.S. manga publishers have a strong marketing presence in the UK, e.g., the Tanoshimi line from Random House. Tanoshimi UK: http://www.randomhouse.co.uk/tanoshimi/catalogue.htm Accessed 2007-12-19. Localized manga A number of U.S. artists have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga. An early example was Vernon Grant, who drew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s-early 1970s. Stewart, Bhob. "Screaming Metal," The Comics Journal, no. 94, October, 1984. Others include Frank Miller's mid-1980s Ronin, Ronin by Miller: http://www.grovel.org.uk/ronin/ Accessed 2007-12-19. Adam Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 The Dirty Pair, Ben Dunn's 1993 Ninja High School, Dunn: Ben Dunn's Fan-Tastic Website Accessed 2007-12-19. Dunn: http://www.atomicavenue.com/atomic/TitleDetail.aspx?TitleID=177 Accessed 2007-12-19. Stan Sakai's 1984 Usagi Yojimbo, Usagi Yojimbo: http://www.usagiyojimbo.com/ Accessed 2007-12-19. and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics (1997). Mishkin, Orfalas, and Asencio 1997 "Manga Shi 2000." Rego Park, NY: Crusade Comics. The artists are not further identified. MangaShi: http://www.crusadefinearts.com/news/20051130definitiveshi.php. The artwork is attributed to William Tucci. Accessed 2007-12-19. By the 21st Century, several U.S. manga publishers began to produce work by U.S. artists under the broad marketing label of manga. Tai, Elizabeth. September 23, 2007. "Manga outside Japan." thestar.com Accessed 2007-12-19. In 2002, I.C. Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by U.S. artists called Amerimanga. In 2004 eigoMANGA launched Rumble Pak and Sakura Pakk anthology series. Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga. Anime News Network. May 10, 2006. "Correction: World Manga". animenewsnetwork.com. Seven Seas claimed to have coined the term in 2004; Forbes, Jake. (No date). "What is World Manga?" http://www.gomanga.com/news/features_gomanga_002.php Accessed 2007-12-19. Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed Global Manga. Anime News Network. May 5, 2006. "Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels." animenewsnetwork. Accessed 2007-12-19. Gravett, Paul. 2006. "ORIGINAL MANGA: MANGA NOT 'MADE IN JAPAN'.". Accessed 2007-12-19. TokyoPop is currently the largest U.S. publisher of original English language manga. ICv2. September 7, 2007. Interview with Tokyopop's Mike Kiley, http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11249.html (part1), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11250.html (part2), http://www.icv2.com/articles/home/11251.html (part3). Accessed 2007-12-19. Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga, like Frédéric Boilet's la nouvelle manga. Boilet: http://www.boilet.net/yukiko/yukiko.html Accessed 2007-12-19. Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists. Boilet, Frédéric. 2001. "Yukiko's Spinach." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933-0934-6. Boilet, Frédéric and Kan Takahama. 2004. "Mariko Parade." Castalla-Alicante, Spain: Ponent Mon. ISBN 84-933409-1-X. A Francophone Canadian example is the Montréal, Québec based artists' group MUSEBasement, which draws manga-style artwork. MUSEBasement: http://www.musebasement.com/about.php Accessed 2007-12-19. Awards The Japanese manga industry has a large number of awards, most sponsored by publishers, with the winning prize usually including publication of the winning stories in magazines released by the sponsoring publisher. Examples of these awards include the Akatsuka Award for humorous manga, the Dengeki Comic Grand Prix for one-shot manga, the Kodansha Manga Award (multiple genre awards), the Seiun Award for best science fiction comic of the year, the Shogakukan Manga Award (multiple genres), the Tezuka Award for best new serial manga, and the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize (multiple genres). The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs also awards the International Manga Award annually since May 2007. International award: Anime News Network and MOFA: First International MANGA Award Accessed 2007-12-19. See also Anime Emakimono Etoki Japanese popular culture Lianhuanhua List of films based on manga List of licensed manga in English List of manga artists List of manga distributors List of manga magazines Manga iconography Oekaki Omake Original English-language manga Q-version Scanlation (fan scanned and translated manga) References be-x-old:Манґа	Manga \|@lemmatized kanji:2 manga:206 seasonal:1 passersby:1 shiki:1 yukikai:2 santō:2 kyōden:2 kitao:1 shigemasa:1 comic:43 print:6 cartoon:4 sometimes:7 also:20 call:6 komikku:1 japanese:41 language:8 conform:1 style:6 develop:4 japan:32 late:4 century:5 lent:3 john:2 introduction:1 editor:5 illustrate:1 asia:2 humor:2 magazine:27 picture:3 book:14 honolulu:2 hi:1 university:6 hawai:2 press:14 pp:23 isbn:21 gravett:7 paul:3 sixty:1 year:11 ny:8 harper:1 design:1 p:6 modern:6 form:3 date:5 shortly:1 world:18 war:8 ii:3 kinsella:1 sharon:1 adult:5 culture:11 power:2 contemporary:2 society:2 long:2 complex:2 pre:3 history:9 early:9 art:11 kern:4 adam:6 floating:2 comicbook:3 kibyōshi:2 edo:2 cambridge:4 harvard:2 schodt:15 frederik:5 l:5 tokyo:6 kodansha:4 people:6 age:4 read:7 widely:2 genre:6 include:19 broad:3 range:2 subject:2 action:5 adventure:3 romance:3 sport:2 game:1 historical:2 drama:1 comedy:1 science:3 fiction:4 fantasy:1 mystery:1 horror:1 sexuality:4 business:2 commerce:1 among:4 others:4 since:5 steadily:1 become:11 major:4 part:3 publishing:3 industry:5 dreamland:1 writing:1 berkeley:5 ca:6 stone:5 bridge:5 represent:1 billion:5 yen:4 market:13 approximately:2 dollar:2 increasingly:3 popular:17 worldwide:2 wong:3 wendy:3 siuyi:2 globalize:2 hong:3 kong:3 beyond:1 mechademia:3 academic:2 forum:2 anime:27 fan:12 patten:5 fred:1 watch:1 essay:2 review:3 united:4 state:3 million:3 typically:2 black:2 white:1 katzenstein:1 peter:1 j:4 takashi:1 shiraishi:1 network:7 ithaca:1 cornell:1 although:2 full:3 color:2 exist:4 e:7 g:3 colorful:2 series:13 kishi:1 torajiro:1 shueisha:1 usually:4 serialize:1 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1,190	Mesa_(programming_language)	Mesa was an innovative programming language developed at Xerox PARC in the late 1970s . The language was named after the mesas of the American Southwest, referring to its design intent to be a "high-level" programming language. Mesa is an ALGOL-like language, designed around the concept of modular programming, with a strict separation between the (programmer's) interface of a library and its implementation. It introduced several innovations in language design and implementation, notably in the handling of software exceptions, thread synchronization, incremental compilation, and more. Mesa was developed on the Xerox Alto, one of the first personal computers with a graphical user interface, however most of the Alto's system software was written in BCPL. Mesa was the system programming language of the later Xerox Star workstations, and for the GlobalView desktop environment. Xerox PARC developed Cedar, which was based on Mesa, with a number of additions including garbage collection, better string support, called Ropes, and a native compiler for Sun SPARC workstations. Mesa had a major influence on the design of other important languages, such as Modula-2 and Java, and was an important vehicle for the development and dissemination of the fundamentals of GUIs, networked environments, and the other advances Xerox contributed to the field of computer science. History Mesa was originally designed in the Computer Systems Laboratory (CSL), a branch of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, for the Alto, an experimental micro-coded workstation. Initially its spread was confined to PARC and a few universities to which Xerox had donated some Altos. Mesa was later adopted as the system's programming language for Xerox's commercial workstations such as the Xerox 8010 (Xerox Star, Dandelion) and Xerox 6085 (Daybreak), in particular for the Pilot operating system. A secondary development environment, called the Xerox Development Environment (XDE) allowed developers to debug both the operating system Pilot as well as ViewPoint GUI applications using a world swap mechanism. This allowed the entire "state" of the world to be swapped out, and allowed low level system crashes which paralyzed the whole system to be debugged. The Pilot/Mesa world in later releases moved away from the world swap view when the micro-coded machines were phased out in favor of SPARC workstations and Intel PC's running a Mesa PrincOps emulator for the basic hardware instruction set. Mesa was taught via the Mesa Programming Course that took people through the wide range of technology Xerox had available at the time and ended with the programmer writing a "hack", a workable program designed to be useful. An actual example of such a hack is the BWSMagnifier, which was written in 1988 and allowed people to magnify sections of the workstation screen as defined by a resizable window and a changeable magnification factor. Trained Mesa programmers from Xerox were well versed in the fundamental of GUIs, networking, exceptions, and multi-threaded programming, almost a decade before they became standard tools of the trade. Within Xerox, Mesa was eventually superseded by the Cedar programming language. Many Mesa programmers and developers left Xerox in 1985; some of them went to DEC Systems Research Center where they used their experience with Mesa in the design of Modula-2+, and later of Modula-3. Main features Semantics Mesa was a strongly typed programming language with type-checking across module boundaries, but with enough flexibility in its type system that heap allocators could be written in Mesa. Because of its strict separation between interface and implementation, Mesa allows true incremental compilation and encourages architecture- and platform-independent programming. They also simplified source-level debugging, including remote debugging via the Ethernet. Mesa had rich exception-handling facilities, with four types of exceptions. It has support for thread synchronization via monitors. Mesa was the first language to implement monitor BROADCAST, a concept introduced by the Pilot operating system . Syntax Mesa has an "imperative" and "algebraic" syntax, in many respects more similar to ALGOL and Pascal than to C. For instance, compound commands are indicated by BEGIN/END keywords, rather than braces. In Mesa, all keywords are written in uppercase. Due to a peculiarity of the Alto's keyboard, Mesa's original character set did not include the underscore, so programmers were forced to use CamelCase for compound identifiers --- a practice which was incorporated in PARC's standard programming style. On the other hand, Mesa designers adopted the left-pointing arrow '←' character, which took the place of underscore in the Alto keyboard, for the assignment operator. Descendants Mesa was the precursor to the programming language Cedar. Cedar's main additions were garbage collection, dynamic types, a limited form of type parameterization, and special syntax to identify the "type-safe" parts of a multi-module software package. The United States Department of Defense approached Xerox to use Mesa for its "IronMan" programming language, but Xerox declined due to conflicting goals. The Department of Defense instead eventually chose and developed the Ada programming language from the candidates . The original Star Desktop evolved into the ViewPoint Desktop and later became GlobalView which was ported to various Unix platforms, such as SunOS Unix and AIX, A Mesa to C compiler was written and the resulting code compiled for the target platform. This was a workable solution but made it nearly impossible to develop on the Unix machines since the power of the Mesa compiler and associated tool chain was lost using this approach. There was some commercial success on Sun SPARC workstations in the publishing world, but this approach resulted in isolating the product to narrow market opportunities. In 1976, during a sabbatical at Xerox PARC, Niklaus Wirth became acquainted with Mesa, which had a major influence in the design of his Modula-2 language . Java explicitly refers to Mesa as a predecessor . References See also History of the graphical user interface External links World-Stop Debuggers	Mesa_(programming_language) \|@lemmatized mesa:32 innovative:1 programming:9 language:15 develop:5 xerox:19 parc:5 late:3 name:1 american:1 southwest:1 refer:2 design:8 intent:1 high:1 level:3 program:6 algol:2 like:1 around:1 concept:2 modular:1 strict:2 separation:2 programmer:5 interface:4 library:1 implementation:3 introduce:2 several:1 innovation:1 notably:1 handling:2 software:3 exception:4 thread:3 synchronization:2 incremental:2 compilation:2 alto:7 one:1 first:2 personal:1 computer:3 graphical:2 user:2 however:1 system:11 write:6 bcpl:1 star:3 workstation:7 globalview:2 desktop:3 environment:4 cedar:4 base:1 number:1 addition:2 include:3 garbage:2 collection:2 good:1 string:1 support:2 call:2 rope:1 native:1 compiler:3 sun:2 sparc:3 major:2 influence:2 important:2 modula:4 java:2 vehicle:1 development:3 dissemination:1 fundamental:2 gui:3 networked:1 advance:1 contribute:1 field:1 science:1 history:2 originally:1 laboratory:1 csl:1 branch:1 palo:1 research:2 center:2 experimental:1 micro:2 cod:2 initially:1 spread:1 confine:1 university:1 donate:1 later:3 adopt:2 commercial:2 dandelion:1 daybreak:1 particular:1 pilot:4 operate:2 secondary:1 xde:1 allow:5 developer:2 debug:2 operating:1 well:2 viewpoint:2 application:1 use:5 world:6 swap:3 mechanism:1 entire:1 state:2 low:1 crash:1 paralyze:1 whole:1 release:1 move:1 away:1 view:1 machine:2 phase:1 favor:1 intel:1 pc:1 run:1 princops:1 emulator:1 basic:1 hardware:1 instruction:1 set:2 taught:1 via:3 course:1 take:2 people:2 wide:1 range:1 technology:1 available:1 time:1 end:2 hack:2 workable:2 useful:1 actual:1 example:1 bwsmagnifier:1 magnify:1 section:1 screen:1 define:1 resizable:1 window:1 changeable:1 magnification:1 factor:1 trained:1 verse:1 networking:1 multi:2 almost:1 decade:1 become:3 standard:2 tool:2 trade:1 within:1 eventually:2 supersede:1 many:2 leave:1 go:1 dec:1 experience:1 main:2 feature:1 semantics:1 strongly:1 type:7 checking:1 across:1 module:2 boundary:1 enough:1 flexibility:1 heap:1 allocator:1 could:1 true:1 encourage:1 architecture:1 platform:3 independent:1 also:2 simplify:1 source:1 debugging:2 remote:1 ethernet:1 rich:1 facility:1 four:1 monitor:2 implement:1 broadcast:1 syntax:3 imperative:1 algebraic:1 respect:1 similar:1 pascal:1 c:2 instance:1 compound:2 command:1 indicate:1 begin:1 keywords:2 rather:1 brace:1 uppercase:1 due:2 peculiarity:1 keyboard:2 original:2 character:2 underscore:2 force:1 camelcase:1 identifier:1 practice:1 incorporate:1 style:1 hand:1 designer:1 left:1 point:1 arrow:1 place:1 assignment:1 operator:1 descendant:1 precursor:1 dynamic:1 limited:1 form:1 parameterization:1 special:1 identify:1 safe:1 part:1 package:1 united:1 department:2 defense:2 approach:3 ironman:1 decline:1 conflict:1 goal:1 instead:1 chose:1 ada:1 candidate:1 evolve:1 port:1 various:1 unix:3 sunos:1 aix:1 result:2 code:1 compile:1 target:1 solution:1 make:1 nearly:1 impossible:1 since:1 power:1 associated:1 chain:1 lose:1 success:1 publishing:1 isolate:1 product:1 narrow:1 market:1 opportunity:1 sabbatical:1 niklaus:1 wirth:1 acquaint:1 explicitly:1 predecessor:1 reference:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 stop:1 debugger:1 \|@bigram xerox_parc:3 incremental_compilation:2 xerox_alto:1 graphical_user:2 user_interface:2 garbage_collection:2 palo_alto:1 niklaus_wirth:1 external_link:1
1,191	Kermit_(protocol)	Kermit is a computer file transfer/management protocol and a set of communications software tools primarily used in the early years of personal computing in the 1980s; it provides a consistent approach to file transfer, terminal emulation, script programming, and character set conversion across many different computer hardware and OS platforms. Technical The Kermit protocol supports text and binary file transfers on both full-duplex and half-duplex 8 bit and 7-bit serial connections in a system- and medium-independent fashion, and is implemented on hundreds of different computer and operating system platforms. On full-duplex connections, a Sliding Window Protocol is used with selective retransmission which provides excellent performance and error recovery characteristics. On 7-bit connections, locking shifts provide efficient transfer of 8-bit data. When properly implemented, as in the Columbia University Kermit Software collection, performance is equal to or better than other protocols such as ZMODEM, YMODEM, and XMODEM, especially on poor connections. On connections over RS-232 Statistical Multiplexers where some control characters don't transmit, Kermit can be configured to work, unlike protocols like XMODEM that require all 256 bytes be transmitted. History Kermit was developed at Columbia University in 1981 to allow students to transfer files between IBM or DEC DECSYSTEM-20 mainframe computers and removable media on microcomputers (initially Intertec Superbrains running CP/M). IBM mainframes used an EBCDIC character set and CP/M and DEC machines used ASCII, so conversion between the two character sets was one of the early functions built into Kermit. CP/M machines used many different floppy disk formats, which meant that one machine could not normally read disks from another CP/M machine. PIP with a very low baud rate (because it had no built-in error correction) could be used to transfer a small simple version of Kermit from one machine to another over a null modem cable, or failing that, a very very simple version of the Kermit protocol could be hand coded in binary in less than 2K using DDT, the CP/M Dynamic Debugging Tool. Once that was done the simple version of Kermit could be used to download a fully functional version. That version could then be used to transfer any CP/M application or data. The Kermit protocol evolved through the 1980s into a de facto data communications standard for transferring files between dissimilar computer systems. Kermit software has been used for tasks ranging from simple student assignments to solving compatibility problems aboard the International Space Station. International Space Station Incorporates Kermit (December 2003) It was ported to a wide variety of mainframe, minicomputer and microcomputer systems. Most versions had a user interface based on the original TOPS-20 Kermit. The MS-DOS version of Kermit was developed in 1983. Later versions of some Kermit implementations also support network as well as serial connections. Implementations that are presently supported include C-Kermit (for Unix and OpenVMS) and Kermit 95 (for versions of Microsoft Windows from Windows 95 onwards and OS/2), but other versions remain available as well. The Kermit protocol can still be used as a bootstrap. Kermit was initially developed by and distributed for free by the Columbia University, until 1986 when Columbia founded the Kermit Project which took over development and started charging fees for commercial use. The project is self-sufficient. Naming and copyright Kermit was named after Kermit the Frog from The Muppets. "Kermit - What is it?" The Kermit Project. 26 Oct 2006. Columbia University. 11 Jul 2007 http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/kermit.html. The program's icon in the Apple Macintosh version was a depiction of Kermit the Frog. A backronym was nevertheless created, perhaps to avoid trademark issues, [[PDP-10\|KL10]] Error-Free Reciprocal Microprocessor Interchange over TTY lines. Kermit is an open protocol - anybody can base their own program on it, but some Kermit software and source code is copyright by Columbia University. "Frequently Asked Questions." The Kermit Project. Columbia University. 11 Jul 2007 http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/faq.html#license. References External links Kermit project at Columbia University The DECSYSTEM-20 at Columbia University: Kermit	Kermit_(protocol) \|@lemmatized kermit:33 computer:5 file:5 transfer:8 management:1 protocol:9 set:4 communication:2 software:4 tool:2 primarily:1 use:12 early:2 year:1 personal:1 computing:1 provide:3 consistent:1 approach:1 terminal:1 emulation:1 script:1 programming:1 character:4 conversion:2 across:1 many:2 different:3 hardware:1 platform:2 technical:1 support:3 text:1 binary:2 full:2 duplex:3 half:1 bit:4 serial:2 connection:6 system:4 medium:2 independent:1 fashion:1 implement:2 hundred:1 operating:1 sliding:1 window:3 selective:1 retransmission:1 excellent:1 performance:2 error:3 recovery:1 characteristic:1 lock:1 shift:1 efficient:1 data:3 properly:1 columbia:11 university:8 collection:1 equal:1 good:1 zmodem:1 ymodem:1 xmodem:2 especially:1 poor:1 rs:1 statistical:1 multiplexer:1 control:1 transmit:2 configure:1 work:1 unlike:1 like:1 require:1 byte:1 history:1 develop:3 allow:1 student:2 ibm:2 dec:2 decsystem:2 mainframe:3 removable:1 microcomputer:2 initially:2 intertec:1 superbrains:1 run:1 cp:6 ebcdic:1 machine:5 ascii:1 two:1 one:3 function:1 build:2 floppy:1 disk:2 format:1 mean:1 could:5 normally:1 read:1 another:2 pip:1 low:1 baud:1 rate:1 correction:1 small:1 simple:4 version:11 null:1 modem:1 cable:1 fail:1 hand:1 cod:1 less:1 ddt:1 dynamic:1 debugging:1 download:1 fully:1 functional:1 application:1 evolve:1 de:1 facto:1 standard:1 dissimilar:1 task:1 range:1 assignment:1 solve:1 compatibility:1 problem:1 aboard:1 international:2 space:2 station:2 incorporate:1 december:1 port:1 wide:1 variety:1 minicomputer:1 user:1 interface:1 base:2 original:1 top:1 dos:1 late:1 implementation:2 also:1 network:1 well:2 presently:1 include:1 c:1 unix:1 openvms:1 microsoft:1 onwards:1 os:1 remain:1 available:1 still:1 bootstrap:1 distribute:1 free:2 found:1 project:5 take:1 development:1 start:1 charge:1 fee:1 commercial:1 self:1 sufficient:1 naming:1 copyright:2 name:1 frog:2 muppets:1 oct:1 jul:2 http:2 www:2 edu:2 html:2 program:2 icon:1 apple:1 macintosh:1 depiction:1 backronym:1 nevertheless:1 create:1 perhaps:1 avoid:1 trademark:1 issue:1 pdp:1 reciprocal:1 microprocessor:1 interchange:1 tty:1 line:1 open:1 anybody:1 source:1 code:1 frequently:1 ask:1 question:1 faq:1 license:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram terminal_emulation:1 removable_medium:1 ibm_mainframe:1 floppy_disk:1 error_correction:1 de_facto:1 user_interface:1 microsoft_window:1 kermit_frog:2 http_www:2 apple_macintosh:1 external_link:1
1,192	Aeclanum	Aeclanum was an ancient town of Samnium, southern Italy, c. 25 km east-southeast of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern Mirabella Eclano). It became the chief town of the Hirpini after Beneventum had become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 BC by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and new fortifications were erected. Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphitheatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. Two different routes to Apulia diverged at this point, one (Via Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern Ariano to Herdoniae, the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the Lacus Ampsanctus and going on to Aquilonia and Venusia; while the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellino) may also follow an ancient line. Julian of Eclanum was bishop of the town during the 5th century. With the Lombard invasion of Italy it was annexed to the Duchy of Benevento, until it was finally destroyed by the Byzantines of Constans II in 663, reducing to a small hamlet known as Quintodecimo (referring to its distance of 15 miles from Benevento). External links Aeclanum (with photographs) References	Aeclanum \|@lemmatized aeclanum:3 ancient:2 town:3 samnium:1 southern:1 italy:2 c:1 km:1 east:1 southeast:1 beneventum:3 via:4 appia:3 near:1 modern:2 mirabella:1 eclano:1 become:2 chief:1 hirpini:1 roman:1 colony:2 sulla:1 capture:1 bc:1 set:1 fire:1 wooden:1 breastwork:1 defend:1 new:1 fortification:1 erect:1 hadrian:1 repair:1 point:2 make:1 ruin:1 city:1 wall:1 aqueduct:1 bath:1 amphitheatre:1 nearly:1 inscription:1 also:2 discover:1 two:1 different:1 route:1 apulia:1 diverge:1 one:1 aurelia:1 aeclanensis:1 lead:1 ariano:1 herdoniae:1 empire:1 pass:1 lacus:1 ampsanctus:1 go:1 aquilonia:1 venusia:1 road:1 abellinum:1 mod:1 avellino:1 may:1 follow:1 line:1 julian:1 eclanum:1 bishop:1 century:1 lombard:1 invasion:1 annex:1 duchy:1 benevento:2 finally:1 destroy:1 byzantine:1 constans:1 ii:1 reduce:1 small:1 hamlet:1 know:1 quintodecimo:1 refer:1 distance:1 mile:1 external:1 link:1 photograph:1 reference:1 \|@bigram external_link:1
1,193	Transport_in_Burkina_Faso	This article concerns the systems of transport in Burkina Faso, which primarily include road and rail infrastructure. Railways There are 622 kilometres of railway in Burkina Faso, of which 517 km run from Ouagadougou to Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire; and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya. All of the railways in the country are of the narrow 1 metre gauge. Only one adjacent country is connected to Burkina Faso via rail, Côte d'Ivoire, a country in which the same one-metre gauge is employed. A rail link connects Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso with the port of Abidjan in Côte d'Ivoire: the line from Ouagadougou to the Nigerien capital Niamey stops at Kaya. Google Earth images dated 15/2/07 show construction continuing for approx. 100 km northeast towards Dori. Instability in Côte D'Ivoire in 2003 forced a rerouting of rail freight from the Abidjan corridor to ports in Togo, Benin, and Ghana via the road network. A proposed rail link between Ouagadougou and Pô in Burkina Faso and Kumasi and Boankra in Ghana, has been discussed with Ghanaian officials, and feasibility studies are being undertaken to explore this possibility, which would provide rail access to the inland port of Bonakra. Burkina Faso and Ghana use different rail gauges and this break-of-gauge can be overcome to a greater or lesser extent with a number of methods. In 2006, an Indian proposal surfaced to link the railways in Benin and Togo with landlocked Niger and Burkino Faso. Additionally, a Czech proposal also surfaced to link Ghana railways with Burkina Faso. OTAL - Ghana World Bank Report . The manganese deposits near Dori are one source of traffic. Burkina Faso would also be a participant in the AfricaRail project. Standard Coupling (railway): Two buffers and screw chain. http://www.steam.dial.pipex.com/africa.htm http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3154/2840111523_d9230a50b2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.flickr.com/photos/gigawebs/2840111523/&h=329&w=500&sz=87&tbnid=Ea1IfewMxvlyJM::&tbnh=86&tbnw=130&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dburkina%2Brailway%2Bphoto&usg=__gGcjofpJRs-xIyW09lPJesNCkvo=&ei=BrndSarbPM2GkAWyv6WhDg&sa=X&oi=image_result&resnum=1&ct=image Brake (railway): Air or Vacuum? Stations served Existing The following towns of Burkina Faso are served by the country's railways: Banfora Bobo-Dioulasso Koudougou Ouagadougou - national capital Kaya - terminus Highways There is a total of 12,506 kilometres of highway in Burkina Faso, of which 2,001 kilometres are paved. In 2000, the Government of Burkina Faso classified 15,000 kilometers of road as part of the national road network managed under the Ministry of Infrastructures Transport and Housing (MITH) through the Directorate of Roads (DGR). This network includes main inter-city roads and access roads for départments' capital cities. Only ten of the network's main roads are even partially paved, and the paved roads are plagued by dangerous potholes, missing signage, missing barriers and guardrails near roadside hazards, and no pavement markings to separate traffic moving in opposite directions. Air Air Burkina is the national airline. It has services to African destinations as well as Orly Airport in Paris, France. Satguru Travels & Tour Services 01 BP 4883 Imm, Hotel Palm Beach Av. Du Dr. Kwame N'Krumah Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Tel: 50 30 16 52 / 50 30 18 85 / 50 30 18 52 Fax: 00 226 - 50 30 18 86 Email :- [email protected] Web Site :- www.satgurutravel.com Afriqiyah Airways EURO WORLD SARL AV. Dr KWAME N’Krumah - Imm. Immeuble Sodifa 01 BP 4883 Ouagadougou 01 - Burkina Faso Tel: 50 30 85 98 / 99 - Fax: 50 30 85 82 E-mail:[email protected] Ethiopian AirlineS EURO WORLD SARL AV. Dr KWAME N’Krumah – a côte de ECO Bank Imm. Bati, 01 BP 4883 Ouagadougou 01 - Burkina Faso Tel: 50 30 10 24 / 25 - Fax: 50 30 85 99 E-mail:[email protected] References External links UN Map of Burkina Faso	Transport_in_Burkina_Faso \|@lemmatized article:1 concern:1 system:1 transport:2 burkina:15 faso:15 primarily:1 include:2 road:9 rail:7 infrastructure:2 railway:8 kilometre:3 km:3 run:1 ouagadougou:9 abidjan:3 côte:5 ivoire:4 kaya:3 country:4 narrow:1 metre:2 gauge:4 one:3 adjacent:1 connect:1 via:2 employ:1 link:5 connects:1 bobo:2 dioulasso:2 port:3 line:1 nigerien:1 capital:3 niamey:1 stop:1 google:2 earth:1 image:3 date:1 show:1 construction:1 continue:1 approx:1 northeast:1 towards:1 dori:2 instability:1 force:1 rerouting:1 freight:1 corridor:1 togo:2 benin:2 ghana:5 network:4 proposed:1 pô:1 kumasi:1 boankra:1 discuss:1 ghanaian:1 official:1 feasibility:1 study:1 undertake:1 explore:1 possibility:1 would:2 provide:1 access:2 inland:1 bonakra:1 use:1 different:1 break:1 overcome:1 great:1 less:1 extent:1 number:1 method:1 indian:1 proposal:2 surface:2 landlocked:1 niger:1 burkino:1 additionally:1 czech:1 also:2 otal:1 world:3 bank:2 report:1 manganese:1 deposit:1 near:2 source:1 traffic:2 participant:1 africarail:1 project:1 standard:1 coupling:1 two:1 buffer:1 screw:1 chain:1 http:4 www:4 steam:1 dial:1 pipex:1 com:8 africa:1 htm:1 au:1 imgres:1 imgurl:1 static:1 flickr:2 jpg:1 imgrefurl:1 photo:1 gigawebs:1 h:1 w:1 sz:1 tbnid:1 tbnh:1 tbnw:1 prev:1 usg:1 ei:1 sa:1 x:1 oi:1 resnum:1 ct:1 brake:1 air:3 vacuum:1 station:1 serve:2 exist:1 following:1 town:1 banfora:1 koudougou:1 national:3 terminus:1 highway:2 total:1 pave:2 government:1 classify:1 kilometer:1 part:1 manage:1 ministry:1 housing:1 mith:1 directorate:1 dgr:1 main:2 inter:1 city:2 départments:1 ten:1 even:1 partially:1 paved:1 plague:1 dangerous:1 pothole:1 miss:2 signage:1 barrier:1 guardrail:1 roadside:1 hazard:1 pavement:1 marking:1 separate:1 move:1 opposite:1 direction:1 airline:2 service:2 african:1 destination:1 well:1 orly:1 airport:1 paris:1 france:1 satguru:1 travel:1 tour:1 bp:3 imm:3 hotel:1 palm:1 beach:1 av:3 du:1 dr:3 kwame:3 n:3 krumah:3 tel:3 fax:3 email:1 satgurusuccess:1 yahoo:2 web:1 site:1 satgurutravel:1 afriqiyah:1 airway:1 euro:2 sarl:2 immeuble:1 sodifa:1 e:2 mail:2 euroworld:1 ymail:1 ethiopian:1 de:1 eco:1 bati:1 ethiopianouaga:1 reference:1 external:1 un:1 map:1 \|@bigram burkina_faso:14 abidjan_côte:2 côte_ivoire:4 bobo_dioulasso:2 togo_benin:1 benin_togo:1 http_www:3 flickr_com:2 ei_sa:1 x_oi:1 oi_resnum:1 resnum_ct:1 paved_road:1 dr_kwame:3 ouagadougou_burkina:3 external_link:1
1,194	Afroasiatic_languages	The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a language family with about 375 living languages (SIL estimate) and more than 350 million speakers spread throughout North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Southwest Asia, as well as parts of the Sahel, West Africa and East Africa. Arabic is the most widespread Afro-Asiatic language with over 280 million native speakers. Languages of the World Afro-Asiatic also includes several ancient languages, such as Ancient Egyptian, Biblical Hebrew, and Akkadian. The term "Afroasiatic" was coined by Maurice Delafosse (1914). It did not come into general use until it was adopted by Joseph Greenberg (1950) to replace the earlier term "Hamito-Semitic", following his demonstration that Hamitic is not a valid language family. The name is now most often spelled "Afro-Asiatic", though both spellings are in use. Some replace "Afro-Asiatic" with "Afrasian". Individual scholars have called the family "Erythraean" (Tucker 1966) and "Lisramic" (Hodge 1972). The term "Hamito-Semitic" remains in use in the academic traditions of some European countries. Distribution and branches The Afro-Asiatic language family is usually considered to include the following branches: Berber Chadic Cushitic Egyptian Omotic Semitic While there is general agreement on these six families, there are some points of disagreement among linguists who study Afro-Asiatic. In particular: Omotic is the most controversial member of Afro-Asiatic since the grammatical formatives "to which Afroasiaticists have tended to attach the greatest importance are either absent or distinctly wobbly" (Hayward 1995). Greenberg (1963) and others considered it a subgroup of Cushitic, while others have raised doubts about it being part of Afro-Asiatic at all (e.g. Theil 2006). The Afro-Asiatic identity of Ongota is broadly questioned, as is its position within Afro-Asiatic among those who accept it, due to the "mixed" appearance of the language and a paucity of research and data. Harold Fleming (2006) proposes that Ongota constitutes a separate branch of Afro-Asiatic. Sands (2009) believes the most convincing proposal is Savà & Tosco (2003), that Ongota is East Cushitic with a Nilo-Saharan substratum. In other words, the Ongota would appear to have once spoken a Nilo-Saharan language but then shifted to speaking a Cushitic language, while retaining some characteristics of their earlier Nilo-Saharan language. Beja is sometimes listed as a separate branch of Afro-Asiatic but is more often included in the Cushitic branch, which has a high degree of internal diversity. Whether the various branches of Cushitic actually form a language family is sometimes questioned, but not their inclusion in Afro-Asiatic itself. There is no consensus on the interrelationships of the five non-Omotic branches of Afro-Asiatic (see "Overview of classifications" below). This situation is not unusual, even among long-established language families: there are also many disagreements concerning the internal classification of the Indo-European languages, for instance. Classification history Medieval scholars sometimes linked two or more branches of Afro-Asiatic together. As early as the 9th century, the Hebrew grammarian Judah ibn Quraysh of Tiaret in Algeria perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic. He knew of Semitic through Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic. In the course of the 19th century, Europeans also began suggesting such relationships. In 1844, Theodor Benfey suggested a language family consisting of Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter "Ethiopic"). In the same year, T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. Friedrich Müller named the traditional "Hamito-Semitic" family in 1876 in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft. He defined it as consisting of a Semitic group plus a "Hamitic" group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; he excluded the Chadic group. These classifications relied in part on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments (see Hamitic hypothesis). Leo Reinisch (1909) proposed linking Cushitic and Chadic, while urging a more distant affinity to Egyptian and Semitic, thus foreshadowing Greenberg, but his suggestion found little resonance. Marcel Cohen (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct Hamitic subgroup and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. Joseph Greenberg (1950) strongly confirmed Cohen's rejection of "Hamitic", added (and sub-classified) the Chadic branch, and proposed the new name "Afroasiatic" for the family. Nearly all scholars have accepted Greenberg's classification. In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that what had previously been known as Western Cushitic is an independent branch of Afro-Asiatic, suggesting for it the new name Omotic. This proposal and name have met with widespread acceptance. Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and Robert Hetzron, have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic, but this view has yet to gain general acceptance. Subgrouping Little agreement exists on the subgrouping of the five or six branches of Afro-Asiatic: Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Omotic (if Omotic is not included in Cushitic). However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Otherwise: Paul Newman (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic in Afro-Asiatic. Rolf Theil (2006) concurs with the exclusion of Omotic, but does not otherwise address the structure of the family. Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afro-Asiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. He later added Semitic and Beja to Chadic-Berber-Egyptian and tentatively proposed Ongota as a new third branch of Erythraean. He thus divided Afro-Asiatic into two major branches, Omotic and Erythraean, with Erythraean consisting of three sub-branches, Cushitic, Chadic-Berber-Egyptian-Semitic-Beja, and Ongota. Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova (1995) group Berber with Semitic and Chadic with Egyptian. They split up Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afro-Asiatic, viewing Cushitic as a Sprachbund rather than a language family. Christopher Ehret (1995) groups Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic together in a "North Afro-Asiatic" subgroup. Igor M. Diakonoff (1996) subdivides Afro-Asiatic in two, grouping Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as East-West Afrasian (ESA), and Chadic with Egyptian as North-South Afrasian (NSA). He excludes Omotic from Afro-Asiatic. Lionel Bender (1997) groups Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic together as "Macro-Cushitic". He regards Chadic and Omotic as the branches of Afro-Asiatic most remote from the others. Alexander Militarev (2000), on the basis of lexicostatistics, groups Berber with Chadic and both more distantly with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. Overview of classifications Greenberg (1963) Newman (1980) Fleming (post-1981) Ehret (1995)Semitic Egyptian Berber Cushitic Western Cushitic(equals Omotic) Chadic Berber-Chadic Egypto-Semitic Cushitic (excludes Omotic) Omotic Erythraean: Cushitic Ongota Non-Ethiopian: Chadic Berber Egyptian Semitic BejaOmotic Cushitic Chadic North Afro-Asiatic: Egyptian Berber Semitic Orel & Stobova (1995) Diakonoff (1996) Bender (1997) Militarev (2000) Berber-Semitic Chadic-Egyptian Omotic Beja Agaw Sidamic East Lowlands Rift East-West Afrasian: Berber Cushitic Semitic North-South Afrasian: Chadic Egyptian (excludes Omotic)Omotic Chadic Macro-Cushitic: Berber Cushitic Semitic North Afrasian: African North Afrasian: Chado-Berber Egyptian Semitic South Afrasian: Omotic Cushitic Position among the world's languages Afro-Asiatic is one of the four language families of Africa identified by Joseph Greenberg in his book The Languages of Africa (1963). It is the only one that extends outside of Africa, via the Semitic branch. There are no generally accepted relations between Afro-Asiatic and any other language family. However, several proposals grouping Afro-Asiatic with one or more other language families have been made. The best-known of these are the following: Hermann Möller (1906) argued for a relation between Semitic and the Indo-European languages. This proposal was accepted by some linguists (e.g. Holger Pedersen and Louis Hjelmslev) but has little currency today. Apparently influenced by Möller (a colleague of his at the University of Copenhagen), Holger Pedersen included Hamito-Semitic (the term replaced by Afro-Asiatic) in his proposed Nostratic language family (cf. Pedersen 1931:336-338), which also included the Indo-European, Finno-Ugric, Samoyed, Turkish, Mongolian, Manchu, Yukaghir, and Eskimo languages. This inclusion was retained by subsequent Nostraticists, starting with Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky. Like all aspects of the Nostratic hypothesis, it is highly controversial. Joseph Greenberg (2000-2002) did not reject a relationship of Afro-Asiatic to these other languages, but he considered it more distantly related to them than they were to each other, grouping instead these other languages in a separate language family, which he called Eurasiatic, and to which he added Chukotian, Gilyak, Aleut, Korean, Japanese-Ryukyuan, and Ainu. Original homeland and date No agreement exists on where Proto-Afro-Asiatic speakers lived (i.e. the Afro-Asiatic Urheimat), though the language is generally believed to have originated in Northeast Africa. The Origins of Afroasiatic - Ehret et al. 306 (5702): 1680c - Science http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204%28199802%2939%3A1%3C139%3ATALPAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J&size=LARGE Some scholars (such as Igor Diakonoff and Lionel Bender) have proposed Ethiopia, because it includes the majority of the diversity of the Afro-Asiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. Other researchers (such as Christopher Ehret) have put forward the western Red Sea coast and the Sahara. A minority suggests a linguistic homeland in the Levant (for instance Alexander Militarev; specifically, he identifies Afro-Asiatic with the Natufian culture), with Semitic being the only branch to stay put. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1680c This is in someway supported by fact that Afro Asiatic terms dominate the nouns for early livestock and crops from Anatolia and Iran, and from the probable Asian origin of Semitic languages around 4,600 BP to 4,800 BP. The Semitic languages are the only branch of Afro-Asiatic attested outside of Africa. The most recent research suggests that around 800 BCE Semitic speakers crossed from South Arabia back into Eritrea. Kitchen, Andrew, Christopher Ehret, et al. 2009. "Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276 no. 1665 (June 22) Others, such as A. Murtonen, dispute this view, suggesting that the Semitic branch may have originated in Ethiopia. Fleming, Harold C. (1968), "Ethiopic language history: testing linguistic hypotheses in an archaeological and documentary context" in Ethnohistory, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Autumn), pp. 353-388 A third view, based upon similarities between Semitic and Ancient Egyptian, is that the two languages developed from a common ancestral tongue along the Nile, crossing the Sinai with the dry phase from 6000-5800 BCE, at the end of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B phase in the Levant. Midant-Reynes, Beatrix (2000), The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs (Blackwell) pp. 73-75 Hunter-gatherers of the El-Harif Mesolithic culture, crossing the Sinai and from Northern Egypt, and adopting animal domestication but not agriculture, could then have created what Juris Zarins calls the Syro-Arabian nomadic pastoralism complex, Zarins, Juris (1990), “Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia”, (Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research) spreading south along the shores of the Red Sea and northeast around the edge of the "Fertile Crescent". In the Levant this development appears as the Minhata culture and later as the Yarmoukian culture, which came from the same semi-arid zone as the later Ghassulian and Semitic Amorite cultures. Perrot J. (1964), "Les deux premières campagnes de fouilles à Munhata", Syria XLI, pp. 323-345 Mellaart, James (1975), The Neolithic of the Near East (London: Thames and Hudson), pp. 239-241 However, regarding resemblances among language subgroups, recent "research into the lexicon would seem to suggest a closer relationship between Chadic and ancient Egyptian". Appleyard, David L. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 64, No. 1 (2001), pp. 151-152 Roger Blench says of the apparent greater diversity of Semitic in Africa compared to Asia: The survival of epigraphic languages can be misleading; Semitic in the near East was probably once more diverse, with many languages never written and subsequently eliminated by the spread of Arabic. Some of that diversity is attested to in the records of Sabaean, the epigraphic languages of Yemen and the south Semitic languages spoken all along the coast of the Arabian peninsula and of Socotra. Linguistic evidence for proto Semitic also does not support an African origin. It contains nouns for horse, camel, oak, pistachio, almond, ice, naphtha, bitumen and vineyards; all resources, flora or fauna not native to Africa. Camels and horses don't arrive in Africa until two thousand years after Semitic languages are being written in Mesopotamia. Given the high diversity within the Afro-Asiatic family and the absence of a common vocabulary for agricultural items, it is suggested that the languages dispersed before the commencement of the Neolithic. Ehret Ehret, Christopher (1982), "On the antiquity of agriculture in Ethiopia" Journal of African History (Univ. of Calif. Berkeley Press) suggests that early Afro-Asiatic languages were involved in the domestication of Ethiopian food crops, but this is disputed by others who suggest that the words concerned are found only in the Cushitic and possibly Omotic families and that common cognates for agriculture are not present. The finding of a common vocabulary for pottery containers, however, suggests that this technology was known. For example: Proto-Semitic k'ad-ah- 'vessel', found in Arabic kadah 'drinking bowl, cup, goblet, glass, tumbler'; Sabaean m-kdh(m,n) 'cup'; Ethiopic / Geez kadho 'vessel, gourd', ma-kdeht 'jar, jug, bucket'; Lowland East Cushitic k'adad- 'vessel, gourd'; Oromo k'odaa 'vessel, gourd'; Egyptian qd 'pot'; Lowland East Cushitic k'od- 'receptacle'; Oromo k'odaa 'receptacle'; West Chadic k'wad- 'calabash'; Dangla koda 'pot' (Bomhard 1996). Bomhard reconstructs these forms to a Proto-Afro-Asiatic k'ud- / k'od- 'vessel, pot'. Given that wavy-line pottery is found widely in the Sahara from 8000 BCE, Barnett, William and Hoopes, John (eds.) (1995). The Emergence of Pottery. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-517-8 and that the Neolithic agricultural technologies arrived around 5000 BCE, Midant-Reynes, Beatrix (2000), The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs (Blackwell) this sets a possible context for Proto-Afro-Asiatic dispersal. As it is known that the Ethiopian farmers moved into the highlands from the direction of Nubian Sudan, and attempts to translate the Meroitic script found in this area show significant Afro-Asiatic characteristics, Lionel Bender suggests that this area of the Southern Nile was the centre from which the Afro-Asiatic languages dispersed. Bender, Lionel (1997), "Upside Down Afrasian", Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 50, pp. 19-34 The dates of pottery and agriculture set approximate early and late dates for this linguistic dispersal. The date of Proto-Afro-Asiatic would thus lie somewhere between ca. 8000 and ca. 5000 BCE or, expressed differently, between 7,000 and 10,000 years ago. Climatically this was the time of a "wet Sahara" phase with large rivers and lakes. The dispersal of Afro-Asiatic may thus have been a response to the recent operation of the "Sahara pump". Fagan, Brian (2004), The Long Hot Summer: How Climate Changed Civilisation (London: Grant Books) Burroughs, William J. (2005), Climate Change in Prehistory: The End of the Reign of Chaos (Cambridge University Press) Some scholars argue that Afro-Asiatic is considerably older than this. Carleton T. Hodge (1991:141) states: Archeological evidence indicates that the time depth of the proto-language involved is over 16,000 years, possibly 20,000 (Munson 1977, Hodge 1978). The proportion of items attested as having survived over 4,000 years within Egyptian (Hodge 1975) gives us confidence in the relatability of languages at the greater time depth (Swadesh 1959: 27). According to Christopher Ehret (1997): Afroasiatic is a family of much greater time depth than even most of its students realize; its first divergences trace back probably at least 15,000 years ago, not just 8,000 or 9,000 as many believe. This last point imparts a ... general lesson for historical linguists: the historical comparative method, in fact, works very well farther back in time than scholars have generally allowed, provided the family in question contains a sufficiently large number of languages from which evidence can still be obtained. Common features Common features of the Afro-Asiatic languages include: a two-gender system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the /t/ sound VSO typology with SVO tendencies a set of emphatic consonants, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive a templatic morphology in which words inflect by internal changes as well as with prefixes and suffixes In the verbal system, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (including Beja) all provide evidence for a prefix conjugation: English Arabic (Semitic) Berber (Berber) Somali (Cushitic) Beja (verb is "arrive") Hausa (Chadic) he dies yamuutu itmetta wudimtay iktim yamutu she dies tamuutu tmetta wedimatay tiktim tamutu they (m.) die yamuutuun tmettan wedimteen iktimna sunmutu you (m. sg.) die tamuutu tmettid wadimatey tiktima kamutu you (m. pl.) die tamuutuun tmettam wadimateen tiktimna sunmutu I die ˀamuutu tmettiɣ wadimtay aktim namutu we die namuutu ntmetta wadimanay niktim munmutu All Afro-Asiatic subfamilies show evidence of a causative affix s, but a similar suffix also appears in other groups, such as the Niger-Congo languages. Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic support possessive suffixes. Tonal languages appear in the Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic branches of Afro-Asiatic, according to Ehret (1996). The Semitic, Berber, and Egyptian branches do not use tones phonemically. Cognates Some important Afro-Asiatic cognates are: b-n- 'build' (Ehret: bĭn), attested in Chadic, Semitic (bny), Cushitic (mĭn/măn 'house'), Berber (bn) and Omotic (Dime bin- 'build, create'). m-t 'die' (Ehret: maaw), attested in Chadic (for example, Hausa mutu), Egyptian (mwt muwt, mt, Coptic mu), Berber (mmet, pr. yemmut), Semitic (mwt), and Cushitic (Proto-Somali umaaw/-am-w(t)- 'die'). Also Mot, Canaanite god of death. (The Proto-Indo-European root mor-/mr- 'die' is similar, evidence in favor of the classification of both Afro-Asiatic and Indo-European in the hypothetical Nostratic family.) s-n 'know', attested in Chadic, Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Hebrew š-n 'learn, study'). l-s 'tongue' (Ehret: lis' 'to lick'), attested in Semitic (lasaan/lisaan), Egyptian (ns ls, Coptic las), Berber (ils), Chadic (for example, Hausa harshe), and possibly Omotic (Dime lits'- 'lick'). s-m 'name' (Ehret: sŭm / sĭm), attested in Semitic (sm), Berber (ism), Chadic (for example, Hausa suna), Cushitic, and Omotic (though some see the Berber form, ism, and the Omotic form, sunts, as Semitic loanwords.) The Egyptian smi 'report, announce' offers another possible cognate. d-m 'blood' (Ehret: dîm / dâm), attested in Berber (idammen), Semitic (dam), Chadic, and arguably Omotic. Compare Cushitic dîm/dâm, 'red'. See also African languages Asian languages Nostratic languages Etymological bibliography Some of the main sources for Afro-Asiatic etymologies include: Cohen, Marcel. 1947. Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique. Paris: Champion. Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993-1997. "Historical-comparative vocabulary of Afrasian", St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies 2-6. Ehret, Christopher. 1996. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (University of California Publications in Linguistics 126). Berkeley, California. Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-10051-2. Bibliographie Linguistique - Linguistic Bibliography References Literature Oral Literature in Africa By Ruth H. Finnegan 1970, pg 558, subject "Afro-Asiatic languages West Africa". Barnett, William and John Hoopes (editors). 1995. The Emergence of Pottery. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-517-8 Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff. LINCOM. Bomhard, Alan R. 1996. Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis. Signum. Diakonoff, Igor M. 1996. "Some reflections on the Afrasian linguistic macrofamily." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 55, 293. Diakonoff, Igor M. 1998. "The earliest Semitic society: Linguistic data." Journal of Semitic Studies 43, 209. Dimmendaal, Gerrit, and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. "Africa". In Christopher Moseley, ed., Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages. Ehret, Christopher. 1997. Abstract of "The lessons of deep-time historical-comparative reconstruction in Afroasiatic: reflections on Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary (U.C. Press, 1995)", paper delivered at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the North American Conference on Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, held in Miami, Florida on March 21-23, 1997. Fleming, Harold C. 2006. Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic." Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 6, 47-63. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. Studies in African Linguistic Classification. New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the SJA articles with minor corrections.) Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. The Languages of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.) Greenberg, Joseph H. 1966. The Languages of Africa (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University. Greenberg, Joseph H. 1981. "African linguistic classification." General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory, edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292–308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar, Volume 2: Lexicon. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Hayward, R. J. 1995. "The challenge of Omotic: an inaugural lecture delivered on 17 February 1994". London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. 2000. African Languages, Chapter 4. Cambridge University Press. Hodge, Carleton T. (editor). 1971. Afroasiatic: A Survey. The Hague - Paris: Mouton. Hodge, Carleton T. 1991. "Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 141–165. Huehnergard, John. 2004. "Afro-Asiatic." In R.D. Woodard (editor), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages, Cambridge - New York, 2004, 138–159. Militarev, Alexander. "Towards the genetic affiliation of Ongota, a nearly-extinct language of Ethiopia," 60 pp. In Orientalia et Classica: Papers of the Institute of Oriental and Classical Studies, Issue 5. Мoscow. (Forthcoming.) Newman, Paul. 1980. The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden. Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. Sands, Bonny. 2009. "Africa’s Linguistic Diversity". Language and Linguistics Compass 3/2 (2009): 559–580, 10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x Theil, R. 2006. Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? Proceedings from the David Dwyer retirement symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 21 October 2006. External links Map of Afro-Asiatic languages from Roger Blench's website Family tree of Afro-Asiatic at Ethnologue.com Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?" by Rolf Theil (2006) NACAL The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year	Afroasiatic_languages \|@lemmatized afro:65 asiatic:65 language:68 constitute:2 family:25 living:1 sil:1 estimate:1 million:2 speaker:4 spread:3 throughout:1 north:9 africa:19 horn:1 southwest:1 asia:2 well:3 part:3 sahel:1 west:5 east:11 arabic:5 widespread:2 native:2 world:5 also:8 include:13 several:3 ancient:5 egyptian:29 biblical:1 hebrew:4 akkadian:1 term:5 afroasiatic:10 coin:1 maurice:1 delafosse:1 come:2 general:5 use:4 adopt:2 joseph:12 greenberg:16 replace:3 early:9 hamito:7 semitic:63 follow:1 demonstration:1 hamitic:5 valid:1 name:6 often:3 spelled:1 though:3 spelling:1 afrasian:12 individual:1 scholar:7 call:4 erythraean:6 tucker:1 lisramic:1 hodge:6 remain:2 academic:1 tradition:1 european:10 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1,195	Davenport,_Iowa	Davenport is a city in Scott County, Iowa, United States, along the Mississippi River. As of the 2000 census, the city had a population of 98,359 and an area of . According to a 2007 estimate, the city had grown slightly to 98,975. One of the Quad Cities, along with neighboring Bettendorf and the Illinois cities of Moline, East Moline and Rock Island, Davenport is the county seat of Scott County. The city was founded on May 14, 1836 by Antoine LeClaire following the signing of a peace treaty ending the Black Hawk War. LeClaire named the city after his friend Colonel George Davenport. The mayor is Bill Gluba. The city has two main universities, Saint Ambrose University and Palmer College of Chiropractic which is the birthplace of chiropractic and wellness technique. Several well-known annual music festivals take place including the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, The Mississippi Valley Fair, and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival which is dedicated to native Bix Beiderbecke. An internationally known seven-mile (11 km) foot race called the Bix 7 is run during the festival. The city has a Class A minor league baseball team, the Quad Cities River Bandits. The city has 27 parks and over of recreational paths for biking or walking. Three interstates and two major United States highways serve the city. Davenport has a low crime rate and a low rate of unemployment. In 2007 Davenport, along with neighboring Rock Island, won the City Livability Award. Davenport has a number of notable natives including jazz musician Bix Beiderbecke and NFL running back Roger Craig. History In 1832 Sauk Indian tribe chief Keokuk and United States Army General Winfield Scott, signed a treaty to end the Black Hawk War. Antoine LeClaire, who was part French and part Pottawattamie, served as translator. A generous portion of land was gifted by Chief Keokuk to Marguerite LeClaire, Antoine's wife, as she was the granddaughter of a Sac Indian tribe chief. Keokuk stipulated that Antoine build their home on the exact spot where the treaty was signed or forfeit the land. Antoine did so finishing the Treaty House in the spring of 1833. Davenport was established on May 14, 1836 by Antoine LeClaire and named after his good friend Colonel George Davenport. The "Treaty House" was built at the exact location Chief Keokuk and General Winfield Scott signed a treaty to end the Black Hawk War in 1832. The house has since been moved to another location. The house was completed in 1833 by Antoine LeClaire. In 1837, shortly after Scott County was formed, Davenport and rival neighbor Rockingham both campaigned to become the county seat. The city with the most votes at the February 1838 election would become the county seat. On the eve of the election Davenporters secured the temporary service of Dubuque laborers so that they could vote in the election. Davenport won the election. Rockingham supporters did not like this and protested the elections to the territorial Governor. The governor of the territory refused to certify the results of the election. A second election was scheduled for the following August. To avoid another import of voters, the governor set a sixty day residency requirement for all voters. Davenport was again the victor by only two votes. A third election was set by the Territorial Legislature for the summer of 1840. As the August election drew nearer, Rockinghamers grew tired of the county seat cause and the efforts of other Davenporters were difficult to challenge. Davenport easily won the third election. To ensure the question of county seat would not arise again, Davenport built the first county courthouse. The first railroad bridge built across the Mississippi River connected Davenport and Rock Island, Illinois in 1856, and was built by the Rock Island Railroad. Steamboat companies saw nationwide railroads as a threat to their business and on May 6, 1856, just weeks after it was completed, a steamboat captain crashed the Effie Afton steamboat into the bridge. The owner of the Effie Afton, John Hurd, filed a lawsuit against The Rock Island Railroad Company. The Railroad Company selected Abraham Lincoln as their trial lawyer and the United States Supreme Court decided the bridge could remain. Just before the start of the Civil War, Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood declared Davenport to be Iowa's first military headquarters and five camps were set up in the city to aid the Union. Svendsen, p. 12 After the Civil War, hundreds of Iowa children were left homeless. On November 16, 1865, the "Iowa Soldier's Orphans' Home" (renamed the Annie Wittenmyer Home in 1949) was opened. Svendsen, p. 54 Starting in 1876, children from broken homes as well as orphans from all of Iowa's 99 counties would live in the home. The home was a self-contained community containing residences, a school, tailor shop, and a chapel. Svendsen, p. 54 After 110 years of service the home closed in 1975. The Redstone Building was originally the longtime home of the Petersen Harned Von Maur flagship store and is now home of the River Music Experience. The Davenport City Hall was built in 1895, for the meager price of $100,000. Svendsen, p. 88 Palmer College of Chiropractic was also built in 1897. Svendsen, p. 88 The 1920s brought an economic and building boom. The city's skyline began to form with the construction of commercial buildings like the Kahl Building, the Parker Building, and the Capitol Theatre. Large national department stores also arrived downtown including Montgomery Ward, Sears, and J.C. Penney. By 1932 thousands of Davenporters were on public relief due to the Great Depression. A shantytown grew in the west end of the city along the Mississippi River. Sickness, hunger, and unsanitary living conditions plagued the area. That would soon end, as Davenport experienced a post-war boom after World War II. Oscar Mayer, Ralston Purina, and other companies all built plants in west Davenport. The Interstate highway network was brought to Davenport in 1956. By 1959 more than 1,000 homes a year were being constructed. By the late 1970s the good times were over for both downtown and local businesses and industries. The farm crisis of the 1980s hit Davenport and the rest of the Quad Cities hard; 35,000 workers lost their jobs through the entire Quad Cities area. The Caterpillar Plant on the city's north side closed causing many jobs to be lost. The 1990s brought the beginnings of a turnaround for the city. Many renovations and building additions have occurred to revitalize downtown including fixing up Modern Woodmen Park, building the Skybridge, and the Figge Art Museum. Geography Davenport is located at (41.542982, -90.590745). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 64.9 square miles (168.2 km²), of which, 62.8 square miles (162.6 km²) of it is land and 2.2 square miles (5.6 km²) of it (3.31%) is water. Flooding in Davenport on April 30, 2008. The red line (at the top right) indicates where the Mississippi River should be. The picture was taken from the Skybridge. Davenport is located approximately west of Chicago, Illinois and east of the Iowa state capital, Des Moines. The city is located about north of St. Louis, Missouri and southeast of Minneapolis, Minnesota. Farmland surrounds Davenport, outside the Quad Cities area. The Mississippi River in Davenport is around 30 to deep in the middle. The river is wide, where the Centennial Bridge crosses. The Mississippi River flows from east to west along Davenport's banks, as opposed to the north to south direction the river flows the rest of the way. Davenport is located on the banks of the Mississippi River. From the river the city starts to slope north up a hill, which is steep at some points. The streets of the city, especially downtown and in the central part of the town, follow a grid design. Davenport often makes national headlines when the Mississippi River floods. It is the largest city bordering the Mississippi that has no permanent floodwall or levee. Davenport prefers the open access to the river for parks and vistas over having access cut off by dikes and levees. Davenport has adopted ordinances that any new construction in the floodplain must be elevated above the 100-year flood level or protected with walls. As a result, former mayor Phil Yerington publicly expressed the view that if they "let Mother Nature take her course, we'll all be better off". An example of a building that is elevated or flood proofed in Davenport is the Figge Art Museum. Climate Davenport has a humid continental climate. The summers are known for their hot and humid days. Winter has cold temperatures and often high winds. Snow is likely from November through February. Average snow fall is per year. January is on average the coldest month, while July is the warmest. The highest temperature recorded in Davenport was on July 15, 1988. The lowest record temperature, , was reached on two consecutive days, February 2 – 3, 1996. Substantial weather changes frequently occur at three to four day intervals as a result of mid-latitude storm tracks. While situated squarely in the path of Tornado Alley, no devastating tornado has ever touched down in Davenport. The reason for a lack of tornadoes may be due to the fact that the Mississippi River and Rock River merge together close to the city. Davenport is believed to be protected by a blessing from a mass mound. The mass mound is a sort of an altar to protect the city from tornadoes. Flooding is often a severe problem in Davenport due to the lack of a flood wall. During the Great Flood of 1993, the water crested at on July 9. This is nearly above the flood stage. Major flooding in Davenport causes many problems. Roads in and around the downtown area, including U.S. Route 67, are closed and cause increased traffic on other city roads. The effects of major flooding can be long lasting. For example, during the 2008 flooding, Credit Island in the city's southwest corner remained closed for 5 ½ months while crews worked on cleaning up damage and removing river debris. But it's not just on the Mississippi River-Duck Creek, a stream situated in Bettendorf and Davenport, is vulnerable to flash flooding. Severe thunderstorms on Saturday, June 16, 1990, created heavy flash flooding in Bettendorf and Davenport that killed four people. Another major flood happened on Thursday, June 12, 2008 when severe thunderstorms caused Duck Creek to jump its banks and flood into properties and nearby streets (See Iowa flood of 2008) Neighborhoods One of Davenport's oldest neighborhoods, the Village of East Davenport, is full of small specialty shops. Davenport has a variety of neighborhoods dating back to the 1840s. The city can be divided into five areas for neighborhoods: Downtown, central, east end, near north and northwest, and west end. The neighborhoods contain many architectural designs including Victorian, Queen Anne, Tudor Revival, and others. Many of the original neighborhoods were inhabited by German settlers. The original city plot was around current day Ripley and 5th Streets, where Antoine LeClaire had built his house. Housing is one of the most affordable in the nation. Downtown contains the two tallest buildings in the Quad Cities. The Wells Fargo bank building is 17 stories tall and the MidAmerican building is 15 stories. Downtown contains a few other tall buildings including the 11 story Black Hawk Hotel and the 10 story Kahl Building. The central neighborhoods originally contained many of the working class Germans that settled the town. The Hamburg neighborhood contains the most architecturally significant residences in the old German neighborhoods. The central neighborhoods contain Palmer College of Chiropractic and many commercial buildings on Brady Street, Harrison Street (both Highway 61), and Main Street. The east neighborhoods date back to 1850. The proximity and commanding view of the river kept these neighborhoods a fashionable address long after the originally families had departed. The east end neighborhood, The Village of East Davenport, consists of residential and commercial buildings which are mostly small specialty shops. Lindsay Park, in The Village, was used as parade grounds for Civil War soldiers from Camp McClellan. The north and west end neighborhoods also contained many working class Germans and was plotted in the 1850s with extensive development occurring in the 1870s. Vander Veer Park is a large park with a botanical garden and a fountain. The park was modeled after New York City's Central Park and was originally named Central Park. Vander Veer is surrounded by large Queen Anne and Tudor Revival style houses and were built between 1895 and 1915. Development of the Vander Veer Park was the first major beautification effort outside two small spaces in downtown. Today the park contains a lagoon and a small botanical park. The Riverview Terrace neighborhood is located on a bluff overlooking downtown, the Mississippi River, and Rock Island. Demographics As of the 2000 census, there were 98,359 people, 39,124 households, and 24,804 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,566.5 people per square mile (604.8/km²). There were 41,350 housing units at an average density of 658.5/sq mi (254.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 83.68% White, 9.24% Black or African American, 0.37% Native American, 2.00% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 2.32% from other races, and 2.36% from two or more races. 5.36% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 39,124 households out of which 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. Of all households, 29.5% were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.03. In the city the population was spread out with 26.2% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $40,378 with families earning $51,445. Males had a median income of $41,853 versus $30,002 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,828. About 10.5% of families and 14.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those ages 65 or over. The average home price in Davenport is $129,300. Crime Crime in Davenport is on the decline. Violent crimes, which include, robbery, rape, and assault, have fallen 35.7% from 2002–2006. Murders are down 42.9% from 2000 to four murders in 2006. From 2005 to 2006, stolen vehicles decreased by 36.6% to 295, burglaries decreased 12.7% to 1,449, aggravated assaults decreased by 46.3% to 481, and robberies decreased by 10.5% to 271. Forcible sex abuse is the only crime with an increase, up 17.4% to 142 cases. Economy Davenport's biggest labor industry is manufacturing with over 7,600 jobs. John Deere is the largest employer in the Quad Cities, and has a plant on Davenport's north side. Davenport is the headquarters for department store Von Maur which has twenty-two stores in nine states. Davenport is also the headquarters of Lee Enterprises. Lee Enterprises publishes 55 daily newspapers and more than 300 weekly newspapers, shoppers, and specialty publications along with online sites in 23 states. Davenport, and the rest of the Quad Cities, has an unemployment rate of 4.8%. Davenport has a lower cost of living than the national average. The surrounding Quad Cities have a few major places of employment including the Rock Island Arsenal, which is the largest government-owned weapons manufacturing arsenal in the United States. KONE, Inc is a large manufacturer of elevators, and is located in Moline, Illinois. Alcoa, a large aluminum manufacturer, is located in Riverdale, Iowa. Other local business include Whitey's Ice Cream, Hungry Hobo a sandwich shop, and Happy Joe's and Harris Pizza both local pizza restaurants. Culture Points of interest Downtown Davenport has many points of interest including the Davenport Public Library, the Davenport Skybridge, Figge Art Museum, River Music Experience, Putnam Museum and IMAX Theater, Modern Woodmen Park which is home of the Quad City River Bandits baseball team and the Centennial Bridge. The Putnam Museum and IMAX Theater Davenport has a few cultural and educational institutions including the Figge Art Museum, the Putnam Museum which was founded in 1867 and was one of the first museums west of the Mississippi River, and The Quad City Symphony Orchestra, headquartered in downtown Davenport, was founded in 1915. The Davenport Public Library was opened in 1839. The first chiropractic school in the world, Palmer College of Chiropractic, was founded in 1897 is located just north of downtown. Uptown features the Great Mississippi Valley Fairgrounds which hosts fairs, stock car racing, and many other events. NorthPark Mall is the city's main shopping mall and has 160 stores. Its companion, SouthPark Mall, is located in Moline. Brady Street Stadium is home to Davenport high school football games as well as football games for Saint Ambrose University. Davenport has a number of parks. Credit Island park includes a bike path, baseball diamonds, tennis courts, and fishing along the Mississippi River. Vander Veer Botanical Park has a small botanical garden. The park also includes a walking path, a pond, and a large fountain. Mount Ida park is on a summit overlooking the Mississippi River. Events and festivals Bix Fest is a three-day music festival with many traditional jazz bands; and is held in tribute to internationally renowned jazz cornetist, pianist, composer, and Davenport native Bix Beiderbecke. The festival was started in August 1971 and the Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Society was founded one year later to organized and produce it. Svendsen, p. 82 2008 was the 38th consecutive festival. In addition to the Bix Fest, the Wells Fargo Street Fest features live music, food, and vendors. The annual Bix 7 road race, started in 1975, is often run by 12,000-18,000 runners. In late July or early August the six-day Great Mississippi Valley Fair features major grandstand concerts, carnival rides, attractions, and food vendors. Sturgis on the River is a large annual gathering of motorcycles which includes bands and food vendors. Sister cities Davenport has three sister cities. Kaiserslautern, Germany is the first sister city of Davenport. They became sister cities on June 10, 1960. The coastal city of Ilhéus in Bahia, Brazil became Davenport's sister city on January 31, 2005. Davenport and Carlow County, Ireland, became a sister city on September 26, 2006. Sports and recreation Modern Woodmen Park is home to the Quad Cities River Bandits baseball team Davenport and the Quad Cities are home to many sports teams. Davenport is home to the Quad Cities River Bandits baseball team. The i wireless Center in Moline is home to the Quad City Flames hockey team and the Quad City Steamwheelers arena football team. The Quad Cities Riverhawks are a Premier Basketball League team. They play their home games at Wharton Field House on the old Marycrest International University campus. Davenport high schools are in the Mississippi Athletic Conference for sports. Junge Park is situated along the Duck Creek bike path and includes baseball and softball fields, along with sand volleyball, and basketball courts. Davenport has 27 parks with a total of 2,200 acres (8.9 km²) of land. Major parks include Credit Island, which is a park in southwest Davenport located alongside the Mississippi River. Fejervary Park contains a pool and children's zoo has approximately 20,000 visitors each year since 1996. Junge Park is situated along the Duck Creek Parkway and includes baseball and softball fields, sand volleyball, and basketball courts. LeClaire Park is located right on the banks of the Mississippi River as it is also located near Modern Woodmen Park. LeClaire Park hosts many summer events including River Roots Live and Ribfest. Bands for the Bix Fest play in the park each July. Vander Veer Botanical Park welcomes approximately 25,000 visitors to continuous floral shows year-round. Davenport has two recreational trails for biking or walking. Duck Creek Parkway extends from Emeis Park in west Davenport east to Bettendorf along Duck Creek. Riverfront Parkway extends along the Mississippi waterfront from Credit Island to Bettendorf. Both these trails continue into Bettendorf. Plans are being discussed to connect the two trails in Riverdale. Davenport offers four public golf courses designed and maintained to satisfy all types of golfing interests. Davenport offers a few river-related activities. The Celebration Belle has river cruises from a one and a half hour sightseeing cruise to an all day three-meal cruise up to Dubuque, Iowa. The Channel Cat boat offers rides across the river and has two stops in Iowa and three stops in Illinois and connects the bike paths that each state has on its river front. Media The KWQC building was the first television station in Davenport. The major daily newspaper in Davenport is the Quad City Times. An alternative free newspaper, the River Cities Reader, is published in Davenport. All four major television networks have stations in the area including KWQC (NBC) and KLJB (Fox) in Davenport. WHBF (CBS) is located in Rock Island and WQAD (ABC) is in Moline. The Quad Cities ranks as the 96th largest market for television and the 144th largest market for radio. Radio station WOC made its local broadcasting debut on February 18, 1922. It is the second licensed station on the air. In 1933 WOC hired future President Ronald Reagan as a staff announcer. The 2008 Sundance Film Festival featured a movie called Sugar. Much of the movie was filmed at Modern Woodmen Park. In the movie, Miguel "Sugar" Santos has a golden arm and gets called to play professional baseball to America, first at a spring training camp in Phoenix, Arizona and then with the Class A minor league team in the Quad-Cities. Government The Davenport City Hall was built in 1895 at the meager price of $100,000. Svendsen, p. 88 Davenport currently uses the mayor-council form of local government which consists of a mayor, currently in 2009, Bill Gluba and a 10-person council. One person is elected from each of the eight wards and two at-large aldermen are elected to represent the whole city. Nonpartisan elections are held in odd-numbered years. The mayor is the city's chief executive officer. He or she approves, vetoes, or takes no action on all ordinances, amendments, or resolutions passed by the City Council. The mayor presides at City Council Meetings and can vote in case of a tie. The mayor is also responsible for appointing members of city boards and commissions. The city council has the responsibility of setting all municipal policies not designated by city charter or state legislation such as adopting ordinances and resolutions and approving the city budget. The city administrator, currently Craig Malin, is appointed by the mayor and is subject to confirmation by a two-thirds vote of the entire membership of the city council. City wide goals through 2011 include having a financially responsible government, have a growing economy, revitalize neighborhoods, and upgrade city infrastructure and public facilities. The 2008 fiscal year budget is $161.2 million and decrease of 5.68% from 2007 due to program reduction in the capital improvements budget. The city's general fund receives about 78% of its revenue from property taxes while 80% of the expense goes to personnel costs. The city has given a few surveys for citizens to rate the quality of life and city services. The 2004 survey stated 44% of citizens said they support increasing revenue to maintain city services. The largest department in the city is the public works department with a budget of $34.9 million. At less than half that budget, the fire department is second with $15.1 million. The police department has a budget of $10.9 million, the parks department has $5.8 million, and the Davenport Public Library has a budget of $3.9 million. Education St. Ambrose University, established in 1882, is the oldest of the three universities in Davenport. Davenport public schools serve nearly 17,000 students in the communities of Davenport, Blue Grass, Buffalo, and Walcott. The Davenport Community School District is the second largest school district in Iowa. Davenport has three public high schools: Central, West, and North and one private high school: Assumption. There are six public intermediate schools and 22 public elementary schools. There are also six private kindergartens through eighth grade schools. The high schools are part of the Mississippi Athletic Conference for sports. The city has four colleges and universities: Palmer Chiropractic College, Saint Ambrose University, Kaplan University, and Hamilton Technical College. Marycrest International University was a university in Davenport from 1939 to 2002 when it closed and became senior citizen housing. Infrastructure Transportation Three interstate highways serve Davenport: Interstate 80, Interstate 280 and Interstate 74. U.S. Highway 61, U.S. Highway 6 and U.S. Highway 67 also go through Davenport; U.S. 67 crosses over to Illinois via the Centennial Bridge. Davenport is connected to the Illinois side of the Quad Cities by a total of four bridges across the Mississippi River. Other highways include Iowa Highway 22 which is on the city's southwest side and Iowa Highway 130 which runs along Northwest Boulevard on Davenport's north edge. For air travel Davenport Municipal Airport – located adjacent to the city's northern city limits – serves smaller aircraft. The Quad City International Airport across the river in Moline, Illinois is the closest commercial airport. Major railroads include the Iowa Interstate Railroad and the Iowa, Chicago and Eastern. Two national U.S. recreation trails intersect in Davenport: the Mississippi River Trail and the American Discovery Trail. Amtrak currently does not serve Davenport or the Quad Cities. The closest stations are about away in Burlington, Iowa and Galesburg, Illinois. The two current United States Senators from Iowa, Tom Harkin and Chuck Grassley, and the two Illinois Senators, Dick Durbin and Barack Obama, sent a letter to Amtrak asking them to get plans started to get rail service to the Quad Cities. They hope to see passenger rail service up and running in two years from Iowa City to the Quad Cities and from the Quad Cities to Chicago. Greyhound Lines bus service has a station in Davenport. The building is shared with the local Davenport Citibus. Davenport does not have any river ports. Davenport Citibus Public transit appeared in Davenport in 1969 when the city created a City Transit Authority. The authority at first provides monetary support to Davenport City Lines Bus Company which was a privately owned company. After a few years the city purchased the Davenport City Lines and placed the operation of public transportation under the jurisdiction of the City's Department of Municipal Transportation. Today, CitiBus is a division of the Department of Public Works. CitiBus has a total of twenty vehicles and covers approximately of the city. CitiBus connects with both Bettendorf Transit and the Illinois Quad Cities mass transit system, MetroLINK. In 2007 Citibus saw a ridership of 1,022,815 customers. Ridership as of September 2008 had grown to 1,045,000 due in part to high gas prices. Utilities and health care Genesis West Hospital is one of the two hospitals in Davenport. The other hospital is Genesis East. Electricity to Davenport, and the rest of the Iowa Quad Cities, is provided by MidAmerican Energy Company. Water is provided by the Mississippi River and is treated by the Iowa American Water Company. The water treatment facility is located in southeast Davenport. The contaminants in the water are far below government standards. Davenport is served by two hospitals Genesis East and Genesis West. Together the facilities have 502 beds. The hospital employs more than 450 physicians and 3,100 staff members. The American Nurses Credentialing Center, awarded Genesis Medical Center the Magnet designation for excellence in nursing services. Fewer than three percent of hospitals receive this honor. Notable natives Notable Davenporters include jazz musician Bix Beiderbecke, after whom the Bix 7 road race and jazz festival are named. The artist Isabel Bloom was raised in Davenport; she is the creator of concrete figurines that bear her name. Other natives include the aviation pioneer Samuel Cody and the actress Lara Flynn Boyle. Sports figures born in Davenport include NFL running back Roger Craig and former middleweight boxing champion Michael Nunn. Livability Award Davenport (along with neighboring Rock Island, Illinois) won the 2007 City Livability Award in the small-city category from the U.S. Conference of Mayors. Tom Cochran, Executive Director of the Conference, stated that the award "gives the Conference a chance to highlight mayoral leadership in making urban areas safer, cleaner and more livable." The award acknowledges achievements from the RiverVision plan of Davenport and Rock Island; "RiverVision is a bi-state collaboration between Davenport and Rock Island to transform the Mississippi River’s edge into one of the most compelling waterfronts in the nation." See also Bucktown, Davenport African Americans in Davenport, Iowa References Sources Svendsen, Marlys, "Davenport A Pictorial History", (1987) G. Bradley Publishing, INC, ISBN 0940286-05-x Plan and Zoning Commission, "Historic preservation in Davenport, Iowa for inclusion in the Davenport Comprehensive Plan : preliminary report to the Comprehensive Plan Committee Plan and Zoning Commission", (1985) External links City of Davenport DavenportIowa.us – Local Information QCOnline.com – Local information Quadcities.com – Local information QCTimes.com – Local Newspaperr	Davenport,_Iowa \|@lemmatized davenport:115 city:105 scott:5 county:11 iowa:22 united:7 state:15 along:14 mississippi:28 river:42 census:3 population:5 area:9 accord:2 estimate:1 grow:5 slightly:1 one:10 quad:28 neighboring:1 bettendorf:7 illinois:12 moline:7 east:11 rock:12 island:15 seat:5 found:5 may:4 antoine:8 leclaire:9 follow:2 signing:1 peace:1 treaty:6 end:9 black:5 hawk:4 war:8 name:5 friend:2 colonel:2 george:2 mayor:9 bill:2 gluba:2 two:19 main:3 university:11 saint:3 ambrose:4 palmer:5 college:7 chiropractic:7 birthplace:1 wellness:1 technique:1 several:1 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1,196	Mu-metal	Five-layer mumetal box (reduces the Earth's magnetic field by over 1500 times) Mu-metal is a nickel-iron alloy (approximately 75% nickel, 15% iron, plus copper and molybdenum) that has very high magnetic permeability. The high permeability makes mu-metal very effective at screening static or low-frequency magnetic fields, which cannot be attenuated by other methods. The name came from the Greek letter mu (μ) which represents permeability. Mu-metal can have relative permeabilities of 80,000-100,000 compared to several thousand for ordinary steel. In addition it has low coercivity and magnetostriction resulting in low hysteresis loss. Its magnetic properties are no better than other high permeability alloys such as Permalloy, but it is more ductile and workable Mu-metal objects require heat treatment after they are in final form — annealing in a magnetic field in hydrogen atmosphere, which reportedly increases the magnetic permeability about 40 times. The annealing alters the material's crystal structure, aligning the grains and removing some impurities, especially carbon, which obstruct the free motion of the magnetic domain boundaries. Bending or mechanical shock after annealing may disrupt the material's grain alignment, leading to a drop in the permeability of the affected areas, which can be restored by repeating the hydrogen annealing step. Magnetic shielding The high permeability of mu-metal provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, leading to its major use, in magnetic shields against static or slowly varying magnetic fields. Magnetic shielding made with high permeability alloys like mu-metal works not by blocking magnetic fields but by providing a path for the magnetic field lines around the shielded area. So the best shape for shields is a closed container surrounding the shielded space. The effectiveness of mu-metal shielding decreases with the alloy's permeability, which drops off at both low field strengths and, due to saturation, at high field strengths. So mu-metal shields are often made of several enclosures one inside the other, each of which successively reduces the field inside it. RF magnetic fields above about 100 kHz can be shielded by Faraday shields, ordinary conductive metal sheets or screens which are used to shield against electric fields. History Mu-metal was developed by scientists named Smith and Garnett and patented in 1923 for inductive loading of submarine telegraph cables by The Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co. Ltd. (now Telcon Metals Ltd.), a British firm which built the Atlantic undersea telegraph cables. The conductive seawater surrounding an undersea cable added a great deal of capacitance to the cable, limiting the bandwidth and slowing signaling speed to 10 - 12 words per minute. The bandwidth could be increased by adding inductance to compensate. This was first done by wrapping the conductors with a helical wrapping of metal tape or wire of high magnetic permeability, which confined the magnetic field. Mu-metal was invented by adding copper to the previous high permeability alloy Permalloy to improve ductility. 50 miles of fine mu-metal wire was needed for each mile of cable, creating a great demand for the alloy. The first year of production Telcon was making 30 tons per week. In the 1930s this use for mu-metal declined, but by World War 2 many other uses were found in the electronics industry, particularly shielding for transformers and cathode ray tubes. Uses and properties Mu-metal is used to shield equipment from magnetic fields. For example: Vacuum chambers for experiments with low-energy electrons, for example photoelectron spectroscopy Magnetic resonance imaging equipment The magnetometers used in magnetoencephalography and magnetocardiography Photomultipliers Cathode-ray tubes used in analogue oscilloscopes Superconducting circuits and especially Josephson junction circuits Electric power transformers, which are built with mu-metal shells to prevent them from affecting nearby circuitry Magnetic phonograph cartridges, which have a mu-metal case to reduce interference when LPs are played back Hard Drives, which have mu-metal backings to the magnets found in the drive to keep the magnetic field away from the disk. Other materials with similar magnetic properties are supermalloy, supermumetal, nilomag, sanbold, Molybdenum permalloy, Sendust, M-1040, Hipernom, HyMu-80, etc. References	Mu-metal \|@lemmatized five:1 layer:1 mumetal:1 box:1 reduce:3 earth:1 magnetic:22 field:14 time:2 mu:17 metal:19 nickel:2 iron:2 alloy:6 approximately:1 plus:1 copper:2 molybdenum:2 high:8 permeability:12 make:4 effective:1 screen:2 static:2 low:6 frequency:1 cannot:1 attenuate:1 method:1 name:2 come:1 greek:1 letter:1 μ:1 represent:1 relative:1 compare:1 several:2 thousand:1 ordinary:2 steel:1 addition:1 coercivity:1 magnetostriction:1 result:1 hysteresis:1 loss:1 property:3 good:1 permalloy:3 ductile:1 workable:1 object:1 require:1 heat:1 treatment:1 final:1 form:1 anneal:4 hydrogen:2 atmosphere:1 reportedly:1 increase:2 alters:1 material:3 crystal:1 structure:1 align:1 grain:2 remove:1 impurity:1 especially:2 carbon:1 obstruct:1 free:1 motion:1 domain:1 boundary:1 bending:1 mechanical:1 shock:1 may:1 disrupt:1 alignment:1 lead:2 drop:2 affected:1 area:2 restore:1 repeat:1 step:1 shield:11 provide:2 reluctance:1 path:2 flux:1 major:1 use:6 slowly:1 varying:1 like:1 work:1 block:1 line:1 around:1 shielded:2 best:1 shape:1 closed:1 container:1 surround:2 space:1 effectiveness:1 decrease:1 strength:2 due:1 saturation:1 often:1 enclosure:1 one:1 inside:2 successively:1 rf:1 khz:1 faraday:1 conductive:2 sheet:1 electric:2 history:1 develop:1 scientist:1 smith:1 garnett:1 patent:1 inductive:1 loading:1 submarine:1 telegraph:3 cable:5 construction:1 maintenance:1 co:1 ltd:2 telcon:2 british:1 firm:1 build:2 atlantic:1 undersea:2 seawater:1 add:3 great:2 deal:1 capacitance:1 limit:1 bandwidth:2 slow:1 signal:1 speed:1 word:1 per:2 minute:1 could:1 inductance:1 compensate:1 first:2 wrap:1 conductor:1 helical:1 wrapping:1 tape:1 wire:2 confine:1 invent:1 previous:1 improve:1 ductility:1 mile:2 fine:1 need:1 create:1 demand:1 year:1 production:1 ton:1 week:1 decline:1 world:1 war:1 many:1 us:2 find:2 electronics:1 industry:1 particularly:1 transformer:2 cathode:2 ray:2 tube:2 equipment:2 example:2 vacuum:1 chamber:1 experiment:1 energy:1 electron:1 photoelectron:1 spectroscopy:1 resonance:1 imaging:1 magnetometer:1 magnetoencephalography:1 magnetocardiography:1 photomultipliers:1 analogue:1 oscilloscope:1 superconducting:1 circuit:2 josephson:1 junction:1 power:1 shell:1 prevent:1 affect:1 nearby:1 circuitry:1 phonograph:1 cartridge:1 case:1 interference:1 lp:1 play:1 back:1 hard:1 drive:2 backing:1 magnet:1 keep:1 away:1 disk:1 similar:1 supermalloy:1 supermumetal:1 nilomag:1 sanbold:1 sendust:1 hipernom:1 hymu:1 etc:1 reference:1 \|@bigram magnetic_field:10 magnetic_permeability:3 magnetic_flux:1 undersea_cable:1 cathode_ray:2 photoelectron_spectroscopy:1 magnetic_resonance:1 resonance_imaging:1
1,197	Liverpool	Liverpool () is a city and metropolitan borough of Merseyside, England, along the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. It was founded as a borough in 1207 and was granted city status in 1880. Liverpool has a population of 435,500, and lies at the centre of the wider Liverpool Urban Area, which has a population of 816,216. Historically a part of Lancashire, the urbanisation and expansion of Liverpool were broadly brought about by the city's status as a major port. By the 18th century, trade from the West Indies, Ireland and mainland Europe coupled with close links with the Atlantic Slave Trade furthered the economic expansion of Liverpool. By the early 19th century, 40% of the world's trade passed through Liverpool's docks, contributing to Liverpool's rise as a major city. Inhabitants of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians but are also known as "Scousers", in reference to the local dish known as "scouse", a form of stew. The word "Scouse" has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Liverpool's status as a port city has contributed to its diverse population, which draws from a wide range of peoples, cultures, and religions, particularly those from Ireland. The popularity of The Beatles and the other groups from the Merseybeat era contributes to Liverpool's status as a tourist destination; tourism forms a significant part of the city's modern economy. In 2007 the city celebrated its 800th anniversary, and in 2008 it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway. In 2004, several areas throughout the city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO. Referred to as the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City, the site comprises six separate locations in the city including the Pier Head, Albert Dock and William Brown Street and includes many of the city's most famous landmarks. History King John's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, but by the middle of the 16th century the population was still only around 500. The original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough.The original seven streets were laid out in a H shape: Bank Street (now Water Street) Castle Street Chapel Street Dale Street Juggler Street (now High Street) Moor Street (now Tithebarn Street) Whiteacre Street (now Old Hall Street) In the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, including an eighteen-day siege in 1644. In 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. As trade from the West Indies surpassed that of Ireland and Europe, and as the River Dee silted up, Liverpool began to grow. The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715. Note: "pdf" reader needed to see full article Substantial profits from the slave trade helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow. By the close of the century Liverpool controlled over 41% of Europe's and 80% of Britain's slave commerce. By the start of the 19th century, 40% of the world's trade was passing through Liverpool and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth. In 1830, Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link, through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The population continued to rise rapidly, especially during the 1840s when Irish migrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine. By 1851, approximately 25% of the city's population was Irish-born. During the first part of the 20th century, Liverpool was drawing immigrants from across Europe. The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing building across Liverpool during the 1920s and 1930s. Thousands of families were rehoused from the inner-city to new suburban housing estates, based on the pretext that this would improve their standard of living, though this is largely subjective. A large number of private homes were also built during this era. The process continued after the Second World War, with many more new housing estates being built in suburban areas, while some of the older inner city areas where also redeveloped for new homes. During the Second World War there were 80 air-raids on Merseyside, killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area. Significant rebuilding followed the war, including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock, the largest dock project in Britain. Much of the immediate reconstruction of the city centre has been deeply unpopular, and was as flawed as much town planning renewal in the 1950s and 1960s - the portions of the city's heritage that survived German bombing could not withstand the efforts of urban renewal. Since 1952 Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne, Germany, a city which also experienced aerial bombing during the war. In the 1960s Liverpool was the centre of the "Merseybeat" sound which became synonymous with The Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands. From the mid-1970s onwards Liverpool's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into sharp decline. The advent of containerization meant that the city's docks became largely obsolete. In the early 1980s unemployment rates in Liverpool were among the highest in the UK. In recent years, Liverpool's economy has recovered and has experienced growth rates higher than the national average since the mid-nineties. Previously part of Lancashire, and a county borough from 1889, Liverpool became in 1974 a metropolitan borough within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside. At the end of the 20th century Liverpool was concentrating on regeneration, a process which still continues today. To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 2002, the conservation charity Plantlife organised a competition to choose county flowers; the sea-holly was Liverpool's final choice. Capitalising on the popularity of the 1960s rock group The Beatles and other groups of the Merseybeat era, tourism has also become a significant factor in Liverpool's economy. In 2004, property developer Grosvenor started the Paradise Project, a £920 m development centered on Paradise Street, which involved the most significant changes to Liverpool's city centre since the post-war reconstruction. Renamed 'Liverpool 1', the centre opened in May 2008. In 2007 the city celebrated the 800th anniversary of the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, for which a number of events were planned. Liverpool is a joint European Capital of Culture for 2008. The main celebrations in September 2008 involved La Princesse, a large mechanical spider which is 20 metres high and weighs 37 tonnes, and represents the "eight legs" of Liverpool: honour, history, music, the Mersey, the ports, governance, sunshine and culture. La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities, and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel. Governance Liverpool has three tiers of governance; the Local Council, the National Government and the European Parliament. Liverpool is officially governed by a Unitary Authority, as when Merseyside County Council was disbanded civic functions were returned to a district borough level. However several services such as the Police and Fire and Rescue Service, continue to be run at a county-wide level. Local Council See also: Liverpool City Council The City of Liverpool is governed by Liverpool City Council, and is one of five metropolitan boroughs that combine to make up the metropolitan county of Merseyside. The council consists of 90 elected councillors who represent local communities throughout the city, as well as a five man executive management team who are responsible for the day to day running of the council. Part of the responsibility of the councillors is the election of a council leader and Lord Mayor. The council leader's responsibility is to provide directionality for the council as well as acting as medium between the local council, central government and private & public partners. The Lord Mayor acts as the 'first citizen' of the city and is responsible for promoting the city, supporting local charities & community groups as well as representing the city at civic events The current council leader is Warren Bradley, and current Lord Mayor is Councillor Steve Rotheram. For local elections the city is split into 30 local council wards, which in alphabetical order are: Allerton and Hunts Cross, Anfield, Belle Vale, Central, Childwall, Church, Clubmoor, County, Cressington, Croxteth, Everton, Fazakerley, Greenbank, Kensington, Kirkdale, Knotty Ash, Mossley Hill, Norris Green, Old Swan, Picton, Princes Park, Riverside, Speke Garston, St Michaels, Tuebrook & Stoneycroft, Warbreck, Wavertree, West Derby, Woolton, Yew Tree As of September 2008 the council is controlled by the Liberal Democrats who took 45 seats to Labour's 39 in the most recent local election. Of the remaining seats the Liberal Party won three, the Green Party claimed two and the last one went to an independent councillor. The Conservative Party, one of the three major political parties in the UK had no representation on Liverpool City Council. Officially the result was classified as no overall control in the city, however following the defection of Croxteth Independent Councillor Nadia Stewart, the Lib Dems increased their number of seats to 46 allowing the current administration to continue. In February 2008, Liverpool City Council was revealed to be the worst performing council in the country, receiving just a one star rating (classified as inadequate). The main cause of the poor rating was attributed to the councils poor handling of tax-payer money, including the accumulation of a £20m shortfall on Capital of Culture funding. Parliamentary constituencies and MPs See also: List of Parliamentary constituencies on Merseyside Within Liverpool there are five parliamentary constituencies through which Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected to represent the city in Westminster: Liverpool Garston, Liverpool Riverside, Liverpool Walton, Liverpool Wavertree and Liverpool West Derby. At the last General Election all were won by Labour with representation being from Maria Eagle, Louise Ellman, Peter Kilfoyle, Jane Kennedy and Bob Wareing respectively. In proposed constituency boundary changes for the next UK election, Liverpool will only have four seats completely within the city boundaries after the announcement of plans to merge Liverpool Garston with Halewood (which was previously part of Knowsley South), creating a cross-boundary seat. . The Conservative party has not won a city constituency since 1979, and at the last election in 2005 scored less than 10% in every seat. Geography At (53.4, -2.98), northwest of London, the city of Liverpool is built across a ridge of sandstone hills rising up to a height of around 230 feet (70 metres) above sea-level at Everton Hill, which represents the southern boundary of the West Lancashire Coastal Plain. It has been described as having "the most splendid setting of any English city." The Buildings of England - Lancashire: Liverpool and the Southwest By Richard Pollard, Nikolaus Pevsner, Yale University Press, 2006, p243 Liverpool Urban Area runs directly into Bootle, Crosby and Maghull in south Sefton to the north, and Kirkby, Huyton, Prescot and Halewood in Knowsley to the east. It faces Wallasey and Birkenhead across the River Mersey to the west. Climate Liverpool experiences a temperate maritime climate, like much of the British Isles, with relatively cool summers and mild winters. There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year with an average of 282 days of rain per annum which compares with the UK average of 154.4. Snowfall is not a common sight in the city, with an average of only 22 days per annum. Demography As with other major British cities, Liverpool has a large and diverse population. At the 2001 UK Census the recorded population of Liverpool was 441,900, whilst a mid-2007 estimate by the ONS had the city's population as 435,500, which would make it the sixth largest district in the UK (N.B. This figure includes only those areas officially within the city boundaries). Liverpool’s population peaked in 1930s with 846,101 recorded in the 1931 census. Since then the city has experienced negative population growth every decade, with at its peak over 100,000 people leaving the city between 1971 and 1981. Between 2001 and 2006 it experienced the ninth largest percentage population loss of any UK unitary authority, although it has been suggested that overall the city's population is now stabalising after rapid decline in the 1980s and 1990s. In common with many cities, Liverpool's population is younger than that of England as a whole, with 42.3 per cent of its population under the age of 30, compared to an English average of 37.4 per cent. 65.1 per cent of the population is of working age. Liverpool is home to Britain's oldest Black community, dating to at least the 1730s. The city also contains the oldest Chinese community in Europe; the first residents of the city's Chinatown arrived as seamen in the nineteenth century. The city is also known for its large Irish and Welsh populations. In 1813, 10 per cent of Liverpool's population was Welsh, leading to the city becoming known as "the capital of North Wales". Following the start of the Irish Potato Famine, two million Irish people migrated to Liverpool in the space of one decade, many of them subsequently departing for the United States. By 1851, more than 20 per cent of the population of Liverpool was Irish. At the 2001 Census, 1.17 per cent of the population were Welsh-born and 0.75 per cent were born in the Republic of Ireland, while 0.54 per cent were born in Northern Ireland, but many more Liverpudlians are of Welsh or Irish ancestry. As of 2005, an estimated 92.3 per cent of Liverpool's population was White, 1.9 per cent Asian or Asian British, 1.8 per cent Black or Black British, 1.9 per cent mixed-race and 2.1 per cent Chinese and other. Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added (GVA) of Liverpool at current basic prices published (pp.240–253) by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of pounds sterling. Year Regional Gross Value Added Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Agriculture includes hunting and forestry Industry includes energy and construction Services includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured 1995 4,394 3 950 3,440 2000 5,681 4 1,033 4,644 2003 6,595 6 953 5,636 The economy of Liverpool is beginning to recover from its long, post-World War II decline. Between 1995 and 2001 GVA per head grew at 6.3% annum. This compared with 5.8% for inner London and 5.7% for Bristol. The rate of job growth was 9.2% compared with a national average of 4.9% for the same period, 1998-2002. However, Liverpool is still comparatively poor; a 2001 report by CACI showed that Liverpool still had four of the ten poorest postcode districts in the country, and almost 30% of people aged 65 or over are without central heating. Like the rest of the United Kingdom the city has seen a large growth in the service sector, both public and private. Government offices include parts of the National Health Service, Revenue and Customs and Home Office agencies such as the Criminal Records Bureau and the Identity and Passport Service, formerly the UK Passport Agency. Major private sector service industry concerns have also invested in Liverpool especially the financial services sector with Barclays, JPMorgan, Abbey National, Alliance & Leicester, Royal Bank of Scotland Group, HBOS and the Bank of Ireland either opening or expanding their sites, a number of major call centres have opened in recent years too and the professional advice sector. The activities of the port had, due to containerisation and reduced levels of commerce, left the region with a communications infrastructure that exceeded its requirements, however the port's cargo volumes have picked up significantly. Growth in the areas of New Media has been helped by the existence of a relatively large computer game development community. Sony based one of only a handful of European PlayStation research and development centres in Wavertree, after buying out noted software publisher Psygnosis. According to a 2006 issue of industry magazine 'Edge' (issue 162), the first professional quality PlayStation software developer's kits were largely programmed by Sony's Liverpool 'studio'. Tourism is a major factor in the economy and this has led to a great increase in the provision of high quality services such as hotels, restaurants and clubs. The buildings of Liverpool also attract film makers, who regularly use Liverpool to double for cities around the world and making it the second most filmed city in the UK. Liverpool is also one of the few cities in the world where cruise liners can berth in the city centre, and from 2008 a significant number of ships will either set sail or call at Liverpool's cruise liner terminal, including the Grand Princess, and the QE2. Large naval ships coming in to dock also draw large crowds on sunny days. Liverpool and its boroughs have a large number of sandy beaches accessible by Merseyrail, which prove popular in the summer months. Car-manufacturing also takes place in the city at the Halewood plant where the Jaguar X-Type and Land Rover Freelander models are assembled. The owner of Liverpool's port and airport, Peel Holdings, announced on 6 March 2007 that is had plans to redevelop the city's northern dock area with a scheme entitled Liverpool Waters, which may see the creation of 17,000 jobs and £5.5bn invested in the vicinity over a 50 year period. This is coupled with a sister scheme on the other side of the River Mersey, called Wirral Waters. Liverpool's main shopping area is Church Street, lying between Bold Street to the East and Lord Street to the West. Liverpool One opened fully in October 2008 being the redevelopment of a large part of the postcode area L1—hence the name. It is also partly built on the old Chavasse Park, but much of the park still remains. Landmarks Liverpool's history means that there are a considerable variety of architectural styles found there. Its role as a major port in the British Empire means that many of the finest buildings in the city were built as headquarters for shipping firms and insurance companies, whilst the great wealth this afforded the city allowed the development of grand civic buildings, designed to allow the local administrators to 'run the city with pride'. There are over 2,500 listed buildings in Liverpool (of which 26 are Grade I listed and 85 are Grade II* listed) and only the UK capital London, has more. It has been the beneficiary of high-minded public spirit since the late 18th century, largely with Dissenter impetus, resulting in more public sculpture than in any UK city aside from Westminster, more listed buildings than any city apart from London and more Georgian houses than the city of Bath, though most date from after the Georgian era. Liverpool is also described by English Heritage as England's finest Victorian city. Heritage map for changing city, BBC, 2002 Renowned architects are particularly well represented in Liverpool, including Peter Ellis, John Wood, the Elder of Bath (commissioned in 1749 to design the original Public Exchange which later became the Town Hall), Thomas 'Greek' Harrison, James Wyatt, Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, Philip Hardwick, Jesse Hartley (Dock engineer and architect of the Albert Dock and Stanley Dock), Charles Cockerell, Thomas Rickman, John Foster, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, J.J. Scholes, Sir Joseph Paxton, Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, J.K. Colling, J.A. Picton, George Edmund Street, John Loughborough Pearson, E.W. Pugin, E.R. Robson, Edmund Kirby, Sir Edwin Lutyens, Sir Frederick Gibberd, Alfred Waterhouse (who was born in Aigburth), W.D. Caroe, Leonard Stokes, Norman Shaw, James Francis Doyle, Walter Aubrey Thomas (architect of the iconic Royal Liver Building on the Liverpool waterfront), Gerald de Courcy Fraser, Charles Reilly and Herbert Rowse (architect of Martins Bank, Queensway Tunnel and India Buildings). Waterfront and docks museums In 2004, Liverpool's waterfront was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage site, reflecting the city's importance in the development of the world's trading system and dock technology. The docks are central to Liverpool's history, with the best-known being Albert Dock: the first enclosed, non-combustible dock warehouse system in the world and is built in cast iron, brick and stone. It was designed by Jesse Hartley. Restored in the 1980s, the Albert Dock has the largest collection of Grade I listed buildings in Britain. Part of the old dock complex is now the home to the Merseyside Maritime Museum (an Anchor Point of ERIH, The European Route of Industrial Heritage), the International Slavery Museum and the Tate Liverpool. Other relics of the dock system include the Stanley Dock Tobacco Warehouse, which at the time of its construction in 1901, was the world's largest building in terms of area, and is still the world's largest brick-work building. Also the ill-fated passenger liner RMS Titanic was registered in Liverpool. The Pier Head is the most famous image of Liverpool, the location of the Three Graces (a fairly recent phrase), three of Liverpool's most recognisable buildings. In order from north to south they are: The Royal Liver Building, built in the early 1900s and surmounted by two bronze domes with a Liver Bird (the symbol of Liverpool) on each. The Cunard Building, the headquarters of the former Cunard shipping company. The Port of Liverpool Building, the home of the former Mersey Docks and Harbour Board which regulated the city's docks. They were built on the site of the former George's Dock and Manchester Dock. Kings Dock immediately south of the Albert Dock is the site of the Liverpool Echo Arena and BT Convention Centre which officially opened on the 12 January 2008. In front of these buildings at the water's edge are the memorials to the men of the merchant navy who sailed out of the port during both World Wars. Memorials to the British mariners, Norwegian, Dutch and to the thousands of Chinese seamen who manned Britain's ships cluster together here. Perhaps most interesting is the Chinese memorial to the men forcibly deported from the city after World War Two and to the families they left behind. Places of worship The thousands of migrants and sailors passing through Liverpool resulted in a religious diversity that is still apparent today. This is reflected in the equally diverse collection of religious buildings, and two Christian cathedrals. Christ Church, in Buckingham Road, Tuebrook, is a conservative evangelical congregation and is affiliated with the Evangelical Connexion. They worship using the 1785 Prayer Book, and regard the Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice. The parish church of Liverpool is the Anglican Our Lady and St Nicholas, colloquially known as "the sailors church", which has existed near the waterfront since 1257. It regularly plays host to Catholic masses. Other notable churches include the Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas (built in the Neo-Byzantine architecture style), and the Gustav Adolfus Kyrka (the Swedish Seamen's Church, reminiscent of Nordic styles). Liverpool's wealth as a port city enabled the construction of two enormous cathedrals, both dating from the 20th century. The Anglican Cathedral, which was designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott and plays host to the annual Liverpool Shakespeare Festival, has one of the longest naves, largest organs and heaviest and highest peals of bells in the world. The Roman Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral, on Mount Pleasant next to Liverpool Science Park was initially planned to be even larger. Of Sir Edwin Lutyens' original design, only the crypt was completed. The cathedral was eventually built to a simpler design by Sir Frederick Gibberd; while this is on a smaller scale than Lutyens' original design, it still manages to incorporate the largest panel of stained glass in the world. The road running between the two cathedrals is called Hope Street, a coincidence which pleases believers. The cathedral is colloquially referred to as "Paddy's Wigwam" due to its shape and the vast number of Irish men who worked on its construction and are living in the area. Liverpool contains several synagogues, of which the Grade I listed Moorish Revival Princes Road Synagogue is architecturally the most notable. Princes Road is widely considered to be the most magnificent of Britain's Moorish Revival synagogues and one of the finest buildings in Liverpool. Sharples, Joseph, Pevsner Architectual guide to Liverpool, Yale University Press, 2004, p. 249 Liverpool has a thriving Jewish community with a further two orthodox Synagogues, one in the Allerton district of the city and a second in the Childwall district of the city where a significant Jewish community reside. A third orthodox Synagogue in the Greenbank Park area of L17 has recently closed, and is a listed 1930s structure. There is also a Lubavitch Chabad House and a reform Synagogue. Liverpool has had a Jewish community since the mid-18th century. The current Jewish population of Liverpool is around 3000. Liverpool also has an increasing Hindu community, with a Mandir on 253 Edge Lane; the Radha Krishna Hindu Temple from the Hindu Cultural Organisation based there. The current Hindu population in Liverpool is about 1147. Liverpool also has the Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara in L15. The city had one of the earliest mosques in Britain, founded in 1887 by William Abdullah Quilliam, a lawyer who had converted to Islam. This mosque, which was also the first in England, however no longer exists. Plans have been ongoing to re-convert the building where the mosque once stood into a museum. Currently there are three mosques in Liverpool: the largest and main one, Al-Rahma mosque, in the Toxteth area of the city and a mosque recently opened in the Mossley Hill district of the city. The third mosque was also recently opened in Toxteth and is on Granby Street. Other notable buildings and main museums The area around William Brown Street has been labeled the city's 'Cultural Quarter', owing to the presence of the William Brown Library, Walker Art Gallery and World Museum Liverpool, just three of Liverpool's neo-classical buildings. Nearby is St George's Hall, perhaps the most impressive of these neo-classical buildings. It was built to serve a variety of civic functions, including both as a concert hall and as the city's law courts. Its doors, inscribed "S.P.Q.L." (Latin senatus populusque Liverpudliensis—"the senate and people of Liverpool"), as well as its grand architecture proclaim the municipal pride and ambition of the city in the mid-nineteenth century. Also in this area are Wellington's Column and the Steble Fountain. Liverpool's Town Hall dates from 1754 and has an interior which is well-regarded architecturally. The city's stock exchange and financial district are set immediately behind this building, and show how closely government and commerce were tied in the city's development. At 40 storeys, West Tower is Liverpool's tallest building. The Adelphi Hotel on Ranelagh Street is the most famous hotel in Liverpool and was very popular in the days when luxury liners crossed the Atlantic when it was described as the great Cunard liner stuck in the middle of the city. A 'fly-on-the-wall' TV documentary series was made on it and its staff. The Atlantic Tower hotel near pier head was designed to resemble the prow of a ship to reflect Liverpool's maritime history. The term Red Brick University, applied to British universities dating from a similar period, was inspired by the University of Liverpool's Victoria Building, noted for its clock tower. Some of Liverpool's landmarks are better known for their oddness rather than for their role. The Williamson Tunnels are architecturally unique as being the largest underground folly in the world. The Philharmonic Dining Rooms are noteworthy for their ornate Victorian toilets, which have become a tourist attraction in their own right. On Renshaw Street there is the new alternative shopping centre Grand Central Hall—which has not only fine external architecture but also has much to offer inside, such as the metalwork and ceiling decoration of the Ground floor and the fantastic domed ceiling of Roscoe Hall. It was originally built in 1905, under the guidance of the Methodist Church, as a 2,000-seat cinema. The original organ of Roscoe Hall still remains and is a listed item itself, although recent shop additions to the hall have obscured the view somewhat. In the south of the city, the art deco former terminal building of Speke Airport, used from the 1930s to 1986, has been adapted for use as a hotel, and is now the Crowne Plaza Liverpool John Lennon Airport. The terraces from which fans welcomed home The Beatles have been preserved. Everton water tower is a Grade II listed building. Parks and gardens The English Heritage National Register of Historic Parks describes Merseyside’s Victorian Parks as collectively the "most important in the country" Dr. Peter Brown, chair, Merseyside Civic Society Transport Mersey crossings There are three tunnels under the River Mersey: the Mersey Railway Tunnel; and two road tunnels, Queensway Tunnel and Kingsway Tunnel. The Mersey Ferry continues to provide an important link between Liverpool and the Wirral, as well as a tourist attraction. Made famous by the song Ferry Cross the Mersey by Gerry & The Pacemakers, the song is now played on the ferryboats themselves every time they prepare to dock at Liverpool after a tourist cruise. The Mersey is crossed upstream from Liverpool at Runcorn and Widnes, by the Silver Jubilee Bridge (usually known simply as the "Runcorn Bridge") and the Runcorn Railway Bridge. Leeds and Liverpool Canal Built between 1770 and 1816 the Leeds and Liverpool Canal links Liverpool and the Mersey to Leeds and the River Aire. Its terminus had been at Old Hall Street, Pall Mall, Chisenhale Street, but that section now ends at Eldonian Village. A flight of locks just north of there takes the canal down to Stanley Dock, famous for the Tobacco Warehouse, and on to the main dock system. A new link across the front of the Pier Head buildings will link the northern docks to the Albert Dock is presently under construction, with the plan being to open it during Liverpool's Capital of Culture Year of 2008. Airport Opened in the 1930s, Liverpool Airport, is situated near Speke in the south of the city. It was renamed Liverpool John Lennon Airport in 2001, in honour of the late Beatle John Lennon. The airport's logo consists of a sketch that John Lennon had drawn of himself, and the words "Above us only sky", lyrics from his song Imagine. The sensitivity surrounding the airport's name change meant that the logo had to be designed in secret before it could be unveiled by John Lennon's widow Yoko Ono. The airport was the starting point for Beatles tours in the sixties, and images of the band boarding planes there were seen throughout the world. In 2006 the airport handled nearly 5 million passengers and now serves 64 destinations, including many key European cities. New routes to New York and Toronto in summer 2007 were withdrawn towards the end of the year, as was the route to London City Airport, due to low passenger numbers. Port In 2002, 716,000 passengers used the Port of Liverpool, with the Isle of Man and Ireland being the two most important passenger routes, goods trade which was very low in the past decades, is growing up now. Together, the Port of Liverpool and Manchester Ship Canal offer a comprehensive range of port facilities, handling more than 40 million tonnes of cargo and 15,000 ship movements a year – making the River Mersey Britain's third busiest estuary. The Port and Canal form the "green" gateway to an economy of more than 120,000 industrial and commercial enterprises and a population equal to that of greater London. The Port of Liverpool and the Manchester Ship Canal are now as one under the banner of Peel Ports, the UK's second largest ports group. Railways Liverpool is served by the Merseyrail urban rail network. The sections in the city centre are mostly underground. It has three lines: the Northern Line, which runs to Southport, Ormskirk, Kirkby and Hunts Cross; the Wirral Line, which runs through the Mersey Railway Tunnel and has branches to New Brighton, West Kirby, Chester and Ellesmere Port; and the City Line, only from Lime Street, for St Helens, Wigan, Preston, Warrington and Manchester. The city's main railway station for longer-distance services is Lime Street station, one of the most famous railway stations in Britain. Trains operate to destinations including London (in 2 hours 8 minutes) with Pendolino trains, Birmingham, Newcastle upon Tyne, Manchester, Preston, Leeds, Scarborough, Sheffield, Nottingham and Norwich. The London line was one of the first electrified in Britain with wire (with Manchester and Glasgow). Liverpool had been home to the first electrically powered overhead railway in the world. Known as the Liverpool Overhead Railway (or Dockers Umbrella) it opened on 4 February 1893 with an eventual total of 14 stations. The line suffered extensive damage during the Second World War and was eventually closed down on 30 December 1956 with considerable protest. The tunnel portal in Dingle is one of the only surviving signs of the railway's existence as the iron bridges were removed for scrap. Buses Long distance coach services arrive at and depart from the Norton Street Coach Station. Local buses serve the whole of the city and its surrounding areas. The two principal termini for local buses are Queen Square Bus Station (located near Lime Street railway station) for services north and east of the city, and Paradise Street Interchange (located near the Albert Dock) for services to the south and east. Cross-river services to the Wirral use roadside terminus points in Castle Street and Sir Thomas Street. Historic tramway and railways Historically, Liverpool had an extensive tram network, construction of which started in 1869 by the Liverpool Tramways Company; however, this was dismantled in the 1950s. Other railway lines, such as the Canada Dock Branch from Edge Hill to Kirkdale, no longer see passenger services, or have been removed completely, such as the North Liverpool Extension Line. Proposed new tram In 2001, a plan to build new a light rail system, Merseytram was developed. After central government insisted on additional guarantees prior to the release of previously committed funds, it was cancelled in November 2005. However, it is to be included in the transport plan from 2006-2011, as it is deemed to be an important part of Liverpool's development. Road links Liverpool has direct road links with many other major areas of England. The M62 motorway connects Liverpool with Hull and along the route also provides a link with areas including Manchester, Leeds and Huddersfield, and not far along the M62 from Liverpool is the interchange with the M6 that provides links to more distant areas including Birmingham, Staffordshire, the Lake District and the Scottish border. The Kingsway and Queensway tunnels give a direct link to the A41 that eventually stretches to London, although using the M62 or M6 and eventually M1 is a far quicker route from Liverpool to London. However, the A41 is a relatively quick and direct link with Cheshire and Shropshire.This in turn provides a quick link to the A55 road that runs along the North Wales coastline. In the early 1960s there were plans to build a "Liverpool Inner Motorway" which would been similar to the "urban motorways" which were later built around the cities of Manchester and Leeds. The motorway was still a possibility as the 1970s drew to a close, but it was never built. Culture In 2003, Liverpool was named a European Capital of Culture for 2008, the other site being Stavanger, Norway. A series of cultural events during 2003-9 is planned, peaking in 2008. Literature A number of notable authors have visited Liverpool including Daniel Defoe, Washington Irving, Thomas De Quincey, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Charles Dickens, and Gerald Manley Hopkins all of whom spent extended periods in the city. Hawthorne was stationed in Liverpool as United States consul between 1853 and 1856. Although he never visited, Jung had a vivid dream of the city which he analysed in one of his works. Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1961) Music Liverpool was the centre in the 1960's of Merseybeat and since then has been home to a music scene. The city is also home to the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra, headquartered in the Philharmonic Hall, and to a youth orchestra. Max Bruch was one of numerous notable conductors of the RLPO, and dedicated his Kol Nidre to the Jewish community in the city. Sir Edward Elgar dedicated his famous Pomp and Circumstance No.1, Land of Hope and Glory, to the Liverpool Orchestral Society, and the piece had its first performance in the city in 1901. Poetry During the late 1960s the city became well-known for the Liverpool poets, who include Roger McGough and the late Adrian Henri. An anthology of poems, The Mersey Sound, written by Henri, McGough and Brian Patten, has sold over 500,000 copies since first being published in 1967. Theatre Liverpool also has a history of performing arts, reflected in its annual theatrical highlight The Liverpool Shakespeare Festival which takes place inside Liverpool Cathedral and in the adjacent historic St James' Gardens every summer, and by the number of theatres in the city. These include the Empire, Everyman, Liverpool Playhouse, Neptune, Royal Court and the Unity Theatre. The Everyman Theatre, Unity Theatre and Playhouse Theatre all run their own theatre companies. Visual arts Liverpool has more galleries and national museums than any other city in the United Kingdom apart from London . The Tate Liverpool gallery houses the modern art collection of the Tate in the North of England and was, until the opening of Tate Modern, the largest exhibition space dedicated to modern art in the United Kingdom. The FACT centre hosts touring multimedia exhibitions, whilst the Walker Art Gallery houses an extensive collection of Pre-Raphaelites. Sudley House contains another major collection of pre 20th century art. , and the number of galleries continues to expand: Ceri Hand Gallery opened in 2008, exhibiting primarily contemporary art, and Liverpool University's Victoria Building was re-opened as a public art gallery and museum to display the University's artwork and historical collections which include the second-largest display of art by Audubon outside the US. Artists have also come from the city, including painter George Stubbs who was born in Liverpool in 1724. The Liverpool Biennial festival of arts runs from mid-September to late November and comprises three main sections; the International, The Independents and New Contemporaries although fringe events are timed to coincide . It was during the 2004 festival that Yoko Ono's work "My mother is beautiful" caused widespread public protest when photographs of a naked woman's pubic area were exhibited on the main shopping street. Despite protests the work remained in place. Education In Liverpool primary and secondary education is available in various forms supported by the state including secular, Church of England, Jewish, and Roman Catholic. Islamic education is available at primary level, but there is currently no secondary provision. One of Liverpool's important early schools was The Liverpool Blue Coat School; founded in 1708 as a charitable school. The Liverpool Blue Coat School is the top-performing school in the city with 100% 5 or more A*-C grades at GCSE resulting in the 30th best GCSE results in the country and an average point score per student of 1087.4 in A/AS levels. Other notable schools include Liverpool College founded in 1840 Merchant Taylors' School founded in 1620. Another of Liverpool's notable senior schools is St. Edward's College situated in the West Derby area of the city. Historic grammar schools, such as the Liverpool Institute High School & Liverpool Collegiate, closed in the 1980s are still remembered as centres of academic excellence. Bellerive Catholic College is the city's top performing non selective school, based upon GCSE results in 2007. Liverpool has three universities: the University of Liverpool, Liverpool John Moores University and Liverpool Hope University. Edge Hill University, originally founded as a teacher-training college in the Edge Hill district of Liverpool, is now located in Ormskirk in South-West Lancashire. The University of Liverpool, was established in 1881 as University College Liverpool. In 1884, became part of the federal Victoria University. Following a Royal Charter and Act of Parliament in 1903, it became an independent university, the University of Liverpool, with the right to confer its own degrees. Liverpool Hope University, founded in 1844, is situated on both sides of Taggart Avenue in Childwall and a second Campus in the City Centre (The Cornerstone). Hope is quickly making a name for itself within the Liberal Arts, the University has also enjoyed successes in terms of high graduate employability, campus development, and a substantial increase in student applications from outside of the City. The Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, founded to address some of the problems created by trade, continues today as a post-graduate school affiliated with the University of Liverpool and is one of only two institutions internationally that house the de facto standard anti-venom repository. Liverpool John Moores University was previously a polytechnic, and gained status in 1992. It is named in honour of Sir John Moores, one of the founders of the Littlewoods football pools and retail group, who was a major benefactor. The institution was previously owned and run by Liverpool City Council. The city has one further education college, Liverpool Community College. There are two Jewish schools in Liverpool, both belonging to the King David Foundation. King David School, Liverpool is the High School and the King David Primary School. There is also a King David Kindergarten, featured in the community centre of Harold House. These schools are all run by the King David Foundation based in Harold House in Childwall; conveniently next door to the Childwall Synagogue Sport Liverpool is home to two Premier League football clubs–Liverpool F.C. and Everton. Liverpool is the only English city to have staged top division football every single season since the formation of the Football League in 1888, and both of the city's clubs play in high-capacity stadiums. Liverpool F.C. are the most successful team in English football, having won 18 league titles, seven FA Cups, seven League Cups, five European Cups and three UEFA Cups. They formed in 1892 and have spent their entire history at the Anfield stadium which they occupied on their formation; it had previously been home to Everton. Liverpool have been in the top flight of English football continuously since 1962 and have been managed by a succession of great managers including Bill Shankly, Bob Paisley, Joe Fagan, Kenny Dalglish (who also played for the club and for a while was player-manager), Gerard Houllier and their current manager Rafael Benítez. They have also been represented by some of the game's finest talents of past and present; these include Billy Liddell, Ian St. John, Roger Hunt, Ron Yeats, Emlyn Hughes, Kevin Keegan, Ian Rush, Graeme Souness, Robbie Fowler and Steven Gerrard. However, the club also has an association with tragedy; in 1985, rioting on the terraces during the European Cup final at Heysel Stadium in Brussels, Belgium, resulted in the death of 39 spectators (almost all of them Juventus supporters) and led to all English clubs being barred from European competitions for the next five years (with Liverpool having to serve an extra year when all other English clubs were re-admitted). Four years later, 94 Liverpool fans (the toll eventually reached 96) were crushed to death at Hillsborough stadium in Sheffield at the FA Cup semi-final. This tragedy led to the Taylor Report which saw standing accommodation banned from all top division stadiums by the mid 1990s. Everton are the older of Liverpool's two professional football clubs. They were founded in 1878 and have played at Goodison Park since 1892, when they relocated from the Anfield stadium that was taken over by the new Liverpool club. Everton have been league champions nine times, FA Cup winners five times and European Cup Winners' Cup winners once. They have been managed by highly successful individuals including Harry Catterick and Howard Kendall. Many high profile players have worn the Everton shirt. These include Dixie Dean (who scored a record 60 goals in a single league season), Tommy Lawton, Brian Labone, Ray Wilson, Alan Ball (who both featured in England's World Cup winning side of 1966), Neville Southall, Andy Gray, Gary Lineker, Andrei Kanchelskis, Dave Watson and Wayne Rooney. Since the turn of the 21st century, both Liverpool-based clubs have been considering relocation to new stadiums. Liverpool have been planning a new stadium on nearby Stanley Park for some years, while Everton are currently investigating the possibility of a new stadium in Kirkby after an earlier project to relocate to King's Dock fell through due to financial difficulties. Professional basketball is played in the city with the addition of Everton Tigers into the elite British Basketball League in 2007. The club is associated with Everton Football Club, and is part of the Toxteth Tigers youth development programme, which reaches over 1,500 young people every year. The Tigers will commence play in Britain's top league for the 2007-08 season, though their home venue has yet to be confirmed. Their closest professional rivals are the Chester Jets, based 18 miles away in Chester. County cricket is occasionally played in Liverpool, with Lancashire County Cricket Club typically playing one match every year at Liverpool Cricket Club, Aigburth. Aintree Racecourse to the north of Liverpool in the adjacent borough of Sefton is home to the famous steeplechase, the Grand National, One of the most famous events in the international horse racing calendar, it is held in early April each year. In addition to horse-racing, Aintree has also hosted motor racing, including the British Grand Prix in the 1950s and 1960s. Liverpool Harriers, who meet at Wavertree Athletics Centre, are one of five athletic clubs. Liverpool has a long history of boxing that has produced John Conteh, Alan Rudkin and Paul Hodkinson and hosts high level amateur boxing events. Park Road Gymnastics Centre provides training to a high level. The City of Liverpool Swimming Club has been National Speedo League Champions 8 out of the last 11 years. Liverpool Tennis Development Programme based at Wavertree Tennis Centre is one of the largest in the UK. Liverpool is also home to the Red Triangle Karate Club, which provided many of the 1990 squad that won the World Shotokan Championships in Sunderland. Luminaries include Sensei Keinosuke Enoeda, Sensei Frank Brennan, Sensei Omry Weiss, Sensei Dekel Kerer, Sensei Andy Sherry and Sensei Terry O'Neill, who is also famous for various acting roles. Rugby league is played at amateur and student level within the city; the last professional team bearing the city's name was Liverpool City, which folded in the 1960s. Rugby Union has a long, if low key, history in the city with Liverpool Football Club were formed in 1857 making them the oldest open rugby teams in the world. They merged with St Helens RUFC in 1986 to form Liverpool St Helens. In Sefton there is Waterloo Rugby Club located in Blundellsands. Established in 1882 they now play in National Division Two. Liverpool is one of three cities which still host the traditional sport of British Baseball and it hosts the annual England-Wales international match every two years, alternating with Cardiff and Newport. Liverpool Trojans are the oldest existing baseball club in the UK. The Royal Liverpool Golf Club, situated in the nearby town of Hoylake on the Wirral Peninsula, has hosted The Open Championship on a number of occasions, most recently in 2008. It has also hosted the Walker Cup. Sports stadia Liverpool have played at Anfield since 1892, when the club was formed to occupy the stadium following Everton's departure due to a dispute with their landlord. Liverpool are still playing there 116 years later, although the ground has been completely rebuilt since the 1970s and only the Main Stand survives from before 1992. The Spion Kop (rebuilt as an all-seater stand in 1994/1995) was the most famous part of the ground, gaining cult status across the world due to the songs and celebrations of the many fans who packed onto its terraces. Anfield is classified as a 4 Star UEFA Elite Stadium with capacity for 45,000 spectators in comfort, and is a distinctive landmark in an area filled with smaller and older buildings. Liverpool club also has a multi-million dollar youth training facility called The Academy. Everton moved to Goodison Park after they were evicted from Anfield in 1892. The ground is situated at the far side of Stanley Park to Anfield. Goodison Park was the first major football stadium built in England. Molineux (Wolves' ground) had been opened three years earlier but was still relatively undeveloped. St. James's Park, Newcastle, opened in 1892, was little more than a field. Only Scotland had more advanced grounds. Rangers opened Ibrox in 1887, while Celtic Park was officially inaugurated at the same time as Goodison Park. Everton performed a miraculous transformation at Mere Green, spending up to £3000 on laying out the ground and erecting stands on three sides. For £552 Mr. Barton prepared the land at 4½d a square yard. Kelly Brothers of Walton built two uncovered stands each for 4,000 people, and a covered stand seating 3,000, at a total cost of £1,460. Outside, hoardings cost a further £150, gates and sheds cost £132 10s and 12 turnstiles added another £7 15s to the bill. The ground was immediately renamed Goodison Park and proudly opened on 24 August 1892, by Lord Kinnaird and Frederick Wall of the FA. But instead of a match the 12,000 crowd saw a short athletics meeting followed by a selection of music and a fireworks display. Everton's first game there was on 2 September 1892 when they beat Bolton 4-2. It now has the capacity for more than 40,000 spectators all-seated, but the last expansion took place in 1994 when a new goal-end stand gave the stadium an all-seater capacity. The Main Stand dates back to the 1970s, while the other two stands are refurbished pre-Second World War structures. There are currently plans for both stadiums to be pulled down and for the teams to relocate. Liverpool have been considering a move to a new stadium in Stanley Park since 2000; seven years on work has started and the 60,000-seat stadium is expected to be ready by 2010. Everton have been considering relocation since 1996, and in 2003 were forced to scrap plans for a 55,000-seat stadium at King's Dock due to financial reasons. The latest plan has been to move beyond Liverpool's council boundary to Kirkby, but this has proved controversial with some fans, as well as members of the local community. At one point there were plans for Everton to ground-share with Liverpool at the proposed new stadium in Stanley Park, but these were abandoned. Media The ITV region which covers Liverpool is ITV Granada. In 2006, the Television company opened a new newsroom in the Royal Liver Building. Granada's regional news broadcasts were produced at the Albert Dock News Centre during the 1980s and 1990s. The BBC also opened a new newsroom on Hanover Street in 2006. ITV's daily magazine programme This Morning was famously broadcast from studios at Albert Dock until 1996, when production was moved to London. Granada's short-lived shopping channel "Shop!" was also produced in Liverpool until it was axed in 2002. Liverpool is the home of the TV production company Lime Pictures, formerly Mersey Television, which produced the now-defunct soap operas Brookside and Grange Hill. It also produces the current soap opera Hollyoaks, which was formerly filmed in Chester and began on Channel 4 in 1995. All three series were/are largely filmed in the Childwall area of Liverpool. The city has two daily newspapers: the morning Daily Post and the evening Echo, both published by the same company, the Trinity Mirror group. The Daily Post, especially, serves a wider area, including north Wales. The UK's first online only weekly newspaper called Southport Reporter (Southport & Mersey Reporter), is also one of the many other news outlets that covers the city. Radio stations include BBC Radio Merseyside, Juice FM, KCR FM and Radio City 96.7, City Talk 105.9, as well as Magic 1548. The last three are based in St. John's Beacon which, along with the two cathedrals, dominates the city's skyline. The independent media organisation Indymedia also covers Liverpool, while 'Nerve' magazine publishes articles and reviews of cultural events. Liverpool has also featured in films; see List of films set in Liverpool for some of them. Liverpool was the host city for the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards. Famous Liverpudlians Many famous names have been associated with Liverpool; see Liverpudlians. For a list of some noteworthy groups from the area, consult the list of famous bands from Liverpool. The most popular group from Liverpool are The Beatles. The Wall of Fame is located opposite the famous Cavern Club, near the original one where bricks are engraved with the name of bands and musicians who have played at the Cavern Club. Liverpool has also been home to numerous football stars. Wayne Rooney, Robbie Fowler, Steven Gerrard, Jamie Carragher, Phil Thompson, Mick Quinn, Peter Reid, John Aldridge, Lee Trundle, Tommy Smith and Steve McManaman are just some of the many famous footballers to have been born in the city. Nel Tarleton, who held the British featherweight championship on three separate occasions and who was one of only a handful of fighters to win two Lonsdale Belts outright, was born in Liverpool and fought many of his fights in the city. Ian Broudie who fronted 1990s band The Lightning Seeds is also from Liverpool. Natasha Hamilton grew up in the Kensington area of Liverpool, and started singing and performing from the age of 12 in the Starlight Show Group. She joined the fledgling Atomic Kitten group at aged 16. Television and film personalities born in Liverpool include: stage and film actor Rex Harrison, comedian Ken Dodd, singer/TV personality Cilla Black, BAFTA award winning, Golden Globe nominee and Cannes film festival best actress (1962) Rita Tushingham (for A Taste of Honey, The Knack …and How to Get It, Girl with Green Eyes), BAFTA and Golden Globe nominee Cathy Tyson (for cult movie Mona Lisa and Band of Gold), two-time BAFTA award-nominee Lesley Sharp, actor (Shaun of the Dead) Peter Serafinowicz, anarchic comedian/author Alexei Sayle (star of The Young Ones), Margi Clarke (star of cult movie Letter to Brezhnev), John Gregson (star of Treasure Island, The Treasure of Monte Cristo and Gideon's Way), Olivier award-winning and two-time BAFTA nominee Alison Steadman, three-time BAFTA award-nominee Leonard Rossiter (Star of A Space Odyssey, Oliver! and TV show Rising Damp), actor Craig Charles (star of Red Dwarf),Big Brother 1 winner & tv diy presenter Craig Phillips two-time BAFTA nominee Tom Bell (starring in Prime Suspect and The Krays), the McGann brothers (Paul, Joe, Stephen and Mark), David Yip (star of Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and A View to a Kill) and two-time Golden Globe nominee Tom Baker and Elisabeth Sladen (both of Doctor Who fame). In addition, American actress Kim Cattrall of Sex and the City was born in Mossley Hill, a Liverpool suburb. Actress Cornelia Frances of Home and Away, but previous roles on The Young Doctors and Sons and Daughters. Writers such as Academy Award and BAFTA nominee playwrights Alan Bleasdale, Willy Russell (author of Blood Brothers, Shirley Valentine, and Educating Rita), Roger McGough (poet) ,Brian Jacques (author of the Redwall and Castaways of the Flying Dutchman), award-winning horror author/director/artist Clive Barker (mostly credited for Rawhead Rex, Candyman and Hellraiser fame) and BAFTA award-winning scriptwriter Jimmy McGovern (author of Cracker and The Street) are from Liverpool. The city was also home to a number of prominent historical political figures, including Eleanor Rathbone who pushed for the improvement of women's living conditions with some success in the UK; William Roscoe, a prominent player in the abolition of the slave trade in the UK; Alois Hitler, Jr. the half-brother of Adolf Hitler; and William Gladstone who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on four separate occasions (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886 and 1892–94). Liverpool was the first city outside of London to be granted the right to award the prestigious blue plaque to its buildings, in recognition of the fact that the city and its residents had "made significant contributions" in every aspect of social, political, economic and cultural life. Quotes about Liverpool "Lyrpole, alias Lyverpoole, a pavid towne, hath but a chapel... The king hath a castelet there, and the Earl of Darbe hath a stone howse there. Irisch merchants cum much thither, as to a good haven... At Lyrpole is smaul custom payed, that causith marchantes to resorte thither. Good marchandis at Lyrpole, and much Irish yarrn that Manchester men do buy there..." - John Leland (antiquary), Itinery, c. 1536-39 "Liverpoole is one of the wonders of Britain... In a word, there is no town in England, London excepted, that can equal [it] for the fineness of the streets, and the beauty of the buildings." Daniel Defoe - A Tour through the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1721-26 "[O]ne of the neatest, best towns I have seen in England." - John Wesley. Journal, 1755 "I have heard of the greatness of Liverpool but the reality far surpasses my expectation" - Prince Albert, speech, 1846 "Liverpool…has become a wonder of the world. It is the New York of Europe, a world city rather than merely British provincial.” - Illustrated London News, 15 May 1886 "Liverpool is the 'pool of life' " - C.G. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, 1928 "The centre is imposing, dignified and darkish, like a city in a rather gloomy Victorian novel...We had now arrived in the heart of the big city, and as usual it was almost a heart of darkness. But it looked like a big city, there was no denying that. Here, emphatically, was the English seaport second only to London. The very weight of stone emphasised that fact. And even if the sun never seems to properly rise over it, I like a big city to proclaim itself a big city at once..." - J.B. Priestley, English Journey, 1934 "...if Liverpool can get into top gear again there is no limit to the city's potential. The scale and resilience of the buildings and people is amazing - it is a world city, far more so than London and Manchester. It doesn't feel like anywhere else in Lancashire: comparisons always end up overseas - Dublin, or Boston, or Hamburg." - Ian Nairn, Britain's Changing Towns, 1967 International links Twin cities Liverpool is twinned with: Cologne, Germany - since 1952 Dublin, Ireland - 1997 Shanghai, China - 1999 Friendship links with other international cities Givenchy-lès-la-Bassée, France Halifax, Canada Havana, Cuba La Plata, Argentina Memphis, USA Minamata, Japan Naples, Italy New Orleans, USA Odessa, Ukraine Ponsacco, Italy Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania Valparaíso, Chile These links have no formal constitution and are based on the exchange of information and greetings. Other links New York, USA - Freedom of the City of Liverpool - August 2003 Riga, Latvia - Letter of Intent signed - March 2003 Stavanger, Norway - Letter of Intent signed - June 2004 See also 1911 Liverpool general transport strike 2008 European Amateur Boxing Championships La Princesse, the giant mechanical spider roaming the streets in September 2008 Big Dig (Liverpool) Culture in Liverpool List of films and television shows set in Liverpool International Garden Festival Port of Liverpool Williamson Tunnels Liverpool Football Club Everton Football Club Magistrates Courts, Liverpool Further reading Bygone Liverpool, David Clensy, 2008. ISBN 978-1-4357-0897-6 Liverpool 800, John Belchem, 2006. ISBN 978-1-84631-035-5 Chinese Liverpudlians, Maria Lin Wong, 1989. ISBN 978-1-871201-03-1 Writing Liverpool: Essays and Interviews, edited by Michael Murphy and Rees Jones, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84631-073-7 References External links Liverpool City Council Official Liverpool European Capital of Culture website Official Liverpool Tourism Site Photographing Every Street in Liverpool Project Liverpool's Original 7 Streets Origins of the name Liverpool	Liverpool \|@lemmatized liverpool:257 city:139 metropolitan:7 borough:10 merseyside:10 england:13 along:5 eastern:1 side:6 mersey:17 estuary:2 found:9 grant:4 status:7 population:25 lie:2 centre:22 wider:2 urban:5 area:28 historically:2 part:13 lancashire:7 urbanisation:1 expansion:3 broadly:1 bring:1 major:13 port:20 century:15 trade:10 west:11 indie:2 ireland:8 mainland:1 europe:7 couple:2 close:7 link:16 atlantic:3 slave:5 economic:2 early:8 world:30 pass:3 dock:38 contribute:3 rise:5 inhabitant:1 refer:3 liverpudlian:6 also:49 know:10 scouser:1 reference:2 local:13 dish:1 scouse:2 form:8 stew:1 word:3 become:13 synonymous:2 accent:1 dialect:1 diverse:3 draw:4 wide:2 range:2 people:9 culture:10 religion:1 particularly:2 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1,198	Alcopop	Two Bacardi Breezers Alcopop is a term describing certain flavored alcoholic beverages, including: malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added, beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added (wine coolers), or beverages containing distilled alcohol and added ingredients such as fruit juices or other flavorings. Illinois General Assembly 1977 The term 'alcopop' (a portmanteau of alcohol and pop) is used by advocates of tighter restrictions on alcoholic beverage sales, who argue that the beverages are especially appealing to underage drinkers.http://www.marininstitute.org/alcopops/resources/Alcopop_QA.pdf Other terms include FAB (flavored alcoholic beverage), FMB (flavored malt beverage), California Board of Equalization. Flavored Malt Beverages, 2005 PPS (pre-packaged spirit or premium packaged spirits), and RTD (Ready To Drink - Aus & NZ). The alcohol industry does not use the term "alcopop." Description Alcopops tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 330 ml in Europe and 355 ml, the normal size of a soda pop can, in North America), and between 4% and 7% alcohol by volume. In Europe and Canada, alcopops tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can thus be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that are simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can only be sold where hard liquor is available. In the United States there is a proportionally limited tax on alcopops relative to those sold in Europe, though some states are considering legislation to bring their tax levels closer to the European model which is credited with limiting consumption by youth. According to the U.S. Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB): Flavored malt beverages are brewery products that differ from traditional malt beverages such as beer, ale, lager, porter, stout, or malt liquor in several respects. Flavored malt beverages exhibit little or no traditional beer or malt beverage character. Their flavor is derived primarily from added flavors rather than from malt and other materials used in fermentation. At the same time, flavored malt beverages are marketed in traditional beer-type bottles and cans and distributed to the alcohol beverage market through beer and malt beverage wholesalers, and their alcohol content is similar to other malt beverages in the 4-6% alcohol by volume range. Although flavored malt beverages are produced at breweries, their method of production differs significantly from the production of other malt beverages and beer. In producing flavored malt beverages, brewers brew a fermented base of beer from malt and other brewing materials. Brewers then treat this base using a variety of processes in order to remove malt beverage character from the base. For example, they remove the color, bitterness, and taste generally associated with beer, ale, porter, stout, and other malt beverages. This leaves a base product to which brewers add various flavors, which typically contain distilled spirits, to achieve the desired taste profile and alcohol level. While the alcohol content of flavored malt beverages is similar to that of most traditional malt beverages, the alcohol in many of them is derived primarily from the distilled spirits component of the added flavors rather than from fermentation. (70 Fed. Reg. 194 et seq. ( January 3, 2005).) In some Continental European countries, such as Austria and Germany, bottled beer cocktails are available, which are being marketed the same way like alcopops. However, these beverages are based on traditional hopped beers and therefore not considered to be alcopops. History These drinks emerged on the US market in the late 1980s when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. General A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper's Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of "malternative beverage". Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt-beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike's Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called "violence against lemons". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavored malt beverage in the United States in the late 1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places. (In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.) Some have expressed concern that such drinks might appeal to children as they tend to be sweet and brightly colored. Many alcopop advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, that led to a media outcry during the mid-1990s as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under-age drinking which damaged sales and would lead to off-licences withdrawing them from their stores. In response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency "found no evidence of intent to target minors with the FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey's methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data." Federal Register: January 3, 2005, Volume 70, Number, Rules and Regulations, p. 228 The Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. "The Commission’s investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing" Federal Trade Commission. Alcohol Marketing and Advertising: A Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, 2003. p. 22 and found that "the majority of FMB drinkers are over the age of 27."<ref name=FTC> Alcohol Marketing and Advertising: A Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, 2003. p. 5</ref> Nevertheless concern remains. In December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on alcopops to equal that of spirits, the second highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it inline with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked on during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax. The Federal Trade Commission report states, "Further, industry-conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer, ... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products’ sweetness. Law California's state assembly recently passed AB 346, a bill which requires manufacturers of alcopops to carry a 'warning' label stating "ATTENTION: THIS DRINK CONTAINS ALCOHOL." Legislative Inquiry This bill has been praised by groups advocating against alcohol use by minors and younger adults, California Assembly Praised for Passing AB 346 - The Alcopops Warning Label Bill since these drinks are favored by young people due to their flavor. The Australian government recently attempted to increase the tax on these drinks in order to bring in line with other alcoholic beverages in efforts to stop binge drinking and to also generate funds for a preventive health program. This tax was in place from April 2008, but was voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. As of October 1, 2008 Utah only allows sales in state-run liquor stores. See also Alcoholic beverage Alcoholism Comparison of alcopops Drunkenness Hangover Legal drinking age Wine cooler References Bloomberg News, "FTC Says Alcohol Type Not Aimed at Minors". Los Angeles Times, June 5, 2002. Melillo, W. "FTC: Ads for 'Alcopops' Not Aimed at Teens". Adweek'', June 6, 2002. AMA Says Alcohol Industry Targets Teen Girls California boosts tax on 'alcopops' MSNBC Footnotes External links Spin the Bottle: A Consumer's Guide to Alcopops Portman Group Independent Distillers alcopops tax campaign site PPS category	Alcopop \|@lemmatized two:3 bacardi:4 breezers:1 alcopop:4 term:4 describe:1 certain:1 flavored:6 alcoholic:6 beverage:29 include:3 malt:23 various:2 fruit:3 juice:3 flavoring:3 add:5 beverages:1 contain:5 wine:6 ingredient:2 cooler:4 distil:1 alcohol:22 illinois:1 general:2 assembly:3 portmanteau:1 pop:2 use:7 advocate:2 tight:1 restriction:1 sale:3 argue:1 especially:1 appeal:3 underage:2 drinker:3 http:1 www:1 marininstitute:1 org:1 alcopops:18 resource:1 pdf:1 fab:1 flavor:11 fmb:5 california:4 board:1 equalization:1 pps:3 pre:3 package:2 spirit:10 premium:1 rtd:1 ready:1 drink:10 au:1 nz:1 industry:4 description:1 tend:3 sweet:2 serve:1 small:1 bottle:6 typically:2 ml:2 europe:4 normal:1 size:1 soda:1 north:1 america:1 volume:4 canada:1 mixed:2 vodka:2 e:3 g:3 smirnoff:4 ice:4 rum:2 breezer:2 united:6 state:13 hand:1 often:2 start:1 un:1 hop:1 beer:12 depend:1 sell:4 much:1 remove:3 leave:2 mostly:1 water:2 subsequent:1 addition:1 usually:2 grain:1 sugar:1 color:3 legally:1 classify:1 virtually:1 thus:1 outlet:1 cannot:1 carry:3 base:7 however:2 strong:1 one:1 simply:1 island:1 tea:1 hard:2 liquor:3 available:2 proportionally:1 limited:1 tax:14 relative:1 though:1 consider:2 legislation:1 bring:3 level:2 closer:1 european:2 model:1 credit:1 limit:2 consumption:2 youth:1 accord:1 u:3 tobacco:1 trade:7 bureau:1 ttb:1 brewery:2 product:5 differ:1 traditional:5 ale:2 lager:1 porter:2 stout:2 several:1 respect:1 exhibit:1 little:1 character:2 derive:2 primarily:2 rather:2 material:2 fermentation:2 time:2 market:7 type:2 distribute:1 wholesaler:1 content:2 similar:2 range:1 although:1 produce:2 method:1 production:2 differs:1 significantly:1 brewer:3 brew:1 fermented:1 brewing:1 treat:1 variety:1 process:1 order:2 example:1 bitterness:1 taste:2 generally:2 associate:2 distilled:2 achieve:1 desired:1 profile:1 many:2 component:1 added:1 fed:1 reg:1 et:1 seq:1 january:2 continental:1 country:1 austria:1 germany:2 cocktail:1 way:2 like:1 hopped:1 therefore:1 history:1 emerge:1 late:2 introduce:1 growth:1 popularity:1 occur:1 around:1 dog:1 dna:1 spring:1 hooper:1 hooch:1 zima:1 title:1 malternative:1 decline:1 due:2 increase:3 federal:8 become:1 new:1 standard:1 later:1 mike:1 lemonade:1 release:1 humorous:1 commercial:2 depict:1 call:2 violence:1 lemon:1 also:4 come:1 another:1 citrus:1 promote:1 flashy:1 involve:1 trendy:1 young:4 people:3 dance:1 unlikely:1 situation:1 place:2 uk:2 diageo:1 express:1 concern:3 might:1 child:1 brightly:1 advertising:4 campaign:2 criticize:1 try:1 make:1 kingdom:1 lead:2 medium:1 outcry:1 mid:1 tabloid:1 press:1 age:5 drinking:4 damage:1 would:1 licence:1 withdraw:1 store:2 response:1 complaint:1 center:1 science:1 public:1 interest:1 cspi:2 commission:7 ftc:5 conduct:2 extensive:1 investigation:2 agency:1 find:3 evidence:3 intent:1 target:4 minor:4 packaging:1 furthermore:1 review:1 consumer:7 survey:3 submit:1 support:1 proposition:1 fmbs:5 predominantly:1 popular:1 conclude:2 flaw:1 methodology:1 ability:1 draw:1 conclusion:1 data:1 register:1 number:1 rule:1 regulation:1 p:3 investigated:1 ad:2 placement:1 internal:1 company:1 marketing:5 document:1 directive:1 conferee:1 house:1 senate:2 appropriation:1 committee:1 adult:2 appear:1 intended:1 report:3 congress:2 washington:2 dc:2 majority:1 ref:2 name:1 nevertheless:1 remain:1 december:1 ireland:1 raise:1 equal:1 second:1 high:3 impose:1 extra:1 duty:1 euro:1 per:1 effective:1 august:1 circumvent:1 taxation:1 german:1 producer:1 switch:1 warning:1 legal:2 may:1 australian:2 government:3 excise:1 inline:1 encourage:1 buy:1 straight:1 mix:1 possibly:1 result:1 concentration:1 premixed:1 alternative:1 revoke:1 march:2 mean:1 pay:1 back:1 million:1 collect:1 far:1 research:2 show:1 view:1 substitute:1 likely:1 consume:1 three:1 occasion:1 sweetness:1 law:1 recently:2 pass:2 ab:2 bill:3 require:1 manufacturer:1 warn:2 label:2 attention:1 legislative:1 inquiry:1 praise:2 group:2 since:1 favor:1 attempt:1 line:1 effort:1 stop:1 binge:1 generate:1 fund:1 preventive:1 health:1 program:1 april:1 vote:1 october:1 utah:1 allow:1 run:1 see:1 alcoholism:1 comparison:1 drunkenness:1 hangover:1 reference:1 bloomberg:1 news:1 say:2 aim:2 los:1 angeles:1 june:2 melillo:1 w:1 teen:2 adweek:1 ama:1 girl:1 boost:1 msnbc:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 spin:1 guide:1 portman:1 independent:1 distiller:1 site:1 category:1 \|@bigram alcoholic_beverage:5 malt_beverage:19 fruit_juice:3 wine_cooler:4 http_www:1 flavored_malt:5 bacardi_rum:1 beer_ale:2 ale_lager:1 distilled_spirit:2 et_seq:1 brightly_color:1 commission_ftc:1 washington_dc:2 excise_tax:1 binge_drinking:1 liquor_store:1 los_angeles:1 external_link:1
1,199	No_true_Scotsman	No true Scotsman is a logical fallacy where the meaning of a term is ad hoc redefined to make a desired assertion about it true. It is a type of self-sealing argument. It was advanced by philosopher Antony Flew in his 1975 book Thinking About Thinking – or do I sincerely want to be right?. Fallacy In putting forward the above rebuttal one is equivocating in an ad hoc attempt to retain an unreasoned assertion. The proposer initially treats the definition of "Scotsman" (i.e., a man of Scottish ancestry and connection) as fixed, and says that there exists no predicated case that falls within that definition. When one such case is found, the proposer shifts to treat the case as fixed, and rather treats the boundary as debatable. The proposer could therefore be seen prejudicially not to desire an exact agreement on either the scope of the definition or the position of the case, but solely to keep the definition and case separate. One reason to do this would be to avoid giving the positive connotations of the definition ("Scotsman") to the negative case ("sex offender") or vice versa. Reason people fall into the fallacy The truth of a proposition depends on its adequacy to its object ("Is the drawing a true likeness of Antony Flew?"). The truth of an object depends on its adequacy to its concept ("Is the figure drawn on the paper a true triangle?"). Problems arise when the definition of the concept has no generally accepted form, for example when it is vague or contested. "A true Scotsman" (a concept)　or more vaguely, "a true communism" is not on the same level as "a true triangle" (a concept) never mind "the true Antony Flew" (a concrete existing object). The formal similarity, "true X", and the corresponding feeling that the concepts should be on the same level, in some sense must be on the same level (even perhaps all exist as objects), motivates the fallacy. It is a short step from that feeling to treating one's own definition, however arbitrary, of a "true Scotsman" (who else's?) as having the same objectivity as that of a geometrical figure or an existing individual, and then attempting to make the world agree. Stove, David (1991), The Plato Cult and Other Philosophical Follies, Wiley Errors in usage In situations where the subject's status is previously determined by specific behaviors, the fallacy does not apply. For example, it is perfectly justified to say, "No true vegetarian eats meat," because not eating meat is the single thing that precisely defines a person as a vegetarian. Example A: Faith is permanent. Once a Christian, you cannot lose your faith. B: But Mark used to go to church, and then lost faith in Jesus. A: Yes, but Mark was never a true Christian in the first place. This example deals with the Perseverance of the Saints vs. Conditional Preservation of the Saints debate in Calvinism and Arminianism respectively i.e. whether one can subsequently fall into a state in which one cannot gain salvation after having entered a state in which one will gain salvation. A concludes, probably erroneously, that B takes the view that all churchgoing people are true Christians. When B provides a counterexample for A's assertion, A redefines "Christian" to mean "someone who is genuinely converted", tautologically satisfying his initial assertion. http://www.logicalfallacies.info/presumption/no-true-scotsman/ Another example is calling "inhuman" historical atrocities that only humans have perpetrated (like some Crimes against humanity). See also Equivocation Euphemism Loaded language Persuasive definition Power word Reification (fallacy) Loki's Wager References	No_true_Scotsman \|@lemmatized true:14 scotsman:6 logical:1 fallacy:6 meaning:1 term:1 ad:2 hoc:2 redefine:1 make:2 desired:1 assertion:4 type:1 self:1 sealing:1 argument:1 advance:1 philosopher:1 antony:3 fly:3 book:1 think:2 sincerely:1 want:1 right:1 put:1 forward:1 rebuttal:1 one:7 equivocate:1 attempt:2 retain:1 unreasoned:1 proposer:3 initially:1 treat:4 definition:8 e:2 man:1 scottish:1 ancestry:1 connection:1 fix:2 say:2 exist:4 predicated:1 case:6 fall:3 within:1 find:1 shift:1 rather:1 boundary:1 debatable:1 could:1 therefore:1 see:2 prejudicially:1 desire:1 exact:1 agreement:1 either:1 scope:1 position:1 solely:1 keep:1 separate:1 reason:2 would:1 avoid:1 give:1 positive:1 connotation:1 negative:1 sex:1 offender:1 vice:1 versa:1 people:2 truth:2 proposition:1 depend:2 adequacy:2 object:4 draw:1 likeness:1 concept:5 figure:2 drawn:1 paper:1 triangle:2 problem:1 arise:1 generally:1 accept:1 form:1 example:5 vague:1 contest:1 vaguely:1 communism:1 level:3 never:2 mind:1 concrete:1 formal:1 similarity:1 x:1 corresponding:1 feeling:1 sense:1 must:1 even:1 perhaps:1 motivate:1 short:1 step:1 feel:1 however:1 arbitrary:1 else:1 objectivity:1 geometrical:1 individual:1 world:1 agree:1 stave:1 david:1 plato:1 cult:1 philosophical:1 folly:1 wiley:1 error:1 usage:1 situation:1 subject:1 status:1 previously:1 determine:1 specific:1 behavior:1 apply:1 perfectly:1 justified:1 vegetarian:2 eats:1 meat:2 eat:1 single:1 thing:1 precisely:1 define:1 person:1 faith:3 permanent:1 christian:4 cannot:2 lose:2 b:3 mark:2 use:1 go:1 church:1 jesus:1 yes:1 first:1 place:1 deal:1 perseverance:1 saint:2 v:1 conditional:1 preservation:1 debate:1 calvinism:1 arminianism:1 respectively:1 whether:1 subsequently:1 state:2 gain:2 salvation:2 enter:1 concludes:1 probably:1 erroneously:1 take:1 view:1 churchgoing:1 provide:1 counterexample:1 redefines:1 mean:1 someone:1 genuinely:1 convert:1 tautologically:1 satisfy:1 initial:1 http:1 www:1 logicalfallacies:1 info:1 presumption:1 another:1 call:1 inhuman:1 historical:1 atrocity:1 human:1 perpetrate:1 like:1 crime:1 humanity:1 also:1 equivocation:1 euphemism:1 load:1 language:1 persuasive:1 power:1 word:1 reification:1 loki:1 wager:1 reference:1 \|@bigram logical_fallacy:1 ad_hoc:2 sex_offender:1 vice_versa:1 calvinism_arminianism:1 http_www:1

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